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ANNUAL REPORT OF THE
BOARD OF REGENTS OF

THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION

SHOWING THE

OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND
CONDITION OF THE INSTI ULTION
FOR THE YEAR, ENDING, JUNE, 30

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(Publication 3142)

UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1932

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.

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FROM THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

SUBMITTING

THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 19381

SMITHSONIAN INstTITUTION,
Washington, February 10, 1932.
To the Congress of the United States:

In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the
United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents,
to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi-
tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year
ended June 30, 1931. I have the honor to be,

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
C. G. Assort, Secretary.

wr

F oh

Fearne eee

CON PE NiTsS

Page
ESI CODE: CO) BB MTEL USS es i a Lae a Ce at Pl EN I ig a XI
{Mares fShaana lays rapaw kay | brass h FUG AM Ova Ves wes, By eal ee Be eae ay 1
Outsrandineveventer ot Glre year ee te ee a ee 1
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VERSUS TOSI ea Sd ge 3
Miattersrote general minGeres ties ee a asc ee ee = U
Presentation of Langley Medal to Manly and Byrd____-_-_---- ef
SIMAG LS OMT TNG S CLE TELE CMs CYL CS mee epee ee 8
Researches Ine BUrOpea ny Ar ChIViCS sate ee ee See 9
Cooperative ethnological and archeological investigations______- 10
1Brg ol toreninorns) Cyayel sil yy AOR Sa ee eee ee eee 11
BAY 0 WCE GS YOY Yoga a aR a TR ia
SUA 2 ka a hn ON aR aN Ee nec (alee eda EN ys 12
Governmentallyasuppontedsoranches= sss eee eee ee a eee ee 13
DSN eG or dG AY CGY SY DUO 2 we a ke A a se a i183
National G allerysOtcAr bere sarin ns eee eae tree ee mie tee Ne 15
HIreern Gallery: OlwAus belt mgr s Set ae i mes eerie Sn eS can (Pry ree eee ar oer ils
IB Ure BUROl pAUI Ee RECHT seat Intl ©) © Braye tes a eee Oe ee 16
Internation alpEsx chai e es eee eee re ae ene eee eae ia ene eee Map se ile
INTO ae ZOOLO SICH Weer: Kerem eee eer ree ee ee = oe en A een 17
SEL OD OW SICA ly OOSEGV ALOE tay eee 2 ne eee ah ere er ee See nee i8
PD RVASTOMO tev CT S61 OTA 10 Clos OMe VTA STAN See er ee eee ae en er 19
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature___-.-._.---------- 20
IN (CLRTH EI 0 Sa as il ha ep lg I ee id a eR Al ae te EE Si 20
Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum___________- 22
2. Report on the National Gallery of Art._.-.-------------- 43
oy heport on the Hreer Galleryoot Art... 95. 5225. 22 Se ee ee 54
4. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology___-_-------- 60
5. Report on the International Exchange Service_____-_------ 08
6. Report on the National Zoological Park__.--_..---------- 86
7. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory_...------------- 117
8. Report on the Division of Radiation and Organisms_ - - —_-- 125

9. Report on the International Catalogue of Scientific Litera-
CLUTCH See Se ae eee eee tee eh ee eee oe ee 138
POweicepertion phe library. 22.204. 22 le ete ran tir teeter sen 140
He NeponAon publica ons oe mr ese foe bili eae a Pees DS
Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents__-_--_-_---- 159

Eroceedings of the Board: oi “Regentss22 222 6220 SSS eee 2 es 168

1 In part governmentally supported,

vi CONTENTS

GENERAL APPENDIX

Twenty-five years’ study of solar radiation, by C. G. Abbot__----.-----
The composition of the sun, by Henry Norris Russell__-_--_----_------
Sun spots and radio reception, by Harlan T. Stetson___.-_--.-.._------
An evolving universe, by SirWiameseams!}) 14.29.03... ...-.-.-----
The rotation of the galaxy, by A. S. Eddington_._.-._....-......-...-
Stellar laboratories, by Theodore Dunham, jres= 222.2 25222-2-252-—- 2.
Present status of theory and experiment as to atomic disintegration and

atomic synchesis, bys hover: AL Mullican: 5 30k ae ee ee ee
ASSAlLt On atoms, by .AToMUT, ele © OM LOM =o 5 se ere eee eee ee
MWO=Why Televasion;, (DY. Hlenoertr Pig: LViGGe sce ce sorte ne a ee eee
Research Corporation awards to A. E. Douglass and Ernst Antevs for

MESCALCHES HM GC LTO TIO LO Days eres se as ye ee rene ea eee
Siapine the.earcns by VWaillianie D OWI Ss sme acne Nee eee toe
The earth beneath in the light of modern seismology, by Ernest A. Hodg-

Coming to grips with the earthquake problem, by N. H. Heck__-_-_--_--
Growing plants without soil, by Earl S. Johnston______-_....-_----.---
Some aspects of the adaptation of living organisms to their environment,

Dy Wve Sealer Ory ard Law see se Sere mare onan ae eran iar ches abet Se pri
The utilization of aquatic plants as aids in mosquito control, by Rob-

PLGOVISGOESOM Ee Gace oS eee etree ges eee Slaten ee tar ey eae a
Onninendshe-ainsectssiby We Va Daldihe ss ose a eee Sa
Evolution of the insect head and the organs of feeding, by R. E. Snodgrass_
The debt of agriculture to tropical America, by O. F. Cook___----------
Some wild flowers from Swiss meadows and mountains, by Casey A. Wood_
ihe antiquity-of civilized-man, by A- Ei: Saycess-- == 452 saee5 ea
The discovery of primitive man in China, by G. Elliot Smith__________-
The culture of the Shang Dynasty, by James M. Menzies__-_-----_----
Totem poles: A recent native art of the northwest coast of America, by

INGA TINTS HB BRO Ca Utes a ete ee eee eae ee en ine egy ta
Brobdingnagian bridges, by Othmar H. Ammann. ~~. -.----..-----------
Albert Abraham Michelson, by Forest R. Moulton_.__-.-.------------

Page
175
199
215
229
239
259

277
287
297

303
325

347
361
381

389

413
431
443
491
503
515
531
549

559
571
579

LIST OF PLATES

Secretary’s report:

BET GS en eM ee Eee et we ey ee
Solar radiation (Abbot):

T ROUEN tS I a Ad eae eno ee Se nee Ee na ee
Composition of the sun (Russell) :

HET SAS od ach ea ems 29S ae en IE ee boul da nah sh eebehs ed e es e
Sun spots and radio (Stetson) :

DEA Wee Le eS AE a Se ee eee
An evolving universe (Jeans) :

DEM SSP EA Ne A oS SN a Ne ge eo Dee ne
Stellar laboratories (Dunham) :

SPT ai ae eo EEN Te eS I ed i
Assault on atoms (Compton) :

NESTED Ee yg es eae A St a 8 Le ea EEG col
Television (Ives) :

J BAY eS Bt i a a IN a AN EL LS es eg ed ce
Tree ring chronology (Douglass) :

NEAT EA pS ee AT ae NNR UP Nii
Lake-glacial clay chronology (Anteys) :

EATER SSW a Ee et a EE eta ee a ey a AD Ng SA ae aoe en
The earthquake problem (Heck):

DESIG TOCSY Es I ac es Et iy SB pl nN ay ay
Growing plants without soil (Johnston) :

LENGE Wee te LU Se a an i ar cae cg nein Fae Ars NR mR OPER EIU
Aquatic plants and mosquito control (Matheson) :

DN key a A Aa EO a ee ES ee
Debt of agriculture to tropical America (Cook) :

J 2S Cet (ee a A ee hee a Eg Ma
Swiss wild flowers (Wood):

USCC SS pare ae reat ee neue Sore Ssh NS Ll Se pla A eee
Primitive man in China (Smith) :

5 AEST eit Lh eR ee FAR eS SEN SE ae a UNE See Se RA BELG
Totem poles (Barbeau) :

ETT SUES eee ae erg ren Se ME eae a SOE A EA a ee
Bridges (Ammann):

DENIS ENS I GLE G7 (et ase as ao ee ae Bp ees Oe ee
Michelson (Moulton) :

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as

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1931

SUBJECTS

1. Annual report of the secretary, giving an account of the opera-
tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 380,
1931, with statistics of exchanges, etc.

2. Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents,
exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a state-
ment of the Smithsonian fund, and receipts and expenditures for
the year ending June 30, 1931.

3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1931.

4, General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous
memoirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Insti-
tution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge.
These memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1931.

| MAORI HE MO FA SO a AOE ET 1 Dalat ee |
then ASA deo AN ae RON LOUTH AL i

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om moun

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| oe eetarhee Yo wideliate dime SEAL

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aie SEIT OE ana’ gaitbin sung an
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pe 7 ABRL 08 aan .
ie veo ay inithblifos it syurteineypvs ethaadan Leroi) “
— fa ad Ta iil cero hile eines alailemtnt to Batoronin 7
a wes He woh id AP frzangie erento Fits yexarloanay viola
a ERY i, ilanolse on} oo ¢ Ranh atelet exiomrad, eet T

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

June 380, 1931

Presiding officer ex officio—Hereert Hoover, President of the United States.
Chancellor —CHARLES EyaAns Huauss, Chief Justice of the United States.

Members of the Institution:
Herspert Hoover, President of the United States.
CHARLES CurTIS, Vice President of the United States.
CHARLES EVANS HucuHes, Chief Justice of the United States.
Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of State.
ANDREW W. MELLON, Secretary of the Treasury.
Patrick J. Hurwey, Secretary of War.
WittraAm D. Mircuenyt, Attorney General.
WALTER F. Brown, Postmaster General.
CHARLES FrRaANcIS ADAMS, Secretary of the Navy.
RAy LYMAN WILgUR, Secretary of the Interior,
ARTHUR M. Hype, Secretary of Agriculture.
Rogerr P. Lamont, Secretary of Commerce.
Wititram N. Doak, Secretary of Labor.
Regents of the Institution:
CHARLES EvANS Hueues, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor.
CHARLES CurtTIS, Vice President of the United States.
Reep Smoot, member of the Senate.
JosEPH T. Roprinson, Member of the Senate.
CLAUDE A. SWANSON, Member of the Senate.
ALBERT JOHNSON, Member of the House of Representatives.
R. WALTON Moorrt, Member of the House of Representatives.
Roserr Luce, Member of the House of Representatives.
Irwin B. LAUGHLIN, citizen of Pennsylvania.
Freperio A. DELANO, citizen of Washington, D. C.
JoHN C. Mrerram, citizen of Washington, D. C.
Ezecutive commitiee.—FRrepEric A. DELANO, R. WALTON Moorn, JoHN C. MeEr-
RIAM.
Secretary. CHARLES G. ABBOT.
Assistant Secretary.— ALEXANDER WETMORE.
Chief Clerk and administrative assistant to the Secretary.—Harry W. Dorsey.
Treasurer and disbursing agent —NioHOLAS W. Dorsry.
Hditor.— Wrester P. TRUE.
Librarian.—WiLLiam Li, CorRsin.
Appointment clerk.—JAmMEs G. TRAYLOR.
Property clerk.— James H. Hit.

xT

XII THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

NATIONAL MUSEUM

Assistant Secretary (in charge).—ALEXANDER WETMORE.

Associate director—JoHN E. GRAF.

Administrative assistant to the Secretary.—WILLIAM DE C, RAVENEL.

Head curators.—WaALTER HoueH, LEONHARD STEJNEGER, RAy S. BASSLER.

Curators.—PAUL BartscH, RAy S. BASSLER, THEODORE T. BELOTE, AUSTIN H.
CLARK, FREDERICK VY. CoviILLg, W. F. FosHac, HERBERT FRIEDMANN, CHARLES
W. GILMORE, WALTER HouaH, LELAND O. Howarp, ALES HrpriéKa, Nem M.
JuDD, HERBERT W. KRIEGER, FREDERICK L. LEwTon, GERRIT S. MILLER, JR., CARL
W. MitTMAN, CHARLES HW. RESSER, WALDO L. SCHMITT, LEONHARD STEJNEGER.

Associate curators.—JoHN M. ALpricuH, CHESTER G. GILBERT, ELLSWwoRTH P.
KILLip, WILLIAM R. MAxon, CHARLES W. RICHMOND, DAvip WHITE.

Chief of correspondence and documents.—HERBERT S. BRYANT.

Disbursing agent—NIcHOLAS W. DoRSEY.

Superintendent of buildings and labor.—JAMES S. GOLDSMITH.

EHditor.—PavuL H. OFHSER.

Assistant Librarian.—LEILa G. FORBES.

Photographer.—ARTHUR J. OLMSTED.

Property clerk.—WILLIAM A. KNOWLES.

Engineer.—CLayton R. DENMARK.

NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART

Director.—WILLIAM H. HoL“MEs.

FREER GALLERY OF ART

Curator.—JOHN ELLERTON LODGE.

Associate curator—CarL WHITING BISHOP.
Assistant curator.— GRACE DUNHAM GUEST.
Associate-—KATHARINE NASH RHOADES.
Assistant.—ARCHIBALD G. WENLEY.
Superintendent —JOHN BUNDY.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

Chief —MATTHEW W. STIRLING.

Ethnologists—JOHN P. HARRINGTON, JOHN N, B. Hewitt, TRUMAN MICHELSON,
JOHN R. SWANTON, WILLIAM D. STRONG.

Archeologist.—F RANK H. H. Roperts, Jr.

Associate Anthropologist—WINSLOW M. WALKER.

EHditov.— STANLEY SEARLES.

Librarian.—EXLuA LEARY.

Tilustrator.—Dr LANcEY GILL.

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES

Secretary (in charge).—CHARLES G. ABBOT,
Chief clerk.—CoaTEs W. SHOEMAKER.

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK

Director.—WILLIAM M. MANN.
Assistant director.—ErNrEST P. WALKER.

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION XII

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY

Director.—CHARLES G. ABBOT,

Assistant director.—LoyAL B. ALDRICH.

Research assistant.—FREDERICK E. Fow se, Jr.
Associate research assistant.—WILLIAM H. Hoover.

DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS

Chief.—FREDERICK 8S. BRACKETT.

Research associate.—EHARL 8S. JOHNSTON.
Associate research assistant —H. D. MCALISTER.
Research assistant.—LELAND B. CLARK.

REGIONAL BUREAU FOR THE UNITED STATES, INTERNATIONAL
CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

Assistant in charge—LkroNnaRD C. GUNNELL.

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REPORT

OF THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION
C. G. AsBot
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1931

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution:

GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith my report
showing the activities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution
and the Government bureaus under its administrative charge dur-
ing the fiscal year ended June 30, 1931. The first 21 pages contain
a summary account of the affairs of the Institution. Appendixes
1 to 11 give more detailed reports of the operations of the United
States National Museum, the National Gallery of Art, the Freer
Gallery of Art, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Interna-
tional Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical
Observatory, the Division of Radiation and Organisms, the United
States Regional Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific
Literature, the Smithsonian library, and of the publications issued
under the direction of the Institution.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
OUTSTANDING EVENTS OF THE YEAR

An appropriation of $10,000 was made by the Congress for pre-
liminary architectural plans of the extensions to the Natural History
Building of the United States National Museum authorized by Con-
gress last year. The new reptile house of the Zoological Park was
completed and formally opened to the public on February 27, 19381.
A reorganization of several exhibition halls of the Arts and Indus-
tries Building of the National Museum has added greatly to the
attractiveness of the exhibits of costumes, coins and stamps, and
machinery. A small souvenir guide to the Institution and its
branches has been published privately by the Smithsonian and seems
highly appreciated by visitors. For unity of policy, greater effi-
ciency, and simplification of records and accounts, the separate edi-
torial staffs of the Smithsonian, the National Museum, and the Bu-

1

2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

reau of American Ethnology have been consolidated under one gen-
eral management and the offices brought closely together. Two ex-
ceptionally valuable publications, The Skeletal Remains of Karly
Man, by A. Hrdlitka, and A History of Applied Entomology, by
L. O. Howard, were completed. A bequest netting approximately
$50,000 has been received from the estate of the late James Arthur.
Its income is to be used for promoting knowledge of the sun. A
friend of the Institution has announced to it a large intended bequest
to promote and reward original investigation. Numerous valuable re-
search and collecting expeditions by the National Museum, the Bu-
reau of American Ethnology, and the Zoological Park have returned
highly successful. Accounts of their results will be found below. A
gigantic dinosaur, Diplodocus longus, 75 feet long, whose skeleton
has been in preparation for several years, has been placed on exhi-
bition. Improved methods of solar-radiation research have been
perfected and applied in connection with the observing stations at
Table Mountain, Calif., and Mount Brukkaros, Southwest Africa.
Volume V of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, con-
taining all results of the years 1920 to 1980, inclusive, on the meas-
urement of solar radiation has been sent to press. The numerous
variations of the sun since the year 1920 are represented by monthly
mean values whose average probable error is less than 0.1 per cent.
Long-continuing regular periodicities in solar variation are demon-
strated. Highly accurate results on the spectral distribution of
phototropism in plants have been obtained by the Division of Radia-
tion and Organisms. By cooperative work with the Fixed Nitrogen
Research Laboratory, excellent results on the absorption of pure
organic chemicals in the infra-red spectrum have been reached, and
an independent method for determining the ozone content of the
earth’s atmosphere has been worked out and applied at Table Moun-
tain, Calif.
THE ESTABLISHMENT

The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in
1846, according to the terms of the will of James Smithson, of
England, who, in 1826, bequeathed his property to the United States
of America “ to found at Washington, under the name of the Smith-
sonian Institution, an PCRS ISLE for the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among men.’ ‘In receiving the property’and accepting
the trust, Congress determined that ae Federal Government was
without authority to administer the trust directly, and therefore con-
stituted an “ establishment ” whose statutory members are “ the Presi-
dent, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the
executive departments.”

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 3

THE BOARD OF REGENTS

The affairs of the Institution are administered by a Board of
Regents whose membership consists of “ the Vice President, the Chief
Justice, three Members of the Senate, and three Members of the
House of Representatives, together with six other persons other than
Members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the city of
Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State,
but no two of them of the same State.” One of the Regents is elected
chancellor by the board. In the past the selection has fallen upon
the Vice President or the Chief Justice, and a suitable person is
chosen by the Regents as Secretary of the Institution, who is also
secretary of the Board of Regents, and the executive officer directly
in charge of the Institution’s activities.

Changes in the personnel of the board during the year consisted
of the loss of two citizen Regents: Robert S. Brookings, of Missouri,
through expiration of his term, and Dwight W. Morrow, of New
Jersey, through the automatic expiration of his term as a citizen
Regent upon his induction into the office of United States Senator
from New Jersey.

The roll of the Regents at the close of the fiscal year was as
follows: Charles Evans Hughes, Chief Justice of the United States,
chancellor; Charles Curtis, Vice President of the United States;
members from the Senate, Reed Smoot, Joseph T. Robinson, Claude
A. Swanson; members from the House of Representatives, Albert
Johnson, R. Walton Moore, Robert Luce; citizen members, Irwin B.
Laughlin, Pennsylvania; Frederic A. Delano, Washington, D. C.;
and John C. Merriam, Washington, D. C.

FINANCES

The permanent investments of the Institution consist of the
following:

Total endowment for general or specific purposes (exclusive of
Meer. fUNdS) noes Bat en ee. hae WAM) pero fh $1, 747, 881. 52

Itemized as follows:
Deposited in the Treasury of the United States, as provided by
Te yy cere ens Fe eee PSN pat ee Eee pew Yb eed ore ape 1, 000, 000. 00
Deposited in the consolidated fund—
Miscellaneous securities, etc., either purchased or acquired

by/gitt; cost or value at date acquired] — 2222-2 22s 668, 069. 02
Springer, Frank, fund for researches, etc. (bonds) _~-__-____ 80, 000. 00
Younger, Helen Walcott, fund (real estate notes and stock,

CCIE Mabel 8 uo] ey \aiake ee ree ee ene ee en ee Seen arene Pee Om 49, 812. 50

A WCOR TU ie aches Msg iat tia ere ernie a een Bs ad ae ae 1, 747, 881. 52

102992—32——_2

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The above-mentioned funds of the Institution are described as

follows:
United States} Consoli- Separate
Fund Treasury | dated fund | funds Total
|
ATURE: WaMeOSs MUNG a cate a ae. 2 de ee ae | el cae SD $62;:505/02)| 2-5 eee $52, 595. 02
Bacon; iVirginialPurdy) fund o e202 29 ele i ee eye Bee 65, 887-12 "eLie 2 ee 65, 887. 12
Baines Lneyeo tun. eso ee ua Case ee] de ae Oe ae 216.54 ees ie ee 2, 176. 54
Barstow, Erederic Di, \fundz-citein ae 27 UU ees er dee 1,000; 28)\-224s.-222: 1, 000. 28
Cannéldicollection {Unda ciere sen hy Se navety Sewer ye ae DOs 2005178) | A areaneneee 50, 299. 78
@asoy,: Phomasi..; fand S02 22283 ee ae I al et eee 9;1503!'63' Posts. Eas 2 9, 503. 63
@hamperlatniunds = ete— anaes se ee EE ree T1082. 20) soe ans 37, 032. 20
Hodgkins (specific) fund 2 i-2<22.2) 224. 22 $10D5000:'00''|. bie 2 ee eo 100, 000. 00
ETHOS UB TICO; TENG eles eon eet ee ic ee eee ne ee Y ict Eh by fk hme. 17, 963. 17
Myer; ‘Catherine We funds. 3.0 tees Ve ee PTS ee 22744. QO oe ce eee 22, 744, 20
Pell Cormelias livingston wUnds.2ae Nl ae ee Ton De 85 175303) |eo2-a<-254 52 3, 175. 03
Poore, Lucy T. and George W., fund___..------_--- 26, 6:70:00) «.35,:366..08) {2S 2-0-2. -- 62, 036. 08
LOLA A CAGISOM lie) MeL ea ae ert pe ae SS 11, 000. 00 ne A iy Ad tee e aa 25, 067. 21
Rgeboling tty dee Cee a Sa AUS RR I lel fe 168,706; 7B0/e- ech 8 - chee 158, 706. 78
Smithsonian unrestricted funds:
PASVORY Tt scene Se SON ah pe 14,000.00 | 48, 970.50 ')-.-.-2--.--- 62, 970. 50
OMG OWanenit err ee LE LS oe SS cl tie SAS AT HN AG | Cee eens 84, 415. 46
(Eta belpfrmde vue a sane eA nk LR UAE Se BOONOG Pee Ree | Cae eee 500. 00
PTA CHEN DERG AULT ere ee es ae ee arte EE en Se ee Bol OR a eee eer 5, 291. 03
Hamilton tand22 222k aha eee ee 2, 500. 00 6803 79) | .se-2 bee 3, 030. 79
TONY VUNG eee ee ee eet ee eee ee eee Le eee 15/090) 435)| eae aoa 1, 590. 43
Hodekinsigeneralitund soos ee ee 116;'000400:)' .89,'489. 14 |-4 24 ss e 155, 439. 14
PATONG UNG see pe eee 2 Sh iret ee eee 727, 640. 00 L60asS31s|22o.-.-nee a 729, 245. 31
Pn eps fan Gee sees en See» ee eC eset 590. 00 622.04 |--Lueeee es 1, 212. 04
RTUTORGRLO NU tee eee ere eee ee eee eee 1, 100. 00 PE 70S63}'|==<=2ee- os 2, 270. 63
Aprinzer tan | ses yes Rk aes ee a ee See ae Soe ae $30, 000. 00 30, 000. 00
Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, fund__------.|-.--------_-_- 120915 BOR Le sese ue ee 12, 915. 80
SVOUNZOE, | ELGlOny We AlCObt hind Sten = eee et Re | Lee ee 49, 812. 50 49, 812. 50
Aer bee phrances i Orinckl6, fin dee sen. ee. a eee eee eee MOOOSB5i (Sees ee =e 1, 000. 85
5.089) 27% Pe 9 AS A he LS an 1, 000, 000.00 | 668,069.02 | 79, 812. 50 1, 747, 881. 52

The Institution gratefully acknowledges gifts

donors:

Dr. W. L. Abbott, for archeological investigations in Haiti.

Estate of James Arthur, for investigations and study of the sun.
Frederic D. Barstow, purchase of animals for Zoological Park.
Mrs. Laura Welsh Casey, further contributions to Thomas Lincoln Casey

fund for researches in Coleoptera.

from the following

Hon. Charles G. Dawes, for further search in Spain for valuable ancient

documents.

Mr. Otto T. Mallery, for preparation of handbook on the Indians of the

Southwest.

Research Corporation, for further contributions for research in radiation.
John A. Roebling, for further contributions for researches in radiation and

studies in world weather records.

Charles C. Woodley, for general endowment fund of the Institution.

Maj. Leigh F. J. Zerbee, for endowment of the Frances Brincklé Zerbee

aquaria.

From an anonymous friend for investigations in Old World archeology.

Freer Gallery of Art.—The invested funds of the Freer bequest

are classified as follows:

@ountvand grounds funds ew See SE Eee ee $604, 625. 07
Court and grounds maintenance fund__+--+--s=22--s22--42-=-+-= 151,331. 11
rar sx Eire Eran ee ee 609, 829. 43
Residuary lesa cy aie ee a ae ee ee 4, 002, 425. 90

MOC i a A ee 5, 867, 711. 51

REPORT OF THE SECRE'TARY 5

The practice of depositing on time in local trust companies and
banks such revenues as may be spared temporarily has been continued
during the past year, and interest on these deposits has amounted to
$5,026.75.

Cash balances, receipis, and disbursements during the fiscal year*

Cashepalance on hands sunevs0 yt GSO ss eee te ee ee ane $214, 870. 17

Receipts:
Cash from inyested endowments and from mis-
cellaneous sources for general use of the

ENS ELE ETO Mere eae een eee ee) eee we $74, 306. 66
Cash for increase of endowments for specific

WU ese eae ee ee 81, 559. 8S
Cash gifts for increase of endowments for gen-

CLAIGU SE eee ee eee ee eee Weegee ig ate 5. 00
Cash gifts, ete., for specific use (not to be in-

NSLS A MX Op ee Sa ane aL nee Al a ar IO SIL 90, 064. 79
Cash received as royalties from sales of

Smithsonian Scientific Series _______________ IWGP Pas
Cash gain from sale, etec., of securities (to be

TLV STC) ere cca tn et ee PE ee a ee 317. 09

Cash income from endowments for specific use
other than Freer endowment and from miscel-
laneous sourees (including refund of tem-

DOLE Tak (LY COS) ean ais eee ae vee an eae 62,528. 93
Cash capital from sale, call of securities, ete.
(torberreinvested)) ioe ne ae ere Ne ata oe 63, 998. 50

Total receipts other than Freer endowment______________ 390, 008. 39
Cash receipts from Freer endowment—income

LE OTA ATV ES CII TAGS i oie oe as a ey SL ay 2 es ee 311, 377. 40
Gain from sale, ete., of securities (to be in-

SMCS fl!) ee ES ay Lad aw al he Sry Sse ee lah a 2 ee re ays 110, 334. 34
Cash capital from sale, call of securities, ete.

(tomberreinvested)) case are eR ee 1, 160, 106. 80

———_——_——— 1, 581, 818. 54

TO GATE oe Se ETH ME Ney OS: TO Pet ORT SEG ie 2,186, 692. 10
Disbursements:
From funds for general work of the Institution—

Buildings, care, repairs, and alterations____ 3, 246. 94
Hurniture and. fixtiTese = so ee 700. 49
Generar administration oo as Ft 23, 091. 60
ED Tig y/ See ene a ene EON AU EO Pe ee 3, 163. 31
Publications (comprising preparation, print-

ins y AUCICISEMIDULLON) = 28. Ee 4D 23, 690. 54
Researches and explorations______________ 21, 960. 16

imtbermationalexchangege see ee 4, 982. O1
oor aa 80, 835. 05
a a a Ee es I al
+ This statement does not include Government appropriations under the administrative
charge of the Institution.
* This includes salaries of the Secretary and certain others.

6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Disbursements—Continued.
From funds for specific use other than Freer
endowment—

Investments made from gifts, from gain
from sales, ete., of securities and from
SAVINGS MON) IN COMCSs = aa ee $78, O74. 41

Other expenditures, consisting largely of
research work, travel, increase and care
of special collections, ete., from income
of endowment funds and from cash gifts
for specific use (including temporary ad-

VEU COS)) ase nn NE eee ee ee ee 185, 547. 69
Cash capital from sale, call of securities,

etch rein vestedi222 223 2) lee eee 59, 873. 34
——_—_——_———— $323, 495. 44
From Freer endowment—
Operating expenses of gallery, salaries,
purchases of art objects, field expenses,

Cle Me seh Eee kis er en a ee ae ee 289, 883. 42
Investments made from gain from sale,
etc., of securities and from income___-_- 110, 128. 62
Cash capital from sale, call of securities,
CECE TAINVEStCC sae aie ee ee eee DAs fe ye PAV ef (a)
an FIG IIB), FL
Balance: June: 30; 193ib we ei aes SS ae ee ae 224, 221. 84
Mo tal. osteo 2 2, 186, 692. 10
Recapitulation of receipts, exclusive of Freer funds, during the year ending June
80, 1981
General uses:
Hor addition to endowment ee eee $4, 663. 67
IRESCEVE CG! SUT CONIC eee ee eee 86, 870. 52
$91, 534. 19
Specific uses:
Gifts accretions to endowment *______________--_-__ 81, 559. 89
Gifts for specific use not to be invested_______--_-_ 90, 064. 79
Cash income from endowments for addition to en-
dowment... 2. 2 ee ee eee 6, 026. 26
Cash income from endowments and from other sources
for conducting researches, explorations, ete_--_---~ 56, 502. 67
Cash capital from sale, call of securities, ete. (to
be' reinvested) 22U22.. 6-2 2 ee eee eee 64, 315. 59
; 298, 469. 20
Total receipts, exclusive of Freer funds___-----+----_-_____- 390, 003. 39

3 Approximately $22,000 of this amount was paid in connection with the settlement of
estate.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY v

Statement of endowment funds

‘ mee
Specific pur-
General pur- poses other |Freer endow-
poses than Freer ment
endowment
Pndowimmeninfunadnners0;0l OsO. ae eae a ee ee ee $1, 033, 789.85 | $636, 792. 55 | $5, 300, 929. 50
Increase irom incomes gifts; efevl 222. 2 1 eae 11, 971. 41 65, 009. 27 5, 697. 95
Increase from gain from sales of securities, stock dividends,
(5) eM A ES er WLS ee 204. 07 114. 37 61, 084. 06
NGO WN en behuUNeo0s 1 Os lee ee eee ee 1, 045, 965. 33 701,916.19 | 5,367, 711. 51

The following appropriations were made by Congress for the
Government bureaus under the administrative charge of the Smith-
sonian Institution for the fiscal year 1931:

SalaniesfandsexpenSes eee. arya Mn ee ete $38, 304
Geel Tenteliyaeeen rete LCE yeaa er 20, 000
CSE Bil OLA ae ECM ELIT GS te mee ee ek eres ee ee rece ee ee eS eee 52, 810
AM CLICANO RM EN NO]O Lysee = Sete ek Rs EE ERA ERIE A RE AEE 70, 840
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature__________________-- 8, 145
AStLODNYSiGAle ODSELV ALOT Y= ore ee enti LE Shee See Fe ee ee 37, 560
National Museum:
IM uoR DUNE, Cael sib-qr ph Nese ee eee eee $383, 740
Heating range hob tin pase oer eee re me were Reem Nee Bie 93, 120
IBreseryanon: Of COleCt ONS eee eee eee oan eer ane 596, 644
Lexb UU Koh bayes?* saves ovzW hy Une: Se NE Ee ee ee ee ee 56, 940
15-YOY a) Ses SI AE Se RS eae EE 3, 000
POSES Cee a an og WAN eee ea ea Oa 450
Plans for additions to Natural History Building_______ 10, 000
793, 894
Nationale Gallenyaok elit. te a erie eee ee er ee ee 45, 218
NON Bite ZOO) OST Cele aT Ke es at aN ee 220, 520
Nationale Zoolozies) Park, puildine for reptiless—=— 2-2 28, 000
Lever ay tab ayeg of save boys Dia eq Me Se fe as Seka EN AT a are Se a 99, 000
TT tei) t Saree aoe A ieee 2 Ee ie a Ae eas i, Oe 1, 414, 791

MATTERS OF GENERAL INTEREST
PRESENTATION OF LANGLEY MEDAL TO MANLY AND BYRD

As mentioned in my last report, the fifth and sixth awards of the
Langley Gold Medal for Aerodromics were made late in 1929 to
Charles Matthews Manly (posthumously) and to Admiral Richard
Evelyn Byrd, respectively. On December 11, 1930, at the annual
meeting of the Board of Regents of the Institution, the posthumous
presentation of the medal to Mr. Manly was made through the person
of his eldest son. In presenting the medal, the chancellor of the
board, Hon. Charles Evans Hughes, spoke of the previous awards
and then said:

It was awarded posthumously to Charles Matthews Manly at the board’s
meeting of December 12, 1929. This exceptional action was taken in recognition

8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

of the fact that the outstanding merit of Mr. Manly’s invention and construc-
tion of the light, radial, gasoline airplane engine has become more and more
apparent in the last years.

Mr. Hughes then quoted Mr. Charles L. Lawrance, president of
the Wright Aeronautical Corporation, in part, as follows:

When we consider that the most popular type of airplane engine of to-day is
almost identical in its general detail and arrangement with the one evolved by
Charles Manly in 1902, we are lost in admiration for a man who, with no data
at his disposal, no examples of similar art on which to roughly base his design,
and no workmen capable of making the more difficult parts of his engine, never-
theless, through the processes of a logical mind, the intelligent application of
the science of mathematics, and the use of his surprising mechanical skill, suc-
ceeded in constructing an engine developing 52.4 horsepower for a weight of
125 pounds, or a weight of 2.4 pounds per horsepower, which stood up under
severe tests, once even going through a full-power, nonstop run of 10 hours.

Mr. Manly accepted the medal on behalf of his father, and con-
cluded with the words, “I am sure that if he were living there is
no honor which he would so greatly treasure.”

The presentation of the medal to Admiral Byrd was made at the
Smithsonian on the morning of March 27, 1931, by Chancellor
Hughes. After reviewing the purpose of the founding of the Lang-
ley medal, Mr. Hughes said:

Your investigations in connection with the science of aviation have included
severe tests of airplanes, their navigating instruments, and the possibilities
of using them for geographical exploration. In these enterprises you have
made the nonstop west-east passage of the Atlantic, the first nonstop flight to
the North Pole, and the first nonstop flight to the South Pole. You have ex-
plored and photographed great regions of the globe hitherto unseen by man.

It gives me great pleasure to present to you, Admiral Byrd, the Langley
Gold Medal for Aerodromics, in recognition of your outstanding investigations
relating to the application of the science of aerodromics to geographical
exploration.

Admiral Byrd, in expressing his appreciation of the award, con-
cluded:

All fliers have the deepest respect for the work of Professor Langley. My
own feeling of respect is so profound that this rare medal is doubly precious
to me in bearing his name.

His work was epochal in the evolution of aviation, and may I remark here
that I believe ali age-old things in a state of civilization must follow the great
law of evolution as do all things in a state of nature. *-* * But here is
the big point—because space is practically unlimited the evolution of aviation
has fewer limits than ground-held things.

SMITHSONIAN SCIENTIFIC SERIES

In 1926 the Institution reached an agreement with a New York
publishing firm for the issuance of a series of popular, illustrated
volumes dealing with the branches of science covered by the activi-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 9

ties of the Smithsonian and its branches. ‘The Institution receives a
definite royalty from the sale of the books which provides greatly
needed additional funds for the continuation of its researches. Vol-
umes 1 to 4 were issued in 1929, and volumes 5 to 8 in 1980. The
titles are as follows:

1. The Smithsonian Institution, by Webster Prentiss True.

2. The Sun and the Welfare of Man, by Charles Greeley Abbot.

3. Minerals from Earth and Sky. Part I, The Story of Meteorites, by George
P. Merrill. Part IJ, Gems and Gem Minerals, by William I’. Foshag.

. The North American Indians. An account of the American Indians north
of Mexico, compiled from the original sources, by Rose A. Palmer.

. Insects: Their Ways and Means of Living, by R. EH. Snodgrass.

Wild Animals in and out of the Zoo, by William M. Mann.

Man From the Farthest Past, by C. W. Bishop, C. G. Abbot, and A. Ardlitka.

. Cold-Blooded Vertebrates, by C. W. Gilmore, D. M. Cochran, and S. FE.
Hildebrand.

rs

“1 o> ot

ie)

Volumes 9, 10, and 11 were in press at the close of the year, and
the manuscript of volume 12 was practically completed.

The first edition of the series to be put on the market was a
limited de luxe set known as the James Smithson memorial edition;
this was quickly sold out. The publishers are now selling two dis-
tinct editions known as the patrons’ edition and the William Howard
Taft memorial edition.

RESEARCHES IN EUROPEAN ARCHIVES

Dr. C. U. Clark continued his research work among the European
archives under the grant furnished by Ambassador Charles G.
Dawes in 1929. In addition to the important materials listed last
year, Doctor Clark has made some very interesting new discoveries
of manuscripts relating to the ethnology of many tribes of North
and South America. In the hbrary at Evora in Portugal he brought
to light a great many documents of unusual interest which had been
deposited by Jesuit missionaries of the early colonial period in
Brazil. In the British Museum Doctor Clark discovered some im-
portant works of Francisco Cardenas relating to the Maya Indians
of Yucatan. In addition to the new work in Portugal and Eng-
land, Doctor Clark continued his researches in the archives of the
Indies at Seville and in the Vatican Library and the Propaganda
Fide in Rome. Insomuch as the Dawes fund will expire in Sep-
tember, Doctor Clark will bring his work to a conclusion at that
time. The results that have been obtained through this research .
have been exceptionally valuable, and the interesting material
brought to light was considerably more than might have been
expected. Although the research was undertaken primarily for the
purpose of locating material on the Maya Indians of Yucatan, in

10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

the course of the work documents of unusual interest were found
which concerned tribes covering most of North and South America
and the islands of the West Indies.

COOPERATIVE ETHNOLOGICAL AND ARCHEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

In 1928 an appropriation of $20,000 was authorized by Congress
for cooperative ethnological and archeological investigations in the
United States. Proposed investigations were to be approved by the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, who allotted from this ap-
propriation a sum equal to that raised for the work by the organiza-
tion proposing it. Seven projects were approved during the past
year and sums were allotted to them as follows:

Allotments from the fund for cooperative ethnological and archeological
investigations during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1931

1930

July 3. Laboratory of Anthropology, to conduct archeological investigations
of Basket Maker culture in the Guadalupe Mountain area of south-
eastern New Mexico for the purpose of locating, exploring, and
thoroughly examining both disturbed and undisturbed Basket Maker
sites and establishing the principal characteristics of this area.
A study and recording of pictographs found in this area will also
be made, $900.

July 8. University of Utah, to conduct archeological investigations and explora-
tions in the State of Utah and the intensive excavation of one or
two sites chosen as a result of the explorations, $800.

1931

Feb. 18. Laboratory of Anthropology, to continue the reconnaissance and
excavation, where desirable, of Basket Maker sites in the Guadalupe
Mountains and adjacent sections on the north and west, $213.15
(together with unexpended balance of $386.85 from previous allot-
ment).

Mar. 26. University of Utah, to conduct archeological investigations at
Promontory Point, Great Salt Lake, Utah, and to continue the
archeological reconnaissance begun in the fall of 1930 in the
drainage of the Sevier River in west central Utah, $250.

Mar. 26. Logan Museum, to conduct archeological investigations along the upper
Missouri River, excavating earth-lodge villages belonging to the
Arikara before 1850, $250.

Apr. 21. The State Historical Society of Colorado, for a general investigation,
reconnaissance, and mapping of the so-called Paradox Valley
country with intensive work on a single site to be selected as a
result of the reconnaissance, $175.

May 28. University of Denver, to complete the archeological survey of eastern
Colorado begun during the summer of 1930, $250.

At the beginning of the fiscal year the balance of the fund for
cooperative ethnological and archeological investigations was very
low, but by combining the unexpended balances on a number of the
allotments it was possible to make the above grants.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 11
EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD WORK

Twenty-nine expeditions went out during the year in the interests
of the Institution’s investigations in geology, biology, anthropology,
and astrophysics. Besides numerous localities in the United States,
these expeditions visited many other parts of the world, including
Africa, Alaska, Canada, China, Haiti, Santo Domingo, the South
Sea Islands, Spain, and the West Indies.

Many unique specimens were brought back to the Institution for
study, and much-needed information was obtained in the field.
The Smithsonian is indebted to its friends and to other scientific
institutions for a considerable part of the expense of these expedi-
tions, as its own meager funds for this purpose were exhausted early
in the year.

Among the year’s expeditions I may mention particularly Dr.
Paul Bartsch’s third year of explorations for mollusks in the West
Indies, this year’s work covering the southern Bahamas, the islands
off the south coast of Cuba, and the Caymans; further anthropologi-
cal researches in Alaska by Dr. AleS Hrdlicka and Henry B.
Collins, jr., Doctor Hrdlitka working along the Kuskokwim River
and Mr. Collins on St. Lawrence Island; biological collecting on
“Tin Can Island” in the Tonga Archipelago by Lieut. Henry C.
Kellers, United States Navy, through the cooperation of the Navy
Department and the United States Naval Observatory; the Parish-
Smithsonian expedition to Haiti, organized by the late Lee H.
Parish with the financial assistance and cooperation of his father,
S. W. Parish, for the purpose of making general biological collec-
tions on the little-worked islands off the Haitian coast; and the
continuation of the collecting explorations of the Rev. David C.
Graham near Suifu, China, which resulted in over 62,000 specimens
for the National Museum.

Brief accounts of certain of the year’s expeditions will be found
in the reports of the National Museum and the Bureau of American
Ethnology appended hereto. All are described and illustrated in
the Institution’s yearly pamphlet, Explorations and Field Work of
the Smithsonian Institution, 1930, publication No. 3111.

PUBLICATIONS

On March 1, 1931, the editorial work of the Institution and its
branches was consolidated in a central office under the direction of
the editor of the Institution. The steadily increasing output of the
Smithsonian made it desirable to centralize authority to a certain
extent in the interests of a more uniform policy and style and to
prevent duplication of effort in the keeping of financial and other
records. The volume of work passing through the editorial office

12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

will be apparent from the fact that nearly $120,000 is now spent for
printing each year; at certain periods of the year as many as 60
separate publications are in press at one time, some of them con-
taining hundreds of manuscript pages, and most of them highly
technical papers requiring careful editing and proofreading. It is
hoped that the increased efficiency from a business standpoint of
the recent reorganization will result in releasing more time of the
small editorial staff for straight editorial work, to the end that
Smithsonian publications may appear with greater accuracy and
promptness.

The Institution’s publications constitute its primary means for
accomplishing the diffusion of knowledge. They are issued by the
Institution proper and by the bureaus under its administrative
direction and appear in 18 distinct series, as follows:

Smithsonian Institution:
Annual report (with general appendix made up of selected articles review-
ing the year’s advances in science).
Contributions to Knowledge (suspended).
Miscellaneous collections.
Special publications.
National Museum:
Annual report.
Bulletin.
Proceedings.
Contributions from the National Herbarium.
Bureau of American Hthnology:
Annual report (with accompanying papers on ethnological subjects).
Bulletin.
Astrophysical Observatory :
Annals.
National Gallery of Art:
Catalogue.
Freer Gallery of Art:
Publications.

Ninety-eight volumes and pamphlets were published during the
year in these various series, and 205,711 copies of Smithsonian pub-
lications were distributed. This number included 27,425 volumes and
separates of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 25,984 vol-
umes and separates of the Smithsonian annual reports, 4,627 Smith-
sonian special publications, 86,680 publications of the National
Museum, and 29,475 publications of the Bureau of American Eth-
nology. The titles and authors of the year’s publications will be
found in the report of the editor, Appendix 11.

LIBRARY

The Smithsonian library contains about 800,000 volumes, pam-
phlets, and charts, pertaining largely to science and technology. It
comprises 10 divisional libraries, one of which—the National Museum

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13

library—inciudes 36 sectional libraries, the small working units
maintained in the offices of the curators and other Museum officials.
The year’s accessions totaled 14,050, including 6,972 volumes and 7,078
pamphiets and charts. Among the many gifts received during the
year may be mentioned several thousand volumes and pamphlets
from the library of the late Dr. George P. Merrill, presented by Mrs.
Merrill and the other heirs; 600 scientific publications from Mrs.
Dora W. Boettcher; and 386 volumes and pamphlets from the heirs
of the late Dr. O. P. Hay.

Work on the union catalogue progressed satisfactorily. The stafi
completed the shelf list of the Museum library, catalogued the pub-
lications of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and the John
Donnell Smith collection, and made progress in reclassifying and re-
cataloguing the library of the Freer Gallery of Art. A number of
special activities were carried forward, such as the checking and com-
pleting of sets of publications, the transfer to other organizations of
certain publications not needed at the Institution, and the exchange
of duplicate publications for others needed to complete sets.

GOVERNMENTALLY SUPPORTED BRANCHES
NATIONAL MUSEUM

The appropriations for the maintenance of the Museum totaled
$830,394, which included provision for four additional employees,
namely, an associate director, a clerk in the library, and two guards.
Although these additions are of great help to the eflicient operation
of the Museum, there are still many offices, particularly in the scien-
tific departments, where the need for more workers is urgent. The
second deficiency bill for 1931 carried $10,000 for the preparation of
preliminary plans for the two wings to be added to the Natural
History Building under an authorization by Congress in the pre-
vious year. ‘These plans, in course of preparation by the Allied
Architects Incorporated, will provide for two wings similar in
arrangement to the present building, that is, with the ground floor
and the third floor devoted to offices and Jaboratories and the two
floors between occupied by exhibits. This additional spacg will
relieve the present badly overcrowded condition in the natural his-
tory department of the Museum; a similar need for space will still
exist, however, in the arts and industries department and the divi-
sion of history, and it is hoped that buildings for these collections,
which are of such great interest to the public, may soon be provided.

The year’s additions to the collections exceeded in number those
of any previous year in the Museum’s history, reaching a total
of 1,022,850 individual specimens. Gifts of duplicates to schools
totaled 7,384 specimens, and 31,516 specimens were loaned to scien-
tific workers outside of Washington.

14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The department of anthropology received additional ethnological
material from Alaska resulting from the explorations of Dr. Ales
Hrdlicka and H. B. Collins, jr., giving the Museum the most
complete collection in existence of the ancient ivory culture of the
Bering Sea region. About 5,000 specimens illustrating the life of the
American Indian were received as a bequest from the late Victor J.
Evans, of Washington. Further material representing the native
tribes of West Africa was given by C. C. Roberts.

The most important accession in the department of biology was
the Barnes collection of Lepidoptera, purchased by a special appro-
priation of $50,000 to the Department of Agriculture and transferred
to the Museum. Additional material has been received as a result
of the field activities of Dr. David C. Graham in China and of Dr.
Hugh M. Smith in Siam. Dr, H. C. Kellers obtained large collec-
tions of material for the Museum from the island of Niuafoou in the
Pacific. A large collection of birds, mammals, reptiles, and plants
obtained by E. G. Holt on an expedition to the boundary region be-
tween Venezuela and Brazil was presented by the National Geo-
graphic Society.

Thirty-two species of minerals new to the collection were received
by the department of geology, chiefly by purchase through the
Roebling fund. Other interesting accessions included a large mass
of native silver and calcite estimated to contain 220 pounds of pure
silver; a vertebra of an extinct reptile, which has fossilized into opal;
and a green tourmaline weighing 17.9 carats, purchased through the
Chamberlain fund. Many valuable fossil specimens were added dur-
ing the year, particularly through the explorations of C. W. Gilmore
and Dr. J. W. Gidley.

In the arts and industries department one of the most interesting
accessions was the airplane Bremen, the first heavier-than-air craft
to make the east-west nonstop flight across the North Atlantic. This
was deposited by the New York Museum of Science and Industry.
Of especial interest also was a model showing a section of the Cono-
wingo hydroelectric generating station, presented by the Philadelphia
Electric Co. The division of graphic arts received a miniature book,
The Gospel of St. Matthew, printed in 214-point type, the smallest
type ever cast. Among the especially interesting accessions in the
division of history were a chair owned by Benjamin Franklin, a
chair belonging to President James Madison, and a mahogany screen
owned by George Washington.

In search of specimens and information needed in the progress of
the scientific investigations carried on by the Museum many expedi-
tions were in the field during the year, financed either by the Smith-
sonian Institution or by contributions from interested friends. The

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 1105)

results of the researches of the staff were published by the Museum
in 7 volumes and 41 separate papers. The distribution of its publica-
tions totaled 86,680 copies. The number of visitors during the year
was 1,669,140.

NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART

Three exhibitions were held in the galiery during the year: A
collection of 78 water colors by William Spencer Bagdatopoulos, a
memorial exhibition of water colors by Henry Bacon, and the fortieth
annual exhibition of the Society of Washington Artists.

Art works received by the Institution, subject to transfer to the
national gallery upon approval of the National Gallery of Art Com-
mission, included several portraits, among them a portrait of Com-
modore Stephen Decatur by Gilbert Stuart, bequeathed by the late
Stephen Decatur Parsons. Among the loans accepted by the gallery
were 15 paintings by British and Dutch masters lent by the execu-
tors of the estate of the late Henry Cleveland Perkins, and five
paintings by old masters lent by Mrs. Marshall Langhorne.

Four paintings were purchased during the year from the Henry
Ward Ranger fund by the Council of the National Academy of
Design. Under the conditions of Mr. Ranger’s will, the National
Gallery may claim any of the pictures thus purchased during the
5-year period beginning 10 years after the artist’s death and ending
15 years after his death.

The director, Professor Holmes, calls attention to the fact that just
60 years have passed since he first entered the doors of the Smith-
sonian Institution, where he was almost immediately employed as an
artist. It may be added that since that time, except for short periods
of connection with other organizations, he has remained with the
Smithsonian and has served it with marked success in the fields of
geology and anthropology as well as of art. To few men is it given
to achieve distinction in three major fields of activity and to con-
tinue at the age of 85 in the able direction of such an important
enterprise as the National Gallery of Art.

FREER GALLERY OF ART’

Additions to the collections by purchase include a Chinese bronze
vessel of the fifth century B. C.; two Chinese jade ornaments of
the third century B. C.; Nepalese, Persian, and Arabic manuscripts;
and Chinese, Indian, Nepalese, and Persian paintings.

1The Government’s expense in connection with the Freer Gallery of Art consists mainly
in the care of the building and certain other custodial matters. Other expenses are paid
from the Freer endowmennt funds.

16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951

The year’s curatorial work embraced the studying and recording
of inscriptions and seals on recently acquired Chinese paintings and
of Buddhist inscriptions on stone sculptures and votive bronze
images. The cataloguing of the near eastern section of manuscripts
and paintings was completed. Transiation of the Persian texts has
identified more than 60 Persian miniatures taken from various early
manuscripts. Translations have also been made of inscriptions on
objects submitted by outside persons and by other institutions for
expert opinion. <A total of 2,812 objects and 107 photographs of
objects were sent in for such opinion.

Important changes in exhibition were made during the year.
Galleries I and II are now devoted to the display of works of art
from the Near East and India; gallery XIV now contains ancient
bronzes, silver, and silver gilt; gallery XVIII exhibits scroll paint-
ings; and gallery XIX displays pottery, porcelain, and panel
paintings.

The total attendance for the year was 125,789; of these 1,510 came
to the oflice in connection with studies or for other special purposes.
Fifty-two groups were given docent service in the galleries and
10 classes were given instruction in the study room.

In spite of existing difficult conditions, the gallery’s expedition
in China under direction of C. W. Bishop carried out important
excavations in southwestern Shansi. The principal aim of the
gallery in this work is to help establish an atmosphere of greater
mutual regard and confidence between native and foreign scientists.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

The bureau continued its diversified researches among the Indians
in various parts of the United States and at one locality in Canada.
The chief of the bureau, M. W. Stirling, visited several sites of
archeological interest in Florida and chose for excavation a large
sand burial mound on Blue Hill Island in the Ten Thousand Islands
group off the west coast. He then investigated several sites on the
island of Haiti in company with H. W. Krieger, of the National
Museum. Returning to Florida, work was continued in the eastern
part of the State, in the course of which two series of large geometric
earthworks were discovered on the eastern side of the Everglades.

Dr. John R. Swanton was engaged in field work among various
tribes in Louisiana during the first part of the fiscal year, and later
devoted considerable time in Washington to the editing of Gatschet’s
material on the Atakapa language. Dr. Truman Michelson worked
among the Kickapoo and Cheyenne of Oklahoma and the Fox of
Iowa. John P. Harrington prepared his report on the San Juan

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY LZ

Indians of California, and later in the year returned to that State
to continue his studies, this year on the Esselen and Antoniano
Indians in the southern part of Monterey County.

Dr. F. H. H. Roberts, jr., concluded his excavations begun the pre-
vious year at a site on the Zuni Reservation, N. Mex., and later in the
year began work on the ruins of a large pit-house village near
Allantown, Ariz. J. N. B. Hewitt again visited the Grant of the
Six Nations of the Iroquois on the Grand River in Ontario, Canada,
and briefly the Tuscarora reservation in western New York State,
in connection with the Iroquois texts which he is preparing for
publication. Winslow M. Walker was added to the bureau staff as
associate anthropologist in March, 1931. Toward the end of the
year he left Washington to investigate a number of caves near
Gilbert, Ark., and on June 30 the work was still in progress. Miss
Frances Densmore continued her study of Indian music for the
bureau, working particularly with the Chippewa on Lake Superior
and the Seminole of Florida.

The bureau issued two annual reports and three bulletins during
the year and distributed 20,475 copies of its publications.

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES

The exchange service handles for the United States the official
exchange with all other countries of parliamentary documents,
departmental documents, and miscellaneous scientific and literary
publications.

The number of packages of such publications handled during the
year was 641,338, a decrease of 53,327 from the previous year; the
weight of this material was 642,190 pounds, a decrease of 65,904
pounds.

As usual, aid was given the Library of Congress in procuring
needed foreign publications, as well as a number of other establish-
ments here and abroad in obtaining specially desired publications.

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK

The year has been marked at the Zoo by an unusually large
number of accessions and by the opening of the new reptile house,
enabling the park for the first time to exhibit these interesting
creatures. The year’s accessions totaled 1,266 animals, while 761
were lost through death, exchange, or return of animals on deposit,
leaving a total of 2,501 in the collection at the close of the year.
The outstanding accession of the year was the bequest of the Victor
J. Evans collection of 244 animals, representing 133 species, which
composed Mr. Evans’s private zoo and which contained a number

18 ANNUAL, REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

of rarities. To illustrate the unusual importance of the year’s
additions, it may be said that 63 species were shown for the first
time in the National Zoological Park.

Visitors to the park totaled 2,171,515, a slight decrease from the
previous year’s total. The fact that there was not a greater decline
in number of visitors, as there was in other similar institutions owing
to the present economic depression, was due to the great public in-
terest shown in the new reptile exhibits. Attendance of school
groups numbered 649 from 21 States, comprising 84,026 individuals.

The new reptile house was opened on February 27, 1931, with a
reception attended by 3,000 people. The building contains special
lighting and ventilating systems and all the modern features known
for the best exhibition of animals. Since its opening it has become
the most popular building in the entire park. The most urgently
needed additional building is one for small mammals and the great
apes; plans for this building are now being prepared under an
appropriation by Congress for the purpose.

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY

A large part of the year’s work was devoted to the preparation
of text, tables, and illustrations for Volume V of the Annals of
the Astrophysical Observatory, which will cover the results of
observations made at the several stations since August, 1920. The
entire manuscript was sent to the printer toward the end of June.

The three stations at Montezuma, Chile, Table Mountain, Calif.,
and Mount Brukkaros, Southwest Africa, have continued observa-
tions of the radiation of the sun on all possible days. The results
from the last two stations have not proved as satisfactory as those
from Montezuma, and considerable effort has been expended on im-
proving them. During the year new varieties of the short method
of determining the solar constant of radiation, applicable to condi-
tions at Table Mountain and Mount Brukkaros, have been worked
out, with resulting great improvement in the values from these two
stations.

Upon the completion of the reduction of all the solar constant
observations from the three field stations interesting results have
been derived from their comparison. Whereas the probable error
of the monthly mean values since 1920 is less than 0.1 per cent,
the extreme range of the solar-constant values is 2.8 per cent. The
march of solar variation since 1920 may be expressed very faith-
fully as the sum of five regular periodicities of 68, 45, 25, 11, and
8 month intervals. The curve of temperatures at Washington, D. C.,
and Williston, N. Dak., may also be represented by the sum of
these same periodicities with the addition of an 18-month period.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 19

These results are so striking as to offer great hope that the rela-
tionship between solar variation and the weather may enable the
skilled meteorologist to forecast principal changes of weather far in
advance.

In the hope of finding a site as satisfactory as Montezuma, Chile,
for solar observations, an expedition supported by John A. Roebling
and headed by A. F. Moore is now in the field testing various locali-
ties in Africa and outlying regions.

DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS

During the second year of the existence of the Division of Radia-
tion and Organisms, under direction of Dr. F. S. Brackett, a num-
ber of researches in physics and chemistry in connection with bio-
physics were begun. The phototropic experiments upon oat coleop-
tiles initiated during the previous year were continued with refine-
ment of technique by Doctors Johnston and McAlister. The purpose
of this investigation was to determine the phototropic response of
the oat coleoptile toward light of different colors, or of different
spectral regions, by means of light filters, and this year’s more elab-
orate experiments showed results in striking agreement with the
rougher results of the previous year.

Preliminary experiments on the carbon dioxide assimilation of
wheat plants were conducted by Doctor Johnson and Mr. Hoover,
using special all-vitreous growth chambers. Entire plants are used
instead of individual leaves as in earlier work, and a typical day’s
run of the recording apparatus shows the carbon dioxide assimilated
for different light intensities. Equipment is being developed for
more elaborate experiments using approximately monochromatic
light.

Through the cooperation of the Department of Agriculture, Doc-
tor Meier has carried out preliminary experiments on the growth
of alge under controlled illumination and temperature conditions, a
part of her work as National Research Council Fellow in the division.
By the use of a large quartz spectrograph, the modifications in
growth rate or resulting death point may be observed comparatively
for different wave lengths of light.

With the further cooperation of the Department of Agriculture,
in connection with the crop physiology and breeding investigations
of Doctor Swingle, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Doctor Meier
and members of the division have carried on researches on the effects
of controlled radiation, humidity, and temperature on certain tropi-
cal and xerophytic plants. It was found possible to maintain con-
ditions that yielded for date palms ten times greater growth rate

102992—32——3 ;

20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

than that of control plants in the greenhouse. Other interesting
results were also obtained, which, if applicable to palms, as seems
likely, would be of considerable practical importance.

In the field of pure physics and physical chemistry, the intensity
distribution in the mercury spectrum has been determined directly,
and in cooperation with the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory the
spectra of HCl, HCN, and the halogen substitution products of
benzene have been investigated in the region between the visible
and 2u. This work has been done by Doctors McAlister and Wulf
and Mr. Liddel.

Several additional rooms have been prepared and equipped for the
use of the division. The research field of the division is so wide
and interesting both to pure science and agriculture that a con-
siderable expansion of its resources and personnel is greatly to be
desired.

INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

In compliance with the resolution passed at the last international
convention held in Brussels in July, 1922, the United States bureau
of the catalogue has been kept in existence pending resumption of
publication, and the compiling of necessary records of current Ameri-
can scientific publications has been continued so that they may be
indexed when publication is resumed.

Every effort is being made by the United States bureau, through
the chairman of the executive committee of the catalogue, to hasten
the necessary reorganization, but the financial depression and other
unfavorable conditions have so far prevented the development of a
definite plan. Besides the necessary cooperation of the regional bu-
reaus, all that is needed to put the enterprise on its feet is a capital
fund of $75,000, to refinance the central editing and publishing
bureau.

NECROLOGY
FRANK WIGGLESWORTH CLARKE

Frank Wigglesworth Clarke, honorary curator in the Division of
Mineralogy, United States National Museum, since 1883, died at his
home in Washington on May 23, 1931, in his eighty-fifth year. Doc-
tor Clarke was chief chemist at the United States Geological Survey
from 1883 to 1925, when he retired from active service.

The mineral collection in the National Museum had been recognized
as a distinct entity for but a short time prior to Doctor Clarke’s ap-
pointment as honorary curator. He laid the foundation for these
now justly celebrated mineral and gem collections. In addition to

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 91

his duties at the survey, he devoted much time and effort to the up-
building and care of these collections, the early reports of the divi-
sion testifying to his personal activities. His official retirement from
the Government service did not affect his interest, which never
flagged. He visited the department frequently, giving freely of the
store of knowledge acquired by his long years of service.

Doctor Clarke was also greatly interested in the collection of
meteorites, was instrumental in adding to it a number of specimens,
and prepared a catalogue which was published as a part of the
Smithsonian Report for 1886.

Doctor Clarke was a graduate of Harvard, had many honorary
degrees, and was affiliated with several of the prominent scientific
societies. He was the author of numerous papers, his Data of Geo-
chemistry being a standard reference work.

Respectfully submitted.

C. G. Assor, Secretary.

APPENDIX"?
REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the con-
dition and operations of the United States National Museum for
the fiscal year ended June 30, 1981:

The total appropriations for the maintenance of the National
Museum for this period amounted to $830,394, an increase of $67,880
over the appropriations for the year 1930. Of this amount $12,909,
together with a small additional sum secured by readjustment in
our salary rolls, provided salaries for four additional employees,
namely, an executive officer to be associate director of the United
States National Museum, a clerk in the library, and two guards.
The new positions provided mark a further advance in the building
up of our staff, far too few in number at present for the needs of the
Museum.

The second deficiency act for the fiscal year 1931 included $3,596
to cover increases in salaries occasioned by the Brookhart bill, which
made adjustment in annual pay in certain minor grades. Congress
further provided $11,875 for salary step-ups in connection with effi-
ciency ratings, and $2,420 was received to cover reallocations made
by the Personnel Classification Board.

The sum of $1,000 was added for the purchase of additional books
for the Museum library, making $3,000 available annually for that
purpose. There was further allotted an increase of $1,000 for print-
ing and binding for the National Museum.

As noted in the report for last year, the second deficiency act for
the fiscal year 1930 provided $3,500 toward the remodeling of the
women’s comfort room in the Arts and Industries Building, the
expenditure of which came within the operations of the present fiscal
year. Other additions under the heading of building repairs included
$25,000 for the construction of overhead galleries for the study collec-
tion of mammals and $7,000 for fire-protective measures in the
aircraft building.

In the appropriation for heating and lighting there was provided
an additional $2,000 for the purchase of an electrically driven fire
pump for fire protection in the Natural History Building.

The second deficiency bill for 1931 carried provision for $1,620 for
an additional clerk and $10,000 for the preparation of preliminary
plans for additions to the Natural History Building. These expendi.

22

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 20

tures will figure in the allotment of funds for 1932 and will be consid-
ered in the annual report for that year.

Requirements for additional funds for the National Museum follow
lines indicated in previous annual reports. The question of further
personnel continues to be one of paramount importance, as pressure
for additional workers in the scientific, clerical, and custodial forces
is constant and continued. Additions made to the staff in recent
years have filled in at vital points, but many further positions remain
to be provided before our organization can function with maximum
efficiency. There are several large collections for which the Museum
now has no curators. In some divisions assistants in professional
grades are needed as understudies for older men who should be in a
position to train successors in their particular fields. Clerical assist-
ance is at a minimum everywhere and in several divisions no service of
this kind is at present available. Further subprofessional workers also
are needed and the work of the custodial services in our woodworking
shops is behind. Temporary clerical and other assistance is provided
as funds permit, but this is unsatisfactory, as there is much lost
motion in giving necessary training to assistants who under civil
service rules remain at most only six months. The gradual increase
in staff that has come in recent years has been of great assistance,
but additional employees in numerous places are still urgently
needed.

Additions to funds allotted for the purchase of books have been
useful, but the appropriation available for this purpose should be
increased to at least $5,000 a year. Scientific books appear in steadily
increasing numbers and at a cost considerably in advance of that of a
few years ago, so that the money available for books is below our
actual needs. Stimulus to the scientific work in the National Museum
in the past few years is beginning to show im steadily increasing
amounts of manuscript for publication as the result of researches on
the part of the staff. There should be an increase in the funds for
printing and binding to allow this material to be published promptly,
in order that it may be made available for use by the many persons
interested.

As in previous years our existing appropriations are taken up so
largely with necessary routine expenditures that there is little money
available that may be used in exploration and field work in connec-
tion with the National Museum. Many friends and correspondents
now make large additions to our collections annually, and the Smith-
sonian Institution, from its private income, provides funds that are
used in an exploration program of considerable importance. The
Museum, however, should have in its appropriation adequate funds
that would enable it to develop various field researches along logical
and continuing lines.

24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931
ADDITIONS TO THE NATURAL HISTORY BUILDING

In the report for last year there was a discussion of the Smoot-
Elliott bill authorizing the extension of the Natural History Build-
ing by adding wings at the east and west ends at a cost of $6,500,000,
which was approved by the President on June 19, 1930. As men-
tioned above, the second deficiency bill for 1931 carried $10,000 for
the preparation of preliminary plans for these additions. The Allied
Architects Incorporated, of Washington, D. C., have been selected by
the executive committee of the Smithsonian Institution to prepare
preliminary plans which will be ready for consideration at the time
this report is published. Briefly it is planned to add to the present
building so that it will extend through the available space from
Ninth Street to Twelfth Street, the additional construction to dupli-
cate in general arrangement the present building, with the ground
floor and third floor devoted to offices and laboratories and the two
intermediate floors given over to exhibits. In so far as modern
advances in museum design are found applicable to our needs, they
will be incorporated in the plans, and various facilities not at present
available will be arranged. It is desired to so schedule the appro-
priations covering this important matter that funds for the com-
mencement of this work will be provided in the bill for the coming
fiscal year. Delay will be highly embarrassing, since our collections
in natural history have increased to a point where exhibition and
laboratory space is now badly crowded, and under present conditions
we must at times make refusal of valuable material that should be in
the national collections. In recent years various expedients to pro-
vide more space have been adopted, until now we have reached our
limit of resources without additional construction. It will be
observed in further paragraphs of this report that additions to the
exhibition and study collections contained in the Natural History
Building in the present fiscal year have reached the vast number of
nearly 1,000,000 specimens.

If the building program indicated can be carried out at this time
there will be provided adequate quarters for the natural history col-
lections. It must not be overlooked, however, that consideration
must soon be given to further construction to house our highly
valuable materials in arts and industries and in history.

COLLECTIONS

Additions to the collections of the National Museum during the
fiscal year reached the total of 1,022,850 individual specimens, the
major part of these coming, as in previous years, to the department of
biology. The additions are far in excess of those of any previous

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 20

year in the history of the Museum and include individual specimens
and collections of high value and great importance. Materials of
various kinds received for examination and report during the year
amounted to 1,297 lots, including many thousands of separate speci-
mens. Gifts of duplicate materials to schools and other educational
organizations included 7,384 specimens, while exchanges of dupli-
cate materials with other institutions and individuals amounted to
33,471 specimens, for which there was received in return material
needed for our collections. Loans to scientific workers outside of
Washington amounted to 31,516 specimens.

Following is a digest of the more important accessions for the
year in the various departments and divisions of the Museum.

Anthropology—Alaska again has yielded most important acces-
sions to the department of anthropology, the material coming
through explorations financed by the Smithsonian Institution.
Doctor Hrdlicka this year visited the Kuskokwim Valley, the
Alaska Peninsula, and adjacent islands, obtaining valuable materials
from a region that so far has not been represented in our collections.
Work was continued on St. Lawrence Island by Henry B. Collins, jr.,
who secured additional collections of value in connection with his
previous materials from this area. Through our continuing pro-
gram of exploration the Museum now possesses the most complete
and valuable collection in existence of the ancient ivory culture of
the Bering Sea region.

Of equal importance in this department has been the bequest of
the American Indian collection of the late Victor J. Evans, of Wash-
ington. This collection, deposited by the executors of the Evans
estate, Mrs. Victor J. Evans and Arthur L. Evans, numbers approx-
imately 5,000 specimens, comprising costumes, weapons of war and
the chase, pottery, basketry, domestic implements, oil paintings, and
other valuable materials illustrative of the life of the American
Indian, many of the objects being now impossible of duplication.

A further collection from west Africa was received as a gift from
C. C. Roberts, this material representing the native tribes of Ashanti,
Benin, and the Gold and Ivory Coasts. The Carnegie Institution of
Washington presented a miniature plaster model of the stucco-
covered Pyramid E-VII sub at Uaxactun in Guatemala, the oldest
known example of Mayan architecture. Under the Bruce Hughes
fund of the Smithsonian Institution there were obtained various
antiquities from Mesopotamia and Persia for exhibition. As a gift
from His Majesty George V of England there has come a chenille
Axminster carpet made in 1851.

Textiles, and bone, wood, and stone implements from caves in
northeastern Arizona occupied by prehistoric Basket Maker and

26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Pueblo peoples were presented by Charles L. Bernheimer, of New
York City. The Archeological Society of Washington deposited a
collection of flint and bone implements from caves near Sergeac, Dor-
dogne, France, collected in 1930 during work of the American
School of Prehistoric Research. A series of stone artifacts recovered
at Monasukapanough, a prehistoric Indian village in Albemarle
County, Va., was presented by D. I. Bushnell, jr.

Biology—The most important accession in the department of
biology, and one of the most important from a scientific standpoint
that has come to the Museum in recent years, was the Barnes col-
lection of Lepidoptera, purchased by a special appropriation of
$50,000 to the Department of Agriculture and transferred by that
department to the National Museum. This collection, consisting
principally of moths and butterflies from North America, was
assembled by Dr. William Barnes, of Decatur, Ill., during a lifetime
of endeavor at an expense of several hundred thousand dollars, and
is rich in material of value to the specialist.

Dr. Paul Bartsch, curator of mollusks, traveling under the Walter
Rathbone Bacon scholarship of the Smithsonian Institution, ob-
tained extensive collections of mollusks from the West Indies. Ad-
ditional important specimens in several groups have come from the
field activities of Dr. David C. Graham in China and of Dr. Hugh
M. Smith in Siam. Large and interesting series of specimens of
various kinds were obtained by Dr. H. C. Kellers, United States
Navy, while a surgeon on the United States Naval Observatory eclipse
expedition to the island of Niuafoou in the Pacific, being the first
material to be received by the Museum from that area. The
National Geographic Society presented a large collection of birds,
mammals, reptiles, and plants obtained by E. G. Holt, as leader of
an expedition to the boundary region between Venezuela and Brazil.
Much of this collection represents species not found hitherto in the
national collections.

Doctor Wetmore, assisted by F. C. Lincoln, of the Biological Sur-
vey, obtained interesting collections, chiefly of birds and reptiles, in
Haiti and the Dominican Republic. A collection of 3,800 eggs and
12 nests of North American birds was presented by Gov. C. D. Buck,
of Delaware. A further collection of birds was obtained by Doctor
Wetmore in Spain during field work in the summer of 1930. The
division of birds received 16 genera new to its collections, as well as
330 species and subspecies not previously represented, a notable addi-
tion to these large collections. Two eggs of the California condor,
a species near extinction in the wild state, were received from the
National Zoological Park.

A large sailfish caught by Hon. William R. Wood near the island
of Sonora, Pear] Island group, Panama, was presented by Mr. Wood

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 27

to the Museum and has been mounted and placed on exhibition. It
is of maximum size and is far larger than any other in our collec-
tions. The Bureau of Fisheries, United States Department of Com-
merce, transferred a large collection of fishes, principally from
Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries.

Type specimens of annelids, sponges, sipunculid worms, and
crustacea were presented to the division of marine invertebrates,
while 114 types of helminths from Prof. Edward Linton, and the
entire collection of Dr. W. G. MacCallum, of Johns Hopkins Hos-
pital, with various other type specimens from collaborators, were
added to the section of helminths.

Large collections of grasses from Japan, Madagascar, and else-
where were transferred by the Department of Agriculture. A large
series of specimens of cultivated plants came from the Brooklyn
Botanic Garden.

Geology.—Thirty-two mineral species new to the collections were
obtained during the year, mainly through purchase under the
Roebling fund. There were obtained also under this fund a large
mass of native silver and calcite estimated to contain 220 pounds of
pure silver, and a section of a vein of similar material carrying 190
pounds of silver from the Keely mine in the cobalt district of
Ontario, a large cut black diamond weighing 8.97 carats for the
exhibition series, and the fossilized vertebra of an extinct reptile of
large size that has been changed in fossilization to a fine quality of
precious opal, a most unusual specimen. There was included also a
flawless crystal of scapolite, said to be the largest crystal of this
mineral yet found, two bowlders of precious jade, and a tourmaline
weighing 4014 carats. The Chamberlain fund contributed to the
Isaac Lea collection three Mexican opals of unusual color, a green
tourmaline weighing 17.9 carats, five rubies from Siam, carved
articles of jade, coral, rose quartz, and carnelian, and other interest-
ing and valuable articles.

Specimens of nine meteorites, added to the collection through
exchange or purchase, include one complete iron weighing 23 pounds
from near Santa Fe, N. Mex., and other valuable examples. A com-
plete set of the potash minerals of the Carlsbad (N. Mex.) deposits
was secured with the assistance of Dr. W. T. Schaller through the
courtesy of the United States Potash Co. Silver, nickel, and cobalt
minerals and ores from various localities in Ontario were collected
during field work by the assistant curator of mineralogy. A set
of platinum ores from South Africa was obtained through the
cooperation of the Geological Survey of the Union of South Africa.

Dr. A. F. Foerste contributed a series of 1,000 invertebrate fossils
from the Silurian deposits of the Ohio Valley. Type material in
Foraminifera was presented by Dr. J. A. Cushman, Mr. John W.

28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Skinner, Mrs. F. B. Plummer, and Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan. Many
valuable specimens, particularly of fossil mammals, were obtained
from collections by C. W. Gilmore in the Eocene deposits of Wyo-
ming, among them being several nearly complete skeletons that will
eventually be mounted and placed on exhibition. There may be
mentioned especially a nearly complete skeleton of Hyrachyus, a
thinoceroslike animal about the size of a tapir, a nearly complete
skeleton of Orohippus, a small primitive horse, and two more or less
complete crocodile skeletons; 38 turtles were obtained belonging to
eight genera. Additional fossil horse material resulted from field
explorations near Hagerman, Idaho, under Dr. J. W. Gidley.

The collection of fossilized tracks of animals was augmented by
an unusually distinct dinosaur footprint from the Triassic of
Virginia, presented by F. C. Littleton, of Aldie, Va. Fossil bird
bones, types of new species described by Doctor Wetmore, were pre-
sented by Dr. E. L. Troxell, of Trinity College, Hartford, Conn.
To the exhibitions in the section of paleobotany there came a fine
example of a fossilized tree from near Natchitoches, La., presented
by George Williamson through the interest of Prof. E. W. Berry.

Arts and industries —An important accession in the aircraft sec-
tion was a series of objects illustrating the first use of aircraft for
military purposes in the United States, relating to captive balloons
used during the Civil War, the collection having come from Prof.
Thaddeus 8. C. Lowe, organizer of the first military balloon section
of the Federal Army. The airplane Bremen, the first heavier-than-
air craft to make a nonstop flight westward across the north Atlantic,
was deposited by the New York Museum of Science and Industry.
For the section of land transportation there was secured a coachee,
or light family carriage, made in Philadelphia about 1783 that there
is reason to believe was owned at one time by General Washington
at Mount Vernon. An original Concord stage coach was deposited
by Will Rogers and Fred Stone. The Philadelphia Electric Co.,
through its president, William H. Taylor, presented a model of a
section of the Conowingo hydroelectric generating station on the
Susquehanna River near Conowingo, Md. Another valuable acces-
sion was an original horizontal stationary steam engine built in 1864
in the shops of the United States Military Railroad Department at
Alexandria, Va., presented to the Museum by the Southern Railway
system. This engine was in operation for 58 years.

The Pepperell Manufacturing Co. presented a model exhibit cover-
ing the growth and manufacture of cotton. A number of interesting
examples of hand-woven textiles from several individuals included a
linen damask tablecloth woven in Vermont about 1780, the design
being an illustration of Independence Hall, Philadelphia. This was

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 29

presented by Mrs. Jennie Bancroft Alband. Dr. J. T. Lloyd pre-
sented a hand prescription balance used many years ago by
pharmacists.

In the section of wood technology there were added important col-
lections of woods from Jamaica collected by Gerrit S. Miller, jr.,
a set of woods from various localities obtained from the Field
Museum of Natural History in exchange, and a series of 132 kinds
of native woods presented by the Philippine Bureau of Forestry
through A. F. Fischer.

For the division of graphic arts there was obtained a miniature
book, The Gospel of St. Matthew, printed from 214-point type, the
smallest type that has ever been cast. The printed surface of the
page measures 15g by 11% inches and has approximately 540 words
to a page.

The trustees of the Stephen H. Tyng Foundation of England have
made the section of photography in the Smithsonian Institution
the depository for duplicate pictorial prints procured by the founda-
tion. The first installment of photographs from this source came
during the year and will be followed by others. The works chosen
are selected by the trustees of the foundation as representative
works of outstanding pictorial merit produced by the photographers
of any nation.

History.—tIn the antiquarian section a watch and a sword carried
during the French and Indian War by Capt. Jeremiah Marston, of
the British Army, were presented by Charles F. Clark. There came
also a chair owned by Benjamin Franklin, a chair of President
James Madison, a mahogany screen belonging to General Washing-
ton, and a cane made from a piece of one of the timbers of the
U.S. S. Constitution by bequest from James C. McGuire.

The aluminum transit used by Admiral Peary during his north
polar expedition in 1898 was received as a gift from Mrs. William
Porter Allen. A uniform worn during the Spanish-American war by
Maj. Gen. Leonard Wood was added to the collections as a gift by
Mrs. Leonard Wood. An exceptionally interesting series of military
uniforms and equipment was presented by the Rumanian Government
through Dr. Andrei Popovici, secretary of the Rumanian Legation.
A similar series of Turkish military arms and uniforms came as a
gift from the Turkish Government through the Turkish ambassador,
Ahmet Muhtar.

For the numismatic collection there were obtained examples of
current coins from the Governments of Estonia, Italy, Poland, and
the Cameroons. A set of coins from Palestine was presented by
P. Knabenshue, American consul general at Jerusalem. Numerous
other coins from a large number of countries were transferred by

30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

the Department of State. The United States Treasury Department
transferred to the national collections bronze copies of the gold
medal awarded by Congress to Col. Charles A. Lindbergh in recog-
nition of his services to the science of aeronautics and of the gold
medal awarded by the Congress to Lincoln Ellsworth for his trans-
polar flight in the dirigible Vorge in May, 1926. The philatelic
collections received 7,855 specimens during the year, the majority
having come by transfer from the Post Office Department.

CHANGES IN EXHIBITIONS

In the paleontological series of the Museum exhibition the most
important addition has been the installation of the large dinosaur
Diplodocus longus, collected at the Dinosaur National Monument,
Utah. This specimen as mounted in our halls measures more than
70 feet in length and stands 12 feet 5 inches high, with the head and
neck rising to a still greater height. The base has been so arranged
that at the shoulders and at the hips visitors may walk through
beneath the skeleton. This specimen, found embedded in a very
hard and difficult rock, has required nearly six years for preparation.

An important change in the historical series has been the transfer
of the costumes collection to a larger hall, where the cases containing
the series of dresses of wives of the Presidents are now installed in
a double row facing one another. ‘This collection is one of the most
popular in the Museum and shows to excellent advantage in the large
space now available for it.

The numismatic collections have been transferred to the smaller
room formerly occupied by the costumes, where the light is much
better, allowing the coin and medal series to be viewed more readily,
especially on days when artificial light is necessary. The philatelic
collection also has been moved to a location where it is much more
easily available.

EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD WORK

Field investigations carried on as usual throughout the year have
been concerned with a wide variety of interests, and though mainly
in the biological field, have included those researches concerned with
man and with fossil animals of various kinds, as well as with various
groups in botany and zoology. ‘The work has been financed princi-
pally through grants from the general income of the Smithsonian
Institution, assisted by contributions from interested individuals,
while certain projects were financed from special funds of the Insti-
tution. Limited assistance has been given from the annual govern-
mental appropriations of the National Museum, but aid from this
source has been relatively small and has concerned only a few of the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY ai

various projects. Additional money that may be used for researches
in the field is one of the principal needs of our organization.

A brief account of field work for the present year follows: During
the months of July, August, and September, the assistant curator
of ethnology, Henry B. Collins, jr., assisted by J. A. Ford, was
engaged in field work on St. Lawrence Island in Bering Sea,
in continuation of work begun earlier in the season. In 1928 and
1929 Mr. Collins’s excavations on Punuk and St. Lawrence Islands
revealed the existence of a prehistoric phase of Eskimo culture ances-
tral to the modern type of that region and derived apparently from
a still earlier phase, known to students as the old Bering Sea culture.
Stratigraphic excavations were made this year at Gambell and a long
succession of cultural changes was revealed in detail as one village
midden after another was trenched. Through this an excellent
chronology was established on the basis of stratigraphy, the evidence
of the old beach lines, and the demonstrable succession of art styles
on implements, principally harpoon heads of walrus ivory. Inci-
dental to this work Mr. Collins took occasion to secure an excellent
collection of birds from this island, the bird life of which has been
comparatively little known. The active interest of the Revenue Cut-
ter Service in this work continued and was of invaluable assistance,
particularly the transportation furnished on the cutter Vorthland to
areas otherwise inaccessible. Cooperation from this source has been
highly appreciated.

The curator of ethnology, Herbert W. Krieger, engaged in a recon-
naissance of an archeological nature in the Republic of Haiti, this
work being carried on from January to May, 1931, when the approach
of the rainy season brought it to a close. The present population
of Haiti has no history or tradition regarding the early Indian occu-
pants of the island, and is therefore of no assistance in locating
former Arawak or Ciboney village sites and kitchen middens, so that
one has to rely on Spanish and French narratives for the ethnologi-
cal and historical introduction useful in this work. The reconnais-
sance was highly successful in determining the distribution of former
Arawak and Ciboney village sites, and it was found that scattered
groups of each type occupied at different times much of the habitable
portions of the island. A check was made also on data from Spanisn
writers who gave differing accounts with regard to the former pres-
ence of a troglodytic population in the isolated mountains of the
southwestern peninsula.

As a further important result, this season’s investigations estab-
lished the identity of the Samana cave culture, investigated by a
Smithsonian expedition in 1928, with the large shell middens on Ile
4 Vache, on the Caribbean coast of Haiti. The same primitive, non-
agricultural, non-Arawak Ciboney apparently are also responsible

32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

for the large middens consisting primarily of conch shells (Strombus
gigas) recently discovered by Doctor Wetmore on Beata Island off
the southern coast of Barahona Province, Dominican Republic.
Cumulative evidence obtained during the current year and from
previous Smithsonian expeditions links the culture of the West
Indies with the Arawakan tribes of Venezuela and of the Guianas.
There is also data to show that there was no direct tribal contact of
these island Arawak with the tribes of southern Florida, although
culturally in many ways they were closely associated. There seems
to have been a vast overlapping of culture traits of the southeastern
United States from the south, these trait complexes centering about
the cultivation of maize and the production of pottery. In so far as
cassava (yucca) formed a staple food, the former aboriginal culture
traits are associated with those of the South American forested
tropical lowlands.

As in former years, the expedition headed by Mr. Collins was made
possible by a Smithsonian grant, while that of Mr. Krieger was
financed by Dr. W. L. Abbott.

From April 21 to June 6, 1931, the assistant curator of archeology,
I’. M. Setzler, was engaged in archeological investigations in Texas,
arranged in cooperation with the Bureau of American Ethnology
of the Smithsonian Institution. After briefly examining several
sites along the Gulf coast, he excavated four caves and one rock
shelter in Presidio County and visited several other caves in that
vicinity. Krom one large cave examples of aboriginal basketry,
matting, cradles, sandals, and other materials were recovered.
Although this site is only 150 miles east of a marginal Basket Maker
culture, no trace was found of these early Southwestern people. The
material exhumed by Mr. Setzler differs in some respects from any
other in the Museum, and more research will be required before it
can be identified definitely. He has prepared a preliminary report
on this field work.

Except for two weeks in October, 1930, J. Townsend Russell, jr.,
collaborator in Old World archeology, spent the year in Europe,
where he continued archeological studies and participated in the
excavations of the American School of Prehistoric Research at Castel
Merle, in the Dordogne, France, and in Czechoslovakia. Toward
the close of the fiscal year Mr. Russell was active in details looking
toward a cooperative undertaking with the University of Toulouse
for excavation of prehistoric sites in France, which will add de-
cidedly to the collections of the National Museum in a field from
which our Institution previously has had very little. These investi-
gations are financed by a special fund for work in Old World
archeology.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY S55)

Dr. Ale’ Hrdlicka, curator of physical anthropology, left in May
on a fourth expedition to Alaska, for the purpose of obtaining
measurements and, if possible, casts of the few remaining full-blood
Aleutians. He expected to work in the region of supposed contact
_ between the Eskimo, the Aleut, and the Indian, and to examine the
various mountain passes between Bering Sea and Cook Inlet and
the Gulf of Alaska, through which migrations of early man from
the Bering Sea area southward may have been possible.

Dr. Paul Bartsch, through the Walter Rathbone Bacon Traveling
Scholarship under the Smithsonian Institution, continued field work
in the West Indian islands in a study of the terrestrial molluscan
fauna of this area, completing a program of travel initiated two
years ago. This year efforts were focused on the southern Bahamas,
the islands off the south coast of Cuba, and the Cayman group. Doc-
tor Bartsch was accompanied by three assistants, Harold Cluttick, a
student of George Washington University; Ray Greenfield, who had
been with him two years ago in Cuba; and Alva G. Nye, jr., of Wash-
ington. Harold Peters of the Bureau of Entomology, also accom-
panied the party to collect specimens of avian parasites. The party
left Miami, Fla., on June 9, 1930, in the Zsland Home, a 33-ton, shal-
low-draft vessel. Work was carried through the islands and cays of
the southern Bahamas until August 6, and then the party explored
the wonderful molluscan fauna of Great Inagua Island, which
proved by far the richest of all the Bahamas. On reaching Guanta-
namo, Cuba, the /sland Home was pronounced unseaworthy, and an-
other boat the José Enrique, a 35-ton sloop with an auxiliary 22
horsepower gasoline engine, was chartered at Santiago. On August
28 the party continued through the keys along the south coast of
Cuba, and from September 10 to September 17 was occupied on Cay-
man Brac, Little Cayman, and Great Cayman islands. Sails were
then set for Cuba, and until September 24 the keys along the coast
from Cayo Largo to the Isle of Pines were searched. On Septem-
ber 29 the port of Batabano, Cuba, was reached and the collections
were shipped by rail to Habana. The expedition returned to Wash-
ington on October 3. This cruise yielded a larger amount of mollus-
can materia] than any of the previous trips, no less than 250,000
specimens of mollusks being secured, together with many observa-
tions on molluscan faunistic relations. Large collections in other
groups were also obtained, among them 925 bird skins and 596 rep-
tiles and amphibians, besides a number of live animals, principally
reptiles, for the National Zoological Park.

The Rev. David C. Graham, whose explorations in western
Szechwan, China, and the neighboring regions of Tibet, have
been a feature of these reports for many years, continued work near

34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Suifu, and forwarded to the National Museum large and important
collections numbering in all 62,000 specimens, the greater part con-
sisting of insects. His main trip during 1930 was an excursion into
the unknown and difficult country south of Tatsienlu.

Dr. J. M. Aldrich, in continuation of work which has extended
over a period of many years, spent part of June and July, 1930, in
making collections of Diptera in Idaho, Washington, California, and
Colorado. He visited many type localities, and his collections for
this season include a larger number of interesting forms than he has
obtained before in a like period in the United States.

Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt continued his investigations of the marine
fauna at the Carnegie Marine Biological Station, Tortugas, Fla.,
from July 9 to August 8, 1930, through the cooperation of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, undertaking this year a pre-
liminary investigation of the deeper water readily accessible to the
laboratory. Among the prizes brought back were three specimens
of the giant isopod Bathynomus, the largest specimen being 101%
inches long, and a new portunid crab of the genus Benthocascon, a
group heretofore known only from a single specimen taken in the
Andaman Sea, Indian Ocean.

Dr. H. C. Kellers, United States Navy, through the courtesy of
the Naval Observatory and the friendly cooperation of the Navy
Department, was again detailed to act as representative of the
Smithsonian Institution for the purpose of making biological collec-
tions during the United States Naval Observatory eclipse expedition
to Niuafoou, nicknamed “ 'Tin-can Island,” a partly submerged vol-
canic crater situated between Samoa and Fiji. His collections in-
clude 100 bird skins and over 7,000 alcoholic specimens of various
kinds.

Ernest G. Holt, under the auspices of the National Geographic
Society, continued explorations along the Venezuelan-Brazilian
boundary and returned with valuable collections, principally of birds,
reptiles, amphibians, and plants which have been presented to the
National Museum by the society. In the preliminary examination
of this material many forms not before represented in our collections
have been found. The material is particularly welcome, as the
Museum has previously had but little from this region.

Because of association in the work of the National Herbarium
it is proper to mention field investigations by Mrs. Agnes Chase, of
the Department of Agriculture, who collected in the Eastern Shore
region of Maryland for the purpose of studying the distribution of
certain coastal plain species of grasses, and by Jason R. Swallen,
who spent about three months in the region from Tennessee to Texas
and northeastern Mexico studying the ranges of grasses.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 35

Gerrit S. Miller, jr., visited Jamaica from February to April with
the special object of determining whether or not bones of rodents or
other mammals that are now extinct might be found in the village
middens of the pre-Columbian Arawaks. Several kitchen middens
were investigated and much material bearing on the food habits of
the aboriginal inhabitants was obtained. Miscellaneous collections
of various kinds also were made, particularly of plants, reptiles, and
Arawak artifacts.

Dr. A. Wetmore, accompanied by Frederick C. Lincoln, of the
Bureau of Biological Survey, collected from the middle of March
until the end of May in Haiti and the Dominican Republic, continu-
ing the biological survey of Hispaniola that has been under way
for several years. The first work was done in the region of Fort
Liberte in the north, where they were accompanied by S. W. Parish
and by M. W. Stirling, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
who were traveling with Mr. Krieger to examine archeological sites
that the latter had under investigation in that area. Returning to
Port-au-Prince, Doctor Wetmore, through the courtesy of the United
States Marine Corps, made a reconnaissance by airplane of the La
Hotte Mountains of southwest Haiti, securing information that gov-
erned later travel by pack train in this area and the ascent of Pic de
Macaya, the highest mountain in this complex. On arrival again
at the coast a visit was made to Ile a Vache to supplement collections
made there last year by the Parish expedition.

Returning to Port-au-Prince, Doctor Wetmore and Mr. Lincoln
traveled by auto through the mountains to Barahona, in the Domini-
can Republic, where they secured a small sloop and continued to
Beata Island, a little-known island where new forms of birds, rep-
tiles, and land shells were obtained and an extensive series of Indian
shell mounds was examined. Work in the Dominican Republic
was made possible through letters given by General Rafael Trujillo,
President of the Republic, to whom all thanks are due for this
invaluable assistance.

Edward P. Henderson, assistant curator of mineralogy, under the
auspices of the Roebling fund, spent a month in the well-known
silver and nickel camps of Ontario, Canada. Starting from Toronto,
he first visited the cobalt district, 300 miles to the north, where rich
silver masses and their associations were acquired. Sudbury, the
most important nickel district in the world, was next visited. Here
a quantity of nickel ore and its minerals was obtained. The pegma-
tite dikes of the Province at Bancroft yielded recently described
materials lacking in our collections. The hearty cooperation of the
mining companies, quarry owners, and the staff of the Royal Ontario
Museum of Mineralogy was largely responsible for the success of

102992—32——-4

36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

the trip. Later in the year Mr. Henderson made a brief trip to some
of the noted mineral localities in North Carolina to obtain material
needed for the study of particular problems.

Dr. C. E. Resser spent about four months in the field, working
first in the Grand Canyon, in Arizona, under the auspices of the Car-
negie Institution. The second phase of his work led diagonally
across the State of Arizona on a rapid reconnaissance, followed by a
return to the Grand Canyon for further studies. In this he was
accompanied by Dr. A. A. Stoyanow, of the University of Arizona,
and by members of the Park Service, who aided in his investigations.
Early in July, starting from Salt Lake City, where Dr. R. Endo
became a member of the party, work began on the local geology
about Delta, Utah, where the party was accompanied by Frank
Beckwith, with a profitable visit to Zion Canyon. Thence the course
lay north to the Tetons and other places in the vicinity of Yellow-
stone National Park. During investigations at those places, Dr.
and Mrs. Curt Teichert joined the party. Rain interfered mate-
rially with travel and work; and since matters of moment requiring
attention arose at the Museum, work was closed for the season.
Travel from Salt Lake City was by truck, the entire trip home being
made by this means. The season as a whole was most profitable
in the knowledge gained of the various geologic strata, although not
many fossils were secured, as the strata studied are for the most part
nonfossiliferous.

Since the field exploration in charge of C. W. Gilmore extended
into the present year, but brief mention was made of it in last year’s
report. This exploration in the Bridger (Hocene), in the Bridger
Basin, southwestern Wyoming, met with unusual success in the
acquisition of large and representative collections. Some of the
outstanding specimens have been mentioned elsewhere in this report.
The collection as a whole gives the division a good representation of
the Bridger fauna and in all probability contains many undescribed
forms, being particularly rich in mammals. Its value was further
enhanced by the cooperation of Dr. W. H. Bradley, of the United
States Geological Survey, who secured the necessary data for a
large-scale map, which, with his geological sections, insures the ac-
curate placing of the specimens both geographically and geologically.
George F. Sternberg, as in previous seasons, rendered efficient serv-
ice, and George B. Pierce ably assisted as field assistant. At the
close of the fiscal year Mr. Gilmore, again accompanied by Mr.
Sternberg, was in the field in Montana and Wyoming.

Although work at the fossil locality near Hagerman, Idaho, was
very successful in the season of 1929, the results of the 1930 expedi-
tion under Dr. J. W. Gidley exceeded it in both quantity and quality,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY ot

as some of the best material found in the deposit was obtained near
the close of operations. Camp was established early in May and
work was begun where operations had closed the previous season.
Two months’ additional work fully confirmed the opinion that this
fossil bone deposit is one of the most important discoveries in the
field of vertebrate paleontology in recent years. Associated with
the abundant horse remains were found bones of beaver, otter,
mastodon, peccary, and others. The collecting for the season was
brought to a close early in July, but the field was still so promising
that a third expedition was undertaken in the spring of 1931, under
N. H. Boss, chief preparator in the division of vertebrate paleon-
tology. This party was still in the field at the close of the fiscal year
so that its results will come properly in the report for next year.

BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT

Usual routine repairs have been necessary in connection with the
buildings of the National Museum to keep them in proper condition.
In the Natural History Building the auditorium was painted, as
were also the corridors surrounding it. A considerable amount of
painting was done in ranges in halls on the first and second floors,
many of which had not been painted since the completion of the
building nearly 20 years ago. Metal and wooden window frames
were painted, as were also the walls and floors of the engine room.
A revolving door was installed at the north entrance, a needed
improvement particularly in the winter season.

Steel galleries were erected in two ranges on the ground floor and
in certain adjacent rooms that provide housing for the study collec-
tions of mammals which have been stored temporarily in two exhibi-
tion halls on the second floor. Necessary plans and specifications for
this work were prepared by the engineering division of the Office
of Public Buildings and Public Parks. The work of erection of the
galleries began on April 15, 1931, and was well along toward comple-
tion at the close of the fiscal year.

In the Arts and Industries Building various exhibition halls were
reconditioned during rearrangement of some of the exhibits, and the
women’s comfort room was enlarged and remodeled. In the Aircraft
Building a sprinkler system and other fire safeguards were installed.
The building was repainted within and without and a concrete base
was built at the bottom of the sloping sides around the entire
exterior.

In the rooms occupied by the National Museum in the Smithsonian
Building walls and ceilings in 12 rooms in the division of plants were
repainted, and insulating material to control excess summer heat and

38 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

excess heat ra(liation in winter was installed in the ceiling in the
main herbarium hall.

The power plant was in operation from September 29, 1930, until
May 27, 19381. The consumption of coal during the year was 3,329
tons, at an average cost per ton of $5.65. The amount required was
somewhat less than that of last year, due primarily to the mild winter,
and secondarily to the fact that some of our electric current was
purchased from the Potomac Electric Power Co., thus relieving the
load on the boilers at such times as all of the exhaust steam was not
needed for heating the Natural History Building. The Steamboat
Inspection Service has examined the boilers and tb> elevators have
been regularly inspected by the District of Columbia inspector. The
total electric current produced amounted to 613,000 kilowatt-hours,
manufactured at a cost of 1.78 cents per kilowatt-hour, including
interest on the plant, depreciation, repairs, and material. In addi-
tion electric current to the amount of 73,250 kilowatt-hours was pur-
chased and used in the exhibition halls of the Arts and Industries
Building. Needs for electrical current are steadily increasing, par-
ticularly to provide favorable lighting in our exhibition halls during
dark days in winter, and increased purchases will be required in the
future.

The ice plant manufactured 406.8 tons of ice, at an average cost
of $).67 per ton, a reduction from the expense for the previous year.
With the plant operating at full capacity it is not practicable at the
present time to manufacture the entire amount of ice required during
the hottest weather of summer, so that it is necessary to purchase a
certain amount at that time.

During the year 20 exhibition cases and bases, 489 pieces of storage,
laboratory, and other furniture, and 1,667 drawers of various kinds
were added, the greater part of these being manufactured in our
shops.

MEETINGS AND RECEPTIONS

The lecture rooms and auditorium were used during the present
year for 103 meetings, covering the usual wide range of activities.
Government agencies that utilized these facilities for hearings, meet-
ings, lectures, and other special occasions included the Bureau of
Agricultural Economics, the Plant Quarantine and Control Adminis-
tration, the Forest Service, the Bureau of Dairy Industry of the
Department of Agriculture, and the United States Public Health
Service. In addition a meeting was arranged by the Director of
Scientific Work of the Department of Agriculture for an address
by Dr. Samuel C. May, of the University of California, on the work-
ings of the Government. There were various conferences held from

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 39

June 16 to 23 in connection with the Fifth National Farm Girls
and Boys 4-H Club Camp. The Department of Agriculture Grad-
uate Schoo] also utilized the auditorium for an address by Dr. R. A.
Fischer, of the Rothamsted Experiment Station, on statistics. The
scientific societies that met regularly in the auditorium or small
lecture room included the Vivarium Society, the Entomological
Society of Washington, the Society for Philosophical Inquiry, the
Anthropological Society of Washington, and the Helminthological
Society of Washington. Meetings were also held by the Wild Flower
Preservation Society (Inc.), the Audubon Society of the District
of Columbia, the Biological Society of Washington, and the Potomac
Garden Club.

The National Association of Retired Federal Employees held
regular meetings during the year, and there was one meeting of the
Smithsonian Relief Association. The National League of Com-
mission Merchants met on December 17 under the auspices of the
Bureau of Agricultural Economics for the purpose of explanation
of the provisions of the recently enacted perishable agricultural
commodities act. The Maryland-Virginia Farmers’ Marketing Asso-
ciation met on February 12 to discuss plans for a farmers’ market.
Dr. Arthur A. Allen, of Cornell University, lectured on February
23 before the Audubon Society of the District of Columbia on
native birds and their advantages on golf courses. Dr. Raymond
L. Ditmars lectured before the Biological Society of Washington on
February 28 on reptiles.

The American College of Physicians during its fifteenth annual
clinical session met in the auditorium on March 28 for an address
by Dr. AleS Hrdli¢ka on the diseases of the human race.

On April 13 there was held the eighth national and sixth inter-
national oratorical contest for the Evening Star area for contestants
from private and parochial schools of Washington. This was fol-
lowed on May 8 by the second zone finals for the same contest.

On April 28 the Bureau of Dairy Industry, United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, held a meeting of the International Association
of Milk Dealers. On May 18 the Carnegie Institution of Washington
arranged an address by Sir James H. Jeans, of the Royal Society of
London, on Out in the Depths of Space. On May 19 there was an
address by Dr. M. A. Crossman, of the Republic Research Corpora-
tion on Nitriding before the metallurgical advisory committee of the
Bureau of Standards and the Washington-Baltimore Chapter of the
American Society for Steel Treating.

The seventh annual national spelling bee was held in the audi-
torium on May 26, when the first prize of $1,000 was won by Ward
Randall, of White Hall, Ill.

40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931
MISCELLANEOUS

The exhibition halls of the National Museum were open during
the year on week days from 9 a. m. to 4.30 p. m., except that the Air-
craft Building, as has been noted, was closed for repairs for eight
months during the year. Our Museum halls were also open on Sun-
day afternoons from 1.80 p. m. to 4.30 p. m., with the exception of
the Aircraft Building. All buildings remained closed during the
day on Christmas and on New Year’s.

The flags on the Smithsonian and Museum Buildings were placed
at half mast from 1.15 p. m. April 9 through April 11, out of respect
for the late Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Hon. Nicho-
las Longworth. During the forenoon of Memorial Day the flags
also were held at half-mast. Visitors for the year totaled 1,669,140,
a decrease of a little more than 230,000 from the record of the pre-
ceding year, this difference being due partly to the fact that the Air-
craft, Building was closed for a considerable part of this period.
Attendance in the several buildings in the National Museum was
recorded as follows: Smithsonian Institution, 258,616; Arts and In-
dustries Building, 731,186; Natural History Building, 631,498; Air-
craft Building, 47,840. The average daily attendance for week days
was 4,452, and for Sundays 5,472.

During the year the Museum published 7 volumes and 41 separate
papers, while the distribution of literature amounted to 86,680 copies
of its various books and pamphlets. Additions to the Museum
library, obtained partly by exchange, partly by donation, and partly
by purchase, included 2,528 volumes and 832 pamphlets, an increase
over those of the previous year. The library of the National Museum,
as separate from that of the Smithsonian Institution proper, now
contains 79,407 volumes and 109,129 pamphlets. Much progress was
mede during the year in the arrangement and cataloguing of these
collections, not only in the main libraries but also in the 36 sectional
libraries of the organization. Duplicate volumes in our series have
been assembied and many have been distributed to other organiza-
tions, either as gifts or as exchanges.

On March 5, 1931, John E. Graf was appointed associate director
of the National Museum under the assistant secretary. Mr. Graf
came to the Museum by transfer from the Department of Agricul-
ture, where he had long been connected with the administration of
the Bureau of Entomology, in recent years as assistant chief.

In the department of anthropology the former divisions of Ameri-
can archeology and of Old World archeology were consolidated on
February 1, 1930, as a division of archeology, under Neil M. Judd
as curator.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 41

On February 1, 1981, Dr. A. J. Olmsted, chief photographer, was
appointed assistant curator of the section of photography under the
division of graphic arts.

Frank M. Setzler was appointed assistant curator of the division
of archeology, August 16, 1980, and Gustav A. Cooper, assistant
curator in the division of stratigraphic paleontology on October
20, 1930.

Following the retirement of Dr. Marcus Benjamin, Paul H. Oehser
was appointed Museum editor on April 16, by transfer from the
Department of Agriculture. Miss Gladys O. Visel was transferred
on March 1 from the National Gallery of Art to become clerk in
the Museum editorial office, and Frank W. Bright, of the Govern-
ment Printing Office, on March 2 succeeded J. C. Proctor, retired,
as compositor in the branch printing office of the Museum. Effective
March 1, 1931, the editorial work of the entire Institution was
consolidated in one central office under W. P. True, editor of the
Smithsonian Institution.

January 1, 1931, Lester E. Commerford became assistant chief in
the office of correspondence and documents.

The following employees left the service through operation of the
retirement act: Dr. Marcus Benjamin, editor, on January 81, 1931,
after a service begun April 1, 1896. During Doctor Benjamin’s in-
cumbency there were published under his editorship 31 annual
reports, 59 volumes of proceedings, and 106 bulletins, many of the
latter in several volumes, a long and remarkable record. John
Claggett Proctor, printer, retired February 28, 1981, after a service
of 46 years.

On August 31, 1930, the following left the service through opera-
tion of the retirement act: Dr. James E. Benedict, assistant curator
in the department of biology, after over 49 years of active service in
many varied fields in the Museum, particularly with regard to our
exhibits in biology; Miss Nelhe H. Smith, clerk in the administration
office since April, 1890; J. W. Scollick, osteologist since July, 1884;
John S. Prescott, electrician since January, 1896; William O. Murray,
skilled laborer, after 11 years’ service. John M. Mohl, electrician’s
helper, was retired on March 31 after over 83 years of service.
Jerome Patterson, watchman, was retired for disability on June 17,
1930. Through death the Museum lost three workers from its active
roll, Miss Narcissa Owen Smith, January 31, 1931; Paul Schilke,
watchman, on January 1, 1931; and Robert L. Belt, watchman, on
February 4, 1931.

From its honorary list of workers the Museum lost by death Isobel
H. Lenman, honorary collaborator in ethnology, on February 3, 1931.

42 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Dr. Frank Wigglesworth Clarke, honorary curator of mineralogy
since December, 1883, died May 23, 1931. There may be mentioned
further the death on November 2, 1930, of Dr. Oliver Perry Hay,
internationally known for his work on paleontology, who, though
never officially attached to the staff, carried on his researches in the
Museum for nearly a quarter of a century.
Respectfully submitted.
ALEXANDER WETMORE,

Assistant Secretary.
Dr. C. G. Axgor,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 2
REPORT ON THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART

Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith my report on the opera-
tions of the National Gallery of Art for the fiscal year ending June
30, 1931:

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE ART COLLECTIONS

In 1920 the art collections of the Institution, so far as they had
been assigned to the care of the recently established National Gallery
of Art, were installed in the central skylighted hall of the new
Natural History Building of the National Museum. ‘This hall
extends from the rotunda on the south to the north front of the
building, the windows of which look down on Constitution Avenue.
Permanent screens were introduced in this hall affording excellent
hanging space for the paintings. The disposition then made of the
numerous groups of art works has been changed from time to time
and important groups have been added. During the 10 years that
have passed slight record of the placement of these collections has
been kept, and it may be advisable to indicate here briefly the present
distribution.

The Harriet Lane Johnston collection, an early bequest of great
value, comprising paintings and historical documents, is installed in
the northwest long room of this hall. Across the hallway from
this collection, occupying the northeast long room, is the Ralph Cross
Johnson gift of rare European old masters, presented in 1919.

Distributed through a number of rooms, including the large cen-
tral gallery, are numerous groups of works by our American masters.
Prominent among these is the great gift of 152 paintings, represent-
ing 106 artists, by Wiliam T. Evans, of New York. The Alfred
Duane Pell collection of art objects of varied types and much inter-
est is accommodated in the north extension and hallway at the north
end of the hall. A number of the larger works of both paintings and
sculptures are installed in available spaces in the rotunda.

On the ground and first floors are several groups of historical
paintings. First among these is the group of World War portraits.
Shortly after the close of the World War a number of Americans
organized a national art committee, the purpose of which was to ob-
tain portraits for the National Gallery of Art of a number of dis-
tinguished leaders of the allied forces. Entering this hall from the

43

44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

north the visitor finds himself face to face with many of the out-
standing personages of the great war—kings, queens, presidents, sol-
diers, statesmen, and others—whose faces and achievements are fa-
milar to the peoples of every civilized. nation.

Occupying the walls of a large room on the second floor is the
collection of portraits of survivors of the Civil War painted from
life by Walter Beck 50 years after the close of the war. Associated
with this group are two other World War groups, the John Elliott
collection of portraits of young Americans who entered the air service
of France before the United States had decided to take part in the
war, many of these losing their lives in the struggle; and a very
interesting collection of sketches of prominent World War person-
ages made by John C. Johansen for use in executing his great work,
the “Signing of the Peace Treaty, June 28, 1919,” now occupying
the west wall of the lobby. In the lobby are assembled also numer-
ous busts and other works of sculpture, while a number of paintings
embellish available spaces on the walls of the stairway. The Freer
collection, the most important single unit of the gallery’s possessions,
occupies a commodious building immediately west of the Smith-
sonian provided by the donor. The recently acquired Gellatly col-
lection of art works of wide scope and great value is retained, as
originally installed by the donor, in the Heckscher Building, New
York City, due to lack of gallery space in Washington; while the
large collection of drawings by John S. Sargent (1856-1925), a gift
from his sisters Miss Emily Sargent and Mrs. Violet Ormond, re-
main in storage at the Corcoran Gallery of Art for the same reason.

THE GALLERY COMMISSION

The tenth annual meeting of the National Gallery of Art Commis-
sion was held in the Regents’ room of the Smithsonian Institution
at 10.30 o’clock, December 9, 1930. The members present were: Gari
Melchers, chairman; Frank J. Mather, jr., vice chairman; W. H.
Holmes, secretary; Herbert Adams, James E. Fraser, J. H. Gest,
John E. Lodge, Charles Moore, E. W. Redfield, and Dr. Charles G.
Abbot, ex officio.

The minutes of the last annual meeting, held December 10, 1929,
were read and approved. The annual report of the secretary of the
commission reviewing the activities of the gallery for the calendar
year 1930 was read and accepted.

After careful inspection, a portrait of Commodore Stephen De-
catur, by Gilbert Stuart, bequeathed to the National Gallery by the
late William Decatur Parsons, and an enamel watch by Loulinie &
Legandroy, Geneva, Switzerland, bequeathed to the Institution by
Miss Charlotte Arnold H. Bryson, were accepted by the commission.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 45
THE ABNEY BEQUEST

Doctor Abbot made the following statement: Under the will of
Mrs. Mary Lloyd Pendleton Abney, of New York, dated May 16,
1928, the following bequest is made:

Clause—

Seventh. To the National Gallery, at Washington, D. C., heretofore known
as the Corcoran Gallery, I give and bequeath the four Key family portraits
said to have been painted by Peter Lilly and Godfrey Kneller, to wit, portraits
of Mrs. John Zouch (Lady Zouch); Michael Arnold; Ann Arnold, wife of
Michael Arnold and daughter of Thomas Knipe; and Susan Gardner, the
mother of John Ross; and I give and bequeath also the portrait of Mary
Tayloe Lloyd, wife of my grandfather, Francis Scott Key, painted by Godfrey
Kneller, and her miniature, painted by Robert Field; the Key table, and two
chairs which were used by Francis Seott Key; the Lloyd mahogany table and
four old chairs and old knocker from the Francis Scott Key house, which was
at Georgetown, by the Arlington Bridge, now known as the Key Bridge. * * *

(Note by the executrix: Mrs. Abney, while living donated and delivered to
others the furniture mentioned in clause 7, and the “old knocker” was not
found among her effects.)

[Doctor Abbot, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, has been
informed by Mrs. Jane F. Brice, the sister and executrix of Mrs.
Abney, that the Corcoran Gallery has executed waiver to any right
it might have to the bequest, and the matter was presented by her
to the director of the National Gallery, with the oral request, by
her husband, to have the National Gallery also execute a waiver of
its rights.

The matter was laid before the permanent committee of the Board
of Regents. Having in mind the probable value and interest of the
objects, both from the artistic and historical standpoints, and in
view of the national character of the gallery, the committee did not
feel that on the ex parte statements of the executrix, who is also
the residuary legatee under the will, they could waive any rights
that the gallery might have, without a proper adjudication of the
matter, and so informed Mrs. Brice. The matter is now before the
court. |

THE RANGER COLLECTION

At the request of the chairman, James E. Fraser read a report
that had been made to the council of the National Academy regard-
ing the selection of the Ranger pictures to be retained by the
National Gallery.

After full discussion in which it developed that the commission
was not to be asked to take any official action, Mr. Gest submitted
the following resolution, which was adopted:

Resolved, That the thanks of the commission be tendered Mr. Fraser for his

comprehensive statement and that the paper be included in the records of this
meeting as a matter of information.

46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

THE WASHINGTON BICENTENNIAL CELEBRATION

Herbert Adams brought up the matter of the Washington bicenten-
nial celebration planned for 1932, saying that the Sculpture Society
had suggested a comprehensive scheme for the exhibition of paintings
and sculptures pertaining to Washington. The matter was discussed
at some length, and Mr. Moore stated that the Bicentennial Commis-
sion had this matter in hand and that the commission would probably
address a letter to the secretary of the Institution on the subject.

ELECTIONS

The secretary was directed to cast a ballot for the reelection of
Gari Melchers, chairman; Prof. F. J. Mather, jr., vice chairman; and
William H. Holmes, secretary.

The secretary called attention to the fact that the terms of three
members of the commission would expire on December 14. Mr.
Fraser submitted the following resolution which was adopted:

Resolved, That the commission recommend to the Board of Regents the
reelection for the succeeding term of four years of the following members:
Herbert Adams, Gari Melchers, and Charles Moore.

There being no further business to come before the meeting, the
commission adjourned at 12 o’clock.

EXHIBITIONS HELD IN THE GALLERY

1. A collection of 78 masterly water colors of Asiatic, European,
and American Indian subjects, by William Spencer Bagdatopoulos,
the Greek-English artist, was shown in the two northern small rooms
of the gallery October 30 to December 22, 1930. A catalogue was
supplied by the gallery.

2. A memorial exhibition of water colors of Egyptian, Greek,
French, Italian, and English subjects, by Henry Bacon, was installed
in the large middle room of the gallery March 14 to April 30, 1931.
The collection proved of exceptional interest. A catalogue was sup-
plied by the gallery.

3. The fortieth annual exhibition of the Society of Washington
Artists, the second held in the gallery, occupied the walls in the
central group of rooms, main floor of the gallery, February 1 to
March 1, 1931. The exhibition included 162 paintings and 21 works
of sculpture and received flattering public attention. An illustrated
catalogue was supplied by the society.

THE GALLERY CATALOGUE

Two catalogues of the art collections of the Institution have been
published as Bulletin 70 of the United States National Museum, the
first edition in 1906 and the second in 1916, by Richard Rathbun,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 47

assistant secretary of the Institution, and two catalogues of the Na-
tional Gallery of Art, the first edition in 1922 and the second in 1926,
by the director.

During the year the director has devoted his energies largely to
the preparation of a comprehensive catalogue of the art works of
the Institution, giving especial attention to works of painting and
sculpture. This catalogue does not include the wide range of minor
art works usually included in museums of art; and since no definite
line has yet been drawn between assignments to the gallery and those
that properly pertain to the Museum, the limits of the catalogue
must remain indefinite.

The form of the catalogue has received very especial attention.
The cards used measure 8 by 101% inches, corresponding thus to the
standard manuscript sheets of the Institution. Each unit or card of
the catalogue comprises two somewhat rigid sheets, one devoted to a
record of the source of the work and to the biography of the artist
and the other to a picture of the work itself. Some 600 cards are
now completed. The portrait group comprises about one-third of
this number. These are separately assembled owing to the anticipa-
tion that the Institution may find it possible, in the near future, to
organize a national portrait gallery, and possibly at least to print
separately this portion of the catalogue of the art works of the
Institution.

Portraits of several types are included in the catalogue approxi-
mately as follows:

1. Oil paintings.
2. Water colors.
38. Pastel and related technique.
4. Engravings.
5. Sculpture.

PROFESSOR HOLMES AND THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

It may not seem out of place, since the director’s official life is
nearing its close, to record here briefly his connection with the Smith-
sonian Institution. Just 60 years ago he entered the north door of
the Institution an entire stranger and proceeded to sketch a bril-
lhantly colored bird installed in one of the Museum cases. He was
observed at this work, and as a result was soon engaged in drawing
natural history specimens for the resident professors. In 1872 he
was appointed artist to the survey of the Territories and took part
in the survey of the Yellowstone region. In 1874 he was appointed
assistant geologist on the survey then working in Colorado and has
found his services continuously called for in the fields of both science
and art. Advancing step by step and from yea to year in both
branches, he finds himself to-day a member of the National Academy

48 ANNU4L REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

of Sciences and Director of the National Gallery of Art. His varied
activities in these fields are recorded in upward of 50 annual reports
made to the departments with which he served.

ART WORKS RECEIVED DURING THE YEAR

Accessions of art works by the Smithsonian Institution, subject to
transfer to the National Gallery on approval of the advisory com-
mittee of the National Gallery of Art Commission, are as follows:

Portrait statue (heroic size, full length) of Col. Archibald Gracie,
4th, hero of the Titanic disaster, 1914, by Louise Kidder Sparrow.
Gift of Mrs. Archibald Gracie, 4th.

Portrait of Commodore Stephen Decatur by Gilbert Stuart; be-
queathed to the Smithsonian Institution for the National Gallery of
Art by the late William Decatur Parsons. (Accepted by the com-
mission December 9, 1930.)

Portrait of Henry Ward Ranger by Albert Niehuys (Dutch
artist) ; presented by Frederick Ballard Williams, N. A.

Original plaster bust of Abraham Lincoln (heroic size) from
which was cast the bronze bust erected at the National Cemetery,
Gettysburg, Pa., by Henry K. Bush-Brown; gift of the sculptor.
This bust has been in the gallery for several years as a loan.

A group of three wood-gravure tablets engraved directly from life
and nature by Macowin Tuttle: Portrait of a Lady, Snowbound
(winter landscape), and Spring Brook (spring landscape). Gift of
Mr. Tuttle.

Painting entitled “ Late Afternoon, the Alcazar, at Segovia, one
of the picturesque medieval castles of Spain,” by Wells M. Sawyer.
Gift of the artist.

Marble bust of William H. Seward, made in Rome in 1871 by
Giovannie Maria Benzoni (1809-1873), “as a gift in memory of his
daughter, Olive Risley Seward”; also the framed oil painting by
Emanuel Leutze (1816-1868), sketch from which he made the fresco
in the Capitol Building at Washington, D. C., known as “ Westward
the Course of Empire Takes its Way,” and presented to William H.
Seward by the artist. Bequest of Miss Sara Carr Upton.

Portrait of William Henry Holmes, first director of the National
Gallery of Art, by William Spencer Bagdatopoulos in 1929; presented
by the artist.

LOANS ACCEPTED BY THE GALLERY

Painting by Bonifaccio entitled “Supper at Emmaus”; lent by
Benjamin Warder Thoron, of Washington, D. C., through Mrs.
Henry Leonard.

Portrait of Henry Ward Ranger, N. A., by Alphonse Jongers,
N. A.; lent by the Council of the National Academy of Design, New
York, N.Y.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 49

Fifteen paintings by British and Dutch masters; lent by Cleve-
land Perkins, Esq., Miss Ruth Perkins, and Mrs. Miriam Perkins
Carroll, executors of the estate of the late Henry Cleveland Perkins,
as follows:

Portrait of a Boy, by John Hoppner, R. A.

Henry, First Earl of Mulgrave, by Sir Thomas Lawrence, P. R. A.
Portrait of a Dutch Lady, by Michael Janson Mierevelt.
Portrait of a Dutch Girl, by P. Moreelse.

Portrait of a Girl, by John Opie, R. A.

Frances, Countess of Clermont, by Sir Joshua Reynolds.
The Windmill, by Salomon Ruysdael.

Study of Ruins, by Richard Wilson.

Study of Ruins, by Richard Wilson.

Landscape, by Richard Wilson.

Landseape with Cottage, by Meindert Hobbema.
Madonna and Child, by Van Dyck (attributed to).
Portrait of a Dutch Girl, by Jan Victoors.

A Gentleman, by Sir William Beechey, R. A.

A Cottage Scene, by Ladbrooke.

Five paintings by old masters; lent by Mrs. Marshall Langhorne,
Washington, D. C., as follows:
Holy Family, by M. Albertinelli.
Head of Christ, by Giorgioni (attributed to).
The Doctor’s Visit, by Jan Steen.
Baptism of Christ, by G. B. Tiepolo.
Small landscape, by Thomas Gainsborough.

Portrait of George Washington, by Charles Willson Peale; lent
by William Patten, of Rhinebeck, N. Y., to be cared for until used
by the George Washingion Bicentennial Commission.

A Sevres porcelain statuette, by Paul Dubois, entitled “ Le Cour-
age Militaire”; lent by the Hon. Hoffman Philip, United States
minister to Norway.

A painting, Madonna and Child, by Andrea del Sarto; lent by
Mrs. W. W. Powell, Washington, D. C.

A pastel, A Madonna and Child, conception of F. D. McCreary,
executed by Pastelist Bryson, of Chicago, Ill.; lent by Mrs. B. S.
Willams, of Knoxville, Tenn.

Usual loans of paintings for the summer months are:

Portrait of George Washington, by Rembrandt Peale; lent by the
Hon. Charles S. Hamlin, Washington, D. C.

Portrait of Nathaniel Tracy, of Newburyport, Mass., by John
Trumbull; portrait of Thomas Amory, of Boston, and portrait of
George A. Otis, both by Gilbert Stuart; lent by Mrs. O. H. Ernst
and Miss Helen Amory Ernst, of Washington, D. C.

Portrait of Mrs. Charles Eames, by Gambardella; lent by Mrs.
Alastair Gordon-Cumming, of Washington, D. C.

50 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

DISTRIBUTIONS

A painting, The Battle of Celere, by J. C. Bourgignon; with-
drawn by the owner, Mrs. J. M. Wiley, for shipment to Holland.

The large painting by Theobold Chartran, of Paris, representing
the Signing of the Peace Protocol between Spain and the United
States, August 12, 1898, lent to the gallery in 1928, has been recalled
to the White House by Mrs. Hoover.

The painting by Peter Moran, entitled “A Rainy Day,” withdrawn
by the owners, Miss Florence Grandin and her sister, of Washington,
Dic:

Two small paintings by John J. Peoli, entitled “ Love Conquers ”
and “ Cupid Caged,” were returned to Mrs. Laura Guiteras, Denver,
Colo., residuary legatee of the estate of Mrs. Mary Peoli Maginn.

A painting, Salome with the Head of John the Baptist, attributed
to Guido Reni, was withdrawn by J. H. Weaver, of Washington,
D. C., to whose ownership it had been transferred by Hobart
Berriman.

A painting, The Infant Jesus and St. John, by Rubens, lent to the
gallery by Hon. Hoffman Philip in 1919, withdrawn by Mr. Philip.

A painting, Minerva (sixteenth century original), was withdrawn
by Miss May Warner.

LOANS RETURNED TO THE GALLERY

Mrs. Herbert Hoover returned to its place in the gallery the paint-
ing by Alexander Wyant, entitled “The Flume, Opalescent River,
Adirondacks,” which was lent for temporary display at the White
House early in 1929.

THE HENRY WARD RANGER FUND PURCHASES

The paintings purchased during the year by the Council of the
National Academy of Design from the fund provided by the Henry
Ward Ranger bequest, which under certain conditions are prospective
additions to the National Gallery collections, are as follows, includ-
ing the names of the institutions to which they have been assigned:

Title Artist Date of purchase Assignment
|

81. The Countryside in | Charles H. Davis, N. A.| December, 1930_..| Connecticut Agricultural Col-

Autumn. lege, Storrs, Conn.
82 The Sermon-_---_---- Gari Melchers, N. A__--| January, 1931----- The Corcoran Gallery of Art,
Washington, D. C.
83. The Offering---..-_ | ae Va Hae February, 1931__.-| The Cleveland Museum of Art,
Hae, N. A. (1872- Cleveland, Ohio.
30).
84. The Madonna- _---- Tear G. Olinsky, N. A_-| March-April,1931_| Everhart Museum of Natural

History, Science, and Art,
Scranton, Pa.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 51

The gallery has received two portraits of Henry Ward Ranger
(already mentioned): One, by Alphonse Jongers, N. A., as a loan
from the National Academy of Design; the other, by Albert
Niehuys, as a gift from Frederick Ballard Williams, N. A., assistant
treasurer of the academy.

The will of Henry W. Ranger provides that the National Gallery
of Art shall have the right to reclaim any picture for its collection
during the 5-year period beginning 10 years after the artist’s death
and ending 15 years after his death, and it may be interesting to list
the deceased artists to June 30, 1931.

Artist Date of death
if a@anrltoned e@hapmiams Nee Aves ae eee) Feb. 12, 1925.
PY ADK Ales MYON Ad eNO OMIM Vee Mi eT Rae ee July 1, 1925.
Se WallismieAce COmmrsIN: s Aces ssi SEN wee yee eee Oct. 26, 1925.
ANTES CTD OSTEO INS ek te a ea RELA ud BC Jan. 28, 1926.
Ep OTIS MO TATA PIN eA reat tee pape Aug. 26, 1926.
GIP OLEOTI SOMES. INS yA teen erates ee cee Sept. 24, 1927.
ee VODCEGIGCTC WINS Ansty Peete 1 EY SEE reed Ae ces Bes Dec. 2, 1929.
SaiGardner SymonswN. Aes Dues ee ee Jan. 12, 19380.
OM Charl SSM em ec ats tO TTC IN eA eee see eee ne ee Nov. 29, 1930.

LIBRARY

The gallery library continued to increase by gift, purchase, and
subscription, in volumes, pamphlets, periodicals, etc. Fifty-one
volumes of periodicals were collated and bound.

Notable accessions to the library are as follows:

A tinted pencil-drawing in miniature of Dr. William H. Holmes
by Alyn Williams, P. R. M.S., R. C. A., presented by the artist.

Eleven bound volumes of biographical memoirs called Random
Records, left-over remnants from 52 years of research and art work
in many fields; gift of W. H. Holmes.

Twelve large framed water-color paintings by W. H. Holmes;
gift of the artist:

1. Deserted Bed of a Glacier.

. The Unmodified Rock Creek about 1910.

. The Normal Rock Creek About 1910.
Over the Maryland Fields.

. My Old Mill, Holmescroft, near Rockville.
. A Storm-Beaten Course.

. A Maryland Wheat Field.

. A Maryland Meadow, Watt’s Branch, near Rockville.
. A Gypsy Camp.

10. A Cliff Dwellers’ Ceremony, Colorado.

. A Mountain Gorge, Colorado.

. Coal Barge, Capri, 1880.

102992—32——_5

OCMONAAMNH Wh

eH
Noe

Ye ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Fourteen water-color paintings of diversified subjects by W. H.

Holmes; gift of the artist. (These include the 12 noted in the 1927
annual report.)

A Pompeiian Fountain, 1880.

On the Ocean, off Nova Scotia, 1880.

A Color Study, Venetian Freight Boats.
Longs Peak, Colorado, 1874.

A Great Geological Arch, Colorado, 1874.
The Land of the Cliff Dwellers, 1874.

In the Pueblo Country, New Mexico, 1876.
A Mexican Laundry, 1895.

Playing with the Colors.

Shaded Pathways.

View on the Potomac.

The Fields of Maryland.

Study of a Bridge.

Still Life—Apple and Bottle.

Ten field sketches, of small size, by Thomas Moran; pen sketch by

Mrs. W. H. Holmes; and a sketch in Florida (in colors) by Walter
Paris; gift of W. H. Holmes.

Twenty-nine small, unframed paintings in different mediums by

20 artists; gift of W. H. Holmes.

FOOD MAN AOAhRWNHH

A Neopolitan Lady, by C. Bisco.

. Marine Study, by Franklin D. Briscoe.

. Burial of a Pappoose, probably Siouan, by Richard N. Brooke.
. Drawing of a Yellowstone Geyser, by Richard N. Brooke.

. Landscape Sketch, by J. F. Currier.

. Burning of an Old Boat, by F. Denby, A. R. A.

A Group of Elk, Wind River Mountains, Wyoming, by EH. W. Deming.

. French Village Scene, by H. A. Dyer.
. Landscape, by De Lancey Gill.

. Landscape Sketch, by De Lancey Gill.
. Naples and Vesuvius, by A. Gurri.
UP
. In the Plateau Country—Colorado, by W. H. Holmes.

. Marine View, by “ Marnz.”

. Landscape with Palm Trees and Temple, Egypt, by Charles M. McIlhemey.
. Shin-Au-Avy-Tu-Weap—God Land Canyon of the Colorado, Utah, by Thomas

Sketch on the Potomac, by Lorenzo J. Hatch.

Moran.

. In Monument Park, Colorado, by Walter Paris.

. Landscape, by Walter Paris.

. Study of a Courtier, by Randonini.

. Landscape Sketch, by Walter Shirlaw.

. Figure Study, by Walter Shirlaw.

. A Study of an Italian Peasant Woman, by Guisep Signorini.
. Study of an Old Man, by Guisep Signorini.

. Sketch in Wales, by Peter Toft.

. Group of Venetian Sailboats, by Ross Turner.

. Charcoal Boat on the Mediterranean, by Ross Turner.
. Venetian Boats, by Ross Turner, 1880.

. A Street Scene in Munich, by Ross Turner, 1880.

. A Tree Study, by Ross Turner, 1879.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 53
NECROLOGY

The death of James Parmelee at his home in Washington, D. C.,
on April 19, 1931, is announced. Mr. Parmelee was a member of the
National Gallery of Art Commission, one of the commission’s execu-
tive committee, and chairman of the committee on prints.

A biographical notice of Mr. Parmelee may be found in the
Cathedral Age, midsummer issue, 1931, page 28.

PUBLICATIONS

Hotmes, W. H. Report on the National Gallery of Art for the year ending
June 30, 1930. Appendix 2, report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution for the year ending June 380, 1980, pp. 45-53.

Lopes, J. E. Report on the Freer Gallery of Art for the year ending June 30,
1930. Appendix 38, report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
for the year ending June 30, 1930, pp. 54-60.

Catalogue of a collection of water-color paintings by W. S. Bagdatopoulos, on
view in the National Gallery of Art, United States National Museum,
October 30 to December 22, 1980. Pp. 1-8.

Catalogue of a memorial exhibition of water colors of Egypt, Greece, France,
Italy, and England, by Henry Bacon (1839-1912), on view in the National
Gallery of Art, United States National Museum Building, March 14 to
April 30, 1981. Pp. 1-9, 4 pls.

Fortieth annual exhibition of the Society of Washington Artists, being a list
of the titles and authors of the works shown, with an introduction by
Dr. William H. Holmes, Director of the National Gallery of Art. Privately
printed for the society, 1931. Pp. 1-30, 20 pls.

Respectfully submitted.

W. Hz. Hoimes, Director.
Dr. C. G. Asgor,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 3
REPORT ON THE FREER GALLERY OF ART
Str: I have the honor to submit the eleventh annual report on the
Freer Gallery of Art for the year ending June 380, 1931:
THE COLLECTIONS
Additions to the collections by purchase are as follows:

BRONZE

31.10. Chinese, fifth century B. C. Chou Dynasty. Ceremonial vessel
of the class z, with four handles. Green patina.

JADE
31.15— Chinese, Han Dynasty (206 B. C—A. D. 220). Two orna-
31.16 ments of white, semitranslucent jade, surface color altered

to a brownish cream. Decoration carved and engraved.

MANUSCRIPTS

30.86. Nepalese, twelfth century. The Prajidpdéramita. Palm
leaves (69) within wooden covers. (See also below under
Paintings, 30.87, 30.88.)

30.92— Persian, thirteenth century. Four leaves from a Qurdn (min-

30.95 iature size). Text in brown naskhi script.

31.9. Arabic (North Africa), twelfth century. A bound volume of
a section of the Qur‘dn. Vellum. Text in brown and blue
Maghribi script; page and text ornaments in gold and
slight color.

31.11. Persian, sixteenth century. A page from the Gulistan of
Sa‘adi, written in a delicate naskht script on light blue
paper; five ornaments in gold and color.

PAINTINGS

30.80. Chinese, fifteenth century. Ming. By Tai Chin. A land-
scape entitled “ Life on the river.” Silk scroll, painted in
ink and tint.

30.81. Indian, late sixteenth century. Rajput, Rajasthani. A musi-
cal mode (7dég) : a night scene. Color on paper.

30.82. Indian, early nineteenth century. Rajput, Pahari (Kangra).
Portrait of a lady. Color and gold on paper.

30.83. Indian, early nineteenth century. Rajput, Pahari (Kangra)
Sri Krishna fluting in the forest. Color and gold on
paper.

54

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 5D

30.84. Indian, early nineteenth century. Rajput, Pahari, (Kangra).
Maidens searching for Krishna in moonlight. Color and
gold on paper.

30.85. Indian, eighteenth—nineteenth century. Rajput, Pahari
(Kangra). Scene from a Nala-Damayanti series: The

toilet of Damayanti. Outline drawing and light tints on
a primed paper.

30.87— Nepalese, twelfth century. Two pages, each containing

30.88. three miniatures from the Prajidpdramitad (MS. 380.86;
see above). Opaque colors on palm-leaves.

30.89— Persian, fourteenth century. Mongol period. Three pages

30.90—- from a Shdhndmah. Color, black and gold on a gold

30.91. ground. Text in black naskhi script.

31.1. Chinese, fourteenth century. Yiian dynasty. By Tsou Fu-
lei. Plum branches in flower, entitled, “A breath of spring.”
A scroll painting; ink on paper. Signed.

31.2. Chinese, thirteenth century. Late Sung. By Wang Yen-sou.
Branches of a plum tree in flower, entitled, “ Plum blos-
soms.” Scroll painting; ink on silk. Signed.

31.3. Chinese, thirteenth century. Late Sung. Landscape; horses
and grooms crossing a river. Scroll painting; color and
ink on paper.

31.4. Chinese, fourteenth century. Ytian. Attributed to Chao
Méng-fu. A goat and a sheep. Scroll painting; ink on
paper. Signed.

31.5- Indian, early seventeenth century. Mughal. School of

31.6. Akbar. Two illustrations from Pasikapriya MS. Color
and gold on paper.

31.12. Persian, late sixteenth century. Portrait of a lady. Ink,
sight tint and gold, on paper.

31.13. Persian, middle sixteenth century. Portrait of a man.
Full color and gold on paper.

31.14. Persian, middle sixteenth century. Portrait of a youth,
reading. Full color and gold on paper.

POTTERY
31.7. West Asian, eleventh-twelfth century. Rakka. A_ star-
shaped lamp, with six spouts and six feet. Light blue-
green glaze, worn and crazed.

SILVER

31.8. Chinese eighth century. T’ang dynasty. Bowl, decorated
with a band of foliate design in low relief. Surface covered
by a delicate ornament executed in fire gilt.

56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Curatorial work within the collection has embraced specifically
the study and recording of inscriptions and seals on recently acquired
Chinese paintings and of Buddhist inscriptions on stone sculptures
and votive bronze images. The work of cataloguing the near eastern
section of manuscripts and paintings, mentioned as being under
way in the last report, has been completed. Translation of the
Persian texts has fixed the identity of upwards of 60 Persian minia-
tures taken from various early manuscripts of the Shdhndmah, the
Gulistdn of Sa‘adi, and other works. In addition to translations of
inscriptions on objects in the Freer collection others have been
made of inscriptions on objects submitted to the curator by other
institutions and by private persons for expert opinion as to their
esthetic or historical value. In all, 2,312 objects and 107 photo-
graphs of objects were submitted for examination.

The most important changes in exhibition that have been made
since 1923 were accomplished during the week of March 15, amount-
ing to the opening of four new galleries and changed exhibitions in
two others. Galleries I and II, at the right of the entrance, are
now devoted to the display of works of art from the Near East
and India. Included in these are early Arabic manuscripts and
paintings, Arabic tooled leather bindings, Persian manuscripts,
paintings and painted pottery, Indian painting and sculpture. This
change has not only given increased space to the near eastern section
but also has left the eastern end of the building to the exclusive
exhibition of the arts of China. Ancient bronzes, silver, and silver-
gilt are now displayed in Gallery XIV, ceremonial and ornamental
jades of the Chou and Han periods in the adjoining corridor. Gal-
lery XVIII exhibits scroll paintings and Gallery XIX pottery, por-
celain, and panel paintings.

The care and preservation of objects in the collection has in-
cluded work that can be itemized as follows:

(1) Remounted:
2. Chinese scroll paintings.
1 Chinese panel painting.
2 Japanese screen paintings.
6 Indian miniature paintings.
(2) Repaired (i. e., relined, remounted, or resurfaced) :
22 paintings by Whistler.
2 paintings by A. H. Thayer.
2 paintings by T. W. Dewing.
2 paintings by D. W. Tryon.
2 paintings by G. Melchers.
1 painting by J. S. Sargent.
1 painting by A. Ryder.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 57

Changes in exhibition have involved a total of 482 objects, as

follows:

9 American paintings.

50 Chinese bronzes.

13 pieces of Chinese silver-gilt.

135 Chinese jades.

19 Chinese scroll paintings.

15 Chinese panel paintings.

10 pieces of Chinese porcelain.

59 pieces of Chinese pottery.

2 Japanese screen paintings.

4 Japanese panel paintings.

48 pieces of near eastern pottery.

1 Turkish pottery tile.

12 Arabie and Egyptian bookbindings.

2 Indian stone sculptures.

101 Indian and Persian paintings and calligraphies.

2 pieces of Persian glass.

THE LIBRARY

During the year there have been added to the main library 61
volumes, 20 unbound periodicals, and 150 pamphlets. Twenty vol-
umes were sent to the bindery, 10 volumes to be bound, 4 volumes
to be repaired, 48 numbers of Aokka to be bound in 4 volumes, and
6 numbers of Z’oung Pao to be bound in 2 volumes. A list of the
new accessions to the library accompanies this report as Appendix
A (not printed).

The library is in process of being catalogued under the direction
of the librarian of the Smithsonian Institution, W. L. Corbin. This
work was begun in November, 1929, and is not yet completed.

REPRODUCTIONS AND PAMPHLETS

Seven hundred and sixty-four new negatives of objects have been
made. Of these, 329 were made for registration photographs, 435
for special orders and 67 for study purposes. The total number of
reproductions available either as carbon photographs or as negatives
from whieh prints can be made upon request is now 3,858. Twenty-
four additional post cards have been published, making a total num-
ber of 96 subjects now on sale. One hundred and nineteen lantern
slides have also been added to the collection, making a total of 1,030
available for study and for sale.

The total number of sales of reproductions, at cost price, is as
follows: Photographs, 1821; post cards, 15,489; lantern slides, 12.

58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Of booklets issued by the gallery, the following were sold at cost
price:

SiGe Ay) Dam pH tse Oe Se ee se Se ee alae

Synopsisof History pamphlets sss 52) se fe eee ae Le Lee eee 105

histeot American spain tines see oe a ee ee ee 37

Annotated outhinesiof studyes ses =a eee oe ee a ee 17

Gallery DOO KS sa soe eee iy Se ef Ei eas ee a Ea 204

VEG ate OL Ty ak psee es 2 TN A pk Da AN NN a eat SUNCIWa bahe al) MOV n Oe Ue aL 18
BUILDING

The workshop has been constantly occupied with the making of
necessary equipment, as well as with the work necessary to the upkeep
of the building. Under the latter the most important item was the
renewal of the attic shade system with new and better operating
parts and a complete set of new curtains. A new device for holding
the smaller paintings to be photographed, four new exhibition cases,
two bookcases, and additional frames for the card display are among
the items of new equipment. The report of the superintendent,
which gives a detailed account of shopwork and of the planting in
the court, accompanies this report as Appendix C (not printed).

ATTENDANCE

The gallery has been open every day from 9 until 4.30 o’clock with
the exceptions of Mondays, Christmas Day, and New Year’s Day.

The total attendance for the year was 125,789; the total attendance
for week days was 82,574; the total Sunday attendance 43,215. As
before, the average Sunday attendance is much more than twice that
of week days, 831 being the average for Sunday and 318 that for a
week day. Attendance reached its height in April and August with
totals of 23,401 and 14,950, respectively.

The total number of visitors to the offices was 1,510. Of these,
91 came for general information, 295 to call upon members of the
staff, 119 to see objects in storage, 100 to submit objects for examina-
tion, 74 to study the building and installation methods, 11 to visit
the galleries on Mondays, 216 to study in the library, 203 to see the
reproductions of the Washington Manuscripts, 19 to make photo-
graphs and sketches, and 16 to make tracings, while 229 came to pur-
chase photographs, and 137 to examine photographs of objects in the
collection.

Fifty-two groups, ranging from 2 to 47 persons, were given docent
service in the exhibition galleries, and 10 classes in groups ranging
from three to nine persons were given instruction in the study room.

On Thursday, March 12, 1931, Dr. Rudolf Meyer Riefstahl gave an
illustrated lecture on Islamic Painting before an audience of 163
persons.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 59

FIELD WORK

A general survey of the gallery’s activities in the Far East will
be found in Mr. Bishop’s confidential letters, copies of which are
transmitted herewith (Appendix B not printed).

As in past years, we have steadfastly adhered to our fundamental
practice of conducting our expedition with due respect both for the
dignity of the Institution and for the sensibilities of the Chinese,
since it is our purpose, as long as we stay in the field, to serve our
own immediate ends only to the extent that in so doing we serve
also the ends of future archeological research in China and help to
establish an atmosphere of greater mutual regard and confidence
between native and foreign scientists. The fact that under existing
conditions, difficult at times to the point of discouragement, we should
have been able to carry out important excavations in southwestern
Shansi during the autumn and spring seasons of last year, speaks
well, I think for our policy, our field staff, and our Chinese collab-
orators. Mr. Bishop’s detailed illustrated report on these excava-
tions is expected shortly.

PERSONNEL

Archibald G. Wenley returned to the gallery January 5, 1931, after
seven years spent abroad in sinological study. Three years were
spent in China, two in Europe, and two in Japan.

Miss Grace ie McKenney resigned May 15 because of ill health
and returned to her home in Massachusetts.

Mrs. Rita W. Edwards returned May 16, after an absence of 11
months, and resumed her position as secretary to the curator.

Miss Eleanor Thompson, who filled this position during Mrs.
Edwards’s absence, has transferred to the position vacated by Miss
McKenney, in charge of the print’ section.

William Acker, student assistant, left June 18, 1931, for Holland
to resume his sinological studies at the University of Leyden.

Miss Grace Aasen, library assistant, was married on June 20, 1931
to Marvin Lamar Parler.

Herbert E. Thompson worked at the gallery during the weeks of
October 26, 1930, February 22, and March 29, 1931.

Y. Kinoshita worked at the gallery from January 24 to July
dt L931.

Respectfully submitted.

?

J. KE. Lopar, Curator.
Dr. C. G. Apgort,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 4
REPORT ON THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the field
researches, office work, and other operations of the Bureau of Ameri-
can Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 80, 1931, conducted
in accordance with the act of Congress approved April 19, 1980.
The act referred to contains the following item:

American ethnology: For continuing ethnological researches among the Amer-
ican Indians and the natives of Hawaii, the excavation and preservation of
archeologic remains under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, includ-
ing necessary employees, the preparation of manuscripts, drawings, and illus-
trations, the purchase of books and periodicals, and traveling expenses, $70,280.

M. W. Stirling, chief, left Washington during the latter part of
January to continue his archeological researches in Florida. On the
way south he took the opportunity to investigate a number of archeo-
logical sites in several of the Southern States, notably a group of
mounds which had been reported in the vicinity of High Point, N. C.,
and two mound sites on Pine Island in the Tennessee River in
northern Alabama.

A few days were spent in the vicinity of Montgomery, Ala., exam-
ining the early historic sites being investigated there by the Alabama
Anthropological Society. A large mound had been reported in the
vicinity of Flomaton, Ala.; this was visited and found to be a natural
formation.

Continuing down the west coast of Florida, Mr. Stirling visited
briefly the archeological sites at Crystal River, Safety Harbor, and
Alligator Creek. 'The principal work for the season was commenced
on February 5 on Blue Hill Island south of Key Marco, one of the
northernmost of the Ten Thousand Island Group. A large sand
burial mound was excavated and found to be of early post-Columbian
Calusa origin. Excavation of the mound disclosed a number of inter-
esting structural features quite unusual in Florida sand mounds.
Six feet above the base of the mound a clay floor was encountered
which gave evidence of having been the base of a temple structure,
as it was surrounded by post holes and in some instances by the
decayed remains of the wooden uprights still in place. This struc-
ture had evidently been destroyed and the mound subsequently
enlarged by adding 6 feet more of sand above the original substruc-
ture. Numerous burials were encountered both above and below the

60

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 61

clay floor. A few articles of European manufacture were recovered
from the upper level of the mound. As none were recovered from
beneath the temple floor, it is possible that the older section of the
mound is of pre-Columbian age. Cultural material recovered was
interesting though not abundant. This included characteristic pot-
tery specimens, pendants and ornaments made from fossil shark
teeth, shell dishes, cups, celts, and a few stone knives and arrowheads.
Articles of European manufacture consisted of glass beads and iron
axes of Spanish type. More than 250 burials were removed.

Following the completion of this work, Mr. Stirling went to the
island of Haiti where, in the company of H. W. Krieger, of the
United States National Museum, he investigated archeological sites
previously worked by Mr. Krieger in various parts of the island.
Returning from Haiti to Florida, work was continued in the eastern
part of the State, where a number of mounds were investigated be-
tween Miami and Cape Canaveral.

The most interesting discovery of the entire season consisted in
locating two series of large geometric earthworks on the eastern
side of the Everglades, not far from Indiantown. One of these
groups is one of the largest and best preserved works of this type
now existing on the North American continent. It is hoped that at
an early date the bureau will be able to begin excavations on this
most interesting site. At the completion of this reconnaissance, Mr.
Stirling returned to Washington, leaving almost immediately for
Chicago in order to attend a meeting of the National Research Coun-
cil, the purpose of which was to organize research on the subject of
early man in America.

Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, was engaged in field work in
Louisiana from July 1 to August 14, 1980. It was found that Rosa
Pierrette, the sole Indian acquainted with the Ofo language and
the one from whom, in 1908, he obtained the only specimens of that
language in existence, was dead, and the language therefore is dead
also. A search was made for speakers of Atakapa, but all appeared
to be gone except one old woman who could barely recall a few
words. The Chitimacha Indians of Charenton were visited and a
small amount of linguistic material was obtained from them. Of the
Tunica at Marksville, only two or three are still able to use the old
tongue, but one of these proved to be an ideal informant and Doctor
Swanton obtained from him a number of short stories and one long
story in native text. The rest of the time was spent at Kinder, where
a considerable body of material in Koasati was obtained.

In view of the extinction of Atakapa as a spoken language, Doctor
Swanton considered that the words, phrases, and texts collected by
Dr. A. S. Gatschet in 1886, which comprise by far the greater portion

62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

of the material in that tongue still preserved, should be published
without delay and the greater part of the winter of 1930-31 was
spent in editing it. To Gatschet’s material have been added the
Eastern Atakapa words collected by Murray and the Akokisa vocab-
ulary obtained by the French captain, Bérenger, and published by
Du Terrage and Rivet. <A bulletin containing all this is now in the
hands of the printer.

Work has progressed on the tribal map of North America which
is being copied by Mrs. E. C. M. Payne, and additions have been
made to the text to accompany it.

Doctor Swanton is preparing the first draft of a Handbook of the
Indians of the Southeast.

The closing weeks of the year were devoted to reading the proof of
Bulletin 108, entitled “Source Material for the Social and Cere-
monial Life of the Choctaw Indians.”

Dr. Truman Michelson, ethnologist, was at work among the Kicka-
poo of Oklahoma at the beginning of the fiscal year. A really
representative body of Kickapoo mythology is now available, and
it is quite certain that it is more northern than Fox mythology.
The ritualistic origin myths are still terra incognita. A good begin-
ning has been made on Kickapoo social organization. In the middle
of July Doctor Michelson went among the Foxes of Iowa. The
object of the trip was to restore one lox test phonetically and to
obtain some new texts, in the current syllabic script, on Fox cere-
monials, in both of which projects he was successful. Doctor
Michelson returned to Washington August 4. He completed his
memoir on the Fox Wapanowiweni and transmitted it for publica-
tion February 7. His paper, Contributions to Fox Ethnology, I,
Bulletin 95 of the bureau, appeared in the course of the fiscal year.

The remainder of the time was largely taken up studying materials
gathered previously and also in extracting from Petter’s Cheyenne
Dictionary such stems and words as can be rigorously proved to be
Algonquian. The material on the physical anthropology of the
Cheyenne showed clearly the great variation that occurs among liv-
ing races. A proper technique was worked out for determining the
Cheyenne words of Algonquian origin. Though Petter’s alphabet
is inadequate, it was possible to partially control this material by
comparing it with that of Doctor Michelson. Approximately 700
of such words and stems were extracted. Though the technique
mentioned above is very slow, Doctor Michelson is convinced that it
is the correct procedure. It was entirely feasible to establish about
70 phonetic shifts which have transformed Cheyenne from normal
Algonquian into divergent Algonquian.

Toward the close of May Doctor Michelson left for Oklahoma and
renewed his work with the Cheyenne of that State. He restored

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 63

phonetically the material extracted from Petter, with the result that
it is now possible to formulate the transforming phonetic shifts with
greater nicety. He also measured a number of Cheyenne. Though
the number is not yet large enough to be absolutely decisive in a
statistical sense, there is good reason to believe that the vault of
their skulls is low, thus resembling the Dakota Sioux rather than
most Algonquian tribes. Some new data on Cheyenne social life
and mythology were obtained. It was his privilege to consult with
some other anthropologists in Oklahoma and to visit one museum.

John P. Harrington, ethnologist, was engaged during the summer
of 1930 in the preparation of his report on the Indians who were
brought together at San Juan Bautista Mission in the first half of
the nineteenth century by the Spanish-speaking padres from various
parts of San Benito County, Calif., and the adjacent region. A vaiu-
able vocabulary of the language, recorded by Father Felipe Arroyo
de la Cuesta, had already been published by the Smithsonian Instti-
tution in the sixties of the last century, but aside from this vocabu-
lary there was little or nothing in print on these Indians. Elaborat-
ing a wealth of material obtained from Mrs. Ascencidn Soldrsano,
the last San Juan Indian who spoke the language, who died in
January, 1930, Mr. Harrington prepared a report on al] phases of
the life of these Indians, as far as reconstructable. This report tells
of the remarkable way in which the language and partial ethnog-
raphy were rescued from this sole survivor, and then proceeds to
the history, geography, and customs of the tribe, including all that
could be learned of former religion, ceremony, and mythology.

Mrs. Solérsano was an Indian herb doctor, and a feature of the
work during the summer of 1929 had been to obtain specimens and
information to cover the ethnobotany of the tribe. Further speci-
mens were obtained in the summer of 1930 by Mrs. Dionisia Mon-
drago6n and Miss Marta J. Herrera, daughter and granddaughter of
Mrs. Solorsano, and these were all identified by C. V. Morton, of the
National Herbarium. ‘This section gives the treatment for curing
some 60 different ailments with these herbs and by other curious
means. It forms a nucleus for making comparative studies in
Indian medicine.

At the end of January, 1931, Mr. Harrington left for California
for the purpose of continuing his studies in this region, this time
specializing on the Esselen and Antoniano Indians in the southern
part of Monterey County. Taking the specimens of San Juan
Bautista plants with him and arriving in wild-flower season, a thor-
ough collecting of plants was rewarded with a great mass of in-
formation which further elucidated much of the San Juan plant
material. This collecting was done in several places in southern
Monterey County and simultaneously in San Benito County. Seeds

64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

used for food were actually made up into the food product to get
the primitive process, and the same method was followed in the
study of medicines.

Along with the plants the field of ethnozoology was thoroughly
covered and practically all the animals known to these Indians were
identified. Specimens were obtained, especially of birds, which
proved to be the most difficult field for identification in the collect-
ing of animal names, and the skins were identified by the division of
birds of the National Museum. Eight different kinds of snakes were
known by name and identified.

One of the rarest features of the work was the obtaining of a
number of old Indian place names in the old Esselen country, the
western tributary of the Salinas River known as the Arroyo Seco.
A study of the place names resulted in the discovery that the Esselen
were not a coastal but an inland people, inhabiting the Arroyo Seco
and a section of the Salinas River and centered about Soledad Mis-
sion. They were one of the smallest tribes in California, and the
name properly begins with an h; they were known inthe San Juan
Bautista from all that section of California. The expedition went
from Monterey to the Aguage de Martin and from there climbed the
mountain. Some 40 exposures were made of the various rocks con-
nected with the ceremonies and the springs and camps, and several
hundred pages of notes were taken down in California Spanish
from Don Angel and others dealing with the history of these cere-
monies and the life of Mariana and Joaquin Murrieta. On the way
back to the coast the Cruz Cervantes ranch was visited, where Mur-
rietta and Mariana were equipped by Don Cruz for starting their
war against the Americans.

An examination of place names and village sites and linguistic
studies occupied Mr. Harrington up to the end of June. Not only
were vocabularies of early recording utilized but the invaluable rec-
ords contained in the old mission books were, through the courtesy of
Bishop McGinley, of Fresno, placed at the disposal of the Smith-
sonian Institution for copying, and a considerable part of these
books has already been copied and revised with the aid of the oldest
Indians.

Dr. F. H. H. Roberts, jr., archeologist, devoted the fiscal year to a
number of activities. During the months of July, August, and Sep-
tember, excavations at a site on the Zufii reservation, 16 miles north-
east of the Indian village of Zufi, were brought to a conclusion.
The work had been started the latter part of May, 1930. At the
end of the season’s field work the ruins of two houses, one containing
64 rooms, the other 20 rooms, and a number of ceremonial chambers

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 65

had been cleared of the débris which had accumulated in them in
the centuries which have passed since their abandonment.

Evidence showed that the largest of the houses had not been
erected as a complete unit and that it was not occupied in its en-
tirety at any time. The central block, together with a supercere-
monial chamber placed at its southern side, constituted the original
block of the structure. Subsequent additions consisted of an east-
and-west wing and a series of chambers south of the original portion
and east of the great ceremonial chamber. Masonry in the walls of
the latter portions was inferior to that in the original section. The
outlines of the rooms in these same portions of the building were so
irregular that they appeared to have been built by a different group
of people. The walls in the original section were constructed in a
style characteristic of the ruins in the Chaco Canyon, 85 miles north-
east from the Zuni region. The stonework in the latter portions of
the building was suggestive of the type found in the ruins of the
Upper Gila area to the south.

The small house did not give evidence of growth stages as distinct
as those observed in the large building; it did show, however, that a
fairly small structure had been added to on various occasions. The
walls in this building were of the same nature as those in the later
portions of the larger dwelling, except that the stones were more
carefully dressed. This suggested that the small house may have
been built by the same group which erected the later portions of the
large one.

In addition to the two houses and seven small ceremonial chambers
two great kivas were found. Only one of these was excavated. In
the case of the other it was possible merely to trace the outer walls
in order to obtain the size and position of the structure. The find-
ing of these two great kivas was significant because investigations in
the Southwest have shown that such structures are always associated
with some form of the Chaco culture. The great kiva connected
with the larger of the two dwellings revealed one of the essential
characteristics of such structures when the débris which filled it was
removed. It had an average diameter of 55 feet. The second of
these large circular houses was completely detached from the other
buildings in the village and had been placed in a court formed by
the other structures. It averaged 78 feet in diameter, which makes
it the largest yet discovered.

The excavations yielded 400 specimens of the people’s handicraft
in addition to the information on house types. Included in the
collection are pottery vessels, tools or implements of stone and bone,
ornaments, and a number of stone images. The pottery is character-
ized by examples typical of the Chaco Canyon wares and also speci-

66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

mens characteristic of the Upper Gila region to the south. The
summer’s investigations demonstrate that the village on the Zufi
Reservation belongs to the great period of the prehistoric pueblos,
that designated as Pueblo III in southwestern chronology. The
evidence obtained also indicates that there was a fusion of two groups
of people at this location: One, the first to arrive, came from the
Chaco area in the north, and the other from the Upper Gila villages
in the south. Charred timbers obtained from the ruins enabled Dr.
A. E. Douglass, of the University of Arizona, to give the dates
1000 to 1030 A. D. for the life of the community.

Upon the completion of the above work one week was spent in
making an archeological survey on the Zufi reservation and in the
region west and northwest from that district. As a result of the
reconnaissance, a promising site for further investigations was
found. Following this, a trip was made to Cortez, Colo., for the
purpose of inspecting ruins being excavated by Lee Dawson near
the opening into McElmo Canyon, 4 miles southwest from Cortez.
It was found that Mr. Dawson had an unusually interesting group
of unit-type houses on his property. Of particular interest were the
kivas or ceremonial chambers associated with these structures. In
many of them the walls had been ornamented with a series of paint-
ings placed in bands encircling the walls. From Cortez the writer
went to Denver and from there returned to Washington the middle
of October.

During the winter months, galley, page, and final proofs were read
on Bulletin 100, a report on work conducted during the summer of
1929, entitled “The Ruins of Kiatuthlanna, Eastern Arizona.” In
addition, the specimens brought in from the summer field work were
studied. Drawings and photographs were made of them for use in
a report on the work. Six hundred pages of manuscript, entitled
“The Village of the Great Kivas on the Zuni Reservation, New
Mexico,” was prepared. Thirty text figures were drawn to accom-
pany this manuscript.

Doctor Roberts left Washington May 14, 1931, for Denver, Colo.,
for the purpose of inspecting and studying the specimens obtained
by the Smithsonian Institution-University of Denver Cooperative
Expedition in the summer of 1930 and also for the purpose of
examining collections in the Colorado State Museum. He left Denver
on May 25 for Santa Fe, N. Mex. At the latter place two days were
spent in studying the collections at the Laboratory of Anthropology
and at the Museum of New Mexico. From Santa Fe he proceeded
to Gallup, N. Mex., where supplies were obtained for a field camp.
From Gallup this material was taken to a site 314 miles south of
Allantown, Ariz., where a camp was established and excavations

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 67

started on the remains of a large pit-house village. One refuse
mound containing 12 burials with accompanying mortuary offer-
ings and two pit houses had been investigated at the close of the
fiscal year.

The pit houses were found to be characteristic of that type and
quite comparable to those excavated in the Chaco Canyon in 1927,
reported in Bulletin 92 of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and
to those excavated in eastern Arizona in the summer of 1929,
described in Bulletin 100 of the bureau.

From July 1, 1930, to May 10, 1931, J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist,
was engaged in routine office work, and from the latter date to the
end of the fiscal year he was engaged in field service on the Grant
of the Six Nations on the Grand River in Ontario, Canada, and,
briefly, on the Tuscarora reservation in western New York State.

Mr. Hewitt devoted much time and study to rearranging and
retyping some of his native Iroquoian texts which critical revisions
and additional data had made necessary to facilitate interlinear
translations and to render such texts as legible as possible for the
printer.

The texts so treated are the Cayuga version of the founding of the
League of the Iroquois as dictated by the late Chief Abram Charles;
the version of the Eulogy of the Founders as dictated by Chief Jacob
Hess in Cayuga, and also his versions of the addresses introducing
the several chants; also, four of the myths of the Wind and Vege-
table Gods which are usually represented by wooden faces and husk
faces (which are customarily misnamed masks, although their chief
purpose is to represent, not to mask). The Onondaga texts of these
myths were in great need of careful revision, for their relator was
extremely careless in his use of the persons and the tenses of the
verbs, frequently changing from the third to the second person and
from past to future time by unconsciously employing the language
of the rites peculiar to the faces; and also the decipherment of a set
of pictographs or mnemonic figures, designed and employed by the
late Chief Abram Charles, of the Grand River Reservation in
Canada, to recall to his mind the official names and their order of
the 49 federal chiefs of the Council of the League of the Iroquois,
in chanting the Eulogy of the Founders of the League; and also to
recall the 15 sections or burdens of the great Requickening Address
of the Council of Condolence and Installation; this paper with illus-
trations is nearly ready for the printer; and also a critical study of
the matter of the Onondaga and the Cayuga texts, giving the several
variant versions of the events attending the birth and childhood and
work of Deganawida. He was born of a virgin mother, which indi-
cated that underlying them there appeared to be an ideal figure,

102992—32——_6

68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

although of course unexpressed. This discovery showed the need for
thorough search in the field for a living tradition in which this ideal
is fully expressed. Further search was deferred to field work. It
was clear that such an ideal enhanced the beauty of the birth story
of Deganawida and made more interesting the historicity of such a
person. Mr. Hewitt had the great satisfaction of recovering such a
tradition in his subsequent field researches. He found that the in-
feriority complex had precluded his present informants from ex-
pressing themselves during the lifetime of other informants, whose
recent deaths opened their mouths without the fear of contradic-
tion. The death of Abram Charles within the year made these shy
informants vocal.

In January Matthew W. Stirling, chief of the Bureau of American
Ethnology, requested Mr. Hewitt to undertake the editing of the
Manuscript Journal of Rudolph Friederich Kurz, of Berne, Switzer-
land, in the manner in which he had prepared the Edwin Thompson
Denig Report on the Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri River,
published in the Forty-sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ameri-
can Ethnology. The Kurz manuscript was written in German dur-
ing the years 1846 to 1852. The typed German text consists of 454
pages of large legal cap size, while the English translation of it by
Myrtis Jarrell occupies 780 pages. The journal is a narrative of
Mr. Kurz’s experiences in a trip up the Mississippi River from New
Orleans to St. Louis, thence up the Missouri to Fort Union at the
Mouth of the Yellowstone River, and of his difficulties with the
Indians while endeavoring to make drawings or pictures of them.
There are 125 pen sketches of Indians and others accompanying the
manuscript.

Mr. Hewitt represents the Bureau of American Ethnology, Smith-
sonian Institution, on the United States Geographic Board, and
is a member of its executive committee. In connection with the
forthcoming issue of the sixth report of this board much extra work
had to be done by members of the executive committee. Mr. Hewitt
prepared a memorandum for a portion of the introduction. Mr.
Hewitt also devoted much time and study to the collection and
preparation of data for official replies to correspondents of the
bureau, some demanding long research. Miss Mae W. Tucker has
assisted Mr. Hewitt in the care of the manuscript and phonograph
and photograph records of the archives.

On May 10, 1931, Mr. Hewitt left Washington, D. C., on field
duty and returned to the bureau July 2, 1931. During this trip he
visited the Grand River grant of the Six Nations of Iroquois Indians
dwelling near Brantford, Canada, and also the Tuscarora Reserva-
tion near Niagara Falls, N. Y.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 69

Winslow M. Walker was appointed to the staff of the Bureau of
American Ethnology as associate anthropologist in March, 1931. He
resumed his research in Hawaiian archeology, begun during a year’s
stay in the Hawauan Islands in 1929, in preparation for a paper on
Hawaiian sculpture.

In preparation for work in the field Mr. Walker undertook re-
search in the early narratives of exploration in Louisiana and Arkan-
sas. He left Washington May 29 to investigate some caves in the
vicinity of Gilbert, Ark., in the Ozark Mountains, with the hope of
being able to throw new light on the Ozark bluff dwellers and other
early inhabitants of the caves. Sixteen caves were explored and
excavations were made in several of the most promising. A large
cave at Cedar Grove yielded several skeletons and a considerable
number of stone, flint, and bone artifacts. As the fiscal year closed
Mr. Walker was still engaged in excavating this cavern. He intends
to make a brief survey of certain mounds and village sites along the
Red River Valley in the northern part of Louisiana on the com-
pletion of his work in Arkansas.

SPECIAL RESEARCHES

The study of Indian music for the Bureau of American Ethnology
has been carried forward during the past year by Miss Frances Dens-
more. The three phases of this research are (1) the recording of
songs and collecting of other material in the field, including the pur-
chase of specimens; (2) the transcription and analysis of songs, with
the development of information; and (3) the preparation of material
for publication. All these phases have received attention during
the year, and the songs of three hitherto unstudied localities have
been recorded.

Early in July, 1930, Miss Densmore went to Grand Portage, an
isolated Chippewa village on Lake Superior, near the Canadian
boundary. ‘This village was visited in 1905, a ceremony was wit-
nessed, and one of its songs written down; therefore a return to
Grand Portage was particularly interesting. The purpose of the
trip was to witness the Chippewa dances on the Fourth of July, but
she remained more than three weeks, continuing her study of native
customs. Several songs of the wabunowin were heard and translated,
these resembling the songs of the Grand Medicine, which formed a
subject of intensive study during 1907-1911. She also witnessed the
tipi-shaking of an Indian medicine man and listened to his songs
for almost an hour. This performance is very rare at the present
time. Although the evening was quiet, the tipi was seen to sway as
though buffeted by a tempest, then remain motionless a few seconds
and again shake convulsively. This was continuous while Miss
Densmore watched the performance and was said to have continued

70 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

several hours afterwards. Inside the tipi sat the medicine man,
believed to be talking with spirits whom he had summoned, the
spirits making known their presence by the shaking of the conical
structure. The next day the medicine man said that he had sum-
moned the spirits in order to ascertain whether his treatment of a
certain sick man would be successful. He said that if the spirits
“spoke loud and clear” the man would recover, but if their voices
were faint the man would die. The response was said to have been
satisfactory, and accordingly he instituted a “beneficial dance,”
which was attended by Miss Densmore, and the songs heard for a
considerable time. ‘These, like the songs in the tipi, resembled the
songs of the Chippewa Grand Medicine Society.

The study of Indian music was continued by a trip to Kilbourn,
Wis., during August and September. Two pageants are given simul-
taneously at The Dalles of the Wisconsin River, near Kilbourn, each
employing about 100 Indians. In the pageants the swan and hoop
dance, as well as war and social dances of the Winnebago, were seen.
The dances of other tribes presented in the pageants included the
eagle dance and other pueblo dances. Songs of the swan, hoop, and
frog dances were later recorded by leading pageant singers.

At Kilbourn Miss Densmore recorded numerous songs of Pueblo
Indians from Isleta and Cochiti, these consisting chiefly of corn-
grinding and war songs. The words of these songs are highly poetic
and many of the melodies resemble Acoma songs in structure.

As John Bearskin and his family were traveling from Kilbourn to
their home in Nebraska they passed through Red Wing, Minn., and
songs were recorded at Miss Densmore’s home. Bearskin recorded
three complete sets of the Winnebago medicine lodge songs and a set
of Buffalo feast songs.

In January, 1931, Miss Densmore went to Washington, where she
worked on the preparation of material for publication, and proceeded
thence to Miami, Fla., where she began a study of Seminole music,
recording songs of the corn dance from the man who leads the
singing in that ceremony; also the songs that precede a hunting
expedition. The customs of the Seminole were studied and a collec-
tion of specimens was obtained. This collection includes two com-
plete costumes and is now the property of the United States National
Museum.

The second phase of the research is represented by eight manu-
scripts which include the transcriptions and analyses of 77 songs and
two flute melodies recorded by Winnebago, Isleta, Cochiti, and Sem-
inole Indians. The cumulative analyses of Indian songs has been
continued and now comprises 1,553 songs. The 14 tables submitted
during this year constitute a comparison between a large series of
Nootka and Quileute songs and the songs previously analyzed by
the same method,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Gi

The third phase of work comprised the preparation for publica-
tion of “‘ Menominee Music” and “Acoma Music.”

Frank M. Setzler, assistant curator, division of archeology, United
States National Museum, was detailed to the bureau for the purpose
of conducting an archeological investigation in Texas. After briefly
examining several sites at Victoria and Brownsville along the Gulf
coast, he excavated four caves and one rock shelter on the Mollie B.
Knight ranch, in Presidio County, and visited several other caverns
in the vicinity.

From one large cave a total of 70 specimens, including baskets,
matting, cradles, sandals, beads, corn, gourd shards, and one skele-
ton, were recovered. No pottery or evidence of European influence
was found. Although the site is only 150 miles east of a marginal
Basket Maker culture, no local trace was found of these early south-
western people. The material differs in some respects from any other
in the Museum and more research will be required before it can be
definitely identified.

EDITORIAL WORK AND PUBLICATIONS

The editing of the publications of the bureau was continued
through the year by Stanley Searles, editor, assisted by Mrs. Frances
S. Nichols, editorial assistant. The status of the publications is
presented in the following summary:

PUBLICATIONS ISSUED

Forty-fifth Annual Report. Accompanying papers: The Salishan Tribes of the
Western Plateaus (Teit, edited by Boas); Tattooing and Face and Body
Painting of the Thompson Indians, British Columbia (Teit, edited by Boas) ;
The Ethnobotany of the Thompson Indians of British Columbia (Steedman) ;
The Osage Tribe; Rite of the Wa-xo-be (LaF lesche). vii+857 pp., 29 pls., 47
figs.

Forty-sixth Annual Report. Accompanying papers; Anthropological Survey in
Alaska (Hrdlitka) ; Report to the Honorable Isaac §. Stevens, Governor of
Washington Territory, on the Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri (Denig,
edited by Hewitt). vii+654 pp., 80 pls., 35 figs.

Bulletin 96. Early Pueblo Ruins in the Piedra District, Southwestern Colorado
(Roberts). ix-+190 pp., 55 pls., 40 figs.

Bulletin 97, The Kamia of Imperial Valley (Gifford). vii+-94 pp., 2 pls., 4 figs.

Bulletin 100. The Ruins at Kiatuthlanna, Eastern Arizona (Roberts). viii
+195 pp., 47 pls., 31 figs.

PUBLICATIONS IN PRESS

Forty-seventh Annual Report. Accompanying papers: The Acoma Indians
(White) ; Isleta, New Mexico (Parsons) ; Introduction to Zufii Ceremonialism,
and Zuni Origin Myths (Bunzel); Zuni Ritual Poetry (Bunzel); Zufi
Katcinas (Bunzel).

Bulletin 94. Tobaeco Among the Karuk Indians of California (Harrington).

Bulletin 98. Tales of the Cochiti Indians (Benedict).

V2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Bulletin 99. Cherokee Sacred Formulas and Medicinal Prescriptions (Mooney
and Olbrechts).

Bulletin 101. Indian Blankets of the North Pacific Coast (ISissell).

Bulletin 102. Menominee Music (Densmore).

Bulletin 103. Source Material for the Social and Ceremonial Life of the Choc-
taw Indians (Swanton).

Bulletin 104. A Survey of the Ruins in the Region of Flagstaff, Arizona
(Colton).

Bulletin 105. Notes on the WapAndwiweni (Michelson).

DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLICATIONS

The distribution of the publications of the bureau has been con-
tinued under the charge of Miss Helen Munroe, assisted by Miss
Emma B. Powers. Publications distributed were as follows:

Report: volumesvand Separates 2226 ss viet el ae eee ee eee . 6,003
Bulletins wand iseparagtesues 2. ene Leon Ih A ei a ee 138, 924
Contributions. to North, American Ethnology = 33
MET SCO LPT CO US ee Po UL CEE OTIS a ee ee ee 515

HINO fe a PR eS ER A OES STi fae ee ee 20, 475

As compared with the fiscal year ending June 30, 1930, there was
a decrease of 4,398. This decrease is mainly in the distribution of
bulletins and separates, and possibly is largely explained by the very
large number of separates from the handbook which were sent in the
previous year to the many groups of Camp Fire Girls. No great
demand from any one group was received in this past fiscal year.

Twenty-eight addresses were added to the mailing list during the
year and 20 were taken off. The mailing list now stands at 1,635, in
addition to the members of the staff of the bureau and other branches
of the Institution who receive the publications regularly as issued.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Following is a summary of work accomplished in the illustration
branch of the bureau under the supervision of De Lancey Gill, illus-
trator:

Photographs and drawings retouched, lettered, and otherwise made

TSU Yoh LOL CUNT EVM ee ae ee 748
Drawings made, including maps, diagrams, ete-------=---___-_-______= 48
IME TAVELS @ COOLS CLUE C170 Ue eat oe eee ee 524
Printed editions of colored plates examined at Government Printing

Office s2442 214 2 ode ee Be eh ae il ee eee eee 7, 000
@orrespondence attended ito) Wetters) 222s see ee ee eee 135
Photographs selected and catalogued for private publication______------ 310

Photo-laboratory work by Dr. A. J. Olmsted, National Museum, in coop-
eration with the Bureau of American Hthnology:

Newatives ts 22) Ne 225 Si OE Se SS me LL Ee ei eee 154
Printg ie As edhe? AOE Ee a Se Se ee Ee 335
Wy AITOLM S11 CS a ce aie ae ee ae 91

Hilms developed) from field exposures. 222225555) ee eee 48

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13

During the early part of the calendar year Miss Mae W. Tucker
was detailed to this branch to assist in listing and cataloguing the
great collection of Indian negatives already classified by Mr. Gill
in previous years. Of the purely ethnologic subjects, including por-
traits, arts, and industries, the list will embrace more than 7,000
units. This work, so long delayed, has progressed most satisfactorily.

LIBRARY

The reference library has continued under the care of Miss Ella
Leary, librarian, assisted by Thomas Blackwell.

During the year 600 volumes were accessioned, of which 97 were
acquired by purchase, 100 by binding of periodicals, and 403 by gift
and exchange; also 190 pamphlets and 3,500 serials, chiefly the pub-
lications of learned societies, were received and recorded, of which
28 were obtained by purchase, the remainder being received through
exchange, giving us at the close of the year a working library of
26,671 volumes, 16,717 pamphlets, and several thousand unbound
periodicals. Books loaned during the year numbered 975 volumes.
During the year 473 volumes were bound. In addition to the use of
its own library, which is becoming more valuable through exchange
and by limited purchase, it was found necessary to draw on the
Library of Congress for the loan of about 250 volumes, and in turn
the bureau hbrary was frequently consulted by officers of other
Government establishments, as well as by students not connected
with the Smithsonian Institution. The purchase of books and peri-
odicals has been restricted to such as relate to the bureau’s researches.
During the year the cataloguing has been carried on as new acces-
sions were acquired and good progress was made in cataloguing
ethnologic and related articles in the earlier serials. The catalogue
was increased by the addition of 3,500 cards. A considerable amount
of reference work was done in the usual course of the library’s
service to investigators and students, both in the Smithsonian
Institution and outside.

é COLLECTIONS
Accession No.

111046. Human skeletal material from a gravel bed along the Patuxent River,
Md., collected by T. Dale Stewart on June 16, 1930. (12 specimens.)

111697. About 100 crania and parts of skeletons from Safety Harbor, Fla., col-
lected by M. W. Stirling. (139 specimens.)

111961. Miniature clay toys made by Navajo Indian children and collected by
Dr. W. H. Spinks at Chin Lee, Ariz., and 15 snapshots. (387
specimens. )

112277. Collection of 802 ivory specimens, ete., secured by Dr. A. Hrdlitka
along the Kuskokwim in 1930 from funds supplied by the bureau.
(802 specimens. )

1123893. Archeological and skeletal material collected by Dr. F. H. H. Roberts, jr.,
during the summer of 1929 from a site in Arizona. (553 specimens.)

74 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Accession No.

112888. Archeological material from the vicinity of Tampa Bay, Fla., collected
by M. W. Stirling in 1930. (115 specimens.)

114648. Skeletal material from Horrs Island, Collier County, Fla., collected
during February and March, 1931, by M. W. Stirling. (150
specimens. )

PROPERTY

Office equipment was purchased to the amount of $571.25.

MISCELLANEOUS

The correspondence and other clerical work of the office has been
conducted by Miss May S. Clark, clerk to the chief, assisted by
Anthony W. Wilding, clerk. Miss Mae W. Tucker, stenographer,
was engaged in copying manuscript material for Doctor Swanton
and in assisting Mr. Hewitt in his work as custodian of manuscripts
and phonograph records. The manuscript Dictionary of * * *
Indian Languages of North, Central, and South America and the
West Indies, compiled by W. R. Gerard, which was in danger of
becoming illegible due to the frayed condition of the paper on which
it was written and the faded writing, has been copied by Miss Tucker.
Work was begun on the catalogue of the photographic negatives
belonging to the bureau. To date approximately 7,000 negatives
have been listed.

During the course of the year information was furnished by
members of the staff in reply to numerous inquiries concerning the
North American Indians, both past and present, and the Mexican
peoples of the prehistoric and early historic periods to the south.
Various specimens sent to the bureau were identified and data on
them furnished for their owners.

Personnel—Winslow M. Walker was appointed: as associate
anthropologist on the staff of the bureau on March 6, 1931, and Dr.
William D. Strong as ethnologist on July 1, 1931.

Miss May S. Clark, clerk, retired June 30, 1931.

Respectfully submitted. MW. Srmene: Cheer
Dr. C. G. AxBport,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 5

REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE
SERVICE

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the International Exchange Service during the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1931:

The appropriation granted by Congress for the support of the
system of international exchanges during the year was $52,810, an
increase of $1,513 over the amount allowed for the preceding year.
Of this increase, $1,000 was for freight, $160 to cover the additional
sum required to meet the provisions of the Brookhart Act amending
section 13 of the classification act of 1928, and $353 to advance to
the next step in their respective grades those of the employees of
the exchange office eligible for promotion. The repayments from
departmental and other establishments aggregated $5,000.57, making
the total available resources for conducting the service during 1931
$57,810.57.

The total number of packages handled was 641,338, a decrease
from the previous year of 53,327 (7.7 per cent). The weight of
these packages was 642,190 pounds, a falling off of 65,904 pounds
(9.3 per cent). These decreases no doubt were due to the world-wide
depression. However, the economic condition affected the output of
literature more abroad than in the United States, as will be noted
when it is stated that the number of packages sent through the Inter-
national Exchange Service decreased only 6 per cent, while those
received from abroad decreased nearly 22 per cent.

The publications passing through the service are classified as par-
hamentary documents, departmental documents, and miscellaneous
scientific and literary publications. The number and weight of the

packages containing the publications coming under these different
headings are as follows:

Packages Weight
dé Sent | Received) Sent | Received
‘ ; Pounds | Pounds
United States parliamentary documents sent abroad_.-_--____- 2611553 (beast UTLANGLO | Reena
Publications received in return for parliamentary documents--__|___-_-___- 1683310 | Saas 29, 196
United States departmental documents sent abroad___-_______- 19192662|/2 222222: © 155089) Pees ee Se
Publications received in return for departmental documents__.-.|_--------- Sh020 5 /Eo ee 24, 076
Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications sent abroad.__-| 132, 737 |.-.------- PPA P22) ps pe a
Miscellaneous Scientific and literary publications received from
abroad for distribution in the United States__..-__...__.______ eee eee Oy S28 | fae eee 89, 930
Total spss arate eee Laet nen Fey lve t, Jby 585, 158 56, 180 498, 988 143, 202
Grandpotelen ta wh Ne open dy Eyl ree ts jee 641, 338 642, 190

75

76 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

During the year 3,002 boxes were shipped abroad, a decrease from
the number for the preceding 12 months of 233, a little over 7 per
cent. Of the total number of boxes, 692 contained full sets of United
States official documents for authorized depositories abroad, and the
remainder (2,310) were filled with publications for miscellaneous
correspondents. The boxes measured 16,003 cubic feet.

The number of boxes sent to each country is given in the following
table:

Consignments of exchanges forwarded to foreign countries

Country Rumer of Country Be of

Allpaniasecee tn. 42-3 siee 2a: Ue Sek 10} |\lesityias i2cebSsss ever. ee et ee 22
SAT SONU Aes aes oo ne eae as eenee sees 6b; pplaltniwanige=sse. sees a eee eee 2
Aqistnia= 225. bs loo te a2 ee 50a Mexico. s.-s28 155 3.2 she ed eee 11
SSN) (ea a hese ea eR eh ee eae a ail | N@LHODlaNdS=ss-eeeesese oe eee ea eae e 88
Brazil as -6 eee a ee Boll y_New South Walessstas2- 5" tens Ba saree 48
British’ © OlonleS==- 5 sens seas wee ee 3s | PINGw Zealand cots a e= a tee 31
Bulgarin.. =. os. --42 0 Peek SiliNorwayeb=-2ee sles 24 ee 46
WANA ae secon. see eee eee ee AAS) PP SLOS UNG sere nee eee 48
OF 0b UF eae a De eee oP el 38 | "tPersige 2282 Ses ae Soe oa hee 2
(Oh sy Nes te Pe hh I ale ee) tts) a Sev eet he, bee sae Boh ale ea Seen aoe 27
@olompin s-seb ea 2534| ("Poland =s3 4 cas soe Cee eee 69
Gosta Rica: 222 -5-22- ste bt = tke 2351 |More eae eee ere te ene oe 24
Of) ee Oe See eee 11) \MQieensland st 2. Se eo Ee eee 25
(Czechoslovakia 22 soe sens eee ee 67. Rumania teen een ee eee eae 24
Danzig 222522. 339.22 3+ nh ee || RUSS as aly ook ae eo eee 165
DONT Ane He a soe ee rece eee nae eee Bd! | | SOuth Adis tral sas = - eet een 26
1D 0| Ne es ee ope ep aS 20:||?Spains2 co. ee ee ee 38
JOH Ha) a Et eS ee ee ee DANS Ww OG OL eee eee eae ee 95
Libel ove Ok eee ee eee ee ee 1D || Switzerland] fees eee Es eee 84
WE ANICE See ana nea ene teen eae eee TS32||DasmMania-ves se ncaa sore seeee sence seeene 21
Germanys oe ee ease eee aed 3837 || PUL KOV ee eee oan eee 10
Great Britain and Ireland-_----_---_-_- PAT SSH hil Ofl aN bls eee ean rs aes Sees ee a ee } 61
(Greece so aee Paes Seas ee ee 2)}s Union of South Airica--=> 2 sos 58
Guatemala 232 eS DANO TUSUA VS soe ce ree eee 24
18 5p ee ae See lee eee Sala enezelaes = eee ee ee ee 33
fan gar yes = ne ae Ss ee ke 40 MVACtOrlastece nee c ee eee eee eee 46
Wn digtets i hoe ee ee Tao WWVeSternwATISGAll ete ee eae 20
LVR pS Se Se a Ee ee ee TOME Yuposlaviges- scenes sone w eee ene 19
Wapsnee ast Me pek eee. ce Be ean 106 —
1 Sf) 4 ER ee ee re 1 TOGA) Ee cee eer ee ene enone 3, 002

As explained in previous reports, in addition to the packages for-
warded abroad in boxes for distribution by foreign exchange bureaus,

many are transmitted direct to their destinations by mail—some be-
cause it is more economical to send by mail than by freight; some,
like the daily issue of the Congressional Record, rac ce treaty
stipulations provide that they shall be so for Finciaals and some for
the reason that they are for places remote from existing exchange
agencies. The total number of packages transmitted by mail during
the year was 76,609, an increase over last year of 8,664.

Last year mention was made that nine boxes of exchanges from
Germany were destroyed at the steamship pier in New York through
the burning and sinking of the vessel on board of which the boxes
were being transmitted to this country. I regret to report that during
the current fiscal year eight boxes for China met a similar fate at
the pier in New York, the steamship President Harrison, on board

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY FAVA

of which the consignment had been placed for transmission to China,
having been destroyed by fire and water.

As usual, assistance was rendered during the year to the Library
of Congress in procuring for its division of documents copies of
various foreign governmental publications missing in its collections.
Aid also was given to a number of establishments, both here and
abroad, in obtaining specially desired publications. For this service,
as well as for the help in the distribution of exchanges, letters of
appreciation are often received by the Institution from its corre-
spondents.

FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS

There are now forwarded to foreign depositories of United States
official documents 112 sets—62 full and 50 partial—an increase of
three over the number transmitted last year. Afghanistan, Bengal,
and the Vatican Library were added to the list of those countries
receiving partial sets. Greece, to which the shipment of a full set
was temporarily suspended, has been listed to receive a partial set.
The partial set sent to Alsace-Lorraine has been discontinued.

The address to which the partial set for Guatemala was forwarded
has been changed from the Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores to the
Biblioteca Nacional. ‘The depository in Poland to which a full set
of Government documents is forwarded has been changed by the
Polish Government from the Library of the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs to the National Library in Warsaw.

A complete list of the depositories is given below:

DEPOSITORIES OF FULL SETS

ARGENTINA: Ministerio de Relaciones Extericres, Buenos Aires.
Buenos Arres: Biblioteca de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La
Plata. (Depository of the Province of Buenos Aires.)
AUSTRALIA: Library of the Commonwealth Parliament, Canberra.
New SoutH WaAtgEs: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney.
QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane.
SoutH AUSTRALIA: Parliamentary Library, Adelaide.
TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart.
Victorta: Public Library of Victoria, Melbcurne.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth.
AustTRIA: Bundeskanzleramt, Herrengasse 23, Vienna I.
BELGIUM: Bibliothéque Royale, Brussels.
Brazit: Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro.
CanaDA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa.
MANIrosa: Provincial Library, Winnipeg.
OnTARIO: Legislative Library, Toronto.
QuesBeEc: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec.
CHILE: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago.

78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

CHINA: Bureau of International Exchange, Academia Sinica, Shanghai.

CoLomBIA: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota.

Costa Rica: Oficina de Depésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San

José.

Cusa: Secretaria de Estado (Asuntos Generales y Canje Internacional),

Habana.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bibliothéque de l’Assemblée Nationale, Prague.
DENMARK: Kongelige Bibliotheket, Copenhagen.
Eeyret: Bureau des Publications, Ministére des Finances, Cairo.
Esronia: Riigiraamatukogu (State Library), Tallinn (Reval).
FRANCE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris.
Paris: Préfecture de la Seine.

GERMANY: Reichstauschstelle im Reichsministerium des Innern, Berlin C 2.
BaAvEN: Universitiits-Bibliothek, Freiburg. (Depository of the State of

Baden.)
Bavaria: Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich.
Prussta: Preussische Staatsbibliothek, Berlin, N. W. 7.
Saxony: Siichische Landesbibliothek, Dresden—N. 6.
WortemBura: Landesbibliothek, Stuttgart.
GREAT BRITAIN:
ENGLAND: British Museum, London.
GLAsGow: City Librarian, Mitchell Library, Glasgow.
Lonpon: London School of Economics and Political Science.
of the London County Council.)
Huneary: Hungarian House of Delegates, Budapest.
InpiA: Imperial Library, Calcutta.
IntsH Fre® Srate: National Library of Ireland, Dublin.
ITvaLty: Ministero dell’Educazione Nazionale, Rome.
JAPAN: Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo.
LATVIA: Bibliothéque d’Htat, Riga.
Mexico: Biblioteca Nacional, Mexico, D. F.
NETHERLANDS: Royal Library, The Hague.
New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington.
NorTHERN IRELAND: Ministry of Finance, Belfast.

(Depository

Norway: Universitets-Bibliotek, Oslo. (Depository of the Government of

Norway.)
Peru: Biblioteca Nacional, Lima.
PoLAND: Bibliothéque Nationale, Warsaw.
PortuGAL: Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon.
RuMANIA: Academia Romana, Bucharest.
Russia: Shipments temporarily suspended.

Spain: Oficina Espanola de Cambio Internacional, Paseo de Recoletos 20,

Madrid.
SWEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm.
SWITZERLAND:
Bibliothéque Centrale Fédérale, Berne.
Library of the League of Nations, Geneva.
TuRKEY: Ministére de l’Instruction Publique, Ankara.
UNION oF SourH Arrica: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal.

Urucuay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo.

VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas.
Yu@osLaviA: Ministére de l’Education, Belgrade.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 79

DEPOSITORIES OF PARTIAL SETS

AFGHANISTAN: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Publications Department, Kabul.
AUSTRIA:
Vienna: Magistrat der Stadt Wien, Abteilung 51-Statistik.
Botivia: Biblioteca del H. Congreso Nacional, La Paz.
BRAZIL:
Minas Gerars: Directoria Geral de Estatistica em Minas, Bello Horizonte.
Rio pE JANEIRO: Bibliotheca da Assemblea Legislativa do Estado, Nictheroy.
BRITISH GUIANA: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara.
Burearia: Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Sofia.
CANADA?
ALBERTA: Provincial Library, Edmonton.
BritisH CotumBia: Legislative Library, Victoria.
NEw Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton.
Nova Scotta: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax.
PRINCE Epwarp ISLAND: Legislative Library, Charlottetown.
SASKATCHEWAN: Government Library, Regina.
CEYLON: Colonial Secretary’s Office (Record Department of the Library),
Colombo.
Cuina: National Library, Peiping.
Danzig: Stadtbibliothek, Free City of Danzig.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: Biblioteca del Senado, Santo Domingo.
Ecvuapor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito.
FINLAND: Parliamentary Library, Helsingfors.
GERMANY:
BREMEN: Senatskommission fiir Reichs- und Auswiirtige Angelegenheiten.
HambBure: Senatskommission fiir Reichs- und Auswiirtige Angelegenheiten.
HeEssE: Universitiits-Bibliothek, Giessen.
LUpeck: President of the Senate.
THURINGIA: Rothenberg-Bibliothek, Landesuniversitiit, Jena.
GREECE: Library of Parliament, Athens.
GUATEMALA: Biblioteca Nacional, Guatemala.
Harri: Secrétaire d’Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port-au-Prince.
Honpuras: Biblioteca y Archivo Nacionales, Tegucigalpa.
IceLaAND: National Library, Reykjavik.
INDIA:
ASSAM: General and Judicial Department, Shillong.
BenGaL: Education Department, Government of Bengal, Darjeeling.
BrHAR and Orissa: Revenue Department, Patna.
Bompay: Undersecretary to the Government of Bombay, General Depart-
ment, Bombay.
Burma: Secretary to the Government of Burma, Education Department,
Rangoon.
CENTRAL Provinces: General Administration Department, Nagpur.
Mapras: Chief Secretary to the Government of Madras, Public Depart-
ment, Madras.
PunsaB: Chief Secretary to the Government of the Punjab, Lahore.
UNITED PROVINCES or AGRA AND OuDH: University of Allahabad, Allahabad.
JAMAICA: Colonial Secretary, Kingston.
LIBERIA: Department of State, Monrovia.
LITHUANIA: Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Kaunas (Kovno).
Matra: Minister for the Treasury, Valetta.

80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931 ;

NEWFOUNDLAND: Colonial Secretary, St. Johns.

NICARAGUA: Superintendente de Archivos Nacionales, Managua.

PANAMA: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama.

ParaGuay: Seccién Canje Internacional de Publicaciones del Ministerio de —
Relaciones Exteriores, Estrella 563, Asuncion.

SALVADOR: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador.

SrAm: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok.

Straits SETTLEMENTS: Colonial Secretary, Singapore.

VATICAN City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Rome, Italy.

INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL

The number of copies of the daily issue of the Congressional
Record forwarded to foreign legislative bodies and other govern-
mental establishments is 102, the same as last year.

There is given below a complete list of the States taking part in
the immediate exchange of the official journal, together with the
names of the establishments to which the Record is mailed.

DEPOSITORIES OF CONGRESSIONAL RECORD

ARGENTINA:
Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Buenos Aires.
Camara de Diputados, Oficina de Informacién Parlamentaria, Buenos Aires.
Buenos Aires: Biblioteca del Senado de la Provincia de Buenos Aires,
La Plata.
AUSTRALIA : ,
Library of the Commonwealth Parliament, Canberra.
New SoutH Wates: Library of Parliament of New South Wales, Sydney.
QUEENSLAND: Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Library of Parliament of Western Australia, Perth.
AustrRIA: Bibliothek des Nationalrates, Vienna I.
BeLtcGiuM: Bibliotheque de la Chambre des Représentants, Brussels.
50LIVIA: Biblioteca del H. Congreso Nacional, La Paz.
BRAZIL:
Bibliotheca do Congresso Nacional, Rio de Janeiro.
AMAZONAS: Archivo, Bibliotheca e Imprensa Publica, Manfos.
BauwtIA: Governador do Estado de Bahia, Sio Salvador.
Espirito SANTO: Presidencia do Estado do Espirito Santo, Victoria.
Rio GRANDE Do Sut: “A Federacio,”’ Porto Alezre.
SerciPe: Director da Imprensa Official, Aracaju.
SAo PAvuLo: Diario Official do Estado de Sio Paulo, Sio Paulo.
3RITISH HonpurAS: Colonial Secretary, Belize.
CANADA:
Library of Parliament, Ottawa.
Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa.
CHINA: National Library, Pei Hai, Peiping.
CUBA:
Biblioteca de la Camara de Representantes, Habana.
Biblioteca del Senado, Habana.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bibliotheque de l’Assemblée Nationale, Prague.
Danzic: Stadtbibliothek, Danzig.
DeNMARK: Rigsdagens Bureau, Copenhagen.
DoMINICAN REPUBLIC: Biblioteca del Senado, Santo Domingo.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 81

DurcH HAst INpies: Volksraad von Nederlandsch-Indié, Batavia, Java.
Eeyper: Bureau des Publications, Ministére des Finances, Cairo.
Estonia: Riigiraamatukogu (State Library), Tallinn (Reval).
FRANCE:
Chambre des Députés, Service de l’Information Parlementaire Etrangére,
Paris.
Bibliothéque du Sénat, au Palais du Luxembourg, Paris.
GERMANY:
Deutsche Reichstags-Bibliothek, Berlin, N. W. 7.
ANHALT: Anhaltische Landesbiicherei, Dessau.
BADEN: Universitiits-Bibliothek, Heidelberg.
BRAUNSCHWEIG: Bibliothek des Braunschweigischen Staatsministeriums,
Braunschweig.
MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN: Staatsministerium, Schwerin.
MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ: Finanzdepartment des Staatsministeriums, Neu-
strelitz.
OLDENBURG: Oldenburgisches Staatsministerium, Oldenburg i. O.
PrusstA: Bibliothek des Preussischen Landtages, Prinz Albrecht Strasse 5,
Berlin, 8S. W. 11.
ScHAUMBURG-LIPPE: Schaumburg-Lippische Landesregierung, Biicheburg,
GIBRALTAR: Gibraltar Garrison Library Committee, Gibraltar.
GREAT BriraAtn: Library of the Foreign Office, London.
GREECE: Library of Parliament, Athens.
GUATEMALA: Archivo General del Gobierno, Guatemala.
Honpuras: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa.
Huneary: Bibliothek des Abgeordnetenhauses, Budapest.
InpIA: Legislative Department, Simla.
IRAQ: Chamber of Deputies, Bagdad, Iraq (Mesopotamia).
TRISH FREE STATE: Dail Hireann, Dublin.
ITALY :
Biblioteca della Camera dei Deputati, Rome.
Biblioteca del Senato del Regno, Rome.
Ufficio degli Studi Legislativi, Senato del Regno, Rome.
Latvia: Library of the Saeima, Riga.
LipertA: Department of State, Monrovia.
Mexico: Secretaria de la Camara de Diputados, Mexico, D. F.
AGUASCALINTES: Gobernador del Estado de Aguacalientes, Aguascalientes.
CAMPECHE: Gobernador del Estado de Campeche, Campeche.
Cureas: Gobernador del Estado de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutierrez.
CHIHUAHUA: Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua, Chihuahua.
CoaHuILA: Periéddico Oficial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno,
Saltillo.
CotimA: Gobernador del Estado de Colima, Colima.
Duranco: Gobernador Constitucional del Estado de Durango, Durango.
GUANAJUATO: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado, Guanajuato.
GUERRERO: Gobernador del Estado de Guerrero, Chilpancingo.
JALiIsco: Biblioteca del Estado, Guadalajara.
Lower CALiFornrIA: Gobernador del Distrito Norte, Mexicali, B. C. Mexico.
Mexico: Gaceta del Gobierno, Toluca, Mexico.
MicHoacAn: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado de Michoacén,
Morelia.
Moretos: Palacio de Gobierno, Cuernavaca.
Nayarit: Gobernador de Nayarit, Tepic.
Nuevo Lron: Biblioteca del Estado, Monterey.

82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Mextco—Continued.
OAxACA: Periddico Oficial, Palacio de Gobierno, Oaxaca.
PuEBLA: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Zaragoza.
QUERETARO: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccién de Archivo, Queretaro.
Sawn Luis Porosr: Congreso del Estado, San Luois Potosi.
Srnatoa: Gobernador del Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacan.
Sonora: Gobernador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo.
Tasasco: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccién 8a, Ramo de Prensa,
Villahermosa.
TAMAULIPAS: Secretarfa General de Gobierno, Victoria.
TLAXCALA: Secretaria de Gobierno del Estado, Tlaxcala.
VERA Cruz: Gobernador del Estado de Vera Cruz, Departamento de
Gobernacion y Justicia, Jalapa.
YucatAN: Gobernador del Estado de Yucatéin, Mérida, Yucatén.
NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington.
Norway: Storthingets Bibliothek, Oslo.
PrersIA: Library of the Persian Parliament, Téhéran.
Peru: Camara de Diputados, Congreso Nacional, Lima.
PoLAND: Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Warsaw.
PorTUGAL: Biblioteca do Congresso da Republica, Lisbon.
RUMANIA:
Bibliothéque de la Chambre des Députés, Bucharest.
Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Bucharest.
SPAIN:
Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Madrid.
BARCELONA’ Biblioteca de la Comisi6n Permanente Provincial de Barcelona,
Barcelona.
SWITZERLAND:
Bibliotheque de Assemblée Fédérale Suisse, Berne.
Library of the League of Nations, Geneva.
SYRIA:
Ministére des Finances de la République Libanaise, Service du Matériel,
Beirut.
Governor of the State of Alaouites, Lattaquié.
TurkKEY: Turkish Grand National Assembly, Ankara.
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA:
Library of Parliament, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.
State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal.
Urucuay: Biblioteca de la Cimara de Representantes, Montevideo.
VENEZUELA: Camara de Diputados, Congreso Nacional, Caracas.

}

FOREIGN EXCHANGE AGENCIES

The Polish Service of Interiational Exchanges has been detached
from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and transferred to the National
Library.

The Spanish Office of International Exchange was reorganized
in October, 1930, and is now under the Ministry of Public Instruction.

A list of the agencies abroad through which the distribution of
exchanges is effected is given below. Most of these agencies for-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 83

ward consignments to the Institution for distribution in the United
States.

LIST OF EXCHANGE AGENCIES

ALGERIA, via France.

ANGOLA, Via Portugal.

ARGENTINA: Comisi6n Protectora de Bibliotecas Populares, Calle Cérdoba 931,
Buenos Aires.

Austria: Internationale Austauschstelle, Bundeskanzleramt, Herrengasse 28,
Vienna I.

AZORES, via Portugal.

Betaium: Service Belge des Echanges Internationaux, Rue des Longs-Chariocts.
46, Brussels,

Boutivia: Oficina Nacional de Estadistica, La Paz.

Brazit: Servico de Permutacdes Internacionaes, Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de
Janeiro.

BritisH CoLontes: Crown Agents for the Colonies, London.

BRITISH GUIANA: Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society, Georgetown.

BririsH HonpurAs: Colonial Secretary, Belize.

BULGARIA: Institutions Scientifiques de S. M. le Roi de Bulgarie, Sofia.

CANADA: Sent by mail.

CANARY ISLANDS, via Spain.

CHILE: Servicio de Canjes Internacionales, Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago.

Cuina: Bureau of International Exchange, Academia Sinica, 331 Avenue du
Roi Albert, Shanghai.

ConomMBIA: Oficina de Canjes Internacionales y Reparto, Biblioteca Nacional,
Bogota.

Costa Rica: Oficina de Depdésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San
José.

CuBA: Sent by mail.

CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Service Tchécoslovaque des Exchanges Internationaux, Biblio-
théque de l’Assemblée Nationale, Prague 1-79.

Danziec: Amt ftir den Internationalen Schriftenaustausch der Freien Stadt
Danzig, Stadtbibliothek, Danzig.

DENMARK: Service Danois des Echanges Internationaux, Kongelige Danske
Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen.

DutcH GUIANA: Surinaamsche Koloniale Bibliotheek, Paramaribo.

Ecuapor: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Quito.

Heyer: Bureau des Publications, Ministére des Finances, Cairo.

ESTONIA: Riigiraamatukogu (State Library), Tallinn (Reval).

FINLAND: Delegation of the Scientific Societies of Finland, Helsingfors.

FRANCE: Service Francais des Echanges Internationaux, 110 Rue de Grenelle,
Paris.

GERMANY: Amerika-Institut, Universititstrasse 8, Berlin, N. W. 7.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND: Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley, 2, 3, and 4 Arthur
St., New Oxford St., London W. C. 2.

GREECH: Bibliothéque Nationale, Athens.

GREENLAND, via Denmark.

GUATEMALA: Instituto Nacional de Varones, Guatemala.

Harti: Secrétaire d’Btat des Relations HWixtérieures, Port-au-Prince.

Honpuras: Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa.

102992—32. 7

84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Huncary: Hungarian Libraries Board, Budapest, IV.

ICELAND, via Denmark.

InpIA: Superintendent of Stationery, Bombay.

Iraty: R. Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionali, Ministero dell’Educazione Nazio-
nale, Rome.

JAamMAIcA: Institute of Jamaica, Kingston.

JAPAN: Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo.

JAVA, Via Netherlands.

Korra: Government General, Seoul.

Latvia: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque d’Eitat de Lettonie,
Riga.

Liserta: Bureau of Exchanges, Department of State, Monrovia.

LITHUANIA: Sent by mail.

LouRENGO MARQUEZ, Via Portugal.

LUXEMBuURG, Via Belgium.

MADAGASCAR, Via France.

MApErIRA, via Portugal.

Mexico: Sent by mail.

MozAMBIQUE, via Portugal.

NETHERLANDS: International Exchange Bureau of the Netherlands, Royal
Library, The Hague.

New SoutH WateEs: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney.

New ZEALAND: Dominion Museum, Wellington.

Nicaracua: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua.

Norway: Service Norvégien des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque de
lVUniversité Royale, Oslo.

PALESTINE: Hebrew University Library, Jerusalem.

PanaMa: Sent by mail.

PaRAGuAY: Seccién Canje Internacional de Publicaciones del Ministerio de
Relaciones Exteriores, Estrella 563, Asunci6én.

Peru: Oficina de Reparto, Depésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones,
Ministerio de Fomento, Lima.

Potanp: Service Polonais des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Na-
tionale, Warsaw.

PorTuGAaL: Seecio de Trocas Internacionaes, Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon.

QUEENSLAND: Bureau of Exchanges of International Publications, Chief Secre-
tary’s Department, Brisbane.

RuMANIA: Bureau des Echanges Internationaux, Institut Météorologique Cen-
tral, Bucharest.

Russta: Academy of Sciences, Leningrad.

Satvapor: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador.

Siam: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok.

SourH AustTraLiA: South Australian Government Exchanges Bureau, Govern-
ment Printing and Stationery Office, Adelaide.

Spain: Oficina Espafiola de Cambio Internacional, Paseo de Recoletos 20,
Madrid.

SuMAtTRA, via Netherlands.

Swepen: Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm.

Swirzer~ANp: Service Suisse des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Cen-
trale Fédérale, Berne.

Syrira: American University of Beirut.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 85

TASMANIA: Secretary to the Premier, Hobart.

TRINIDAD: Royal Victoria Institute of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of-Spain.
Tunis, via France.

TurRKEY: Robert College, Istanbul.

Union oF SoutH Arrica: Government Printing Works, Pretoria, Transvaal.
Uruauay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo.
VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas.

Vicrorta: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth.
YuGostavia: Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Belgrade.

Repectfully submitted.
C. W. SHOEMAKER,
Chief Clerk, International Kechange Service.
Dr. Cuartrs G. ABBOT,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 6
REPORT ON THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ending
June 380, 1931:

The regular appropriation made by Congress for the maintenance
of the park was $220,520, an increase of $17,520 over 1930. In order
that plans and specifications might be prepared for a small mammal
house before the convening of the next Congress, $4,500 was appro-
priated and made immediately available for this purpose. In addition
an appropriation of $16,000 was provided in the second deficiency act
for new boilers and conduits. The regular appropriation act also
reappropriated $9,703 remaining unexpended under the bird-house
appropriation of 1928 for grading and the construction of cages
adjacent to the bird house. In the 1932 appropriation act $4,500 was
also made available immediately upon approval of that act to provide
for care of the Evans collection. Thus a total of $255,223 was avail-
able during the fiscal year. The regular appropriation, together with
the additions, has made it possible to carry out some greatly needed
repairs and improvements, and the work of the park has progressed
in a very satisfactory manner.

ACCESSIONS

Gifts.—The outstanding g gift of the year was the Victor J. Evans
collection of 183 species and 244 individuals, which was bequeathed to
the United States Government for the National Zoological Park by
the late Victor J. Evans.

Mr. Evans for years had been deeply interested in animal life and
had formed an unusually fine collection of rarities in his private zoo.
These are listed among the donations and include two specimens of
the white-crowned guenon (Cercopithecus petronellac), an exceed-
ingly rare little monkey, regarding which practically nothing is
known.

Mr. Evans had previously donated many rare species to the Zoo,
among them the glacier bear, almost unique in captivity.

The reptile house er Ree a great deal of interest throughout
America, and a steady stream of gifts for the exhibition has been
coming in ever since the house has been open.

86

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 7

Foster H. Benjamin, engaged in field work in Florida for the
United States Department of Agriculture, has sent in many fine
specimens; and we have profited very much through the field trips
of Dr. Charles E. Burt, of Waxahachie, Tex., who has sent us the
specimens picked up that he thought would be interesting to the
Park. Dewey Moore, of Indio, Calif., has been on the alert and has
sent a number of valuable specimens that we could not otherwise have
obtained.

William K. Ryan, of Washington, D. C., a fancier of rare birds,
has presented several especially desirable species.

The San Diego Zoo, of San Diego, Calif., contributed a collection
of some of the California species of reptiles that are difficult to
obtain.

In the late fall the director, on his vacation, visited Central
America, and while at Tela, Honduras, he was presented such
species as seemed desirable from the famous Tela Serpentarium.
R. E. Stadelman, in charge of the laboratory, accompanied him on
field collecting trips. The United Fruit Co. greatly facilitated the
work, and thanks are due to R. K. Thomas and Dr. R. P. MacPhail
for kindly hospitality and much aid. Incidentally the director col-
lected various small species and through the aid of the honorable
Secretary of Agriculture of Cuba and the chief of the Oficina Sani-
dad Vegetal, Ernesto Sanchez Estrada, was enabled to bring home
a flock of 20 Cuban flamingoes. The entire collection obtained on this
trip was transported by the United Fruit Co. free of charge to New
York, and every possible facility for the proper care of the specimens
was afforded. This was most valuable assistance, which enabled
the successful landing of specimens that might not otherwise have
been procurable.

The United States Biological Survey of the Department of Agri-
culture and numerous members of its staff have contributed speci-
mens to the Zoo and have assisted in making arrangements for other
parties to supply us with specimens.

Dr. Alexander Wetmore and Frederick C. Lincoln on a trip to
Haiti obtained and presented several specimens of two species of
lizards not seen before in captivity.

An outstanding gift was that of three beautiful specimens of
Kodiak bear cubs collected and presented by Senator Frederick
Hale, of Maine. He caught these and brought them personally to
Washington, where they are now thriving. As the National Zoologi-
cal Park endeavors to maintain an especially good collection of
Alaskan bears these cubs are a highly appreciated addition.

Practically all the plants placed in the reptile house as setting for
animals were gifts from various branches of the United States Gov-
ernment and private individuals. ‘The larger contributors were:

88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Bureau of Plant Industry of the Department of Agriculture, the
Office of Public Buildings and Public Parks, the United States
Botanic Garden, Walter Reed Hospital, and San Diego Zoo.

ENDOWMENTS

The first endowments ever received by the Zoo were two given
during the fiscal year 1931. The Frances Brincklé Zerbee Memorial
Fund of $1,000 was given to the Smithsonian Institution by Maj.
Leigh Zerbee, her husband, for the use of the National Zoological
Park to maintain stock in aquariums. Mrs. Zerbee was particularly
interested in fishes and other small aquatic forms and it was in recog-
nition of her keen interest in such matters that Major Zerbee estab-
lished this memorial fund. A bronze tablet has been placed in the
reptile house over the aquaria in which this stock is to be maintained.

William S. Barstow of Great Neck, Long Island, presented $1,000
as an endowment in the name of his son, Frederic D. Barstow.
This money has been invested and the income from it will be
used to keep a cage in the zoo stocked with some interesting small
mammal. Frederic D. Barstow, who died soon after this fund
was established, was a keen enthusiast regarding birds and mammals
and had made several trips to the Tropics for the purpose of
collecting them.

The only previous contribution to the Zoo at all similar in charac-
ter was the construction of the Beatrice Henderson cage for birds.
This cage was built during the summer of 1912 by the late John B.
Henderson, jr. It is about 24 by 40 by 26 feet, situated near the
great flight cage, and now houses cockatoos of various kinds.

DONORS AND THEIR GIFTS

Thomas D. Bacon, Washington, D. C., woodchuck.

Dr, Paul Bartsch, Washington, D. C., 21 Bahama iguanas, 119 hermit crabs,
2 common iguanas, 4 marine turtles,

R. L. Bassett, Glenn Dale, Md., barred owl.

Dr. B. L. Beaines, Richmond, Va., great horned owl.

H. W. Belt, Hyattsville, Md., king snake.

J. E. Benedict, jr., N. C., 2 marbled salamanders.

Foster H. Benjamin, Orlando, Fla., through United States Department of
Agriculture, bull snake, 2 worm lizards, garter snake, pine snake, diamond-
back rattlesnake, 2 hog-nosed snakes, water moccasin, ground rattlesnake,
water snake, green snake, 2 indigo snakes, pigmy rattlesnake, 4 soft-shell
turtles, 5 gopher tortoises, salamander, 4 alligators, bat, 3 frogs, 7 Florida
box tortoises, painted turtle, Florida snapping turtle, Osceola snapping
turtle, 2 fence lizards, 14 Florida cooters, musk turtle.

Jim Black, Pine Castle, Fla., 12 Florida cooters, 2 soft-shell turtles.

S. Bolay, New Orleans, La., 2 Texas king snakes.

Miss Isabelle Borders, Okmulgee, Okla., scarlet milk snake.

J. 8. C. Boswell, Alexandria, Va., painted turtle, spotted turtle, 2 mole snakes.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 89

M. K. Brady, Washington, D. C., painted turtle.

Edward E. Brand, Chambersburg, Pa., pilot snake.

F. R. Brown, Miami, Fla., water snake.

BH. J. and S. K. Brown, Eustis, Fla., pine snake, king snake.

Dr. Charles BE. Burt, Waxahachie, Tex., 5 Texas tree toads, California bull
snake, 2 horned lizards, Coleonyx brevis, Holbrookia propinqua, 8 collared
lizards, blind snake, spotted race runner, desert snake, ribbon snake, ringed
snake, king snake, 2 western bull snakes, Lampropeltis getulus holbrooki,
Leiolopisma laterale, Natrir grahamii, Sceloporus undulatus undulatus,
DeKay’s snake, Tantilla gracilis, Thamnophis sauritus prozimus.

Miss Jane Cain, Washington, D. C., 2 alligators.

J. R. Cargill, Columbus, Ga., opossum,

¥. G. Carnochan, New York, N. Y., 5 wood turtles.

E. B. Chamberlain, Charleston, S. C., 2 tree boas, 2 chicken snakes.

Mr. Chestnut, Hyattsville, Md., 2 opossums.

Miss Doris M. Cochran, Washington, D. C., 4 water snakes.

Colon Humane Society, through A. H. Pinney, Christobal, Canal Zone, gray
LOX

Roger Conant, Toledo, Ohio, 2 fox snakes.

W. W. Conn, Washington, D. C., double-crested cormorant.

L. C. Cook, San Diego, Calif, 12 western swifts.

8S. S. Crossley, through United States Biological Survey, Manila, Ark., blue
goose.

Dr. J. F. Crowley, Washington, D. C., 2 alligators.

Mr. Curtis, Washington, D. C., screech owl.

Mrs. N. C. Damon, Chevy Chase, Md., alligator.

A. Mercer Daniel, Washington, D. C., scaup.

R. C. Deckert, Miami, Fla., blue-tailed skink.

William Domdera, Washington, D. C., emperor boa.

Vernon Dorman, Washington, D. C., 4 horned lizards.

W. I. Doty, through United States Forest Service, Washington, D. C., porcupine.

Mrs. B. M. Dugdale, Ashland, Va., Singapore grass monkey.

Charles Eaton, Washington, D. C., fence lizard.

David Eckhardt and Edwin Lecarpentir, Washington, D. C., water snake.

Dr. William O. Emery, Washington, D. C., 5 edible frogs, serrated frog, 7 mid-
wife toads, 2 blind worms, European painted frog.

BE. R. Erwin, Washington, D. C., Cooper’s hawk.

Victor J. Evans bequest, Washington, D. C.:

Common iemUs 2 = ae ee io (Mallardduck ta 11
Brow pehiGankas sees ees ewes do) Wihite-fronted i cocse=22 2a as 2
Huropean pelican ________________ QU Deng ee ee Ee ag 8S a!
Rose-colored pelican_____________ TP MCANAd a eeOOSCas=22 2 5 ee eee il
‘Americaniegretees seats els oe aa fe) PEtUteChinS.200Se= see net eens 1
Roseateispoonbilles ee Tl SBernacle \oO OSC see 2 ee 4
AVA TO ST DS eee shed iti Er PAN Veancoloby havertchealies eo 1
SGARICC RID IS ee Ps Se a a tly BIUe sPOOSemLe LS er A oe 2
iBoat-billed eronses ee eee He STOW, -2OOS Czt es ae ot 1
Black-crowned night heron_______ 1B Coscoroba, 200sea 2 ee at
AIMerican a aii es Ose sae eee een, i MUteES Wane tee oe al
SA CreGN pis ae ee ere Aenean Cu Ck. = se 26 peer a ea AE eee 1
AV OO Cecil kak Bet De Puss his 3 | White-faced tree duck___________- 1
HV ian eS OOSC eee ee ee OP Bar-headed. SO0ke see eee 2

HOLMOSAM teal te eee ee 1 | Baldpate or widgeon____________ al

90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Yellow-billed teal{==22—-=- == 2), JELyalcinthines ma Cowes =a
Redhead2s-2- 8222 e227 eee 2) | -Australianvkine parrot=-=—— ===
@anvashacki22 222221. see | licens \maca wana aes ee
IVT CS aha ee ae ee 1 | Red, blue, and yellow macaw____~_
Red-breasted goose_—---—-------- 1 | Mexican green macaw———----...—
Shelldnakes. see ee Wp wellow, ppaloquetea=+os= a= ae
Dueks) (not identified) ==2=2—2———= 2 | Long-tailed paroquet_______----~
Spun WIne Ns £00Sene sn ee i) Nepalese paroquet=22==-—-2222———
Wally Guck2 tae ee ee ee i103) |S UERS SOT EC Syren see ee
Vulturine guineafowl_.-__-----__ 1 | Hawk-headed parrot--_--_--- = ===
Lady Ambherst’s pheasant_-___-__-~ 5 ‘Blue-cheeked\ loryoe=- = -
Goldenipheasantas.=— ee Sn ed -hedd edgar pas eee
Panama curassowe === 1 BlnesearedlOnyens = oo = ees
Brown-eared pheasant_---------- Dw Cockateelen 2a ee Se eee
Chinese silver pheasant________-- PPE NV Ofoyedbadar ay Wore Ss
Swinhoe’s pheasant______---_.__- ESS pasha a Ie ere
Himalayan) lmpeyan pheasant=2—— 1), Beautiftullory22== ee
Malay fireback pheasant___-_-_-__ 1h REVERE NICS a) AL 0 eer ee ee
Will intuit kx Gye ee ee 5 | Blue-winged conure______________
Razor-billed curassow —---------- 1 PE OLSTCNS spa ROGUC hae ee
Chachala Gays. 22 ie Sy MGLECH=N Aveda] OL yeaa eee
Blue Indian peafowl______--____- iitAriel toucans= sess as ae
Ring-necked pheasant____________ Life VisinesbindioL paragisens ==
Green Japanese pheasant________ on ROldeWorlderavenss sees
Crested) junelervquailess225 2 sre 1 | 12-wired bird of paradise_________
Reeve sspheasant=—s-22 se 3) eed: kangaroo ss. se oe eee ere
DMomeshieturkeysa asses ee 3 | White-crowned guenon___________
DUNS lefow lees ea ee ss IVT Stale srr OM yee
Memoiselles cranesss= 2 eee 2 PO SBTASSALS) Sen OTe eee
Crowned Cranes- 22s 2 eee 2 ebionay monkey. 2.2 2a 2b eee
COP WIE Ws of esr Su SO A as SS NTA CAG ORE! Sele 2 Oe ee
Sara s Cranere see. siete ee Zo walapolmemonke ya ees eee
SIPerign(CTrAaN@ 2) Se seer ee seen se | AM e ri Gam jC ay Clete soe se eee
essen aAdjutantes a ees BES arcs JOLT Ons UT Geet nec ee
New Zealand mud hen___________ 2 | Indian antelope or black bueck___-_
Stanley or paradise crane________ | ASKS CGT a te abo ae et ee
AUG ed oe cg ba a ana LE IEP ANAM ENNYl pope
INICOD as plse Ons a eee 2 | White fallow deer22-_- 2
Sclater’s crowned pigeon_________ 45iChapmants zebras oe ee
Victoria crowned pigeon_________ HUSA] B21 6h ek a RPE be
Common turtle dove_____________ Lule iMowil ony. 22. 82 ee area
Pigeon ss ose. ee ha 135) eHast Atrican’ bushy picasa
Wonaldson'ssturacous se WR and ei ee a

Dr. H. E. Ewing, Washington, D. C., tarantula.

T. N. Fielder, Washington, D. C., alligator.

Miss Phoebe B. Fleming, Washington, D. C., Santo Domingo parrot.
W. H. Florence, Clarendon, Va., tarantula.

Miss Edith R. Force, Tulsa, Okla., 6 green snakes, 2 garter snakes.
Marion Foresman, Tulsa, Okla., blue racer. °

Franklin Zoological Park, Boston, Mass., Jamaican iguana.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Oi

Mrs. R. C. Frink, Hyattsville, Md., alligator.

Carlos P. Fweninger, Washington, D. C., alligator.

H. J. Gibson, Washington, D. C., black snake.

Miss Martha Glenn, Washington, D. C., alligator.

W. Grange, Tucson, Ariz., 7 green toads.

Charles A. Graves, Washington, D. C., black snake.

David H. Greene, Tulsa, Okla., king snake.

Louis Guilini, Washington, D. C., tree frog.

Hagenbeck Bros., Stellingen, Germany, 9 assorted Huropean snakes.

Senator Frederick Hale, Maine, 3 Kodiak bears.

Jesse Hand, Belleplains, N. J., pinesnake.

A. H. Hardisty, Washington, D. C., 4 green frogs, water snake, 3 dusky sala-
manders, 6 red salamanders.

Verna and John Hazzard, Washingion, D. C., prairie dog.

T. S. Hess, Washington, D. C. fence lizard.

Mrs. W. F. Hirst, Takoma Park, Md., opossum.

W. B. Hitt, Washington, D. C., alligator.

George E. Holman, Salt Lake City, Utah, through the United States Biological
Survey, cinnamon bear.

Miss Suzanne Holt, Washington, D. C., alligator.

President Herbert Hoover, The White House, red-shouldered hawk.

Miss Mary K. Hoover, Washington, D. C., alligator.

Lieut. Edward T. Hughes, Washington, D. C., white rabbit.

R. H. Hutchison, Glenolden, Pa., 4 Florida diamond-back rattlesnakes, Texas
rattlesnake, copperHead, water moccasin.

James Hyslop, Silver Spring, Md., 2 mole snakes.

Roy Jennier, Alexandria, Va., hog-nosed snake.

Mrs. Luther Johnson, Washington, D. C., grass paroquet.

Wheeler Johnson, Washington, D. C., alligator.

Ellis 8S. Joseph, New York, N. Y., 2 green-flanked caiques.

T. C. King, Takoma Park, Md., barred owl.

W. A. King, Brownsville, Tex., fer-de-lance.

Mrs. Phoebe Knappen, Washington, D. C., box tortoise.

F, H. Knight, Washington, D. C., marine turile.

R. 8S. Koffman, Washington, D. C., great horned owl.

Samuel Kress, Costa Rica, through United Fruit Co., 2 deer, emperor boa.

Miss Ellen LaMotte, Washington, D. C., hawk-headed parrot.

Lansburgh & Bro., boys’ department, ailigator.

Major Larsen, United States Marine Corps, Quantico, Va., red, yellow, and blue
macaw.

Edward Layton, Florence, S. C., 3 alligators.

Commander Leechel, United States Navy, Washington, D. C., turtle.

B. A. Levitan, Washington, D. C., alligator.

Ardale Martz, Madison, Va., barn owl.

Marine Corps, Qauntico, Va., through Maj. K. I. Buse, cinnamon bear,

Judge Robert E. Mattingly, Washington, D. C., 2 Florida diamond-back rattle-
snakes.

J. T. McBurney, Chevy Chase, Md., opossum.

Henry J. McDermott, Takoma Park, Md., 8 bats.

EK. A. McIlhenny, Avery Island, La., 11 pintail ducks, 1 hybrid duck, 10 blue-
winged teals, 2 lesser scaups.

92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

E. B. McLean, Washington, D. C., great red-crested cockatoo.

Mrs. F. McManamy, Washington, D. C., screech owl.

y, A. Meatyard, Washington, D. C., Tovi paroquet.

E. G. Meyer, Washington, D. C., raccoon.

Kenneth Meyers, Tacoma Park, Md., common lizard, 5 common frogs, 2 water
snakes.

Michigan Department of Conservation, game branch, 2 beavers.

Miss Dorothy Miller, Washington, D. C., alligator.

Dr. G. S. Miller, Washington, D. C., 3 Jamaican tree snails.

W. W. Minear, Quincy, Ill, 14 banded rattlesnakes, blacksnake, ribbon snake,
water snake.

Robert B. Montgomery, Washington, D. C., grivet monkey.

Dewey Moore, Indio, Calif., through Bureau of Plant Industry, 9 giant hairy
scorpions, 7 sidewinder rattlesnakes, 4 desert rattlesnakes, 2 California
spotted lizards, horned lizard, Agassiz’s tortoise, California bullsnake, spiny-
swift, 4 lizards.

Mr. Morefield, Amelia, Va., owl.

W. C. Morin, Petersburg, Va., 2 alligators.

W. C. Morrill, Washington, D. C., crow.

John Marshall Newton, Washington, D. C., alligator.

Dr. G. K. Noble, New York, N. Y., 3 eyed lizards, chicken snake, 2 pilot snakes.

Robert and James Nye, Washington, D. C., hermit crab, alligator.

Miss Ott, Washington, D. C., barred owl.

Dr. 8. L. Owens, Washington, D. C., screech owl.

Dr. Parker, Heyeres, France, green lizard.

James Parmelee, Washington, D. C., silver pheasant.

I’. M. Pearson, Baltimore, Md., horned lizard.

S. F. Perkins, Washington, D. C., 7 ribbon snakes, 42 spotted turtles, 5 black-
snakes, garter snake, 7 water snakes, stone snake, Valeria snake.

Philadelphia Zoological Park, Philadelphia, Pa., Matamata turtle, Muhlen-
berg’s turtle.

Hon. Gifford Pinchot, Washington, D. C., 5 Galapagos Island tortoises.

Mr. Polock, Skyland, Va., milk snake.

Prichards Flower Store, Washington, D. C., banded rattlesnake.

Harry Prichard, Washington, D. C., small snake.

Miss Lillian Radionoff, Washington, D. C., 2 canaries.

Carl Rao, Washington, D. C., scorpion.

Mrs. J. A. Raum, Washington, D. C., barred owl.

Wm. Richards, Washington, D. C., barred owl.

H. C. Ritenour, Thurmont, Md., 2 fox snakes.

Dr. George B. Roth, Washington, D. C., 15 painted turtles.

Miss Mary Ruden, Washington, D. C., marmosette.

Paul Ruthling, Sante Fe, N. Mex., red racer.

Wm. K. Ryan, Washington, D. C., 2 blue-bellied lories, 2 angel fish, sulphur
crested cockatoo, crested starling, 2 blue honey creepers.

C. O. Samuelson, Virginia Highlands, Va., margaycat.

San Diego Zoological Park, San Diego, California, 3 San Diegan gopher snakes,
3 California boas, 2 California king snakes, 4 Boyle’s king snakes, Pacific
rattlesnake, 2 desert rattlesnakes, 3 western bull snakes, 3 red rattlesnakes,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 93

2 sidewinder rattlesnakes, tricolor ground snake, 2 green toads, Crotalus
confluentus oreganus, Crotalus confluwentus mitchellii, Masticophis lateralis,
Masticophis flagellum frenatus, Gerrhonotus scincicauda webbii, Sceloporus
magister, Phrynosoma platyrhinos, Phrynosoma m’callii.

F. C. Scheppach, Washington, D. C., woodchuck.

Edward §. Schmid, Washington, D. C., black snake.

Mrs. Jouett Shouse, Washington, D. C., alligator.

Edward Skinner, Takoma Park, D. C., banded rattlesnake.

G. T. Smallwood, Washington, D. C., marine turtle.

Capt. W. Bedell Smith, U. S. A., Luzon, Philippine Islands, 8 Javan macaques,
2 Japanese monkeys.

Mrs. W. Bedell Smith, Luzon, Philippine Islands, Palawan peacock-pheasant.

Don Spangenberg, White Mills, Pa., barred owl.

Miss Louise Spencer, Ashland, Pa., smooth greensnake.

H. V. Stabler, Chevy Chase, Md., barred owl.

St. Louis Zoological Park, St. Louis, Mo., alligator, snapping turtle.

Harry Stokes, through United States Biological Survey, Grants Pass., Oreg.,
puma.

J. R. Sweeny, Washington, D. C., 3 alligators.

Capt. Edward Sykes, Washington, D. C., 2 golden-tailed parrots.

Dr. W. P. Taylor, through United States Biological Survey, Tucson, Ariz.,
worm snake.

Tela Serpentarium, Tela, Honduras, 2 neotropical rattlesnakes, 4 fer-de-lance,
10 iguanas, spiny-tailed black iguana, indigo snake, Rossignon’s snapping
turtle, tropical king or false coral snake, 2 coral snakes, Guatemalan terrapin,
Mexican moccasin, green tree snake, 2 pike-headed tree snakes, green basilisk,
banded basilisk.

Henry and John Thies, Beltsville, Md., red-tailed hawk.

R. H. Thomas, Washington, D. C. alligator.

Miss Mary Tillman, Washington, D. C., ortolan.

Dr. A. C. Tollinger, Philadelphia, Pa., yellow-naped parrot.

United States Biological Survey, 2 Virginia deer, 3 prong-horn antelopes, 6
Canada geese.

United States Bureau of Fisheries, § diamond-back terrapins.

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., through Mrs. Helen T. Gaige,
Department of Zoology, 12 Blanding’s turtles.

Mrs. V. M. Van Every, Clarendon, Va., gray squirrel.

Mrs. V. C. Vance, Washington, D. C., canary.

W. M. Wales, Washington, D. C., alligator.

R. A. Walton, Monteverde, Fla., osceola, snapping turtle.

War Department, The General Staff, alligator.

F. A. Ward, Washington, D. C., alligator.

Mrs. Peter C. Warwick, Richmond, Va., capuchin monkey.

Dr. A. Wetmore and F. C. Lincoln, 7 Beata curl-tail lizards, 4 Abbott’s swift.

J. H. Willhite, through United States Biological Survey, hybrid wolf.

H. P. Williams, through United States Biological Survey, § timber wolves.

Dr. EH. C. Wilson, Washington, D. C., great horned owl.

B. Wright, Ashland, Va., opossum.

J. R., jr., and Howard BE. Wulsin, Washington, D. C., 3 alligators.

Dr. James Zetek, Ancon, Canal Zone, 2 emperor boas.

Donors unknown, nighthawk, alligator.

94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Births —There were 60 mammals born and 14 birds hatched in the
park during the year. These include the following:

MAMMALS
Apyprymnuus rufescens_..--.-------- Ratekan arog tea = ae nee 1
AmmMOotragusilervidiesss= == se ae eee A Oud a Ceye N= Ses ys 2
PASS RESO Bi be Mw es Sh oe Lain Ss Ne IASIB Neeru subh ke! he gh fa us eee 1
Bisonubison esa as ae eae AIMeTIC a DISGI= a epaae a= ene eee 2
@anicslatranssss = cose sae: oe dann ey Coyotes &: 4 eee ee ale 2
Canis Mubiis sees ee Be te ole ees Plains) wolfe Se Se 2 caxe. Sie ek eee vil
Career ye ca see eee es 2 a el Tbex2 te) ta en tl cele i eee Ue oo 1
Cervyusirelaphus2 4: fo Ss er eae tee Red dee ens: eect Aahueehh jinn. eae eae 5
Connochaetes taurinus albojubatus____ White-bearded gnu______--___-_-_-- 1
Damardam pees ose = Ses eee ee HMallow-deers. sac 2 see scare 1
DasVprOCuaraAc OMUia= sae ee Common agoutise == oe 1
IDaSypPLroctas puncte uae a ae eee Speckled: agouties ase = eee 2
Dasyproctarubratas ae ae ee eRrimidadsac outa ee 1
GI SME Ole see Lee yee ie ey ei er ek a ono ps ene tee emery re ree WN ey Slee 10
Felis pardus suahelicus_._....-..____- PaAsteArricany eQ parc == eae 2
Hylobates leucogenys---=--2.=.-_=. White-cheeked gibbon___._______- 1
amaclamaes ese wee Le reeks PLT Sri 8 2 2 Set a gs ee iors 2
INGSUamaATICa snes sete Blt cae te ie Coatimundi 334s. ba 4
Odocoileus costaricensis_____________-_ Costa Rican deers ee sees 1
Ovisicanadensisu= 222 58.5 hess Rocky Mountain sheep_-____------ 1
OVisieuropse usp ee eee eae IAs (Coy Dwi Ka) cease i ea LS 1
Phacochoerus aethiopicus_....-..---- Wart no gis ee os Sp ee a oe +
Sikamippontceceee soe tec Sen bee Japanese deers oils eee we Le 3
BIRDS
ANAS COMEStICAL aac. a oe. 2 ee Pekintduck sae" ea See 3
branta canadensis= 22. <2 ee Canada goosen== 2-5 Paneer i
PICa PICAMNUGHONIA Ae oe ee eee AIMETICAN MAL DIC 8 = sea eee eee +

Many species of reptiles deposited eggs since being moved into
their new quarters in the reptile house, and a few hatched after
June 80, but there were no natural increases in the stock during the
year.

Early Easter morning an African python laid about two dozen
eggs and incubated them for a period of two months. Unfortunately,
however, they proved to be infertile. This was of considerable
scientific as well as popular interest.

Purchases and eachanges.—The principal purchases this year have
been a male black African rhinoceros, a specimen of the rare babi-
russa, a pair of raccoon dogs, a Bornean gray gibbon, a Siamang
gibbon, and a white-handed gibbon. The last three were purchased
under the Walter P. Chrysler fund. At the time these animals were
acquired the Zoo had a pair of white-cheeked gibbons and their
young, which gave us a total of 4 species of gibbons on exhibition at
one time,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 95

The rhinoceros has apparently adapted himself to our conditions
and has made a splendid growth.

A quantity of reptiles were purchased for the opening of the new
building. Chief among these is a magnificent king cobra, measuring
14 feet 6 inches in length. This was secured six months before we
had quarters for it, but Dr. Raymond L. Ditmars, of the New York
Zoological Park, very kindly took care of it during this time and
then brought it down personally.

A number of small exchanges have been made, but the most inter-
esting was that of a polar bear which was received from the Zoologi-
cal Park of Edinburgh. This is a male which has been placed with
Marian, a young female of the same species.

REMOVALS

Causes of death—When it has been thought that determination of
the cause of death of certain animals might be useful, the specimens
have been submitted to the pathological division of the Bureau of
Animal Industry for examination. The following list shows the
results of the autopsies:

MAMMALS

Artiodactyla: Obstruction in the oesophagus, 1; odema of the heart and peri-
eardium, 1; chronic pneumonia, 1; liver spotted with tubercules, indications
of tuberculosis, 1.

Carnivora: Gastro-enteritis, 1; multiple body abscesses, 1; enteritis, 1.

Primates: Gastritis and ulcerated pyloric knob, 1.

BIRDS
Ciconiiformes: Enteritis, 1.
Pelecaniformes: Internal hemorrhage, 1.
Psittaciformes: Tuberculosis, 1.

ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION JUNE 30, 1931

Mammals

MARSUPIALIA
ZpYyprymmnus Turescens. 26» 22 1 ae Ratikancarooe sakes sere Ueber en 3
Didelphisivirginiang =] 2e2 se eee OPoOss a ht 8 Nees we RR? 9
NES CrOpUS TODUSHUS Stirs ho kok NS Wallaroo or euro kangaroo-_____--- 1
NIACFOPUB UL as= =a oe we He ME ND Great red;kangaroo! 22. ee 2
Phascolomys mitchellis 5322-2250 _ 24 Be OVA TIN obese Be Cina eae ee 1

CARNIVORA
Weinonye iubatuss ss 22- 0s eee ee NCCE Sieh Fae aes Nee) me cesar 1
ATCCICHISIOINGUTONE 5) ooo oe ee Binturong or bear cat______.__--- 1
DASSAMISCHSPASGUGUS l= ae ee eee Cacomixtle or ring tail......_____ 2
WANIS INGO Meese Nee Le tee DTT Ome A ain Ns byt Sha ye 1
A COvOberese tae ue craters 10
Canis latrans—---------_-----2------ [eee COV ate ae ae een my ee are 1
Canis mesomelasas0 eso 2) oe Mt Black-backed jackal............. 1

96 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Anis NUDUUSs = 2s are eee ern WO Se aa ee ae ee 18
Canis nubilus domesticus- ~---.-...--- Wolf-Edop hy brid2=: 2. See ees 1
Crocuta crocuta germinans__---_----- East African spotted hyena______- 1
f ease black bears... #64). 222 3

Euaretos americanus. -2.----2-2---- A
Cinnamonysbears- 2. = Seas 4
Huarctos emmonsiie==2- 2225 22-22... = Glacienibears = 22 =e ee A
Helisicapensissnindel = ses _ eee HasthAfrican serval #2 4-327 ee 2
Felis concolor azteca... .._-.L---.-- Mexicanpuma seus 200 5. ey 2
Felis concolor oregonensis____-_____-- (Pea yar eit sae op ee ee by ev, 1
Heligieomane a 2 wie re ee ee d Biko) oMomcaye 2 Siena Seereresr, eee ee ae 10
; APA US eens wed Sy esas ee ere 2
PES ORY Roo a5 so sees See eS Eas Black arUare sac. ae nee nem Aes 1
Rens partials rs eee RS Seer Ocelotes: 2A Lae ES see aes I
Felis pardalis brasiliensis.____.___..-__- Braziliantoceloveee a) == ieee 1
Helisipardalistvarsoo.-2- 5-455 een Ocelot eerste Sas es ee 1
Helisipandusea. see. e Saas oe ese eee Blackileoparda2e2- 322532 Seas eee 1
Felis pardus suahelicus____.__________- Past Atricaniweopard 2-22 See 6
Helisiserval eke PREG FAL ANS Servales sea Geren yy Se 1
Welstiprise Jeb e. oS ea ay ik Bengal tigers] 24: ose! th were 1
Relis)tigrisilongipilis: .- 22-222 bees = Manchurian iger-t-2 4202. aes 1
Genetta dongalana neumanni________-_ Neumannis) genetics 4-24 a= 2
Gulopiscuses22 2 alee sa ee Wolverines] 2353 ee. eee 1
EHelarctos malayanus==...2~-.2-2252-5 Suntbears | Sue se. eee ee 2
Elerpestes-ichneumon=._. 2-220 2224 Egyptian mongoose_____-_______- 1
lnQretey: lyauhoude = = oe ee ee ee Brownshyena! === aes. 2 ese ee 2
Lutra canadensis vaga._..._...-_-_--- Hlondajotterss 22. aaa ae ee a ee if
ivncpaile yaa = 26 ee ss Oy BA Baileyasuliyixe 222 = ee ee ee it
Aye CARA C Alisa 2, east nee Sela 4 ae ey en Caracal ae wae oie tee ee ee il
Fey MUL URSS Basen ee See ee Bayaly ne -= Soe oe oe ee ee 2
Mellivora capensis)... oa. 522 2234. 2s Ratelis ik 2 pals eee ae a ee ce 1
Mephitis nigras ot. hy eee se ae Sk wrakc tet ali ark oe eee 2
ECS UCLA HUNG Desks Sauls een eae erretso 4 Mee 2 a ee 1
Han ENS) DECAY oY dk esp om A De Gray COstimUndl s+. 220 u eee 8
Lal (26S) SIC AY) 6 a 2 oc ec A Coatimiundinetee. se ee ao eae il
UNIS US 10 ed ores eR ee Brazilian coatimundi____________-_ 1
Nyctereutes procyonoides___________- Raccoon.dogtee ees te ee 3
Paradexurus philippensis____________- Philippine palm civet_.___.___-__- 5
Rotos flavus 2). Bese. oes Pe a 2 ees Kinkajouso- ssn. 42 32 eee ft
Procyon Cancrivorus::=- 224.22 222 3 Crab-eating raccoon__-__-_.._..- 2
Frocyon lotor 2-42 25. ee ee RACCOON. es oe ne ae ee ae) 23
Provelescristatus.. 2222. ee ee Aard=woOlts aaa e 2 — aes eee 1
Masidea taxgs she ee a ee cee American. badger. -...4 2 woh ees 2
MAYA DAT DATA ES 5 FFs oy ent ae Oe Mayra o2eee ee Ske a ee 1
Thalarctos maritimus__._..___._.--_- Polar bear. 22-102 ee ee 4
Urocyon cinereoargenteus____________ Gray fox = 3 - ee ee 2
MTGC YON Spo. 255 cn ee ee dees Gray [ORs 38. oe epee ee ee 1
Wrsus-apache: 225 2° (2-22) 2. a Apache grizzly. '* 22° eee eee 1
Wisustarctosst £2. Jess ust See ee European brown bear--+:--------- 6
RUCAURSO VAR = se ee ee iy Safe rahe Alaska Peninsula brown bear----- 4
PIPES SOORTLOUIN - occ Sei She ho as Grimley iDeAbe 2 oe ee Ae 1
Rirste elgg ert ee Sec ee Widder spear =... eee 2
reuse smddendor. one. akc Kiodisk Dear==24 2+ nae oe ee ee 5
PIPAUB SICK OUSINS So hs on eeu ey eae Sitka.brown, bear -- 25 S3geebe 3

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY O7

Wrsusthibetanuse 82. 2 eee SU ramalayan bearin sso eos cee 2
Waverra clvetian 5. oseenster ee he Civeth spre 23 tae er ok Ne 1
Wiverra tangalunga._ serge a8 oe es Abe aver hbboyeq Tee See Ue 8 a Se We 1

Ue YO I pcg EMD Knol elect he ea 4
Vulpes fulva__-.-------------------- RaSh RAL ee Oleg TORN UML i

PINNIPEDIA
Gallorhinus:alascanuss. 522 .— 22 -e ese WNorthernutur seala 22 = pe a ce 2
DO CA TIC NATO ses ese ee ese Paciicsharbor scale se a aes ee 3
Zalophus califormianus:.-....--=-- == @alitornia:sea onal: fa wen ete lon 3
PRIMATES

INO LUSHEniVAn OA GUS tee see a ee ae ID OW TROWOO WA a 1
HCLEST EC OMTO Ya on tet eet Malena et Gray spider monkey.ssscs one sete 2
INTRESIGIE y l E E iaae Spider ;monkey2es2 lo sae tne eee 1
CATE TACCHUS Sheets Soe ee ee ee ak Marmosettes 42sec ams wea co il
Webuscapucinuse ss ene es White-throated capuchin_________ 4
CebuUsTUnICO LOL Nee= sen se aa nee eee Gray or grizzled capuchin________ 3
@ercocebus fuliginosus] 2-- 222222222 pootymangcabeywee sok ss oes 4
Cercopithecus albigularis__.....-____- Sykes’s or blue monkey__________ 4
Cercopithecus brazzae- --_---_- +--+. De Brazzais guenon! 2222) 22 ues 1
Cercopithecus callitrichus___--------- Green: sucnons). Se Re ee 2
Cercopithecus cephus. 2. 322222. -.= 5 2 Mustachepmonkey 22222250 u 20 2s 1
Cercopithecus griseoviridis._..._____- Grivetp monkey eos2 42) be le eee 4
Cercopithecus lhoesti. _.....-==--.-= Kallim biraiguenen 2 2-02 oe 1
@ereopithecussmonass. 0. eas Monanmonke yas ee Sina ee 4
Cercopithecus petaurista__------------ Lesser white-nosed guenon________ 2
Cercopithecus petronellae__-----___-- White-crowned guenon___________ 1
Cercopithecus pygerythra___......-_- Mer vieb ei, (patie ike il
Cercopithecus roloway_--------~----- Roloway monkey. 22225252522 015 1
cE ovmllangorill aac nee ae 0 i che Ghar ppt aera ok Se Se eee 1
Hylobates leucogenys..-...---.------ White-cheeked gibbon___________ 2
itemunimififrons =. 2-52.55 85000 2 kas Red-frontedilemuri oie eee 1
Heoptocebusmosalia.. = 2. 2 ea Silky orlion-headed marmosette__._ 2
Macacarandamanensis= = -2- 42-22-52 —2 Burmese macaque=—2= 522-52 22-2 1
iMacsesfuscatacis. 2 60g k oh ee Japanese monkey ss sa -9e ese ee ae 5
[SU LEWES SAD TU (So ee ES Crab-eating macaque_____-_____- 2
NIACACAMMOLGAX<c oe: cee eek eos & Javan Mace quel cae soe on ee 2
Macaca mulactatt ase 2 oe ee Rhesussmonkey eases se ee 5
Macsea/nemestring....- 2. 2.22.22 ale Pic-tailed monkey=se aos 2eee ee it
NACRCaACSDeCIOSA = 3 oes ee eee Red-facedimonkeyssas == ae ee 1
Macsealisyrichtaj a2! S 22s edt kee Philippine monkey = 232.5522 3
DEVAS USS RU EMITS ico a Aye Moor monkey. ales 0s a 2
Mandrillus leucopheus______-.------ 1 Lea ES See ok 1
Mandrillusisphing.) 22.8 soo oe oo Mandrill 45 ere Ot ee 3
Miopithecus talapoinw 2222 20525202 islapoimemonkey= sass === aa eae i
Ia ist yrs eee ee vy a Chimpanzees asus on AEs Ut 2
Repo semillsise rere Sis 2 eel fo). 2 ee as Anubis or yellow baboon_-_-__-___-- 1
IPaplonbamadny isi = o-oo) oe ee Hamadryasvbaboon=245. 3 <> ee 1
IPaplo MOUmeniIa Ki fe ke Olivewbaboonk sec oe ten la Ne 1
pap ON POrcariwsits 2) 5. ee cee Chisenra sed sine SS see ag: Ore 2
DIMA SVLVADUS eee cas oe ele BaALDary; Apes as eee = see Sk I

98 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931
RODENTIA
Acanthionybrachyurume=ss—e Malsy.porcupine... --- See ase Se
@astoncanadensissss sesso =2e= 42s = = American beaver.=-=2-+--2=5=---
(avia porcellus: = 2252022 eee Domesticiguineaypig======———====
Citellus tridecemlineatus_------------ Thirteen-lined ground squirrel- ---
Cuniculus paca virgatus_-—----------- GentralvAmerican paca. == 32s
Cynomys ludovicianus:.-=-2.--.==222 Prairie dope eee 2 2242 5 ee
Dasyprocta, punctatan_---25 => 2=— 5 Speckled-agouti-.-- 5.2. --22-- =
Dasyprocta tubratase==-—=-4.-—.. = Trinidadsacoutis===s2 2262. sees
Dolichotis*patagonicas-_ 22 =~ === -—F —- Patagonian cavy=a2 esa
Molichous salinicolas-=s22e = see Dwarticayy = sae nea ee ee
Preqhizonidorsauui sees eae Hastern,porcupine:. ==. 4- 224-2
Glancomiys wolansess--o2-4 22222 5-——— Biving pquirrelij S220 2 See ee
Hydrochcerus hydrocheerus --_------- Capy Dara eee ae Se eee
Hystrix africeaustralis.._...-....-=-- African porcupine== 22 22-2
Lagostomus trichodactylus_-_-__--_---- NGSCAG Ian nee ats ae eee pee
IMlstremy Oster) OTe eet ee Wioodehuck si 222s eee
: 5 : Gray squirrel: 22-2225 -6 see see
Bounds cardnens so pete STAY EQUITTCL 2 oe ae
DCMINUS NIG eT ak Ae te ee Pox, squirrele se 2 Soa ee eee
LAGOMORPHA
Oryctolagus cuniculus=— 2 5222225 Soe" Domestic 'rabbitzstou 82 45525 se
ARTIODACTYLA

/Epyceros melampus suara_-------_- DEV y Naa (oso se0c) op D ye
ATTN OURS OT yl Slee ae eee ee re Aoudad or Barbary sheep- -------
ANOS CPressICOLD Sas ee ae ae ee ASIN Spine Stee Seo Cee coe eee ere ae
ANDULOCADIa AaMerlGAns == os ene Prong-horn antelope=222 222-2222
Antilope CeLvicspras c= sane eee Black buck or Indian antelope----
PACS S921 5c) ee eset ove SEER OE hee Axisideers seas an LE Gy Te eee
LBA ovo Ues|ef), CNDADE ADIs mes esas ss as ee a Babinussaccss ss" =e6U eee
IBIBO HsDISONES Soke ae meee a ee en ee American bison or buffalo_____-_-
IBOSMINGICUB==2l- Se see eee eee Zeb Uses ne eee ae
Boselaphus tragocamelus____.____-__- NUN reds ee oie oe oy yc SE
PES Uo SATS Fo ULE Sas eee ee oe Iba(olt yay joxeheial oye ee is
Camplus bactrianus) = 2202) Ss Bowe Bactrian: camelass= ++5 = ase
Waprea HOUR e Sse nee me ees Goatemes 82 c5 2535259525 5s0 oe
Wapra teres ors le ot tue a 2 pee ane Alpine ibex 2 5-22-2223 s7 ae
Cervusicanadensis: 225202 ae See American elk or wapiti_._..___.---
Cenvus*claphus 5222 eee ees Redideers 22222222) eee ee
Cervusphanglis= 252s ese se ene Kashmir deerss2222 52a ee
Cervus) xanthopygus_=_--- 2) =) see Bedford deer: £:--2222/2 ===
(oOnnochmresenie Jase sete oe een Wiite=tailed onus = 2322-8 eee eee
Connochetes taurinus______-_-____-_- Brindled: gnws2 Shee eee Oe
Connochetes taurinus albojubatus__._._ White-bearded gnu_______-_-----
Hallow deers: = a2 Ae eee
eee (eee deers (white) 2222222 ee
Hemitragus jemlahicus______________-_ Tahreseas 2 ecoce sosiee i OS
Evelaphus porcinus:-.--- be ee Hogi deer=s22 2<): -+- eee
Darmace ams e535 > ee ee Mamawes2cs-224. 42 ee

FP NOrF KE NWeHWrENNKFPNDOKHNAAN

WDWOWONNRFNOEYFNOINWH WN RRP OW We oO bd

\.

We)
co

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY

amarhuanaclsessee sess ==. eee @Qusndcosinsse = S25 25 Slee ae 2
Odocoileus columbianus sitkensis_----- Sitkaydeerie asses ie ot ep cae 1
Odocoileus costaricensis_------------- C@ostapRicankd cere ease ae 1
@docoileus hemionus= == 22 "= 2s ssc TASS RDU CEH Ca KX) A a a 2
Odocoileus virginianus_-.-..--------- Wingimisi deer: sisson a ee 4
Oreamnos americanus__.....-.._--__- Mountains costes. ses en aes 2
Ovibos moschatus wardi-...---------- White-facedimusk oxsus os === 2
Ovisieanadenpiset ss. oe a Rocky Mountain sheep_-__-------- ¥
Ovisienropaeuss sah. 2 ook at MOUH OR soS hype en. eo ses Z
ecanivancwlatuse: 9 25s 2o so ee ae Beccary ie ae ee 1
Phacochcerus ethiopicus massaicus.__.. East African warthog_------------ 3
Boephagus, erunniens-.-—-.=-.-.--..- ASU ye oe Stes Ue a i ee 7
Potamocheerus chceropotamus- ------- East African bush pig..---.-+--4- 2,
Rangifer-tarandus---~~ == 20000) 22 500s Reindeer-e ee == 22-2255 ke cL 3
Rueervus duvaueelii_.__22 2-22 ---_- Barasinghat2--2 224.2 eee ui
Rucerv.usiel dite ata SE Burmese deers-=-4-= 22 a ees 1
RUsaymoluccensistaa === = hai ee Moluccaideer=222- 4.52289) SU GOR 1
Sikasnip poner edess 45 oe oe oe Japanese.deer-- - 2. itira thous oi a 14
Strepsiceros strepsiceros_---__-------- Greater:kidui 2220.4 S22 SUC wage 1
SuUsyScrofaen -e 22h we ee es NS SEY European wild boar...-_-.-----_- 2
Synceros;caflers.-:.e2 2 1222 5 BU South African buffalo.-.....____- 1
Pragelaphus-angast=--~- 922 Des Invalasaecca scence US ELAR Eee 1
Taurotragus: Ory. xs s2222 sere Oey Blande 22s + 2. lS Bs Eas 3
PERISSODACTYLA
Cheeropsis liberiensis. .~...._..------- Pigmy hippopotamus-_-....._---- 2
WauUA PrGVYi-ASINUa 8 3 oo EASON Oi Oe | Be ee ee 1
Equus grevyi-caballus_--_.....------ Zebra-horse. hybridiz+-..25--25 225 1
CINE, ONDA ORS eee. 82 sigs 8S aes Asiatic wild ass or kiang__-..____- 1
IF CQUUSsOLZEWAlSKI Sea a ee Mongolian wild horse_--....------ 3
Equus quagga chapmani_________-_-- Chapman’sizebras-24 4.220 552304 5
POU O DER ees eke no ee) af ae Mioumbatny ze bnaa ee ee 2
Hippopotamus amphibius___________- Hippopotamuse==2-)2=- sl 2omeGeu 1
Rhinoceros«bicorniss.2= See es ea Black thinoceross2 ee nek oe 1
Fapirella bairdliv 24-22. 0PO eo Baird/s:tapin=-a2-2. = S0saoue aan 1
Papirus, terrestris: = 22222-2209 2009 Brazilian tapirs=<.2--=202 722008 1
PROBOSCIDEA
lephas sumatranus. ne ee Sumatra elephant] o2]-022seeeee= 1
Loxodonta africana oxyotis_..________- ASnicaneele pai bas ee ee 1
EDENTATA
Dasypus novemcinctus...-..___..__-_- 9-banded armadillouywts2c2i2sei <2 1
Birds
RATITAE
Casuarius unipendiculatus___________- Single wattled cassowary.___--_-- 2
Dromiceius novaehollandiae__________ Commoniem ies HU 3
Rhea-americand 2.2.2 nee a et Common rhea or nandu______---- 1
Struthio australses 222s. eee eee South: African ostrich. . 2222222222 3
piruthio camelus: =... 22208 Sr i: Nubianostrich2 2. --2 012 ine peo 1

102992—32——_8

100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

PELECANIFORMES
Anhings enhinpas so) oe eee eee Anhinga or snake bird_-_---_____- 1
Pelecanus californicus___......._--___ California brown pelican__--_____ 4
Pelecanus conspicillatus..._.__.__.__~- ARIS Ur SINAN eC Arlee tee eee 1
Pelecanus erythrorhynchos__.____---- American white pelican__--.____- 10
Pelecanus occidentalis. _.____________- Brean spoty ope) Wey als ha ee ee le a 4
Pelecanus onacrotalus_.--...-------- Buropesn Peucahee 22s a— na aeons 4
(Belecants roseusees am ans a= = amare ee Rose-colored pelican. _-_________- 2
Phalacrocorax auritus floridanus_--__-_ Biorida cComiorants 2 oon eee 1
CICONIIFORMES
Aaa Ajajee = 2 on oo deprel ye epee beet Roseate spoonbillyal ses eee 2
Arceangoliaths: als: oyu bi a tee Goliath heron’ so een ee 2
Ardea, herodias: 222. 202s 2 ee Great blue heron - 35 - se arhe pers 3
Andes, occidentalis. 2--_ = nals Sa a Great white heron______-2L.2-sss 1
Balaeniceps rexe = 22. Joe ee & Shoebill/stork 5224 2h eh 1
G@ochlearius cochlearius. —~2-+-+-.--=. Boa tin sece ses 3
Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis _------- saddle-billedistork 2 == Snes 1
Gudra alba = 5 So eee eee Wihitevibis ses) Saree 2 oe eee 9
Guarairubras = 2 23 Gee ete Searlet ibis]... 25-2 eens 3
Heroidias egretta.=-..--...£----at==- American egret. ..--js22 52-522 5h 1
Leptoptilus crumeniferus_-_--_-------- Maribous.--) 22 2222S ooaa ee eee 1
Leptoptilus.dubiuss 222-52. 4225 e2e— Indianvadiuiant==s2=22252—s—s4—— 1
Leptoptilus javanicus._.....---a322v2 ihesseradjutant.. 22+ 32°52 22 522% 2
Miyctenia americana se aes aoe aee WicodMibisas25.)5 2s eke eae ees il
Nycticorax nycticorax naevius-_-_---_-- Black-crowned night heron_-__-__~- 30
Phoenicopterus ruber_=---5==------_— AIMeTI CA ef simi 0 Oe ee 11
Threskiornis aethippicus_—_._---____- Sacredtibisesese= se See ee 3
Threskiornis melanocephalus-______---- Black=headed ibis22-2 222 22 22 2
ANSERIFORMES
Aix SPOUSS =o os Se eeepc Wood. duck. 28 4225 perp ad eee 1
Alopochen aegyptiacus__.------------ Egyptian goose. -—<<t2en td ena 3
Alopochen jubatus= = 22222 See Orinoco goose. =-_ = eh ete et i
Anas domestica. s-—-- 2 oo = pee ein Peking duck... ..<: ab4iecet ae 3
AnSSplatvrnyRChOs= =e 2 oho. oe seen Mallard. 22655 5 2222. seers eee 34
MEAS TUDTIPCS = Ae os a So soe e hs a RN Blackior dusty mallard__..___.__- 2
ANAS MING atae= os]. jane a ee ee African yellow-billed duck_______ 2
oe Nro¥s (oe. $231 | VDA ya) oY =| ae ee ie Ne an Lyk White-fronted goose___.._______- £
AMBEEIDraCh y chia CUS = a= = ses ee Pink-footed @oosez-~-22-s2-—-.55— 1
Anser cinereus domestica_....---.---- ALOWULOMSE SOOsG {os 555 ace eee 2
PRHBET PARAMS! = 2 5. SS, oder BO ee Bean, goose a0) o2 ooo eee ee 2
Branta bernicla glaucogastra_____.-_- Brant... Sus 86 Qmoyoe Rue 6
Prana CANAGOUAIS 2c coe eel oe eee Canaua pogse.2 228. Seer 22
Branta canadensis hutchinsii-_____-_-- Putchins’s .oose. as 2-0 oe oe 1
Branta canadensis minima_____-_-__- Cackling go0ne: S54 -as65- = meee 2
Branta canadensis occidentalis____-_-_- White-cheeked goose____--------- 31
@asarca Variegataceencu: duldten sleud Paradise duckzssabecdiveedenpe < 1
Chaulelasmus streperus__-.-.---___-- Gadwall. --aebueutie deeesesdeek 2
@hen. caerulescenshen-- =< a2a8-saneeat Blue goose...=---—-- - syanteee: 4
Chenopis atrate 2s eetes stk pee Black swan... --.....sYastera 23d 3
@oscoroba candida. ..-=-dsizsex cele Coscorobs, goose... - -siisseee ote 1

cov REROB® OF PHBE, SEGRETARY 95) 9.5) yy 101

Cygnopsis cygnoides__-tiranurks sette) Chinese goose__---. stoke endeotes
Cygnus columbianus___------_. Or edas Whistling. SWAN 226) feet ts cecal
Cygnus gibbus_--- ~~ ~~ Jingo anodexeH Mute swan__--_-- Kala) cad erie asad exit 44
Dafila acuta_-.------ wonairte anokerld Pintatlses SAU oes =< 95hdGle-xA1
Dafila bahamensi¢-,:¢0449-boldaw-exieg, Bahama pintail-- ~~~ ~~~ gsofdolea-xe7
Dendrocygna arborea_.oc2es69 wHeaed West Indian tree duck sje puee-y et
Dendrocygna autumnalis., + .+5-44-+<1) Black-bellied.tree,duck..., -.. yt ae
Dendrocygna eytoni-------tieye-eqrais] Eyton’s tree duck jase nisotontinny
Dendrocygna viduata___---j44)-sionWd, White-faced tree duck__--- ~~~ a4; { {5
Kulabia indica-_-_---igaaaode ebtew ba Bar-headed goose-_--sa5;.e5'9-epoeq 1:
Mareca americana__-_-_-_ .-toaaneite ovine Baldpate-------spsopsaddova-susena
Marila americana. - yinozode-a'oosirive, Redhead__._------ 4oedaiwe-aomnin
Marila marilapode +eesced-Hay plone hl OCBUD- = 45S capan easel ippeoricconion
Marila valisineria______ ---s9i55}5ipy Canvas-back_______, VerAlas cope natal
Metopiana peposacasaaw+-Loutse-as| Rosy-billed pochard__---_--vsne-))))
Nesochen;sandyicensisassd-a'ssncaicies Hawaiian goppeeg doins-ptpertinee ebirt
Nettion carolinengeintsads bobaodt-+eq~) Green-winged teal ---- seasingnig etlet
INetLion LOnTMOSaalaiseds-Lolled-siuty baikal tealoe 20 ye noe
Philacte canagica.....--_-.----tI-nete9q [Emperor goose_...-..-.-.._._ pan
Plectropterus gambensis_loeis--s2.04 H Spur-winged FOOReR ore OS
Querquedula discors---- ~~ sesa-beisoxrD » Blue-winged teal - ~~ -prepiritact cee : ye
Rufibrenta ruficollis.cesode-fsodaacams{ Red-breasted goose 454055963 spend
" FALCONIFORMES | Tei:
Aegypius monachus. 2! )).2 a iLpotce™) Cinereous ules =z iuotivor anlutl
Aquila chrysaetos__——~ - inesodg 297995 Gelden eagle... =/297991 euvitsar
Buteo borealistis4p so sae ae Red-tailed hawk.veoss she so
Buteodineatuss a eee SM ORéed‘ghouldered hawk_-___._.___-
Buteo platypterus___-__- Me eee as . Broad-winged hawk-_-_--.___. inane
Pathentcs Atte so te ees unoas eon Turkey vulture: sce ae aro uo ny
@oragy hs AirAtas eee nee afl bE EY go) nb pape ani ae o,f
Blants;enerticdg 22sec es ee White ites cee sae ole alee
Palco petegrinus.o- ~~. 2 ose iB se Pereprine falcon tues eee
Falco sparverius-—~~—_- cane aie ai Be WODAIOW LHW Saco eee nae
Gymnogyps californianus/ 222") California condor2222 2S Bh
Gyps mieppelte rn ee ~ Ruppell’s vultare----- aspuncjaonyees: ASD Son
Haliaeetus leucocephalus- TRS AD ios Bald eagle 2222. Zigsyae oi ~~ == pice ans iets
ivohiaetur induese sero ee seas nae. Malay Btabiiiny kite re ee
Biilvus wiigranees ore es Yetlow-pilled mite-- "eee ee
Polyborus theriway—_---_---__--___> Audubons caracaral= 22° dines estar
Peoudogyps airicamuss sas ; White-headed vulture---=5 2222")
Sagittarius serpentariis.-. 2-2. _-.. Secretary bitd2----- 0-2 eee
Sarcoramphus papa. .222_____- ig ee Ring’ vultuter. 2-0 22. cae pentcs
Perathopils ecavdatds2s=.--.-- Batelour eapic. © ates a
Torgos tracheliotus___ ~~ wees sa aie __. African eared raneam cp ar
Uroaetus atidax-_-- 7 Wedge-tailed eagle=2 2 te Ze noe
Vultur gryphtis--———-- o os mar Asati ee South American eondor - Gari eore ns i
ih Da * WH C ass habs Aw UMLoOT
» attfronens ; BUTOMBIOAMT O17 Here
Acryllium vulturinum seu Sscdeedupest) Vulturine guinea aie ~-aibishe sada
Argusianus argus__--...---------ssai Argus pheasant__ ~HHechi-actoboosn

Chrysolophus amherstiae______.______ Lady Amherst’s pheasant_______-__

rs)

AH BD R09 GR Go ht It [BO She (ho (Co Gs eb GA 8 GD

) OARS HUES Ne EEN OPO et 09 Ge QS

gee
ri

102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Chrysolophus pictus._...------------ Golden -pheasant=. 22220201 Slob
Colinus:virginianus.22220220_ S027 0 Bobwhites 2-22-02 C2 eos Au
Coturnix:.coturmnitss=5 462 ova Migratory: quail... =. 222228 2
Crax-globicera--s2 ose Mexican curassow...------------
Craxiglobulosass-e2.2 2 SST ee Spixs wattled curassow__----_-_--
@rax-panamendis 22 2 an ea Panama curassow..-------------
Crossoptilon mantchuricum_-_------- Brown-eared pheasant__-__------
Excalfactoria sinensis__._....._.._----- Pigmy- quail. -.-2-2002 £9 Ames
Gallus-eps-- sss BUDO Daa EN Jungle -fowloio.e2tt Lue ee ee
Gennaeus edwardsgi__.___----_------- Edward’s pheasant-.....__._--_-
Gennaeus nycthemerus----_---------- Silver: pheasantso222.8222 2022 28
Gennaeus swinhoei- 2. 2-222 22 B22 222 Swinhoe’s pheasant____________--
Lophophorus impeyanus._----------- Himalayan Impeyan pheasant- ---
Meleagris gallopavo. 22S eee Wild turkey =... BUS Bt
Mituemitua- = + — = 2100000 ree Razor-billed curassow__--_--_----
Numida mitrata reichenowi-_..--_---_- Reichenow’s helmeted guinea fowl-_
Ortalis cinericeps:-.20 522 DAE es Gray-headed chachalaca___-____~-
Ortalis leucogastra= ==22-- 22220 ee White-bellied chachalaca________-
Pavo cristatus oe Eee OE TPT eae oT Or Ph

PE a I Sa Ee ERS White: peafowl s2h5oiien Sse
Penelope boliviana ~..-------------- Crested guan === 2=0os. Ae baun
Phasianus terquatus_2 0 Vote oboe Ring-necked pheasant___.________
PhasianiisiversicOlor=-=. oo) ) esac ee Green Japanese pheasant_______-_-
Polyplectron napoleonis_--_---------- Palawan peacock-pheasant-__-_-_----
Rollulus moulroules. ea eee Crested jungle quail_............
Syrmaticus reevesi__ .-.- =e. 55 Reeve’s pheasant... — ~~ soo-sede on

GRUIFORMES

Ath rOpOlGes vil pO mea arse anes Demoisellevcranes 222 see e eae
Antigone australasiana.._._......_.._- IAUISULS TAN ChAT Ce eee are eee
Balearicagibbiricepss.- os eee East African crowned crane__-_-__-
Balearica pavonina pavonina_-______- West African crowned crane_-___-
Warlania ChIStAlAs a2 2.005 ge cee es CATIA s hie 5. as eh ee
DISsUTSa EpIBCOPUS. =. ea ee Woolly-necked stork._...._.___--
DUP PY PaNNClAS =. os 2228 5. eee PUNPDIGterMs =" 2. 22 ek aes
MOMCA RINGTICAN ASS. 22 oa 2S eats (Clea) 1 a Ny
MiMlicareniswatasoooop se fee ikmobbedteo0tes es = = a eae
(GRUsHANUIGONeS Some 2 ao he ee DSTasiCrane sti a See ae
DyRHARCHMAE RAIS 2s <o 5- os eR eee Little brown crane_.-..__..____-
AETRUIBUCINONC See. meee on ea ee GFAY Crane. Shee nae
Grusileucauchene sa. 22-2 hess White-naped crane___-____.--___
Grus leucogeranus...- 2 8 ce Siberiamccrane 222 <<
rus TMeXICANA! soe ees es Sandhillicrane. 2. ne eee
Hypotaenidia philippensis____________ Desser mails ss eg ee
Mepalomis iifOrdl teste sea Ibilfordsrcranes= sas eee
Microtribonyx ventralis.__._._._._.______- Black-tailed moor hen_--..__.__-_-
Ocydromus ‘australis. 20 2222-5 t. South Island weka rai]l__________-
Parphyriomelanotua.. 2-35. nweess New Zealand mud hen__________-_
Paoohiajerenitange uns 2:5) eee Uirumpeten 2 282 3s Ue ye ee
Feophia viridisss. 200) fous gormity Green-backed trumpeter__________
Hhynochetos jubatus. og) i 2siu JS. Kage ce cece cee Sf ee

_

keNN PRR RP RRP REN RP NRF NON WR Re NON &

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 103

CHARADRIIFORMES
PEATUIS TAL RENCAUUISes. oe ee ee Herring cullen ac see eee 5
NESYUBTCALTROLINC US mseteys a een Calirorninngulloss a sees eee 7
Larus novaehollandiae________-_.--_- Silver gull a ee ee eee 53
Panusroccidentalisese meas yee nen NWVesStermcgiieem at compan nara 6
(idicnemus bistriatus vocifer__-______ South American stone plover______ 1
Philomachus pUgnaxe.- 282520550 —- LA aah yg te Ni th ata Nectar 4
SPCR ARCASDIN oe ae ere arene ae Caspian Cénie. see ne eee 2
COLUMBIFORMES
Caloenas nicobaricas 229 ss55248 sano 4 INICObaT pigeons ee ae eer 7
Chalecophaps indica: 445 hen 3s Eo Green-winged dove_-___-.._._--- 1
Columba sp. 2.2... eee eee ates DOVES a eee eta awe Ru pee 2
Columba ruinéa.<2) 9 esses pe Speckled ‘pigeon [yesh a ae 3
Columbs palumbusssi2a2 Bales oes Wood pipeon= <.2— | {eb ater ee 3
Gallicolumba luzonieaz-. 2-22-2222 2- Bleeding-heart dove___....___---- 2
Globicera pacifica....- 45-26% 22-2253 Pacific pigeon. 5320 se see 1
Gouraysclaterize oo tobacco eh Sclater’s crowned pigeon________-- 4
Ours, ViCtOrs =. 20... > Se ace ater’ Victoria crowned pigeon_________-_ 2
Janthoenas vitiensis....-4.i.--L--.-- White-throated fruit pigeon_______ 1
Macropygia doreya..beeaee bah 54-b55 New Guinea brown pigeon_______- 1
Oena. capensis... ..--<—-vech basae i Cape dovez.u3) ost oe ee eee ey it
Streptopelia risoria..2 22 2-2 eet BO Ring-neck dove. 2.222552 = 2
Streptopelia senegalensis.__..._..---- East African ring-neck dove_____- 5
Murtur visoriasas8so2) Sees e500 Purtletdove ss seo eas aes eles 4
Zenaidura ‘Macroura. | — ses pee ot 58 Mourning doves sess hogs sueu aay 7
Zenaidura macroura macroura.__--.-- West: Indian doves 20.24 23s ce st 1
CUCULIFORMES
Budynamis honoratas 2222 eee Indian: koeks ee ee a aes 1
Durescusdonasldsonige ls! ss 02 oe Ues Donaldson’s turacou_____-------- 1
PSITTACIFORMES
ArAnpormis fischer. o= = 25428 ents. 2s Hiseher-slovenpiGesesas Sees oe 2
AGHpPOrnIs MANAG. 2 sss ee Nyassa love) Ditdis= 25202 nose 5
Agapornis madagascariensis____..__--- Gray-headed love bird_.....__.-- 1
APADOLNIS PersOnata Js24 52 = oso oo Yellow-collared love bird__.-_---- 1
LM oroy sans} illgin ee e eeee Red-faeed love bird__.___----.--. 2
AGAPOMMIS TATANG. 2. ec efoto SSS Abyssinian love bird__...-..-.--- 3
PRIDE OLA: Spee ME AE a he bk elle UL TN Le PAITOtls ks Sas AY 1
ATT AZ ONAVAESULVR Ue eee oe ee Sen oye Blue-fronted parrot__......----.- 1
FAI a 701 ay al DIPhONS ape White-fronted parrot_....._.__--- 6
Amazona albifrons nana__._-_.------- Lesser white-fronted parrot_____-- 2
Amazona amazonica +... <+'5-a-——< Orange-winged parrot._._..------ 3
PATTY YOM AT BUSTS eee ee rane Bouquet/S'parrotsees sot. Swap aos 1
Amazona auropalliata.......<-s==s--. Yellow-naped parrot_.._..------- 3
AINA ZOE TATINOBA se os ey oe ee Mealy: parrot: 203 su 2 nos ne sks 1
AIHA ZONA TOSTIV ES ata nt caret re Hestiviesparlotes— ane a ee 1
Amazona leucocephala__.....-------- Cuban parrot. it 2s 52 2 Sa ee 6
Amazona ochrocephala___-...-------- Yellow-fronted parrot......------ 8

$04 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Amazona ochroptera__.------- 2g 2071 Velow-shouldered parrot__._.----
Amazona Oe a ee on Double yellow-head parrot_______-
Amazona ventralis__-_- 4, -- a -s.4-, Santo Domingo pairot____________
OS ee fey a o35 . 1 ne Red-crowned parrot. Hie Aiheth Sel Aah.)
Anodorhynehus | hyacinthinus LAST Hyacinthine macaw_------_------
Aprosmictus ¢yanopyzicus...-..-----. Australian King parrot aR Riel et
Aprosmictus erythropterus See Baers _ Crimson-winged paroquet apse cel
ce araraina 6 Jl 20S oo bit “ Yellow and blue macaw. -_---_----
TENG SAYS (cE I Red, blue, and yellow macaw__--_--
ATG MAracange. 9.222 fost o 2 amano wbigeh a jmacaw__..--.-----------
ATS ee <ICan ete. Ve es eh . Mexican green macaw------------
ra severaq-ssssr225==800Rid 1sd02(4 Severe macaw. .:— sesso pilontie suis
Aratinga oe ob os oniw-1991) Red-throated-conureg2ibu __ 12 LiL
Aratinga solstitialis === verses 82% = Yellow paroqueti. cons a nee Bae
Brotegeris jugularis=-. 25 O93 gb = 'Povi paroquet..- = 28913
Conurus-longieauda-~- Long-tailed paroquet
Conurus nepalensis—2 “‘ a Nepalese paroquetsiiosli._-_--_--
Coracopsis- nigra sSSeseec= sae d - 2 Lesser -vasa, parrot. £9 ______.
Coraeopsis- vasa l22atd f 2 Greater-vasa parrot === iyataloe oy
Gyanopsittacus sp! DORM OLD CLIOVILY se § MACAW a- os “f PERIL Y fe

Eos variega to! ! Pur ae ioe
Se MULCH sara 8¥ ‘14 Golden-crowned aaron SIWSER TE
ot 1 Peta’ 8 paroquet.---fU 22 LL

f i peas paroquepol ATU. 5222 LLL

; Weddell’s ae pS aha Sl ee ae

ates: iba lah os pipe ey, ele az geo White COeKEuOO. eo. a ee
Kakatoe galerita_-—-------4oad-—saibet Sulphur-crested cockgtop---------
Kakatoe gymnopisj:s.0n-e'soebteaed Bare-eyed cockatoo-;...----------
Kakatoe leadbeateri._..........____- Leadbeater’s cockatoo___.._._-_--
Kakatoe moluccensis_-_.------ agus 1Greatared-crested cockatoo_____--
Kakatoe roseicapilla__-.-~---- pS See Roseate cockatoo--_--- PRIS R82
Leptolophus nes 2 = oe Cockiteel: 5:2 aeee

©” Ceram OLY ccs. ee eee
) MOLTRDR

- Common 5S) pentane ah ge

.. Grass paroquet - >= a WD ie hold

canis aterrimus. Great black cvockatoo?2 22-8

EAS Na eee es S2- Qaaker parogquet.- se eee

- Nanday weMlolshae apap dy nda sty g ud
efi oe
ionites leneggastal® Se SN gaiees aiid - Green-flanked caique Oe _-
ed mashing © fia Sige wi 222 Maximitian’s palit. eee
ionus Meénstruus eanang et ya Blue-headed-parrot! 2! 2°
ionites xanthomerga:-2 27°12 SOUL BY Amazonian caique

latycercus elégaris_

laty cercus s eximias-

ahora sees sett a Lage idea ‘ Blue-bonnet aro x eh dp heh 2
Psittacula guianensis______________-_- Green-rumped parrotlet_____-.__-

mR RNR WNENOE NYE REE WONNHE NY NEP NNEP ENP WWE HEN WHEN HE WWONTE HEN RWOH

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 105

Pyrrhura)pictasss==5.2 97st io 7o0rn Blue-winged conure_____....._-_- 3
Tanygnathus megalorhynchus- -__----~-- Great-billed paroquet___________- 1
Trichoglossus cyanogrammus---___-_--- Green-naped lorikeet____________- 4
“‘Lrichoglossus-forsteni222=-_ /ousi_2u rs Forsten’s paroquet_.o222 222 224222 4
Trichoglossus novaehollandae__--_--_--- Blue-belliedlory2iJ2 f2ulie_evsice 1
Urochroma-surda_.--===-2 Usb t Golden-tailed parrot__.___--._-_- 2
STRIGIFORMES
EU OP DUD oss hase ais wily a ae Kuropean eagle owl_____-_.-_---_- 1
* BAW] 6(o)p ig Ung 8 01-6: 0) 5 (= ee Greatthorned owlii2—-2 10
INViG@LCaisn VC LORE x ye ae ee STIOIWay Al OW ete esis ree ee eee eae il
(OOTP HS oA I TGS AP RL mR aE ORCCCHY OWicr cates eer eae een eee 5
Pulsstrix perspicilata. 2. oe Speetacled owls see eae 2
SHMO-AS Arve EEN SIAL) la RR at a ning neat Darredowleare vevwe oe sae eee 12
Py tor alba pravincola.- a2 cee American barn owl so. 7a * Fe 4
CAPRIMULGIFORMES
Chordeiles virginianus__._._._-_----- Nighthawks= soca Sk ee a 3
COLIIFORMES
Colmsimacrurouste eee eo eee Mouse bird or coly___-_--_------ 1
CORACIIFORMES
Anthracoceros malayanus_~__-__----_- White-browed hornbill________--- 1
Lophoceros: jacksonice oo 28 2 ee 2 a oe Jackson:s hornbile eeae 1
PICIFORMES
Ramphastos-ariel UU so _ abet ejay Arielifoucan= 2... Sob cee aly 2
Ramphastos carinatus____2....--_-.- Sulphur-breasted toucan_______-__- 2
Ramphastos culminatus______--__---- White-breasted toucan__________- 1
“Trachyphonus eminis 2.092005 Poel Emin Pasha’s barbet____-___-_--- 1
PASSERIFORMES
ACTIGOUMETES: WhISbIS ne Sie 52 Conmmonimymane ss vee ee ee 1
Aethiopsar cristatellus_..........-__- @restedimiy aa bian 27 See ee ee il
Agelaius icterocephalus_____._____--- Yellow-headed marsh bird__-_-___- 1
AIGeMOSYNE CANCANS.- 222.2 cs oe A DED ra mii Ng cztord ol Pes ea yap ten eee areas, Se 2
PTAC FASCIA UA so So cy ei Cut-throatfineh= "225 oo oan 9
AMaAndays AMANGAVAss 2-2 o se Strawberry. finch sso" 2-2 15
Amblyrhamphus holosericeus---~-__~_- Red-headed marsh troupial_- ----- 1
TPES CCGLOTUM ee foi Oe so Cedar wax wing? 2522 ae aaa 1
WaIOCILEN LOTMOSA = ss nee Mexican magpie jay_—-__-2 = __==- 2
DarduclsicaArquelig te sey oe ot ye European goldfinch._.-_..-___--- 2
Chasmorhynchus nudicollis__________- Naked-throated bell bird______-_- 1
ilonis*CHiOlS.e see oe he RireeminOn te. can een eee 1
WiciNNUrusTeRIUS oo oe cee eee ss King bird of paradise* 52.222 272 2
Cissilopha yucatanical._ 2222 MUCH TAL Dy eee | ee 1
Corvultur albicolliss.32. ont White-necked raven__...-----.-- 1
CORVMS AIOUS ace ene nels eee White-breasted crow...--.------- 2
Corvus brachyrhynchos______._.---_- INMCTICANUCLO Was see See eee oe 5

106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Corvyis corax sinuatuszes. —-p ease ea ne American ravens: s227 ea es
Worvwus coronoidesis {2-2 4-4fit bases Australian, crowele!i<2e podseees
Cosmopsarius regius......-.-.------- Splendid starling=2-2- 24. 2—/
Cyanerpes:cyaneus= 42225 5-- 22a 228 Blue honey creeper..+ 3. 4-ajsacteed
Cyanocitta stelleri diademata___-_---_- hong-crestedyjayesessso see
Cyanocorax pileatusss22¢ 55-326 b22 Pileatedjay25 5243 2 at eee
Distropura prognes= 22-5. -2 2. oo oss Giantiwhydah 222 eee
Eromopteryx leucopareia__...--.----- Bishbers finch lark ge
Foudia madagascariensis.___..-...--- Madagascar weaver__....__--_---
Garrnlaxepectoraliss =. 3 an one ee Black-gorgeted laughing thrush____
Craculanavandaso- so-so nee oe eee Ean yates eee oe
(Gracuiaveliviosa=-n22 22° = 525 Sos ee Southern hill mynah____________-
Gymnomystax melanicterus_--------- Bare-jawed troupial_____.__._._...
Heteropsar albicapillus........---.--- White-capped starling__.________-
foterus parisorumt =. 22025 Se ee scott orlole-22 226s ase eer eee
amprocolius sycobius=2.2--=.2--22=2 Southern glossy starling...______-
Lamprocorax metallicus._.-..-------- New Guinea starling-_._---------
hiothnixhwt0eusess 9.2.2 eu eee see ee Red-billedvhull=titzsss ee
Melanopteryx rubiginosus__._._.-_--- Chestnut weaver__.........-_._-
IDET OR GUT ONG Tee eae eee oe ER Golden-headed mynah___________
Molpastes haemorrhous__...---.----- Black-headed bulbul....-......--
Munia-atricapilla:— a=. oie. eee Black-headedimun= ae ee
Miuniszeastaneithorax.-s2--2-2s22-5—— Chestnut-breasted finch__________
Miunisfonyzivora==-2 2.252552 o eee JaVapin ches 5a! s = Se ee 2 ee eee
Miuniaspunctulatass==2s5) sess ee INutmes fineh= 22s Bes 2c
OupcompsaOCcosaeesss eee oe eae Red-eared bulbulos222b22 ee
IPATAGISCR GUD T See ee ee noe re eee eee Redibirdvoiiparadisesee sess aes
Poratisoris rudolphi2s22 22s. Prince Rudloph’s blue bird of para-

GISGS Sawaal oh Cea eee
Paroaria cucullata._.....-2aeeiot_fir Red-crested cardinal. ~.i..--LuL.
Parotia lawesi lawesi_..........--i.- Lawes’ six-plumed bird of paradise_
Pica picaihudsontate dy ba boson tee Magpies.) 286 stented ote aie
Ploceus intermedieus_~u.-..-.-....-. Masked weaver.-s2-<<<<cseheud,
Poephila personatas=. —.. 22-252 oosce Masked grass finch.4:_----.-..2
Pyromelana orixs =... ..2.... 22ae Red-crowned bishop bird___---__-
Quelea sanguinirostris intermedia _-_-_- Southern masked weaver finch___-_
SCmlerelarwisOnl. 220 oe Wilson’s bird of paradise.________
BOICUUICPA TICRT. sh ok ate. ee 12-wired bird of paradise__.._____
Semioptera wallacel2s. 202." oe Wallace’s bird of paradise__..__..
BERINUN CANATIUS Mees go ed Caner yesce No So ce uses a ete
DICAliS HAvenlant ste we ae Namron finches Yo See eee ee
Steganura paradises._.___.._-__-.--. Paradise whydah___-- (= = =e
Buruthides cinerea. ee Australian gray jumper____-.____-
BUUIINUIS WAALS oe es Sonning ee eee ee cee eee
Taeniopygia castanotis_....._.....__- ZeDra neh hoe ee a eee nee
Trochalapteron canorum____________- Brown laughing thrush___.____.__
Urobrachya phoeniceia__.._...._.___.- Chestnut-winged whydah____.____
WOrocisss OCCipitalig.4 Red-billed blue magpie__________-
Watuiemaorauitarte.. oo co es Pinta: why dashes. oe eases
PranGhOUra IUSMOBR cot oo aoe oe ie Greenview cease en see
Xanthoura luxuosa sub. sp_-.-.----_-- Nicaragua green jay........__---.

bo
hm C2 00 CO mR OR BE RS BE OE he oO

Nr OnrK Ne

43

Ll el So el el cel Se ce ee

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY

Reptiles
CHELONIA
AMV da) £68 OX. 5 5a oss ann ee a Nont-spelletuntles =e ee eee
Chelodina longicollisu2222 222-5522 eae Australian long-neck terrapin_-____
Shelydra, osceola_ 2 62 Florida snapping turtle___._______
@helydra rossignonii__ 2220 22s Rossignon’s snapping turtle______-
Chelydra, serpentina. =<. .......---.= Snapping turtle ss o2 2 ao eee,
(helys fimbriata- = --- 2. -e 2 Matamataytuntles 2.8.0 se eee
Chrysemys picta - pon =a MPainveduturules i. oe ks 2 ee 2 Soe
Clemmys guttata......._.... eee ee Spetvediturtie i. vl eS ee
Clemmys insculpta____ 2. Se Wioad startle Je atin os 2 ee
Clemmys marmorata......-.....-+-—= Western spotted turtle.____..._--
Clemmys muhlenbergii__._._._....---- Muhlenberg’s turtle___.__._.___--
@uora amboinensis. .- 2 sy a ces Common Malayan box-tortoise_-_-_-
Deirochelys reticularia___-=.i.....<-- Chicken turtle 2 2 2 vee ee yn
MVS DANCIN PH. 2215 eos ee IBlandinevspuntle ss aes ae ene
PIMVS OTDICUIATIS— 22a ae ok eee European pond turtle___________-
Geomyda spengleri___._-__--.._...-< Minette pines nen eee
(Gopherus agassizil_ 0 see IAC ASSIZiS LOLtOISC ae = leas ye eee
Gopherus polyphemus-____._-_-_----- Gopherturtles 22 < o2n 3 1 se ee
Hydromedusa tectifera..._.-..--.--- South American snake-neck turtle-
Kinosternon flavescens__....-.------- MRexas musky Gurtle see eee
Kinosternon subrubrum..--........-- Muskiturtlete: 25 scone 6k oes
Macrochelys temminckii_...___.___-_- Alligator snapping turtle_________
Malaclemys centrata X M. pileata____- Diamond-back terrapin (hybrids) -
Pelomedusa galeata.. 252. -+- =o Common African water tortoise ---
Pelusios heiprothi_ =o. 60 en Hemroth es turtlee.. ste 225 aoe
Ipelusiog Nigricans = 22-2 2 4s Black water tortoise_......-.----
Pseudemys elegans.....2;-. ~2J- -- <2 —4 Cumberland terrapin__....-------
Pseudemys floridana-_.=12.=-- =. .—'5 Wiloridsi Cooter] a2 hoe ee ee
Pseudemys palustrig_=.1_-.2-.----= West Indian turtle. 2 ==
Sternotherus odoratus-. o-...-.....-- Miaskk; turtle sno so ean ogee
Werrapene carolina:,..-2:--s-.--4.-2 Boxstorvoise ss 2! eae ae oe ee soe
Mermranene Major... .2.25<cades.—.-85 Hlorida Ox turtle. tees ee
@errapenc orate. ofc. 0-22 es Ornate -turtles- see he eek
Pestudo.calcarata....8 2 + oo jo. Abyssinian tortoise. —.---.-2--—-
festudo ephippium..-=......2.+.. Duncan Island tortoise__.--------
eStucO Porter ..= bn ee te Indefatigable Island tortoise_-_----
SPCRLUGOMTAGINGS oto A on 8 Radiated) tortoises. 22-225 42252.
mestudo tapulata__- .. 2-55-27 oS South American tortoise__.....---
MGSiUOG, ViCiNRe. 2-252 aoe kk Albemarle Island tortoise_..------
CROCODILIA
Alligator mississipiensis__....-.-_---- PU PAC OT oe ses i ae ea
OMAN MIETH Se = < See ee ae ee Waianae es Sena ae
Crocodylus acutus._.+-— 4.02 <1 ae American crocodile: = == ss s-=5=——
Crocodylus cataphractus__-..--.------ West African crocodile__.--------

“omistoma schlegeli__-....-u.--..-2. Malayan ravial 20 0-15 32g coe

107

m oo
NONKFNTE RE NNN NWHENWDDOH REN RRP RPP REN HH ODORANT BD OO

108 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

LACERTILIA
Tarentola mauretanicas=----=-=——===— Mauretanian gecko._...----------
Ameivysrabbotlesee ae ae = ae Abbottisiswiltes--= =) o- ose eee
Amphibolurus barbatus_--..--------~- Beardedslizardes<s22* 7225 2==2=—
Anolisalloguse-ceea ees Cubsanvanolises 2282 e esse eee
Anolisicarolinensises 2286 seo ace @arolina anolis=====222s22222-———
Anolis tGuestise as. e 2-6 ee Ciameleonvanolisa oon ons ee
Anolisdimeatopuse2ts cst te ee ee Jamaican anolis==!"2 tei s ese
Basiiscus Vitvkse cere eae tae Banded: basilisk se 222 sPeei eee
Chamaeleon senegalensis-_------------ Senegal chameleon__------.--+----
Cnemidophorus sexlineatus sacki_----- Spotted race-runner_-_-----------
Cnemidophorus tessellatus tessellatus-. Desert whiptail_------------------
@oleotiys Drevise see a ee eee Coleony ses saree ee eee ee
Conolophus subcristatus-_------------ Galapagos iguana S!2-U S222" 2 =
CrotaphyvusicOlaris== sees aoe Collaredtlizard=2=2==22322"2-2-——
WienoRAurA, AcCHnthUra. 2 cea Spiny-tailed iguana__-_----------
vicltrh st ewes ewe Ta ea eee eee eer iPwaANna >See ee
Cyelunsicormiubaes eae aes ae ae Rhinoceroseusanas= === ea
Wyvclura maclesyin 222 sesso ee Cuban ground iguana_-_----------
WViCMITAMMUCHANSS te == eee oe me Fortune Island iguana----_-------
Dipso-saulrus COrsaliges = s-- 5-2 oe Spottedvizard=s222s2sseesseces
Hgernia cunninghami_-_---._--_--2--- Australian or Cunningham’s skink-
Gerrhonotus scincicauda webbii------- Miligatordivard=22eo eee ec saa ee
Helodernia horridum == 222.22 -2 2 Beaded lizard==eSt te eee eee
Helodermaysuspectumta= sas 2= ae Gila-monstersstee enone
Hydrosaurus pustulosus_--_---------- Philippine water-dragon-_---------
Teuannieuanasc wan ee ee Common iguanas seen
lacentalepidas 22 22s eee eee Ocellatedtizarde==s22204eae. =
WacertaiifordienvOssdessss—— =e ee Balearicsisiandalizardes =.= + see ===
lacertaliltordiordansi= ee sa ae Balearic Island lizard_.--__-=+++--
Laemanctus alticoronatus_—----_----- Green-basilisk=*===""2siee. = sase
Leiocephalus carinatus.._..---------- Carinated curl-tail lizard_--------
Leiocephalus cubensis:---.-----.----- Cubanteurl-tavllizardsy 2 ee
Liocephalus beatanus_-------------_- Beata curl-tail lizard2-./ 022-222
OphissuLusryventralis==s. 222 ee ee Glassiengkess='<s<= 570i ee
Phrynosoma blainvillii blainvillii___-__- Blainville’s horned lizard_-----_--
PhryiGsoma cormmlvuM. 2. eee eee Hormedsligard=<.53 5206s eeeseee
Phrynosoma platyrhinos__--.-2------- Smooth horned lizard_.22_- 2.2 --
Phrynosohis i calliis.- 4. eee MacCall’s horned lizard_--__..--_--
Physignathus lesueurii___-..._-------- Lesueur’s water dragon_-_---.----
SaucoMmalusObesus. see eee eee Chugikwalla sas. >>r=sece we ae
Ncelaporus clark sess eee oe Spmy swiltos sna seen eee
Sceloporus undulatus.......--------- Common fence lizard22-22-222222=
Gilkqua,nigroluieaseo 2552+ eee Moved Jizard2202--5 Us Sees
Miliqiasscimecides.. = =+ =.= sooe tS Blue-tongued lizard_..-.-_-----_-
ErAchYyERULUS TUROSUS2 = 25 522-2 ae Stump-tailed lizards --_-_- 8+ <2 2
Tupinambis nigropunctatus_---_----- Tepuvlizard s*-1 375225 -=SSheee ee
Wromactixespinipes=--—- soe a ee Spiny=-tailedslizard-2< ses Seeeee
ETAT R NOLES Sec cre So eee et Gouldisimenitorss=sass eae
Warahun mlloticus=t2s--2 ~~ <-eoe Niletnronitor* +5552 Sree Sees

PNON NYP WRN WR RRP WOK WWNRrFRKFPNTONNN ANF KE NWNNKF OOF RFP RENWRYK ON KW O&K

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 109

OPHIDIA
Agkistrodon. mokasen_..2. bs cel 3 Copperhead. 2.22 2c 2 ihre el 9
Agkistrodon piscivorus__......-.----- Water moccasin) 4!..55 sp iscey et 5
Arizona elegans occidentalis. ....-__-- Faded isnakess2 4252) Seousees 1
@arphophis: vermis/ss5 5020's 2s su Worm, snakes (202 e002 S Set oe ik. 1
Cemophora coccines.-2_ > sie Scarlet snake on ee eae 1
Coluber constrictor constrictor______~- Black sneaker ss scot ass. les Una 2
Coluber dahlitmieize yeas Wiel e ee sei el Dahls whip snake. - uve oee posto 2
Coluber hippocrepis=ée/12/!44 stoseule2 Horseshoe whip snake_____.___.-. 3
Coluber jugularis caspius__.___.._--_- European whip snake__________-- 4
Coluber Jongissimus —_. af )s-)= edb 27 Aesculapian snake. 2) ce age 1
Coluber quatuorlineatus__._-_._-_---- European 4-lined snake_____.__._~ 2
Coluber quatuorlineatus sauromates__._ European 4-lined snake__________- 2
Constrictor constrictor. 44125 22.224 | 8 {ef WA ee eS ana Eee Pa ye 3
Constrictor imperator=— ee oes same ets Central American or emperor boa_. 3
Crotalus adamanteussdcs2elJeesueedl Florida diamond-back rattlesnake. 2
Grotalus atrox lk tage hires ald be EAA Desert diamond-back rattlesnake. 6
Crotalus, cerastes.cians_caddin frat! Sidewinder rattlesnake__.______-- 6
Srotalus horridus.._ 2.2. saya acdeis Banded rattlesnake_____.._..._.-- 10
Crotalus mitechellii_- 000-4 aes Aobe nD Bleached rattlesnake.u. 22.2.4 22. 2
Crotalus. oreganus..-4d iia ee nte Wet Pacific rattlesnakes ino greens 2
Crotalus ruber’) 2 see 22 a0) de GeO Redirattlesnake Jee a aie eae eee 2
Crotalus, terrificus! j2 2220 Sout edd South American rattlesnake_______ 2
Diadophis, punctatus 252. 22 eee. Ring-necked snake. ./ shu. sae 2 3
Drymarchon corais cooperi......----- nad go snakes. 5 oo ei Lae oe 8
Bilapheguttata sss. Soe as @ornvsnake saa a LN es oe 2
PLAT LACUS yak ee fs es Og yo hen Emory’s:snake sos. gua aioe oe 2
Elaphe obsoleta lindheimeri_-__-_-_--- Lindheimer's snake os 262 5
Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta_____._.-_--- PrloGr sma Ke see ee aye ee 1
PUADHE CUAALEVIGUATA So et eee Chickencsnake she Aaah eee 5
Blaphe rt OsSaceh ws 8 ese pane oe hae IKieyeratpsmalke essen cra aaa ieee nae 1
SHE @) ov Sy iq a) wi Wl a a De Ra IO 1 Tap cigspiasy fee) lonlg Deed th Maid nce hal Va 2
Eplicnates aneuiler ops aes eo oe Culban\ tree boa fe) 3 ee kee 4
LATA pT) a Op baa i ie Eales Sl I ae SANs DOR Mae ec ca cee ele aiey Fans 1
UME CUCS! UT IIIS 52 foo ol te Ags (INMACONGR So dette cit uaa re eae 1
PAPANCIA AD ACULA sae aa N Ie ee ee Se FTOEMASIAK Goreme se af eee Sen ee 2
Eleterodon ‘contortrixwe oo. oe Hog-nose snake: twenty te 1
Lampropeltis californiz_._.._......._- Califormianking snakeee.2- 922252 1
Lampropeltis calligaster____.________- Yellow-bellied king snake________- 1
Lampropeltis getulus getulus_________ Kineysnakess 5554s ss2 2.22 eee 2 3
Lampropeltis getulus boylii_._________ Boyle’s king snake..--__--.___--- 1
Lampropeltis rhombomaculata_______- Moleisnakesias 2142244. EOl WOE» 2
Lampropeltis triangulum_____________ Milk snakes 424.22 552280 De il
Lejosophis» gigas: == =.220) sium adi Cobra de Paraguay... goioniag _ 2
Leptophis occidentalis. _....__22_2L_- Green ‘tree snakes. 222222L 2.2. 2- 1
Lichanura, roseofusea 2.20) 222204 California boaet=22 5-22. BOUNTY | 1
Hiodytes-allent sss nrr22 BOUL OTL vee Allen’s:mud snakes... f0Taaid 1
Eoxocemus: bicolor: =. 227. 2uu_ foo} American-python-=2222--22800078 . 2
Masticophis flagellum flavigularis______ Coaehwhip snake-2.+22+ 222004 - 9
Masticophis flagellum frenatus_______- Red-racere en SEDO MICOS | 1

110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Masticophis lateralis. _._........+---2 @aistornia racer=..2 ===" =o soeeee
Micrurus fulvins= 2 22e22. bbe ee Coral snakess. 22." eae
Naja hannabe sos. 35-5 eee King cobra 555. Sto ep ate
Natrix fasciata fasciata__2__-.---_2-- Banded water snake__.--_.__--_-
Watrix grahami: = 222252. 82 SUS URUes Graham’s water snake_____--___-
Natrix matrix: 2.52s225-29S5Re. 2530 European grass snake_______-_--_-
Naltrixes See Set Se ee OS Water-snakei 3520 Sahio0o5 Btn
IN Str Kes Se So Eee Red water/snakes2. Wiis ies se
Opheodrys! aestivuss-—2 22 te ee Rough-sealed green snake_______-
Pituophis catenifer annectens________- California bullsnake.__._________-
Pituophis sayi. = 2 Sbee- Cw Geass Bullsnakejo 2 see aia aeseh earl
Python molunussss ss oe Rete teeae Indian! pythons 22 Soest
iPythoniregius = 222 Gis Dail ee eae Ballipythone syns ie Bay tak
Python reticulatusai. Sieh etre Regallpythone see eee
Python sebaess ssoe ee ssse Ls Oe African pythons -2eeut i) xebeee
Python variegatus_20 ico oo18 ley iae Carpet python... 224s Soret igih
Sistrurusmiltanius= 22) je eee Pigmy, rattlesnake S222 2550222 222
DONOLR OCCiplvalis asain. Seas Tricolored ground snake__+____-_-
Thamnophis sauritus proximus_-__-_--_- Western ribbon snake___--2.2-2--
Thampophis sauritus sauritus______-_- Ribbonjsnake 222s Susu ale
Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis__.__._____- Garter snakeliss 22. iinet ar gel
Tretanorhinus variabilis__..._..___-_- Cuban water snake__.-....---+--

Amphibians
CAUDATA
Ambystoma mexicanum____._________ AXOIGUI Seca ae ee ee ae ee ee
Amphiuma tridactylum_______.______ Congo eel or Congo snake______-_-
Cryptobranchus alleganiensis__._____- Hellbenderssc.2-seeseceee eee
Megalobatrachus japonicus__________- Giant salamander. -— == 542.
Pleurodeleswaltine 2 ose ee Spanish newts... eee
IPrOceUsean eins see me ee ee Blind satanianders 52" see ee
Pseudobranchus striatus_.._.____.__-- Striped mtd Cbls os eee
Salamandra salamandra__._........_-- European spotted salamander_-_--_-
PLMUUTUs PYyTTUORAStCL@ =< loo. ee Red-bellied Japanese newt__._--_-_-
BETUUULUS VINIGOSCONS=\-csac eae Common MeWt. sae sae
SALIENTIA

Alytesobstetricanss=uJ2-8 82252... J Midwife toad=.2.¢25.42- 2145 ogee
Bufo aAlyarig so. 52. ete Green: toadss.g2 42445455 24S
Bufovamericanus. §. tae ot Common American toad______.---
Butovfowlericaso) 55 <0 os ee Fowler’s’ toads. 2626-- oe ee
BUTOSMATINUG S228 2 = 8 ah Marine toad 2 = Sida 24.4 siete
Bufo peltocephalus. 2.2 au.) 22. eee Cuban: giant toad. - .- et. -ehee
ISTO CSOETOR DIA Se of 2! sb Gah te Southern toad... 4455.2 ee oe ea
Bufowalliceps.. 5. * 3 ed ra eae Moxican: toad: «22. $cc ee
Evie CInOneS ose ok nat eae hea ots Green ‘tree frog.:_-..-- fee. ee
Pivla oratiostcc2s- cede oeatoe 5 Floridatree frog<- <3 a ee
Pivle. Daudiniles =. °% ates oben es! Mexican.tree frog. 228.8 da055
Hyla septentrionalis______.____._____- West Indian tree frog__.___._..-:
pla Versicolote so. seeco ea Common tree frog2- 22.225 ees
Leptodactylus pentadactylus__._____- Dominican giant frog-..--_..----
Rana ‘cateshbeiting =. 252555. 5 54 Bullttrog. 2222 224 eee

NWO RY RE rR WNWWRN RR PWR NR RK eR

awn nr NNW OW bd

et eo Cn ls oC CRS aC)

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY EET

Summary
PACTTANTY 11 Sm OTA La UT) Clare DUE yaad ae cp seer os ieee es ree ee Ueto — 1,996
PACCESSIONSHOUrINE the VER sa sane ee ee Nee ats ame eee eee 1, 266
Totaljanimailsinvcollectionidurine, years22s. Ses eee ata! 3202
Removed from collection by death, exchange, and return of animals on
CLE TD OS 1 Ge a en es ee 761

Species | Individuals

IVD Oe ee ee te eee ee aoe en Se ee 189 563
IT GS oe oe SE Se an Se be ee Sh ee eb teed 333 1, 076
BES VT Gin Ls iat ee a as EIS SO eh vee Be I Pa er ural she SWEDE Eb 164
YaNT CRYO) AE OY CEM Se al a a phe ce Nag a a od evi tp eects 31 94
UL 13 oes ee ane ee a BS Dk a Ee SP OR eRe ie 14 47
PANT RCENTI NAS ee rae a a a ek es Sie ES See dca 4 11
Rrisects: (Colony) = as ee a es SE ee ee eee 1 1
@rusta coarse esi re coe tee se eee Se See Ue See ae eee eat ee 1 75
IVE OHUISEB ee eee eres re oe eae ee ae re eae tee oe eee oe cee eas eed 4 28
FIO Ca ae ses eee ee i re oe cee Se re eS oa he eee Sa ve 741 2, 501

ANIMALS NOT PREVIOUSLY EXHIBITED

This year has been outstanding in the number of species exhibited
for the first time in the National Zoological Park. These are:

MAMMALS
BADIEUSEA,AMMTUR. Sa 5 2-22 coo leek soko s Babirussa.
Cercopithecus petronellae_-_____.------ White-crowned guenon.
Dolichotis salinicola.- 222-2425. 5+-. 2222 Dwarf cavy.
Eylobatescinereusi.: i228 22252222422 e8 Bornean gray gibbon.
heontocebus mosalia. 22220552. 24 2 Sheu Silky or lion-headed marmosette.
Nyctereutes procyonoides____.._-_---_- Raccoon dog.
Symphalangus syndactylus.___..._.---- Siamang gibbon.

BIRDS

Aprosmictus cyanopyzicus_____....----- Australian king parrot.
Crossoptilon mantchuricum __________-_- Brown-eared pheasant.
Gr OURSUSCISLCTI st eo etn s Se Oe 7 we 3S Sclater’s crowned pigeon.
Lephophorus impeyanus_.._-_----_---- Himalayan Impeyan pheasant.
Polyplectron napoleonis__._..........--- Palawan peacock-pheasant.
IPMOLElIS CEMnUTUISe es = eee epee Cuban trogon.
IPHASIANUs VETsICOlOns 22 sre | or Green Japanese pheasant.
icCOrdia TICOrGW = os oe ae ok ee ee Ricord’s humming bird.
Trichoglossus novaehollandae_________-_- Blue-bellied lory.

REPTILES
Agkistrodon bilineatus__.....-.....-.-- Mexican moccasin.
FMIN CLV aD DOD bE sy ee Su Ae) eS Abbott’s swift.
Amphibolus barbatus=2 5. 224258525244 Bearded lizard.
AMO ISTCQUESLTIS Se sa eee neta a Chameleon anolis.

Bitis FUL CTA ee Seema sae ere ee Puff adder,

112

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Ranaiclamipanss eu 2 so26 22) an Ae Gerben chro ses ee bel happens 8
nena TAIUStEIse = 20 Coo Le ee Common swamp frog._-__-___._- 2
Rana sphenocephala_____...-_-_----- Southern leopard frog_-_-----_--_- 3
anavescilents 22 soe S25 sn eee ee diblepiro pee se aaa 2 ae ee 5
Renadalmatinas sso. eae sete eee Agileirog ive of sleadasebato sg 1
Menopus)mulleriuy 24-43 02e1 Han eas East African smooth-clawed frog. 1
Fishes

PC CUNG ENS SPE ya oe th aa Se Lae eA ee 1
BAT DURLOCE Miner tess Nose hy Sn cued SUSU Aas ale ey ap I nie cg i Se = 2
Brack yidanio rerioue 42,602 2 2a a Febravishiaet 2. aise ee ee 1
Galnuisal pis ake peeks ae hs ey ae ID elt Probe yeae 4
Enneacanthus gloriosus___.______---- SUMS Mee cit 2 ee pt acres eee 1
TeV ytree VMN DES) 55 0 Rae om i ci a eae ee SGI FT sg Taegan oe ain aoe eee 1
Mebistes reviculatusess == 222 Guppy = Setwecoer se tsetese ee 12
Aeteonyx Tuberrinuss. coc cssc see 13215 B51 PS A AN ee RE SSS CT a
Pterophy ium: SCalares 9202 eS Angel fishies 222250. 2 a eee 3
FLASH OLAS bEFAMNMOLP Mayes seesaw sia ee ware eA ew Ae el AL oe eee 3
Rhinichthysatronasus.-. 2022.52.02 Striped daces 2452/4. anos epee 7
IRV US oil eee cree eerie ie eeeeern ee Drinidad fish 2 — 2 ee eee 1
DOpHorupg helvlerices wasewe he eee Swordtalles 22 205 Sys ceeeen 2

Arachnids
Bury pelma Spusees = 2 tae eee Tarantula fi) A 2 Bi. BOY ae 1
Hadrurusvhirsutuss. 2 Bae) teers Giant hairy scorpion____________- 8

Insects

PPIs CUI CAL yo cs ie eee ae Honey beese oo oan 1 colony

Crustaceans
@enonitaiclypeatuss. 222s. 2 2 eee Hermitverabs2- 27-2 een ee eee 75

Mollusks
Achatina .variegata. 220. cass. ose Giant'land snailee. se eee ee 1
PQ YVTS CULE TED STDs est a oes ee a rer Apple’snailet Ss tet Ne eee ene i
Miomuistasvigiisee see. fe ee ee Hlorida ‘tree/snail. =. 42-228 s eee 1
iPlanorbisiCOMmMeusses] eee ee ee Red snail or rams horn_..__-_____ 25
Statement of the collection
Accessions
Received
Presented} Born eS. aoe OR Total
Witamim as eee ae oe eee See ee 81 602-2 e32-- 21 6 168
iol tape eel aR ALTE TTL 288 14 4 29 14 349
VED tiles ee oe ee es sa ee ee 268) ||-22e2- = See 3 178 2 451
Morini planes ss cage ents tee soc eee ee 1 ae ee AY a cee eee 130
WISHES sees Be oS Sas A ea FS Oe ee ee eee ea 4
ATA CUNIGS seat stoae oa oan conan ak pos ouee noes TO eet eecces Leet eles os a | eee 12
)8 CE 1) pe ee ee EE RR ae es 2 eee ee ale eS |S ee PG Sees 1
Ornstsceans:ee ae se se conn Soeawes UP I Re Re ory epee Sia Al A oie tek ei hares bes Bone oe 123
INCOM USS 2 oe aoc ce eee Se. Pf ES Schr) fs eee 1, | t2eeuee2 28
otal ic she mad e- oa ak ee see 804 74 7 269 22 1, 266
11 colony, cleat 2

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 113

Bilis TaboniCas. 2... 25552554 -- 238s Gaboon viper.
UtISMASICOLNIS ye eee ees eee ne Rhinoceros viper.
Bothrops nigroviridis marchi----------- Green tree viper.
Bothzeps nummiferas so5o52¢ 225! Sees Jumping viper.
Chamaeleon senegalensis-..------------ Senegal chameleon.
Coluber jugularis caspius__._......-.--- European whipsnake.
Coluber leopardinus=5--2- 2-552 --es—<" Leopard snake.
Coluberlongissimus? 22% 2s u ae Se Aesculapian snake.
Coluber quatuorlineatus....-.-...----- European 4-lined snake.
(eG yGAiMCIsa ote ee a oe eas ee Guatemalan terrapin.
Laemanctus alticoronatus_-—_----- peels Green basilisk.
Lampropeltis polyzonus.....-.--------- Tropical king or false coral snake.
hejosophis gigas = =— 7-2 ee Cobra de Paraguay.
Biocéphalus-beatanusw-- == 22022022. Beata curl-tailed lizard.
Loxocemus bicolorsss=-==--<=--s2 ae American python.
NMabuya, agilis: oe tee CS Guatemalan skink.
Najathannah:= cis... c2o eee King cobra.
INET ARORIDUC ANS 2) hose ats Se Hooded cobra.
Oxybelis acuminatus ote ee Pike-headed tree snake.
Relysiog NeImrotbis ee see eet ee ee Heinroth’s turtle.
‘Tomistoma schlegeliz 22222 url eek eee Malayan gavial.
‘Eretanorhinws ‘variabilis_ fo6"t Vato 2! Cuban water snake.
AMPHIBIANS
Algtes obstetricans=o242 2220002 - 222522 Midwife toad.
Ambystoma, mexicanum 2s) "so 22a Axolotl.
BOR ySICCDN Seren hone ae eae ee Mexican toad.
Eleurodeleswaltlita.3- 2/2 2h see Spanish newt.
Proteustang uinus-2725 see Blind salamander.
FISHES

Aequidens sp.
Barbus ocellifer.

ERC MVGAmOMeNlOLs =<. fa 2 en ese Zebra fish.

@Oliaspl al seeps ee eet ee ih a ey Dwarf gourami.

Enneacanthus gloriosus.-.-.-.--------- Sunfish.

Huncwhusreps— eect ee neue Sar Killifish.

ebistes, repiculatuss 92. a. oe se ae Guppy.

AStCOn ys TUbDeEIMUs- a2 soe ware OU EN Red tail.

Pterophyllum)‘sealares’: 28220 out oe Angel fish.

Rasbora heteramorpha.__----+2-------- Rasbora.

Rhinichthys atronasus.2 U2 cto 28 Striped dace.

Rivulustharti- ses eoee eke ee Trinidad fish.

Mi pions Heuer. Ve ee Te ee Swordtail.
ARACHNIDS

Ela drunus Ins utis sae ee ee eee ae Giant hairy scorpion.

INSECTS
Apis mellivica..Uaite ly ttt ees oneyabecse Go ee 1 colony.

This excellent showing was made possible primarily by the exhibi-
tion facilities afforded in the new reptile house.

114 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

VISITORS

The great number of visitors who have been coming to the park
since the opening of the reptile house has prevented such a decline
in the year’s attendance as exists in other institutions of public
interest because of the economic depression which has so reduced
travel. The estimated attendance as recorded in the daily reports
of the park is as follows:

1930 1931
July seeps Jose pelt ar ere! 1865600 || January. 2 ett 97, 600
Auguste es oe fey bmn ph OA 000)|hebruaryeso]- eo oe eee 82, 948
Septemberss = hae sree Zi lO | Mare lace ce) eee ee 315, 750
OCtopere eyes seis ie he 130,200 |oAprile 2-2) oe aE 377, 207
Novembers.c use sata hoes LOD SOG0 : iMag yA we Secs 2 ee ee 228, 500
December=' =. 45 58 Se ae So nO00s | Junewe se oe ee ee 220, 000

Total visitors for year_ 2, 171, 515

The attendance of organizations, mainly classes of students, of
which we have definite record, was 34,026 from 649 different schools
in 21 States and the District of Columbia, as follows:

Num- | Num- |; Num- | Num-
States ber ber States ber ber

persons} parties || persons| parties

Qi INew- Work: =. 22-2222 2 a ae
Gal eiNorth’ Carolins=4<252=—22 ee eee
234 [OSSETIA Vee eee
1 |) Pennsylvania__-
i 1 || Tennessee..___-
i 1a ONire niga ees
Kansas hoses cee an eee eras 326 Di Mest: Virginideseosate === 2 sees se
Maines. 2222 2 5 ee ee 74 Ls PAWaASCOnBIniesesenes eee k eee teen
Maryland iaisis Fieger a se 5, 548 104 ||
Massachusetts onto) eon ee 94 3 || 34, 026 649
Watch i paris es Sore SST eee 79 2-||

Observations of the numbers of automobiles from distant States
and countries has led to the taking of a census each day of the cars
actually parked in the park at one time, from which the following
tabulation has been prepared showing the percentages of cars from
various States and countries by months:

Percent- | Percent- | Percent- |} Percent-
State age, age, age, age,
March April May June

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY BS

Percent- | Percent- | Percent- | Percent-
State age, age, age, age,
March April May June

Indian as 222s e os See A ee ee eae C8 eee 0.10 0. 07 0.17 | 0. 46
OW Bee sane nie areas ea te eee ae ale ae eae a ela las . 03 02 06 19
KCATISAS! 222 te Beets Eee uy Se Re Ge ERS Ss |S oe EL Se 2 .10 . 08
ISON GU Cis yee soa mae ee a eae te ae eee en See ae 07 . 02 Rb .27
Ensign gee sees Seer Sy ee eee a8 se 2 eee Ee See ees ee ee oe eS 3024). SSL. sao es
Mia ine eae ee ree eee aaa ee ea ene eno a ee eee . 05 . 09 . 05 . 03
Maryland ees. 26es 6 he 2 Se ee eh feta de te 15. 75 20. 35 24. 65 20. 47
Massachusetts - -- -40 - 96 . 48 46
Michigan. -__-- 15 .33 19 54
Minnesota___-- 10 15 n02 27
Mississippi-___---- . 05 OZ Rae. 2k 08

ASSOUD Leet ets oe oe eer ae ee ra ee sata een eee Ao . 05 133 ee eee 20
Wrontana es aae Sasa Se ra ee DA A ee Bt he ee et eek MOSM e Sees ee ce ee ee
ING DESK eee ees oe se eee as eae een eee ea ecou eancaauanlebeseueace 02 | 11
New Hampshire soos re Beebo oe Se ye OS te - 05 OOK ake 322 Se = .14
INO@WiTOUSO Vis ace ee coe ane Soames Solos panes seen eae teas Pens se 1 2. 54 . 62 . 62
New: Mexico 42. ses) 28 ees) Bu Ae ste Ai a he Bee ey Ones ee 82S 105) |e ee ses
ING WA YAO T Rae ee en ce ea ee Re or ee ae eee nea i ka 1 2.10 eile? 1, 27
Nonths@arolinas- =. 0b) ce bel ae ee Eee oe be sd Bee . 26 55 94 1. 65
INorthy Dako taeses! a. se oe saad coats Sosa Ueueaaareessead oe 304; |e se. . 06
(0) 0 C0 = es a ee a ee Poa eee ee aE Set ny pa ay pe ee . 39 51) 1.16 1.75
OMRON aD ete Be a rn oe ee eae a ean eee oat 03 . 02 05 . 06
Oregons: 5 eM See Suess 2 Sa su aks oe eee epee woe De ee hall ee ty oe NOZMNerous- 2253 . 03
Penns ylvanis sen 6 eee aE See ee gel deee wanes . 95 5.48 , 3.48 4. 25
Rod evls lar de ssw a ak ae Sie, eet es ys se 5d. $12 . 20 .10 . 06
Southi@arolings sees eee none . 05 . 02 14 . 24
South Dakota__ F LOS ie ee ee - 03 03
Tennessee_.------ 03 09 ile 19
TG KAS i Geese de Gee ae ee . 07 02 . 05 ll
WWOLI OT bees aoe oe sates ee Sen Ron eee et UR ek eo ae eesces 17 OF |oneC sae oe | sae s eee
NViTr gira aye ee were a bs ed oe SS ee ae ed eee Bad ek 4 10. 77 11. 20 10. 40
Wisishin 2 tors ae ee te eee Ee ea ee ae Lo ae Te ee ras, pT See ek a . 05 . 03
WiesteViireinia S225 S8 yee se Aoi el Elec er yen susen ye ee) ee! 12 61 . 60 1. 20
WVAISCOMS Tri type Soe oe eee re ee oe oe ee eee een 05 09 10 03
Wiyoming ese}. She see bee ee) Re ae ee ed on A oe SS ee eee ee 02 03
Y NSE gi Bee Se CON Rp a AT 2 Ate a 9 pay ee eee a | ee pw | eee eeu a Pret 06
Cams yee ee eee a Nt Bi Faia cae A a AS or 15 O74| Meese 14
CUD a eee CLE 3s eas ase en ten coe eee Ro ee babes SSeS ee 03
Canal Zong aos ss se BS eee. SEL ee ek ee ie ie eve eves Os ee ee All) tte a savy ie 03
Philippinevislands > eee ee eee ee eee bethcoces tees stnallbeaccb ass 03

| |

IMPROVEMENTS

The most interesting event of recent years has been the opening of
the public exhibition building for reptiles, amphibians, insects, and
miscellaneous invertebrates. The construction of this building was
started in March, 1930, and the exhibition was formally opened the
evening of February 27, 1931. Some 3,000 people attended the re-
ception, and the following day the building was crowded from morn-
ing to night. The formal opening was attended by a large number
of officials of the United States Government and officials of other
zoos who were particularly interested in the building. Among the
latter were Dr. W. Reid Blair, director of the New York Zoological
Park; C. Emerson Brown, director of the Philadelphia Zoological
Garden; George P. Vierheller, director of the St. Louis Zoological
Garden; Dan Harkins, director of Franklin Park Zoo, Boston; and
Dr. Raymond L. Ditmars, curator of reptiles, New York Zoological
Park.

Since its opening it has been by far the most popular and crowded
building in the entire Zoo. Natural habitat for the reptiles has
been provided as far as possible. There is a special ventilating sys-

102992—32——_9

116 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

tem for the public and a special heating system for the reptiles.
Light is all from above so that the visibility is far superior to any-
thing we have ever had before. This building, containing over a
hundred cages, fills a long felt need in the Zoo.

With a view to helping house the Victor J. Evans collection, Con-
gress added $4,500 to the appropriation, and with this money we
have built a series of large mammal paddocks with sheds, runs for
cranes, and large outdoor cages for pheasants.

Out of money unexpended from a previous year and reappropri-
ated for this fiscal year is being built a flight cage for the eagles, to
replace the one that had to be torn down to clear the site for the
reptile house. Other cages will be constructed near by, so that all
of the birds will be grouped in the general vicinity of the bird house.

Contracts have been let for new boilers at the central heating
plant, to replace two secondhand ones that had been installed 29
years ago. The main steam line from the central heating plant to the
buildings began to give way during the early fall, and certain of the
steam lines supplying individual buildings began to develop leaks,
which indicated that they could no longer be successfully repaired.
This matter was presented to Congress, with the result that sufficient
money was provided to renew the lines that showed most imminent
danger of giving out. The new pipes are planned to be a portion of
an extensive central conduit system when finally completed.

A quantity of earth from near-by excavations was made available
to the park without cost, and, by carefully planning the dumping
of this, three considerable level areas were developed on which we
are now able to place outside paddocks, runs, and cages.

NEEDS OF THE ZOO

Since completion of the reptile house, the next building on our
program, the small mammal and great ape house, becomes the one
most urgently needed at the present time. We have no suitable quar-
ters at all for these groups of animals, both of which are represented
in the collection by continually increasing numbers of interesting
species. Plans and specifications for this building are now being
prepared under the appropriation of $4,500 made available by the
last Congress for this purpose.

Following this, the next exhibition building needed is one for
the pachyderms. A room to complete the bird house is also needed.

Respectfully submitted.

W. M. Mann, Director.

Dr. C. G. Axssor,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 7
REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi-
ties of the Astrophysical Observatory for the fiscal year ended June
30, 1931:

PLANT AND OBJECTS

This observatory operates regularly the central station at Wash-
ington and two field stations for observing solar radiation on Table
Mountain, Calif., and Mount Montezuma, Chile. The station at
Mount Brukkaros, Southwest Africa, which was established by the
National Geographic Society, is being continued for the present in
cooperation with the Astrophysical Observatory with funds donated
by a friend of the Institution. In addition the cbservatory controls
a station on Mount Wilson, Calif., where occasional expeditions are
sent for special investigations.

The principal aim of the observatory is the exact measurement of
the intensity of the radiation of the sun as it is at mean solar distance
outside the earth’s atmosphere. This is ordinarily called the solar
constant of radiation, but the observations of past years by this ob-
servatory have proved it variable. As all life, as well as the weather,
depends on solar radiation, the observatory has undertaken the con-
tinued measurement of solar variation on all available days. ‘These
measurements have now continued all the year round for 12 years.
As will appear in this report, recent studies indicate that the perma-
nent continuation of these daily solar-radiation measurements may
have great value for weather forecasting. In addition to this prin-
cipal object the observatory undertakes spectroscopic researches on
radiation and absorption of atmospheric constituents, radiation of
special substances, such as water vapor, ozone, carbonic-acid gas,
liquid water, and others, and the radiation of the other stars as well
as of the sun.

WORK AT WASHINGTON

Funds having been appropriated by the Congress to print Volume
V of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, the year was spent
principally in preparing text, tables, and illustrations expressing the
results of observations made since August, 1920, at the several

stations.
uals

118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

As stated in previous reports, much effort had already been ex-
pended in reducing the observations made at Table Mountain, Calif.,
but without satisfactory results. The atmosphere above ‘Table Moun-
tain, though to the eye appearing very fine and clear, contains va-
riable amounts of ozone, water vapor, and dust, which produce
embarrassing difficulties in computing the solar constant of radiation.
Daily measurements of the amount of atmospheric ozone by the
method of Dobson had been in progress at Table Mountain, since
August, 1928, but they require fully as much time for reduction as
does the solar constant itself. Fortunately, as described in last year’s
report, we were able to devise a simple method based on our bolo-
graphic work whereby corrections can be made easily for the absorp-
tion of ozone on all days when solar-constant measures are made at
Table Mountain. All the Table Mountain solar-constant values from
the beginning there in 1925 have now been corrected for ozone
absorption.

The changes of haziness and of absorption associated with varia-
tions of atmospheric water vapor make a difficulty of a more serious
nature. After several unsuccessful attempts to vary the Montezuma
procedure to suit Table Mountain conditions, the process of reduction
of the short-method solar-constant determinations at Table Moun-
tain was radically changed. It will be recalled that the essence of
the short method consists in employing pyranometer measurements
of the brightness of the sky near the sun as an index of the prevailing
atmospheric transparency.

If the brightness of the sky were unaffected by varying quantities
of smoke or dust, we should expect the normal change of its bright-
ness from day to day to be exactly determined by the quantity of
atmospheric water vapor prevailing. In other words, there would be
a normal relation between pyranometry, precipitable atmospheric
water vapor, and atmospheric transparency, for the different wave
lengths. But if unusual degrees of dustiness or smokiness prevail,
then the pyranometer will record a positive or negative excess from
the normal value proper to the prevailing quantity of precipitable
water. This “ excess” will be associated with changes in the atmos-
pheric transmission coefficients for all wave lengths.

On these lines we have worked out new varieties of the short
method of determining the solar constant of radiation applicable to
conditions at Table Mountain and Mount Brukkaros. We have re-
reduced all the observations made at these stations according to these
new methods. Great improvement in their solar-constant deter-
minations resulted, although it must be confessed that neither of
these two stations yields results as generally satisfactory as does
Montezuma.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 119

COMPARISON OF RESULTS

With the completion of the reduction of all the solar-constant
observations from the three field stations results of much interest are
found by comparing them. Figure 1 shows the monthly mean solar-
constant values derived from Table Mountain, Montezuma, and
Mount Brukkaros since 1926. The probable error of the weighted
mean curve shown as a heavy line in Figure 1 is less than 0.1 per cent.
In short, it is adequately accurate to show all that needs be known
of the general march of solar variation.

Figure 2 shows the preferred monthly mean solar-constant values
from 1920 to 1930, inclusive. The extreme range of it is 2.8 per cent.
Although apparently so irregular, Figure 3 shows that the march of
solar variation may be expressed with surprising fidelity as the sum
of five regular periodicities, of 68, 45, 25, 11, and 8 months’ intervals.
It is interesting to note that, though derived with no regard to it,
all of these intervals turn out to be nearly related to the 1114-year
sun-spot period. ‘Thus 68 months is its half, 45 months its third,
and so on. Other periods are found which are not so long-lived as
these. Thus, curve H in Figure 3 shows periods of 45 and 5.6 days,
respectively, which lasted throughout the year 1924. The excellent
representation of the original curve A by the sum of the five peri-
odicities, as shown at B, encourages me to give in curve I the
expected march of solar variation in 1931 and 1982.

Figure 4 gives the results of an attempt to represent the tempera-
tures of Washington, D. C., and Williston, N. Dak., as made up of
periodicities having these same five intervals, 68, 45, 25, 11, and 8
months. It proved necessary to add a period of 18 months in each
case. The original temperature curves A and C are found by taking
consecutive means of 5-month departures from normal. Thus, 1/5
(Jan.t+Feb.+Mar.+Apr.+May): 1/5 (Feb.+Mar.t+Apr.+May+
June), and so on. This eliminates the shorter irregularities and
brings out prominently the principal departures from normal tem-
perature that have occurred since 1918.

Curves B and D are 5-month consecutive means of curves repre-
senting the observed march of temperature as the sum of the six
periodicities above described. I do not insist that this method of
treatment gives certainty as yet, but I look forward for five more
years to 1936, when it can be subjected to a more rigorous test. Time
will show whether or not it is the germ of the method of forecasting
weather for future years, to which Langley looked forward when he
founded the Astrophysical Observatory.

The comparison of stations shows that the daily solar-constant
values are not as accurate as are needed. Montezuma results are by
far the best. Yet they lack many days of completeness and many

OLGI-OZEL ‘SONTVA JUBIsSUOD-IL[OS UREN A[Y}UOU poltejalg—Z DUIS

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£) t\ \ k

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

120

o¢él 626! S261 Azo

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY

aod i ada a a
hn ad oly gi al cla aioli
ah re eater dione rapa IK (A
‘ aCe Na lacali Me Wah atiort Nella |
alla Heke GAME A cla a Naar
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ae Ses ea ce
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lolita tet eee
(| AL VA
ies See Soest
Staak! rae ann REN Ee
= fille ale fr 7 0 9
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ETS EN ESSe Fa SES aa
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hase eae ANA QURT ae
ee Be Ga Gd a a
SSS WN es I
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1.93
ia
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curve
A
96
8
195 194
1.94 1.93
9
9.

Curve

1932
= we

Ficues 3.—Solar variation represented by five regular periodicities

122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

days represented are unsatisfactory. It is indeed almost beyond the
limit of possible accuracy to observe the solar constant day after day
with such exactness that the differences between the absolute values
shall always evaluate changes correctly if reaching one-third of 1 per
cent or more. This is what is needed. We have in mind a few
improvements which may bring us to this degree of accuracy at
Montezuma, but unless other stations superior to Table Mountain
and Brukkaros are found it seems doubtful if fully satisfactory
daily values are obtainable to supplement the Montezuma record.

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teiaeeseueratectat erate L(y ane ZL

real isa 1 Poet
© LAA MAT A av r\ a WAC HT Sateen
t THM WA ee lH] A Io
2 DG SUE BSS ee wi

IRE N Euea ee et pecataataateoeediee
PCIE EEE

liaur® 4.—Washington and Williston temperatures associated with solar periodicities.
Five-month consecutive means

°

Further studies made during the year tend to confirm the impres-
sion stated in last year’s report that temperatures and barometric
pressures in the United States respond by opposite trends to positive
and negative sequences of change in daily solar-radiation values. As
yet, however, the evidence is not fully satisfactory owing to the
imperfection of the daily record of solar changes, as just explained.

To promote statistical studies along these lines, a new instrument
designed to discover and evaluate periodicities in solar and weather
records has been designed. Its construction was aided by a grant of

Sid

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 123

$1,000 from the Research Corporation of New York. At the close of
the fiscal year the instrument was almost ready for use, having been
constructed by A. Kramer at the instrument shop of the Observatory.

FIELD STATIONS

In cooperation with Doctor Wulf, of the Fixed Nitrogen Research
Laboratory, of the Department of Agriculture, an investigation has
been carried through at Table Mountain, Calif., on the absorption of
well-determined quantities of ozone in the visible spectrum. In this
research, ozone-laden air contained in special absorption cells was
interposed before the slit of the spectrobolometer which records the
energy of the solar spectrum. A new, independent method of de-
termining the atmospheric ozone content was worked out and ap-
plied. Its results agree nearly with those determined by the method
of Dobson.

The daily observation of the solar constant of radiation has been
carried on regularly at the three field stations: Table Mountain,
Calif.; Montezuma, Chile; and Mount Brukkaros, Southwest Africa.
The latter station has been supported by grants from John A.
Roebling. Impressed by the probability of useful weather applica-
tions, Mr. Roebling has made a further grant to finance an expedi-
tion of a year’s duration in Africa and outlying regions to endeavor
to find a site equal to Montezuma, Chile, for solar-radiation work.
Accompanied by Mrs. Moore, A. F. Moore, who has had long experi-
ence at our mountain observatories, occupied Fogo Island peak in
the Cape Verde Islands for several weeks, and is now in Southwest
Africa testing various high mountain sites in comparison with Mount
Brukkaros,

A fire caused by a kerosene heater destroyed the computing room
at Montezuma station, with mathematical tables and instruments used
in the reductions. The observations suffered a few days of delay
before new tables could be sent, but no days were lost to the perma-
nent record of the station.

PERSON NEL

At Washington the personnel is unchanged since the last report,
except that Oliver Grant served as additional computer throughout
the year in the preparation of Volume V of the Annals. Also George
Cox served from November, 1930, on the reduction of ozone observa-
tions and other computing. Both young men were compensated from
the Roebling funds.

C. P. Butler, formerly assistant at Montezuma, was placed in
charge of that station on January 11, 1931, vice H. H. Zodtner, trans-
ferred to Table Mountain to carry on there during the absence of

124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

A. F. Moore. Walter Watson, jr., reported for duty as assistant at
Montezuma February 1, 1931.

SUMMARY

The principal work accomplished has been the development of
new methods and the complete reduction of all solar-constant obser-
vations made at the field stations since 1920. The results with
accompanying text and illustrations have been collected and sent to
press as Volume V of the Annals of the Observatory. Comparison
of values shows that the variation of the sun indicated by monthly
mean values since 1920 is determined with sufficient accuracy for
all purposes. The probable error of monthly means is less than 0.1
per cent. Solar changes found since 1920 range to 2.8 per cent.
Daily observations are less satisfactory than monthly means, but
improvements are proposed. An expedition is in Southwest Africa
endeavoring to discover a site for a solar radiation observatory equal
to Montezuma, Chile. A new instrument for the periodic analysis
of solar and weather data is nearly completed.

On the whole the outcome of 10 years of intensive study of solar
radiation, as brought together in the text of Volume V of the Annals
of the Observatory now in press, is very interesting. It encourages
great hope that the causes of weather may be traced in solar variation
to such a degree as to enable the skilled meteorologist to forecast
principal changes of weather far in advance.

Respectfully submitted.

C. G. Aszor, Director.

The Secretary,

Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 8

REPORT ON THE DIVISION OF RADIATION AND
ORGANISMS

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi-
ties of the Division of Radiation and Organisms during its second
year ending June 30, 1981.

RESEARCH IN PROGRESS

Building around the central idea of a laboratory combining experi-
mental work in biophysics with fundamental experimentation in
physics and chemistry, researches have been carried forward in both
these fields. The phototropic experiments upon oat coleoptiles
previously reported have been carried further with considerable
refinement of technique. The carbon dioxide assimilation of wheat
has been studied as a function of intensity in artificial ight. Pre-
liminary experiments with algae have been initiated with a view to
determining carbon dioxide assimilation as a function of wave length
and intensity, growth rate as a function of wave length and inten-
sity, and death point as a function of wave length, and time-intensity
dosage. The propagating chamber which was developed by the
division has been used in cooperation with the Department of Agri-
culture for the purpose of investigating the effects of artificial light,
humidity, and temperature upon the growth of certain desert and
tropical plants.

In the field of pure physics and physical chemistry the major
part of the time has been devoted to the development of the necessary
equipment for the general intensity and infra-red work contemplated.
The intensity distribution in the mercury spectrum has been deter-
mined directly. In cooperation with the Fixed Nitrogen Research
Laboratory the spectra of HCl, HCN, and the halogen substitution
products of benzene have been investigated in the region between the
visible and Qu.

PHOTOTROPISM

In a preliminary experiment the phototropic response of the oat
coleoptile toward light was determined comparatively for different
colors or spectral regions by means of light filters. The results of
this experiment may be conveniently summed up in the accompuny-

125

126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

ing graph, Figure 1. The spectral regions used are indicated by the
transmission curves. The wave lengths are plotted as abscissae and
the percentages of light transmitted by the filters as ordinates. The
continuous curves indicate the regions of transmission for each of
the filters; the blue filter (B) transmitting the region between 4,000
and 5,000 A units, the green filter (G) transmitting between 4,800
and 5,900A units, the yellow filter (Y) transmitting all visible
wave lengths longer than 5,800 A, and the red filter (R) transmit-
ting all wave lengths longer than 5,900 A. For the sake of convenience
the observable response curves have been plotted upon the same dia-
gram in dotted lines. The response in the red was found to be zero.
The response to yellow light has been arbitrarily assigned the value
“unity.” Using a logarithmic scale (inside the frame) the relative
responses in green and blue have been indicated. In the right-hand

70
100000
SS =
SS
501-1000 SS iss =
vs
1oco
20 \
\
\
\
10 MICE:
NSN uaa
“ie : DB Sen | pba ool
4000 5000 6000 7000

Wave length
FicgurE 1.—Phototropism by filter method

ES a Pncefle a! Phototropiec sensitivity.
Transmission of filters.

curve each point is plotted at the wave-length center of gravity of
the region for each filter, in the case of yellow, only counting those
wave lengths not included by the red filter.

This curve plotted through these three points may be regarded as
a first approximation. On the basis of this curve the centers of
gravity were redetermined where each wave length was weighted
according to responses as indicated by the first approximation curve.
The middle curve was thus obtained by simply shifting the points
to the weighed center of gravity wave lengths. Using this second
approximation curve as the basis for again reweighting, the third
or left-hand curve was obtained. Reweighting was, of course, im-
possible for the blue region, as data are not available on the shorter
wave-length side.

These results are presented for the sake of comparison with the
results obtained in the more elaborate experiment carried out with

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 127

the use of a monochromator for obtaining narrower spectral regions
or purer colors. In this way more points could be secured in deter-
mining the response curve, and the amount of correction required for
shift of center of gravity minimized. The results of this second
experiment are shown in Figure 2. Points determined showing the
relative response as a function of wave length are indicated by solid
dots plotted on an arithmetic scale (inside frame). These points
have again been plotted as crosses on a logarithmic scale as indicated
cutside the frame. The results of the earlier experiment are shown
as circles.

100000
10000
1,000

/00

10

4000 5000 .. 6000 7000
Wave length
FiGurRB 2.—Phototropism by monochromator method

—xX— sensitivity on logarithmic scale (indicated outside of box)
—O— sensitivity on linear scale (indicated inside of box)

Agreement between the two experiments is quite striking consider-
ing the rough nature of the earlier experiment.

In the phototropic experiments the biological technique has been
developed by Doctor Johnston and the intensity relations determined
by Doctor McAlister. The demands upon physical technique were
so extreme that special vacuum thermocouples had to be developed
and the galvonometer deflection measured by means of a thermal
relay.

It is interesting to note in this connection that Blaauw had secured
similar curves for phototropic response, measuring instead of relative

128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

intensity, the time required for the first observable response. That
these curves determined by time of initial response should be almost
identical to those determined by quantitative intensity ratios strongly
points to a possible time-intensity product as the effective factor in
controlling the phototropic response. This is particularly interest-
ing, as such a relation is found to hold to a first approximation in the
case of photographic plates on the one hand and the erythema
dosage for the human skin on the other, as well as in most simple
systems.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Special all-vitreous growth chambers have been developed wherein
the carbon dioxide assimilated by wheat plants can readily be de-
termined. The accompanying illustration (pl. 1, fig. 1) indicates the
type of chamber developed; the plants are inserted through holes in
the cork stopper and held in place by cotton, the roots being
immersed in a nutrient solution contained in the Erlenmeyer flask;
the leaves extend upward in a special tubular compartment. This
tubular compartment is double walled, permitting the circulation
of water for the maintenance of temperature. Illumination is
secured through these lateral walls. For experimentation with the
blue and ultra-violet similar containers have been made of corex.
Air is conditioned by a humidifier and introduced through an air-
flow regulator into the base of the leaf chamber. It is expelled at the
top and a portion passed through a conductivity cell. The variation
in carbon-dioxide content is thus determined by changes caused in
the conductivity of a potassium hydroxide solution. The record is
made continuously by a Leeds and Northrup automatic bridge.

In later experiments eight 300-watt lights mounted upon adjustable
arms were substituted for those shown. Thus 2,400 watts could be
placed at any distance from 20 centimeters to a meter, the illumina-
tion being lateral and strictly symmetrical. A thermocouple with a
cylindrical receiver is introduced through the top in order to deter-
mine accurately the relative intensities for different adjustments.
The accompanying diagram (fig. 3) shows a typical run carried out
during a single day, showing the carbon dioxide assimilated for each
different light intensity.

To a first approximation the curve is apparently made up of two
straight-line segments. While this appears to support the classical
theory of Blackman concerning limiting factors, no such conclusion
should be drawn until more rigid control can be maintained. The
small changes in values which may result may be sufficient to obliter-
ate the apparent linearity.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 129

This work differs from earlier work in that it is carried out with
entire plants instead of individual leaves cut from plants as pre-
viously used. The results presented must be regarded as simply
preliminary, since certain difficulties are yet to be overcome. These
experiments are preparatory for those contemplated wherein approxi-
mately monochromatic light will be used. The development of
equipment for this more elaborate experiment is nearing completion.

In this work Doctor Johnston has carried out the physiological
phases of the experiment and Mr. Hoover has perfected the carbon
dioxide recording apparatus loaned to the division by the Fixed
Nitrogen Research Laboratory and has carried out the observations
with this instrument.

w

CO, ABSORPTION

(2)

2 4a 6 8 10 12 14 16
INTERSITY
Figurm 3.—Dependence of photosynthesis on light intensity

ALGAE INVESTIGATIONS

As a result of the cooperation of the Department of Agriculture
Doctor Meier has been able to initiate a program of algae investi-
gations which will be extended through the following year as a
part of her work as National Research Council Fellow in the divi-
sion. Preliminary experiments have been carried out in which the
many special types of algae which she has collected have been sub-
jected to different nutrient solutions, and to different temperature
and illumination conditions, with a view to determining the condi-
tions required for the experiments contemplated.

She has found that certain varieties may be grown in a colorless
condition in the dark and subsequently gain their normal coloration

130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

upon exposure to light. These will be used for experiments in which
coloration is determined as a function of wave length and intensity.

Provision has been made for growing a large number of algae
cultures under comparable conditions. For this purpose two tables
have been constructed, each with four glass-bottomed reservoirs.
Small Erlenmeyer flasks containing solution cultures of algae are
immersed in these large water baths and illuminated by artificial
light from below. <A circulating system maintains each set of four
reservoirs at the same temperature. The small Erlenmeyer flasks
containing the algae are maintained in agitation by a common driv-
ing mechanism. Only the illumination is different in one reservoir
from that in another. Thus the effect of modifying wave length or
intensity may be determined for 18 different samples at once. The
flasks may be supplied with small manometers in order to make a
rough check on the photosynthetic processes as they are affected by
growth and modification of conditions of illumination. All this
work, however, is simply an auxiliary to the more careful experiment
to be carried out intensively in a modified Warburg apparatus
wherein differential nephelometric measurements are made as well as
the usual manometric measurements upon oxygen concentration. The
apparatus for these more refined measurements is in process of
construction.

A large quartz spectrograph has been constructed, using two quartz
prisms some 15 cm on a side with quartz lenses of a 60 em focal
length. By means of the spectrograph unicellular organisms distrib-
uted uniformly on a slide or in a culture dish may be exposed simul-
taneously to different regions of the spectrum. Modifications in
growth rate or resulting death point may be observed comparatively
for different wave lengths. In Plate 1, Figure 2, the results of a pre-
liminary exposure of algae are readily observed. For all wave
lengths shorter than 3,000 A the typical mercury lines appear just
as they would be seen on a photographic plate. Here, however, they
are recorded by the absence of the organisms after a week’s growth
subsequent to exposure. It should be noted that although the lines
on the long-wave length side of 3,000 A are stronger by actual ther-
mocouple determination they have not affected the algae colony.

For convenience, Figure 5 may be referred to in this connection,
which shows the relative intensities of the different lines of the mer-
cury arc as determined in an experiment to be discussed later in
another connection.

By a succession of such experiments, wherein the first noticeable
killing can be determined for different exposure times, the relative
dosage of different wave lengths can be determined.

Secretary's Report, 1931.—Appendix 8

PLATE 1

SPECIAL GROWTH CHAMBER FOR WHEAT WITH CARBON’ DIOXIDE
RECORDING MECHANISM

ee oherts eer

DEATHPOINT THRESHOLD OF ALGAE

2. PLATE CULTURE OF ALGAE EXPOSED TO MERCURY SPECTRUM

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Seenestse — a a

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REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 131

COOPERATIVE WORK WITH THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, DEPARTMENT
OF AGRICULTURE

A first experiment has been carried out in the general plan of co-
operation between the United States Department of Agriculture and
the division, in the crop physiology and breeding investigations of
Dr. Walter T. Swingle. In this experiment the effects of controlled
radiation, humidity, and temperature on certain tropical and xero-
phytic plants were investigated in a preliminary way. ‘The results
may be summed up as follows:

First, it was found possible to maintain conditions which yielded
in the case of date palms, ten times greater growth rate than that
exhibited by the control plants in the greenhouse (pl. 2). Second,
humidity was shown to be a controlling factor in the growth of date
palms. Third, the ephedra under these conditions yielded two crops,
both larger than the single crop grown in the greenhouse. Fourth,
conditions maintained, perhaps due to the red-rich, blue-poor radia-
tion, yielded exceptional root development in both palms and pan-
dani. Fifth, pandani have shown exceptional offshoot development,
a matter of great significance in propagation of identical individuals.
If the same proves true of palms, as seems likely, this result is of
considerable practical importance.

In this experiment the plant conditions and developments were
in the hands of Dr. Florence E. Meier, associate physiologist in the
Bureau of Plant Industry. Members of the division assisted during
the experiment by the development of control apparatus in connec-
tion with a propagating chamber for maintenance of constant
humidity and temperature.

In further preparation for the cooperative program the Depart-
ment of Agriculture has constructed four additional individual
growth chambers of a larger and slightly modified design but in
general similar to the four already constructed by the division. A
humidifier to serve all the individual growth chambers has been
constructed by their shops and is in progress of installation. It
should be possible to begin experimentation with these individual
growth chambers some time during the coming fall.

SPECTROSCOPIC DEVELOPMENTS
INFRA-RED

A large spectrograph, equipped with salt prisms, which will record
intensity distribution of radiation from the visible to 15 in the deep
infra-red, is nearly completed. A preliminary grating set-up shows

102992—32——_10

132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

remarkable possibilities of an old grating ruled for the Smithsonian
by Rowland for infra-red work shorter than 6s. Two echelette
gratings have been ruled for the division by the Johns Hopkins
University and have been given preliminary tests in the near infra-
red. While these tests have so far been discouraging, they may
still prove satisfactory in the deeper infra-red beyond 6p, for which
they were more particularly designed.

The near infra-red work has been continued in cooperation with
the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory. Investigations of the

--ae wom seen:

Sy ee a era er
BS eee ee eee

Wave length
Ficurwp 4.—Comparison of spectra using single and double monochromators

————— single monochromator.
a Ae ts et double monochromator.

halogen derivatives of benzene have been extended; the near infra-
red spectrum of HCN has been investigated in both liquid and vapor,
the results being presented at the Pacific coast meetings of the Physi-
cal Society during the summer. Investigations of HCl in vapor and
dissolved in carbon tetrachloride have been carried out with a view
to determining the rotational freedom existing in such solutions.
This work has been carried out by Doctor Brackett, in association
with Urner Liddel and Dr. Oliver Wulf, of the Fixed Nitrogen
Research Laboratory.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 133
ULTRA-VIOLET

The energy distribution in the mercury arc has been measured by
Doctor McAlister at a resolution 10 times greater than the previous
work. These results were presented at meetings of the Physical
Society. This work has been made possible through the loan of two
quartz monochromators by the Bausch & Lomb Optical Co. Figure
4 shows by the solid line the spectrum plotted with a single mono-
chromator; it is replotted with dotted lines where two monochrom-
ators are used, arranged so that the light passed first through one

20
[fey
8
e
=
HD sas ees
A
°
a
cs
>
3
o
JS cm.
|
4.000 3000 2000 A

Wave length
Ficurw 5.—Intensity record of mercury arc spectrum using double monochromator

and then through the other. It will be seen that not only is the
background of energy observed between lines greatly reduced, but
also the lines are much narrowed, or, in other words, the resolution
is greatly increased. The intensities of the lines are only reduced
by a factor of two where the resolution and freedom from scattering
is increased by a larger factor. Figure 5 shows the spectrum plotted
with the double monochromator arrangement but a still narrower
slit.

134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

As a result of these measurements of spectral distribution in the
visible and ultra-violet, an invitation has been extended to the divi-
sion to be represented on the committee on ultra-violet measurement
standards of the Illuminating Engineers Society. Doctor McAlister
represented the division in the first of these meetings during the
summer, where plans were made for cooperation in the development
of suitable standard sources and technique for intensity measurement.

THERMOCOUPLE TECHNIQUE

As a result of the development of the specially sensitive vacuum
thermocouples by members of the division many requests have come
in for the construction of couples for other institutions. This has
been possible only in exceptional cases. Couples have been con-
structed for the University of California, for the Department of
Agriculture, and for the General Electric Co.

As an adjunct of these highly sensitive couples a special thermo-
couple multiplier has been developed which is capable of magnify-
ing galvonometer deflections by any desired ratio up to 1,000 times.
It has the special advantages of making this magnification linearly
for any amplitude and of introducing no appreciable added instabil-
ity into the measurements. This technique is applicable not only to
the infra-red investigations but’ also to the phototropic experiment
where the measurement of extremely small intensities is required.

REPORT ON THE WORK OF INDIVIDUALS

Dr. Earl S. Johnston, plant physiologist, became a full-time mem-
ber of the staff in February, 1931. Doctor Johnston began his work
with the division as a consultant while still a professor at the Univer-
sity of Maryland. He has taken an active part in the plans and de-
velopments along the lines of plant physiology almost from the
beginning. His addition to the staff has made possible much more
rapid progress in the biological phases of the work. He has ageres-
sively pushed the phototropic experiments and the wheat experiment,
and has assisted in the preliminary growth chamber experiment. His
assistance in matters of publication has been very valuable.

Dr. E. D. McAlister became a member of the staff in September,
1930, devoting half of his time to the work of the division and the
other half to the work of the Research Corporation. During the
latter part of the year all his time was assigned to the work of the
division. Doctor McAlister’s long experience in thermocouple tech-
nique and infra-red measurements makes him unusually well qualified
for the work of the division. He has carried out the most exacting
phases of thermocouple observations on intensity and wave-length

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 135

distribution in the phototropic experiment. He has materially con-
tributed to the development of the preliminary growth chamber and
controls. He has carried out an investigation on the distribution of
the mercury are in the blue and ultra-violet. He has furthermore
handled a large part of the technical developments of thermocouples.
This is in addition to his work with the Research Corporation, for
which he has carried out exhaustive investigations of the possibilities
of the thermopile for use as a source of electromotive force in ap-
plied fields. He has carried out preliminary developments of the
nephylometer for general experimental use.

Leland B. Clark, in addition to carrying on all the regular glass-
blowing, has handled the vacuum technique development in connec-
tion with the thermocouples. He has constructed a practical butylph-
thalate pump of original design. His assistance in many phases of
special laboratory technique is of great value to the division.

William H. Hoover has carried out a large part of the equipment
and operation of the preliminary growth chamber; he has adjusted
and increased the sensitivity of the carbon dioxide detecting device
loaned to the division by the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory
and he has installed and put in operation temperature-control equip-
ment for the individual wheat experiment. He has designed and in-
stalled a new thermostat which greatly increases the stability of the
carbon dioxide recording mechanism. This is in addition to his
work with the Astrophysical Observatory, for whom during the year
he has spent a month in the development of photometric equipment
and two months on a trip to Table Mountain, as well as some com-
putational work on the annual report.

Miss Stanley, in addition to the regular stenographic work, now
a considerable load, has ably handled all our bookkeeping in con-
nection with purchases.

L. A. Fillmen, a mechanic of wide experience in apparatus and
equipment construction, became a half-time member of the staff in
August, 1980. His experience and ability have contributed largely
in the development of equipment for the laboratory. Through the
courtesy of the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, Mr. Fillmen
worked for several months in their shop while our shop was being
equipped.

VYERSONNEL

During the fiscal year the personnel was as follows:

Chief —Dr. Frederick S. Brackett.

Research associate-—Dr. Earl S. Johnston.

Associate research assistant —Dr. E. D. McAlister.

Research assistant assigned by the Astrophysical Observatory.—
W. H. Hoover.

136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Research assistant.—L. B. Clark.
Stenographer.—Virginia P. Stanley.
Mechanic.—L. A. Fillmen.

EXTENSION OF HOUSING

The large room No. 14 of the basement was added to the laboratory
in order to provide for the intensity measurements in the visible
and ultra-violet and development of the algae and wheat experiments.
Partitions have been built in order to provide sufficient dark-room
space. A room has also been constructed in order to make possible
the accommodation of a glass-blowing course, which Mr. Clark has
undertaken for the Department of Agriculture. Room No. 12 has
been equipped as a thoroughly up-to-date machine shop by the
Research Corporation, with whom the division shares Mr. Fillmen’s
time. Room No. 13 has been equipped for the shopwork of the
members of the division.

COOPERATION

The division has been especially fortunate in the cordial coopera-
tion of other institutions. This includes near infra-red work with
the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, experiments in higher
plants with the Bureau of Plant Industry, sharing of equipment and
personnel with the Research Corporation, personal assistance from
the Astrophysical Observatory, assistance in the form of apparatus
and equipment from the Bausch & Lomb Optical Co. and the General
Electric Co.

GENERAL

In undertaking experimental work along those biological lines
wherein radiation plays an important part it is inevitable that men
are required with special training and experience not only in biology
but also in the fields of physics and chemistry. To bring about the
cooperation in these border-line problems of men with specialized
training in each of these fields has been the essential dominating
idea in the development of the division. The lack of men with
specialized chemical training in the organic and photochemical fields
is more and more keenly felt. Furthermore although the division is
well provided with people of highly specialized training in the field
of plant physiology and physics it is handicapped by the lack of
sufficient laboratory assistance in order to carry out their ideas and
make their time effective. Without increasing its program or widen-
ing the scope of its activities the division urgently needs sufficient
funds to round out its personnel in this way.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 137
SUMMARY

The end of the second year finds the research work of the division
well under way with preliminary results on phototropism, and on
carbon dioxide assimilation of wheat; algae experiments on light
adaptation have been initiated; promising experimental work has
been begun in cooperation with the Department of Agriculture; and
spectroscopic measurements have been completed in both the ultra-
violet and infra-red. The laboratory space has been extended and
equipped for the expansion of the work. Shop facilities have been
added to care for the apparatus development. Essential additions
have been made to the division personnel in both the physiological
and physical sides of the project.

Respectfully submitted.

F. S. Bracxerr, Chief.

Dr. C. G. Anzor,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 9

REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the United States Regional Bureau of the International
Catalogue of Scientific Literature for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1931.

The routine work of the bureau, consisting mainly of compiling
necessary records of current American scientific publications to be
indexed for the catalogue when publication is resumed, has been
continued.

In compliance with the resolution passed at the last international
convention held in Brussels in July, 1922, this bureau has been kept
in existence. This resolution, unanimously adopted, was “ That the
convention is of opinion that the international organization should
be kept in being through mutual agreement to continue as far as
possible the work of the regional bureaus until such time as it may be
economically possible to resume publication.” Complying with the
intent of the resolution, this bureau has been continued, though with
a force of only two employees, in order to keep the enterprise alive
with the lowest possible expenditure of money. Each year part of
the regular annual congressional appropriation has reverted to the
Treasury; this year, out of the appropriation of $8,145, only $5,624
was spent, and thus $2,521 will revert.

This bureau is making every effort through the chairman of the
executive committee, in whom authority to reorganize is vested, to
influence the other bureaus to take the steps necessary to resume
publication, but on account of depressed financial conditions still ex-
isting and the disorganized political situation in some countries no
definite plan has yet been advanced. This is a situation to be de-
plored, for nothing has ever taken the place of the catalogue, and its
need in the world of science becomes ever more obvious. Aside from
the necessary cooperation by the regional bureaus in furnishing clas-
sified references for the Catalogue, a capital fund estimated at $75,-
000 is needed to refinance the central bureau, the editing and pub-
lishing center of the enterprise, and it seems provable that when a
definite plan is presented some of the great endowed foundations
interested in this and similar fields will provide this comparatively
small sum.

138

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 139

Dr. Ernest Cushing Richardson, one of the great international
authorities on bibliography, stated in a paper on the International
Catalogue published in Science, June 20, 1930:

* * * The research endowments are bombarded with bibliographical
projects of varying method and degrees of merit. They aid or support a good
many projects. They are deeply concerned as trust organizations to put their
money where it will do the most good. Other things being equal, they prefer
to put it where one dollar will do the work of four. * * * It is here they
can give the most bibliographical service with the least money. The proposi-
tion touches the libraries in a very similar way. If and when the matter is
revived it will depend for financing, if not on the endowments, than on library
subscriptions. If this machine is scrapped, when a new one is started either
a $3,000,000 endowment must be had from promoters of research or a quad-
ruple price charged to libraries.

Respectfully submitted.
Lronarp C. GUNNELL,

Assistant in Charge.
Dr. CHartes G. ABBOT,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 10
REPORT ON THE LIBRARY

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activ-
ities of the Smithsonian library for the fiscal year ended June 30,
1931:

THE LIBRARY

The library, or library system, of the Smithsonian Institution is
made up of 46 separate libraries, each related in some special way to
the work of the Institution and of the seven Government bureaus
under its administrative charge. The chief of these is the Smith-
sonian deposit in the Library of Congress. The others are the library
of the United States National Museum, the Smithsonian office
library, the Langley aeronautical hbrary, and the libraries of the
Astrophysical Observatory, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the
Division of Radiation and Organisms, the Freer Gallery of Art,
the National Gallery of Art, and the National Zoological Park, to-
gether with the 36 sectional libraries in the National Museum. These
collections, which number in all about 800,000 volumes, pamphlets,
and charts, not to mention the thousands still uncatalogued, while
they contain many publications on art, history, literature, philos-
ophy, music, and education, pertain largely to science and tech-
nology. This important group of libraries has made available to
Smithsonian employees and to American research workers in gen-
eral, especially those connected with the various departments of
the Government, most of the leading scientific publications of the
world during one of its outstanding eras. Thus it has had a note-
worthy part in carrying out since 1846—the year in which the Smith-
sonian began its activities—the will of James Smithson, the founder
of the Institution.

CHANGES IN STAFF

During the last year there were several changes in the library
staff. Miss Marian W. Seville was made head of the order depart-
ment and promoted from the rank of library assistant to that of
senior library assistant. Mrs. M. Landon Reed, who had served in
the exchange department for some time on temporary appointment,
was given a permanent position as clerk. Miss Margaret Moreland

140

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 141

was advanced from the grade of under library assistant to that of
senior stenographer, to fill a new position established in the libra-
rian’s office at the beginning of the year. Miss Anna M. Link was
promoted from the rank of minor library assjstant to the place
formerly occupied by Miss Moreland. Miss Virginia C. Whitney, a
graduate in library science of George Washington University, was
appointed minor library assistant to succeed Miss Link. The tempo-
rary employees were Mr. Alan Blanchard, Mrs. Daisy Cadle, Mrs.
Lewis Deschler, Miss Katherine Everhart, Mrs. Grace A. Parler,
Miss Jennette Seiler, Miss Eleanor Spielman, and Mr. Clyde Wil-
hams.
EXCHANGE OF PUBLICATIONS

The collections in the library system have been built up partly by
the early provisions of the copyright law, partly by purchase and
gift, but to a very large extent by exchange, for from the first the
Institution and its branches have exchanged their publications for
those of other learned institutions and societies and for scientific and
technical journals and monographs. These have come to the Smith-
sonian library by mail or through the International Exchange Serv-
ice, which is administered by the Institution.

In the course of the fiscal year just closed there came to the library
by mail 24,594 packages and by the Exchange 1,688, each containing
one or more publications. These were stamped, entered, and for-
warded to the appropriate libraries of the system. Among the
notable sendings, of which there were many, was one of 331 volumes
and parts of Neerlandia from the Allgemeen Nederlandsch Verbond,
at The Hague. This was assigned to the Smithsonian deposit.

The publications received included 4,565 dissertations from the uni-
versities of Basel, Berlin, Bern, Bonn, Breslau, Cornell, Erlangen,
Gand, Giessen, Greifswald, Halle, Heidelberg, Helsingfors, Jena,
Johns Hopkins, Kiel, Konigsberg, Leiden, Leipzig, Lund, Marburg,
Neuchatel, Pennsylvania, Rostock, Strasbourg, Tiibingen, Utrecht,
Warsaw, and Ziirich, the Academy of Freiberg, and technical schools
at Aachen, Berlin, Braunschweig, Dresden, Karlsruhe, and Ziirich.

Of the 1,808 letters written by the library staff during the year—
an increase of 97 over 1930—nearly all had to do with the exchange
of publications. At the close of the year this correspondence was up
to date. The number of publications obtained in exchange in re-
sponse to special requests from the various libraries of the Institution
was much larger than usual, or 3,590. Exchange relations for several
hundred new publications were entered into, particularly on behalf
of the Smithsonian deposit, the Langley aeronautical library, and the
libraries of the National Museum and Astrophysical Observatory.

142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931
GIFTS

During the year the library received many gifts. Chief among
these was one of several thousand volumes and pamphlets, together
with a collection of important letters and photographs, from the
library of the late Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology.
These were presented by Mrs. Merrill and the other heirs of the
estate and are to be kept in the office formerly occupied by Doctor
Merrill, both as a permanent memorial to him and as an outstanding
addition to the library in the division of geology. Other valuable
collections received were as follows: 600 publications of a general
scientific nature from Mrs. Dora W. Boettcher, given in memory of
her husband, F. L. J. Boettcher, who was once connected with the
Smithsonian Institution; 886 volumes and pamphlets from the
heirs of the estate of the late Dr. O. P. Hay, of the Carnegie
Institution, who for some years before his death used the library
in the National Museum almost daily and gave it many valuable
publications; 34 volumes, especially on atomic weights, together
with a package of letters from the first four Secretaries of the
Smithsonian, from the late Dr. Frank Wigglesworth Clarke; 30
publications by or about Prof. Henry Carvill Lewis, from his
sister, Mrs. Edward S. Sayres; and 50 or more early numbers of
periodicals on art, from Mrs. Marietta Comly. Among other gifts
were 8 volumes on the history of Japan, from the Historiographical
Institute, Tokyo; 4 volumes, namely, A Handbook of Mohammedan
Decorative Arts, by M. S. Dimand, and Catalogue of European Dag-
gers, Catalogue of European Court Swords and Hunting Swords,
and Handbook of Arms and Armor, European and Oriental, by
Bashford Dean, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art; and The
Permian of Mongolia, by Amadeus W. Grabau, from the American
Museum of Natural History. About 600 publications came from the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 267 from the
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, 255 from the Geo-
physical Laboratory, 55 from the American Association of Museums,
and many from the Library of Congress.

Preeminent among the books presented to the library was a copy
of Nippon, by Phillip Franz von Siebold, as reissued recently in five
volumes by the Japaninstitut of Berlin. The narrative of the
author’s experiences in Japan during the years 1823 to 1830 is illus-
trated with pictures of the Japanese people and life during that
period. ‘This handsome and costly work, highly significant for its
worth both as art and as history, was given to the Smithsonian by
G. A. Pfeiffer, of New York, and was deposited in the library
of the Freer Gallery of Art. Other unusual gifts included Machu
Picchu, a Citadel of the Incas, by Senator Hiram Bingham, from

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 143

the National Geographic Society ; Lo-Lang, a Report on the Excava-
tion of Wang-Hsii’s Tomb in the Lo-Lang Province, an Ancient
Chinese Colony in Korea, by Yoshito Harada, with the Collabora-
tion of Kingo Tazawa, from the Tokyo Imperial University; The
Ellsworth Family, Volume I1—Lincoln Elsworth, by Howard El-
dred Kershner, from the National Americana Society; Impressions
of Japanese Architecture, by Ralph Adams Cram, from the Japan
Society of New York; Volumes IV and V of her well-known work,
North American Wild Flowers, from Mrs. Charles D. Walcott;
Volumes VII and VIII of the Smithsonian Scientific Series—Man
from the Farthest Past, by Carl Whiting Bishop, and Cold-Blooded
Vertebrates (Pt. I, Fishes; Pts. Il and III, Amphibians and
Reptiles), by Samuel F. Hildebrand, Dr. Charles W. Gilmore, and
Doris M. Cochran—from the Smithsonian Institution; Clouds, by
Alexander McAdie, from the Blue Hill Observatory; The Travels of
Captain Robert Coverte, edited and presented by Boies Penrose;
Wild Flowers of the Alleghanies, by Joseph E. Harned, from the
author; William Henry Welch at Eighty, edited by Victor O. Free-
burg, from the Milbank Memorial Fund; The Indians of Pecos
Pueblo, by Earnest A. Hooton, from Phillips Academy; Handbook
of Aeronautics, by the Royal Aeronautical Society of London, from
the publishers, Gale & Polden (Ltd.); African Republic of
Liberia and the Belgian Congo (Harvard African Expedition, 1926—
27), in two volumes, edited by Richard P. Strong, from Harvey W.
Firestone; Natural History of Birds, ia two volumes, by George
Edwards, from James Norris Woodward; and Tratado Elemental
de Botanica, with typed index, by Carlos Cuervo Margues, from W.
A. Archer.

Gifts were also received from many members and associates of the
Smithsonian staff, including Secretary Abbot, Assistant Secretary
Wetmore, Dr. William H. Holmes, director of the National Gallery
of Art, Dr. J. M. Aldrich, H. G. Barber, Dr. Marcus Benjamin, FE. J.
Brown, Dr. E. A. Chapin, A. H. Clark, Dr. Herbert Friedmann,
Dr. O. P. Hay, Dr. Walter Hough, A. B. Howell, Dr. Ale’ Hrdlicka,
Neil M. Judd, Dr. Remington Kellogg, Dr. W. R. Maxon, G. S.
Miller, jr., A. J. Olmsted, J. C. Proctor, Miss Mary J. Rathbun,
W. deC. Ravenel, Dr. C. W. Richmond, J. H. Riley, J. Townsend
Russell, jr., Dr. Waldo Schmitt, Miss Marian Seville, and EK. H.
Walker.

SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT

The Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress is, as has
been said, the chief unit in the library system, numbering at present
more than 500,000 volumes, pamphlets, and charts. It is peculiarly
rich in scientific monographs, the reports, proceedings, and trans-

144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

actions of learned institutions and societies, and scientific and
technical journals. To the scholar, therefore, particularly in the
fields of natural history, physical science, and technology, the deposit
offers a wealth of material.

During the last fiscal year the Institution sent to the deposit
20,879 publications—an increase of 1,785 over the year before—or
2,626 volumes, 12,775 parts of volumes, 4,393 pamphlets, and 1,085
charts. Of these, 4,565 were dissertations. Of the charts, 883 were
maps and atlases which the Smithsonian, in the course of the reor-
ganization of its library system, had selected as worthy of preserva-
tion in its main library. Some of these were important manu-
script maps; many of the others were also new to the division of
maps in the Library of Congress.

The number of publications obtained by the Smithsonian library
in exchange to meet special needs in the deposit was 2,364, or 159
more even than in 1930, when the records showed more than a two
and a half fold increase over 1929 and almost a fivefold increase
over 1928. This steady growth in the exchange service of the
library on behalf of the deposit is worthy of note.

In addition to the publications sent to the deposit, several thousand
documents of foreign governments, which were received by the
Smithsonian library, were forwarded, without being stamped and
entered, to the division of documents in the Library of Congress.

It might be added that toward the close of the year the Smith-
sonian library, with the aid of the National Museum, especially the
section of photography, took steps, at the happy suggestion of the
chief of the Smithsonian division in the Library of Congress, to
have portraits made of the founder and five Secretaries of the
Smithsonian Institution to be hung in that division with those of
other prominent scientists already there. When they are finished,
they will be presented for this purpose.

NATIONAL MUSEUM LIBRARY

In the library system of the Smithsonian Institution the library
of the United States National Museum ranks next in size and in-
fluence to the Smithsonian deposit. Its 2 major and 36 minor col-
lections are largely on natural history and technology. The cata-
logued items of the library total 79,407 volumes and 109,129 pam-
phlets. During the fiscal year 1931 the accessions to it were 2,528
volumes and 832 pamphlets, an increase of 375 over 19380. Many of
these came by gift, more by purchase, but most by exchange.

The year was one of much progress, in which the staff went far
toward making the library a more complete and available instrument
in the research work of the museum. This was the result partly of
the appointment to the Museum and other permanent library rolls

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 145

of the Smithsonian of several new trained assistants and partly of
the increase in funds for the acquisition of material needed by the
scientists which could not be obtained by exchange. ‘The staff entered
8,799 periodicals, substituting for the old system of entry a new sys-
tem that is being employed extensively by libraries using Library of
Congress cards. They catalogued 1,639 volumes, 785 pamphlets,
and 17 charts, or 427 more than the previous year. They also, as in
former years, did the cataloguing and entering for the library of the
National Gallery of Art, the total number of publications thus
treated being 311 and 533 respectively—twice the number of 1930.
They contributed 11,193 cards to the Museum catalogue and revised
672 catalogue headings. They also added 8,036 cards to the shelf
lists, and prepared almost as many duplicate cards for the union shelf
list in the Smithsonian Building. They sent to the sectional libraries
6,522 volumes and parts and to the members of the scientific staff
for their personal use 1,419 reprints, many of which had come to hight
in the process of sorting the few remaining collections of miscel-
laneous material inthe library. They filed the Wistar Institute cards
as they came in, and brought up to date the filing of the large accu-
mulation of Concilium Bibliographicum cards of the author set,
17,000 cards being added to this file. The current cards of the sys-
tematic set were forwarded to the sections that have files on their
special subjects. The number of volumes bound was 1,402, or 131
more than in 1930. In this connection it may be added that more
volumes than usual were completed by special exchange letters, the
number of publications received in response to them being 1,090, an
increase of 402 over the year before.

The number of publications loaned to the staff of the Smithsonian
and its branches totaled 7,221, more than one-third of which were
charged in the reading room of the Arts and Industries Building.
Of these the library borrowed 2,049 from the Library of Congress
and 271 elsewhere. Loans of 142 publications were made to libraries
not in the Smithsonian system. The number of volumes returned to
the Library of Congress was 2,519 and to other hbraries 407—in each
instance many more than usual.

The main shelf list—that of the collection in the Natural History
Building—was completed early in the year, and the work of taking
an inventory was begun. This had to be discontinued, however, in
the fall, owing to lack of help.

Finally, attention should be called to the fact that even with the
400 feet of new shelving that the Museum installed for the collection
in 1930 the natural history library is still in a very crowded condi-
tion. Sufficient space and equipment both to relieve its present con-
gestion and to permit of growth for a period of years should be
provided as soon as possible.

146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

During the year the Museum library staff was able to assist only
a few of the sectional libraries with their special problems, including
those in the divisions of plants, mammals, and geology.

These libraries number 36, and are as follows:

Administration. Marine invertebrates.
Administrative assistant’s office. Mechanical technology.
American archeology. Medicine.

Anthropology. Minerals.

Biology. Mineral technology.
Birds. Mollusks.

Botany. Old World archeology.
Echinoderms, Organic chemistry.
Editor’s office. Paleobotany.

Ethnology. Photography.

Fishes. Physical anthropology.
Foods. Property clerk’s office.
Geology. Reptiles and batrachians.
Graphic arts. Superintendent’s office.
History. Taxidermy.

Insects. Textiles.

Invertebrate paleontology. Vertebrate paleontology.
Mammals. Wood technology.

OFFICE LIBRARY

The office library consists of works of general reference, sets of
the publications of the Smithsonian and its branches, and of various
foreign societies and institutions, as well as numerous publications of
a less learned and more cultural and even recreational character for
use during the leisure hours of the Smithsonian employees. The
additions to the library in the course of the last 12 months were 686
volumes and 82 pamphlets. The number of periodicals entered
was 229.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY LIBRARY

The library of the Bureau of American Ethnology contains 26,671
volumes and 16,717 pamphlets, chiefly on the archeology, history.
myths, religion, arts, sociology, language, and general culture of the
early peoples of the Western Hemisphere, especially of the North
American Indian. The collection was increased during the past year
by 600 volumes and 190 pamphlets. The number of periodicals
entered was 3,500, and of cards added to the catalogue 3,500. The
number of volumes bound was 473. The loans were 875.

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY LIBRARY

The library of the Astrophysical Observatory is closely related in
content to the researches in astrophysics and meteorology that are

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 147

being conducted by the Institution. It has 4,188 volumes and 3,192
pamphlets. The additions during the year were 180 volumes and 92
pamphlets. The number of volumes bound was 127.

RADIATION AND ORGANISMS LIBRARY

The library of radiation and organisms is a small, highly special-
ized collection pertaining to one of the newer interests of the
Institution, for the furthering of which it recently organized a
division. During 1930 publications bearing mainly on this interest
to the number of 20 volumes, 1 pamphlet, and several periodicals
were added, bringing the collection to 94 volumes, 9 pamphlets, and
6 charts. Space and equipment, adequate for some years to come,
were provided for the library in the north tower of the Smithsonian
Building.

LANGLEY AERONAUTICAL LIBRARY

The Smithsonian’s well-known collection of aeronautical publica-
tions is now deposited in the Library of Congress, where, under its
own stamp and bookplate, it occupies a unique place in the division
of aeronautics and is even more available as an aid in research than
it was before 1930, when it was transferred from the Institution. It
will continue to bear the name of the Langley Aeronautical Library,
in memory of Samuel Pierpont Langley, who while Secretary of the
Smithsonian made a notable contribution to the science of aero-
nautics. Most of the collection once belonged to Doctor Langley, and
to other experimenters associated with him, including Alexander
Graham Bell, Octave Chanute, and James Means. The rest of it has
been received from time to time by the Institution chiefly in exchange
for its publications. The library contains 1,856 volumes and 1,056
pamphlets. Among its items are sets, including most of the early
numbers, of the aeronautical magazines, both American and foreign,
and many other important publications, some of which are very rare,
together with files of photographs, letters, and newspaper clippings.

During the fiscal year just closed the Smithsonian brary was in-
strumental in increasing the Langley collection by 45 per cent more
than in 1930, or by 122 volumes, 445 parts of volumes, and 133
pamphlets. Most of these were obtained by exchange. In this con-
nection it may be added that the library, cooperating with the divi-
sion of aeronautics in the Library of Congress, entered into exchange
relations, on behalf of the Langley collection, with 50 or more new
aeronautical societies and institutions, and received in response to its
special requests many publications. It is hoped that this service on
the part of the Smithsonian library can be considerably enlarged in
the near future.

102992—32——_11

148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931
NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART LIBRARY

The library of the National Gallery of Art contains many valuable
works on art, both American and foreign, including sets of the lead-
ing magazines. The collection numbers 1,248 volumes and 1,332
pamphlets. During the last year its accessions were 145 volumes,
166 pamphlets, and 533 periodicals. Most of these came by purchase
and exchange. Numerous gifts were received, however, especially
from Dr. William H. Holmes, director of the gallery, and James
Townsend Russell, jr., honorary collaborator in Old World archeology
in the National Museum. The number of volumes bound was 51.

FREER GALLERY OF ART LIBRARY

The library of the Freer Gallery of Art is a prominent member of
the Smithsonian library system. As the collection has to do largely
with the arts and cultures of the Far East, India, Persia, and the
nearer east, it is not only a unique and valuable aid to those imme-
diately connected with the gallery, as well as to visitors who come
there for research, but in many of its items—notably those in Chinese
and Japanese, not a few of which are extremely rare—it supple-
ments to an unusual degree the collection in the oriental division of
the Library of Congress. In the library, too, are works on the lives
and art of various American painters, especially James McNeill
Whistler, a large number of whose pictures are owned by the gallery.
It also has numerous publications on the Washington manuscripts,
the well-known fourth and fifth century manuscripts of the Bible,
which are among the treasures of the gallery.

The main library, which is kept permanently in the gallery, con-
sists of 4,423 volumes and 3,148 pamphlets. Its accessions during the
year just closed were 61 volumes and 150 pamphlets. The number
of volumes bound was 20. In addition to its main library, the gallery
has a special collection, numbering 814 volumes and 500 pamphlets,
chiefly of archeological interest, which is for the use of its staff in
the field. Among the significant publications deposited in the library
during the year by the Smithsonian Institution were a copy of Nip-
pon, by Phillip Franz von Siebold, and of Lo-Lang, by Yoshito
Harada and Kingo Tazawa—two of the gifts described in more
detail earlier in this report. The work of reclassifying and recata-
loguing the collections, which was begun the year before, was carried
almost to completion, 6,083 cards being added to the dictionary cata-
logue of the library and a like number being prepared for filing in
the union catalogue in the Smithsonian Building. This notable prog-
ress was made possible by the further generous cooperation of the
gallery with the Smithsonian library. Of the 485 visitors, 216 came

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 149

to study, 16 to make sketches from plates, and 203 to see the reproduc-
tions of the Washington manuscripts.

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK LIBRARY

Among the 1,217 volumes and 407 pamphlets in the library of the
National Zoological Park are many of great value to those interested
in the care and habits of animals. Its additions for the year were
four volumes and four pamphlets.

SUMMARY OF ACCESSIONS

The accessions for the year may be summarized as follows:

Pamph-
Library Volumes | letsand | Total
charts
A'stropuysicali@ bservatOly- ssn eee een ee eee noe eee ee eee eee see 180 92 272
Buresulof American Hthnology =. fess = Ee ts es ta a as 600 190 790
reer Gallery OfArt 26222252. 222os22 5-22 b sss sank ssl sds ep oe Asses 61 150 211
Wangley. A ecronanticnl Letitia. Ses hs S3F 2 eee ee Sate 122 133 255
Nationals GalleryofeArtsnns at os sane een ae eee ee cone eee le 145 166 311
National: Zoological}Parkii2 tsi 2th. ey. oe i RR eee 4 4 8
Radiation’and Organisms: tts e eee ee eee wae e cee ccece 20 1 21
Smithsonian deposit) ibrary,of Congress: - 22 Sessa ieee Ve ee 2, 626 5, 478 8, 104
Smithsonian Ofice ss. ee Te ee en 686 32 718
nited) States ¢National Museum. 2eesee osetia 2, 528 832 3, 360
Totals. - 8 2800. 2S 2 eee, Soa ee ee 6, 972 7, 078 14, 050

It is estimated that on June 30, 1931, the number of volumes,
pamphlets, and charts in the Smithsonian hbrary system was as
follows:

SV OSU ULN YY CSS a re a cae as ere re Neen aol esl Mee 578, 057
JET 00 Gp 0 Ke) pes A SE a ean LG eed DT Aer MENLO EE 192, 477
CLR ES IES BENE See ET EUS, RR REY ERE ES Core PVT ELE Ow 26, 346

ACG SR CPE OU ae tel RD TRAN Ne AS UR IR 796, 880

In addition to this total, there were, of course, many thousands of
volumes still uncatalogued or awaiting completion.

UNION CATALOGUE

Besides keeping up the current cataloguing work, the staff com-
pleted the shelf list of the National Museum library and prepared
a copy of part of it for filing with the union shelf list in the
Smithsonian Building; catalogued and arranged the publications of
the Carnegie Institution of Washington; finished cataloguing the
John Donnell Smith collection, including a large set of miscellaneous
publications, for which they prepared about 1,100 analytical and
subject entries; began the recataloguing of the general botanical
collection in the National Museum; and, finally, made notable prog-

150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

ress in the work, begun the year before, of reclassifying and
recataloguing the library of the Freer Gallery of Art.

The work on the union catalogue and shelf list may be summed up
by the following statistics:

Volumesicatalogued soc 22 eee ee ee ee 5, 127
Volumes recatalosued: 222 ee ae ene 37
FES SEA TET CUS CELE OEM eee 2, 754
Pamphlets recatalo sue eee ee ee 3
Gharts; catalocued 2-2 oo eee ee eee eee 219
itymeducards ad Ged muOnGaca Sule mes ee ee eee 7, 896
Library of Congress cards added to catalogue__—_---_________________ 14, 949
Museum cards copied’ for union shelf list2=2 =) eee 13, 219
Freer cards prepared for union catalogue and shelf list, to be added

Iaterse oS eS ee 2 ee eee ee eee eae %, ooW

SPECIAL ACTIVITIES

A number of special tasks were undertaken by the staff during
the year. These were chiefly connected with the reorganization of
the library system that has been going on for some time.

Further progress was made in sorting the miscellaneous material
in the west stacks of the Smithsonian Building, and hundreds of
publications were found that were lacking in the libraries of the
Institution. The art-room collection was checked and a list pre-
pared for the National Gallery of Art. The regents’ and archives’
sets of Smithsonian publications were also checked and, so far as
possible, the missing numbers supplied. The natural history col-
lection in the National Museum was shifted and rearranged, to
make it less crowded and more accessible, and a similar treatment
of the technology collection was begun.

Many publications—in some cases, whole files—not needed by the
Institution or its branches, were transferred to other Government
libraries. These included 1,935 publications of the United States
Geological Survey, 904 of the Canadian Geological Survey, and
100 of a miscellaneous character. They likewise included the rolls
of 883 maps and atlases that had been stored for many years in
the old Museum.

Four hundred and fifty of the duplicates among the publications
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington were sent back to that
institution. In return the Carnegie give the Smithsonian many of
the volumes that were lacking in its sets. The duplicate publica-
tions of the University of California received similar treatment,
476 items being returned to the university and a large number sent
to the Institution toward completing its files.

The librarian gave several lectures, on Shakespeare, Virgil, the
Nature of Poetry, and the Smithsonian Institution, before various

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 151

groups in Washington, including the Cosmos Club, the Shakespeare
Society, the Classical Club, and American University.

CONCLUSION

Despite the fact that the year was one of the most successful
since the beginning of the reorganization of the library system in
1924, much more could have been accomplished both for the libra-
ries in the system and for the scientists and other employees of
the Smithsonian if sufficient funds had been at hand for the purchase
of all the books and periodicals not obtainable by exchange that
were needed in the current work of the Institution; if the binding
allotment had been large enough to permit the binding of all the
volumes prepared during the year—as it was, 600 had to be held
for months as they could not be sent to the bindery until after
June 30; and, most of all, if it had been possible to employ more
permanent trained assistants. Among the additional personnel
needed on the library staff are several cataloguers and general library
assistants, a typist, and a messenger.

Respectfully submitted.

Wiiu1am L. Corsin, Librarian.

Dr. Cuartes G. AxBsor,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

AP PHN DE Tt
REPORT ON PUBLICATIONS

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the
publications of the Smithsonian Institution and the Government
bureaus under its administrative charge during the year ending
June 30, 1931:

A consolidation of all the editorial work of the Institution and
its branches, put in effect by the secretary on March 1, 1931, brought
all of the 18 series of publications issued by the Smithsonian under
the general direction of the editor. This step was taken in the
interests of greater unity of editorial policy, more efficiency, and
less duplication in the keeping of the many records, financial and
otherwise, necessary in an editorial office, and, most important of all,
greater accuracy and more prompt appearance of Smithsonian
publications.

On January 31, 1931, Dr. Marcus Benjamin, editor of the National
Museum, retired after a service of 35 years. He was succeeded by
Paul H. Oehser, formerly on the editorial staff of the Bureau of
Biological Survey. Mr. Oehser and Mr. Stanley Searles, editor of
the Bureau of American Ethnology, will continue in charge of the
editorial work of their respective bureaus, but by centralizing the
general direction of the work in the office of the editor of the Smith-
sonian Institution, the advantage is gained of establishing a definite
point of contact between heads of bureaus, authors, and the Govern-
ment Printing Office. Furthermore, the same general style can now
be adopted for all the series published under the Institution, so that
authors, many of whom publish in several of the series, will know
beforehand what style is expected. To aid toward this end, it is
proposed to issue a condensed style sheet based on the Style Manual
of the Government Printing Office, covering those matters that occur
constantly in every manuscript and concerning which authors and
typists are often in doubt.

PUBLICATIONS ISSUED DURING THE YEAR

The Institution proper published during the year 16 papers in the
series of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 1 annual report and
pamphlet copies of the 24 articles contained in the report appendix,
and 3 special publications. The United States National Museum

152

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 153

issued 1 annual report, 1 volume of proceedings, 8 complete bulletins,
1 part of a bulletin, 1 complete volume, 1 part and 1 index in the
series Contributions from the National Herbarium, and 40 separates
from the proceedings. The Bureau of American Ethnology pub-
lished two annual reports and three bulletins.

Of these publications there were distributed 205,711 copies, which
included 29 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge, 27,425 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Mis-
cellaneous Collections, 25,984 volumes and separates of the Smith-
sonian annual reports, 4,627 Smithsonian special publications, 37,967
copies of the Brief Guide to the Smithsonian Institution, 86,680
volumes and separates of the various series of the National Museum
publications, 29,475 publications of the Bureau of American Eth-.
nology, 118 publications of the National Gallery of Art, 1,855 publi-
cations of the Freer Gallery of Art, 10 volumes of the Annals of the
Astrophysical Observatory, 65 reports of the Harriman Alaska
Expedition, and 1,036 reports of the American Historical Association.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

Of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, volume 73, 1 paper
was issued; volume 82, 10 papers; volume 83, 1 paper and index and
table of contents, comprising the whole volume; volume 84, 1 paper
and index and table of contents, comprising the whole volume; and
volume 85, 3 papers; making 16 papers in all, as follows:

VOLUME 73

No. 7. Opinions Rendered by the International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature: Opinions 115 to 128. 86 pp. (Publ. 3072.)

VOLUME 82

No. 8. Four New Raccoons from the Keys of Southern Florida. By H. W.
Nelson. July 10, 1980. 12 pp., 5 pls. (Publ. 3066.)

No. 9. The Further and Final Researches of Joseph Jackson Lister upon the
Reproductive Processes of Polystomella Crispa (Linné). By Edward Heron-
Allen, F. R. S. November 26, 1930. 11 pp., 7 pls. (Publ. 3067.)

No. 10. Morphology of the Bark Beetles of the Genus Gnathotrichus Hichh.
By Karl BE. Sched]. January 24, 1931. 88 pp., 40 text figs. (Publ. 3068.)

No. 12. The Five Monacan Towns in Virginia, 1607. By David I. Bushnell, jr.
November 18, 1930. 38 pp., 14 pls. (Publ. 3070.)

No. 13. A Note on the Skeletons of Two Alaskan Porpoises. By Gerrit S.
Miller, jr. December 23, 1930. 2 pp.,1 pl. (Publ. 3107.)

No. 14. The Supposed Occurrence of an Asiatic Goat-Antelope in the
Pleistocene of Colorado. By Gerrit S. Miller, jr. December 22, 1930. 2 pp.,
2 pls. (Publ. 3108.)

No. 15. Three Small Collections of Mammals from Hispaniola. By Gerrit S.
Miller, jr. December 24, 1930. 10 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 3109.)

No. 16. The Ductless Glands of Alligator mississippiensis. By A. M. Reese.
March 9, 1981. 14 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 3110.)

154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

No. 17. The Types of Lamarck’s Genera of Shells as Selected by J. G. Children
in 1823. By A. S. Kennard, A. L. S., A. E. Salisbury, and B. B. Woodward,
KG. Ss. July 1) 193i) 40%pp.) Ceubl sit.)

No. 18. Tropisms and Sense Organs of Coleoptera. By N. HE. McIndoo.
April 18, 1931. 70 pp., 2 pls., 19 text figs. (Publ. 3113.)

VOLUME 83

(Whole volume.) The Skeletal Remains of Early Man. By AleS Hrdlitka.
July 24, 19380. 379 pp., 93 pls., 39 text figs. (Publ. 3033.)
Title-page and table of contents. 8 pp. (Publ. 3075.)

VOLUME 84

(Whole volume.) A History of Applied Entomology (Somewhat Anecdotal).
By L. O. Howard. November 29, 1930. 564 pp., 51 pls. (Publ. 3065.)
- Title-page and table of contents. 8 pp. (Publ. 3118.)

VOLUME 85

No. 1. Weather Dominated by Solar Changes. By C. G. Abbot. February 5,
1931. 18 pp., 4 text figs. (Publ. 3114.)

No. 2. The Avifauna of the Pleistocene in Florida. By Alexander Wetmore.
April 13, 1931. 41 pp., 16 figs., 6 pls. (Publ. 3115.)

No. 8. Addenda to Descriptions of Burgess Shale Fossils. By Charles D.
Walcott. 46 pp., 23 pls., 11 text figs. (Publ. 3117.)

SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS

Report for 1929.—The complete volume of the Annual Report of
the Board of Regents for 1929 was received from the Public Printer
in November, 1930.

Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution showing
the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year
ending June 30, 1929. xiii+622 pp., 91 pls., 56 text figs. (Publ. 3034.)

The appendix contained the following papers:

The Physics of the Universe, by Sir James Jeans.

Counting the Stars and Some Conclusions, by Frederick H. Seares.

The Lingering Dryad, by Paul R. Heyl.

What is Light? by Arthur H. Compton.

Artificial Cold, by Gordon B. Wilkes.

Photosynthesis, by BE. C. C. Baly.

Newly Discovered Chemical Elements, by N. M. Bligh.

Synthetic Perfumes, by H. Stanley Redgrove.

X-Raying the Earth, by Reginald A. Daly.

Extinction and Extermination, by I. P. Tolmachoff.

The Gulf Stream and its Problems, by H. A. Marmer.

The Mystery of Life, by F. G. Donnan.

The Transition from Live to Dead; the Nature of Filtrable Viruses, by A. B.
Boycott.

Heritable Variations, their Production by X rays, and their Relation to
Evolution, by H. J. Muller.

Social Parasitism in Birds, by Herbert Friedmann.

How Insects Fly, by R. E. Snodgrass.

Climate and Migrations, by J. C. Curry.

—

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 155

Ur of the Chaldees: More Royal Tombs, by C. Leonard Woolley.

The Population of Ancient America, by H. J. Spinden.

The Aborigines of the Ancient Island of Hispaniola, by Herbert W. Krieger.

The Beginning of the Mechanical Transport Age in America, by Carl W.
Mitman.

The Servant in the House; a Brief History of the Sewing Machine, by
Frederick L. Lewton.

Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin (1843-1928), by Bailey Willis.

Hideyo Noguchi, by Simon Flexner.

Report for 1930.—The report of the executive committee and pro-
ceedings of the Board of Regents of the Institution and the report
of the secretary, both forming parts of the annual report of the
Board of Regents to Congress, were issued in December, 1930.

Report of the executive committee and proceedings of the Board of Regents of
the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1930. 14 pp. (Publ.
8074. )

Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending
June 30, 1930. 140 pp., 5 text figs. (Publ. 3073.)

The general appendix to this report, which was in press at the
close of the year, contains the following papers:

Beyond the Red in the Spectrum, by H. D. Babcock.

Growth in our Knowledge of the Sun, by Charles HE. St. John.

The Modern Sun Cult, by J. W. Sturmer.

The Moon and Radioactivity, by V. S. Forbes.

Modern Concepts in Physics and their Relation to Chemistry, by Irving
Langmuir.

Waves and Corpuscles in Modern Physics, by Louis de Broglie.

New Researches on the Effect of Light Waves on the Growth of Plants, by
F, S. Brackett and Harl S. Johnston.

The Autogiro: Its Characteristics and Accomplishments, by Harold F.
Pitcairn.

Ten Years’ Gliding and Soaring in Germany, by Prof. Dr. Walter Georgii.

The First Rains and their Geological Significance, by ASaar Hadding.

Weather and Glaciation, by Chester A. Reeds.

Wild Life Protection: An Urgent Problem, by Ernest P. Walker.

The Nesting Habits of Wagler’s Oropendola on Barro Colorado Island, by
Frank M. Chapman.

The Rise of Applied Entomology in the United States, by L. O. Howard.

Man and Insects, by L. O. Howard.

The Use of Fish Poisons in South America, by Ellsworth P. Killip and Albert
C. Smith.

A Rare Parasitic Food Plant of the Southwest, by Frank A. Thackery and
M. French Gilman.

The Mechanism of Organic Evolution, by Charles B. Davenport.

Extra Chromosomes, a Source of Variations in the Jimson Weed, by Albert
F. Blakeslee.

The Age of the Human Race in the Light of Geology, by Stephen Richarz.

Elements of the Culture of the Circumpolar Zone, by W. G. Bogoras.

The Tell en-Nasbeh Excavations of 1929—a preliminary report, by William
Frederic Badé,

Recent Progress in the Field of Old World Prehistory, by George Grant
MacCurdy.

156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Ancient Seating Furniture in the Collections of the United States National
Museum, by Walter Hough.

Aspects of Aboriginal Decorative Art in America Based on Specimens in the
United States National Museum, by Herbert W. Krieger.

The Acclimatization of the White Race in the Tropics, by Robert de C. Ward.

The Eighth Wonder: The Holland Vehicular Tunnel, by Carl C. Gray and
H. F. Hagen.

George Perkins Merrill, by Charles Schubert.

Jesse Walter Fewkes, by John R. Swanton and F. H. H. Roberts, jr.

FREER GALLERY OF ART PUBLICATIONS

Yaksas, Part II. By Ananda K. Coomaraswamy. May 19, 1931. 84 pp., 50
pls. (Publ. 3059.)
SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS

Explorations and Field Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1930. March
25, 1931. 224 pp., 198 figs. (Publ. 3111.)

Classified List of Smithsonian Publications Available for Distribution, May
22,1931. Compiled by Helen Munroe. May 22,1931. 30 pp. (Publ. 3119.)

Brief Guide to the Smithsonian Institution. January 15, 1931. 79 pp.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Through the retirement of Dr. Marcus Benjamin on January 31,
1931, the editorial work of the National Museum devolved upon W. P.
True until Paul H. Oehser was appointed on April 15, 1931, to fill
the vacancy. During the year ending June 30, 1931, the Museum pub-
lished 1 annual report, 1 volume of proceedings, 3 complete bulletins,
1 part of a bulletin, 1 complete volume, 1 part and 1 index in the
series Contributions from the United States National Herbarium,
and 40 separates from the proceedings.

The issues of the bulletin were as follows:

Bulletin 82. A Monograph of the Existing Crinoids. Volume 1—The Comatu-
lids. Part 3. Superfamily Comasterida. By Austin Hobart Clark.

Bulletin 100. Contributions to the Biology of the Philippine Archipelago and
Adjacent Regions.

Volume 11. The Fishes of the Families Pseudochromidae, Lobotidae, Pem-
pheridae, Priacanthidae, Lutjanidae, Pomadasyidae, and Teraponidae, Col-
lected by the United States Bureau of Fisheries Steamer Albatross, Chiefly in
Philippine Seas and Adjacent Waters. By Henry W. Fowler.

Bulletin 154. A Study of the Teiid Lizards of the Genus Cnemidophorus, with
Special Reference to Their Phylogenetic Relationships. By Charles E. Burt.

Bulletin 155. The Birds of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. By Alexander
Wetmore and Bradshaw H. Swales.

The issues of the contributions from the United States National
Herbarium were as follows:

Volume 24. Title Page, Preface, Contents, List of Illustrations, and Index to
Volume 24, Contributions from the United States National Herbarium.

Volume 24, Plant Studies—Chiefly Tropical American.

Volume 26, part 6. Asiatic Pteridophyta collected by J ean F. Rock 1920-1924.
By Carl Christensen.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 157

Of the separates from the proceedings, 11 were from volume 77,
23 from volume 78, and 6 from volume 79.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

The editorial work of the bureau has continued under the direction
of the editor, Stanley Searles. During the year two annual reports
and three bulletins were issued, as follows:

Forty-fifth Annual Report. Accompanying papers: The Salishan Tribes of
the Western Plateaus (Teit, edited by Boas) ; Tattooing and Face and Body
Painting of the Thompson Indians, British Columbia (Teit, edited by Boas) ;
The Ethnobotany of the Thompson Indians of British Columbia (Steedman) ;
The Osage Tribe; Rite of the Wa-xo-be (LaFlesche). vii+857 pp., 29 pls.,
47 figs.

Forty-sixth Annual Report. Accompanying papers: Anthropological Survey in
Alaska (Hrdlitka) ; Report to the Honorable Isaac 8. Stevens, Governor of
Washington Territory, on the Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri (Denig,
edited by Hewitt), vii+654 pp., 80 pls., 35 figs.

Bulletin 96. Early Pueblo Ruins in the Piedra District, Southwestern Colo-
rado (Roberts). ix-++190 pp., 55 pls., 40 figs.

Bulletin 97. The Kamia of Imperial Valley (Gifford). vii+94 pp., 2 pis., 4
figs.

Bulletin 100. The Ruins at Kiatuthlanna, Eastern Arizona (Roberts). viii+
195 pp., 47 pls., 31 figs.

Publications in press at the close of the fiscal year were as follows:

Forty-seventh Annual Report. The Acoma Indians (White); Isleta, New
Mexico (Parsons); Introduction to Zuni Ceremonialism, and Zufii Origin
Myths (Bunzel) ; Zufi Ritual Poetry (Bunzel) ; Zufi Katcinas (Bunzel).

Bulletin 94. Tobacco Among the Karuk Indians of California (Harrington).

Bulletin 98. Tales of the Cochiti Indians (Benedict).

Bulletin 99. Cherokee Sacred Formulas and Medicinal Prescriptions (Mooney
and Olbrechts).

Bulletin 101. Indian Blankets of the North Pacifie Coast (Kissell).

Bulletin 102. Menominee Music (Densmore).

Bulletin 103. Source Material for the Social and Ceremonial Life of the
Choctaw Indians (Swanton).

Bulletin 104. A Survey of the Ruins in the Region of Flagstaff, Arizona
(Colton).

Bulletin 105. Notes on the Wapandwiweni (Michelson).

REPORT OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION

The annual reports of the American Historical Association are
transmitted by the association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution and are communicated by him to Congress, as provided
by the act of incorporation of the association.

The annual reports for 1927 and 1928 (1 volume), and for 1929,
were issued during the year, and also the supplemental volume to
the report for 1927. The annual report for 1930, Volume III, and
the supplemental volume to the report for 1928, were in press at
the close of the year.

158 §$ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN
REVOLUTION

The manuscript of the Thirty-third Annual Report of the National
Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, was transmitted to
Congress, in accordance with the law, November 12, 1930.

ALLOTMENTS FOR PRINTING

The congressional allotments for the printing of the Smithsonian
report to Congress and the various publications of the Government
bureaus under the administration of the Institution were virtually
used up at the close of the year. The appropriation for the coming
year ending June 30, 1932, totals $104,000, allotted as follows:

Annual report to the Congress of the Board of Regents of the Smith-

Sonian: ‘nstitutione) 3s... ano e ek Pes ae ee oP aia $12, 000
National “Museum: 2— 9) 2.) ee A Stew ee ea ee A 50, 000
Bureau ofAmerican Mthnologysss2!- 24: 52-2 5tes) sy le Ee SR 1800
National ‘Gallery of -Art=.222-2—s3" 3.22 Ae eee See ee eee 500
International Wxchancess-- 425) 25 Se tne Been eee 300
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature__._.__._________________ 100
National Zoological, Park. 2228.22 = ee a ee OE Se ee Page eee ee 300
Astrophysical: Observatory 22.22 oe a en ae SR 500
Annual report of the American Historical Association________________ 12, 000

SMITHSONIAN ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRINTING AND PUBLICATION

The editor continued to serve as secretary to the Smithsonian ad-
visory committee on printing and publication until March 1, 1931,
when the committee was dissolved by the reorganization of the edi-
torial department of the Institution mentioned earlier in this report.
Four meetings were held and 88 manuscripts were acted upon. The
membership at the last meeting was as follows: Dr. Leonhard
Stejneger, head curator of biology, National Museum, chairman; Dr.
William M. Mann, director, National Zoological Park; M. W.
Stirling, chief, Bureau of American Ethnology; Dr. R. S. Bassler,
head curator of geology, National Museum; W. P. True, editor of
the Institution, secretary; and Stanley Searles, editor of the Bureau
of American Ethnology.

Since the editorial reorganization, manuscripts come directly to
the editor of the Smithsonian Institution with the recommendation
of the head of the publishing bureau, who has taken expert advice as
to their merit and suitability for printing.

Respectfully submitted.

W. P. Troe, Editor.

Dr. Cuartes G. ABBOT,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

REPORT: OF “THES EXECUTIVE: COMMITTEE OF: THE
BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN _IN-
STITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1931

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution:

Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report
in relation to the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, together with
a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the Government
bureaus in the administrative charge of the Institution:

SMITHSONIAN ENDOWMENT FUND

The original bequest of James Smithson was £104,960 8 shillings

6 pence—$508,318.46. Refunds of money expended in prose-

cution of the claim, freights, insurance, etc., together with

payment into the fund of the sum of £5,015 which had been

withheld during the lifetime of Madame de la Batut, brought

Ghetrund tothe amount Go 428 4 eh se eee $550, 000. 00
Since the original bequest the Institution has received gifts from

various sources, chiefly in the years prior to 1893, the income

from which may be used for the general work of the Institution,

TONtHerAa mo vo fs Ls See ee eee sh SET eee a hed 260, 607. 39
Total capital gain from investment of savings from income__-_-_-__ 219, 762. 52
Total capital gain from sale of securities, stock dividends, ete___ 15, 595. 42

Total endowment for general purposes as
perlast report.) UnauUy hea 4 al ie alo $1,033,789. 85
Capital gain from gifts during the year ended June

30 whOS Leer ee sus doe Lae es 5. 00
Capital gain from stock dividends, sale of securi-

WIESE UC Ae, centene BLOM Meg A UN he 204. 07
Capital gain from sale of Smithsonian Scientific

PSLeprAe 2 a: Baan SOS Wet ZOD iach eestor ae Sete ee pete hy ees 11, 966. 41

OSCS a aie EE ee ee toe Be ee 1, 045, 965. 33 1, 045, 965. 33

The Institution holds also a number of endowment gifts the income
of each being restricted to specific use. These are invested and stand
on the books of the Institution as follows:

Arthur, James, fund, income for investigations and study of sun

andelectureiongunetsUun= se ese ok ome ee lh cae lta $52, 595. 02
Bacon, Virginia Purdy, fund, for a traveling scholarship to investi-

gate fauna of countries other than the United States________- 65, 887. 12
Baird, Lucy H., fund, for creating a memorial to Secretary Baird__ 2, 176. 54
Barstow, Frederic D., fund, for purchase of animals for the

PIGS SUC ERE Eh Key eke usp ama ete ee Ue RCC ee Al 2 1, 000. 28

159

160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Canfield collection fund, for increase and care of the Canfield

collection of minerals. 25222 See ee eee A ee eee ee $50, 299. 78
Casey, Thomas L., fund, for maintenance of the Casey collection

and promotion of researches relating to Coleoptera____------- 9, 503. 63
Chamberlain, Francis Lea, fund, for increase and promotion of

Isaac Lea collection of gems and mollusks___---------------- 37, 032. 20
Hodgkins fund, specific, for increase and diffusion of more exact

knowledge in regard to nature and properties of atmospheric air_ 100, 000. 00
Hughes; Bruce, fund, to found, Hughes alcove 2 ooo ue2 Soe eee ee 17, 963. 17
Myer, Catherine Walden, fund, for purchase of first-class works of

art for the use of and benefit of the National Gallery of Art___-_ 22, 744. 20
Pell, Cornelia Livingston, fund, for maintenance of Alfred Duane

Pellveollection 2222 2i eee.) ERT er LN CCW aL CR eR ae eee ee 3, 175. 03
Poore, Lucy T., and George W., fund, for general use of the Insti-

tution when principal amounts to the sum of $250,000___-_---_- 62, 036. 08
Reid, Addison T., fund, for founding chair in biology in memory

ObVASh ery Diamis 2ca Roe ae Ae ah Tea er thy eee peace Od Le 25, 067. 21
Roebling fund, for care, improvement, and increase of Roebling

collection’ of minerals 2. 050-002 sey aie Bas Sep eee 158, 706. 78
Springer, Frank, fund, for care, etc., of Springer collection and

praty S08 Here. Selae ss SSR eee righyth= uot oy 30, 000. 00

Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, research fund, for develop-
ment of geological and paleontological studies and publishing

mesultesrihereOh 2. oon acca eee Stee eae, a eee 12, 915. 80
Younger, Helen Walcott, fund, held in trust.__.__-.-_---_----- 49, 812. 50
Zerbee, Frances Brincklé, fund, for endowment of aquaria_-_---_- 1, 000. 85

Total endowment for specific purposes other

than Freer endowment as per last report__ $636, 792. 55

Capital gain from new funds, additional gifts, ete__ 57, 187. 20
Capital gain from investment of savings from income

during the year ended June 30, 1931__--_____--_- 7, 822. O07
Capital gain from stock dividends, sale of securities,
etc., during the year ended June 30, 1931______-_ 114. 37
Excluding Freer endowment, total present ex=— 22 —_—_
dowment for specific purposes____------- 701,916.19 701, 916. 19

FREER GALLERY OF ART FUND

Early in 1906, by deed of gift, Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, Mich.,
gave to the Institution his collection of Chinese and other oriental
objects of art, as well as paintings, etchings, and other works of art
by Whistler, Thayer, Dewing, and other artists. Later he also
gave funds for the construction of a building to house the collection,
and finally, in his will, probated November 6, 1919, he provided stock
and securities to the estimated value of $1,958,591.42 as an endow-
ment fund for the operation of the gallery. In view of the importance
and special nature of the gift and the requirements of the testator in
respect to it, all Freer funds are kept separate from the other funds of
the Institution, and the accounting in respect to them is stated
separately.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Original endowment for expenses of gallery___._....----------
Total capital gain from investments of savings from income- ---
Total capital gain from stock dividends, sale, ete., of securities __

Total capital as per last report____.____.._-_-- $5, 300, 929. 50
Capital gain from investment of savings from

income during the year ended June 30, 1931_- 5, 697. 95
Capital gain from stock dividends, sale of securi-

ties, ete., during the year ended June 30, 1931_ 61, 084. 06
Total Freer endowment for specific pur-

DOSES ee ates Sethe esha S cpakl ela! ahi 2 a 5, 367, 711. 51

SUMMARY

Invested endowment for general purposes__----_-------------
Invested endowment for specific purposes other than Freer
CCH AYS Koy Aw aS) a re i i ee oe Oa a Re Er ETC

Total invested endowment other than Freer endowment_-
Freer invested endowment for specific purposes_-------------

Total invested endowment for all purposes_____---_----

CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS

Deposited in the United States Treasury at 6 per cent per annum
as authorized in the United States Revised Statutes, section

BOG Saree ae er nee ete naar eee ers $266, 688. 61
SLOG se ea ee nk a 08 ty Oe esis it ae trc 465, 308. 45
Real estate first-mortgage notes__________- 11, 500. 00
Uninvestedieapitalvs is. Sau ahs seh eee 4, 384. 46

Total investments other than Freer endowment______-_-_-
Investments of Freer endowment:

1 Bae | thf Sess Ie See ae rag ak a alate SA aati ati $2, 651, 049. 48
POUT Co AME ER I CE a AP gh a ON aga ea 2, 634, 982. 42
Real estate first-mortgage notes._________- 67, 000. 00

Wninvested capitals ob. sooo" 2a eee ken 14, 679. 61

Motalkinvestimentsmoummer = cet soe se ee ee

161

$1, 958, 591.
416, 079.
2, 993, 040.

5, 367, 711.

1, 045, 965.
701, 916.

1, 747, 881.
5, 367, 711.

7, 115, 593.

1, 000, 000.

747, 881.

1, 747, 881.

5, 367, 711.

7, 115, 593.

42
26
83

51

00

52

52

51

03

162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

INCOME FROM INVESTMENTS DURING THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1931

Corresponding fig-

From $1,000,000 deposited in United States ares rae 30, 1080

mreasury at; Gi percent. 222s 2a eee $60, 000. 00 $60, 000. 00
From funds invested in stocks, bonds, etc., other
than Freer endowment, including gain from

sales, etc., of securities, stock dividends, ete-_- 33, 334. 96 34, 624. 40

Total income other than Freer endowment- 93, 334. 96 94, 624. 40

FREER ENDOWMENT

From funds invested in stocks, bonds, ete., in-
cluding gain from sales, etc., of securities, stock

dividends; Gb@aee Ale tact saith! rts ieee eas 372, 461. 46 334, 936. 39

Total income from investments--_-__---_-- 465, 796. 42 429, 560. 79

CASH BALANCES, RECEIPTS, AND DISBURSEMENTS DURING THE FISCAL
YEAR !

Gach balance on-hand. june; 30) 193022223 Se eee $214, 870. 17

Receipts:
Cash from invested endowments and from
miscellaneous sources for general use of

the: Institution. 2-55.24 2245-2 ere seo $74, 306. 66
Cash for increase of endowments for specific

WSC eee ees 5e Sete ae ee ee eee 81, 559. 89
Cash gifts for increase of endowments for

general se. sae oe oe 5. 00
Cash gifts, etce., for specific use (not to be

INVESTEC) Mie eee ee tt eT ares eh ae 90, 064. 79
Cash received as royalties from sales of

Smithsonian Scientific Series__.._---_--- WG, PEP, (a8
Cash gain from sale, ete., of securities (to be

INVeESted) 22a = See ae Re ee ae eee 317. 09

Cash income from endowments for specific
use other than Freer endowment, and
from miscellaneous sources (including re-

fund of temporary advances) ----------- 62, 528. 93
Cash capital from sale, call of securities, ete.
(tozbermeinvested) 22 e eaeae ares eee 63, 998. 50
Total receipts other than Freer endowment______-----_-- 390, 003. 39
Cash receipts from Freer endowment—in-
come from investments__--....-------- $311, 377. 40
Gain from sale, ete., of securities (to be in-
VEBLCC) ete eas Se See ee ete ae eee 110, 334. 34
Cash capital from sale, call of securities, etc.
(to/be reinvested) 22 22-82 ape bee ae 1, 160, 106. 80
—————————_ 1, 581, 818. 54
otal oes oo eee as hy ae ee a ee eee ee 2, 186, 692. 10

: 1 aes statement does not include Government appropriations under the administrative charge of the
nstitution.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 163

Disbursements:
From funds for general work of the Institu-
tion—
Buildings, care, repairs and alterations_ $3, 246. 94
Hummijuretanal fixt reso ae ee 700. 49
General administration #-_-__~2/---__- 23, 091. 60
WRAL 2 = ee Se a = Se SOE Bed 3, 163. 31
Publications (comprising preparation,
printing, and distribution) -__-__---- 23, 690. 54
Researches and explorations----------- 21, 960. 16

International exchanges--_--- PLA SPR oe 28 4,982. O01

: 380, 835. 0
From funds for specific use other than Freer gestalt

endowment—
Investments made from gifts, from gain
from sales, etc., of securities and from
SIVINCODPANCOMCS ss sas wee ee 78, 074. 41
Other expenditures, consisting largely of
research work, travel, increase and
care of special collections, etc., from
income of endowment funds and from
cash gifts for specific use (including

GEMNPOLATY. LGhviain CES) = ans ans ee 185, 547. 69
Cash capital from sale, call of securities,

ete: reinvested. 2.2 22 sae a2) Hae oe 59, 873. 34

23, 495. 44
From Freer endowment— 323, 495

Operating expenses of gallery, salaries,
purchase of art objects, field expenses,
CE te ae yt an ot lp ty 289, 883. 42
Investments made from gain from sale,
etc., of securities and from income_-_-_ 110, 128. 62
Cash capital from sale, call of securities,
CUCs TEMIVESTCC Re eyelet cee nea 1, 158, 127. 73
——_—_————._ ], 558, 139. 77
ES BIATAC OV Crs Orel Ses lea 8S ea oe eh 224, 221. 84

Pri ER par ce Be 2 ay Sa 2 aa a ae eS Ns 2, 186, 692. 10

EXPENDITURES FOR RESEARCHES IN PURE SCIENCE, EXPLORATIONS,
CARE, INCREASE, AND STUDY OF COLLECTIONS, ETC.

Expenditures from general endowment—

PUblications=sshert we Se ee $23, 690. 54
Researches and explorations.......-------- 21, 960. 16
SSS SS $45, 650. 70
Expenditures from funds devoted to specific
purposes:
Researches and explorations__._.-_-------- 88, 030. 83
Care, increase, and study of special collec-
GT O11 5 Saeed ome es RO re Meee ee ee on en coe ee ee a 18, 104. 14
(PuUlbiCa ONS eee ee oa ee eek eet 22, 264. 56
——_————__—_——_. 128, 399. 53
ALL HE iets Sch Loe ee cp AI A wr lt de I eager 174, 050. 23

2 This includes salaries of the Secretary and certain others,

102992—32——12

164

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Table showing growth of endowment funds of the Smithsonian Institution

Endowment for
general work of
the Institution,
being original

Endowment for
specific research-

Year Smithson be- es, etc., including
quest, gifts from invested savings
other sources, and of income
invested savings
of income

1846-18912 225) 237022000200) 22222
SOZ sae eS 802, 0600. 00 $101, 000. 00
1893-1894_ ___ 852, 000. 00 101, 000. 00
1895-1908_ ___ 877, 000. 00 102, 000. 00
1904—19138____ 885, 807. 58 111, 692. 42
11S) We: Se ae eee 885, 807. 58 116, 692. 42
SUG) US she aes aa 886, 084. 02 143, 515. 98
1OVUGR Neo es 887, 607. 08 160, 527. 30
1 ye ea 887, 830. 00 164, 304. 38
VRE) Wee eat ee ee 2 883, 867. 00 176, 157. 38
OG eae Nestea 884, 305. 00 190, 489. 38
NO ZO sees ys eh 884, 747. 00 198, 149. 02
OBA Se aoe = 2k 884, 933. 74 272, 538. 31
MODES see ee 886, 107. 14 291, 858. 14
1K? Bis 3 est ia a ate 886, 246. 14 306, 524. 14
OD Aiea eS 886, 373. 31 319, 973. 19
LS sie i es 886, 769. 73 338, 136. 77
LOZ GS ee pa ye 886, 830. 13 342, 876. 37
92 (ie 886, 877. 79 498, 401. 96
ODS es Oa 929, 068. 21 665, 233. 29
9292 2 eee 51, 022, 385. 75 626, 003. 70
LOSOERA Rete re 1, 038, 789. 85 636, 792. 55
GS eee heen 1, 045, 965. 33 701, 916. 19

Freer gift for con-
struction of Freer
Gallery of Art
Building

Freer bequest for
operation of Freer
Gallery of Art,
including salaries,
care, etc.

3 367, 072. 04 | $1, 253, 004. 75

1, 842, 144. 75
43, 296, 574. 75
3, 401, 355. 42
3, 459, 705. 34
3, 714, 361. 23
4, 171, 880. 61
4, 268, 244. 26
5, 236, 054. 02
5, 300, 929. 50
5, 367, 711. 51

1 Original endowment plus income from savings during these years.
2 Loss on account of bonds reduced on books from par to market value.
3 Cash from sale of 2,000 shares of Parke, Davis & Co. stock, including dividends, and interest on gift

of $1,000,000.

‘Tn this year Parke, Davis & Co. declared 100 per cent stock dividend. ;
5 Increase largely from funds transferred from specific endowment column and income released for general
work of the Institution.

BALANCE SHEET OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JUNE 30,

1931
ASSETS
Stocks and bonds at acquirement value:
@Wonsoudatedstumalee tes Wee enle Baka wD $663, 684. 56
Pereerinequesta: eae s oF ey ty ee) eee Ns 5, 353, 031. 90
KSJoschuayedeyre: ADD cs Means Faget ed mapa rena nem ptr Omer ey ee 30, 000. 00
Vom e rfid eels, | Ah hs ae a La 49, 812. 50
——_——_—_—————_ $6, 096, 528. 96
sp reASUEY CEDOSMG sur costes OU eee oy pee AN ase Ne 1, 000, 000. 00
Miscellaneous, principally funds advanced for printing publica-
tions, and field expenses (to be repaid)_---.-_-------------- 51, 388. 04
Cash:
Funds in U. S. Treasury and in banks- ---- $224, 221. 84
In office safe for cash transactions__-___--- 1, 300. 00
oe 225, 521. 84
INOS a geal YP AP ea ik EA Saas el NS i reo 7, 373, 4388. 84
LIABILITIES
Freer bequest, capital accounts:
Coqurtvand"groundstands. 2222-0222 2222 $604, 625. 07
Court and grounds maintenance fund__----- 15], 331. 11
Curstoritunde tess = ose es Bese ee oe 609, 329. 43
Residuary estate fund= 221225 222 ee ot eee 4, 002, 425. 90
———_—_—_———__ , 867, 711. 51
CAPITAL ACCOUNTS
AGH s DaAmMmes, fut MOU 2 Fo ay SoU Ae hee ere 52, 595. 02
JETRO va ion av Peaae th Seatac Nee are AEN i a 65, 887. 12
TERT Re TA Was Uy ae eet IRs Aa aed BO rp RU as a 2,176. 54
Barstow eh rederi cel stfu doers ae neal Siero a aie Ses ace eS 1, 000. 28
Geryontrel tol Cero) lierernvoy ayes qo aVo bagel We OI Be ah iy NE Se a ee 50, 299. 78
Casey. Thomas lincoln; fund 1008 ys S918) Le ee 9, 503. 63
@hamiberletry fur le ee yop ee a ate aR Os Sat es ap OLN 37, 032. 20
Modems tH @ .SpeeCion yvonne dane el ne ome IL 100, 000. 00
Bughes; Bruce) fund=---25 208 6 Taek DRS OE UL CACY Vid, 17, 963. 17
Aes eet tn Raine Sle eee a a areas 22, 744. 20
VEPEUING eo 0G ie sa ad Rd Say Be PRT oe ee CEE, 3, 175. 03
TELaYOr esis AUG 0 c Mage As vMTaRN bebe as I weir pe aon a aerate ae Tm erent ee ABN NR YO Ut 62, 036. 08
TRYTVSL YAU DOCS bps a a: SI Ak SE a i, A Rl He dy 25, 067. 21
ioeblingrcollection-fund= sess) 2. 2) eh ee 2 Oe ah ed eae 158, 706. 78
Smithsoniansunrestrictedutund ae a2 see eee as ee he eee 1, 045, 965. 33
Springer Lunes a est OU A A fl oe 30, 000. 00
Wialcott researc henna) tsetse et en mee ih 2s Le Ske ee ee 12, 915. 80
WEFo Lamy 4s ub 00 ks ac I Tae hes SE a ae eae th Cerin egies 49, 812. 50
Zerbee, Krances- Brincklé) fund 2 ¢ 00 tet Oe be) oes 1, 000. 85
CURRENT ACCOUNTS
Freer bequest residuary estate fund.---.--_..--.-.+--_-.---- 117, 836. 58
SSPULIAT OEM EUITE 2} 1 pep iician wipe $e Monee ek ia Syd ak oe yd eds 1, 595. 88
VAGREN GLE Nb aT GMa tata ee Lia lel i pipe Meare Ia El ae a eps eR 217. 50
Miscellaneous accounts held by the Institution for the most part
POTI SPECIE G USC e512 sapere ke lied ps eee oh Np cru ded Yet aioe Wels 138, 195. 85
Ota: Jee SEAR RO UE URL ES Lee QL ad MSPs Ents 7, 373, 438. 84

165

166

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

During the year, the Institution received as gifts a total of approxi-
mately $145,000, which included donations for specific uses not to
be invested, for increase of endowments for specific purposes, and a
small sum for the increase of the general endowment fund.

All payments are made by check, signed by the Secretary of the
Institution, on the Treasurer of the United States, and all revenues
are deposited to the credit of the same account. In many instances
deposits are placed in bank for convenience of collection and later
are withdrawn in round amounts and deposited in the Treasury.

The practice of investing temporarily idle funds in time deposits
has proven satisfactory. During the year the interest derived from
this source has resulted in a total of $5,026.75.

The foregoing report relates only to the private funds of the
Smithsonian Institution. The following is a statement of the
congressional appropriations for the past 10 years for the support
of the several governmental branches under the administrative
control of the Institution and of appropriations for other special
purposes during that period.

Table showing the appropriations made by Congress during the last 10 years, in-
trusted to the care of the Smithsonian Institution

Interna-
Coopera- |,; Astro-
oar | Antes: | American | tive eth [Honsl Car) pnysicat | Enerease ot) National | Caled?
ethnology | nologica rset serva- . {useum *
changes Sasearchies Selentiic tory tion lection
1922. <.-- . $50, 000. 00 | $46,000.00 |___________- $7, 500: 00) 1$15, 500.00) |_-------_- -_ $419 138580) seaaeee
bi: pi ae ae 45,000.00 | 44,000.00 |_._________- 7, 500. 00 | 15, 500. 00 |$109, 044. 00 | 418, 120.00 |_--.-.--_-
19742. =. 43,000.00 | 44,000.00 |_...________ 7, 500. 00 | 15, 500. 00 | 112, 704.00 | 415, 000. 00 |_---.-_-_.
W202 220 49, 550. 00 AL GOS OU) te aeee eee S 861566) 215580100 5|seeneneen soe DA LU 200) eee
1926-2222. 46, 260. 00 DieeLOUNOU Hee nee 8; 000200)|2 315180500) |e ares 654 892100 1} -2=e2ce es
bY aes AG 260) 0001) 07, 100,00) |e nese eocens 27.000:'00))|(ol 180,00) (22a sne eae 660,820)00)| Sse eseene
1928-5524. 46) S850. 00Uls 08,020 00) | eeeeeeeoaeee MieOON OO Woe: UG0100 m| ae mee re see es 606; 960.00) | es tete sees
1920-522. 50, 355.00 | 65,800.00 | $20,000.00 | 7,885.00 | 36,630.00 |__---__.___- 701,,524500)) eee
1930 3___-- D1 201s OO NGG ,600500" == sae semana TPBSOnOON NOON TaZUs U0" |saemee eee 717, 014.00 ($21, 000. 00
1931 Le 52) S105 00) |e 170840: OO) | eee ee 8 145.:00' |'375,560:00) |=-=-- <= eee 5793, 894.00 | 20, 000. 00
—_— eee ee —esSS99993BB.,.0E0E EE SS ae
|
Safeguard: | , ‘i ..< |Addition-
ingdomeof National | Additional! National | Printing | Additional| Salaries al fi
Year Natural Zoological | for Zoologi-| Gallery of | and bind-| assistant and ex- ote.
History Park cal Park Art ing secretary penses oe
Building |
|
1 7 ean _-'$125, 000. 00 |3$80, 000. 00 |$15, 000. 00 |_____-_____|_
19Z3 Ls 125, 000.00 | % 2, 500.00 | 15, 000. 00 |$77, 400. 00
1924__ 125, 000. 00 |_._- ---| 16,000.00 | 77, 400. 00
1925_- 151, 487. 00 |_ 20, 158.00 | 90, 000. 00
1926_- 157, 000. 00 |_ 21, 028. 00 | 90, 000. 00
1927_. 173, 199. 00 |__- _--| 29,381.00 | 90, 000. 00
Toes See |S ee 175, 000. 00 | 4 25, 000. 00 | 30, 356. 00 | 90, 000. 00
i |. eee 6$80, 000.00 | 195, 550. 00 | 4 30,000.00 | 35, 273.00 | 95, 000. 00
Ut ee eee 203, 000. 00 |7 222, 000.00 | 34, 853.00 | 95, 000. 00
i ht) Sees Ee eee 220, 520. 00 | 28, 000. 00 | 45, 218.00 | 99, 000. 00

1 Increase in appropriation due to Government assuming part of the expenses of the Chilean Station,
which up to this time had been supported by private funds of the Smithsonian Institution.
2 Increases over former figures due to passage of Welch Act after printing of last report.

3 Additional land.
4 Building for birds.

5 After 1928 this item is included in appropriation for salaries and expenses.
6 Work done by Supervising Architect and funds disbursed by United States Treasury.
7 Building for reptiles, etc., $220,000; gates for south boundary of park, $2,000.
§ Includes plans for additions to Natural History Building, $10,000.
® Additional for building for reptiles.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 167

The report of the audit of the Smithsonian private funds is printed

below.
OcToBeR 7, 1931.
EXECUTIVE CoMMITTEE, Boarp oF REGENTS,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

Strs: Pursuant to agreement we have audited the accounts of the Smithsonian
Institution for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1931, and certify the balance of
cash on hand June 30, 19381, to be $225,521.84.

We have verified the record of receipts and disbursements maintained by the
Institution and the agreement of the book balances with the bank balances.

We have examined all the securities in the custody of the Institution and in
the custody of the banks and found them to agree with the book records.

We have compared the stated income of such securities with the receipts of
record and found then in agreement therewith.

We have examined all vouchers covering disbursements for account of the
Institution during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1931, together with the authority
therefor, and have compared them with the Institution’s record of expenditures
and found them to agree.

We have examined and verified the accounts of the Institution with each
trust fund.

We found the books of account and records well and accurately kept and the
securities conveniently filed and securely cared for.

All information requested by your auditors was promptly and courteously
furnished.

We certify the balance sheet in our opinion correctly presents the financial
condition of the Institution as of June 30, 1931.

Wiutuiam L. Yarcer & Co.
WituiaM L. YAEGER
Certified Public Accountant.
Respectfully submitted.
Frepreric A. DeLaNno,
R. Watton Moorg,
JoHN C. Merriam,

Executive Committee.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE FISCAL YEAR
ENDED JUNE 30, 1931

ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER 11, 1930

Present: Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes, chancellor, in the
chair, Vice President Charles Curtis, Senator Joseph T. Robinson,
Representative Albert Johnson, Representative R. Walton Moore,
Representative Robert Luce, Frederic A. Delano, Dr. John C.
Merriam, and the secretary, Dr. C. G. Abbot. Dr. Alexander Wet-
more, assistant secretary was also present.

At the previous annual meeting of the board, the Langley gold
medal for aerodromics was awarded to Charles Matthews Manly
(posthumously) and to Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd. At the pres-
ent meeting the actual presentation of the medal was made to Mr.
Manly through his son Charles W. Manly. The chancellor made the
address of presentation, and Mr. Manly accepted the medal on behalf
of his family. Extracts from the remarks of the chancellor and Mr.
Manly will be found in the Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution for 1931.

Mr. Delano, chairman of the executive committee, offered the
following customary resolution, which was adopted:

Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1932, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended by the
secretary, with the advice of the executive committee, with full discretion on
the part of the secretary as to items.

The secretary presented his printed report for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1930. He stated that the publications of the Institution
during the fiscal year 1930 totaled 95 volumes and pamphlets, of
which 38 were issued by the Institution proper, 51 by the National
Museum, and 6 by the Bureau of American Ethnology. Under the
Institution’s policy of world-wide distribution, 168,163 copies of its
publications were sent out to organizations and individuals, for the
most part free.

Mr. Delano submitted the printed report showing the financial
affairs of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1930.

The annual report of the National Gallery of Art Commission was
presented and accepted, and the following resolution was adopted:

Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution hereby
approves the recommendation of the National Gallery of Art Commission that

168

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS 169

Gari Melchers, Herbert Adams, and Charles Moore be reelected as members
of the commission for the ensuing term of four years, their present terms having
expired.

The matter of the purchase and erection of the Bush-Brown statue,
The Indian Buffalo Hunt, was brought up, and on motion it was
resolved to refer it to the executive committee with power to act.

The secretary then presented a supplementary report, mentioning
a number of special events and activities during the year. He spoke
particularly of the support by the Research Corporation of the work
of the Division of Radiation and Organisms; of continued generous
gifts by John A. Roebling to aid the Institution’s solar-radiation
researches; of additions by Mr. Gellatly to the very valuable art
collection previously given to the Institution; of the considerable
sum already received in royalties from the sale of the Smithsonian
Scientific Series; of the completion of the series North American Wild
Flowers, by Mary Vaux Walcott; and of the important discoveries
in European archives of early manuscripts relating to the Americas
by Dr. C. U. Clark, working under a grant from Ambassador Charles
G. Dawes.

At the request of the Secretary, Doctor Wetmore described certain
of the year’s explorations under the Institution. Doctor Wetmore
also spoke of the status of the proposed additional wings on each
side of the Museum Building.

It was announced that a telegram had been received from Admiral
Byrd fixing March 27, 1931, as a convenient date for the presentation
of the Langley gold medal awarded to him at the last meeting of the
board.

REGULAR MEETING OF FEBRUARY 12, 1931

Present: Chief Justice Charles E. Hughes, chancellor in the chair,
Senator Joseph T. Robinson, Senator Claude A. Swanson, Representa-
tive Robert Luce, Frederic A. Delano, and the secretary, Dr.
C. G. Abbot. Dr. Alexander Wetmore, assistant secretary, was also
present.

The secretary mentioned, with explanatory remarks, recent finan-
cial receipts by gifts and otherwise, including royalties from the
Smithsonian Scientific Series; a grant from the Research Corporation
to promote studies of radiation and plant growth; the final payment
of the Bruce Hughes fund to establish the Bruce Hughes alcove; the
Frederic D. Barstow fund for purchase of living animals, National
Zoological Park; the Zerbee fund for an aquarium as a memorial to
Frances Brinklé Zerbee, National Zoological Park; and a gift from
Otto T. Mallery for special archeological work under the Bureau of
American Ethnology. He also announced a proposed bequest by a
citizen of New York State for the encouragement and reward of
scientific research.

170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Other matters of importance to the work of the Institution were
then brought before the board for discussion.

On March 27, 1931, as noted above, the Langley gold medal was
presented to Admiral Byrd in the main hall of the Smithsonian
Building in the presence of members of the Board of Regents and
other distinguished guests. The presentation was made by Chancellor
Charles E. Hughes; Admiral Byrd, in accepting the medal, spoke of
his appreciation of the award and of his great respect for the work of
Professor Langley. Further details of the presentation will be found
in the Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for 1931.

GENERAL APPENDIX

TO THE

SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1931

ADVERTISEMENT

The object of the Genrrat Appenprx to the Annual Report of the
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of -scientific
discovery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by
collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character
or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous cor-
respondents of the Institution.

It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual
report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more
remarkable and important developments in physical and biological
discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations
of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this
purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such
papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific
progress.

In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum-
mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by
well-known private publishing firms, the secretary had a series of
abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely
the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy,
geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zool-
ogy, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though, not
altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888.

In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of
presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them origi-
nal) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and
discussion. This method has been continued in the present report for
1931.

173

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loow antod x gutymcinte rdardiswvinto iio ak veqoletbadeaty cgologg | ;
doit Higuedk) yagritinos aw aghey tet .soloqondiog, bag 2907
Mat sany off yibifettoad bow ascend, Yoon Ls
46 Bodsacn vwiitae 44) a sn os Si os a a
ep oboe Pal e olvelse an0ang anata a '
bio. noiteyiteornt slaiinjge to egies shdyumbitatt a ‘(Cem
WO! Jooqen Josey odd at fondue, madd eet biutiient | Nail

we
4

TWENTY-FIVE YEARS’ STUDY OF SOLAR RADIATION

By C. G. ABBoT

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution
[With 3 plates]

INFRA-RED SOLAR SPECTRUM MAP AND THE DISPERSION OF ROCK
SALT

Thirty years ago at Washington, under Dr. 8. P. Langley’s direc-
tion, F. E. Fowle and I completed a map of the sun’s invisible infra-
red spectrum. Our map extended from Fraunhofer’s “A,” at wave
length 0.76 micron, to a point far down in the infra-red of wave
length 5.8 microns. We felt out and recorded the invisible spectrum
lines with the photographic registering spectrobolometer. Langley
used to say that in his use of the spectrobolometer on Mount Whitney
in 1881 the indicator often raced across the scale 1 meter long in a
minute. We had so far tamed this wild creature by the year 1900
that the indicator seldom wandered a centimeter in an hour. Never-
theless, that delicate electrical thermometer, the bolometer, was then
so sensitive that a deflection of a millimeter on the photographic
recording scale corresponded to a temperature change of only
0.000004° Centigrade.

The infra-red solar spectrum map which we made between 1895
and 1900 contained 740 lines. Their positions were recognized as
cooled bits of the spectrum by the fine metallic sensitive thread of the
bolometer. No doubt a considerable number of those 740 lines were
spurious, for every tremor of the earth and every accidental temper-
ature change added its unwelcome deflections to the record. We
eliminated the false and preserved the true, as well as we were able,
by comparing many independent records. To fix the wave lengths
we made a special investigation of the dispersion of rock salt prisms.
Paschem repeated it later. His results agreed generally with ours
in the fifth decimal place of the refractive index of rock salt.

In 1928 H. B. Freeman and I went over a part of this infra-red
spectrum again on Mount Wilson. We used three times as great
dispersion as in the old work at Washington. In the region from
0.76 to 1.8 microns we obtained about 1,300 lines where formerly we
found about 550. Dr. H. D. Babcock, of the Mount Wilson Observa-
tory, has done much photographic work covering a part of this upper

175

176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

infra-red solar spectrum region. He finds that our old bolometric
work of 1900 deserved a good word as to the accuracy of the wave
lengths and as to the general reality of the lines found and that our
new work added to it some really useful detail.

gases and yapors in the invisible infra-red spectrum

ee

70

igure 1.—Portions of solar energy curves of 1928 showing line and band absorption of solar and terrestrial atmospheric

Many of the infra-red spectrum lines are now identified by investi-
gators as due to specific elements in the gases of the sun, others to
vapors in the earth’s atmosphere. There were two mystery bands in
the spectrum called », and w. of wave length about 2.0 microns,
which long puzzled us because we knew they were atmospheric but

SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT AZ

surely not due to water vapor. I have seen quite recently some beau-
tiful absorption spectra by H. J. Unger, of the University of Oregon,
which prove that o; and w, are really caused by terrestrial carbonic

acid gas.

TEMPERATURE
DEPARTURES.

"sae ete
20 STATIONS. » Ia E \
Azores, MADEleAs, || DRE ecu: TA FT RE PEATE
B b |} 2} 8
EWimores a in ae ee a
RCs mae \ AN ff 2 A A es a OR
AA tt
O a 0 ‘o
NWEurore. PT Te Pe cums
15 STATIONS. nae po \, Pow ae
CENTRAL EUROPE, , PR (RI Gi FE ki AN
Fae a a
FO id EAT ET
a | ~--R4e tH
EuROPEAN | an Atty
ea a adm ia v
AsIATIC fam} i we i a
oiopue Leetagise ee a nS a
tiie aS Lh A ~ eae
een ee A AVY
YER. TED OR OER RA CN
2 A EL Bp]
ery LO AS nS Cede a Sa
NorTIt Oe En EN ata
Tie pareneD | israel add MOI No NJ Nolet sot DN Phe (eb od
ONE. 2 ‘Sinuaeeed ic oa TAR ET ti Ee ATR SEA
pease ld Ma it Fie i alg
Spica eae ARS ane

SoLAR
IRRADIATION 210
OUTSIDE THE 205

x
N
A

VUMOSPRERE 9 cin 2 (eases hel ee ue
7 ‘ Ps
onea Pe Se HRC
Jan Feb Bpl May Ju Aug. Sept Oct. Nov Dec. Jan.

Fieurn 2.—Simultaneous lowering of the sun’s radiation and of the temperature of

the earth’s northern hemisphere as observed in March, 1903

SOLAR-CONSTANT WORK BEGUN IN 1902

Doctor Langley was deeply interested in the value of the solar
constant of radiation, which is the measure of the intensity of the

sun’s rays as they are in free space at the earth’s mean solar distance.

178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Hence, in the year 1902, we began a solar-constant research destined
to be a very long one. At that time solar-constant values ranging
from 1.76 to 4.0 calories were given in standard textbooks.

Our earliest Washington work raised a question which has en-
grossed us for over 25 years. Our results of 1902, 1903, and 1904
seemed to indicate that the sun’s output of radiation decreased rather
suddenly in March, 1903, by about 10 per cent, and continued low
thereafter. We should certainly have attributed this to obscure
error if the temperature of the entire north temperate land area of
the world had not shown a decrease at the same time. We think now
that we were misled by an atmospheric turbidity caused by a vol-
canic eruption in southern Mexico. At all events, we began then to
suspect that the sun is a variable star and that its fluctuations pro-
duce important weather changes. I hope now, after more than 25
years of investigation, to present evidence to convince you that such
is really the case.

The determination of the solar constant of radiation involves two
principal parts. First, the exact measurement of the intensity of
solar radiation as received at the observing station; second, the exact
estimation of the loss which the rays suffer in traversing the atmos-
phere. The first requirement involves an accurate pyrheliometer.
The second requirement involves exact measurements of the atmos-
pheric transmission coefficients for all important solar spectrum rays.
Besides this, there must be estimates of the relative transmissibility
of the spectral rays in the optical apparatus, and of the atmospheric
transmission of those feeble parts of the solar spectrum lying in the
ultra-violet and the infra-red beyond the limits of the spectrum
region usually observed.

THE SILVER-DISK PYRHELIOMETER

When we began solar-constant work in 1902, the beautiful electrical
compensation pyrheliometer of Knut Angstrém was already avail-
able, though not fully perfected. Following, however, in Langley’s
path, we developed for our use the older form of pyrheliometer of
Pouillet and Tyndall. With us it became in 1910 the well-known
silver-disk pyrheliometer, of which the Smithsonian Institution has
since furnished more than 60 standardized copies at cost to solar-
radiation observers in all parts of the world.

The silver-disk pyrheliometer, though simple, effective, and ac-
curate, and capable of maintaining a constant scale of readings for
many years, is not an independent standard. Means are required
to reduce its scale to true calories per square centimeter per minute.
For this purpose we developed the standard water-flow and water-

SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT 179

stir pyrheliometers. Our findings with these instruments are ex-
pressed as the so-called “Smithsonian Pyrheliometry of 1913,”
which has been accepted quite generally as the standard pyrhelio-
metric scale of the world. It differs by about 3 per cent from the
Angstriém scale. Experiments by independent methods are now in
progress in Germany to further establish the true pyrheliometric
scale.

THE STANDARD WATER-FLOW PYRHELIOMETER

In the standard water-flow pyrheliometer, the solar rays admitted
by a measured aperture are chiefly absorbed on a hollow blackened
metallic cone at the rear of a test-tube-shaped blackened metallic
chamber. A measured current of water continually removes the
heat produced on the cone and on the inner walls of the chamber.

Ttaee

Ey Dy
TRAUMDUCTION LN ULEE Ga ed

Ficgur® 3.—Diagram of the water-flow pyrheliometer

A A, ray absorber; B B, vestibule; C, measured aperture; D, Ds, electrical thermometer ;
E F, entering and emerging water flow; G H, electrical test coils; K K, Dewar
vacuum flask

An electrical thermometer measures the rise of temperature thus
produced in the water current. For test purposes, known quantities
of heat may be introduced at the cone by measured electrical cur-
rents. The accuracy of the instrument, which is very satisfactory,
is measured by the equivalence of heat introduced and heat found.
The instrument is represented in Figure 3.

THE FUNDAMENTAL SOLAR-CONSTANT METHOD

The fundamental solar-constant method as worked out by Langley
involves determining the intensity of all parts of the solar spectrum
repeatedly on a day of unchanging clearness, so as to disclose the
increase of intensity of each spectral ray which occurs as the sun
mounts higher and higher. For a ray of homogeneous wave length,
the intensity is connected with the length of path in the atmosphere
by the exponential formula of Lambert and Bouguer :

e—e,a™; or log e=m log a+log e,

Here e is the observed intensity; e, that which would be observed outside
the atmosphere; a is the fraction transmitted with vertical sun; and m is the

102992—32——_13

180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

air mass, or in other words the ratio of the length of path of the ray in the
atmosphere to that obtaining with vertical sun. In its logarithmic form the

Bees
| |

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BS
ei
LE
EI

br ES

aos
a 2 SS

aaerses

SEE
Sols pleat tact
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SEBS Sak See eB HE
Sis: lites |
SCORE
POSSESS REE
5a Sa IG
5 = Pere
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| SERREL NS
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Ta,
Mea

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nvgita
fall}
ME LFLAL

r

/|

WAV VAC
LW YZ

FAVA SM AFAR
ae
WA

os
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MLL VE

A

AVN

He

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wh

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it
UY

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HY
HEEL
Mi Anan
WZ

eal

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Sao en aaa ees

—

A Shy
eo
el fe |e E |

Ficurn 4.—Logarithmiec curves indicating the atmospheric transmission at Mount Wilson in many wave lengths

[aed
Ve
ia

i

J
PUMP a

formula is the equation of the straight line. We find it satisfactorily exact on
many days at our excellent high-altitude stations in California, Chile, and
South West Africa.

SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT 181

Since the formula holds strictly only for rays of homogeneous
wave length, we require spectrum measurements. If from a series
of bolographs of the solar spectrum, in which the partial transmissi-
bility of the optical instruments has been allowed for, we determine
atmospheric transmission coefficients for about 40 selected wave
lengths between 0.34 and 2.5 microns, we can compute the intensity
which each of these rays would represent if observed outside the
atmosphere. This determines the sun’s spectrum energy curve as it
would be observed in free space. If we compute the area included
under the curve thus determined, and divide it by the area included
by the curve observed by the spectrobolometer, the quotient is the
factor by which we must multiply the total intensity of the solar
beam as measured by the pyrheliometer to give the intensity which
the pyrheliometer would have read if in free space. Correcting the
result to mean solar distance, we have the solar constant of radiation.

TRANSMISSIBILITY OF OPTICAL APPARATUS

As required for solar-constant determinations, we have made many
measurements of the relative transmissibility of our optical instru-
ments for the different spectral rays. Our procedure involves two
spectroscopes, of which the auxiliary one delivers its spectrum upon
the slit of the main one used for the bolographic work. Under these
circumstances, we measure with the bolometer the intensity of many
spectral rays both before and after they traverse the main spec-
troscope. Their relative transmissibility appears in the ratios of
these measurements.

WAVE-LENGTH DISTRIBUTION OF SOLAR RADIATION, AND THE SUN’S
EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE

Such determinations of transmission in the optical train, together
with the determinations of transmission in the atmosphere, enabled
us to represent and tabulate the distribution of energy in the solar
spectrum as it is outside our atmosphere. Our best results in this
line were published in 1923 in a paper entitled “ The distribution of
energy in the spectra of the sun and stars.”+ They have been of use
to other investigators for various purposes.

If we assume that the sun is approximately :a perfect radiator, our
work on the solar constant yields three methods of estimating his
effective temperatures: First, from the spectral position of maximum
intensity. Second, from the general form of the curve of distribu-
tion of energy in the spectrum. Third, from the sun’s distance and
diameter combined with the value of the solar constant of radiation.

1$mithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 74, No. 7.

182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

These methods yield absolute centigrade temperatures as follows:
6,170° ; 6,200° ; 5,750°. The discrepancy is rather wide, but is, I think,

Also curve showing the spectral distribution of the “black body” at 6,000° absolute centigrade

, 7, 1

Ficurp 5.—Observations and preferred mean curve showing the spectral distribution of the solar radiation outside the atmosphere.

caused by the fact that the sun differs in several respects from a per-
fect radiator of uniform temperature.

SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT 183

THE MEAN VALUE OF THE SOLAR CONSTANT OF RADIATION

The solar-constant methods just described were used exclusively
at Washington from 1902 to 1905; at Bassour, Algeria, in 1911 and
1912, and at Mount Wilson, Calif., from 1905 to 1920. Only one, or
at most two, determinations per day resulted from them, and they
were at the mercy of changes in atmospheric transparency during
the several hours per day required. If the sky clears as the sun
mounts higher, the solar-constant value is too high, and vice versa.
But in the average of many days of highest apparent excellence,
atmospheric changes were largely eliminated. We believe that our
mean value determined during this period, 1.94 calories per square
centimeter per minute, will never be greatly corrected.

THE SHORT METHOD OF SOLAR-CONSTANT DETERMINATION

In 1919 we devised a new and briefer method, less affected by
atmospheric changes though dependent on the long method for
indispensible data of average atmospheric transmission. If the sky
is hazy and therefore bright, the atmospheric transparency is low.
We found it possible to express empirically the observed atmospheric
transmission coefficients at our 40 wave lengths as functions of the
brightness of the sky near the sun. This brightness we measure
with an instrument called the pyranometer, which we invented. We
have so far perfected this short method of solar-constant measure-
ment that five independent values of the solar constant can be
observed and computed by two observers in five hours of work. We
still use the fundamental long method of Langley occasionally, but
only as a check to assure us that the empirical short method is still
sound,

Soon after the Mount Wilson Observatory was founded by that
great scientific organizer, Dr. George E. Hale, he invited Doctor
Langley to conduct solar-constant work there. We carried on solar-
constant measurements at Mount Wilson each summer and autumn
from 1905 to 1920. By simultaneous measurements at Washington
and Mount Wilson and again at Mount Wilson and Mount Whitney,
we proved that the fundamental method of Langley yields equal
results whether carried on at sea level, at 1,700 meters, or 4,400 meters
of elevation.

THE BALLOON PYRHELIOMETER

About 1914 we constructed a form of automatic pyrheliometer
which could be attached to a group of sounding balloons and used to
record the total intensity of the solar beam at very much higher
elevations. In July, 1914, my colleague, L. B. Aldrich, assisted by
by the United States Weather Bureau, sent up one of these balloon
pyrheliometers from Omaha. It was recovered uninjured in Iowa,

184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

BALLOON PYRHELIOMETER.

Fieurb 6.—Diagram of balloon pyrheliometer

a. Blackened metal disk; d d, flat-backed thermometer; g h i, shutter; f, clock rotating
shutter and photographie drum; e, photographie recording drum; m 0, barometric ele-
ment; 7, windbreak.

Sa
Sa
——

|

SS
——==S

yf
il

}

AM
:

\

_ I
EER ory] DEN ee es SS YF | ES (
[_——— ——
(SEAR DIE es oe last esa wer
eT (UN Ca
eS ST Cece eee a Ts el ea me SC | | | NN I ra
pt
ae es Pee | Ee ee
[pe ea ee PAs ys Pee Sere PaiNay ed euty Sense Shep eles ee Seeey
a ae ee |
SS
ea EE ee eee ye ee
ee Ee eeennaes eee ere ree Sl eer
a eas Pe ae Pe |
Vd
i (i) =n MPMinta hd pei SC ene es I ee
Centimeters ees Peenteesinr Pee Leese: eee ee)
ee ee Fe (ee | ee Te)
[AES ees SC S| ae BST
ee
Sy Sa Ry Sa IE Wer pee eee eel
pf
eee Sas [2 Ae ee an | a
sy See es 0 a Pd PE ee Pre re Se PS Se
TT
Dorian Seven Scgurnrerrs wag rrr /Ta ToT!
ESURSFECIT STE oe Der ee Ba ee
E eae ESE

Ficurn 7.—Record of automatic recording balloon pyrheliometer, July 11, 1914

SOLAR RADIATION—-ABBOT 185

150 miles east. Thus we were able to calibrate and test it, both
before and after the ascent, under the same conditions of temperature
and pressure which it encountered during the flight. Correcting
results to mean solar distance, this instrument recorded a solar in-
tensity of 1.84 calories at the elevation of 22,000 meters. The baro-
metric pressure there was 3 centimeters, so that twenty-four twenty-

| | |
|
~-Fre€ Balloon. |
July /1 1914,

Lg

=
00
|

i
N
att

r

LEU -Wilson,
Max.

Radiation of Veriieal Sun at Mean Distance.

a
|

Kimball Wash:
Max.

om min
a

Cal.

Q

: |
1.5|0.cm. Hg. 2lo 410 6|0 glo

Barometer.

Figure 8.—Pyrheliometric measurements of solar radiation from sea level to 22,000
meters elevation

fifths of the atmosphere had been left behind. Allowing for the
probable atmospheric absorption and scattering still remaining, the
result for the solar constant is 1.87 calories, which, within the error of
the determination, is certainly a good check on our adopted mean
value of the solar constant, 1.94 calories.

DISTRIBUTION OF RADIATION OVER THE SOLAR DISK

Mount Wilson observations seemed to confirm our impression that
the solar radiation is variable. Doctor Langley, therefore, suggested
that we make daily observations of the distribution of brightness

186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

along the solar diameter. For it seemed probable that if there are
changes in the intensity of solar radiation, there must be associated
changes in the distribution of brightness along the diameter of the
solar disk.

We first conducted these measurements with a horizontal telescope
of 140 feet focus at Washington in 1907. In 1913 we equipped a
tower telescope of 60 feet focus at Mount Wilson. From 1913 to 1920
we made drifts across the sun’s disk in several wave leneths of radia-
tion on every day on which we conducted solar-constant observa-
tions. In this way we discovered indications of slight alterations in
the brightness distribution along the solar diameter. These changes

Brieutness DistRiBUTION ALonc Sun's DIAMETER
For DIrreERENT CoLors

InFRA-RED Rongege'= tetas ec Biue—GREEN ULTRA-VIOLET
A= -98Cu : az. S03u a= O7 lye

Ficgurp 9.—Distribution of energy of radiation along diameter of solar disk

seemed to be associated with the observed variations of the solar
constant. Thus in 1907 and in 1914, years of numerous sunspots and
high solar radiation, there was greater contrast between the center
and edge of the solar disk than in 1913, a year of minimum sun spots
and low solar-constant values. The observed change of contrast was
ereater for shorter wave lengths. Our determination of the distri-
bution of radiation over the sun’s disk has been used in England,
Europe, and Japan as a check on which to test solar theories.

SOLAR VARIATION AND THE WEHATHER

In the year 1917, H. H. Clayton, then chief forecaster of Argentina,
wrote that he had found relations between our observed variation of
the sun and the weather of the world. He employed averages of
many Mount Wilson solar-constant values in his studies, thus largely
eliminating atmospheric errors. We were so keenly impressed by
Clayton’s results that we undertook to maintain daily solar-constant
work throughout the year. At the recommendation of Dr. Walter
Knoche, then in charge of the Chilean weather service, we located a
new solar-constant station at Calama, in the Atacama desert of
northern Chile. Later by the generous aid of John A. Roebling, we
removed this station to Mount Montezuma, at 9,000 feet elevation,

SOLAR RADIATION—-ABBOT 187

about 12 miles south of Calama. Experience shows that this is prob-
ably the best station for the purpose that could be found in the
whole world.

|

18°
Feervuary, & p
ee PREDICTED * = <== OBSERVED

Figure 10.—Forecasts by H. H. Clayton a week in advance and observed verification
of temperatures at Buenos Aires

FIELD STATIONS FOR SOLAR-CONSTANT WORK

In the year 1920 we removed the Mount Wilson outfit to Mount
Harqua Hala, in Arizona, and in 1925 again removed it to Table
Mountain, Calif., at 7,500 feet. Both removals were financed by Mr.
Roebling. In 1925 the National Geographic Society appropriated

188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

$55,000 to enable me to find, equip, and operate a solar-constant sta-
tion in the best locality of the Eastern Hemisphere. After journey-
ing to Algeria, Egypt, and Baluchi-

| SS a a

I have collected in Volume V of
the Annals of the Astrophysical
Observatory, recently issued, the
results of 10 years of solar-constant
work at several stations.

i) SSeS stan, I chose Mount Brukkaros, in
= St South West Africa, at 5,200 feet ele-
Peace ae el vation. I am sorry to report that
iS 9 is ee ee neither Table Mountain nor Mount
SS Brukkaros equals Montezuma in
— So favorable qualifications for the solar-
3 are CN Eaiesiea constant work. At present, my col-
; Sa aa league, A. F. Moore, is testing
so ae g
ae one other high mountains in South West
SN Africa and the Cape Verde Islands,
P hoping to find a site as good as
BK Montezuma.
ai

1929

CNA
Coan

\

MONTHLY MARCH OF SOLAR
VARIATION

Monthly mean values from the
widely separated stations agree ex-
cellently and unite to determine the
principal trends of variation of the
solar radiation with adequate accur-
acy and certainty. As the probable
error of the general mean curve is
less than 0.1 per cent, we may feel
much confidence in solar changes as
small as one-fourth of 1 per cent
when indicated by monthly mean
values from three stations. The
maximum range of variation of the
general mean of the monthly mean
values of the solar constant since
1920 is 2.8 per cent, and only 1.2 per
cent since 1926. The variations of
individual days may be considerably
wider, so that the extreme range of
solar variation since 1920 appears to
be about 4 per cent.

\
\

PLT LE EASA TT

1928

INANE LAAN

OEE aa

™-——-« TABLE MTN.
~—-— —BRUKKAROS

*——— MONTEZUMA

Ficurp 11.—Monthly mean solar-constant values and weighted mean curve 1926 to 1930

189

SOLAR RADIATION——-ABBOT

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wen Gee lua Laie) tie Ge olin Sees ae CS es) es e261 2261 pelts Nake pomoee tae Ber ai

190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

PERIODICITIES IN SOLAR VARIATION

Although the monthly mean variations are apparently irregular,
they may be expressed with high correlation as the sum of 5 regular
periodicities of 68, 45, 25, 11, and 8 months’ interval, respectively.
This is the more interesting because 68 and 45 months are respec-
tively the half and third of the sun-spot period of 1144 years.

SEARCH FOR !2-MONTH PERIODICITY

19470

MONTEZUMA 1921~19250——_o
~ 1926-1930 x-——*
1921-1930 O——=o

=

z

<

&

uv

219350

O™ NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUN. JUL. AUG. SEP. OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN.
COMPLETE !2-MONTH CYCLE

19450, SEARCH FOR II-MONTH PERIODICITY IN MONTEZUMA MONTHLY MEANS

6 CYCLES, JAN.1921 — JUNE 19250—o
5 CYCLES, JULY 1926 — JAN. 1930 x-—-«
Il CYCLES, JAN.192! — JAN. 1930 Oma

Ficurp 13.—Spurious 12-month and real 11-month period in solar-constant observa-
tions since 1920

Periodicity of approximately 25 months’ interval in former centuries
has been found by Dr. A. E. Douglass in the growth of trees, and by
Dr. Ernst Antevs in the retreat of glaciers. Professor Marvin has
claimed that our solar-constant results were affected by a 12-month
periodicity, probably terrestrial. Figure 13 shows that he is in error
and has mistaken the 11-month periodicity for 12 months owing to
having founded his conclusion on insuflicient data.

PERIODICITIES IN WEATHER ASSOCIATED WITH THOSE IN SOLAR
VARIATION

I find that the five periodicities just mentioned and several others
of less importance occur in the temperature of stations in the United

—

SOLAR RADIATION—-ABBOT 191

States. Figure 14 shows, at A and C, curves representing 5-month
consecutive means of the observed departures from normal of the
monthly mean temperature of Washington, and of Williston since
1918. Curves B and D show 5-month consecutive means of repre-
sentations of these temperature departures as the sum of periodicities
of 68, 45, 25, 11, and 8 months, which I think we may now attribute
to solar variation. However, in addition to these five periodicities,

ane
eal Sis
‘3 = VN
cf 5 Ai
een an ‘na ae eas re i
TEA PAT AT
“TEA R N ENE CPSC
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HEISE Ee i ete Om Dd RDG Ev TPG

Figure 14.—Solar periodicities reflected in temperatures of Washington and Williston

H, F, G, H, I, periodicities of 68, 45, 25, 18, and 11 months in the temperature of
Williston, N. Dak. D, their summation, and C the departures from normal temper-
ature, both smoothed by 5-month consecutive means. B and A, similar smoothed
curves for Washington temperature departures.

I found it necessary to include for both stations an important
periodicity of 18 months’ interval which therefore seems to be a
wide-ranging terrestrial contribution. At Williston, in addition to
all these, I found inconspicuous periodicities of 5, 3.6, and 3 months.
It seems to me very interesting to trace the similarities and the dis-
similarities of march of the curves A and C, wherein long-continued

pronounced departures from the mean temperatures stand out so
conspicuously.

192 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931
DAILY MARCH OF SOLAR VARIATION

As regards the daily variation of the solar radiation, our results
are less satisfactory. Many days are wholly lacking from the
record, owing to unfavorable weather conditions, and many others
are unsatisfactory. The three widely separated observing stations
show a similarity, it is true, in their record of the daily march of
solar variation, but are not in close enough agreement to fix it
definitely. We have in mind, however, several improvements of
apparatus which we hope will bring closer agreement.

WEATHER CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH SEQUENCES OF SOLAR
VARIATION

The station at Montezuma is far more satisfactory than either of
the others. I show in Figure 15 the record of its daily observations
since 1924. Sequences of rising and falling solar-constant values,
respectively, are indicated in the figure by full and dotted curves.
I prefer to segregate these by months, including in a separate
group all the sequences of a given month for the seven years 1924
to 1930. I have computed the average march of departures of tem-
perature and barometric pressure at Washington, and of temperature
at Williston, associated with these instances of rising or falling
solar radiation. These results for March, April, September, and
October are shown in Figures 16 and 17. About 10 cases contribute
to each mean curve shown. Full and dotted curves correspond,
respectively, to rising and falling solar-radiation sequences. The
several months differ in detail, but agree in this, that the march
of weather shows opposite trends following the incidence of solar
sequences of opposite directions.

It is curious and interesting to note that, though concurring with
Washington in displaying this phenomenon of opposition just de-
scribed, Williston temperature curves generally run in opposite sense
to those of Washington. I mean that the full curve corresponding
with rising solar radiation being found generally above the dotted
one for Washington, we find it generally below the dotted one for
Williston.

We note for both stations certain critical dates when the separation
of the full and dotted curves reaches maxima. At Washington these
critical dates are approximately 5, 11, and 17 days after the full
development of the solar sequence. At Williston corresponding
critical dates seem to occur after about 2, 7, and 13 days, respectively.

If I am right in regarding these contrasting weather phenomena
as really depending on rising and falling sequences of solar radia-
tion, I must make the assumption that the solar changes produce

193

SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT
Thence the effects travel southeastward in the well-known

primary effects in certain localized centers of influence upon the
manner and reach distant localities as successive impulses at later
periods depending on the distance traversed from the several centers.

earth.

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@ in weather response to solar changes are, I

LAG IN WEATHER RESPONSE TO SOLAR CHANGES

The phenomena of la

am convinced, important.
caused by periodic solar variations is roughly proportional to the

my studies also confirm, indicating that the lag of weather effects

194 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

N.

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Figure 16.—Average march of departures of temperature and barometric pressure at Washington associated with rising and falling se-

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Full curves correspond to rising, dotted curves to fall-
Zero day is day when solar sequence culminates

Months of March, April, September, and October.

Note their oppositions and occasional wide separation.

quences of solar variation.

ing sOlar sequences.

SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT 195

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Figurn 17.—Average march of departures of temperature at Williston, N. Dak., associ-
ated with rising and falling sequences of solar variation. Similar to curves in Figure
16. Note opposition as at Washington, but dotted and full curves usually inverted
from Washington

102992—-32—14

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

196

Hence, if, as our results indi-
cate, the sun is a star whose radiation varies by the combination of

length of period of the solar change.

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several periodicities of widel

marked weather chan

SOLAR RADIATION—-ABBOT 197

notable case of solar change, for the outstanding character of the
given solar change resulted from the superposition of several peri-
odic changes. Owing to differing lags, these periodic changes must
induce weather changes at various later times, which are not super-
posed, and are, therefore, inconspicuous.

BY-PRODUCTS OF SOLAR-RADIATION WORK

The atmospheric transmission at about 40 wave lengths has been
determined on thousands of days at many stations, including Wash-
ington, Bassour, Hump Mountain, Mount Harqua Hala, Mount Bruk-
karos, Mount Wilson, Table Mountain, Mount Montezuma, and Mount
Whitney, ranging in elevation from sea level to 4,400 meters.

From the measured atmospheric transmission coefficients, Mr. Fowle
has determined the number of molecules per cubic centimeter of gas
at standard conditions. His result agrees perfectly with those
obtained by other methods.

Mr. Fowle has developed a spectroscopic method of estimating the
thickness of precipitable water equivalent to the water vapor con-
tained in the atmosphere. This quantity is computed on all days
when solar-constant values are determined.

Two methods of determining the quantity of atmospheric ozone
from bolographic observations of the visible spectrum have been de-
veloped. Their results run parallel to those of Dr. G. M. B. Dobson.

SUMMARY

I have been dealing with the intensity of the energy of the sun’s
rays; its losses in the atmospheres of the sun and the earth; its in-
equality over the solar disk; its distribution in wave lengths in the
spectrum; the development of instruments and methods to measure
these phenomena; the variability of the solar radiation; periodicities
in solar variation; and the dependence of weather thereon. These
wide-ranging yet closely related researches have engrossed my col-
leagues and myself for more than a quarter of a century. They have
yielded the following results,

1. Improved stability and sensitiveness of the recording spectro-
bolometer.

2. Accurate values of the dispersion of rock salt.

3. Mapping of about 1,500 lines and bands of solar and terrestrial
absorption in the infra-red spectrum.

4. Development of the silver-disk, the water-flow, and the water-
stir pyrheliometers, which have enjoyed wide acceptance.

5. Improvement of the fundamental process of solar-constant
measurement,

198 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

6. Nearly 2,000 solar-constant measurements at Washington, Bas-
sour, Mount Wilson, and Mount Whitney from 1902 to 1920, yielding
a mean value of 1.94 calories per square centimeter per minute, and
proving that the sun is variable.

7. Many determinations of the distribution of energy over the
sun’s disk for various wave lengths.

8. Many determinations of the distribution of energy in the solar
spectrum, yielding estimates of the effective temperature of the sun.

9. Development of the recording balloon pryheliometer and deter-
mination therewith of the solar radiation at 25,000 meters altitude.

10. Development of the pyranometer, an instrument for measuring
sky radiation,

11. A new brief method of solar-constant determination, whereby
five independent values per day are obtained with minimum atmos-
pheric influence.

12. Daily observations of the variability of the sun at several
widely separated high-altitude desert stations beginning with the
year 1920.

18. Determination of the march of variation of the monthly mean
values of the solar constant of radiation for the past 12 years with
an accuracy sufficient for all purposes.

14. Discovery that the sun’s radiation varies in five continuing
regular periodicities.

15. Indications that the weather is to a considerable degree gov-
erned by solar changes and is probably predictable therefrom.

16. By-products of the research which include determinations of
atmospheric transparency, precipitable water, and ozone content.

With hope that the apparent connection between solar variation
and the weather will be verified and will lead to improved methods
of long-range forecasting, my colleagues and I are going on with
solar-radiation studies, introducing such improvements as may help
to establish a more exact record of the solar variation available for
all future time.

YALAWOIISHYAM, MSIG*YHSATIS SHL AO WHOS GAAOUdW] LSALVT] SHL HLIM ONIAYASEO

lL 3LV1d qoqqy—"|¢6| ‘Woday ueiuosyzWig

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Abbot PLATE 2

oa ene

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SMITHSONIAN OBSERVING STATION, ON MOUNT WILSON

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Abbot PLATE 3

1. MOUNT MONTEZUMA, CHILE, AND SMITHSONIAN OBSERVING STATION

2. THE TUNNEL OBSERVATORY AT THE SUMMIT OF MOUNT MONTEZUMA

THE COMPOSITION OF THE SUN!

By Henry Norris RUSSELL

Princeton University

[With 4 plates]

Once in a long time, in the history of science, a true “ royal road ”
is found which leads to the solution of a problem which had previ-
ously been unassailable. There is no better example than the dis-
covery of the spectroscope. Seventy years ago, or a little more,
almost nothing was known of the composition of the heavenly bodies,
and there was no reasonable hope of knowing more. The high
densities of the moon and the inner planets, to be sure, indicated that
they must be solid bodies, probably similar in general constitution
to the earth, while the much lower densities of the sun and the major
planets indicated that their constitution was different, but this in-
formation did not go very far. Suddenly the hopeless quest became
a reality with Kirchhoff’s discovery that a rarefied luminous gas
gives out light of definite wave lengths, which, analyzed by the spec-
troscope, produces a definite pattern of lines, fixed in position and
intensity for a given source, and fully characteristic of it. Gases
absorb the same kinds of light which they emit; hence the multitudes
of dark lines of the solar spectrum became immediately intelligible,
each carrying its own message about the sun’s atmosphere. <A dozen
or more familiar chemical elements were then immediately identified
in the outer parts of the sun and, shortly afterwards, in great num-
bers of the stars. This still remains the most impressive evidence
regarding the fundamental unity of nature. Atoms of the very same
kinds are found in our terrestrial laboratories, in the sun, the stars,
and in nebulae so remote that their light takes a hundred million
years to reach us. As the investigation of spectra on earth and in
the heavens progressed, the correlation of the two became continually
more complete. At the present time almost all the lines of any
strength in the spectra of the sun and the stars can be reproduced
at will in the laboratory; and the few exceptions are yielding year

1¥First Arthur Lecture, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, Jan. 27, 1932.

199

200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

by year. The great outstanding puzzles of the nebular and auroral
spectra yielded a few years ago, and the solar corona alone remains
uninterpreted.

The proof that iron (for example) is present in the sun has been
for two generations a standard laboratory experiment—which ought,
by the way, to be exhibited to the general public in our great science
museums whenever the sun shines. The analysis of the sun would
therefore appear to be a very simple matter, but, as is usual in all
precise work, many complications arise.

With such strong lines as those of iron the simpler “method of
coincidences” is conclusive, and many other elements—hydrogen,
calcium, magnesium, sodium, aluminum—can be found at once in
the same manner. Evidently, too, in a general way, an abundant
element will give strong lines and a rare one weak lines, so that our
analysis can be roughly quantitative as well as qualitative.

But if we wish to make it complete, we must record and measure
as accurately as possible all the lines of the solar spectrum and also
the emission lines of all the elements.

The solar part of this great task was first adequately attempted
by Rowland. Developing the difficult technique of constructing dif-
fraction gratings to a point which has hardly since been equalled and
certainly not surpassed, he obtained photographs of the spectrum
which showed the faintest lines with a distinctness which is still the
envy if not the despair of other workers. His great “ Table of solar
spectrum wave lengths ” covers the whole range from the ultraviolet
to the red—as far as the best plates then in existence were sensitive—
and includes more than 20,000 lines. Within this region it is sub-
stantially complete. The recent revision of Rowland’s table, under-
taken at Mount Wilson, has added only seven faint lines, not counting
those which appear only in sun spots, and so fell outside his purview.

The principal reason for the revision (apart from the practical
one that the earlier work was out of print) was that Rowland’s scale
of wave lengths, though a great improvement on anything which pre-
ceded it, requires correction on the average by 1 part in 28,000, and
also by smaller fluctuating amounts not exceeding one two hundred
thousandth of the whole, but too large to be ignored in precise work.
The corrected wave lengths are good to one or two parts in a million.

Measures of comparable precision have been made in the laboratory
for many, though by no means all, emission spectra. It is a danger-
ous thing, however, merely to compare a set of laboratory wave
lengths, however precise, with the solar tables and conclude the
presence of an element because a number of its lines appear. Allow-
ance must be made, of course, for the small shift to the red in the sun,
which, on the average (though not in all details) agrees with Ein-

COMPOSITION OF THE SUN—RUSSELL 201

stein’s prediction. Even so, the number of solar lines is so great that
a good many coincidences will occur through mere chance.

The Fraunhofer lines are relatively sparsely strewn in the red; but,
even there, if we write down a fictitious wave length, quite at random,
there is 1 chance in 16 that it will agree within 1 part in 500,000 with
some solar line. In the green the chance is 1 in 12, in the violet and
ultra-violet, 1 in 9.

In a rich spectrum, with several hundred lines, there should there-
fore be dozens of apparent coincidences of wave length with solar
lines, many of them to one part in a million or better, by chance
alone. We must evidently have some test to distinguish these spur-
lous agreements from real ones. The obvious criterion is that, if an
element is really present, the relative strength, as well as the absolute
position, of its lines will be correctly reproduced in the solar spectrum.
Numerical coincidences with faint lines are meaningless unless the
strong lines of the element are present, and coincidences even with
strong lines are suspicious if other stronger or equally strong lines
fail to appear.

In this respect there are noteworthy differences between different
elements. Iron, for example, is very richly represented in the solar
spectrum, almost 3,300 of its lines having been identified; but it is
also very completely represented, for practically every line that can
be produced in arc or spark in the laboratory is to be found in the
sun. There are, indeed, many faint iron lines whose positions can
be accurately predicted by means of the modern theory of spectral
structure. Many of these have been detected in the laboratory by
long exposures, but still more appear in the sun in exactly the pre-
dicted positions and with the expected intensities.

Magnesium, though but 25 lines are recorded in the “ Revised Row-
land,” is almost as completely represented there as iron, for its
spectrum is poor in lines, and every line that could be anticipated is
present.

Copper, however, which has a fairly rich spectrum, exhibits only
its strongest lines in the sun, while silver reveals its presence only
by its two strongest lines, and even these are faint. Gold does not
appear at all, nor do mercury and bismuth. What is much more
remarkable, there is no evidence of phosphorus or arsenic, or chlorine,
bromine, or iodine, or of neon, argon, or their heavier homologues.

The absence of any evidence of these familiar elements in the sun’s
atmosphere was for a long time a perplexing problem. It was al-
ways suspected that they must really be there, but “concealed ” in
some fashion or other; and now this conjecture is changed to a well-
founded belief.

202 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

. The main key to the puzzle is that we can observe but a part of
the whole spectrum of the sun or of a star. Our atmosphere, fairly
transparent (in good weather!) for visible light and for the near
ultra-violet, becomes suddenly opaque between 2,900 and 3,000 Ang-
stroms—that is, at about three-quarters of the wave length of the
ordinary limit of visibility in the violet. For all shorter waves it
is as opaque as a stone wall. This limitation, which cuts the astro-
physicist off permanently from the most interesting region of the
spectrum, arises from the presence of a small percentage of ozone
at the very top of the atmosphere, far too high to hope to penetrate
by any known means of flight. At the other end things are not so
bad. The eye ceases to be sensitive about A8,000. Modern photo-
graphic plates run out beyond AL0,000, with hope of future gain.
Energy-measuring devices, such as the bolometer used with such
success by Langley and Abbot, are free from this limitation and
have detected solar radiation beyond A100,000, but they are relatively
insensitive and record only a few of the strongest spectral lines.
Moreover, in the infra-red the water vapor and carbon dioxide of
the earth’s atmosphere cut huge, wide bands out of the spectrum.
We may really count ourselves fortunate that the spectral region in
which it is easy to work is so little bedeviled by the influence of the
earth’s atmosphere, which, as my old teacher, Professor Young, used
to say, translating literally from the French, “is the astronomer’s
black beast !”

At present our observations of the solar spectrum are impossible
below A2,900; accurate and complete from 28,000 to 7,800; under
completion to A10,000, with hope of considerable extension, and
possible, but rough, far into the longer wave lengths.

Now, there are some elements, such as boron, which have not a
single spectral line in the observable range, though there are plenty
in the farther ultra-violet and presumably some ‘not yet discovered)
in the infra-red. The same could have been said for phosphorus un-
til certain successful photographs were taken at the Bureau of
Standards a month ago (December, 1931). There is evidently no
hope of identifying such elements directly in the solar spectrum.

lor many other elements the strongest lines lie far out of reach in
the ultra-violet. This is true for the nonmetallic elements without
exception and for some metals—gold, mereury, cadmium, etc. The
limitation of our observing powers puts us at a great disadvantage
when it comes to such spectra. <A large majority of the “absent”
elements belong here.

There are several more elements of this group which have their
next strongest lines deep in the red, beyond the limit to which Row-
land could photograph. Modern plates reveal these lines (in all cases

COMPOSITION OF THE SUN—RUSSELL 203

faint) in the sun, and carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur have
thus been added to the list.

The second clue to the riddle is found in the fact that the same
element may give different spectra under different conditions.

The importance of this was first realized by Sir Norman Lockyer
more than 50 years ago. When a compound of a metal is volatilized
in a Bunsen or hydrogen flame, the spectrum shows lines (usually
only a few) characteristic of the metal, and often also bands (re-
solved with high dispersion into a multitude of close-packed lines)
which vary with the compound present and are evidently due to
undecomposed molecules. At the higher temperature of the electric
are, many (though not all) of the bands disappear, indicating that
the compounds have been dissociated by the high temperature, while
the lines—due evidently to free atoms of the metal—become stronger
and more numerous. Band spectra, if present, are strongest in the
light from the relatively cool outer flame of the arc, for obvious rea-
sons. With the condensed spark between metallic poles as source,
new lines make their appearance, and others which are faint in the
are are greatly intensified or “ enhanced.”

Lockyer suggested, more than 50 years ago, that the elements
familiar to the chemist were themselves compounds which, at the
very high temperature of the spark, were decomposed, and that the
enhanced lines came from the products of this decomposition while
the are lines were from the unaltered element. He supported his
contention by the observation that, in white stars like Sirius—which
are undoubtedly hotter than the sun—only the enhanced lines of the
metals appear, while in the sun both are and enhanced lines are
present. For silicon, he pointed out four groups of lines appearing
in hotter and hotter stars as representing successive stages in the
process of decomposition of the familiar element.

Lockyer was in advance of his times; and his bold theory, though
generally doubted at first, was essentially sound. We have now
every reason to believe that atoms are complex structures, composed
of electrons circulating in some fashion about a nucleus. By dis-
turbing the atoms with sufficient violence, one after another of these
electrons may be removed, a process called ionization. Both neutral
and ionized atoms can emit and absorb line spectra, but the two
are catirely different. Spectroscopically, an ionized atom behaves
like an entirely new element, and each successive ionization again
leads to a wholly different spectrum. The arc lines belong to the
neutral atoms, ordinary enhanced lines to atoms which have lost one
of their electrons, and so on. Lockyer’s four sets of silicon lines
correspond to atoms possessing all their electrons, or deprived of one,
two and three. The detailed theory of the process was first applied

204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

in astrophysics by an Indian physicist, Saha, and has revolutionized
our understanding of the subject.

In the solar spectrum the are lines predominate. Enhanced lines,
though numerous, are usually inferior in strength, though by far
the strongest lines in our whole spectrum arise from ionized calcium
(Ca+). “Band lines” due to compounds are not conspicuous, but
some were recognized by Rowland as due to compounds of carbon.
Many more have since been detected, and it is probable that a great
number of the faint lines which are as yet unidentified may turn out
to be due to compounds whose spectra have not yet been measured
with adequate precision for comparison.

A decisive test of the ionization theory is found in the spectra
of sun spots. The spots, though darker and redder than the rest of
the sun’s surface, and obviously cooler, give off light of their own.
This exhibits a very distinctive spectrum, similar in general to that
of the sun, but with many differences. Some lines are much weaker,
others are stronger, and some greatly strengthened. Comparison
with the data of the laboratory shows that the weakened lines are
practically all enhanced lines, and the strengthened lines are lines
of easily ionized metals, while hundreds of band lines appear in
the spots alone. At the lower temperature of the spots new com-
pounds form which are completely decomposed over the disk, and
the compounds otherwise present are increased in quantity. Joniza-
tion diminishes, so that enhanced lines fade, and arc lines strengthen.
The agreement with theoretical prediction persists to the minutest
detail. For an element of difficult ionization, like silicon, the en-
hanced lines are very much weakened, and the arc lines little, if at
all, strengthened, while for one easy to ionize, such as strontium or
scandium, the enhanced lines hardly change and the arc lines are
enormously strengthened in the spot. This agrees perfectly with
calculation, which shows that for such elements most of the atoms
are ionized even above the spots, but the percentage of neutral atoms,
while still small, is greatly increased there. There are three elements,
lithium, rubidium, and indium, which appear only in the spot spectra.
All are easy to ionize, and must be so completely ionized at the ordi-
nary photospheric temperature that their arc lines disappear. The
strongest lines of the ionized atoms are out of reach in the ultra-
violet, and so we would lose them altogether from our list, were
it not for the relative coolness of the spot. This actually happens
for caesium, the easiest of all elements to ionize; and there are a
good many other elements, such as barium and the rare earths, which
reveal themselves only by their enhanced lines.

Elements of difficult ionization are also at a disadvantage in the
sun, but for a different reason. Not all the lines, even of a neutral

COMPOSITION OF THE SUN—RUSSELL 205

atom, are equally easy to produce. The atom may exist in a multi-
tude of different states, each with its own store of internal energy.
We may picture the atom, if we will, by imagining the electrons
revolving about the nucleus in orbits, and the different states by sup-
posing that some of the outer orbits differ in size, shape, and incli-
nation to one another. (This picture, though imperfect, is as good
as the familiar one of “rays” of light.) Whatever picture (or
mathematical formula) we adopt for the energy states, there is no
doubt of their existence.

An atom which changes from a state heavily loaded with energy
to one less powerfully “ excited ” must release its energy, and it does
so by giving out light. The number of vibrations per second in this
radiation—of kilocycles, to use a word now familiar to all radio
listeners—is exactly proportional to the amount of energy released.
No one knows why—if we did, we would be a good deal nearer to
understanding the nature of things than most of us ever hope to be—
but the fact is again firmly established.

Knowing this, it is possible, by a study of the spectra, to map out
with very great accuracy the various energy states of a given atom
and the transitions between them which cause the emission, or, when
reversed, the absorption of a spectral line.

The properties of these atomic states or spectroscopic terms, as
they are also called, are governed by a complicated and precise sys-
tem of rules, which are now fully understood. The work of Som-
merfeld, Lande, Pauli, Hund, and others has led to a theory which
interprets, and, what is more, predicts, the structure of even the
most complicated spectra, and enables us to specify exactly what
occurs when each one of the hundreds or even thousands of lines is
emitted or absorbed.

An atom, left to itself, will settle down into its normal state, with
the smallest possible content of energy. From this state it may pass
by absorption of light into any one of a number of others, producing
certain spectral lines. Each atom is doing only one thing at a time;
but among the billions of atoms in the smallest perceptible quantity
of gas, all these transitions are happening at once. Those which are
most likely to occur give the strongest lines.

An atom in an exited state of higher energy content absorbs a
number of other lines, quite different from the first, and so on for
each of the numerous exited states, till the whole complicated spec-
trum is built up.

Now the relative numbers of atoms in the various energy states
depend on the temperature of the gas. In a cool gas practically
all of them are in the normal state; but, with rising temperature, an
ever-increasing though usually small proportion will be found at any
moment in each of the exited states.

206 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Sodium vapor, for example, when cool, absorbs only the familiar
pair of lines in the yellow, and others in the ultra-violet, which are
produced by transitions from the normal state. But at a white heat,
a minute fraction (perhaps 1 in 100,000) of the atoms are in an
exited state and absorb other pairs of lines in the red, orange, and
green. In the electric furnace those lines are very feebly absorbed,
but in the far hotter atmosphere of the sun they are stronger in pro-
portion to the great principal pair in the yellow.

Similar phenomena occur in the more complicated spectra, such
as those of titanium and iron, where there are dozens of different
exited states. The behavior of the lines at different laboratory tem-
peratures has been of great importance in working out the intricate
problem of their analysis.

Once more the sun-spot spectrum confirms the theory perfectly.
Lines absorbed by unexcited or slightly excited atoms are strength-
ened most in the spots and those of excited neutral atoms less so. For
elements of easy ionization the increase in the number of neutral
atoms in the spots is so great that it swamps the loss due to dimin-
ished excitation; but for elements harder to ionize, such as silicon
and zinc, the reverse is the case, and the lines of high excitation
potential are weakened in spots.

The same principles apply to enhanced lines. As might be ex-
pected, enhanced lines of high excitation are greatly weakened in
spots, and often obliterated.

By a detailed study of the behavior of lines of all these sorts it
is possible to find both the temperature and pressure in the spots.
Miss Moore (of Mount Wilson and Princeton) has completed a very
successful study in which she finds that the temperature of a typical
spot is 1,000° lower than that of the disk, the total pressure 70 per
cent higher (since the gas is more transparent and we can see deeper),
but the pressure due to the free electrons 40 per cent less, owing to
the diminished ionization. The agreement of theory and observation
is satisfactory to the finest details.

Even at the solar temperature, 5,740°, only about 1 atom in
2(),000 should be excited to the extent measured by 5 volts (that is,
by the energy imparted to an electron by 5 volts’ potential drop).
It is easy to understand, then, why only 46 solar lines out of nearly
6,000 for which the energy relations are known are absorbed by
atoms more highly excited than this.

Almost all the metals (except gold and mercury) have are lines
of low excitation in the accessible part of the spectrum, so that
they are, so to speak, on an even footing in our solar lists. Some
of them have similar enhanced lines accessible, (as do calcium,
scandium, titanium, and the rare earths) ; but for many others, such

COMPOSITION OF THE SUN—RUSSELL 207

as iron and nickel, the “ ultimate ” lines of low excitation are beyond
the observable limit in the ultra-violet, and only lines of considerable
excitation are accessible. For magnesium and aluminum the only
accessible enhanced lines are of very high excitation and are natu-
rally faint, while for the accessible lines of the alkali metals the
excitation is so high as to banish all hope of finding them.

Passing to the nonmetals—which are so hard to ionize that only
arc lines could be expected in the sun—we find that the ultimate
lines are in all cases hopelessly out of reach and the accessible lines
have excitation potentials ranging from 6 volts upward. Our spec-
troscopic tests for these elements are therefore at best perhaps a
hundred-thousandth part as sensitive as they would be if we could
observe the far ultra-violet, and the wonder is not that we fail to
find some of them but that we do find any. Carbon, sulphur, and
nitrogen, though they show only faint lines, must be as abundant as
the commoner metals. Oxygen, whose lines are stronger, must be
still more so. But hydrogen is really amazing. Despite the very
high excitation potential of 10.15 volts, its lines are among the
strongest in the solar spectrum. It may be that a large allowance
should be made for the peculiar character of its lines, which are
exceptionally susceptible to widening by the electric fields of neigh-
boring ions, and hence to apparent strengthening. But, even so, there
appears to be no escape from the conclusion that hydrogen is far
more abundant in the sun’s atmosphere than any other element—
much more so, indeed, than all the others together.

For the elements which do not appear in the solar spectrum, the
excitation potentials of the best available lines are in most cases
hopelessly high. There may be some chance of finding phosphorus
when its spectrum has been investigated in the infra-red, but this is
all.

An unexpected aid in our search has, however, recently appeared.
More and more band spectra are being identified in the sun; that
is, more species of molecules detected in the atmosphere. Most of
these are compounds of hydrogen, oxygen, or carbon, but boron
oxide (BO) was detected a few years ago in sun spots by Nicholson
and Perrakis, and silicon fluoride (SiF) more recently by Richard-
son, both in the spots and on the disk—adding two more elements to
the list of those positively identified in the sun. The other com-
pounds so far identified (some in spots only) are the hydrides CH,
NH, OH, MgH, AlH, SiH, CaH, the oxides AlO, TiO, ZrO, and
the carbon compounds ON and C,. It is possible but not certain that
molecules of hydrogen (H.) may exist in sun spots.

The chemist will gaze with open eyes at this list. All but the last
are mere fragments of molecules, already partly decomposed and too
active chemically to be isolated in ordinary temperatures. But it

208 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

is not surprising that such partial decomposition occurs at the sun’s
temperature. It is probable that a few other more familiar mole-
cules (notably CO and N,) exist in the sun’s atmosphere, but these
molecules, in their normal state, absorb only in the far ultra-violet
and can not therefore be detected.

The hydrides are known to be rather easy to dissociate, and their
presence in the sun is additional evidence of the great abundance of
hydrogen. All the other compounds which have been detected con-
tain at least one constituent which is known to be very abundant in
the sun’s atmosphere in the free state.

Last, but not least, comes helium, which shows strong emission
lines in the spectrum of the sun’s outer atmosphere—the chromo-
sphere—but no dark lines on the disk, except occasionally in dis-
turbed regions near spots. The emission lines were recognized at
solar eclipses 60 years ago, and for 20 years could not be matched
in the laboratory, so that the name “helium ” was coined to describe
the unknown solar element. How it was detected in radioactive
minerals, found to be a light inert gas—as had been suspected from
the height to which it rises in the chromosphere—and finally dis-
covered in natural gas in such abundance that it is used in airships,
is one of the romances of science which can barely be mentioned here.
It is still the outstanding puzzle of solar physics. Its visible lines
demand very high excitation—20 volts or more—so that it is not
surprising that they do not show in absorption, but very remarkable
that they appear so strongly in emission at the sun’s limb. In fact,
one line of ionized helium (A4686) with the enormous excitation po-
tential of 48 volts appears faintly in the chromosphere; why, no
one yet knows.

All told, 61 of the 90 known chemical elements have so far been
identified, positively or with some margin of doubt, in the solar
spectrum. Of the remaining 29, 13 have lines so unfavorably placed
that they could not well be expected to appear, while for 12 more
the spectra have not been accurately enough measured to permit
of a decisive test. This leaves four elements—holmium, rhenium,
bismuth, and radium—for which the strongest lines are in accessible
regions of the spectrum, and do not appear in the sun. These metals
must be present only in minute proportions, if at all, in the solar
atmosphere. Holmium is one of the rarest of the rare earths. Rhen-
ium appears to be exceedingly rare on earth, and radium, on account
of its short life, must be rare anywhere in the universe, so that we
could not expect to find it or any of the other strongly radioactive
elements in perceptible amounts.

So much for the qualitative analysis of the sun or, at least, of
its outer layers. What can we do to make our analysis quantitative ?

COMPOSITION OF THE SUN—RUSSELL 209

Here new difficulties beset us. We may ask, what is the total
amount of iron vapor in the sun’s atmosphere per square mile (or
square centimeter) of its surface? But the sun has no definite surface.
At the top, of course, its atmosphere thins out gradually into space,
like the earth’s. But at the bottom it is not limited by a solid surface,
or even by a cloud layer, but becomes gradually more and more hazy,
so that we can not see down very far. This increasing opacity is
due to the presence of free electrons and ions in the gas, as was first
shown by my colleague Stewart, of Princeton, and later worked
out in more detail by Milne, of Oxford. Milne’s calculations indi-
cate that the change from extremely low density to practical opacity
takes place in a layer only about 20 miles thick, which explains the
sharpness of the sun’s limb, even as seen with the largest telescopes.

By far the greatest part of the absorption which produces the
Fraunhofer lines takes place in this thin reversing layer. In the
upper part of it the atoms are few, but get in their full effect, while
the more numerous atoms lower down are “ blanketed ” to an increas-
ing degree by the general opacity of the layers above them. Milne
has shown that the net effect of this partly obscured absorption is
very nearly the same as we would get if the atmosphere were perfect-
ly clear—except for the specific line absorption—down to a certain
depth and quite opaque below this, and that we may introduce this
imaginary surface at a level in the actual atmosphere such that the
gas above it blocks one-third of the escaping light in the regions -
between the spectral lines.

The amount of material above this fictitious surface is surprisingly
small. This was first pointed out by Lockyer, who showed by
direct comparison that a Bunsen flame an inch or so thick, charged
with a very small proportion of sodium vapor by a bit of salt held on
a platinum wire, absorbed the ultimate lines of the metal more
strongly than the whole thickness of the sun’s atmosphere. This
very important conclusion was almost forgotten for 40 years, and
revived only in our own day, with so powerful a support from
atomic physics as to be irresistible.

Stewart and Unsild have shown theoretically that the width of
a dark spectral line, produced in a rarefied gas, should be propor-
tional to the square root of the number of atoms per unit area in
the absorbing layer (no matter what its thickness) which are active
in producing this particular line. The strongest solar lines are
wide enough to make measures of their contours practicable—though
not easy—and the corresponding numbers of atoms per unit area
“above the photosphere ” can thus be deduced. For the strongest
lines of all (the H and K lines of Ca+, taken together) this comes
out 2101 atoms per square centimeter, which equals the number
of molecules in a layer of ordinary air one-third of an inch thick,

210 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

For the sodium lines the calculated number is only one nine-
hundredth as great, thus supporting Lockyer’s old conclusion.

For the thousands of fainter lines similar measures would be
very laborious and of doubtful value, since a number of other in-
fluences, solar and instrumental, produce a small widening of the
lines. A recent admirable investigation of the green magnesium
lines by Prof. H. H. Plaskett, of Harvard (and soon of Oxford),
shows that the prediction of dark solar lines is a much more com-
plicated affair than is supposed in the simpler theory already
mentioned, and that exact calculation of the number of atoms active
in producing them is very difficult. Some other line of attack is
to be desired, and one is opened by the modern theory of spectra.

Most spectroscopic terms are multiple, with from two to seven
components. Combinations between two such terms give rise not
to single lines but to groups of from 2 to 19 lines, called multiplets.
Some lines in such a group are much stronger than others, and their
relative intensities—that is, the relative number of atoms engaged
in their production—can be calculated from the quantum theory,
independently of the temperature, pressure, and other conditions.

We may now have (for example) 2 lines in the same multiplet,
of which the stronger has the intensity 4 on Rowland’s arbitrary
scale, and the weaker intensity 1, while the formulae indicate that
40 times as many atoms are at work on the first as on the other.
Another pair of lines with the same Rowland intensities may give
the theoretical ratio 25, another 50, and so on—for Rowland’s esti-
mates are rather rough. But great numbers of lines are available,
and the average of all gives a good determination of the relative
number of atoms which produce lines of various intensities on Row-
land’s scale. In this way Doctor Adams, Miss Moore, and the writer
have calibrated Rowland’s scale. The same difference in his inten-
sities corresponds to a greater difference in the numbers of active
atoms for lines in the violet than in the red; but this can be allowed
for. With the aid of the strong lines which have been individually
measured, the actual number of atoms which are at work in pro-
ducing a solar line of given intensity may be found.

For a line of Rowland’s intensity 0—just well visible with ordinary
high dispersion—there are about 10%? atoms at work per square cen-
timeter, or enough to make a layer of gas, under standard conditions,
a little over a ten-millionth of an inch thick. The faintest lines of
all require about a twentieth as much.

We may now find how many atoms of each element are engaged
in producing each one of its observable lines. To find the total
number of atoms of this element, in the solar atmosphere, we must
allow for those which give lines in the infra-red and ultra-violet,
which we can not observe. This can be done if we can get at all the

COMPOSITION OF THE SUN—RUSSELL PATI |

important lines which are absorbed by the atom in at least one of
its energy states (whether normal or excited), for the numbers in
other states can then be calculated by thermodynamic theory, know-

Figure 1.—Diagram showing the energy levels of the sodium atom. The dots repre-
sent the individual atomic states. They are set at heights corresponding to the
energy content of the atom. ‘The lines represent those transitions which can
actually occur and produce spectral lines. An atom in the lowest energy state
absorbs only a certain series of spectral lines, one in the next highest energy state,
two other series of lines. (See text.)

/

S
SSS =~
SS

Ficur® 2.—Similar diagram for the spectrum of titanium. The number of energy
states is very large, and the transitions between them give a very complicated
spectrum

ing the sun’s temperature. In this way the numbers of neutral atoms

have been found for many elements. Most ionized atoms have all

their best lines in the far ultra-violet and are not amenable to our

treatment, but there are several whose numbers can be found. Now
102992—32——-15

212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

the proportion of the atoms of any element which are ionized
depends not only on the temperature, but on the pressure (and also,
of course, on the ease of ionization of the element).

We know the proportion for half a dozen elements whose strongest
are and spark lines are both accessible, and so we can find the pres-
sure—or, at least, that part of it due to the free electrons. At the
level of the “photosphere” (as defined above), this comes out
one twenty-thousandth of the “standard atmosphere.” We can now
calculate that an element with an ionization potential of 8.5 volts
would be half ionized and half neutral. Most of the metals are more
easily ionized than this. Only one atom of sodium in a thousand is
neutral, and less than one in a hundred for calcium. One-fifth of
the iron atoms, and one-third those of silicon, are neutral; but 85
per cent are neutral for zinc, 99.6 per cent for carbon, and all but
one in 380,000 in the case of hydrogen. Making the appropriate
allowances, we find the total amounts of the various elements in the
sun’s atmosphere. For the metals, the results should be fairly
reliable. They indicate that six elements,—sodium, magnesium,
silicon,? potassium, calcium, and iron—furnish 95 per cent (by
weight) of all the metallic vapors, and six more nine-tenths of the
remainder, as is shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1.—Metals in the sun’s atmosphere

[Tons per square mile]

Meenesinme= === 02.2 sae 350" |M@obaltz2tes2 sae eee ae 6
OTe ee Ae 250" | Chromiun==2=32s = eee 6
SUNT COT ee hh eo 150M Ebitanium= 22522) 2
Sodiume Le. 228. ee 1007 Vanadium 2 = ee ae eee 1%
Potassium --.—2 45... eae HOP POODDCL: fa tka 2s Se eee 1%
Calcium 22. 2 ee ae EQ) RZ eee Pe so eee eee eee 1
AN mine ee es 15 S| PAT others) = St sae ey ee 0. 2
INICKe] Sz Saat 2 a eee 15

Manganeses=. 20 Bae ee ee 10 NOt eee. ae eS 1, 008

This is very much like the order of relative abundance that is
found on earth. The results of Clarke and Washington (based on
hundreds of careful analyses of typical rocks) show a greater abun-
dance of silicon, aluminum, and titanium. But these results repre-
sent the composition of the outer 10 miles of the earth’s crust, which
is composed mainly of granitic rocks, richer in these three elements
than are the far thicker layers of dense rocks deeper down.

Again, nickel and cobalt are much less abundant in terrestrial rocks
than in the sun. But in meteorites (which are probably more repre-
sentative of the general composition of the solar system than is the
siliceous slag, which forms the outer layers of the earth) they occur
in nearly the same proportions as in the sun.

2 Silicon behaves spectroscopically like a metal and is therefore included here.

COMPOSITION OF THE SUN—RUSSELL 213

Among the rare elements there is a general parallelism between
solar and terrestrial abundance. Some elements, of which the most
noteworthy is scandium, appear to be much more abundant in the sun
than here; but small quantities of these, widely disseminated among
the rocks, may well have escaped the search of the ordinary chemist,
even though skilled. The actual amounts even of the rare elements,
in the sun’s atmosphere, are very great. For example, platinum is
represented only by three faint lines in the solar spectrum; but to
produce these there must be something like 500 million tons of the
precious metal above the photosphere. This amounts, however, to
less than 8 ounces per square mile of surface, or one-eightieth of an
ounce per acre. An equal amount, rained down in thin dust on the
earth’s surface, would not be worth the labor of sweeping up.

The amounts of the nonmetallic elements are much harder to
. determine in the sun, for the only available lines come from atoms
in highly excited states. For every atom in such a state there are a
very great number in the normal state—sometimes millions—and
these huge factors are hard to determine accurately. As has already
been said, carbon, sulphur, and nitrogen must be as abundant as the
commoner metals, oxygen more so, and hydrogen far more abundant
than all the rest.

In the hotter stars, where lines of ionized oxygen, nitrogen, etc.,
and of neutral helium, are conspicuous, a better comparison can be
made. Miss Payne, of Harvard, working a few years ago by meth-
ods developed by Milne, derived values for the relative abundance
of a number of elements and reached the very important conclusion
that the stars are remarkably similar in composition. The great
differences in their spectra arise, not from differences in the abun-
dance of the elements, but in their ionization and excitation at dif-
ferent temperatures. Her results, and those of the writer’s later
work, are in remarkably good agreement.

Combining them in a final summary, we may conclude that at
least 90 per cent of all the atoms in the sun’s atmosphere—and per-
haps 95 per cent or more—are atoms of hydrogen. Of the remainder,
helium and oxygen contribute some two-thirds, and all the metals,
together with carbon, sulphur, etc., the rest.

These are the proportions of the various constituents by volume
in the gas. By weight, the metals, whose atoms are much heavier,
make up a quarter of the whole (or less, with the higher estimates
of the abundance of hydrogen).

Whether the sun’s interior is of the same composition is a harder
question. The great ascending cyclonic whirls which produce sun
spots must come from a considerable depth, but from only a very
small fraction of the way to the center. Whether the deeper layers
are sufficiently stirred by currents to undo the very small tendency

214 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

for the heavy atoms to settle gradually to the center is not certain,
but it appears to be fairly probable.

The remarkable differences in the abundance of the elements are
as yet almost unexplained; this is a problem for the next generation
of physicists, and a fascinating one. It is natural to imagine that
the many different elements have been produced in some way or other,
out of a more primitive material—perhaps out of hydrogen, which is
the simplest, and in many ways seems fit to be the raw material for
the rest. Abundant elements would then be those that have been
formed in large amounts, while the rare ones have either been less
likely to form, or more likely to change over into something else.

One general relation, first pointed out by Harkins, of Chicago, is
conspicuous. Elements of odd atomic number are much less abundant
than those of the adjacent even numbers. There is hardly an excep-
tion among the 56 elements included in the study of the sun’s atmos-
phere, and on the average the even elements are eight times as
abundant as the odd ones.

This must have something to do with the stability of the atomic
nuclei, but no one yet knows how.

Another very striking case has been accounted for. Lithium and
beryllium, the lightest elements next to hydrogen and helium, occur
in surprisingly small amounts in the sun, less than a hundred thou-
sandth part as much as either these lighter elements or heavier ones
like oxygen or iron. Atkinson, of Rutgers, has accounted for this
by a theory of the building up of atoms out of hydrogen in the
intensely heated interior of the sun or of a star. In such a region
the lighter atoms are stripped of all their electrons and reduced to
bare nuclei, which collide violently with one another. Once in a
very long time (as atomic events go) a hydrogen nucleus, or proton,
will hit some other nucleus so hard that it penetrates it and stays
there, forming a new nucleus, of greater atomic weight. The wave
mechanics indicate that the probability of such penetration is much
greater when the charge on the nucleus is small, and hence the lith-
ium or beryllium atoms, if originally present in large numbers inside
a star, would get built up into heavier ones, till in the final “ steady
state” very few were left. This process of atom building liberates
a great amount of energy, sufficient to keep the sun shining for
thousands of millions of years.

This theory, though beautiful and most promising, is still provi-
sional. It is probable, however, that with increased knowledge
regarding the composition of the stars and the sun, as well as of
their masses, densities, and other characteristics, a great deal more
can be found out about the past history and the evolution both of
stars and of atoms than anyone knows now.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Russell PLATE 1

THE SUN’S SURFACE PHOTOGRAPHED WITH THE SPECTROHELIOGRAPH IN
HYDROGEN LIGHT (MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY)

Note the sun-spot regions strongly marked by bright hydrogen flocculi.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Russell PEATE 2

A GREAT SUN SPOT. ENLARGED FROM A DIRECT PHOTOGRAPH (MOUNT WILSON
OBSERVATORY)

It will be noticed that the whole solar surface shows an indistinctly mottled appearance. There are no
clouds on thesun. This mottling is due merely to temperature differences which cause differences of
brightness of the hot bases which send us light.

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SUN SPOTS AND RADIO RECEPTION?

By Harian T. STETSON

Director, Perkins Observatory, Ohio Wesleyan University

[With 2 plates]

Of all astronomical bodies the sun is by far of the greatest imme-
diate concern to human beings. Literally in him we live and move
and have our being. Every square yard of the earth’s surface
exposed to direct sunshine receives energy at the rate of more than
one-and-a-half horsepower; the whole earth receives from the sun
heat at such a rate that if converted into doing work it would
represent the equivalent of 230,000,000,000,000 horsepower. With
the exception of a few experimental solar engines once set to work
for irrigation purposes in arid regions, man has practically made
no attempt to convert, directly, solar rays into mechanical effort.
Perhaps when oil is running low and coal is $100 a ton we may
learn to tap profitably this abundant source.

When we reflect, further, that, after all, the whole earth can
intercept less than one-billionth of the sun’s total output, we realize
our complete inability to conceive of this stupendous and seemingly
inexhaustible supply. To determine conditions at the surface of
the sun and to measure its temperature, which is about 12,000° F.,
is a far simpler task than to divine the source of its enormous
energy or to conjecture just what is going on in the interior.

However, the sun is a typical star, and, thanks to the researches
of Eddington at Cambridge University, we are no longer as igno-
rant as we once were concerning the interior of the stars, and our
best guess as to the source of their radiant energy leads us into the
very structure of the matter of which stars are made. We may pic-
ture the interior of the sun as a veritable hurly-burly of atoms and
electrons, flying hither and thither at terrific velocities which rapidly
increase as the sun’s center is approached, where the temperature is
of the order of 80,000,000°. From this hot interior of the sun
must ultimately arise the source of solar radiation, which not only

1 Revision of paper originally presented at a meeting of the Franklin Institute held
Thursday, Feb. 13, 1930. Reprinted by pernrission, with change of title and other revi-
sion, from the Journal of the Franklin Institute, October, 1930.

215

216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

manifests itself in familiar light and heat but in a wide variety of
electromagnetic disturbances, whose far-reaching effects we are just
beginning to appreciate.

Studies during the last few years indicate that there are cosmic
causes at work which may profoundly influence the electrical state
of the earth’s atmosphere which radio waves traverse. Probably the
sun is the one astronomical body most responsible for changes in
our terrestrial affairs. Every radio listener knows that daytime re-
ception is vastly poorer than night-time reception in the broadcasting
zone. Here is the most obvious exhibition of the effect of the sun’s
rays upon radio. On the other hand, both day and night reception
vary greatly from time to time for what has often seemed no good
reason at all. It is from relatively very recent researches that we
have come to believe much of the cause for this varying degree of
reception is to be found in
the sun’s atmosphere itself.

When we examine the
sun’s surface through the
telescope, we find that it
presents a strange mottled,
or granulated appearance.
In this mottled surface
there develop now and then
dark patches, often grow-
ing into huge black areas
surrounded by a somewhat
shaded region called the
penumbra. These dark
areas are the sun spots. Whatever may be ultimately accepted as the
best explanation of the spots, one can not go far wrong in picturing
a sun spot as a terrific storm in the sun’s atmosphere, a cyclonic
whirlwind for which the most violent tropical hurricane would be a
microscopic illustration.

One of the most extraordinary features of sun spots is the perio-
dicity with which they appear on the solar surface. For nearly a cen-
tury and a half sufficiently accurate records of the appearance of
sun spots have been made, so that if we plot the degree of spottedness
of the solar surface year by year, we discover a periodic rise and fall
in the stormy condition of the sun’s surface spanning appr oximately
11 years. We are now not far from what we call a sun-spot maxi-
mum. About eight years ago sun spots were very scarce, and when
they occasionally appeared were very small and insignificant affairs.

Curiously enough, at the beginning of a sun-spot cycle the spots
appear on the sun’s surface at relatively high latitudes and as the

Figure 1.—The sun-spot curve, according to Wolf’s
sun-spot numbers. (Irom data by Wolfer)

SUN SPOTS AND RADIO—STETSON 217

cycle progresses they increase in size and number and break out at
successively lower latitudes on the solar sphere, a given cycle of spots
finally disappearing just a few degrees from the solar equator.

The true character of sun spots
as magnetic whirls in the solar
atmosphere was first established by
Hale, of the Mount Wilson Ob-
servatory, in 1908.2. By means of
the newly invented spectro-helio-
graph, Hale was able to photo-
graph different layers in the solar
atmosphere and establish the ex-
istence of vortices similar to the
whirlwinds which are character-
istic of cyclonic storms in the
earth’s atmosphere. Furthermore
by analyzing with polarizing ap-
paratus the character of the rays
of light radiating from the sun

FicurE 2.—As the 11-year sun-spot
cycle waxes the latitude of the spots
decreases

spots, Hale was able to demonstrate that the light emitted from the
center of these gigantic whirls betrayed unmistakably that they were

—>»

x
nn 7

iia

]\

High —>—> — ‘Low << fe!

Figure 3.—Formation of a thunderstorm is analogous to the formation of
a sun spot. Note the vertical whirls about “ High” and ‘“ Low” pres-

sure areas

electromagnetic poles and that the doubling of the lines in the
spectrum over sun spots was due to the magnetic effect announced

by Zeeman in 1896.

? Astrophys. Journ., vol. 28, p. 315, July to December, 1908.

218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

With the reappearance of the last sun-spot cycle it was firmly
established that the polarity of these spots completely reverses from
one cycle to the next. It has been recently suggested by a Nor-
wegian scientist, Bjerknes * that the sun spots are the visible ends of
a tubular vortex which may extend east and west for great distances
below the sun’s surface. A reversal in the direction of whirl in

— hy)

licurE 4.—Tropical storms on the earth frequent latitudes correspond-
ing to the latitudes of many major spots on the sun

this supposed vortex would account for a reversal of the magnetic
polarity of the sun spots with the change of cycle.

No completely satisfactory explanation of the ultimate origin of
these whirls has yet been made. There is one peculiarity, however, in
the sun’s behavior which doubtless has an important bearing on this
point. While the sun rotates on its axis from west to east in common
with the axial rotation of other bodies in the solar system, its period
of rotation is not the same for different parts of the solar surface.

®TIdem, vol. 49, p. 153, January to June, 1919.
*Idem, vol. 64, p. 98, July to December, 1926,

SUN SPOTS AND RADIO—STETSON 219

Near the Equator the sun rotates once on its axis in a period of al-
most 2414 days, whereas in latitude 35° the motion of the spots across
the surface indicates that almost 2614 days are consumed in a single
rotation. Spectroscopic observations make it possible to determine
the rate of rotation in regions of higher latitudes than those in which
the spots appear. In latitude 60° the rotation period is nearly 31
days. The continual slipping of the atmospheric layers of lower lati-
tude past those of higher latitude must result in the formation of
eddy currents favorable to the formation of cyclonic whirls, thus
producing sun spots.

N

East
after 1912
+ —_

S

Ficurr 5.—Showing reversal in the magnetic polarity of the spots with change in
cycle

The mention of sun spots invariably raises the question of a
possible connection between the spots on the sun and terrestrial phe-
nomena. Some statisticians with an insatiable appetite for correla-
tions have attempted to connect with sun spots almost every cycle
in world affairs from fluctuations in the New York stock market to
the fecundity of rabbits in northern Canada. In the popular mind
almost every world catastrophe has sooner or later been attributed
to sun spots, from a Florida hurricane to the great World War, both
of which, by the way, did not culminate around a sun-spot maximum.

But, seriously, there are to the scientist certain well recognized
phenomena on the earth which pass through cycles whose correlation
with the sun-spot cycle is unmistakable.

220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

For more than a century and a half records of the numbers of sun
spots have been kept and afford data for a study of their periodicity
over a range of about fifteen 11-year cycles. For more than a cen-
tury records of the variation in the earth’s magnetism have been
made and preserved. The remarkable correlation of sun spots with
magnetic changes on the earth is at once apparent when we make a
graph of the number of sun spots and compare this with a similar
graph for changes of the compass needle (fig. 6). Simultane-
ously with the so-called magnetic storms, which are wont to sweep

Ficure 6.—Graph showing correlation of sun-spot numbers to magnetic effects
on the earth

the earth upon the appearance of great sun-spot activity, we witness
frequent and brilliant displays of the aurora borealis.

The auroral light is due to an electronic discharge in the upper
and highly rarified atmosphere of the earth and is most probably
activated by charged particles of electricity emanating from the sun,
whose activity varies with the sun-spot cycle. It seems probable
that the magnetic vertical whirl of sun spots acts as a directing field
in guiding electrons escaping from the sun. When a conspicuous
spot appears near the center of the solar disk, and is therefore ap-
proximately in line with the earth and the sun’s center, there is

SUN SPOTS AND RADIO—STETSON 221

a particularly good chance of the ejected electrons striking the
earth’s atmosphere and causing an ionization, or electrification, of
the upper atmosphere, giving rise to an auroral display. At the
same time the induced earth currents will distort the earth’s mag-
netic field, causing the small variations in the compass needle so
characteristic of a “ magnetic storm.”

While for many generations scientists have recognized the recur-
rent cycle in solar activity and the magnetic changes in the earth,
never before the present period of sun-spot activity has it been
possible to study so thoroughly the changing degree of electrification
in the earth’s atmosphere with the coming and going of the spots
across the solar disk. All this has come about by the development
of the radio.

The same electric disturbances which alter the earth’s magnetic
field and produce the displays of the aurorae, or northern lights, so
change the electrical state of our atmosphere that the radio waves
are also affected to a very marked degree by the coming and going

of the gigantic solar cyclones.
1926

March

Ficurp 7.—Curve showing correlation of sun spots with radio reception; full curve,
relative intensity of radio reception on transatlantic, South American, and conti-
nental reception

In the adjoining figure is a graph showing the number of sun
spots during the 12 months of the year 1926 and another graph show-
ing the average condition of radio reception over the North Atlantic
and the South Atlantic and across the Continent. The sun-spot
graph is made from the so-called Wolfer numbers and is plotted with
an inverted scale, i. e., the larger the numbers the shorter the ordi-
nate of the curve. These Wolfer numbers are based upon the
number of spots visible on the sun’s surface at a given time and to
some extent upon their area, but do not take into account the posi-
tion of the spot on the sun’s disk. The general run of these graphs
indicates that radio reception is distinctly impaired by an increase
in the sun-spot numbers.

Quantitative measurements of radio reception since 1926 seem to
have established beyond much doubt that long-distance night recep-
tion in the broadcast zone is in general poor when sun spots are

222 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

numerous and good when the spots are few (fig. 8). The quan-
titative measurement of radio reception in the broadcast zone was
begun by Dr. G. W. Pickard in his private laboratory in Newton
Center, Mass., in February, 1926. Great credit is due to Doctor Pick-
ard® for his contribution in this field and his stimulus to other
workers. In February, 1928, a duplicate set of apparatus was in-
stalled at the astronomical laboratory at Harvard University and the
measurements carried on there under the direction of the author.
Simultaneous records made for a short time at both receiving sta-
tions gave the necessary reduction factor for rendering those two

Sunspot Numbers

Radio Reception

10 20 J il 21 31
February March

1928

Fiaurn 8.—Showing that the intensity of radio signals varies with numbers of sun
spots. Based on data received in Cambridge from WBBM Chicago
series of observations comparable. ‘The investigations at the Newton
Center laboratory were then shifted from the broadcast zone to the
region of 18 kilocycles.

Figure 8 shows in the upper graph the inverted curve of sun-spot
numbers, and in the lower graph the intensity of the carrier wave of
WBBM broadeasting station as received in the vicinity of Boston
for 1926-1929, and is based upon the results of measurements made
by Dr. G. W. Pickard and the author, working in Newton Center
and in Cambridge, Mass.° The radio intensities are recorded in
terms of microvolts in the antenna of the receiving circuit.

5 Proc. Inst. Radio Eng., vol. 15, nos. 2 and 9, 1927.
* Publ. Amer. Astron. Soc., vol. 6, p. 244, 1931; Pop. Astron., vol. 37, p. 388, 1929.

SUN SPOTS AND RADIO—STETSON 223

In making plans for research at the new Perkins Observatory at
Delaware, Ohio, it was decided to use the opportunity to further
the present investigation by establishing an additional station in
the middle West at one-third the distance from WBBM over which
we were operating in Massachusetts. Another observer, Mr. Brown,
of Pasadena, Calif., is gathering similar data from a Pacific coast
station. The continuance of the Boston data is assured through the
cooperation of G. W. Kenrick at the Tufts College Laboratory,
Medford, Mass.

Now, every night, Sundays and holidays included, stations in Mas-
sachusetts, in Ohio, and in California tune in on a prescribed wave
length to study the effect of the day’s solar radiation upon the elec-
trical state of the earth’s atmosphere.

Wolfer Numbers

Mv.per Meter

Jan. July Jan. July Jan. July Jan.

Ficgurn 9.—Upper curve is inverse of running mean of sun-spot numbers. Lower curve
running mean of radio signal strength received at Boston from WBBM Chicago

In addition to the measurement of radio reception, the sun is pho-
tographed at the Perkins Observatory every clear day in cooperation
with the Yerkes, Mount Wilson, Harvard, and Naval Observatories,
and a careful study made of the size, numbers, and location of the
sun spots. It is believed from a preliminary study that the distance
of the spots from the center of the disk, or the sun-earth line, is an
important factor in the study of correlation of sun spots with radio
reception and other electromagnetic phenomena on the earth.’

The radio apparatus in use at the Perkins Observatory is a super-
heterodyne receiver especially constructed for the purpose, and feed-
ing into a self-recording galvanometer which registers the strength
of the carrier wave received from the broadcasting station of WBBM,
Chicago, and WJZ, New Jersey. The apparatus is so designed that

7 Pickard, Proc. Inst. Radio Eng., vol, 15, no. 12, December, 1927.

224 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

the modulations of the carrier wave do not affect the record appreci-
ably and the results obtained are independent of the nature of the
program broadcasted. Realizing the importance of the investigation,
the broadcasting station scrupulously maintains a constant energy
output in its antenna current, and each night before the observers
begin work the receiving set is carefully calibrated by means of a
small local oscillator in the laboratory placed in close proximity to
the receiving set. The output of the local oscillator necessary to
maintain full deflection of the recorder in the receiving circuit is then
read from the micro-ammeter in the circuit. The constant of the
apparatus for the evening is thus determined. In this way local

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Figurn 10.—Diagram of radio receiving circuit for recording intensities in the carrier
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sources of error, both at the broadcasting and receiving ends, are
eliminated and the resulting measure of the variable reception from
night to night may be attributed to the changing electrical condi-
tions of the atmosphere through which the broadcasted wave travels
en route to the receiving station.

Opinions differ as to just what happens when a broadcasted wave
travels over the earth. Some believe that an ether wave is propa-
gated which is reflected back to earth from an ionized layer of the
earth’s atmosphere, known as the Kennelly-Heaviside layer, which
lies some 70 kilometers above the earth’s surface. Others maintain
that the electric wave is refracted rather than reflected from such a
layer. Whatever the mechanism, the wave appears to be turned back
by this ionized layer of the earth’s atmosphere. Any change in the

SUN SPOTS AND RADIO—STETSON 225

intensity or degree of this ionization or electrification of the earth’s
upper atmosphere would have the effect of bending the ray more
abruptly or less abruptly toward the earth and thereupon at once be
noticed in the intensity of radio reception. The more rapid changes
of this sort are doubtless responsible for the phenomena of fading,
with which every radio fan is thoroughly familiar. According to our
theory the sun constantly bombards the earth’s atmosphere with
electrons or bundles of energy of high frequency, which in turn tear
apart the positive and negative charges of the atmospheric molecules,
in other words, ionize it to a very considerable extent, thus producing
the Kennelly-Heaviside layer. If the sun is more active on occasion,
as when large spots appear on its surface, the degree of ionization
increases, producing substantially the effect of lowering the Kennelly-

100

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1923/4924. (1925 7% 1926), 1927,),. 1928 :41929,, 1939).,.193:)
Fieurp 11.—Graph of Wolfer sun-spot numbers (3-month running means) showing
15-month fluctuation in rising solar activity since last minimum in 1923

°

te)

WOLFER NUMBERS

Heaviside layer and upsetting the radio reception. When the sun is
again less active, the atmosphere tends to return to its normal state
of ionization and the radio broadcasting reception tends to improve
as the ionized layer lifts.

For certain wave lengths it is possible that the effect of a rising
and falling ionized layer may actually be the reverse of that noted
in the broadcasting zone, giving impaired reception during less solar
activity. Curiously enough, this is just what has been observed by
Doctor Pickard at the Newton Center laboratory when working on
long waves of 18-kilocycle frequency.

Further study of the data shows a definite 14 or 15 month period in
solar activity to be exhibited both in the matter of sun spots and in
radio reception.

Another important result of the study of the reception curve is
to show how completely unfounded is the popular impression that
radio reception is universally poor in summer and good in winter.

226 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Generally speaking, reception should be better in the winter months
on account of the shortened days and decreased daylight. On the
other hand, the sun spots and radio curves of 1926-1928 show that
the increased solar activity gave much poorer reception in the winter
months of both 1926 and 1927 than during the summer months of the
same years. Conditions again improved in 1928, but reception again
became poor in the fall and winter of 1929. It may be mentioned
that the high degree of static due to thunderstorms in the summer
months results in the fact that the average radio listener will decrease
the sensitivity of his set in summer to lessen these disturbances with
the necessary accompaniment of low audible intensity of distant sta-
tions. Hence the general impression of a low intensity accompanying
warm weather temperature.

The radio reception registered in 1929 has tended to follow the
same 15-month cycle in the sun-spot numbers with a marked depre-
ciation during the recent fall maximum, when, under normal condi-
tions, radio reception should have been improving with the decreasing
hours of sunshine.

Some progress has been made by Doctor Pickard and others in the
correlation of the temperature changes with radio reception, and
while concomitant variation markedly exists it is doubtful if the
relation is one of cause and effect. It seems far more plausible that
changes in the solar activity are more directly responsible for varia-
tions in the signal strengths received than that such should be de-
pendent upon any absolute values of atmospheric temperature.

The subsequent rise in sun-spot numbers corroborated to a remark-
able degree a prediction ventured at the New York meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1928, that
the period of maximum for the present 11-year cycle had not been
passed. Forcasting on the basis of the 15-month cycle, which had
worked so effectively during the preceding years, the year 1930 was
expected to show a general decrease in sun-spot numbers as the
year waxed, with a corresponding increase in radio signal strength in
the broadcast zone. By the very end of 1930 and the beginning of
1981 the general rise of a secondary sun-spot maximum became
evident. By 1931, however, it was believed that we should be so
far from the maximum of the 11-year period that the secondary
maximum period should have no such marked effect upon radio
reception and allied electromagnetic phenomena as did the sun-spot
maxima of 1928-29. Such has been proven to be the case by the sub-
sequent observations. The curve of radio intensities received since
observations have been made at the Perkins Observatory is shown in
Figure 12, the ordinates increasing from the top toward the bottom
of the figure. The trend of this inverted curve of radio reception
with the curve of decreasing sun-spot numbers is self-evident. The

SUN SPOTS AND RADIO—STETSON 224

general lifting of the ionization level in the earth’s atmosphere may
be expected to continue with fluctuations through the next three years,
but in 1934 solar activity should be as quiescent as at the last mini-
mum in 1923.

With the assistance of Marvin Cobb, nearly 3,000 hours of recording
data have accumulated to date (January, 1932), which is making
rapidly available a store of material for more extensive investigations.

Through an analysis of existing data it has become possible to de-
termine the percentage change of intensity of signal strengths as a
function of the distance of the receiving station from the subsolar

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Ficure 12.—Correlation of radio reception and sun spots from observations recorded
at Perkins Observatory 1930 and 1931

point. This makes it possible to apply important corrections for twi-
light observations which enter into part of the records during the
summer months. These corrections have already served to minimize
some of the less obvious departures in radio reception from the ex-
pected values which follow generally the inverse trend of sun-spot
numbers.

An examination of three years’ radio data has revealed the appar-
ent dependence of the intensity of reception upon the position of the
moon in the sky at the hour of observation, radio reception in gen-
eral showing 100 per cent increase in strength at those times when
the moon is well below the horizon.

102992—32——_16

228 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Further studies of the lunar effect are being pursued at the Perkins
Observatory which give promise of evaluating further corrections
to the radio curve for more direct comparison with the curve of
sun-spot numbers.

Perhaps the most remarkable result of our correlation study has
been the discovery that radio apparatus has become an effective tool
in the study of solar radiation. Furthermore, since meteorological
changes are correlatable with changes in- radio reception, it is but
fair to specify that a new method has been evolved which may ulti-
mately lead to important correlation between sun spots and the

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Fieurp 13.—Curve showing changing intensity of WBBM at Delaware, Ohio, as
function of solar altitude

weather. To this end researches will be continued in these closely
related lines at the Perkins Observatory.

Grateful acknowledgement is due the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences for grants from the Rumford Fund to aid in the pur-
chase of apparatus for this new field of research in radiation, and
to the American Association for the Advancement of Science for
assistance in the making of the observations and reductions.

In conclusion, it may be said that investigations in radio trans-
mission, together with researches in the change in the earth’s mag-
netism and electricity and the ultra-violet radiation of the sun, may

yet prove to furnish the most definite data as to changes in the
sun itself,

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Stetson PLATE 1

1. THE SUN PHOTOGRAPHED AT PERKINS OBSERVATORY

2. AN ENLARGED VIEW OF A TYPICAL GROUP OF SUN SPOTS

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AN EVOLVING UNIVERSE?

By Sm JAMES JEANS

Former Secretary of the Royal Society of London; Research Associate, Carnegie
Institution of Washington

[With 5 plates]

When we look upwards in a clear night, we see a sky spangled
with stars; we can see between two and three thousand with our un-

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Figure 1.—Diagram showing all stars whose distances are less than 383 light-
years. The size of the dots indicates their relative luminosity

aided eyes. Some appear very bright and some very faint; astro-
nomical investigation shows that this results in large part from their
being at very different distances. The stars which look brightest are

1 Lecture delivered before Carnegie Institution of Washington, May 18, 1981. Printed
by permission of Carnegie Institution. All photographs of nebulae used herein were taken
at the Mount Wilson Observatory except as otherwise noted.

229

230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

so near that their light takes only a few years to reach us, but the
faintest we can see are, for the most part, at distances of about 3,000
light-years; that is to say, they are so remote that their light has to
travel through space for about 3,000 years before it reaches us—we
see them by light which left them before the beginning of the Chris-
tion era. '

Besides this collection of individual stars, we also see a band of
faint pearly light encircling the whole sky; we call it the Milky Way.
This also consists of stars, but of stars which are too distant to be
seen as individuals by our unaided eyes, although numerous enough
to appear as a continuous cloud. Thus, the sky which our unaided
eyes disclose to us, consists of two distinct parts—a foreground, con-
sisting of separate stars, and a background, formed by a continuous
cloud of distant stars. No middle distance can be seen by the unaided
eye.

Yet telescopic observation at once discloses that a middle distance
exists. Like the foreground and the background, it consists of
stars—in this case, of stars which are too distant to be seen individ-
ually without telescopic assistance, and yet are not sufficiently numer-
ous to form a continuous cloud; for it is only in the direction of the
Milky Way that the distant stars lie close enough together to affect
our eyes. The telescope shows that this middle distance of stars con-
nects the foreground of individual stars with the background which
we can only see as a band of light, and it becomes possible to study
the system of stars as a continuous whole.

Such studies have shown that the system of stars is shaped like
a disk or a coin or a cartwheel. Perhaps the last of these three com-
parisons is the best, because it has now been found that the system
of stars is in a state of rotation. Early investigators, Sir William
Herschel in particular, imagined that the sun must be somewhere
near the hub of this wheel; we now know that it is at a great distance
away.

It is so far away that even the brightest stars near the hub are too
faint to be seen by the unaided eye. The farthest stars our unaided
eyes can see are only about 3,000 light-years away from us, while the
hub of this great wheel of stars is probably something lke 40,000
light-years away. We still do not know the diameter of the wheel
with any approach to accuracy, but it is probably something like
200,000 light-years. Still less do we know the total number of stars
which constitute the wheel. It is almost certainly greater than a
hundred thousand million and may quite well be two, three, four,
or even five times this number.

Thus, we shall get the best picture which modern science can give
us of our system of stars if we think of it as shaped like a cartwheel,

AN EVOLVING UNIVERSE—JEANS 231

with the sun perhaps a third or a halfway along one of the spokes,
and rotating like a cart wheel. The Milky Way is formed of all the
stars which are at great distances from the sun, including of course
the great number which are near the rim of the wheel.

The wheel is held together by the gravitational attractions of the
different stars of which it is composed. As a consequence, the outer-
most stars move with the slowest speeds and take longest to perform
a complete revolution—just as in the solar system the outermost
planets move most slowly and take the longest time to describe their
orbits round the sun. So far as is at present known, the sun moves
at about 200 miles per second, and requires something over 200,000,000
years to perform a complete revolution.

In the early days of astronomy our galactic system was thought to
be the only system of stars in the sky, but we now know that it is
only one of innumerable systems. If you look to the north of the
star Beta, in the constellation of Andromeda, you will, if your eye-
sight is good, see a faint hazy patch. This is the object known as the
Great Nebula in Andromeda. It looks at first like diffused star-
light, as though a bit of the Milky Way had broken away—the
astronomer Marius described it as looking like candlelight seen
through a horn, while Herschel described it and similar objects as
“shining fluid.”

When this patch of light is viewed through a powerful telescope,
a certain amount of detail begins to appear; we can see dark lanes
across the background of light and notice a certain regularity in the
form and structure of the object. But to study it properly we must
photograph it with an exposure of many hours. Endless new detail
now appears. The Nebula is found to be far larger than can be
seen either by the unaided eye or by direct vision through a telescope ;
it is found to cover about 20 times as much sky as the full moon.
The only part we can see with the unaided eye is a comparatively
bright central mass, which is fuzzy in appearance and iil defined in
outline. Round this is a detailed structure which lies hidden until
it is photographed with a very long exposure.

Just as Galileo’s telescope broke up the Milky Way into separate
points of light which he at once identified as stars, so the modern
high-power telescope breaks up the outermost regions of this Nebula
into separate points of light. We know that these, too, are stars.
Many of them do not shine with a steady light, but fluctuate in a
very characteristic and quite unmistakable way with which we are
very familiar, because many stars of our own system do precisely the
same. Indeed stars of this type are so peculiar, so uniform in their
behavior, and so similar to one another that we can estimate the dis-
tance of the Nebula from the apparent faintness of these stars.

aoe ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Doctor Hubble, of the Carnegie Institution Observatory at Mount
Wilson, has found it to be at such a distance that its light takes about
800,000 years to reach us.

There is no longer any room for reasonable doubt that, in its outer
parts at least, this great Nebula in Andromeda is formed of a system
of stars which is similar in its essential nature to our own system.
It is not the only such system in the sky; millions of others can be
observed.

Although these are of varied shapes and constitutions, it is found
that the greater number of them can be arranged in a single sequence.
At one end of the sequence are Nebulae consisting solely of round
fuzzy masses, in which no stars are visible even in the most powerful
telescope, while at the other extreme end we have clouds of stars
such as our own system. Half way along the sequence are Nebulae,
such as the great Nebula in Andromeda, which consist of a central
fuzzy mass surrounded by stars, in which both the fuzzy mass and the
stars are present, the former occupying the central and the latter the
outer regions.

Like our own system of stars, these nebulae are generally flat in
shape. The comparison of the cart wheel remains quite a good one,
partly because many of these nebulae are known to be rotating and
all are believed to be so; partly also because they often are found to
have a thick central projection, corresponding to the hub of the
wheel, while the rest of their structure is flat. The Great Nebula
in Andromeda is of this cart-wheel shape, but it is rather disguised
because we are neither looking at it full on nor edgewise on. If we
could look at it full on, it would appear nearly circular in shape; if
we could look at it edgewise on, it would appear rather more than
a bright line of light; indeed it would probably look very much like
the nebulae. N. G. C. 891, which is seen edge-on. From the angle
at which we actually view it, it appears elliptical in shape.

We know all this because the various nebulae in the sky are, of
course, seen at possible angles, so that we can study their structure
as 3-dimensional solids. When we do this, we find that the sequence
I have already described starts with perfectly globular nebulae and
ends up with quite flat nebulae. The sequence is one of nebulae
arranged in order of flatness.

It is easy to obtain a theoretical interpretation of this sequence.
We know how an increase in the speed of rotation of a body is accom-
panied by a flattening of its shape. Our own earth, which is rotat-
ing slowly, is only slightly flattened, so that we describe it as orange-
shaped. Jupiter rotates much more rapily (once every 10 hours),
and as a result is much flatter in shape. Finally, astronomical bodies
which are rotating very rapidly may be almost completely flat.

AN EVOLVING UNIVERSE—JEANS 233

It is natural, then, to interpret our sequence of nebulae as one of
bodies which are rotating at different speeds. And as we know that
the speed of rotation of a body increases as it shrinks, we may rea-
sonably conjecture that this sequence of nebulae corresponds to dif-
ferent stages of development. At the one end, we have the globular
fuzzy mass of gas with little or no rotation; at the other end, we
have the flat cart-wheel shape in which rotation predominates and
governs the structure of the whole mass. A satisfactory confirma-
tion of this is to be found in the fact that a number of these flat
nebulae have been observed to be in a state of rapid rotation.

Now before Doctor Hubble had arranged the nebulae in sequence
in the way I have described, I had tried to work out, as a problem of
abstract mathematics, the sequence of configurations which a mass
of rotating gas would assume as it cooled and shrank and, as a con-
sequence, increased its speed of rotation. I arrived at a sequence
of shapes which agreed almost exactly with that which Doctor Hub-
ble subsequently found when he arranged the observed nebulae in
sequence guided solely by the facts of observation, and deliberately
putting theoretical considerations out of his mind. ‘This leaves little
room for doubt that the nebulae we see in the sky are members of
this theoretical sequence, that they began as rotating masses of gas,
and that we see them in various stages of development.

If a rotating mass consists of water or some entirely incompressi-
ble substance, an increase in the speed of its rotation merely in-
creases its flatness. But compressibility of substance, such as comes
into play with a gaseous nebula, introduces new features in addition
to flattening.

At first the spinning mass simply flattens and assumes the shape
of an orange. After a time a new feature appears—a pronounced
bulge all round its equator. Finally this becomes so marked that
the equator is merely a sharp edge; the rotating mass has assumed
the shape of a double-convex lens as in N. G. C. 3115.

This configuration forms a noteworthy landmark in the evolu-
tionary path of a nebula. Until it is reached, the effects of shrink-
age can be adjusted, and are adjusted, by a mere change of shape—in
spite of its reduced size, the rotating mass carries the same angular
momentum as before by the simple expedient of rotating more rap-
idly and bulging out its equator. But we find that this is no longer
possible when once this landmark has been passed.

Further shrinkage now involves an actual break-up of the nebula.
This can no longer carry all its angular momentum as a single body;
it is in the state of a fly-wheel which is rotating too fast for safety,
and it relieves the situation by the ejection of matter from its equa-
tor. This brings us to the type of configuration shown in N. G. C.
5866, 4594, and 891.

234 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

We have so far spoken of the nebular equator as being of circular
shape, as it undoubtedly would be if the nebula were alone by itself
in space. But an actual bursting flywheel, of course, first breaks at
its weakest point; if it were of absolutely uniform strength it would
begin to break at all points of its circumference at once. In the same
way, if the equator of the nebula were a perfect circle, and if the
substance of the nebula were disposed symmetrically around its axis
of rotation, the ejection of matter would necessarily start from all
points of the equator simultaneously; there could be no conceivable
reason why it should start at one point rather than any other.

In nature we do not expect to find perfect balances of this kind; if
the main factors are of exactly equal weight, some quite minor fac-
tor invariably intervenes to turn the balance in one direction or an-
other. In the present problem there could be no choice as between
one point of the equator and another if the various minor factors
were absent, but as soon as minor factors come into play, a discrimi-
nation at once takes place.

We have so far spoken of the rotating nebula as though it were
alone in space. Yet it must have neighbors, and these will raise tides
on its surface, just as the sun and moon raise tides on the surface of
the rotating earth. Wherever the neighbors are, there will always be
two points of high tide antipodally opposite to one another and two
points of low tide intermediate between the two points of high tide.
The equator will not be strictly circular, but slightly elliptical.

It is in all probability this tidal pull that determines the choice of
points for the ejection of matter. Matter will be ejected at the points
at which the gravitational pull of the nebula is weakest, and so at
the two ends of the longest diameter in the equator of the nebula.
After the nebula has passed its critical landmark, it ought still to
retain the lenticular figure which formed the landmark, but with the
additional feature of matter streaming out from two antipodal points
on its equator.

This is exactly what we see in the types of nebulae which we de-
scribe as “spiral.” In N. G. C. 5866 we see a nebula in which the
ejection of matter is probably just beginning; we notice the bulge
along the equator and a dark band which probably represents ejected
matter which is already cooling. A more advanced state of develop-
ment is shown in N, G. C. 4594; and a still later one in N. G. C. 891
in which the ejected matter already dwarfs the central nucleus in
size, although probably not in total mass.

These are all photographs of nebulae seen very approximately
edge-on. The well-known “ whirlpool ” in Canes Venatici (M. 51) is
a spiral nebula which may be very similar physically to that shown
in N. G. C. 891, but is seen face-on; we are looking along its axis of
rotation. Again, the central nucleus occupies only a small part of

AN EVOLVING UNIVERSE—JEANS 235)

the picture. In two other spiral nebulae, M. 81 and M. 101, the evolu-
tion has proceeded still further, so much so that in the last of these
there is very little nucleus left, and by far the greater part of what
we see is what we believe to be ejected matter forming the spiral
arms. In these last nebulae, we can see that the spiral arms proceed
from two antipodal points, exactly as required by dynamical theory.

Yet this does not quite end the story, since the arms spread further
into space than we should expect if rotation alone were responsible
for their spreading. There must be other factors at work, and these
we do not yet understand; the spiral formation of the nebular arms
remains a mystery. It seems possible that the theory of relativity
may explain it all to us in time, but it has not done so yet.

Gas set free out of an ordinary nozzle into a vacuum would immedi-
ately spread into the whole of the space accessible to it. Why then does
not the jet of gas shot off from the equator of the nebula do the same ?

The explanation is to be found in the gigantic scale on which this
latter process takes place. As we increase the scale of the phenom-
enon, the mutual gravitational attraction of the particles of gas be-
comes of ever greater importance until finally, when we come to very
large-scale phenomena (but before nebular dimensions are reached),
gravitation overcomes the expansive influence of gas pressure and
holds the jet together as a compact stream.

But dynamical theory predicts that when this happens, a further
phenomenon ought also to appear. The influence of gas-pressure is
in the direction of keeping the density spread out uniformly along
the filament, while that of gravitation is towards making the stream
condense into compact globules. When nebular dimensions are
reached the latter tendency prevails, so that the jet of ejected matter
breaks up into drops, much as a jet of water issuing from a nozzle
does, although for a very different physical reason. In the photo-
graphs reproduced of N. G. C. 891, M. 51, M. 101, and M. 81 we can
trace this process going on.

The nebula shown in N. G. C. 891 exhibits a lumpy or granulated
appearance in its outer regions. In M. 51 this takes the form of
pronounced condensations, and in the outer regions of M. 101 and
M. 81 these condensations have further developed into detached and
almost starlike points of light; indeed many of these are known to
be stars or groups of stars.

Dynamical theory not only predicts that these globules of gas must
form, but can also predict their sizes and masses. The calculation
of the masses leads to an extremely interesting and significant result;
the calculated mass of a single condensation proves to be approxi-
mately equal to the mass of the average star.

This provides an excellent confirmation of our theory, and gives.
T believe, the key to the evolutionary process we have been consider-
ing—we have been watching the creation of the stars.

236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

In N. G. C. 8115 we saw the raw material of the process—a gaseous
mass of extreme tenuity, already molded, as a result of shrinkage and
consequent increase of rotation, to the stage at which disintegration
is about to commence. Further shrinkage takes place, and in N. G. C.
5866 and 4594 we see the ejection of the jets of matter from which
the future stars will in due course be made. In N. G. C. 891 and
M. 51 individual stars are beginning to form, although at present
only as vague condensations in what is still a continuous nebula
mass. Finally, each condensation forms a separate star, until the
whole nebula is transformed into a star cloud. Thus the great
nebulae prove to be the birth places of the stars.

Long before this complete evolutionary sequence was known, I
had taken a preliminary step in the reverse direction, and had shown
that the stars had in all probability been born out of a uniform mass
of tenuous gas by a process which I designated “ gravitational in-
stability.” If all the matter of our own system of stars were uni-
formly spread throughout the space occupied by the system, it would
form a gas of density about 10-**.

I showed that such a medium would be unstable, and that its in-
stability would cause it to break up into condensations whose dis-
tances apart could be calculated mathematically, which calculation
showed that these distances would be about equal to the actual aver-
age distance of the stars. Thus the single supposition that the stars
had been born out of a uniformly spread mass of gas was found to
explain at a single stroke why the stars all have approximately the
same mass, and why these masses are what they are.

A similar situation has recently arisen with respect to the nebulae.
In a telescope they appear to differ widely in shape, size, and bright-
ness. But Doctor Hubble has shown that differences in size and
brightness between nebulae of the same shape are almost entirely
due to a distance effect. If all the nebulae were put in a row at the
same distance from us, nebulae of the same shape would be found
to have approximately the same dimensions and luminosity, while
even nebulae of different shapes would exhibit only comparatively
small ranges of dimensions and luminosity, especially the latter.

Because of this, it is possible to estimate the distances of all nebu-
lae, even the very faintest, with fair accuracy; their faintness gives
a measure of their distance. The faintest which can be observed
photographically in the 100-inch telescope prove to be at the amaz-
ing distance of about 140,000,000 light-years. Some 2,000,000 nebu-
lae lie within this distance.

Doctor Hubble finds that these are fairly uniformly spaced at an
average distance of about 1,800,000 light-years apart. ‘To construct
a model, we may take 300 tons of apples and space them at about 10
yards part, thus filling a sphere of about a mile diameter. This

AN EVOLVING UNIVERSE—JEANS JSG.

sphere is the range of vision of the 100-inch telescope; each apple is
a nebula containing matter enough for the creation of several thou-
sand million stars like our sun; and each atom in each apple is the
size of a solar system with a diameter equal to or slightly larger than
that of the earth’s orbit.

Thus the arrangement of the nebulae in space reproduces on an
incomparably grander scale the uniform spacing of the stars in our
ealactic system. It is natural to inquire whether the uniform ar-
rangement of these larger masses can not again be explained by the
supposition that the nebulae themselves came to birth as condensa-
tions produced by the gravitational instability of an earlier and even
more tenuous mass of uniform gas. The test of the conjecture is, of
course, by numerical calculation.

The masses of two nebulae are known with fair accuracy; one has
3,500 million times the weight of the sun, the other 2,000 million
times. If all the nebulae have masses of about this magnitude, the
average density with which matter is spread in space must be some-
thing like one gramme to 10*° cubic ems. The theoretical form-
ulae show that instability would cause such a medium to form into
condensations which would be at approximately equal distances apart,
and that these distances would be of the order of hundreds of thou-
sands of light-years. While the calculated distance comes out rather
less than Doctor Hubble’s observed distance of 1,800,000 light-years,
yet it is near enough to it to make our conjecture seem reasonably
probable.

These nebulae provide one of the great puzzles of astronomy. The
theory of relativity suggests that the whole universe may be expand-
ing, and recent astronomical observations, made mainly at Mount
Wilson, have suggested that it is actually doing so, and this in no
half-hearted way. If we may take the observations at their face
value, the nebulae are even now rushing away from one another at
almost incredible speeds. The last nebula which Mr. Humason in-
vestigated at Mount Wilson, at an estimated distance of about 105
million lhght-years, appears to be receding from the earth at the rate
of 19,700 kms a second—about 12,300 miles a second! [Still more
recently, nebulae at an estimated distance of 135 million light-years
appear to be receding at about 15,000 miles a second. |

Some astronomers doubt whether these apparent recessions of the
distant nebulae represent real motions in space or not. If they do,
space must have expanded quite substantially since the nebulae first
condensed out of the primeval gas.

The mathematical work of Lemaitre and others has suggested
that the mere condensing of the primeval gas into nebulae in the way
just explained, would of itself suffice to cause space to start expand-
ing. Before the expansion started there would be approximately the

238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

same amount of matter in the universe as now, but it would be packed
into a smaller space; the density of the primeval gas would be
greater than we have calculated for it. Consequently, the distance
apart of the condensations which ultimately formed nebulae would
be less than we have calculated. After they had formed, their
rushing apart would increase their distances, with the result that
by now these distances would be nearly, but not quite, as far apart
as those given by a calculation which ignores the expansion of the
universe entirely.

The upshot of the whole matter is that, whether the universe is
expanding or not, the actual condensations of a primeval gas ought
to represent the present nebulae fairly well.

If this account of the origin of the nebulae is accepted, it becomes
possible to trace out the mechanical evolution of the universe from its
origin as a uniform gas spread throughout primeval space. We
have in succession :

1. A uniform tenous gas of density of the order of 10-*° and
of diameter at least thousands of millions of light-years.

2. Condensations developing in this gas at points hundreds of
thousands, or perhaps millions, of light-years apart, and forming
separate nebulae with masses of the order of thousands of millions
of suns.

3. Condensations developing in turn in the arms of these nebulae,
and forminy stars with masses about equal to that of our sun.

Further, according to the “ Tidal theory ” of the origin of the solar
system, we may add to this:

4. Condensations developing in the arms of gas pulled out from
the stars by the tidal action of other passing stars, and forming
bodies of planetary mass.

5. Condensations similarly developing in the arms of gas pulled out
tidally from the planets, and forming bodies of a mass comparable
with the satellites of the planets.

This scheme covers five complete generations of astronomical
bodies, having masses of the order of 10°°, 10%, 10%4, 10°, 10° gm.,
respectively, the birth of each generation from the preceding gener-
ation being through the agency of what I have described as “ gravi-
tational instability.”

Owing to the repeated action of this agency, sometimes by itself,
but more often in conjunction with other agencies, we see the universe
gradually evolving from a single chaotically-spread primeval gas of
extreme tenuity, down to comparatively small dense bodies such as
our earth which form possible abodes for life.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Jeans

THE VEIL NEBULA (N. G. C. 6992) IN THE CONSTELLATION OF CYGNUS, WITHIN
THE CONFINES OF THE MILKY WAY

Nebulae, classified according to their characteristics, comprise dark nebulae, diffuse luminous nebulae,
planetary nebulae, elliptical nebulae, and spiral nebulae. ‘The first three classes are found only in or
near the region of the Milky Way. Members of the last two classes lie outside the Galactic System
(system of the Milky Way) and are called ‘“‘extra-galactic nebulae,”’ ‘island universes,”’ ‘‘star-cities.’’
The Veil Nebula belongs to the ‘diffuse’ type and consists of dust and luminous gas.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Jeans PLATE 2

1. THE GREAT NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA (MESSIER 31) TAKEN AT YERKES OB-
SERVATORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

This, the most conspicuous of all spiral nebulae, lies far outside our Galactic System. It takes light
about 800,000 years to reach us from it and 40,000 years to cross it from one side to the other.

2. THE FAMOUS ‘‘WHIRLPOOL’’ NEBULA (MESSIER 51 IN CANES VENATICI)

This, the first nebula in which the spiral structure was discovered, is about 1,000,000 light-years distant.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Jeans PLATES

UPPER: MESSIER 101 IN URSA MAJOR LOWER: A SPIRAL NEBULA IN THE BIG
DIPPER (MESSIER 81 IN URSA MAJOR)
This is one of the most beautiful ‘‘star-cities’’ out in space, and was the first observed to be rotating
Its light takes 1,600,000 years to reach us. The central region is unresolved but in the outer portions
swarms of stars are visible similar to the very bright stars in our own Galactic System.

PLATE 4

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Jeans

N.G.C. 3379

N.G.C. 4621

N.G.C. 5866

THIS PLATE AND THAT OPPOSITE SHOW A SEQUENCE
OF SHAPES INTO WHICH THE GREATER NUMBER OF

NEBULAE CAN BE ARRANGED

It begins with the globular fuzzy mass of gas having little or no rota-
tion and ends with the flat cart-wheel type, like our own Galactic
System, which rotates much more rapidly. It is believed that this
sequence represents stages in the evolution of the universe. The
last three in this series represent similar stages of evolution, being

views taken at different angles.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Jeans PLATE 5

N.G.C, 4594

N.G.C. 7217

N.G.C. 2841

THE ROTATION OF THE GALAXY?

By A. 8S. EppINGTon

Plumian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Cambridge

Early in 1718 Edmund Halley communicated to the Royal Society
the paper announcing his discovery of the proper motions of the
stars, under the title ‘“‘ Considerations on the Change of the Latitudes
of some of the Principal Fixt Stars.” Referring to a comparison he
had made of modern places of stars with the ancient observations
collected in Ptolemy’s Almagest, he wrote:

I was surprized to find the Latitudes of three of the principal Stars of Heaven
directly to contradict the supposed greater Obliquity of the Ecliptick, which
seems confirmed by the Latitudes of most of the rest, they being set down in
the old Catalogue as though the Plain of the Earths Orb[it] had changed its
Situation, among the fixt Stars, about, 20’ since the time of Hipparchus. ..
Yet the three Stars Palilictum or the Bulls Eye, Sirius and Arcturus do con-
tradict this rule directly. ... What shall we say then? It is scarce credible
that the Antients could be deceived in so plain a matter, three Observers con-
firming each other. Again these Stars being the most conspicuous in Heaven,
are in all probability nearest to the Earth, and if they have any particular
Motion of their own, it is most likely to be perceived in them, which in so long
a time as 1800 Years may shew it self by the alteration of their places, though
it be utterly imperceptible in the space of a single Ceutury of Years. ... This
Argument seems not unworthy of the Royal Society’s Consideration, to whom
I humbly offer the plain Fact as I find it, and would be glad to have their
opinion.

Two hundred years have gone by, and now we are faced with a
great accumulation of data concerning these apparent movements
of the stars. This has been supplemented, mainly during the last
20 years, by extensive determinations of their velocities in the line of
sight by use of the spectroscope. We have, therefore, a mine of ma-
terial from which we are trying to learn what we can of the nature of
the motions of the stars as a system and to reach some kind of dynam-
ical theory of what is going on. A caution must be given at the out-
set. According to modern views the dimensions of our galaxy are
immense; and although our survey of stellar motions extends over

1 Reprinted by permission from The Rotation of the Galaxy, being the Halley lecture
delivered on May 30, 1930, by A. S. Eddington, Oxford University Press, 1930.

239

240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

a region containing perhaps 10 to 100 million stars, this is but a small
part of the whole. We have to take a risk in inferring the nature of
the complete system from the small sample within reach.

Throughout the nineteenth century astronomers working on stellar
motions concentrated their attention on one main theme—the solar
motion, or velocity of our sun as an individual star with respect to
the system as a whole. For our present discussion of the system of
the stars this has no particular interest, being merely a distorting
factor in our outlook which is sometimes troublesome to eliminate.
We are concerned with the stellar motions remaining after our own
translational velocity has been allowed for; they are by no means
those of an unorganized crowd. By later researches four leading
peculiarities have been discovered. I give them in historical order:

(1) Star streaming, i. e., a tendency of the stars to move to and fro
along one particular axis in space rather than in directions at right
angles to it. ;

(2) A strong correlation between the velocity and the physical
characteristics of the stars. For example, stars classed as of “ late”
spectral type have a higher average speed than those of “ early ”
type.

(3) Stars of exceptionally high velocity (greater than 80 km per
sec.) are found to be moving exclusively toward one hemisphere of
the sky.

(4) An effect rather complicated to describe which we interpret
as evidence of rotation of the whole system. This is the main theme
of my lecture.

In conjunction with these results we have to consider a matter of
common knowledge inferred from the apparent distribution (not the
motions) of the stars. Our stellar system has a very oblate form.
It is believed to be almost a disk—resembling the spiral nebulae seen
abundantly in the vast universe beyond the confines of our galaxy.

NATURE OF THE ROTATION

The discovery of the fourth effect and the interpretation placed on
it are due to J. H. Oort of Leiden. Among other investigators
should be mentioned especially B. Lindblad, who had been develop-
ing the hypothesis of galactic rotation for other reasons, and J. S.
Plaskett, to whom we owe the most convincing evidence.

It will help us to understand what kind of indication of rotation
we might look for in a system of stars, if we transfer our attention
for a moment to a phenomenon nearer home, namely Saturn’s rings.
These have a rough resemblance to the disklike form attributed to
our galaxy. At one time there wasa division of opinion as to whether
the rings were solid structures or whether they consisted of swarms

ROTATION OF THE GALAXY—EDDINGTON 241

of small particles. In a famous mathematical investigation, which
is one of the classics of celestial mechanics, Clerk Maxwell showed
that the solid type of ring was dynamically impossible; it would be
unstable. The only permissible constitution was a swarm of separate
bodies. Many years later Maxwell’s theory of the ring was strikingly
confirmed by Keeler; and it is his method of confirmation which
especially interests us. If a solid ring rotates, its outer edges must
necessarily travel faster than the inner edge; on the other hand, if
the ring is a swarm of meteoric particles, they will follow the same
rule as the planets in the solar system, viz. the inner particles must
travel faster in order to counterbalance the stronger gravitational pull
of the planet. Keeler found by spectroscopic observation that the
inner edge of Saturn’s ring travels faster than the outer edge, indi-
cating therefore that it is a swarm of particles and not a solid arch.

In the galaxy we know that we are dealing with a swarm of par-
ticles—stars—and not with a solid ring. Consequently, we may ex-
pect that it will rotate after the manner of Saturn’s ring, the inner
stars traveling faster than the outer stars. This is fortunate for
our hopes of detecting rotation. For investigating this problem we
are dependent almost entirely on observed radial velocities. Ra-
dial velocity means the approach or recession of other particles from
our own particle (the sun); clearly radial velocity measurements
would be unaffected by and would not detect a rotation like that
of a solid body in which all particles preserve the same distance
apart. It is important to bear in mind that the effect manifested by
the radial velocities, and detected and measured by Oort, is not the
absolute rotation but the differential rotation or Saturn’s ring ef-
fect—the increase of angular velocity as we go toward the center of
the system.

Figure 1 shows a portion of the galaxy rotating about a center
situated far outside the diagram, the rotation being faster as we go
toward the center. We must ask, How will this appear to an ob-
server in the midst of the region? He will appreciate only the
relative motion of the different parts of the system. In Figure 2
we have reduced him to rest by applying to all parts of the region
a velocity equal and opposite to his own.

The observer is armed with a spectroscope and measures velocities
(relative to himself) in the line of sight. We see from Figure 2
that there are four directions in which this line of sight velocity will
be zero, viz., to the right and left (approximately) because there
there is no relative motion, and up and down the page because there
the relative motion is entirely transverse to the line of sight. But in
diagonal directions an effect will be observed; the stars seen in both
directions along one diagonal are receding and those seen along the

242 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

other diagonal are approaching. Figure 3 shows the resulting dis-
tribution of radial motion (ignoring the transverse motion which is

> > > < < <

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Y
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v
Sa

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JYLNID OL €------

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Distribution of radial velocity

not detected by the spectroscope). It will be seen that the distribu-
tion of motion is of the kind which distorts a square into a diamond.

ROTATION OF THE GALAXY—EDDINGTON 243

This distortion comes from the shearing effect when the inner part
of a ring travels faster than the outer part.

Mathematically we can describe this distribution by saying that,
when the stars are arranged according to galactic longitude /, their
observed radial velocities contain a term @ sin 2(/—/,), where 7» is
the longitude of the center of the system. Moreover, it is clear that
the effect is greater for greater distances being approximately pro-
portional to the distance of the stars considered from the observer.
We therefore express the term as

Ar sin 2(/—1,),

where 7 is the distance of the stars examined, and A is a constant.

The stars have their own individual motions superposed on the
general rotation of the system, and we can only expect to discover
this effect if we average out the individual motions by taking means
for a considerable number of stars. Owing to the increase of effect
with distance it is best to search for it in the more distant classes of
objects. It may be said at once that the search is successful. The
expected distribution of velocity is found in all classes of objects
that could be expected to show it, and they agree among themselves
both as to the magnitude of the effect and as to the direction in which
the center of the galaxy is situated.

OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCE

Through the researches of Harlow Shapley, the center of our
galaxy had already been located in the direction of the great star
clouds of Sagittarius—the richest part of the Milky Way. He
deduced this from the distribution of the most distant galactic ob-
jects observable, particularly the globular clusters, which may be
supposed to outline the shape of the system. The exact center can
not be found with any high accuracy, but the position generally
adopted is in 325° galactic longitude. Oort’s method of deducing
it from the rotation effect is entirely independent; it generally gives
a rather higher longitude 830°-835°, but the difference is within the
probable uncertainty of the determinations.

As already stated, the magnitude of the effect increases with the
distance. For stars distant 1,000 parsecs? it amounts to 17 km per
sec., that is to say the stars seen at this distance in one part of the
sky are in the mean moving toward us at 17 km per sec., whereas
those 90° away are moving from us at the same rate. For other dis-
tances the effect is in proportion—814 km per sec. for 500 parsecs

21 parsec=3.26 light-years.
102992—32——_17

244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

distance, 34 km per sec. for 2,000 parsecs, and so on. This provides
what may ultimately prove to be a valuable means of finding the
mean distance of a class of objects when it is not determinable by
older methods; for if we measure the magnitude of the rotational
effect we can at once write down the corresponding distance. To
illustrate this I will refer to a remarkable investigation by Plaskett
and Pearce.

Their research dealt with the radial velocities of about 250 stars
of the most distant type known. They wished to sort these into
groups according to distance; but since the stars were far beyond
the range of ordinary methods of distance determination this separa-
tion presented some difficulty. It isnot much use to sort them accord-
ing to apparent brightness, because brightness is a poor criterion
of distance. The authors availed themselves of a method developed
recently by Otto Struve. We are looking at these stars through a thin
veil of cosmical cloud. The cloud Jeaves its mark on the light, pro-
ducing certain narrow absorption lines in the spectrum of the star.
If the absorption is intense it is a sign that we are looking at the star
through a great thickness of cloud—that the star is very remote. By
this criterion Plaskett and Pearce divided the stars into three groups
showing low, medium, and high absorption, respectively, which must
correspond presumably to small, medium, and great distance.

In the following table the third column gives the magnitude of
the rotation term for each of the three groups and the fourth col-
umn gives the deduced distance (the proportion being 17 km per
sec. per 1,000 parsecs as already stated.) It will be seen that Struve’s
criterion has been successful; or at least that Oort’s and Struve’s
methods of estimating distance (both of which must be regarded as
on trial) confirm one another.

Stars | Cloud

Absorption Avuaber Rotation Rotation
effect | Distance| effect | Distance
(km ee (parsecs) | (km Pe (parsecs)
sec. sec.

TO Wes sae See tds SEN 1 ee ee 90 10. 2 600 5.0 295
Meditm 202 ere SEC i Aes a ee | 79 14.5 850 6.9 405
A gh ees - 8 Sa es eee SO TE EE Se 43 27.5 1, 620 13.7 805

Turn now to the fifth and sixth columns, in which the same analysis
is applied not the stars but to the motions of the cosmical cloud.
The velocity of the cloud can be measured in the same way as that of
a star from the Doppler shift of the spectral lines which it absorbs;
but, of course, our measurement refers not to the whole cloud but
to the particular part of the cloud responsible for the absorption.

ROTATION OF THE GALAXY—EDDINGTON 245

If the absorption occurs uniformly in the cloud, the mean distance
of the stretch traversed by the star’s light should correspond to
halfway. The distance of the veiling cloud should, therefore, always
come out to be half the distance of the corresponding stars. A glance
at the table will show how closely this is fulfilled. To speak frankly,
I should have been better pleased to see more discordance, since
the closeness must to some extent be put down to rather outrageous
luck—as the authors indeed recognize,

The transverse proper motions can be examined for differential
rotation in like manner, but I am skeptical as to whether they add
very much to the evidence. In treating the radial velocities we have
gained greatly by using the most distant stars and, granting that
sufficiently luminous stars can be found, there is no more difficulty
in determining radial velocities at 2,000 than at 20 parsecs distance.
But proper motions depend on measurements of arc, and what we
gain through the magnification of the effect by distance we lose in
the reduction from linear to angular displacement. The effect on
the apparent angular motion is thus the same at all distances and
remains always on the verge of what is detectable observationally.
However, so far as the evidence goes it is favorable to the theory.
An extensive investigation by Sir Frank Dyson gave correctly the
center in longitude 330°, but the magnitude of the differential rota-
tion was somewhat smaller than that deduced from the radial
velocities. He pointed out that the analysis also indicated certain
larger terms not explicable by rotation—a fact which seems to spoil
the significance of the result.

When I decided to lecture on this subject, I thought I was going
to describe the newest of the various methods employed in our search
for information about the stellar system. I was mistaken; it is the
oldest. Vixerunt fortes ante Agamemnona multi. Precisely this
method was employed by Gyldén in 1871.' Using the proper motions
then available he discovered the double-period term @ sin 2(/—J))
and explained it just as we have done. To make the conclusion
more convincing he made a test of the validity and efficiency of the
method by applying it to the apparent motions of the asteroids,
using them as a model for illustrating differential rotation as I have
used Saturn’s ring. From the motions of the asteroids he deduced
the direction of the center of the system, viz, the sun; his error was
about 6°. That would be one way of finding the sun again if ever
it ceases to be visible! Returning to the stellar system Gyldén re-
marked that a definitive determination of the center was not at
present practicable because the common rotational motion was pre-

3 Indications of Laws Governing Stellar Motions (in Swedish) Ofvers. K. Vetensk.
Férhandl., vol. 28, p. 947. I am indebted to Professor Lindblad for the reference and
information.

246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

sumably in the plane of the Milky Way, and proper motions for the
part of the Milky Way in the southern hemisphere were lacking.
He had to content himself with such indications of the center as
could be found from analysis in the plane of the Equator. It is true
that the direction provisionally given by Gyldén for the center of
the system is opposite to that now generally accepted; but that is
because the double-period term fixes only the line to and from the
center, and does not decide between the two possible antipodal posi-
tions. He concluded: “At all events there remains an indication
that the motions of the stars have something in common, and that
they are not so at random as many astronomers have been inclined
to assume.”

By these researches we find the change of velocity in going toward
or away from the center; we do not learn the actual velocity at any
point. A possible way of discovering this is by observing the globu-
lar clusters which can be seen at very great distances up to and
beyond the center of the galaxy. By their great spread they will
have a mean motion fairly representative of the system as a whole,
whereas our stellar observations are limited to a comparatively small
region and give the local motion. The difference represents the mean
speed at which the stars in our neighborhood are traveling through
the system. The result of this determination can not at present be
regarded as very accurate, but is sufficient to show that our orbital
speed is large, probably between 200 and 300 km per sec.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE ROTATION

We have thus to recognize that for a broad cosmical survey the
standard of rest to which we have been in the habit of referring all
our measured velocities is an inappropriate one. We realized long
ago that it was too crude to take the sun as standard, and we have
referred velocities to the “mean of the stars ”—meaning the stars
which come within range of ordinary measurements. Now we have
to recognize that this also is a very local standard affected by large
orbital velocity, and we must apply a further correction of two or
three hundred kilometers per second to reduce to the center of our
galaxy. I am afraid it is too much to hope that this will be our
final resting place; we see in outer space some hundreds of thou-
sands of other galaxies which will claim a share in defining a uni-
versal standard. Meanwhile the shift of our viewpoint to the center
of the galaxy has produced one great improvement; it has brought
better order into the motions of the spiral nebulae. It is the gen-
eral rule that spiral nebulae are receding from us at very high speed;
the greater the distance, the higher the speed. But the rule was
marred by two notable exceptions. As these two are the largest

ROTATION OF THE GALAXY—EDDINGTON 247

and almost the nearest of the spiral nebulae we do not expect any
decided recession in their case; but it was disconcerting to find that
they were approaching us with high velocity. We now learn that
this apparent approach is merely the reflection of our own high
orbital speed in their direction, and when we refer their motion to
the center of the galaxy nothing very serious remains.

At this point we can weave into the picture another feature of
stellar motions mentioned in the list on page 240. High velocity
stars, 1. e. stars with speeds greater than about 80 km per sec.,* always
move towards one hemisphere of the sky. Why are there none moy-
ing the opposite way? ‘The direction favored by the high velocity
stars turns out to be just the reverse of the direction of our orbital
motion, so that when we have regard to orbital motion we must think
of them as the extreme laggards—lagging behind the majority of the
stars by 80 km per sec. or more. Had they been going the other way,
they would have been an advance guard hurrying ahead of the others.
Here hes a significant difference; stars can lag behind without any
serious consequences, but if a star goes too fast the attraction of the
system will fail to control it and it will escape.

To fix ideas, let us take the orbital velocity in our neighborhood to
be 200 km per sec. ~The so-called high velocity stars are lagging
behind by 80 km per sec. or more, so that their speed about the center
of the system is no more than 120 km per sec. Had there been any
high velocity stars in the opposite direction, i. e. gaining 80 km per
sec., they would have had an orbital speed of 280 km per sec. or more.
No such stars are observed, and the reason is plain. It is a well-
known rule that for particles moving under the attraction of a mass-
center the velocity for escape is \/2 times the velocity for a circular
orbit; so if 200 km per sec. is the appropriate speed to keep the aver-
age star moving in a circle about the center of the galaxy, 200 \/2 or
280 km per sec. is the speed which will cause it to leave the system
altogether. The asymmetry of the high velocity stars—the fact that
none are found moving towards one hemisphere—is an inevitable
consequence of rotation. Such stars (if they ever existed) must have
escaped from our system long ago.

The magnitude of the Oort effect and the orbital speed of the
stars in our neighborhood together determine our distance from the
center of the galaxy. As the latter datum is at present badly deter-
mined, I will give the result for several different adopted values.
The mass of the system which controls the orbital motion can also
be calculated.®

*The velocity is referred to the local standard, viz, the mean of the stars in our
neighborhood.

‘The calculation is on the assumption that the main part of the mass of the system is
concentrated near the center. If the mass is more generally: diffused, the distance and
controlling mass are somewhat reduced, but the order of magnitude is not greatly altered.

248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Assumed Distance of
orbital speed center
(km per sec.) | (parsecs)

Mass of system
(sun’s mass=1)

150 6, 600 33, 000, 000,
200 000,

Y 000

8, 800 78, 000, 000, 000

250 11, 000 150, 000; 000; 000
300 13, 200 260, 000, 000, 000

350 15, 400 420, 000, 000,

These results may be compared with estimates arrived at in an en-
tirely independent way. The distance from the center seems to be
of the right order of magnitude. Thus Shapley from his work on
globular clusters located the center of the galaxy at 13,000 to 25,000
parsecs distance. The mass also, although higher than most current
estimates, is not unreasonably large. By extrapolating the results
of actual counts of stars, Seares and van Rhijn obtained a total of
30,000,000,000 stars in the galaxy. Since dark nebulae hide our
view, more especially in the direction of the center, it is doubtful
whether their survey comprehended the whole system, and the num-
ber may well be greater. The average mass of a star is probably
not more than half the mass of the sun, but there is in addition the
mass of the cosmic cloud and of the bright and dark nebulae to be
brought into account.

How long does the galaxy take to make one complete revolution $
The answer is about 250 million years. We can state the figure
fairly definitely because it does not depend on any of the more
doubtful estimates; the only datum needed to determine it is the
magnitude of the Oort effect. It should, however, be added that
since the inner parts of the galaxy rotate faster than the outer
parts, there is no one period of revolution for the whole; the period
250 million years refers to the zone in which the sun lies. It is
important to notice that the galaxy has made five or six rotations
within geological times. The sun and earth were away on the
far side of the center 100 million years ago—a time which geo-
logically does not seem to be very remote.

We may now sum up the evidence for the hypothesis of a rotation
of the galaxy. An effect resembling differential rotation is observed
in all classes of distant stars and also in the cosmic cloud pervading
the system. These give consistent indications of the direction of the
center and they agree also as to the amount of differential rotation.
The evidence from proper motions has small weight, but for what
it is worth it supports that derived from spectroscopic radial veloc-
ities. The dimensions and total mass of the galactic system, inferred
from this effect, are reasonably consistent with current estimates
based on other data. Our large orbital velocity of 200-300 km per
sec. is confirmed to some extent by observations of globular clusters

ROTATION OF THE GALAXY—EDDINGTON 249

and spiral nebulae which are too remote to partake of it. Further,
since stars with a large individual velocity additive to the general
orbital velocity would escape from the system, we have a simple ex-
planation of a well-known phenomenon, viz, that high velocity stars
favor a direction now identified as that opposed to the orbital motion.
Finally, the very oblate shape of the stellar system is strongly sug-
gestive of rapid rotation; and in the spiral nebulae, which are be-
lieved to be patterns of our galaxy, the rotation can be directly
observed and measured.

The evidence seems convincing; nevertheless a thread of insecurity
runs through the whole fabric. It is the old story—our conclusicns
rest mainly on observations of the northern celestial hemisphere, and
the southern observations make a poor counterweight. This is a com-
mon complaint in all discussions of stellar statistics; but I think
that in none is it so serious as in the determination of anes rota-
tion. For this the most useful data have been provided by the
Dominion Astrophysical Observatory (British Columbia), which by
reason of its rather high latitude is less able than some of the other
northern observatories to poach on the southern hemisphere. In the
investigation of Plaskett and Pearce, whose results I have quoted
(p. 244), out of 250 stars only 4 were between 193° and 348° galactic
longitude; a stretch of one-third of the whole circuit was unrepre-
sented by a single star. This is the operation which Kapteyn used
to describe as “ flying with one wing.” By mathematical dexterity
the required constants of rotation have been extracted from the lop-
sided data; but no mathematical dexterity can avert the possibility
that the neglected part of the sky may spring an unpleasant surprise.
As a spectator I watch the achievements of our monopterous aviators
with keen enthusiasm; but I confess to a feeling of nervousness when
my turn comes to depend on this mode of progression.

THE DYNAMICAL PROBLEM

The admission of galactic rotation must modify our earlier views
in a way which is not always sufficiently appreciated, and I think
that there are many who retain an incongruous mixture of the old
with the new ideas. The distribution of the stars is far from regular
and it has been customary to think of the galaxy as subdivided into
a number of vaguely defined aggregations or star clouds. Particu-
lar attention has been paid to a supposed aggregation in which the
sun is nearly central; this is known as “ the local cluster.” Charlier
attributed to it a diameter of 700 parsees with a thickness about one-
third as great; others have attributed greater dimensions. (It is
sometimes hinted that investigators place the boundary of the local
cluster suspiciously near the distance at which their observational

250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

data fade away.) ‘There can be no permanent cluster of this kind if
the hypothesis of galactic rotation is accepted. Taking the minimum
estimate of 700 parsecs diameter, the differential rotation is such that
the inner edge of the cluster will make eight revolutions whilst the
outer edge makes seven. Obviously a compact cluster will be quickly
sheared into elongated form, ultimately to be drawn out into a com-
plete ring. It is not legitimate to reply that their mutual gravita-
tion will help to keep the stars of the local cluster together and per-
haps override the forces of dispersal; for it is from these very stars
that the observational evidence of the dispersing motion has been
derived. That the distribution of stellar motions around us is such as
would elongate and disperse a local cluster is an immediate observa-
tional conclusion—independent of our interpretation of it as evi-
dence for rotation of the galaxy. It would be contrary to observation
to deny the existence of irregularities of distribution like star clouds,
but I think they must be regarded as transitory eddies in a whirlpool,
which form and dissipate continually.

The results now before us raise an interesting dynamical problem;
but before entering on it, it is necessary to be clear as to our guiding
principles. One possible aim would be to develop a theory showing
how the present complexities of motion and distribution of the stars
might have arisen by natural evolution from some simpler and more
uniform initial state satisfactory to our sense of fitness; but that is
probably too ambitious a program at present. In most investiga-
tions the guiding idea has been that, whatever initial formation the
stellar system may have developed from, it has at any rate been a
very long while about it. Consequently, if we trace back its history a
few thousand million years we ought not to find much change. <Ac-
cordingly, the mathematical conditions of the problem are assumed
to be that the stellar system is (approximately) in a steady state.

It may perhaps be thought that too much of a fetish has been
made of the “steady state” in the various mathematical theories of
the galaxy, but that is a misconception of their aim. Although
formally the mathematician may seem to be designing a model stellar
system which will last for ever, that is only his way of tackling the
design of a model which will last long enough to fulfill the obvious
requirements of the problem. Geological time swallows up at least
1,500 million years; we must allow a reasonable margin beyond that
for the evolution of the solar system, say 3,000 million years alto-
gether. The minimum requirement of our model system is that it
will keep going for that time without collapse. Actually we are hard
put to it to invent a galaxy with even this limited degree of per-
manence, which shall at the same time embody the main features
of stellar motion and distribution enumerated on page 240. As for

ROTATION OF THE GALAXY—EDDINGTON 25

those who dabble in the long time scale of billions of years now
fashionable (and I have to confess myself one of them) we must
simply ignore them. Whatever the study of individual stars may
bring forth in its favor, the evidence of galaxies and of systems of
galaxies is dead against so leisurely a rate of progress. The problem
of the galaxies is unapproachable except from the standpoint that
the material universe is a much more evanescent affair.

The term “steady state” is used with two distinct meanings, and
we must further define which meaning concerns us here. Starting
with an entirely irregular distribution of stars and stellar velocities,
there are two stages in the approach toward ultimate equilibrium.
The first stage is accomplished when the orbits described under the
general attraction of the whole mass have become so distributed as
to preserve the shape and density unaltered; the “ density of popula-
tion ” at any point then remains steady although the individuals are
moving to and fro. This is called dynamical equilibrium. But these
orbits are from time to time perturbed by chance approaches of the
stars to one another, and the distribution slowly changes until a
special form of dynamical equilibrium is reached with the additional
property that these haphazard perturbations produce no change on
balance. This is called statistical equilibrium. We shall see pres-
ently that the steady state of the stellar system is that of dynamical
equilibrium, and not the ultimate statistical equilibrium which
belongs to a far distant future.

The rate of approach to equilibrium, whether dynamical or statis-
tical, may be measured by a “time of relaxation ”—a time in which
deviations from the equilibrium distribution decay to about half their
original magnitude. For statistical equilibrium the time of relaxa-
tion is estimated by Jeans and Charlier at 10** to 10° years. This
is so great compared with even the most extreme time scale that we
may put statistical equilibrium outside our thoughts. But the time
of relaxation toward dynamical equilibrium is of the order 1,000
million years. Remembering that in our part of the system individ-
ual stars go right round their orbits in 250 million years, any irreg-
ularity will in general be dissipated all over the system in something
like that period. We, therefore, expect to find dynamical equilibrium
fairly complete.

In a series of three papers in 1913-1915 I discussed the conditions
for a steady state (dynamical equilibrium) of a system of moving
stars, including the case of a flattened system like our galaxy, both
with and without rotation. Re-reading these papers I do not find
anything to modify in the mathematical investigations, except that
later writers have found short cuts to some of the results; nor do
they seem to need much extension or adaptation to cope with the prob-

252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

lems that have cropped up since then. But when I turn to the efforts
I then made to fit the theory to the observed properties of the sys-
tem, it is like a glimpse of the middle ages. Is it possible that only
15 years ago we thought the stellar universe was like that! With some
misgiving I found I must place the sun at least 500 parsecs away
from the center of the system; but I did not expect to be believed.
Nowadays 7,000 parsecs is the minimum estimate. I was perturbed
to find that on the rotation theory I must ascribe to our neighbor-
hood an orbital velocity as great as 25 km per sec.; in excuse I of-
fered a suggestion as to how the differential effects of so rapid a
rotation might happen to be concealed. Now we admit an orbital
velocity 10 times greater, and claim that its differential effects are
not concealed but strikingly manifested. It almost looks as though
with a little more courage—a little less reluctance to rend the then
accepted fabric—the purely dynamical theory might have forecast
the changes that have since been made as the result of observation;
I doubt, however, if that would have been justifiable without some
additional facts to build on. But I take warning not to be in too
great a hurry to stretch the dynamical theory to fit even our present
enlightened ideas. I seem to hear the voice of the Halley lecturer
of 1945 repeating my remark, “Is it possible that only 15 years ago
we thought the stellar universe was like that!”

In the past 15 years the accepted dimensions of the galaxy have
been enlarged tenfold, and we have to start the comparison of theory
with observation anew. ‘There is, however, one result which seems
to have been able to survive all vicissitudes, viz., the period of revolu-
tion of the stars in their orbits around the center. The period
adopted in 1914 was 3800 million years, which is close enough to the
250 million years deduced from the Oort effect.

STAR STREAMING AND PERMANENCE

In 1915 the main stimulus to dynamical investigation came from
the phenomenon of star streaming—the tendency of the stars in our
neighborhood to move to and fro along one particular line rather
than at right angles to it. Ever since this was pointed out by Kap-
teyn in 1905, it has been recognized as the most conspicious pecu-
liarity of the observed proper motions. It might be a merely local
arrangement due to two independent clouds of stars meeting and
passing through one another; on the other hand it might have a
wider significance as part of the general law of motion of the whole
galaxy. A suggestion was put forward by H. H. Turner that the
line of star-streaming points to the center of the galaxy; if so, the
motion seems to be a very natural one. He pointed out that if we
examined in the same way the motions of the comets in the solar
system they would show a preferential motion in the radial direction

ROTATION OF THE GALAXY—EDDINGTON 253

towards and away from the sun. We do not see anything odd in
this distribution of cometary orbits; equally we may anticipate a
preferential motion of the same kind in the orbits of the stars.

One doubt arose in connection with this suggestion which needed
theoretical examination. If the main lines of stellar traffic all
converge to the center of the system, will there not be a frightful
congestion at the center? It is true that the radial roads are laid
down as preferential only, but, allowing for the divergence of in-
dividual stars from the general direction, there would still seem to be
fear of a congestion in the inner part of the galaxy so great as to
lead to trouble. Mathematical calculation has, however, dispelled
this fear. One way of relieving congestion is to speed up the traffic
at the spot concerned. That applies to the stellar system; the stars
which approach the center put on speed under the gravitational
attraction, and by clearing out of the neighborhood as quickly as
possible keep down the density to a tolerable value. Apparently,
then, nothing stands in the way of adopting Turner’s suggestion

But Kapteyn and others who followed him pinned their faith to a
different theory. They believed that the line of star streaming was
transverse to the radius; this would mean that the stars tend espe-
cially to move in circular orbits about the center like planets, only
(unlike the planets) they go either way round indifferently. This
seems a very artificial disposition, and it could scarcely be regarded
as an explanation of star streaming in the sense that Professor Turn-
er’s suggestion was. However, the first question is not which scheme
affords the better explanation but which gives a correct representa-
tion of the facts. Now that there is general agreement as to the di-
rection of the center, we can answer at once; the direction of star
streaming is radial, or nearly radial,® as Turner supposed. But the
observational decision in favor of radial star streaming is recent, and
theory had first innings in the contest Radial versus Transverse star
streaming.

Adopting the specification of star streaming, introduced by
Schwarzschild, I was able to show rigorously that in a steady system
with star streaming the preferential motion must necessarily be
radial. Shortly afterwards J. H. Jeans showed rigorously that in a
steady system with star streaming the preferential motion must
necessarily be transverse.” I doubt whether many spectators of the
game understood how to interpret the score of “one all” which was
the apparent result of the contest. Possibly they thought it was just
a case of two theorists contradicting one another as usual. But

*The most trustworthy determinations give a difference of about 10° between the line
of star streaming and the radius; it is difficult to decide whether the discrepancy is large
enough to be significant.

"Unless the system is spbherical—an exception irrelevant to the study of our own
highly oblate galaxy.

254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

actually the two investigations were complementary; the one ex-
cluded all save radial star streaming, the other excluded all save
transverse star streaming. Between them they established that
neither radial nor transverse nor any other direction of star stream-
ing is compatible with strict dynamical equilibrium. It seems to be
clearly established by observation that radial star streaming exists;
but Jeans’s investigation indicates the price that must be paid—the
galaxy can not be in a steady state. Nor would a transverse direction
of star streaming have saved it; the determination of the direction
merely decides which horn of the dilemma our galaxy shall impale
itself on.

Here lies the chief difficulty in pursuing dynamical theories of
the galaxy. A perfectly steady model having been proved to be
impossible, we must seek some compromise among the incompatible
conditions for permanence, which will give a semipermanent model
satisfying our minimum requirements of duration. I do not think
that much serious progress has been made toward such an adaptation
of the steady state theory. Oort and Lindblad have obtained certain
theoretical relations between the intensity of star streaming (the
prolateness of the Schwarzschild velocity-ellipsoid) and the mag-
nitude of the differential rotation and found a rather impressive
agreement with observation; but it may be urged in criticism that
they have selected one out of a number of incompatible conditions for
a steady state, and it is not at all clear why this (rather than the
rejected conditions) should be retained in the appropriate compro-
mise. My own impression is that it is the least essential of the
conditions for longevity.

ROTATION OF THE COSMIC CLOUD

My survey of the dynamics of the galaxy must necessarily be
superficial, since it would be idle to enter into details without recourse
to mathematical formulae. I should like, however, to refer to an
aspect of the problem which has not as yet received much attention.
The recognition of a cosmic cloud of rarified gas extended through
interstellar space and sharing in the rotation of the galaxy opens up
a new field of theoretical investigation; and the dynamical equilib-
rium of the cloud is a problem equally important with, and consider-
ably easier than, the dynamical equilibrium of the stellar configura-
tion.

We find that in our own neighborhood the motion of the mean of
the stars agrees with the motion of the cosmic cloud; the difference
can not be put higher than 2 or 3 km per sec. Moreover, it appears
that this agreement is not confined to our immediate neighborhood,
but extends at least 1,000 parsecs away from us, since Plaskett’s inves-
tigation of the differential rotation of the cloud covers this range.

ROTATION OF THE GALAXY—EDDINGTON 255

The coincidence was not unexpected so long as both were regarded as
“at rest,” but it takes on a new significance when it is understood to
mean that both stars and cloud are moving about the center of the
galaxy with the same orbital velocity (of order 250 km per sec.).
That they should agree to within 1 per cent is indeed surprising; and
I think that the explanation of this coincidence should take preced-
ence over many of the other aims of dynamical theory.

It seems impossible to admit any kind of interaction which would
tend to drag along the stars with the cloud or the cloud with the
stars. We have to regard them as two intermingled systems inde-
pendent in all respects except that the controlling gravitational field
is the same for both. If there is any community of motion it must
be because the same causes have operated in both and not because
one has constrained the other. At first sight a similarity seems
plausible. We often treat the stellar system as a glorified gas with
stars for molecules. Is it not then a case of two “ gases” finding
their own conditions for equilibrium independently? Why should
we be surprised that they both hit on the same solution? Neverthe-
less, I admit that I am surprised; the reason is that the two gases
differ enormously in viscosity.

An atom in the cosmic cloud may in the course of its wanderings
expect a collision with another atom about once a year; in that time
it traverses a path about equal to the distance of the earth from the
sun. This is a long free path according to ordinary standards, but
it is insignificant in the scale of the stellar universe. On the other
hand the free path of a star is practically infinite; it can go hundreds
of times around its orbit from one side of the galaxy to the other
without appreciable risk of deflection. The length of the free path
determines the viscosity of a gas. The viscosity of the cosmic cloud
is negligible for astronomical purposes; the viscosity of the star-gas
is enormous. In fact the stellar universe, regarded as a gas, is the
stickiest thing you could possibly imagine.

The theory of a rotating nonviscous gas is familiar, and it can be
applied directly to the cosmic cloud. We can at once derive an
important result; the motion of the cloud must correspond almost
exactly to that of a particle revolving in a circular orbit about the
center. A slight deviation—if only a few km per sec.—would set
up an enormous density gradient in the cloud, so that in one or other
direction the stars would be embedded in a solid jam of cloud-atoms.®

§T ought to mention that the time of relaxation toward dynamical equilibrium is longer
for the cloud than for the stars owing to the lower velocity of the particles. We may say
that the velocity of sound in the cloud (about 3 km per sec.) is less than the velocity of
sound in the star-gas; and accordingly the pressure-waves which level out the distribution
of cloud matter take a longer time to travel through the galaxy than those which level
out the distribution of stars. It is, therefore, possible that if we adopt a short-time scale
the cosmic cloud may not yet have reached the dynamical equilibrium assumed in my
discussion.

256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

There is, perhaps, a difficulty in explaining how this special distribu-
tion of motion could have been set up originally, but at any rate it
is the only distribution which could survive for any length of time.
Since we find that the stars in the mean have the same motion as
the cloud it follows that they also have the velocity corresponding to
a circular orbit. This had been assumed by investigators of galactic
rotation without much attempt at justification. By reference to the
cloud we are now able to establish it firmly.

I think it is not going too far to say that the mere existence of
the cosmic cloud is in itself a proof of galactic rotation. What has
kept this gas distended through the galaxy instead of collapsing long
ago into a dense nebula at the center? Some of the ways of evading
collapse possible for particles with long free paths (the stars) are
not open to a regular gas; so that the possible answers are very lim-
ited. The distension could be maintained by temperature; but the
temperature of the cosmic gas (about 15,000°) is far too low. The
only alternative is rapid rotation sufficient to counteract the pull of
gravity. The very existence of the cosmic cloud, therefore, depends
on rotation; and although there is not the same theoretical necessity
for rotation of the galaxy of stars, the observed agreement of the
motions shows that the latter also must be rotating.

The conception of the stellar system as a gas with stars for mole-
cules, and its comparison with the genuine cosmical gas filling the
same region and rotating in the same way, helps us to see more clearly
the difficulty in the way of constructing a strictly permanent stellar
system. With the cosmic cloud we have no difficulty in fulfilling
the strict conditions of equilibrium, but that is because we neglect
viscosity. Viscosity—the rubbing of one zone of gas on another zone
rotating at a slightly different speed—must slowly change the dis-
tribution of rotation. Viscosity objects to the existing differential
rotation, and tries to set up a condition of its own. But it can never
succeed; it can only act as spoil-sport. As soon as it effects any
serious change the density gradients already mentioned must be set
up—which means that the cloud falls to the center of the system or
departs into outer space. I daresay that in the end viscosity tri-
umphantly establishes the law of motion it is striving for—only there
is nothing left to obey it.

Similarly in the system of the stars we have a tug-of-war between
the viscosity conditions and the simple pressure conditions which
must inevitably end in the collapse or disruption of the system. The
only question is how to arrange some kind of balance which will
stave off this fate for a reasonable time. I have already referred to
certain current solutions which seem to me to insist too strongly on
the fulfilment of what we here identify as viscosity conditions, per-

ROTATION OF THE GALAXY—EDDINGTON 257

haps not sufficiently recognizing that by the time these conditions
prevail there will be no galaxy left.

Let us leave these deep waters of theoretical investigation, and for
our last look at the galaxy use no other criticism than our common-
sense. We have not much difficulty in imagining ourselves looking
at it from outside, for the telescope reveals multitudes of spiral
nebulae, seen from every aspect, any one of which, we believe, may
be taken as a pattern of our own galaxy. Rotating? Obviously it
is. It is just like a Catherine wheel. Permanent? It does not look
very permanent. Every engineering instinct we possess protests that
such disklike arrangements of matter are precarious, and their sta-
bility is not to be trusted. To emphasize our sense of the transitori-
ness of things, the other galaxies are rushing away at high speed as
though our poor system were the plague-spot of the universe. In a
few thousand million years our neighborhood will be nearly evacu-
ated, and our skies will have lost one of their chief telescopic glories.
This is a rough and ready way of treating serious problems, but it
is not out of harmony with the results thrust upon us by stricter
methods. Perhaps the lesson of the galaxies is to wake us from our
dream of leisured evolution through billions of years. It is hard to
credit our stellar system with so much age and endurance. It is
more like a young man in a hurry.

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STELLAR LABORATORIES !

By THEODORE DUNHAM, JI.

[With 1 plate]

A thousand years ago the stars were looked upon as fixed points
of light permanently attached to the sky. A few brave minds dared
to imagine them as more than this, but without accurate measuring
instruments there could be only speculation as to the true nature of
points of light. At present we look upon the stars as huge aggrega-
tions of matter, extremely hot and probably gaseous to the very
center, held together by the mutual attraction of their separate par-
ticles and radiating away great quantities of light and heat. Where
the ancients saw a single star, the increasing power of our telescopes
has shown us more and more stars, until now we know many millions
for each of theirs. One may perhaps ask why we are interested in
knowing more exactly how the stars are built and what goes on below
their surfaces.

In the first place there is our natural curiosity. The stars appear
to be the parents of the planets, and so of all life in the universe. We
ourselves are, in the last analysis, made up of minute particles which
were once probably parts of a star—the sun. Millions of years ago
the outer layers of the sun were as now, a swarm of atoms, so hot that
no two could hold together long enough to build anything more or-
ganized than local eddy currents. We believe that suddenly another
star, another great hot globe of gas, then swept by. It passed close
enough to raise great tides in the sun and even to tear loose parts of
the sun’s outer layers. The passing star kept on, but the clouds of
atoms, torn loose from the sun, had to face new conditions.

As they circulated in paths at various distances from the sun,
they necessarily began to cool. As they cooled, their atoms began
to hold together in groups of different kinds, and what had once
been clouds of disorganized atoms torn from the sun slowly became

1 Lecture delivered on Web. 19, 1931, in Culbertson Hall, California Institute of Tech-
nology, Pasadena, under the auspices of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific and the
Mount Wilson Observatory. Reprinted by permission from Publications of the Astro-
nomical Society of the Pacific, vol. 48, No. 252, April, 1931.

102992—32 18 259

260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

definite bodies. On one of these bodies at least, we know that an
organization of the atoms proceeded so far as to form not only land
und water, but even that highest type of organization which we call
life. And in the course of this mysterious process there finally
emerged the brains of human beings, who have just recently begun
to look back and to inquire into the makeup of the star from which
they came.

It is an extremely interesting problem to try to explain with the
help of physics and mathematics why a certain amount of material
isolated in space should take on the particular size it does and begin
to throw out in all directions energy at a particular rate. For every-
thing we now know indicates that if you should put a certain number
of million tons of cold stuff off in space it would do just that. If
there were much more than this particular amount it would probably
break up, and if there were much less it would never shine at all.

Another reason for making an intensive study of the stars is the
hope that such a study may supplement physics as we know it in
our terrestrial laboratories. The stars provide us with a wide variety
of conditions. The temperatures at the surfaces of many far exceed
any which we can as yet produce, while the pressures in their atmos-
pheres are often lower than any which we can obtain in the labora-
tory. It is true that some things about the way atoms can behave
have been learned first from the stars in recent years, but just now
it seems more likely to be the other way about, and that physics,
especially theoretical physics, will help to put together one of the
most interesting puzzles known to us. And yet inside the stars is
guarded the secret of at least one process which at present there is
no prospect of duplicating in any terrestrial laboratory—the conver-
sion of matter into energy.

If we could be allowed to ask 10 questions about any star and have
them answered, I think they might be these:

1. What is its distance from us?

. What is its velocity in space?

. What is its true luminosity or candlepower?

. How large is it, in miles?

. What is its mass?

What substance is it made of?

. What is the temperature at its surface and how does it change
toward the center?

8. What is the pressure in its atmosphere and how does it change
toward the center ?

9. How long is the life of a star?

10. The most interesting question of all, What is the source of its
continual flow of light and heat?

BCD OCH CORES

J

STELLAR LABORATORIES—DUNHAM 261

It is asking a great deal to expect to find out the detailed structure
of an object which never appears otherwise than as a point of light,
even in the largest telescope, but I hope to show that some of our
questions about such an object can nevertheless be answered.

The distance of a star was first measured by the amount of change
in its apparent direction when the observer was carried from one side
of the earth’s orbit to the other side six months later. Even before
the distance of any star was known, astronomers had noticed that
some stars had changed their positions over a period of years. Are-
turus had moved rather more than 1 degree since the beginning
of the Christian era. This might mean either that Arcturus was
close to us and moved slowly, or that it was far away and traveled
very fast. As soon as the distance became known, however, the
apparent motion could at once be translated into true motion, and
this turns out to be 84 miles per second. Most stars are found to be
moving at a more deliberate pace, but 10 to 20 miles per second is
very common among the stars,

It is easier to picture how far away a star ike Arcturus must be,
if we realize that even when moving at 84 miles a second it takes
about 800 years for its direction to change by as much as the moon’s
apparent diameter.

Knowledge of the distance of a star at once unlocks another most
important fact, namely, its true luminosity or candlepower. A star
will look bright either if it is very close and of moderate brightness
or if it is far away and extremely brilliant. If the distance can
be measured, we can decide immediately between these two possibili-
ties, and from the apparent brightness we can find the actual candle-
power of the star.

It turns out that the candlepower of the stars varies to a remark-
able degree. There is, in fact, as much difference between the faint-
est and the brightest as between a firefly and a powerful searchlight.
Our sun holds a place half-way between these limits and would
correspond to an ordinary household electric light.

In marked contrast to this great range in intrinsic brightness
among the stars is their unexpected similarity in mass. It would
be extremely difficult, and perhaps impossible, to determine the mass
of a star were it not for the fortunate circumstance that many pairs
of stars are known in which the two are held together by their
mutual attraction while they revolve around a common center of
gravity in elliptical orbits. If we know how far away such a pair
of stars is from us, we can find out their masses from the speed with
which they swing each other around in their orbits. The interesting
result is that when we compare the masses of the stars with that
of the sun we find them all very much alike. For there are a few

262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

stars 10 times as massive as the sun, and nearly all have at least one-
tenth its mass.

Now the true brightness of a star clearly depends on how big
it is, but it also depends just as much on how bright a square inch
of its surface is. And the brightness of each square inch is almost
entirely a question of how hot it is. As a piece of iron is heated in
a blacksmith’s forge it gives out no visible light at first, but in time
it begins to glow with a feeble reddish light. As the temperature
increases two things happen. It gives out more light from each
square inch, and the quality of the light changes from reddish to
yellowish, and finally at very high temperatures is intensely bright
and looks nearly white. These changes always happen together. It
is impossible to heat a poker until it is very bright and to have it still
look red. And it is equally impossible for a feebly shining poker to
look white. Now the astronomer, imprisoned as he is upon the earth,
far from his celestial experiment, is quick to take advantage of such
a reliable connection between the surface brightness, the surface
temperature, and the color of an object.

In order to find the temperature of a star it is only necessary to
measure its color. This is a straightforward process if a prism is
used to break up the colors. Then by means of a photographic plate,
or, still better, a radiometer, thermocouple, or photoelectric cell, the
relative strengths of the red and the blue are measured. The propor-
tion of blue light to red light increases as the temperature rises, and
if a star is found to have a certain proportion of blue to red light its
temperature can easily be inferred. Jt is worth while to note that
we have here a means of finding the temperature of a star without
knowing anything at all about its distance. For the color of an
object ordinarily depends in no way on whether it is close or far
away.

As a matter of fact there are two exceptions to this rule. The set-
ting sun looks red when the air is filled with smoke from a forest fire
because the short waves of blue light are scattered by the tiny
particles of smoke, while the longer red waves pass through to our
eyes with little interference. The same thing may happen to star-
light. It has been shown recently that some stars, particularly those
at great distances, look redder than others, which in every other
respect appear to be the same kind of star. This is taken as evidence
for the existence of clouds of very small particles of material in the
otherwise empty spaces between us and some of the distant stars. If
such clouds of material are at all uniformly distributed through
space, stars will look redder the farther away they are.

The only other known case in which the color of objects is in-
fluenced by their distance is that of the extremely distant nebulae,

STELLAR LABORATORIES—DUNHAM 263

but here the apparent reddening seems to be due to properties of
space which reveal themselves when great intervals are involved.
Neither of these effects needs to be considered in studying stars rela-
tively close to us within our own system. And so we may quite
confidently infer the temperatures of these stars from their colors.

We come now to the question, “‘ How big are the stars?” Since we
can not see the disk of any star with any telescope, we may proceed
by an indirect method.

Suppose that I had a cannon ball and also a small bullet of
something harder even than tungsten to melt. Suppose I were to
place them side by side a quarter of a mile away where you could
not see the disk on either, and heat them both equally until they
were faintly red hot. The cannon ball would be quite easily visible,
but the bullet would be so faint that you could hardly see it. If I
assured you that they were equally distant and you could see that
the color of both was the same you would at once know that the
bullet must be smaller than the cannon ball, and if you had an instru-
ment to measure how much fainter the bullet looked you could tell
just how much smaller it must really be than the cannon ball.

But now suppose I should somehow heat the bullet to a much
higher temperature, so that it looked brilliantly white hot and should
adjust the temperature until the bullet gave out as much light as the
much larger, dull red cannon ball. Again suppose that I assured
you the two were equally far away. If you were color-blind you
would merely see two equally bright points of ight and might quite
naturally suppose them to be of equal size. But if your eyes were
normal eyes you would almost instinctively allow for the fact that
the white-hot bullet must be far brighter for every unit of its surface
than the cooler, redder cannon ball. You would know that if the
two seemed equally bright the white-hot bullet must be the smaller.

In just the same way the astronomer who has measured the dis-
tance and the color of a star can calculate its diameter in miles.
Within recent years these calculated diameters have been beautifully
confirmed by direct measurement of the diameters of several of the
larger stars with the interferometer, an instrument which makes it
possible to measure the apparent diameter of a star too small and
too distant to show a disk in a telescope.

With this confirmation of the method, the diameters of many stars
have been determined. They show a remarkable range in size, from
stars like the faint companion of Sirius, which is not much larger
than the earth, all the way up to Antares, which is so tremendous a
star that if the sun were at its center the orbit of the earth and even
that of Mars would still be well below its surface.

264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Now the masses of the stars do not show anything like this
wide variation. In fact, we can say in a general way that all stars
are made of pretty nearly the same amount of matter. And if this
is the case, then matter must be very tightly packed in the small
stars and spread very thin in the larger stars. If we could dip up
with a teacup a sample of the stuff of which the companion of
Sirius is made, we should need a powerful derrick to lift it, for at
the surface of the earth it would weigh about 10 tons. It is hard
to see how matter can be so tightly packed as this. The other extreme
is no easier to understand, for an ordinary room full of the average
stuff of which Antares is built would weigh hardly more than an
ounce and the outer parts of the star must have matter even more
rarefied than in the best vacuum we can produce in our own labo-
ratories. It is hard to understand how a star built of such thin
stuff can be sufliciently opaque to show any definite shape at all, but
modern physics has answers ready for both these questions.

The methods so far described have given us much information
about the characteristics of many stars—their distances, sizes, masses,
and superficial temperatures. But we are never satisfied. What
we should really like to do is to be able to dip a thermometer into the
stars and attach to them pressure gauges and read off their tempera-
tures and pressures directly. We should also like to attach speed-
ometers to stars to find out their velocities. Unfortunately we can
not do this. But, as a matter of fact, nature has provided us with
instruments which act as excellent thermometers, pressure gauges,
and speedometers, if only we can read them. They occur in great
numbers throughout the universe. They are atoms in the stars.

Now it is true that atoms do not carry indicating dials on which
we can read off directly what we want to know about the stars;
but although very small they are nevertheless remarkable mecha-
nisms, extraordinarily sensitive to the conditions in which they find
themselves. All the light which comes to us from a star has started
from individual atoms, and so the light carries with it a record of the
physical conditions under which it was sent out. The atoms in the
stars have been broadcasting a description of their surroundings for
millions of years, but it is only recently that we have paid the least
attention. The spectroscope has made it possible to record these
atomic messages, but they are always in code. The study of atoms in
our laboratories is giving us the key to this code and is helping us
to read the information which is hidden in a stellar spectrum.

We must not ask to see a correct and up-to-date picture of an atom.
That has been impossible since 1925, in which year the atom became
a y function in higher mathematics and quite impossible to draw. It
is Just as real as it ever was, however, and just as reliable. But for

®
STELLAR LABORATORIES—DUNHAM 265

our purposes it will be entirely satisfactory to think of the simpler
and older model with electrons revolving around a central nucleus.
To make things simpler still, we shall consider only one kind of
atom, the calcium atom, because it illustrates so well some of the
things I wish to describe. A calcium atom on the model we are using
consists of a central positive nucleus which holds by electrostatic at-
traction 20 negative electrons. Eighteen of these revolve about the
nucleus in orbits relatively close to the nucleus and do not take any
part in giving out the light which we see coming from the stars.

Ficurp 1.—Atomic transformations

A, a rapidly moving atom colliding with a normal atom. B, after the collision the
first atom recedes more slowly than it approached, having transferred part of its
energy to the second atom which is now in an excited state, i. e., one of its electrons
now occupies a larger orbit. C, a light dart colliding with a normal atom able to
absorb the exact amount of energy carried by the light dart. D, an excited atom
which has stored the energy resulting from a collision either with another atom or
with a light dart. JH, the electron which occupied an excited orbit has fallen back
to its normal position, and the energy which it had stored at D now appears in the
form of a light dart traveling in a random direction. F, a slowly moving atom
colliding with an excited atom. G, after the collision, the first atom is recoiling
more rapidly than it approached, having taken up energy from the excited atom
which is left in its normal state. An atom may become excited in two ways and an
excited atom may unload its energy in two ways. Accordingly, atomic transforma-
ti-~~ may follow any one of four cycles;

A~B~D~-F-G
A~B-D-—-E
C+D-E
CDFG

In Figure 1 the nucleus and these 18 inner electrons are all repre-
sented by a large dot. But the two outer electrons are very im-
portant. These are shown as smaller dots.

Normally these two outer electrons circulate close to the nucleus.
But they may also circulate in a number of larger orbits, of definite
sizes. Intermediate positions do not occur. Now it takes energy or
work to lift an electron from a smaller orbit to one of these larger
or “excited ” orbits, and this lifting of the electron can be done in
either of the two ways illustrated in Figure 1. The first is by a

266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

collision with another atom. The atom is rushing about at the rate of
2 or 8 miles a second among other atoms in a star and frequently
collides with its neighbors. The violence of one of these collisions
may be just enough to raise the electron to a larger orbit.

The second way in which an electron can be raised to a higher
orbit is by a collision with a dart of hght. In the atmosphere of a
star great quantities of light are coming through from deep layers on
their way to the surface. As far as the atom is concerned this light
acts as if it were in the form of minute darts of energy, each with a
very definite rate of vibration and carrying a definite amount of
energy. Those vibrating rapidly have short wave lengths, carry a
large amount of energy, and appear blue to our eyes. Those vibrat-
ing more slowly have longer wave lengths, carry less energy, and
appear red. One of these ight darts may strike an atom in its path,
and, if the atom can respond exactly to the rate of vibration of the
light dart, the energy which the light dart carries may raise one of
the electrons in the atom to a larger orbit farther from the nucleus.
Since the light dart is made of nothing but energy, and since it has
transferred all of this energy to the atom, it entirely disappears as
the result of striking the atom.

Whether the atom was struck by another atom or whether it was
hit by a light dart, the result is the same, namely, an atom that is
wound up and has stored within it a definite amount of energy—
the power to do work of some kind. But this lasts only for an in-
stant. The electron must fall back. If undisturbed, the excited atom
hesitates for about a hundredth of a millionth of a second, and then
the electron falls to its normal place again. In doing so it unloads
the energy it borrowed by shooting off another light dart exactly like
the one which was absorbed. The only difference is that since the
atom has absolutely no idea of aiming, the light dart is sent out
entirely at random.

There is another way in which the electron can fall back. While
the atom is wound up and hesitating, another atom may strike it
while traveling at a relatively moderate speed. If this happens the
atom may unload its stored energy directly to this second atom. The
colliding atom then bounces away faster than it struck, just as if it
had touched off a stick of dynamite, while the electron in the first
atom settles back into its normal orbit.

We may now ask how atoms capable of passing through cycles
such as we have described are able to write code messages in stellar
spectra from which we may infer the conditions existing in the outer
parts of stars. To understand this we must first consider what hap-
pens when in the laboratory we artificially stir up an atom to produce
a spectral line. This may be done quite easily by means of an electric

STELLAR LABORATORIES—DUNHAM 267

arc in which many atoms collide so hard with one another that their
electrons are forced into excited orbits from which they fall back
with the emission of light darts.

If a light dart is thrown out by an atom whose electron has
fallen a long distance, i. e., from a very large orbit to a small one,
then the light dart must carry away a large amount of energy, and
it does this by vibrating at high frequency. But if it was thrown
out by an atom which had less energy to unload because its electron
did not have so far to fall, then the hght dart will vibrate more
slowly. Since both darts travel at the same speed, the high-energy

Se ee

_—

Ficurb 2.—The formation of bright spectral lines

Two atoms are shown, each with an electron in an excited orbit. Such atoms have
in store an amount of energy which depends on the size of the orbit which the
electron occupies. When the electron returns spontaneously to its normal orbit,
the stored energy is thrown out in the form of a light dart. An electron falling
from a relatively small orbit emits a small amount of energy. The resulting light
dart has a low frequency of vibration, a long wave length, and appears at the red
end of the spectrum. An electron falling from a larger orbit emits more energy, and
the corresponding light dart has a higher frequency, a shorter wave length, and
appears in the violet region of the spectrum. The light darts affect the photographic
plate where they strike. At @ and b the plates are turned through a right angle
to show the resulting spectral lines.

dart will have a short wave length, while the low-energy dart will
have a long wave length. Figure 2 shows two such light darts
approaching the slits of two spectrographs.

The prism bends a high-energy light dart more than a low-energy
dart, and the two will strike a photographic plate at entirely differ-
ent places. Thus by measuring the image on the photograph we have
an absolutely direct method of knowing how big a jump the electron
made in the atom,

There are all conceivable kinds of jumps between the many possi-
ble orbits in which the electrons may start and end, but each sends
out a slightly different light dart, which, after passing through the

268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

prism of our spectrograph, ends up in a different place on the photo-
graph.

Now to go back to the star. The hot, deep parts of the star are send-
ing out light darts of every conceivable wave length. Except for a
few which are stopped in the atmosphere of the star these light darts
leave the star, and after traveling for years through empty space a
small part of them strike the earth, and a still smaller part fall upon
the lens or mirror of one of our telescopes, and are collected together
and sent through a spectrograph (fig. 3).

The spectrograph will sort these darts out according to their wave
length, sending the short, blue ones to one end of the photographic
plate, the longer, green ones to the middle, and the still longer, red

AV vw
cw = @)

HORN ARN
Ew We
G —iiniie @ = (@)

D WWW> wwe
BY ws
Fy >

Ficurn 3.—The formation of a continuous spectrum with dark absorption lines

Light darts of every conceivable wave length and frequency of vibration are emitted
by the hot interiors of stars. If these could pass to the earth unobstructed, our
spectrograph would sort them into a continuous band on the photographic plate, the
light darts of longer wave length (red light) going to one end of the plate and
those of shorter wave length (violet light) going to the other end. The two atoms
shown in the diagram are supposed to be in the atmosphere of a star and to be
capable of becoming excited through the absorption of quantities of energy exactly
corresponding to the quantities carried by the light darts C and G. As a result,
these particular light darts are absorbed in the stellar atmosphere and are missing
from the otherwise continuous band of color which falls upon the plate. The
spectrum shows a bright background crossed by two absorption lines.

ones to the other end of the plate. Since the deep layers of the star
are giving out light darts of every possible wave length, after pass-
ing through the prism, there will be a solid band of color. We cal)
this a continuous spectrum.

But the interesting thing is that some of these light darts do not
escape from the star. Some of them of particular wave lengths are
sidetracked by atoms which absorb them in the outer layers of the
star, and never get to the earth at all. Where they would have fallen
on the plate there are dark empty spaces. This is how we first dis-
covered that there are atoms in the stars. These dark spaces on the
plate we know as spectral lines and they make up our code message
from the stars.

STELLAR LABORATORIES—DUNHAM 269

We are now ready to look at the actual situation in a stellar atmos-
phere. Figure 4 represents a thin slice through the middle of the
atmospheres of three different stars. The center one represents the
atmosphere of our sun. Light and heat are coming up in great
amounts from the depths of the sun below the bottom of the diagram.

STAR: LOWER PRESSURE. STAR : HIGHER TEMPERATURE
NO MORE EXCITED ATOMS AL te eR MORE EXCITED ATOMS

MORE IONIZED ATOMS os Sek MORE IONIZED ATOMS

MORE FREE ELECTRONS MORE FREE ELECTRONS

SAME TYPE. OF RADIATION IONIZED” (NOBMAL Z RADIATION OF SHORTER WAVE LENGTH
ATOM ATOM

Fieurn 4.—Atomic processes in stellar atmospheres

The diagram shows idealized cross sections of three stellar atmospheres to illustrate
the influence of temperature and pressure on the relative numbers of normal, excited,
and ionized calcium atoms and the resulting differences in the spectra of the light
which has come to us after passing through these atmospheres. The spectrum at
the lower part of the diagram shows the lines characteristic of each of the three
types of calcium atoms. Differences in the relative intensities of these lines in the
spectra of various stars serve as measures of the numbers of atoms of each type
which are present in the atmospheres of these stars, and so make it possible to infer
the temperatures and pressures at the surfaces of the stars. The spectra in this
diagram are in the form of photographic negatives so that dark absorption lines
appear as white lines on a dark background. A, a normal atom; B, an excited
atom; C, an ionized atom; D, an excited atom; EH, a doubly ionized atom, which has
lost two electrons; F, a free electron; G, a light dart colliding with a normal atom
and exciting one of its electrons; H, two atoms which have just collided; one of
them is left excited; J, an excited atom which has returned to its normal condition,
emitting a light dart in a random direction; J, an excited ionized atom which is
exciting another ionized atom by collision; K, a light dart exciting an ionized atom.

After working their way between the atoms in the atmosphere they

pass on beyond the top of the diagram, through the upper limits of
the atmosphere, and plunge off into outer space.

At the high temperature of the solar atmosphere, all the atoms are
moving about quite rapidly and colliding frequently with one an-

270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

other, so that if at any one instant a snapshot photograph, such as
this diagram, could be taken, we should find that a considerable num-
ber of the calcium atoms had just undergone collisions which had
lifted one of their electrons into a larger or excited orbit.

At this temperature light darts are also very plentiful, rushing
about in all directions among the atoms. By striking normal atoms,
they produce still more excited atoms. When an atom which has al-
ready been excited by one collision is struck a second time before it
has recovered from the first collision, the electron may be knocked
entirely off the atom. The mutilated atom which remains is called
an “ionized ” atom.

We have, then, in the solar atmosphere at any one instant three
kinds of calcium atoms: The normal atom, the excited atom, and
the ionized atom.

Now, we have seen that any particular atom can absorb a light
dart if the energy of the light dart is of exactly the right amount
to raise one of the electrons in the atom into one of its possible
orbits. If this happens, that particular light dart is lost forever as
far as we and our spectrographs are concerned, because the atom, in
unwinding, will either send out a second dart in a random direction
or else will use the stored energy to kick one of its neighbors, in
which case the energy goes into heat and is again diverted.

Thus the atoms in the atmosphere stand at the gateway between
the star and outer space and each one sidetracks light darts of a
particular energy and color. The result is that each type of atom
is responsible for characteristic gaps or dark lines in the otherwise
continuous band of color.

The normal calcium atoms absorb blue light, causing a single
dark line in the blue part of the spectrum. The excited atoms
absorb red light, causing primarily a strong group of three lines
close together in the red part of the spectrum, while the ionized
atoms which have lost an electron absorb violet light, causing a pair
of conspicuous lines in the violet.

Now, the strength of these spectral lines depends in a striking way
on the number of atoms causing them, so that if with our spectro-
graphs we can measure the strength of the lines it means that we
can count the number of atoms of each kind. When many atoms
cause a line, the line is wide and when the atoms are few the line
is narrow. This we speak of as differences in line-intensity.

In the sun the lines we are discussing are of very different intensi-
ties, but they have intentionally been made equal in Figure 4 so as
to bring out more clearly the variations when we pass to other stars.

In the right-hand section of the diagram we have the atmos-
phere of a star, such as Procyon, which is at a higher temperature

STELLAR LABORATORIES—DUNHAM 271

than that of the sun. The atoms are rushing about more rapidly, and
on the average the light darts are more numerous and also more
energetic. The vibrations are faster and the wave lengths are shorter.
Because the light darts are more energetic and because the collisions
are more violent at this higher temperature there will be fewer nor-
mal atoms. More atoms will be excited and more will be ionized than
in the sun. Now, as we have seen, the width and the strength of a
spectral line depends on the number of atoms responsible for it. A
single atom would never show a line in our spectrograph, but when
several million million are doing the same thing at once enough
light is held back to make a noticeable dark line. In the present
case the line in the blue corresponding to the normal atom is weaker
than in the sun, while the triplet in the red, corresponding to the
excited atoms is considerably strengthened, and so is the pair of
lines in the violet corresponding to the ionized atoms. What we can
observe is of course only the spectrum and not the atoms responsible
for it. So when we see a spectrum whose lines have these relative
intensities we must infer that we are dealing with a star that is hotter
than the sun.

The left part of the diagram represents the atmosphere of a very
different kind of star such as y Cygni. The temperature here is the
same as in the sun, but the pressure is much lower. Since the tem-
perature is the same, the violence of the collisions is the same, the
number and energy of the light darts is the same, but the pressure
is lower, which means that the atoms are farther apart. Occasional
atoms will become ionized, just as in the case of the sun, because
collisions with light darts will be no less effective. But when once an
electron has been torn loose from an atom it will be much more diffi-
cult for this free electron to find another mutilated atom with which
it can recombine to form a normal atom. And so it happens that in
this star the proportion of ionized atoms is greater than in the sun,
while the number of normal and excited atoms are both reduced,
without changing their proportion relative to one another.

The increased number of ionized atoms results in a marked
strengthening of the pair of lines in the violet. The line in the blue
corresponding to the normal atom and the red triplet corresponding
to the excited atom are somewhat weaker than in the sun, but the
relative strengths of these lines remain unchanged.

The net result of all this is that, when we develop a photographic
plate taken with our telescope and find on it a spectrum with the
red triplet looking stronger than the blue line, we know that the
light must have come from a star with an atmosphere at a high
temperature, while if we get a spectrum with the violet pair stronger
than the blue line, we know that we are dealing with a star whose

272 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

atmosphere is at low pressure. When we combine this method with
what can be learned from the colors of the stars we find temperatures
ranging all the way from 1,600° in long-period variable stars at mini-
mum brightness up to over 30,000° C. for the hottest blue stars.

The pressures in the atmospheres turn out to be surprisingly low,
and, although there are wide variations from star to star, the pres-
sures do not in general exceed one-thousandth of that of air at the
earth’s surface. On some stars the atmospheres are at pressures
much lower than this. The entire atmosphere of the sun as far
down as we can see is about 50 to 100 miles deep, but there is so little
stuff in all this depth that it corresponds to only about 5 or 6 feet
of ordinary air. An amount of material which is absolutely trans-
parent here becomes so foggy on the sun as to be nearly opaque, be-
cause of the great number of free electrons and ionized atoms which
can stop passing light darts and send them flying off in other direc-
tions and even turn them into heat.

I have said that there are great differences in the pressures at the
surfaces of different stars. Differences in pressure must mean differ-
ences in the force with which gravity packs down the material. And
differences in the force of gravity must mean one of two things:
Either differences in the masses of the stars or differences in the
distance from the surface to the center. We have already found
that the masses of all the stars are more or less alike, but that their
sizes do differ enormously. And so the pressure differences which
we can interpret from the line-intensities in the spectra of these
stars really mean differences in the sizes and therefore in the actual
brightness of the stars. Of course, we want to know the true candle-
power of as many stars as possible, in order that we may determine
their distances, which, as we have seen, may be done with the aid
of their apparent brightness.

If we could really count accurately the number of calcium atoms
of the three kinds shown in Figure 4 by measuring the strengths
of the spectral lines which they produce, and if the simple theory con-
necting the numbers of the three kinds of atoms with the tempera-
ture and pressure were entirely satisfactory, we could, by studying
the spectrum of a star, calculate exactly what pressure must exist
in its atmosphere to give this spectrum and could go from that to its
true brightness. Some day we hope that it may be possible to do this,
but at present the results can be only approximate because the condi-
tions in stellar atmospheres are more complex than Figure 4 indicates.

Fortunately a powerful empirical method can be used. In 1914
Doctor Adams and Doctor Kohlschiitter studied in detail the differ-
ences in the spectra of nearby stars whose true brightness was already
known. We have seen that the spectra of two stars may be very

STELLAR LABORATORIES—DUNHAM 273

different, even when the temperature of the two is the same, the
difference being due entirely to pressure, which means that the dif-
ference is connected with the sizes, and so with the luminosities of
the stars.

When enough stars of known brightness had been studied to
show just how the spectrum depends on intrinsic brightness, it was
quite simple to match with these the spectra of other stars and thus
find their true brightness and from that their distance. It is the
distance which we particularly want for mapping out the arrange-
ment of the stars in space, and this method for deriving it looked at
first too good to be true.

But the severest tests have only increased our confidence in its
reliability. The distances of several thousand stars have been de-
termined in this way, including many much too far away to investi-
gate by the direct surveying method. We must not forget, how-
ever, that the calibration of this far-reaching spectroscopic method
depends entirely on the surveyed distances of representative stars.

So much for temperature and pressure revealed to us by the atoms.
They tell us three other things. First, the velocity of a star to-
ward us or away from us. The positions of the lines in the spectrum
of a stationary star are well known and can be depended upon not
to vary by one part ina million. But if the star is moving toward us
at any considerable speed the waves of light tend to pile up slightly,
and more of them enter our spectrograph in a second than would if
the star were at rest. This results in displacing all the spectral lines
to the violet of their normal positions, and the amount of the dis-
placement is a measure of the velocity of the star. This method is
not adapted to measuring the velocity of a man walking down the
street; in fact it could just detect the motion of a racing car headed
toward the telescope and carrying a neon lamp as a source of light.
But it is well adapted to measuring stellar velocities, which are often
20 or 30 miles a second.

When a star rotates and the axis of rotation does not happen to
point directly toward us, one side of the star will approach us while
the other recedes. The approaching side of the star tends to dis-
place all spectral lines to the blue, while the other side displaces these
same lines to the red. The result is that the lines are greatly widened
and no longer look sharp. Plate I (A) and (B) shows the spectrum
of a Aquilae, a rapidly rotating star, with the spectrum of a Cygni
for comparison. The distinguishing feature of the spectrum of a
rotating star is that all the lines are widened.

It has long been known that if an atom emits light while in a
strong electric field some of the lines are widened. In some of the
hotter stars, the hydrogen lines are extremely wide, while the metal-

274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

lic lines are still relatively sharp. Since hydrogen shows the effect
of an electric field far more than any other element, it is believed
that such fields are present in these hot stars. Plate 1 (C’) and (D)
shows the spectra of Sirius with « Cygni again for comparison. It
is easy to see that each member of the series of hydrogen lines in
Sirius is considerably wider than in « Cygni. Spectra on a larger
scale show little difference in the metallic lines. Electric fields in
a stellar atmosphere are probably caused chiefly by the negatively
charged electrons and the positively charged ions passing close to
the atoms and disturbing them. The number of charged particles
close enough to disturb an atom naturally increases with the pressure,
and so it begins to look as if the widths of spectral lines, particularly
of the hydrogen lines, may in the future serve as another indicator
of the pressure.

In everything thus far said we have considered the atmosphere
of the star as a whole, since we can not see its disk; and the atoms
have shown themselves only by absorbing out light from the con-
tinuous spectrum of the white light which passes by them from the
inside of the star. In one case only can we study the atmosphere of
a star without interference from the light inside and that is our
own star, the sun, when the moon passes across it at the time of a
total eclipse. For several seconds the main body of the sun is then
entirely covered, while the atmosphere at its edge still shows. A
spectrogram made at such a time shows a spectrum of the atmos-
phere entirely by itself, and the atoms of the vaporized metals above
the sun give their own pure spectrum of bright lines. Plate I (2,
i’, @) shows such a spectrum taken at the eclipse in northern Cali-
fornia on April 28, 1930. The light of the disappearing crescent of
the solar atmosphere is spit up into more than a thousand separate
crescents of different colors. Each of these crescents shows by its
intensity the amount of the element to which it belongs in the solar
atmosphere. The bright bands of continuous spectrum were caused
by minute bits of the sun itself, which still showed through deep
valleys on the edge of the moon when the photograph was made.
The intervening mountains projected beyond the solar disk, and
there we obtained a spectrum of the upper atmosphere without any
of the lower strata.

Another way to take a spectrum of the solar atmosphere at
an eclipse is to use a spectrograph with a slit and to move the plate
by means of a screw at an even rate of speed while the moon is
covering the sun’s atmosphere. One of the best plates of this kind
was taken by Doctor Campbell, of the Lick Observatory, at the
eclipse of 1905. The moon moves in its orbit about half a mile in
every second, which means that it covers up about 200 miles of solar

STELLAR LABORATORIES—DUN HAM 275

atmosphere each second. This gives us a scale of miles on the plate,
and we can see just how the solar atmosphere fades away in its upper
regions. It turns out that most of the ordinary absorption spectrum
is given by a layer not much more than 100 miles thick. But above
this is a vast outer atmosphere known as the chromosphere in which
the various elements reach up to different heights. Calcium and
hydrogen have been traced as high as 10,000 miles. It is probable
that it is the pressure of the intense light from the solar surface be-
low which supports these atoms, since the gas pressure at this level
would be entirely inadequate. A study of the chromosphere is par-
ticularly interesting because it is one of the few places in the uni-
verse where atoms can be examined while acting each one for itself,
without disturbance by its neighbors. The pressure is in fact so
very low that an atom probably travels thousands of miles without
striking another atom, whereas the particles of air under ordinary
conditions are experiencing thousands of collisions in every inch
they move.

So far I have said nothing about the insides of stars. We have
been discussing only the merest outer skin, which is kept in its
present brilliant state by what is going on below. When we inquire
into the conditions within a star, the methods which are useful for
determining temperatures and pressures at the surface fail us and
we are thrown back on what Eddington calls an,“ analytical boring
machine.” If we give the problem to a mathematician, telling him
that he may assume the material to act as a perfect gas and ask him
to apply the elementary principles of physics, he will come back
with a large part of the answer.

It turns out that the temperature at the center of the sun is about
30,000,000° C., that the pressure is 200 million tons on every square
inch of area, and that the material is crowded until it has 28 times
the density of water. Under these conditions the atoms are scarcely
recognizable. They have had all but their last few electrons torn
away, and are rushing about with velocities which would carry them
from California to New York and back in a second if their directions
were not changed a million times in the interval.

All this is interesting enough, but there is one thing still more
remarkable about the stars. They are sending into outer space tre-
mendous quantities of heat and light, and they have been doing it for
a long time in the past. Geologists tell us that the earth must have
been here for at least a thousand million years. But there are various
astronomical arguments which lead us to believe that the stars have
ages even a thousand times as great as this.

No source of energy with which we are familiar could provide so
much heat for so long a time. Simple cooling would last only a short

102992—32-——_19

276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

time. The burning of hydrogen and oxygen would not last the sun
more than one-tenth of the lifetime of our earth. Radium has been
suggested. If the sun were made of pure radium, it would give out
as much heat as the sun has given out since the earth was started, but
it would be very unequally distributed over this period of time. For
2,000 years the sun would shine with a furious heat and then rapidly
cool and become invisible.

Only two possibilities remain. The first is that matter itself is
being transformed into radiant energy deep in the stars. If this is
the source of the sun’s heat, we can calculate on the theory of rela-
tivity that the sun is consuming every three hours as much matter
as there is in the bulk of Mount Wilson. And yet the sun is so large
that it could well stand this loss and go on shining for several million
million years to come.

The other possibility is that the stars were once composed entirely
of hydrogen and that the atoms of hydrogen are uniting to build up
the heavier atoms of other elements. In the process of becoming thus
tightly packed, a small but definite fraction of the mass must be lost,
and its equivalent must appear as energy. If this is the source of
stellar energy, the life of a star is 100 times shorter than if there
were complete annihilation of matter, and every two minutes a mass
of hydrogen equivalent to the bulk of Mount Wilson is built up in
the sun into atoms of more complex elements.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Dunham PLATE 1

i. & St Se Se SS, SRS. «<«
1h Sob RM SS TI Ps Ae Mees c=

eoniteels 4 4 AD seas. p
eee ee

A,a Aquilae. Rapid rotation. All lines widened; B, a Cygni. No noticeable rotation. Lines

not widened; C, Sirius. Moderate pressure in the atmosphere. Hydrogen lines widened by
electric fields. Metallic lines relatively narrow; D,a Cygni. Very low pressure in the atmos-
phere. Hydrogen lines relatively narrow; EF, F, G, Flash spectrum of the solar atmosphere
photographed at Honey Lake, Calif., April 28, 1930. 2, aregionin the violet. The left mem-
ber of the close pair of crescents is due to ionized calcium (H), while the right member is due to
hydrogen (He). The two strong crescents at the left of F are due to ionized strontium (A4077)
and hydrogen (Hé). G@ shows the strong Hy crescent of hydrogen in the blue with many
weaker crescents caused by atoms of iron, titanium, and other metals

PRESENT STATUS OF THEORY AND EXPERIMENT AS
TO ATOMIC DISINTEGRATION AND ATOMIC SYN-
THESIS?

By Ropert A. MILLIKAN

California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif.

My task is to attempt to trace the history of the development of
scientific evidence bearing on the question of the origin and destiny
of the physical elements. I shall list 10 discoveries or developments,
all made within the past 100 years, which touch in one way or an-
other upon this problem and constitute indications or sign-posts
on the road toward an answer.

Prior to the middle of the nineteenth century little experimental
evidence of any sort had appeared, so that the problem was wholly
in the hands of the philosopher and the theologian. Then came,
first, the discovery of the equivalence of heat and work, and the con-
sequent formulation of the principle of the conservation of energy,
probably the most far-reaching physical principle ever developed.

Following this, and directly dependent upon it, came, second, the
discovery, or formulation, of the second law of thermodynamics,
which was first interpreted, and is still interpreted by some, as ne-
cessitating the ultimate “ heat-death ” of the universe and the final
extinction of activity of all sorts; for all hot bodies are observed
to be radiating away their heat, and this heat after having been
so radiated away into space apparently can not be reclaimed by man.
This is classically and simply stated in the humpty-dumpty rhyme.
As a natural if not necessary corollary to this was put forward
by some, in entire accord with the demands of medieval theology,
a Deus ex machina initially to wind up or start off this running-
down universe.

Then came, third, the discovery, through studies both in geology
and biology, of the facts of evolution—facts which showed that,
so far as the biological field is concerned, the process of creation,
or upbuilding from lower to higher forms, has been continuously

1 Retiring presidential address to the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, delivered at Cleveland on Dec. 29, 1930. Reprinted, with author’s revision, by
permission from Nature, vol. 127, No. 3196, Jan. 31, 19381.

217

278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

going on for millions upon millions of years and is presumably
going on now. ‘This tended to direct attention away from the Deus
ex machina, to identify the Creator with His universe, to strengthen
the theological doctrine of immanence, which represents substan-
tially the philosophic position of Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, New-
ton, Francis Bacon, and most of the great minds of history down
to Einstein.

Neither evolution nor evolutionists have in general been athe-
istic—Darwin least of all—but their influence has undoubtedly been
to raise doubts about the legitimacy of the dogma of the Deus ex
machina and of the correlative one of the heat-death. This last
dogma rests squarely on the assumption that we, infinitesimal mites
on a speck of a world, know all about how the universe behaves in
all its parts, or more specifically, that the radiation laws which
seem to us to hold here can not possibly have any exceptions any-
where, even though that is precisely the sort of sweeping generaliza-
tion that has led us physicists into error half a dozen times during
the past 30 years, and also though we know quite well that condi-
tions prevail outside our planet which we can not here duplicate or
even approach. ‘Therefore the heat-death dogma has always been
treated with reserve by the most thoughful of scientific workers. No
more crisp or more cogent statement of what seems to me to be the
correct position of science in this regard has come to my attention
than is found in the following recent utterance of Gilbert N. Lewis,
namely, “'Thermodynamics gives no support to the assumption that
the universe is running down. Gain of entropy always means loss
of information and nothing more.”

The fourth discovery bearing on our theme was the discovery
that the dogma of the immutable elements was definitely wrong. By
the year 1900 the element radium had been isolated and the mean
lifetime of its atoms found to be about 2,000 years. This meant def-
initely that the radium atoms that are here now have been formed
within about that time; and a year or two later the element helium
was definitely observed to be growing out of radium here and now.
This raised insistently the question as to whether the creation, or
at least the formation, of all the elements out of something else may
not be a continuous process—stupendous change in viewpoint the
discovery of radioactivity brought about, and a wholesome lesson
of modesty it taught to the physicist. But a couple of years later,
uranium and thorium, the heaviest known elements, were definitely
caught in the act of begetting radium, and all the allied chain of
disintegration products. Since, however, the lifetime of the parent
atom, uranium, has now been found to be a billion years or so, we

ATOMIC DISINTEGRATION——-MILLIKAN 279

have apparently ceased to inquire whence it comes. We are dis-
posed to assume, however, that it is not now being formed on earth.
Indeed, we have good reason to believe that the whole radioactive
process is confined to a very few, very heavy elements which are now
giving up the energy which was once stored up in them—we know
10¢ how—so that radioactivity, though it seemed at first to be point-
ing away from the heat-death, has not at all, in the end, done so.
Indeed, it seems to be merely one mechanism by which stored-up
energy is being frittered away into apparently unreclaimable radiant
heat—another case of humpty-dumpty.

The fifth significant discovery was the enormous lifetime of the
earth—partly through radioactivity itself, which assigns at least a
billion and a half years—and the still greater lifetime of the sun
and stars—thousands of times longer than the periods through which
they could possibly exist as suns if they were simply hot bodies
cooling off. This meant that new and heretofore unknown sources
of heat energy had to be found to keep the stars pouring out such
enormous quantities of radiation for such ages upon ages.

The sixth discovery, and in many ways the most important of all,
was the development of evidence for the interconvertibility of mass
and energy. ‘This came about in three ways. In 1901, Kaufman
showed experimentally that the mass of an electron could be increased
by increasing sufficiently its velocity; that is, energy could be
definitely converted into mass. About the same time the pressure
of radiation was experimentally established by Nichols and Hull at
Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, and Lebedew, at Moscow. This
meant that radiation possesses the only distinguishing property of
mass, the property by which we define it, namely, inertia. The
fundamental distinction between radiation and matter thus disap-
peared. These were direct, experimental discoveries. Next, in 1905,
Einstein developed the interconvertibility of mass and energy as a
necessary consequence of the special theory of relativity. If, then,
the mass of the sun could in any way be converted into radiant heat,
there would be an abundant source of energy to keep the sun going
so long as necessary, and all our difficulties about the lifetimes of the
sun and stars would have disappeared. But what could be the mech-
anism of this transformation ?

Then came the seventh discovery, which constituted a very clear
finger-post, pointing to the possibility of the existence of an integrat-
ing or building-up process among the physical elements, as well as
in biological forms, in the discovery that the elements are all defi-
nitely built up out of hydrogen; for they—the 92 different atoms—
were all found, beginning about 1918, by the new method of so-called
positive ray analysis, to be exact multiples of the weight of hydrogen

280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

within very small limits of uncertainty. This fact alone raises very
insistently the query as to whether they are not being built up some-
where out of hydrogen now. ‘They certainly were once so put to-
gether, and some of them, the radioactive ones, are now actually
caught in the act of splitting up. Is it not highly probable, so would
say any observer, that the inverse process is going on somewhere,
especially since the process would involve no violation either of the
energy principle or of the second law of thermodynamics; for hydro-
gen, the element out of which they all must be built, has not a
weight exactly one in terms of the other 92, but about 1 per cent
more than one, so that since mass or weight had been found in the
sixth discovery to be expressible in terms of energy, the union of
any number of hydrogen atoms into any heavier element, meant that
1 per cent of the total available potential energy had disappeared
and was therefore available for appearance as heat.

When, about 1914-15 this fact was fitted by MacMillan, Harkins,
and others into the demand made above in the fifth discovery for a
new source of energy to keep the sun pouring out heat so copiously
for such great lengths of time, it seemed to the whole world of
physics that the building up of the heavier elements out of hydrogen
under the conditions existing within the sun and stars had been
practically definitely proved to be taking place. This would not
provide an escape from the heat-death, but it would enormously
postpone it, that is, until all the hydrogen in the universe had been
converted into the heavier elements.

By this process, however, the suns could stoke at most but 1 per
cent of their total mass, assuming they were wholly hydrogen to
begin with, into their furnaces, and 99 per cent of the mass of the
universe would remain as cold, dead ash when the fires were all gone
out and the heat-death had come. But about 1917 the astronomer
began to chafe under the time limitation thus imposed upon him,
and this introduced the eighth consideration bearing upon our theme.
He could get a hundred times more time—from now on, much more
than that, because only a small fraction of the matter in the universe
is presumably now hydrogen—by assuming that, in the interior of
heavy atoms, occasionally a negative electron gets tired of life at the
pace it has to be lived in the electron world, and decides to end it all
and commit suicide; but, being paired by Nature in electron-fate
with a positive, he has to arrange a suicide pact with his mate, and so
the two jump into each other’s arms in the nucleus, and the two
complementary electron lives are snuffed out at once; but not with-
out the letting loose of a terrific death-yell, for the total mass of
the two must be transformed into a powerful ether pulse which, by
being absorbed in the surrounding matter, is supposed to keep up

ATOMIO DISINTEGRATION—MILLIKAN 281

the mad, hot pace in the interiors of the suns. This discovery, or
suggestion, to account for the huge estimated stellar lifetimes, of
the complete annihilation of positive and negative electrons within
the nucleus, makes it unnecessary to assume, at least for stellar life-
time purposes, the building up of the heavier elements out of hydro-
gen. Indeed, it seems rather unlikely that both kinds of processes,
atom-building and atom-annihilating, are going on together in the
same spot under the same conditions; so we must turn to further
experimental facts to get more light.

The ninth sign-post came into sight in 1927, when Aston made a
most precise series of measurements on the relative masses of the
atoms, which made it possible to subject to a new test the Einstein
formula for the relation between mass and energy, namely, “’=d/c’.
This Aston curve is one of the most illuminating finger-pointings
we now have. It shows that:

1. Einstein’s equation actually stands the quantitative test for
radioactive or disintegrating processes right well, and therefore
receives new experimental credentials.

2. The radioactive or disintegrating process with the emission
of an alpha ray must be confined to a very few heavy elements, since
these are the only ones so situated on the curve that mass can dis-
appear, and hence heat energy appear, through such disintegration.

3. All the most common elements, except hydrogen, are already
in their most stable condition; that is, their condition of minimum
mass, so that if we disintegrate them we shall have to do work upon
them, rather than get energy out of them.

4, Therefore, man’s only possible source of energy other than the
sun is the upbuilding of the common elements out of hydrogen or
helium, or else the entire annihilation of positive and negative elec-
trons; and there is no likelihood that either of these processes is a
possibility on earth.

5. If the foregoing upbuilding process is going on anywhere, the
least penetrating and the most abundant radiation produced by it,
that corresponding to the formation of helium out of hydrogen,
ought to be about 10 times as energetic as the hardest gamma rays,
that is, it ought to correspond to about twenty-seven million electron-
volts in place of two and a half million.

6. Other radiations corresponding to the only other abundant ele-
ments, namely, oxygen (oxygen, nitrogen, carbon), silicon (mag-
nesium, aluminum, silicon), and iron (iron group), should be found

282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

about 4 times, 7 times, and 14 times as energetic as the “ helium
rays.”

7. The radiation corresponding to the smallest annihilation process
that can take place—the suicide of a positive and negative electron—
is 350 times as energetic as the hardest gamma ray, or 35 times as
energetic as the “ helium ray.”

This brings us to the tenth discovery, that of the cosmic rays.
These reveal: ?

1. A radiation, the chief component of which, according to our
direct comparison, is five times as penetrating as the hardest gamma
ray, which, with the best extrapolation we can make on the curve
connecting energy and penetrating power, means a ray 10 times as
energetic as the hardest gamma ray, precisely according to prediction.

2. Special bands of cosmic radiation that are roughly where they
should be to be due to the formation of the foregoing abundant ele-
ments out of hydrogen, though (for reasons to be given presently)
no precise quantitative check is to be expected except in the case of
the helium rays.

3. No radiation of significant amount anywhere near where it is
to be expected from the annihilation hypothesis, thus indicating that
at least 95 per cent of the observed cosmic rays are due to some other
less energetic processes.

4. A radiation that is completely independent of the sun, the great
hot mass just off our bows, and not appreciably dependent on the
Milky Way or the nearest spiral nebula, Andromeda, one that comes
in to us practically uniformly from all portions of the celestial dome,
and is so invariable with both time and latitude at a given elevation
that the observed small fluctuations at a given station reflect with
much fidelity merely the changes in the thickness of the absorbing
air blanket through which the rays have had to pass to get to the
observer.

This last property is the most amazing and the most significant
property exhibited by the cosmic rays, and before drawing the final
conclusions its significance will be discussed. For it means that at
the time these rays enter the earth’s atmosphere, they are practically
pure ether waves or photons. If they were high-speed electrons or
even had been appreciably transformed by Compton encounters in
passing through matter into such high-speed electrons or beta rays,
these electrons would of necessity spiral about the lines of force of
the earth’s magnetic field and thus enter the earth more abundantly
near the earth’s magnetic poles than in lower latitudes. This is
precisely what the experiments made during the last summer at

2 See articles by Millikan and by Millikan and Cameron, Phys. Rev., Dec. 1, 1930, and
Feb. 1, 1931. Also Nature, Oct. 24, 1931.

ATOMIC DISINTEGRATION—MILLIKAN 283

Churchill, Manitoba (lat. 59° N.), within 730 miles of the north
magnetic pole, showed to be not true, the mean intensity of the rays
there being not measurably different from that at Pasadena in
latitude 34° N.

Nor is the conclusion that the cosmic rays enter the earth’s atmos-
phere as a practically pure photon beam dependent upon these meas-
urements of last summer alone. It follows also from the high alti-
tude sounding-balloon experiments of Millikan and Bowen in April,
1922, taken in connection with the lower balloon flights of Hess and
Kolhorster in 1911-1914. For in going to an altitude of 15.5 km we
got but one-fourth the total discharge of our electroscope which we
computed we should have obtained from the extrapolation of our
predecessors’ curves. This shows that somewhere in the atmosphere
below a height of 15.5 km the intensity of the ionization within a
closed vessel exposed to the rays goes through a maximum, and then
decreases, quite rapidly, too, in going to greater heights. We have
just taken very accurate observations up to the elevation of the top of
Pikes Peak (4.3 km), and found that within this range the rate of
increase with altitude is quite as large as that found in the Hess and
Kolhorster balloon flights, so that there can be no uncertainty at all
about the existence of this maximum. Such a maximum, however,
means that the rays, before entering the atmosphere, have not passed
through enough matter to begin to get into equilibrium with their
secondaries—electron-rays+or—, rays and photons of reduced fre-
quency—in other words, that they have not come through an appreci-
able amount of matter in getting from their place of origin to the
earth.

This checks with the lack of effect of the earth’s magnetic field on
the intensity of the rays; and the two phenomena, of quite unrelated
kinds and brought to light years apart, when taken together, prove
most conclusively, I think, that the cosmic rays can not originate even
in the outer atmospheres of the stars, though these are full of hydro-
gen and helium in a high-temperature state, but that they must origi-
nate rather in those portions of the universe from which they can
come to the earth without traversing matter in quantity that is ap-
preciable even as compared with the thickness of the earth’s atmos-
phere—in other words, that they must originate in the intensely cold
regions in the depths of interstellar space.

Further, the more penetrating the secondary rays produced by
photon encounters, the greater the thickness of matter that must be
traversed before the beam of pure photons which enters the atmos-
phere gets into equilibrium with its secondaries; and until such equi-
librium is reached, the apparent absorption coefficient must be less
than the coefficient computed for pure photons with the aid of any

284 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

formula from the energy released in the process from which the
radiation arises. Now the.Bothe-Kolhérster experiments of about a
year ago seem to show that when the energies of the incident photons
are sufliciently high, the rays are abnormally penetrating; so that
it is to be expected that, for the cosmic rays produced by the forma-
tion of the heavier of the common elements like silicon and iron out
of hydrogen, the observed absorption coefficients will be somewhat
smaller than those computed from the energy available for their
formation. This is indeed the behavior which our cosmic ray
depth-ionization curve seems to reveal. At the highest altitudes at
which we have recently observed (14,000 ft.), the helium rays have
reached equilibrium with their secondaries, and the observed and
computed coefficients agree reasonably well. For the oxygen rays
the observed coefficient is a little lower than the computed value—
about 17 per cent lower; for the silicon rays still lower—about 30
per cent; and for the iron rays considerably lower still—about 60 per
cent; all in general qualitative agreement with the theoretical de-
mands as outlined.

The foregoing results seem to point with some definiteness to the
following conclusions :

1. The cosmic rays have their origin not in the stars but rather in
interstellar space.

2. They seem to be due to the building up in the depths of space of
the commoner heavy elements out of hydrogen, which the spectroscopy
of the heavens shows to be widely distributed through space. That
helium and the common elements of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and
even sulphur, are also found between the stars is proved by Bowen’s
beautiful recent discovery that the “ nebulium lines ” arise from these
very elements.

3. These atom-building processes can not take place under the con-
ditions of temperature and pressure existing in the sun and stars,
the heats of these bodies having to be maintained presumably by
the atom-annihilating process postulated by Jeans and Eddington
as taking place there.

4, All this says nothing at all about the second law of thermo-
dynamics or the Wirme-Tod, but it does contain a bare suggestion
that if atom formation out of hydrogen is taking place all through
space, as it seems to be doing, it may be that the hydrogen is some-
how being replenished there, too, from the only form of energy that
we know to be all the time leaking out from the stars to interstellar
space, namely, radiant energy. This has been speculatively sug-
gested many times before, in order to allow the Creator to be con-
tinually on his job. Here is, perhaps, a little bit of experimental
finger-pointing in that direction. But it is not at all proved or even

ATOMIC DISINTEGRATION—MILLIKAN 285

perhaps necessarily suggested. If Sir James Jeans prefers to hold
one view and I another on this question, no one can say us nay.
The one thing of which we may all be quite sure is that neither of
us knows anything about it. But for the continuous building up of
the common elements out of hydrogen in the depths of interstellar
space the cosmic rays furnish considerable experimental evidence. I
am not unaware of the difficulties of finding an altogether satisfactory
kinetic picture of how these events take place, but acceptable and
demonstrable facts do not, in this twentieth century, seem to be dis-
posed to wait on suitable mechanical pictures. Indeed, has not mod-
ern physics thrown the purely mechanistic view of the universe root
and branch out of its house?

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ASSAULT ON ATOMS?

By ArtHur H. Compron

[With 2 plates]

Twenty-five hundred years ago, Thales, the first true scientist of
ancient Greece, undertook to solve the problem, “ Of what and how
is the world made? ” Almost a hundred generations have passed and
the problem is not yet solved.

Democritus and his followers thought they had found the solution.
Everything is made of atoms. “According to convention there is a
sweet and a bitter, a hot and a cold, and according to convention
there is color. In truth there are atoms and a void.” Thus, in terms
of motions of minute particles the ancient Atomists accounted for
their world. Mountains and seas, trees and people, even life and
thoughts, were thus explained.

But Socrates and Plato would have none of their atoms. Did they
not in Democritus’ hands rob men of their personality? Atoms are
thus worse than useless, for they destroy the basis of morality. Here
in Athens, around the question of atoms, was staged the first great
battle between science and religion. Epicurus and Lucretius took
up the cudgels on behalf of the atomists, but Plato carried the day,
and atoms were forgotten until the revival of scientific thought dur-
ing the Renaissance. Though our present day atomic theories are
based on much firmer foundations than those of Democritus, they
owe their origin to his ideas, transmitted down through the
centuries.

A few years ago we were camped beside a mountain lake in the
foothills of the Himalayas, studying cosmic rays. The warm air
from the plains of India was carried up over a range of mountains,
and came down again into the beautiful Vale of Kashmir. Clouds
were continually forming as the air, cooled by expansion as it came
up the mountain side, became supersaturated with moisture. But
after passing the peak of the range, the air was warmed by com-

1Read before the American Philosophical Society, Apr. 23, 1931. Reprinted by per-
mission from Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 70, No. 3, 1931.

287

288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

pression as it sank to lower levels, and the clouds evaporated into
thin air.

It was while watching such clouds in his native hills of Scotland
that C. T. R. Wilson conceived his beautiful laboratory experiments
on clouds. Of course he couldn’t bring the mountains into his
laboratory, but he could expand his moist air in a cylinder with a
piston at one end. He made his cylinder of glass in order to see
what was going on. I have one patterned after his design here in
my hand. Here are the glass top and sides, with the whole vessel
partially filled with inky water. There is a lamp beside the glass
cylinder so we can see better what is going on. I can compress the
air in the glass chamber by squeezing the bulb. We let the air
remain under this pressure for a moment, until it becomes saturated
with moisture, and then allow it to expand. As it expands the air
cools and a cloud forms in the chamber just as it did on the moun-
tain top.

Did it ever occur to you that, when a cloud forms, each little drop

of moisture in the cloud must condense on something? Usually it »

condenses on a speck of dust floating in the air, and after a rain-
storm these dust particles are carried to the ground and the air is
beautifully clear. But when the dust has been removed, what can
the drops condense on? ‘There are always in the air some broken
bits of atoms and molecules, which we call ions. These ions are
produced by rays from radioactive substances in the ground and
other sources. So, Mr. Wilson tried the experiment of placing a
speck of radium in his expansion chamber, to see what kind of
clouds would be formed. Let’s see what happens when we repeat
his experiment. ‘Those of you who are near enough will see the little
white lines radiating out from the tip of the glass rod which carries
the radium. ‘These little white lines are tiny clouds of water drops,
condensed on the ions left along the paths of particles shot out by
the radium. It is clear that particles of some kind are coming from
the radium. What are they?

A series of photographs will illustrate what is happening in this
chamber. A picture taken from above (pl. 1, fig. 1) shows the
glass walls of the chamber, and the rod on which the speck of
radium is placed. The more or less diffuse lines are the clouds of
water drops that mark the paths of the particles ejected from the
radium.

What are these particles? Let us call them alpha particles, in
order not to imply anything about what they are, and look into
their properties. Plate 1, Figure 2, shows a sharper photograph,
each line a thin straight cloud, marking the path of an alpha par-
ticle. Rutherford (recently made Lord Rutherford in recognition

a

ASSAULT ON ATOMS—COMPTON 289

of his work with atoms) caught a large number of these particles
to find out what they were when there are enough of them to handle.
Niton is a radio-active gas, a hundred thousand times as active as
radium. He compressed some of this gas into a fine glass tube with
walls so thin that the alpha particles would pass right through.
After a few days he noticed gas collecting in the space surrounding
this tube, and this gas he forced into a fine tube above. On passing
an electric discharge through the tube and looking through a spectro-
scope at the hght emitted, he saw the brilliant spectrum characteris-
tic of the gas helium.

Many of you know the romance of helium. Observed many years
ago by Lockyer in the spectrum of the sun, it remained unknown
on the earth for a generation until Rayleigh and Ramsay, making
a precise measurement of the density of the nitrogen in the air,
found it different from the nitrogen prepared in the laboratory.
Search for the cause of the discrepancy revealed a whole series of
new gases—argon with which our incandescent lamps are filled, neon
with which we advertise our wares in blazing red, helium with which
we now fill our dirigibles, and two others, krypton and xenon, which
are now of great value in certain laboratory experiments. Thus was
helium found, and here we see it being formed—the birth of helium
atoms. or these alpha particles are none other than atoms of
helium gas.

We can count these atoms one by one as they come from a prepara-
tion of radium. It might be done using an expansion chamber of
this type, and counting the tracks as they appear. A better method
is to allow the atoms to enter an electrical counting chamber. Each
particle then can make its record on a moving film, as we see in
Plate 1, Figure 3. Every little peak here marks the birth of a helium
atom from its parent radium.

Imagine that we have thus counted all the atoms of helium that
come through the walls of Rutherford’s glass tube, and make the
gas that he observed in his spectroscope. How many atoms would
we have? In a little glass bulb the size of a large pea, filled with
helium at atmosphere pressure, the number of atoms is about 1
with 19 ciphers after it. Perhaps that doesn’t mean much to you.
Let me put it this way. Two thousand years ago Julius Caesar gave
a dying gasp, “ Et tu Brute?” In the intervening millenniums the
molecules of air that he breathed out with that cry have been blown
around the world in ocean storms, washed with rains, warmed by
the sunshine, and dispersed to the ends of the earth. Of course only
a very small fraction of these molecules are now in this room; but
at your next breath each of you will probably inhale half a dozen or
so of the molecules of Caesar’s last breath.

290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Molecules and atoms are very tiny things; but there are so many
of them that they make up the world in which we live.

The story is told of Lord Kelvin, a famous Scotch physicist of the
last century, that after he had given a lecture on atoms and mole-
cules, one of his students came to him with the question, “ Professor,
what is your idea of the structure of the atom?” “ What,” said
Kelvin, “the structure of the atom? Why, don’t you know, the
very word ‘atom’ means the thing that can’t be cut. How, then,
can it have a structure? ”

“That,” remarks the facetious young man, “shows the disad-
vantage of knowing Greek.”

Does the atom have parts?

THE ELECTRON

Do you see the faint little trail at the bottom of Plate 1, Figure 4?
It appears to be due to something much smaller than the particle
which made the broad bright trail above it. If we called the one
an alpha particle, let us call the other a beta particle, and try to find
out what kind of thing it is.

Plate 1, Figure 5 shows a large number of these beta particles,
that have been knocked out of air molecules by the action of X rays.
You can see where the X rays passed through the middle of the
chamber. Now every substance has its own peculiar kind of atoms.
Tron atoms differ from oxygen atoms, and these from atoms of
carbon and so on. But these beta particles are all alike, as far as we
can tell, and they can be knocked out of anything. Had we put into
the chamber fried eggs or a platinum wrist watch, the same kind of
beta particles would have been observed. Thus beta particles are
things which go to make up all kinds of matter. They are more
fundamental even than atoms.

But what are these beta particles? In the first place they carry
an electric charge. Notice in Plate 2, Figure 1 how their trails
are curled up if a magnet is held near the expansion chamber. This
is because the moving electric charge acts like a wire carrying an
electric current, and the particles form the armatures of tiny electric
motors.

Professor Millikan, a member of our society, spent years at the
University of Chicago in measuring the charge carried by one of
these little particles. He built himself an electroscope in which a
tiny drop of oil took the place of the usual gold leaf, and he would
catch these beta particles on his oil drop. Every particle carried
the same charge, he found. It was also the same charge that a
hydrogen ion carries when water is dissociated into oxygen and
hydrogen by the passage of an electric current.

ASSAULT ON ATOMS—COMPTON 291

Because it carries this unit of electric charge, which seems to be an
indivisible unit, these beta particles were called electrons, and by
that name they have become familiar.

These electrons have been weighed, too, and their weight is found
to be very small indeed. The atom of hydrogen is the smallest atom
we know, and as we have seen, it is a very tiny thing. But an elec-
tron weighs only 1/1845 as much as does a hydrogen atom. Thus
we were correct in guessing that the beta particle which made the
faint trail was much smaller than the alpha particle that made the
broad bright streak on an earlier photograph.

The electron is indeed one of the components of which the atom is
built. We can in fact count the number of electrons that each atom
has. Hydrogen has 1 electron, helium 2, lithium 3, and so on. Oxy-
gen has 8 electrons in each atom, iron 26, and uranium, the heaviest
atom of all, has 92 electrons.

THE NUCLEUS AND THE PROTON

But this is only a part of the story. The electrons are all par-
ticles of negative electricity. The atom itself is electrically neutral,
and must therefore have in it some positive electricity to neutralize
the negative electrons. If time were available, I should describe for
you the beautiful experiments carried out by Rutherford and Aston
in Cambridge, Dempster at the University of Chicago, and others,
which have shown that this positive electricity is concentrated in a
very small nucleus, which though much smaller in size that the atom
has yet nearly all the atom’s weight.

The careful experiments of Dempster and Aston have shown that
the weights of the nuclei of the various atoms, such as oxygen, nitro-
gen, sodium, and the rest, are whole multiples of a unit which is
nearly equal to the weight of the hydrogen nucleus. This suggested
that the various atomic nuclei are built up of hydrogen nuclei. This
idea was supported by the fact that the electric charge carried by
the various atomic nuclei is always an integral multiple of the
charge carried by hydrogen nucleus.

Many attempts have been made to make one element out of an-
other. This is in fact the old problem of alchemy, to make gold out
of lead. ‘The first success was got by Rutherford. He didn’t get
gold out of lead; but he did get hydrogen out of nitrogen and out of
aluminum and other elements.

The experiment can best be shown using again our cloud expan-
sion apparatus, as has been done for example by our fellow member,
Professor Harkins. Plate 2, Figure 2 shows a group of alpha
particles shooting through nitrogen gas. Most of them go straight

102992—32——20

292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

to the end of the path, and this is remarkable, for each alpha passes
right through tens of thousands of nitrogen atoms before its flight
is stopped. But here we see a really surprising occurrence. The
alpha particle dives into a nitrogen atom, and out of it emerges a
smaller particle, which goes out leaving a thin straight trail. The
nitrogen nucleus with the alpha particle now attached moves heavily
along in a different direction. The alpha particle has served as a
hammer to knock a hydrogen nucleus out of a nitrogen atom.

Similar experiments have been done with many other elements,
and most of the lighter ones have thus been disintegrated, expelling
always a hydrogen nucleus. Thus we may take this nucleus, like the
electron, as a component of which the various atoms are built. We
give to the hydrogen nucleus now the name of proton, 1. e., the origi-
nal or fundamental thing. Out of protons and electrons we believe
all the 92 different kinds of atoms are built.

HOW THE ATOM IS BUILT

Old Ptolemy, the ancient Greek astronomer, knew that there was
a sun and a moon, the earth, and the planets, but he didn’t know
what the solar system is. When Copernicus and Galileo showed,
however, that there is a sun, around which revolve planets in definite
orbits, then men felt that they had become acquainted with their
world. So, though we have found the parts of which the atom is
made, we really don’t know the atom until we know how these parts
are put together.

Perhaps the best way to find out how something is made is to
look at it. If it is something like a watch, which we can hold in
our hands, this is comparatively easy. If it is the cell structure
of a muscle that we wish to examine, we put it under a microscope.
But some things are too small to see, even in a microscope. By using
ultra-violet light of wave length shorter than ordinary light, we can
photograph such things as typhoid bacilli with increased sharpness.
But atoms are too small even for this.

Now, X rays have a wave length only a ten-thousandth that of
light, and if we could use them in a microscope it should be pos-
sible for us to observe even the tiny atoms. Unfortunately, we can
not make lenses that will refract X rays, and even if we could,
our eyes are not sensitive to X rays. So it would seem that we
shall never be able to see an atom directly.

It is nevertheless possible for us in the laboratory to get by more
round-about methods precisely the same information about an atom
that we should if we could look at it with an X-ray microscope.
I have spent a large part of the last 16 years trying to find what
the atom looks like, and it has become something of a game with me.

ASSAULT ON ATOMS—COMPTON 293

Last summer while spending a brief vacation in northern Mich-
igan, I noticed a fuzzy ring, not very large, around the moon. Half
an hour later the ring was perceptibly smaller, and within an hour
we had to come in out of the rain.

This ring was due to the diffraction of the moonlight by tiny
water droplets that were beginning to form a cloud. The size of
the ring depends upon the size of the water drops—if the drops are
small, the ring is big, and vice versa. So when the ring grew smaller
it meant that the drops were growing larger. Soon they would fall
as rain.

Our method of studying atoms is very similar to this method of
finding out the size of the droplets in a cloud. Instead of the moon
we use an X-ray tube, and in place of the cloud of water droplets
we use the atoms in air or helium. For the wave length of the X
rays bears about the same ratio to the size of a helium atom that
a light wave bears to a droplet of water in a fog. The helium atoms
spread the X rays out into a halo. This halo, now of X rays scat-
tered by the helium atoms, corresponds precisely to the ring around
the moon diffracted by the cloud droplets. Likewise here, from the
diameter of this halo, we can estimate the size of the helium atom.
We can also tell pretty much what it looks lke, just as if the atom
were under the microscope.

Plate 2, Figure 3, shows how the helium atom would look if we
were to see it with an X-ray microscope. The picture is drawn
carefully from the data we have got from the diffraction halos.
Of course, it is highly magnified, about a thousand million times.
Such a magnification would make a pea appear as big as the earth.

In the middle of this fuzzy ball somewhere is the nucleus of the
helium atom, which has in it the protons. This fuzzy atmosphere is
due to the electrons. We noted above that the helium atom has only
two electrons in it. You may wonder how with only two electrons
the atom can seem so diffuse. Did you ever see the boys on the
Fourth of July waving the sparklers to make circles or figures eight?
Of course the sparklers weren’t in the form of circles; they appeared
that way because they moved so fast. So here, the electrons give this
continuous, diffuse appearance to the atom because they are now
here and now there, and we have caught a “time exposure ” of their
average positions. This is, of course, what we would see if we could
look at the atom.

There have been 57 varieties of atomic theories proposed. Lord
Kelvin thought the atom was something like a smoke ring; J. J.
Thomson said it was a sphere of jelly. Rutherford called it a
miniature solar system, while Bohr and Sommerfeld calculated pre-

294 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

cisely the orbits of the planetary electrons revolving about the central
nucleus. Lewis and Langmuir objected, and said the atom is a cube.
“ Not so, it’s a tetrahedron,” claimed Lande. ‘“ Quite a mistake; it’s
a diffuse atmosphere of electricity around a central core,” says
Schrédinger. “Only it isn’t diffuse electricity,” complains Heisen-
berg, “ It’s electrons moving now here, now there, which make up this
atmosphere.”

Each of these theories has found support in that it has explained
certain physical or chemical or spectroscopic properties of atoms.
For the most part, each theory has been better than the one before,
because it has explained the things which the earlier one described
and some new thing as well. It may seem over-optimistic to suppose
that there is anything final about the most recent theory. Yet the
fact remains that there is one and only one such picture, namely,
that of Heisenberg, that describes what we find when with our
“X-ray eyes ” we look into the atom.

Does this mean that the problem of the structure of the atom is
solved? Not yet! We feel that we know in general outline what
this electron atmosphere of the atom is like; but there’s the nucleus
of the atom. What is it like?

“What’s the idea of bringing that up?” you ask me. “ Surely
that little nucleus isn’t big enough to amount to anything! ”

It is the nucleus of the radium atom from which the alpha par-
ticles came. Did it occur to you that those alpha particles carry a
tremendous amount of energy? It is about a million times as much
as is released when a molecule of TNT explodes. It is only be-
cause they are liberated one at a time that the alpha particles make
* so little impression. ,

Did you ever pause to wonder where all the energy of the sun
comes from which it is pouring out as heat? If it were made of
pure coal burning in oxygen, the sun could shine with its present
brilliance for only a few thousand years, less than the era of his-
tory, before it would be reduced to a cinder. Even if it were com-
posed of uranium or radium, and got its heat from their disintegra-
tion, it would last only for a few billion years, which is about the
age of our own earth; yet our geological records indicate no change
in the sun’s brightness over this vast period. The best astronomical
evidence indicates that the sun must be at least a thousand billion
years old. What is the enormous supply of energy which has kept
it hot for so long a time? Professor McMillan has pointed out that
apparently the only way to explain the sun’s long life is to suppose
that the sun is consuming itself. If under the extreme pressure
and temperature of the sun’s interior the electrons and protons in
an atom should come together and neutralize each other, all of their

ASSAULT ON ATOMS—COMPTON 295

energy would be liberated and add to the sun’s heat. Such a proc-
ess would release energy almost beyond belief. From five drops of
water, if we could thus squeeze out all the energy, we should be
able to run all the power stations in Philadelphia for 24 hours.

Is it possible for man to tap these great stores of energy? We
do not know. We know the energy is there, and the evidence is
strong that it is being liberated in the sun and stars. But under
what conditions? Perhaps we can not realize the proper conditions
here on the earth. In any case it is our job—the physicists’ job,
that is—to find out whether this energy can be used, and, if so, how.

If we are to find the conditions for the release of these vast stores
of energy, we must acquaint ourselves with the atomic nucleus, for
it is there that the energy hes. Studies of the band spectra of mole-
cules have shown us something about the rotation of the nucleus.
The masses of the nuclei and their electric charges have been
measured by the help of magnetic spectrographs and scattered
X rays. Attempts have been made to disintegrate atomic nuclei by
bombardment with high speed electrons shot by high voltages. But
by far the most fruitful tool for studying the nucleus has been
radioactivity.

Experiments with scattered alpha rays have shown the minute
size and relatively large mass of the nucleus. They have enabled us
to measure its charge and even to estimate the field of electric force
initsneighborhood. Further information on the latter point is given
by the speed with which the alpha particles are ejected from the
radioactive nucleus. Combining the evidence from these alpha ray
experiments, it becomes evident that surrounding the nucleus there
is a “ potential wall ” which prevents alpha particles that are outside
from entering the nucleus and those on the inside from escaping. We
are thus afforded a basis for developing a quantum theory of radio-
active disintegration according to which the probability of an alpha
particle jumping this wall is greater if it has large energy, and a
qualitative explanation of one of the fundamental laws of radioac-
tivity is obtained. Studies of the sharpness of gamma ray lines
suggest a nucleus in which planetary alpha particles correspond to
the electrons of the outer atom; though how these particles are held
together remains unknown. Similarly the condition of the electrons
in the nucleus remains unsolved. There is no gamma radiation that
can be traced to these electrons, and when they appear as beta par-
ticles their energies are distributed over broad bands. Though much
new light is shed by these studies in radioactivity, the nucleus of
the atom, with its hoard of energy, thus continues to present us with
a fascinating mystery.

296 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Thus our assault on atoms has broken down the outer fortifications.
We feel that we know the fundamental rules according to which the
outer part of the atom is built. The appearance and properties of
the electron atmosphere are rather familiar. Yet that inner citadel,
the atomic nucleus, remains unconquered, and we have reason to
believe that within this citadel is secreted a great treasure. Its cap-
ture may form the main objective of the physicists’ next great drive.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Compton PLATE 1

0

1, Tracks of alpha particles (helium atoms) made visible by condensing clouds along their paths (Wilson);
2, helium atoms ejected from radium (Wilson); 3,counting atoms. Each peak marks the entrance of one
helium atom into the counting chamber (Geiger and Rutherford); 4, trails of alpha and beta particles
(Wilson); 5, beta particles ejected from air by X rays (Wilson)

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Compton PLATE 2

3

1, Beta particles (electrons) curved by magnetic field (Skobeltzyn);
2, alpha particle knocking hydrogen nucleus out of nitrogen atom
(Blackett); 3, ‘‘appearance’’ of a helium atom, as found by X rays
(Langer)

TWO-WAY TELEVISION *

3y Hersert BH. Ives
Electro-Optical Research Director, Bell Telephone Laboratories

[With 6 plates]

Ever since the initial demonstration of television both by wire and
by radio at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1927, experimental work
has been steadily pursued in order to learn the problems and the
possibilities of this newest branch of electrical communication. ‘The
latest development to be demonstrated is that of two-way television
as an adjunct to the telephone. As a result of our development
work, there is now ? set up an experimental and demonstration system
between the headquarters building of the American Telephone &
Telegraph Co. at 195 Broadway and the building of the Bell Tele-
phone Laboratories at 463 West Street, New York City, 2 miles
away. This system makes it possible to experiment with a method
of communication in which the parties engaged not only speak with
each other but at the same time see each other. Study of this
system will serve to give information on the importance of the
addition of sight to sound in communication and will give valuable
experience in handling the technical problems involved.

In principle the 2-way television system consists of two complete
systems of the same sort as those used for 1-way transmission in the
demonstration from Washington to New York City in 1927. In
place of a scanning disk and set of photo-electric cells at one end
for generating the television signals and a single disk and neon lamp
at the receiving end for viewing the image, there are in the 2-way
system two disks at each end and a bank of photo-electric cells
and a neon lamp at each end. One of the disks, which in the sys-
tem as constructed, is of 21-inch diameter, serves to direct the scan-
ning beam from an are lamp onto the face of one of the parties
to the conversation. Three banks of photo-electric cells, making 12
in all, are arranged at either side and above the person’s face and
serve to pick up the reflected light and generate the television signals.

1 Reprinted by permission from a pamphlet issued by the Bell Telephone Laboratories.

2 Apr. 9, 1930.

297

298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The second disk, which is 30 inches in diameter, is placed below
the sending disk and exposes through its holes the neon lamp, which
the observer sees through a magnifying lens in a position slightly
below that of the scanning beam. This neon lamp is, of course,
actuated by the signals coming in from the distant end of the
system, where there is a similar arrangement of two disks, photo-
electric cells, and neon lamp.

The two parties to the conversation take their places in sound-
proof and light-proof booths, where, sitting in front of the photo-
electric cells, they look at the image of the person at the other end

TRANS MICROPHONE
K

FieurRE 1.—Two-way television is essentially the same in principle as the television
demonstrated three years ago. A beam of light from an arc light is thrown by a
scanning disk on the speaker’s face, and reflected light is picked up by photoelectric
cells and transmitted electrically to the distant end. The incoming image is seen
by means of the lower scanning disk and a neon tube. A concealed microphone and
loud speaker act as speech terminal elements to complete the television-telephone
system

at the same time that the scanning beam plays over their faces. A
problem of illumination is immediately encountered in that the
scanning beam is of necessity intensely bright and tends to dazzle
the eyes to the extent that the somewhat faint neon lamp image is
hard to see. This difficulty is met by using light for scanning to
which the photo-electric cells are extremely sensitive, but to which
the human eye is relatively insensitive, that is, blue hght. By inter-
posing a filter in the path of the scanning beam, the spot of light in
the lens which projects it is seen as a blue disk of light not bright
enough to interfere with clear vision of the neon lamp which
provides the image of the person located at the distant end.

TELEVISION—IVES 299

In our original demonstrations of 1-way television, scanning disks
were used which had 50 holes arranged in a spiral. With this num-
ber of holes it is possible to secure a definitely recognizable repre-
sentation of the human face. It was decided, however, that for the
2-way system a degree of definition should be provided such that
faces were rendered in an entirely recognizable and satisfactory man-
ner. Accordingly the number of scanning holes has been increased
to 72, which provides just twice the number of image elements.
The transmission band is, of course, doubled by this change, requir-
ing wire connections of considerably higher quality than heretofore.
When a 72-hole scanning disk is used, the component frequencies of
the image signal encompass a range of from 10 cycles to 40,000
cycles per second, whereas intelligible speech may be reproduced by
a signal wave whose component frequencies cover a range of 2,500
cycles per second. This comparison indicates roughly how much
more difficult it is to transmit high-quality television images than
it is to transmit ordinary speech. In general the electrical features
of the apparatus are similar to those previously used, although in the
interval improvements and refinements have been made in many
directions.

Light reflected into the photo-electric cells gives rise to an alter-
nating electric current whose effective value is of the order of a
ten-thousand-millionth ampere. The neon glow lamp on which the
image is received at the distant station reproduces the image satis-
factorily when the effective value of the alternating current is of
the order of one-tenth ampere. This thousand-millionfold increase
in current variation, considerably greater than required for the
earlier 1-way system, is effected by amplifiers in which the vacuum
tubes are coupled by condensers and resistances. The tubes, which
operate at low energy levels, are shielded against electrical, mechani-
cal, and acoustical interference.

For the transmission of images between 463 West Street and 195
Broadway, the appropriate stages of the amplifier systems are cou-
pled by special transformers to telephone cable circuits equipped
with special distortion correcting networks which are capable of
transmitting the extremely complex current variations without dis-
tortion. The amounts of distortion inherent in other parts of the
system are either kept small by design or annulled by means of cor-
recting networks.

An indispensable part of a television system is the means for hold-
ing several scanning disks accurately at the same speed. For the
2-way television system, a simplified and improved synchronizing
arrangement is used. ‘The disks at the receiving and transmitting
ends, which rotate at a speed of 18 revolutions per second, are

300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

synchronized by means of a vacuum tube oscillator located at one
end of the line and delivering a frequency of 1,275 cycles per sec-
ond at a low-power level. This frequency is transmitted over a
separate pair of wires. At the receiving end this frequency, through
vacuum tube means, controls the field strength of the motor and
thereby holds its speed exactly proportional to the frequency. In
the same way, the speed of the motor at the transmitting end is
controlled by a similar vacuum tube circuit so that its speed is also
proportional to the frequency of the same oscillator, and thus the
motors driving the scanning disks at both ends of the line are held
in synchronism. By using a frequency of 1,275 cycles per second,
the degree of synchronization is held within sufficiently close limits to
keep the picture at the receiving end central within its frame within
a small fraction of the picture width. Novel features of this syn-
chronizing system are the use of mechanically damping couplings
between the disks and the motor shafts to improve the steadiness of
the image, and of an electrical phase shifter for framing the images.

The acoustic portion of the 2-way television system is unusual
in that it permits simultaneous 2-way conversation without re-
quiring either person to make any apparent use of telephone in-
struments. It is obviously desirable to arrange the acoustic system
in this way because the ordinary telephone instrument conceals part
of the face and would thus prevent the system from approximating
to the conditions of ordinary face-to-face conversation. The elimi-
nation of telephone instruments is accomplished by the use of a
microphone sensitive to remote sounds and a loud speaker concealed
near the television image at each station. The microphone at one
station is connected through suitable vacuum-tube amplifiers and a
telephone circuit to the loud speaker at the other station. This
permits conversation in one direction while a similar connection
between the other microphone and loud speaker permits conversa-
tion in the other direction. The persons using the system then
communicate as if face to face and with no telephone system appar-
ently involved.

In order that the transmitted sounds’be familiar and natural, dis-
tortion in the sound-transmission system has been reduced to a
minimum. The microphones are of the condenser type used exten-
sively in radio broadcasting and sound-picture recording. Being of
small size, they are readily concealed near the television image in
the most advantageous position for picking up the voice. The loud
speaker, also of small size but capable of reproducing a broad fre-
quency range, is likewise concealed near the television image, so
that the sounds produced appear to emanate from the image itself.

TELEVISION—IVES 301

This loud speaker is of the moving coil type with a small piston
diaphragm.

In any system such as that described, the microphone is not capable
of distinguishing between the sounds from the local speaker or from
a speaker at the remote end of the circuit reproduced locally by the
jocal loud speaker. If the sounds from the local loud speaker
should be impressed upon the local microphone in sufficient magni-
tude, “ singing ” would result, and the system be no longer operable.
To prevent this the microphone and the loud speaker are installed
in carefully chosen positions and the inner surfaces of the sound-
proof booths are specially treated to prevent as much as possible
the reflection of sounds from the walls into the microphone. Under
these conditions, the attenuation of sounds transmitted is of about
the same magnitude as would be experienced if the listener were,
say, 10 or 12 feet away, but in the same room. This acoustic illusion
of distance is in harmony with the visual appearance of the television
image.

In addition to the television synchronizing and acoustic circuits,
others are provided for signaling and monitoring purposes. Matters
are so arranged that an operator can see both the outgoing and in-
coming image, and by means of movable lens and prism systems
can insure that the scanning beam is properly directed to correspond
to the height of the observer, and that the magnifying lens in front
of the receiving disk directs the image to the observer’s eyes.

Operating arrangements are made so that the two parties to the
conversation, after taking their positions in the booths, do not see
or hear each other until adjustments are made, whereupon the
operators expose the images and connect the talking circuits simul-
taneously. The experimental service is arranged on an appointment
basis. The two parties to the conversation, having arranged with
attendants at the two stations for their time, proceed to the respective
booths, where they are ushered into chairs in position before the
photoelectric cells and instructed as to the operation of the system.
Immediately the attendant closes the booth door, the operators make
the necessary adjustments; and the simultaneous sight and sound
communication is carried on until, upon the parties leaving their
chairs, the connections are interrupted.

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Smithsonian Report, 1931.—lves PLATE 4

CONTROL FOR THE TELEVISION-TELEPHONE APPARATUS IS MOUNTED ON THREE
PANELS

A. W. Horton and M. W. Baldwin, engineers of Bell Telephone Laboratories, are shown monitoring
circuits.

Smithsonian Report, 193!1.—Ives PLATE 5

INTERIOR OF TELEVISION BOOTH SHOWING POSITION OF INCOMING IMAGE AND,
JUST ABOVE IT, THE HOLE THROUGH WHICH THE SCANNING BEAM IS PRO-
JECTED

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Ives PLATE 6

CLOSE-UP VIEW OF SCANNING DISKS, NEON LAMPS, AND THE ARRANGEMENT
FOR SUPERVISION

RESEARCH CORPORATION AWARDS TO A. E. DOUG-
LASS AND ERNST ANTEVS FOR RESEARCHES IN
CHRONOLOGY

(Presentation at Smithsonian Institution, Washington, December 18, 1931)

REMARKS OF DR. C. G. ABBOT,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution

Mr. Cuter Justice, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: The Research Corporation of
New York is probably the only organization of its kind in existence. It sprang
from the desire of a scientist to have the fruit of his scientific labors capitalized
for the promotion of research. In 1911 Dr. Frederick G. Cottrell, then chief
physical chemist, later director, of the United States Bureau of Mines, and his
associates offered their invention for the electrical precipitation of suspended
particles to the Smithsonian Institution for the benefit of science. As the Insti-
tution could not well undertake the development of a matter so likely to have
commercial and legal complications, Dr. Charles D. Walcott, then Secretary of
the Smithsonian, undertook with Doctor Cottrell to enlist the aid of public-
spirited: men of Boston and New York City to organize a nonprofit-sharing cor-
poration for the development of the patents, and in 1912 the Research Corpora-
tion was formed.

Its purposes are to acquire inventions and patents and make them more ayail-
able in the arts and industries, while using them as a source of income, and,
second, to apply all profits from such use to the advancement of technical and
scientific investigation and experimentation. The Research Corporation has
succeeded financially so that it has built up a reserve and given large funds to
scientific work. Among grants made by the corporation are several to the
Smithsonian Institution for work on solar radiation and its influence on plants
and animals; to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research, at Heidel-
berg, to carry on eancer research; to the International Auxiliary Language
Association for linguistic research; to Harvard University, Columbia University,
Leland Stanford Junior University, Pennsylvania State College, and the Stevens
Institute of Technology, in support of various projects. A grant was made to
the National Research Council to assist in the publication of one of the volumes
of the “International Critical Tables.” A recent grant has been made to the
University of California to make possible the installation of an 85-ton magnet,
through which it is hoped to promote the study of atomic structure.

As the charter of the Research Corporation provides that its awards shall be
made through scientific institutions, the directors have seen fit in this instance
to make their awards to Messrs. Douglass and Antevs through the Smithsonian
Institution. These awards were voted as of the fiscal year 1930.

The awards to Doctor Douglass and Doctor Antevs are the fourth and fifth
of their kind made by the Research Corporation. The first, in 1925, went to

303

304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Dr. John J. Abel, of the Johns Hopkins University, for his work on ductless
glands, animal tissues, and fluids. The second, in 1929, went to Dr. Werner
Heisenberg, of the University of Leipzig, for his contribution to matrix mechan-
ics and for his exposition of the principle of indeterminance; and the third,
also in 1929, to Dr. Bergen Davis, of Columbia University, for the contribution
of the Davis double X-ray spectrometer and other brilliant achievements in the
field of atomic physics.

It is indeed a pleasure to have the Research Corporation represented on this
platform by its president, Mr. Poillon, and by its founder, Doctor Cottrell, and
to have the Smithsonian Institution represented by its chancellor, the Hon.
Charles Evans Hughes, Chief Justice of the United States, who will now present
the awards.

[After extemporaneous remarks by Mr. Elon Hooker, a director
and past president of the Research Corporation, Doctor Abbot
continued |:

I have the honor, ladies and gentlemen, to present Chief Justice Charles
Evans Hughes.

REMARKS OF CHIEF JUSTICE CHARLES EVANS HUGHES
Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution

Doctor Douciass: You have been diligently engaged for nearly 30 years in
making exact measurements of conditions of former centuries as they stand
recorded in the growth of ancient trees. You have pursued these studies in
many lands. You have devised ingenious instruments to further your re-
searches. Your work has been crowned with success in several directions.
You have found evidences of periodicities in weather which seem to imply cor-
responding periodicities in the radiation of the sun. You have established an
exact chronology for more than a thousand years, thus dating the prehistoric
culture of the Indians of the Southwest from the timber rings of their habi-
tations.

In recognition of these achievements, the Research Corporation of New York
has awarded to you through the Smithsonian Institution a grant of $2,500. In
token of this award, I now, as chancellor of that Institution, hand you this
commemorative medal, and wish for you equal success in your future researches.

TREE RINGS AND THEIR RELATION TO SOLAR VARIATIONS AND
CHRONOLOGY

By A. E. Dovuerass, University of Arizona
[With 5 plates]

The studies of tree rings described in this paper touch closely upon
several major sciences. This is because annual rings, like annual
varves, measure the passage of years, and time is a prime considera-
tion in all branches of knowledge. Hence we find ourselves at once

CHRONOLOGY—DOUGLASS AND ANTEVS 305

making contact with botany and its associated sciences, with meteor-
ology, and especially climatology and astronomy; with anthropology,
geology, and mathematics.

At the outset I wish gratefully to acknowledge my obligation to
the Carnegie Institution for its important support of these clima-
tological studies since 1915. Especial thanks are expressed here to
the National Geographic Society, through whose valued assistance
the archeological material has been obtained, which has carried south-
western climatic and historic records back to 700 A. D. The Amer-
ican Museum of Natural History assisted in the first collection of
prehistoric material. The Museum of Northern Arizona has given
great help in field work and laboratory space; C. G. White gave
funds for building the cyclograph; the University of Arizona has
helped fundamentally by reducing teaching obligations; and now
the Research Corporation of New York, through the Smithsonian
Institution, has contributed its generous and highly appreciated
award, for which encouragement I hereby express my sincere
gratitude.

ORIGIN OF RESEARCHES

The study of tree rings began in 1901 as an astronomical investi-
gation based on the hypothesis that the sun affects weather and
weather affects trees, hence there is expectation of finding a history
of sun-spot variations in the annual rings of trees. This is especially
likely in a cool, dry climate like that of northern Arizona, where
moisture is vital to all vegetation and where winter gives annually
an emphatic resting period in the life of each tree. By 19138 precise
dating of rings had been established and a new method of analysis
had disclosed long-continued sequences of what appeared to be the
1lj-year solar cycle in the pines of Arizona. The failure of this
sequence from about 1670 to 1720 caused serious questioning of its
reality. The results, however, were published in 1919, with mention
of this failure. But three years later Dr. E. Walter Maunder, of
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, communicated his work on the
historical study of sun spots, from which he deduced a great dearth
of them from 1645 to 1715. This dearth coincides closely with the
failure of the trees to show this cycle.

While this cycle in the Arizona pines was evident and sometimes
conspicuous, 1t was accompanied by other cycles, often of equal and
sometimes of superior importance. For years this was puzzling and
it was only in the end of 1926 that the possible relation of these other
cycles to the sun-spot cycle was discovered, as will be mentioned
below.

306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931
FUNDAMENTALS

In any study of tree rings, cross dating between different trees is
of the first importance. This means the careful identification of
each ring in different trees and the location and correction of all
mistakes in each. "I’hus dates are carried from tree to tree and the
exact year of growth of each ring is firmly established. Upon this
depends directly the great precision in dating rings which many
people, I am sure, fail to realize.

But cross dating does more than this. A single tree tells its own
story, which may contain accidental errors. But when many trees
agree with each other in successive variations over long intervals
of time, then some common factor which continuously influences the
whole forest is emerging. It is safe to regard this as climatic in
character. Pests and fires and falling trees are local or temporary
and reveal their identity. High ridges, steep slopes, and bottom
lands produce effects on trees, but such effects may be identified by
comparison of trees in different surface conditions. Climate, with
its story of limited change from year to year, is the factor which
emerges when large numbers of trees are compared.

As yet the interpretation of the story told by rings is only partly
understood. A few very limited localities reveal their secrets. In
northern Arizona and New Mexico, the semiarid pueblo area of the
archeologists, conditions point rather clearly to rainfall as the con-
trolling factor among the yellow pines, for that area includes the
lower forest border which separates the successful forest from the
deserts. Actual tests at Prescott on the western edge of this same
lower border show a very close relationship between tree growth and
rainfall. The similarity of growth curves in different portions of
this border, hundreds of miles apart, is amazing.

As one goes nearer the center of the forest the rings become less
sensitive, that is, more complacent or equal in growth. The changes
from ring to ring are less abrupt. At the uppermost limits of the
forest, near 9,000 feet in elevation, the pines have lost the principal
changes due to rainfall and have acquired other less marked varia-
tions, doubtless largely dependent on temperature. It was the
preference of the prehistoric Indians for locations on the lower and
drier forest border which made the dating of their ruins much
sasier than might have happened.

The giant Sequoia likewise has proved a tree of the greatest im-
portance, for cross dating can be carried continuously through al-
most every tree in all the groves. The rings are more complacent
than those of the Arizona pines, but the sequences are so long that
it is always possible to include and identify a number of telltale

CHRONOLOGY—DOUGLASS AND ANTEVS 307

rings, which by their small size denote drought years. The coast
redwood is less satisfactory, but is now receiving adequate study.
Earlier groups of these important trees proved to be total failures
in cross dating, but a personal inspection of the forests last summer
showed at once that the lower parts of the trees are so subject to
erratic growth from fires and wind strains that cross dating close
to the stump, as is usually done, is utterly out of the question. How-
ever, it was evident at once that higher portions of the trunk would
be less subject to these injuries and we are actually now succeeding
in cross dating between the tops of these trees. Yet, even so, they are
not so easily dated as the species already mentioned. That could be
due in part to their much divided allegiance, namely, to the rains
of winter, the fogs of summer, and their almost continuous growing
season throughout the year.

Trees in north Germany cross date very readily; also trees at the
Arctic Circle in north Sweden. The pines of central and southern
Sweden do not match as well as hoped, but the spruces cross date
accurately. It is logical to suppose that trees in southern Europe or
northern Africa could be cross dated as in our corresponding lati-
tudes here. Thus many points in widely separated parts of the
northern and southern hemispheres are almost certain to give results
that will supply valuable climatic information. There is no doubt
that the interpretation of ring width in different climatic regions
needs a vast amount of detailed study, including the establishment of
meteorological stations within the forests chiefly concerned.

While many regions give interlacing cycles apparently related to
the 11-year cycle, certain regions give the 11-year variation without
complications. The trees of north Europe, especially near the Baltic
Sea, give a very perfect example of this since 1830 in curves whose
maxima and minima coincide with those of the sun-spot numbers.

CYCLE ANALYSIS

Analysis of tree records has been done chiefly by the cyclograph
process, which depends upon a pattern called the cyclogram, in which
one can see at once not only the length but also the beginning and
ending of each cycle, its steadiness or variability, its change of phase,
its composition, and to a considerable extent its amplitude.

The process could be described as an interference between an
approximately perfect period engraved on glass in the form of
parallel, equally spaced lines and the observed maxima extended into
parallel bands by a cylindrical lens. These two systems of parallels
are set at an angle of about 12° to each other. In the pattern pro-
duced by the transmission of the latter through the former, the ob-

102992—32——_21

308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

served through the exact, different cycles appear in the form of
interference bands in different directions, according to their length.
Thus the cycles are automatically separated. Suitable range is se-
cured by interposing a movable mirror between the curve and the
lens and the cycle length may be read directly from the position of
the mirror.

The method has great rapidity and flexibility in cycle exploration
and in the separation of mixed cycles. On several occasions 42 differ-
ent curves averaging 175 units in length have in three hours been
analyzed for all cycles between 5.5 and 40 units by one observer.
The use of this method has led me to believe that harmonics or in-
tegral parts of a fundamental are not suited to the expression of
climatic cycles. Nor are we justified in assuming the sine curves
that are used in harmonic analysis.

CYCLES IN MODERN TREE GROWTH

Some 52,000 measures have been made on 305 modern pines in the
western United States. Their growth curves were divided into 42
groups and analyzed. In the general summary the cycles appear
in a great majority of cases to be simple fractions of two or three
times the sun-spot cycle. This result, reached in 1926, was held to
be of sufficient importance to make a complete and independent
analytical check before publishing.

Similar expressions have been reached by Abbot, Clayton, and
C. E. P. Brooks. Thus, there seems support for the hypothesis that
climatic cycles, which have shown such puzzling complexity, are
related in a simple manner to the 11-year sun-spot cycle. One might
suggest that this curious fractionizing process has something to do
with interferences in any given locality between impulses coming
from different centers of influence. Some recent evidence (Abbot’s
work on solar radiation and mine on analysis of monthly sun-spot
numbers since 1750) points distinctly toward solar activity as offer-
ing a clue to this fractionizing process. That does not lessen the
complexity of terrestrial distribution.

SEQUOIA CYCLES

The longest tree records were found in the giant sequoias of Cali-
fornia, Sequoia gigantea. About a dozen specimens in my laboratory
have records that go back to about 200 B. C. At least four carry
the record back to 1100 B. C., and one extends it to 1300 B. C. The
sun-spot cycle appears to be recognizable in many parts of this
record, especially if one searches for the double value of something
over 22 years. This subdivides at different times into halves, thirds,

CHRONOLOGY—DOUGLASS AND ANTEVS 309

quarters, and fifths. A cycle of approximately 100 years emerges
in the longer records. Michelson considered that he found this
cycle in the sun-spot numbers.

CYCLES IN ARIZONA PINES

The records of Arizona pines, Pinus ponderosa, have been extended
back in a continuous series to 700 A. D. by the aid of beams from
prehistoric ruins. A preliminary examination of this sequence in-
dicates well-developed long cycles of approximately 38 years and
100 years nearly continuous through the interval, together with
shorter cycles apparently related to the sun-spot cycle and one of 9.5
or 19 years (doubtless related to the 38-year cycle just mentioned).

The “Hellmann relation” is the name tentatively given to the
half sun-spot cycle having a length of about 5.5 years. It is pre-
sumably an 11-year cycle with two maxima usually unequal. This
eycle was described and compared with the sun-spot cycle by Hell-
mann in his study of the North German drainage area, published
in 1906. It was observed by the speaker in 1908 in the California
rainfall and in tree growth in Arizona at the same time. In 1912
it was found in north European trees with one maximum often sup-
pressed. About 1915 it was found highly developed in the Arizona
trees during the century or more following 1420, and it is now
recognized to extend in a slightly modified form from 1300 to 1650,
and at other places. This is considered to form a basis for recon-
structing the sun-spot curve during that interval and such an attempt
is being made. This relation may easily be detected in recent Cali-
fornia tree growth and rainfall.

A shorter cycle somewhat over two years in length was noted in
tree growth from the frequent occurrence of alternating sizes in suc-
cessive rings. Such a cycle had been noted years before by Clayton,
Arctowski, and others. From a study of rainfall near Windsor,
Vt., published in 1915, this appeared to average about two and one-
third years in length. The original cyclogram gives a suggestion of
composite character, as if there were really two cycles, one about
2.25 and the other about 2.55 years in length.

PREHISTORIC DATING

The influence of weather and especially rainfall on the size of rings
has individualized them with great uniformity over a wide extent of
country. This produces distinctive configurations of large and small
rings, which, like “ fingerprints of Father Time,” can be recognized
from tree to tree. Thus, cross dating is possible over at least the
northern half of the Pueblo area, and we are able to build up a long

310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

chronology in Arizona pines, which has not only furthered our
studies of climate but has supplied the building dates of a number
of prehistoric ruins.

This chronology building has been done on the numerous speci-
mens which the archeologists have obtained from prehistoric ruins
since 1922. These came chiefly from Neil M. Judd, who was excavat-
ing Pueblo Bonito on behalf of the National Geographic Society.
He had learned of the cross dating between different ruins and rea-
lized that such cross dating could be carried from the present time
back into prehistoric ages, thus giving the actual date of the great
ruin in whose repair he was engaged. His faith in the possibility
of such dating resulted in important assistance from Doctor Gros-
venor and the research committee of the society. And this, together
with occasional friendly aid of other institutions, brought in large
collections of prehistoric beams, which reached over 800 in number
by 1928. These cross dated in large measure and supplied a prehis-
toric chronology 586 years long, and in doing so gave the relative
age of more than 30 prehistoric ruins from which the specimens
had come.

The problem of finding material to fill the gap between the prehis-
toric chronology and the historic sequence extending back to 1260
A. D. occupied us in the field trips of 1928 and 1929. Large collec-
tions were first obtained from the Hopi villages, the Pueblo struc-
tures which were still occupied by the Indians. The village of
Oraibi, which 40 years ago had 900 inhabitants, was discovered to be
over 500 years old. It is now largely abandoned.

But the Hopi beams did not show rings that extended back far
enough, so we searched and found the ruins from which some of
these Hopi people came. Thus, we succeeded in getting the first
prehistoric dates at the ruin of Kawaioku, in the Jeddito area. The
dates extended from 13857 to 1495. In preparation for 1929 we
studied pottery chronologies and found that the beams in the gap
would be associated with an orange-colored pottery, which was a
transition from red to cream color. We also concluded that the exist-
ence of charcoal was very important on account of its wonderful
preservations. Therefore, we must find ruins near the border of the
great pine forest.

These conditions were best fulfilled at Showlow and Pinedale, 50
miles south of Holbrook. The actual gap beam was found at Show-
low, June 22, 1929. Jt showed the well-known rings in the 1300's,
then the group of microscopic rings during the drought in the late
1200’s, then a splendid series to the central ring that grew in 1287.
The early drought years identified on this piece were entered on our
plots as an extension of the historic series, and that evening the com-

CHRONOLOGY—DOUGLASS AND ANTEVS Si

plete identity between this extension and the late prehistoric rings
was firmly established. ‘Thus the problem was solved. To our sur-
prise there was no gap, but an overlapping of more than 20 years. It
had been impossible to recognize this on account of the great drought
in the late 1200’s, which rendered most trees badly defective. Nat-
urally, with so many defects during that drought interval, it has
been gratifying to see since then tree records both in the Sierra
Ancha Mountains of Arizona and others on the east slopes of the
Jemez Mountains in New Mexico which check with precision the
identity assigned to the rings in that great drought.

This solution gave at once the dating of 42 ruins; the number has
now reached 75, scattered over northern Arizona, northern New
Mexico, and the southern edges of Colorado and Utah. Many of
these were built just before the great drought in the late 1200’s.
Evidently that climatic catastrophe had a profound effect on the
welfare of the primitive inhabitants. Many ruins northeast of
Flagstaff dated in the 1100’s, and one at least lasted until 1278. The
great tower in Mummy Cave ruin, in Canyon del Muerto, dated in
the early years of the drought. White House ruin in Canyon de
Chelly, came before 1100, as did Cliff Palace and the earlier ruins
of Mesa Verde. Other ruins in Mesa Verde were built during the
following 200 years. Aztec, in northwestern New Mexico, with its
450 rooms, was built in the dozen years between 1110 and 1122.
Pueblo Bonito, the largest of them all, had its early construction
between 919 A. D. and 950. Its major building was in the last half
of the eleventh century, and its final construction extended into the
early years of the twelfth century.

Thus, in closing the gap, the chronology was extended back to 700
A. D. Nearly every portion of it has been covered by at least 100
specimens. Much of the eighth century from 735 to 800 A. D. has
now been covered by a considerable number of specimens from the
vicinity of Flagstaff, collected by Dr. Harold S. Colton, director of
the Museum of Northern Arizona, and his colleagues. And yet only
one specimen, and that from Pueblo Bonito, covers with accuracy the
years from A. D. 700 to 735.1. Meanwhile further extensions are
under way. Groups of specimens, collected chiefly by Earl H.
Morris, have given two long sequences totaling over 600 years, which
seem at present to precede the known chronology, beginning at
700 A. D.

One of the very interesting studies now in progress is being carried
on by Doctor Colton, on pit houses near Flagstaff, Ariz., which were
covered by a 10-inch layer of cinders from an eruption of Sunset

1 Since this was written Miss F. M. Hawley has dated a beam from Chettro Ketl that
extends our record back to A. D. 643.

312 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Crater near by. He has already been able to make a rough estimate
of the date of this eruption, and there seems little doubt that eventu-
ally it will become known with accuracy.

CLIMATE AND PREHISTORY

From the foregoing it is evident that prehistoric dating has become
possible through weather effects in the rings of trees. Hence we not
only get the dates of building periods in the history of the pueblos,
but also we obtain some idea of the accompanying meteorological con-
ditions. ‘This has given us a strong impression of climatic stability,
for there is no real evidence of any fundamental climatic change.
The mean ring growth of a thousand years ago was not greatly
different from that to-day in the same region.

But there are signs of strong pulsations or cycles. In each hun-
dred years there has been a noticeable drought. Every third century
has seen a very great drought, such as 1880 to 1904, 1573 to 1593, and
1276 to 1299. The effects of these come to us in notably defective
trees and in abandoned pueblos. In the 500-year history of Oraibi
even the small droughts were accompanied by decreased building.

But perhaps the most significant inference is a combination of
these two. Though the climate can not be said to be changing, the
pulsations do not in all cases return completely to the earlier condi-
tion, for in certain areas there seems to be a drying out due to human
occupation. From studies of change in ring types and from many
interesting conversations with the Pueblo Indians we can reconstruct
a part of this story of human adventure in a dry country. It is prob-
able that the primitive people settled on the forest border to get best
advantage of timber, water supply, and farm lands. They injured
the forest by cutting trees for house building and caused the forest
borders to retreat. This injured the ground cover and permitted the
soil to blow away until the conservation of moisture was decreased
and torrential rains tore up their farm lands and compelled them to
migrate to new locations. This has actually happened in the last 40
years. ‘Thus we find in this primitive history a human cycle of deep
meaning for us who, even as these Indians, show an inclination to
exhaust our natural resources without sufficiently generous thought
for the future.

REMARKS OF CHIEF JUSTICE CHARLES EVANS HUGHES
Chancellor of the Snvrithsonian Institution

Doctor ANTEVS: You have come to us from another land and clime where
your early studies, guided by that pioneering scientist, the Baron de Geer,
contributed greatly to our knowledge of the progress in Europe of that world-

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Douglass PLATE 1

1. Arizona pine forest near Flagstaff (hence forest interior); note freedom from underbrush, a dry
climate character

2. Drought of 1573 to 1593 in tree 5 miles south of Flagstaff, showing ‘‘forest interior” type of rings;
that is, gentle changes from one ring to the next. Three dots mark the year 1600; 1590, 1580, etc.,
are marked by one dot.

3. Drought of 1276 to 1299 in Oraibi beam from lower (dry) forest border showing abrupt change from
ring toring. The very large ring, second from the left end, is 1275; 1299 is the last extreme drought
year.

RING TYPES IN ARIZONA PINES

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THE “*RINGS THAT CLOSED THE GAP"”’ IN SPECIMEN HH-39, FOUND AT SHOWLOW, JUNE 22, 1929

Double and even triple rings occur between 1242 and 1251, but their annual character as marked may be readily verified on the wood itself which gives flner distinctions

in coloring and density than can be reproduced.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Douglass PLATE 5

1. Kawai-o-ku, general view 1928; broken down walls occupy the entire sky line. It covers 9 acres.
This was the first prehistoric ruin to be dated by tree-ring methods; numerous small pieces of wood
giving dates near 1468 were discovered above the rocks shown at extreme left of this picture

2. Pueblo Bonito, east end, looking south from the cliffs above. This fine part of the ruin, restored by
the National Geographic Society, was largely built between 1050 and 1075 A. D.

DATED RUINS

CHRONOLOGY—DOUGLASS AND ANTEVS 3138

changing cataclysm, the Pleistocene glaciation. You have diligently pursued
for many years your investigations of the traces of this event as they exist
jin North America. Your researches have involved the careful scrutiny of
river valleys of the north and the beds of ancient lakes long dry. They have
involved millions of exact measurements on the laminated clays laid down
by summer meltings of Pleistocene glaciers. From these researches you have
measured the severity of North American glaciation. You have determined
the length of the ages which have elapsed since glaciation reached its height.
You have found indications of the variations which existed in that distant
past in the radiation of the sun.

In recognition of these achievements, the Research Corporation of New
York has awarded to you through the Smithsonian Institution a grant of
$2,500. In token of this award I now, as chancellor of that Institution, hand
you this commemorative medal, and wish for you equal success in your future
researches.

LATE-GLACIAL CLAY CHRONOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA
By Ernst Antevs, University of Stockholm
[With 2 plates]

Chronology is the framework of history, its units being the pigeon-
holes in which events, changes, and conditions may be arranged in
actual and consecutive succession. It brings order and gives per-
spective. Chronology is as vital in geology, the history of the earth,
as in human and cultural history.

In geology, time is still essentially a vague conception. Mostly it
is only relative; one formation is older than another because it lies
beneath or because it contains more primitive forms of life. Fre-
quently, however, time is in a way definite, comprising rough esti-
mates in thousands or millions of years. In a few instances it is
absolute, with the year as the unit.

The importance of the time aspect in geology is reflected by the
many attempts made to determine it. Especially prominent among
the endeavors aiming at absolute age are estimates based on atomic
disintegration; on climatic changes combined with astronomical
phenomena; on climatic changes alone; on the rate of accumulation
of salts and degree of salinity of the ocean and of lakes without out-
lets; on the rate of deposition, thickness, and extent of organic and
inorganic sediments; on rate and amount of erosion by rivers, by
lakes, and by the sea; on the rate and amount of weathering and
leaching of rocks and soils; on the rate and amount of changes of
level of land; on migrations and alterations of floras and faunas;
and on sediments in which the year is recorded by lamination. All
these methods have their good purposes. Frequently two or more
methods serve to date the same beds or the same phenomena and
afford a desirable check on one another.

314 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The several sediments recording the year are perhaps most impor-
tant among the means of dating, but they are rather rare, occurring
in any frequency and extent only during widely separated ages of
the earth’s history. First among these sediments comes the varved
glacial clay. “Varve” and “ varved” are words of Nordic origin
that have been applied to designate the “annual deposit ” of a sedi-
ment, and “yearly laminated.” The striking alternation of light
and dark layers in the glacial clay recalls annual rings in a cross
section of wood. This similarity caused a Swedish scientist, as early
as 1769, to assume that a pair of layers in the clay constituted the
deposit of one year. Later, the same conclusion was independently
reached by several geologists, next by an American in 1882. VWari-
ous evidences have been presented to prove that a pair of layers
actually represents the year (pl. 10).

The varved glacial clay consists of alternating layers of sand, silt,
or coarse clay, light in color, and of fine to extremely minute clay,
dark in color. The thickness of the coarse layers varies from a frac-
tion of an inch to several inches. The thickness of the fine-grained
layers is normally smaller and varies less. The varved clay was
formed in lakes and slightly brackish bays outside melting glaciers
and ice sheets. It was formed of mud brought directly from the
melting ice. Similar clay is now depositing in lakes fed by glacial
brooks, for instance, in Lake Louise in the Canadian Rockies. In
winter time the late-glacial lakes evidently froze over.

In summer the temperature of the surface water may have ranged
from a little above freezing to about 35° F. It may not have at-
tained 39.2° F., for, owing to the fact that water is densest at this
temperature, the entire water mass would then have been of 39.2°
and the lake would have had complete circulation, enabling winds
to mix suspended mud in all water strata and even to stir up
the bottom deposits. If this had been the case, the varved clay, if
it could be formed, would show signs of erosion, which it does not
do except rarely, when deposited in very shallow water. Further-
more, if the surface water at a distance from the ice sheet had risen
to 39.2°, this surface water would have sunk in the main lake
body, since it was heavily loaded with mud. At a still greater dis-
tance from the ice border, where the water temperature was higher,
the mud would have sunk rather quickly, because of the lower vis-
cosity of the water. Transportation of large quantities of mud in
glacial lakes for more than 100 miles shows that the mud did not
sink quickly. Therefore, the surface water of the glacial lakes may
have ranged in temperature during summer from 382° to about 35°;
the bulk of the water may have been, both in summer and winter,

CHRONOLOGY—DOUGLASS AND ANTEVS 3d

at a temperature of 38° to 39.2°; and the water stratification may
have been constantly inverse with the coldest water at the top. The
icy water coming from the glacier was consequently lighter than
the lake water, and, even if discharged at the bottom of the lake,
rose to near its surface. In doing so it brought along part of the
suspended mud which was quickly distributed by waves and cur-
rents, the finer the mud, the farther it was spread (fig. 1).

Having arrived in the upper layers of the lake water, the mud
began to separate according to coarseness and to sink, the coarse
grains fairly fast, the fine particles at extremely slow rates. Silt
grains would settle in a few days or weeks. Coarse clay particles,
as well as part of the fine clay, also sank to the bottom during the
summer. Qn the other hand, the bulk, or a great part, of the finest
particles still remained in suspension when melting ended with the

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3
+20-
“029e>

Geological Survey, Canada.

FIGURE 1.—Probable water circulation in a glacial lake, and probable water tempera-
tures, F°., during summer. (I*rom Antevs, Geol. Surv. Canada, Mem. 146, fig. 21.)

arrival of winter. Because of very slow sinking, these minute
particles could not reach bottom individually in the course of a year.
However, owing to the perfect calm under the ice cover and to the
development of a slight salinity of the water as a result of partial
dissolution of the silicic acid of the mud, the particles flocculated or
aggregated into small lumps, which settled before spring. It is this
separation of the grains and particles by their different rate of fall
through the water that produced the distinct lamination of the clay,
causing the deposition of a silty layer in the summer and a clayey
layer in the winter. This pair of layers, representing the annual
deposit, is the varve.

The chief conditions of formation of the varved glacial clay
were, therefore, that at least part of the fine-grained mud came
from a melting glacier, that the water in which deposition took place
was fresh, or practically so, and was heavier than the river water,
so that this water and the contained mud could rise to the upper
strata of the lake and the mud separate and settle according to size
of grains and particles.

316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Tf these conditions had not been filled, practically all the fine mud
would have flocculated and settled during the summer, together with
the coarse fractions forming a massive clay. Homogeneous clays
were formed where glacial brooks discharged into strongly saline
waters, and they are now deposited where ordinary brooks and rivers
empty into regular lakes of our latitudes (pl. 1a).

If the débris was uniformly distributed in the ice, the quantity
of mud brought into a glacial lake during a summer was propor-
tional to the amount of ice melting. The thicknesses of the varves,
therefore, record the relative amount of ice melting during the dit-
ferent years. Since ice melting is found, by observations in the Alps
and elsewhere, to be determined chiefly by summer temperature, the

Figure 2.—Mode of formation of glaci-fluvial deposits (esker gravel, sand, silt, and
varved clay) in fresh water off the receding ice front during three successive years.
The bottom yarve to the right in the figure is varve number three to the left in the
figure. Points to the left were uncovered two years earlier than points to the right.
Section through center of glacier orifice. At a distance in lateral direction from
the mouth of the glacial river the varve is thin and consists of fine sand, silt, and
clay at the very ice edge

relative thickness of the varves was defined, in the last analysis, by
the total summer heat. Thick varves, therefore, mean warm and
long summers; thin varves, cold and short summers.

While several geologists interpreted the layer-pair in the glacial
clay as the annual deposit, Gerard de Geer, of Sweden, went further
and, in 1885, propounded a method to use it for a geochronology of
the waning stage of the last Pleistocene ice sheets. The method is
based on the fact that, when the ice sheet terminated in water, its
edge formed the proximal limit of the clay varves. As the ice edge
retreated the varves extended farther and farther in centripetal
direction. The varves accordingly cover one another as shingles on
a roof (fig. 2). ‘

The field operations consist in measuring continuous series of
varves in exposures, if possible from the bottom of the clay. The
limits of the varves are marked on strips of strong paper giving the

CHRONOLOGY—DOUGLASS AND ANTEVS Sri

thicknesses (pl. 2). In the office the measurements are transferred
into graphs to enable comparison (fig. 3). Because it is determined
by the summer heat, the relative thickness of a varve is, under other-

in)

Fabre, anes
Locality 39
Suly 27, 1923
RAY? fp

w
Fabre, Quebec Loc! Suly 27,1923. L.A.

Figure 3.—Sample of measurement made in the field and curve constructed from it
in the office

318 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

wise favorable conditions, about the same everywhere in the area in
which the total summer heat underwent similar yearly fluctuations.

(From Antevs, Amer, Geogr. Soc., Research Ser. No. 11, pl. yv.)

90 is 8% miles; that between localities 90 and 91, 3 miles.

Ficure 4.—Parts of correlated varve graphs from localities 82, 90, and 91 in the Connecticut Valley. The distance between localities 82 and

Varve graphs from the same region,
therefore, show essentially the same
fluctuations and can be matched, and
the separate varves identified (fig. 4).
Owing to the imbricated position of
the varves, the rate of recession of the
ice edge can be determined (fig. 2).
Thus, if the bottom varve at one local-
ity is found to correspond to varve
number 21 at another locality, the lat-
ter place was uncovered 20 years
earlier than the former. By a series
of varve measurements in the direction
of the ice retreat, the rate of uncover-
ing and the time involved can be de-
termined. By measurements distrib-
uted over an area the outline of the
ice border can be mapped. This is De
Geer’s method of study.

Graphs of clay varves may be cor-
related, if they derive from regions
that experienced similar yearly varia-
tions of the total summer heat and
were released from the ice at about
the same time. These conditions con-
fine the possibilities of varve correla-
tions within somewhat narrow limits.
They preclude correlations of varve
graphs from North America and Eu-
rope and from distant parts of the
same glaciated area. The conditions
evidently do not prevent correlations
of varve graphs from adjacent valleys,
for instance, from the Hudson, the
Connecticut, and the Merrimac valleys.

The last ice sheet of North America
comprised almost entire Canada and
the States down to a line running
through New York City, south of the
Great Lakes, and a little below the in-
ternational boundary in the far West.
During the retreat of this ice small and

CHRONOLOGY—DOUGLASS AND ANTEVS 319

large lakes were dammed between its front and higher land outside.
Because the central parts of the ice-covered areas were more deeply
depressed by the weight of the ice than the peripheral regions, many
lowlands and valleys that now drain southward at that time con-
tained large lakes. The Hudson and the Connecticut Valleys held
series of long and deep lakes that extended from the Narrows and
from Long Island Sound, respectively, to northern New York and
New England. The ocean did not enter these valleys because the sea
level of that time stood about 300 feet lower than the present and the
coast line probably some 95 miles outside Sandy Hook and 10 to 15
miles outside the east end of Long Island. The Great Lakes were
larger in late glacial times than now; the Timiskaming-Abitibi-
Timmins region was covered by an enormous water body, Lake
Barlow-Ojibway; more than half Manitoba was flooded by the huge
Lake Agassiz; and smaller ice lakes existed in all parts of the
glaciated area. On the other hand, the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa
Valleys were early inundated by a marine gulf, the Champlain Sea,
in which, because of the salinity, the fine mud quickly flocculated
and settled, forming almost massive clays.

The sedimentation in the glacial lakes was enormous. Lakes that
were small in relation to their drainage areas were actually filled
with gravel, sand, silt, and clay. This holds for some of the lakes
in the New England valleys. Lakes that were ponded by the ice
were suddenly lowered or emptied when lower outlets were opened
during the withdrawal of the ice front. Other lakes were drained
suddenly as a result of overflow and down cutting of their drift
barriers. Still other lakes were emptied because of a gradual low-
ering of their outlets by vertical movements of the land. After the
disappearance of the water bodies, the lake beds have been eroded
and frequently deeply dissected by rivers. It is exposures of the
old lake sediments in river banks, in erosional bluffs on residual
lakes, and in clay pits and road cuts that have been used to measure
the clay varves (pl. 2).

Thanks to support from the American Geographical Society of
New York, the Geological Survey of Canada, Harvard University,
the National Research Council in Washington, and other institu-
tions, the writer has been able for several years to study the varved
clays in the Eastern States, southern Quebec, central Ontario, the
Timiskaming-Cochrane region, and northern Manitoba. The first
aim has been to make varve measurements at short interspaces along
lines running from the periphery of the ice sheet to its center in
Labrador, and, if possible, to connect these separate observations in
an unbroken record of the rate of withdrawal of the ice border, of
time in years, and of the variations of the total summer heat. The

320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

next purpose has been to correlate geological events with this time
scale. The third aim has been to connect, as far as possible, the
late-glacial chronology with our Christian era. The fourth aim has
been to determine, by means of the varve chronology, the length of
time employed for the performance of certain geophysical, chemical,
and biological changes, so as to have meters that may help us to
estimate the time factor for similar changes and processes when
no direct means of determining time is available.

Varve records consequently have been obtained for considerable
parts of the age of waning of the North American ice sheet. The
length of time that the last ice sheet kept its greatest extent in Long
Island is not directly determined, but a comparison of the bulk of
the two terminal moraines with that of moraines whose time factor
is known suggests that this entire marginal zone represents roughly
2,000 years. The ice sheet began to withdraw almost immediately
after reaching its southernmost line. From varve measurements,
moraines, and other features the time of release of the belt extending
from the terminal moraines to Newburgh, N. Y., and Hartford,
Conn., may be estimated at about 5,500 years. The rate of retreat of
the ice front has been determined from Hartford northward to St.
Johnsbury, Vt., with exception of one narrow zone at Claremont,
N. H. Besides the main line of clay measurements in the Connecti-
cut Valley, long controlling lines have been obtained in the Hudson
and Merrimac Valleys. The time occupied by the ice recession from
Hartford to St. Johnsbury is about 4,100 years. Since the distance
is 185 miles, the rate averaged 240 feet a year, or 22 years to a mile.
The actual rate of melting back varied considerably. At North-
ampton-Amherst, Mass., and probably again at Claremont, N. H.,
the ice border halted and readvanced. At Woodsville, N. H., the
recession was as much as 1,100 feet a year, the highest amount ob-
served in North America outside of Manitoba. Shortly after, the
recession grew slower, and at St. Johnsbury it came to a stop, fol-
lowed by a short advance.

The ice border of St. Johnsbury may have trended westward to
the Adirondacks and then southwestward to south of Lake Ontario.
In the belt extending from this line to North Bay and Mattawa the
rate of decay of the ice has not been determined by varve measure-
ments because of scarcity of clays, but the uncovering coincided
almost precisely with the life of Lake Algonquin, a very prominent
lake occupying the basins of the three upper Great Lakes. The sev-
eral successive stages constituting Lake Algonquin, the changes of
level of the Ottawa region, varve series, and other things, all indicate
that the time occupied by the ice release of central Ontario was long,
some 10,000 years, in round numbers.

CHRONOLOGY—DOUGLASS AND ANTEVS Sot

In the belt between Mattawa and Lake Timiskaming varved clay
is practically lacking. The ice retreat from the mouth of Montreal
River on Lake Timiskaming to La Sarre on the Transcontinental
Railway northeast of Lake Abitibi took 1,208 years. Since the dis-
tance is 118 miles, this represents an average of 515 feet a year. The
rate was relatively uniform in wide belts, though it increased north-
ward. Later it became irregular, and when the ice front had reached
far north of Cochrane, it halted and began to move southward. ‘This
readvance probably amounted to as much as 70 miles, for the ice
border finally reached Iroquois Falls and points 22 miles south of
Cochrane. Contemporaneous with the beginning of this readvance
the huge Lake Barlow-Ojibway, held in by the ice in the north, was
suddenly drained northwestward to Hudson Bay. This event took
place during the years 2,022 (or 2,015) to 2,027 after the uncovering
of the mouth of Montreal River on Lake Timiskaming. The drain-
age marks the end of the continuous varve chronology in these re-
gions, for subsequently there were only small, scattered lakes in
which varved clay could be deposited. At points farther east, how-
ever, it may be possible to extend the varve series toward the ice
center in the Labrador peninsula, though this is hardly profitable
until the wilderness of this region has become more easily accessible.

In addition to these longer varve records, shorter ones comprising
from 100 to about 1,000 years have been obtained in New Jersey,
New York, New England, southeastern Quebec, the regions east and
north of Lake Huron, and northern Manitoba. Local glacial geology
has been correlated with these chronological fragments, which, it
is hoped, will ultimately be tied together with the longer varve
series.

As touched upon, correlations of varve graphs from North America
and Europe are not possible. However, a correlation of the late-
glacial epoch in North America and Europe may be made on the
basis of the major changes of temperature that are recorded in the
rate of disappearance of the ice sheets. The climatic alteration that
set a stop to the growth of the ice sheets and introduced their wan-
ing was the greatest in late Quaternary time. Since its main factor
was a temperature rise, and since marked temperature changes in
the post-glacial epoch seem to have made themselves felt both in
North America and in Europe, it is more likely than not that the
last main ice sheets began to shrink at about the same time. If
they did not, the American ice sheet may have been the earlier to
commence waning, not vice versa. It is therefore probable that, gen-
erally speaking, the peripheral belts of the two main areas of glaci-
ation were uncovered at the same time. In the region between the
south side of Lake Ontario and Mattawa River, which forms the

322 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

POSITION OF RETREATING ICE EDGE
at certain years in relation to
500 |2 arbitrarily chosen zero
cos ¥ (One in the Connecticut Valley
anda different one in the
Timiskaming-Abitibi region)

ememse at beginning of Kirkfield stage

ee-se= atend of Lakelroquois

evereee Oitbeginning of marine
MORAINES

soseesee Moraines in general

PresentHudson Bay
rainage divide

300 KILOMETERS
200 MILES

1500
(eno gs

Ficurp 5.—Retreat of the last ice sheet in northeastern North America. (Moraines
in the Eastern States from various sources; moraines in the Middle West from
Leverett and Taylor, 1915, p. 62; and moraines between the lakes from Taylor,
1924a)

R., Ronkonkoma; H. H., Harbor Hill; T. M., terminal moraine; M., Mississinawa; D.,
defiance; A., Alden; N. F., Niagara Falls; P. H., Port Huron. The estimates of the
time of release of the belt between Lake Ontario and Mattawa River is probably too
long. The figure 26,000? at Mattawa and 29,000? at Cochrane should be altered to
21,500? and 24,500?, respectively. The length of time since the ice sheet reached
its climax in Long Island is probably 35,000 years, in round figures. (From Antevs,
Amer. Geogr. Soc., Research Ser. No. 17, fig. 29)

Ficurp 6.

CHRONOLOGY—DOUGLASS AND ANTEVS 323

POSITION OF RETREATING ICEEDGE

inni retreat
sunt at beginning of {poe atacial time

pu» «0 Gothi-glacial »
Well, - p » finl-glacial ». -

Wecebhtt 72 ” ” post-glacial ”

at certain years in relation to
an arbitrarily chosen ‘zero
(one inSweden and different
onein Finland)

MORAINES
esesee -Moraines in general
Younger morainesin
Denmark and Scania

—soom fini-glacial ice divide
asovvme postglacial 4”

-500

Peet rt

200 300 KILOMETERS
109 200 MILES
12

Retreat of the last ice sheet in northern Europe. (Base map and stages
in Sweden and Norway after De Geer, 1925. Stages in Finland and correlation with
Sweden after Sauramo, 1923 and 1926. Moraines in Denmark after Madsen, 1919,
and Milthers, 1922. Moraines in Germany after Woldstedt, 1925a. IF., B., Poz., and
Pom, designate the Fliming, Brandenburg, Poznan (Frankfurt) and Pommerania
moraines.) The peripheral belt or the zone from and including the Brandenburg
moraine to but excluding the Pommerania moraine should be designated as Germani-
glacial subepoch. The name “ fini-glacial ’’ should be substituted by ‘* Fenni-glacial,”
referring to Finland. (From Antevs, Amer. Geogr. Soc., Research Ser. No. 17,
fig. 30) -

102992—32——_22

324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

intermediate belt in North America, the uncovering was exception-
ally slow. In the Danish Islands, which represent the intermediate
zone in Europe, the recession was also slow and repeatedly inter-
rupted by large oscillations. Central Ontario and the Danish Is-
lands may therefore have been uncovered at the same time. In the
regions north of these intermediate belts, both in North America
and in Europe, the rate of retreat was rapid for a few thousand
years. When the ice fronts had retired to the Cochrane region in
Ontario and to central Sweden and southern Finland, respectively,
they halted and oscillated. Also these stages of recession and halt
perhaps correspond, though it is important to note that the oscilla-
tions at Cochrane represented a much longer time than did those in
Fenno-Scandia which amounted to 659 years. For the present the
attempts at trans-Atlantic correlation can hardly be carried beyond
these general suggestions.

Because the rate of retreat of the ice front and the thickness of
the clay varves form direct measures of the amount of the relative
summer heat, they furnish excellent material for the study of long
as well as short temperature cycles. However, few analyses for de-
termining cycles have been made. The record of the summer heat
supplied by the varved glacial clay is the longest known. The clay
chronology, even though incomplete, sheds hght on several problems
not touched upon'in the preceding, as, for instance, the rate of ero-
sion, rate of development of shore lines, rate of sedimentation, rate
of leaching and weathering of soils and rocks, rate of vertical move-
ments of the earth’s crust resulting from the removal of the ice load,
rate of occupancy by plants and animals of the lifeless regions that
were exposed with the melting of the ice sheets, rate of develop-
ment of plant and animal associations, and on the rate of evolution
of human species, races, and cultures.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Antevs PLATE 1

a. Massive postglacial clay from La Sarre, Que-
bee. Formed by redeposition of varved
glacial clay. 6. Varved late-glacial clay
from Espanola, Ontario. (Actual length of
samples 114 feet.)

*eqoqluvyy ‘AvMIey AB UOSpNy ‘TOUOPTMYATY “[[!} UO S}sor ABO POAIVA OUT
YAdVd DNOULS AO SdINLS NO SLIWNIT YISHL ONIMYVW Aa O1414 FHL NI GAYNSVAW 3YV SSAYXVA

c aALV 1d saajuy—'|€61 *yaodayy URTUOSYAILIG

SHAPING THE EARTH?

By WILLIAM BowIE
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey

THE CRUST OF THE EARTH

it is generally recognized that the earth has had a surface of solid
material for something like a billion and a half years. At the begin-
ning of this time the earth’s surface was irregular and there have
been vertical and horizontal changes occurring continuously during
this long interval. These changes have been due to erosion and sedi-
mentation and to forces which are acting on the materials forming
the outer 50 or 100 miles of the earth.

If the earth’s material were in a liquid or highly plastic condition,
and if there were no rotation, its surface would be a true sphere.
With such a body undergoing rotation the surface would be a spher-
oid. It has been found by geodetic measurements that the shape of
the mean sea-level surface approximates very closely a true spheroid.
The deviations between the spheroid and the water surface, or geoid,
are probably not greater than 100 meters. These forms are, of course,
due to the continuous gravitational attraction of the particles of the
earth for each other. The earth’s surface is irregular because of the
presence of material of different densities near the earth’s surface.
Under the continents the densities are less than they are for the mate-
rial under the oceans. There is rigidity in the outer portion of the
earth for otherwise there would be a slumping down of the high areas
and the moving material would fill up valleys and ocean basins and
bring the earth’s surface to a true spheroid.

FORMATION OF OCEANS AND CONTINENTS

One of the most interesting problems of geology involves the
formation of oceans and continents. Some geologists will say that
this is a subject that need not be considered for we may accept oceans

1 Presidential address delivered before the Washington Academy of Sciences, Jan. 15,
1931. Reprinted by permission, with author’s revision, from Journal of the Washington
Academy of Sciences, vol. 21, No. 6, Mar. 19, 1931.

325

326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

and continents as having come into being prior to the present geo-
logical age and that our attention should be given to the problem of
unfolding the geological record since the beginning of sedimentation.
The mind of a human being can not be conned to any particular
subject or group of subjects nor to any particular phase of a subject.
It is bound to consider any question that presents itself.

It does seem very strange that we should have great masses of
material standing above sea level, as continents ana islands, and
great troughs or basins below the waters of the oceans. We have
enough geodetic evidence to prove conclusively that the ocean bot-
toms are depressed because of the greater density of the material in
the crust below them, and that the continental and island masses
stand above sea level because the density of the material in the crust
below them is less than normal; but what could have caused these
abnormal densities? Why is it that under the continents we have a
layer, which some claim is about 20 miles in thickness, of light rocks
called granites, while under the oceans we have no granites?

There have been many explanations offered as to why we have
oceans and continents, but the only one that appeals to me as having
decided merit is that advanced by Osmond Fisher. About 40 years
ago he wrote a book entitled “ Physics of the Earth’s Crust,” which
contains much material of great value. He has a chapter on the
possible origin of oceans and continents in which he discusses
Darwin’s idea that the moon at one time was thrown off from the
earth. Darwin’s discussion of the birth of the moon was more or less
an academic one, and he made no suggestion as to what was the
condition of the earth at the time that this birth occurred, but one
is led to believe by Darwin’s writings that he had in mind a fluid
earth. Fisher believed that there was an outer solid shell on the
earth at the time that the moon was formed and that the earth lost
much of the outer granite shell as a result of the disruption. The
places from which the crustal material was thrown off were filled
with subcrustal material, but the light granite occupied greater
depth than the heavier subcrustal material which replaced it. In
consequence the healed scars had surfaces which were lower than the
surfaces of the portions of the crustal material which remained.

Darwin’s hypothesis is based on the idea that the earth was ro-
tating very rapidly and that as it slowed down to such a rate of
rotation as would make the tides, caused by the attraction of the sun,
synchronize with the natural period of vibration of the earth, there
would be an accumulation of tidal effect which would make the
earth’s mass unstable. Darwin estimated that at the time of, or
just before, the disruption, the major axis of the earth was about
twice the length of the minor axis. This would mean that the

SHAPING THE EARTH—BOWIBP 327

earth’s surface must have been increased by approximately fifteen
millions of square miles. The solid crust, which at the time of the
birth of the moon must have been 30 or 40 miles in thickness, could
not have stretched over this increased surface but would have been
fractured and torn apart with great gaps between the crustal blocks.
It may be that this distortion just prior to the birth of the moon
had more to do with the scattering of the remaining crustal ma-
terial over the earth’s surface than the actual disruption.

It is rather interesting to look at a globe and note that the two
coasts of the Atlantic are so nearly parallel that they remind one
of the shores of a great river. Wegener has advanced a theory
that North and South America broke away from the rest of the
continental masses and moved westward during recent geological
times. This is a very interesting theory which has many advo-
cates and also many opponents. I am rather inclined to think that
there are difficulties in the Wegener hypothesis which are very hard
to explain away. It seems to me that the Fisher idea of the birth
of the moon gives us a rather logical explanation of the creation
of oceans and continents, and the strongest point of this theory is
that it does no violence to isostasy.

It is certain that the earth’s surface was irregular at the begin-
ning of the sedimentary age, for without irregularities, such as we
now have, the water of the oceans would have covered the whole
earth’s surface to a depth of approximately 9,000 feet if the amount
of water was the same as now. With all of the land area covered
by water, there could have been no erosion and sedimentation, such
as we have had for a period of approximately one and one-half
billions of years.

KNOWN FACTS ABOUT THE HARTH

The earth should be treated lke any material structure which
comes under our observation for explanation or analysis. No one,
of course, can give us the true explanation of how the earth came
into being or state accurately what has been going on to change its
surface configuration. But we have now at hand a number of facts
which should enable us to arrive at some logical conclusions. We
know, of course, the earth’s shape and size, the portions of its sur-
face covered by land and water, its average density, and the density
of its surface material. We also know that the temperature increases
with depth. We know that there are many earthquakes occurring
annually and that there is no area which is entirely free from them.
Most of the quakes are extremely slight, but we are reasonably cer-
tain that, with few exceptions, they result from breaking rock and,
therefore, there must be forces within the earth large enough to cause
such breaking.

328 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

We know that there has been a tremendous amount of erosion and
sedimentation during the present era, which is called the sedimentary
age of the earth. It is certain that the earth’s surface was irregular
at the time that sedimentary rocks began to be formed, for without an
irregular surface there could have been no running water, and with-
out running water there could have been no erosion and sedimenta-
tion. Of course, no one knows whether the amount of water on the
earth has been constant or variable, but it is reasonably certain that
land has been exposed above the waters of the ocean for about
a billion and a half years. This is an estimate that is frequently used
by students of the earth, and it seems to be generally accepted as of
the order of magnitude of the period of time that has elapsed since
the formation of the first sedimentary rocks.

Geologists tell us that practically all of the exposed areas of the
earth have at some time in the geological past been below sea level.
These areas are now at varying distances above sea level and, hence,
their change in elevation, with respect to sea level, must have been
due to an actual lifting up of land areas rather than a decrease in
the amount of water of the earth. If the latter had been the cause
for the changes in elevation, there would be uniformity in the eleva-
tions of exposed strata.

The isostatic investigations indicate that the solid or rigid material
of the earth extends only to a depth of approximately 60 miles below
sea level. Some investigators are of the opinion that the depth to
which the solid rock extends is very much smaller than that. The
interior of the earth acts as if it were plastic to long-continued
stresses. The earth has an outer shell which rests upon a plastic
interior. A disturbance of the isostatic equilibrium leads to hori-
zontal and vertical changes in the earth’s surface. Some areas go
down under the weight of sediments and other areas which have been
undergoing erosion for long periods of time increase in elevation.
There is also a rising up of material that was once below sea level
and a sinking down of areas that were once standing high above
sea level.

These and other known facts regarding the earth are the basis for
the interpretation of the processes which have shaped its surface.

There have been many theories advanced as to why the earth has an
irregular surface. Such theories may be considered as mere guesses,
for no one can reproduce to-day the forces, resistances, and tempera-
tures that must have been involved when the earth came into being
or when its surface was changed from one of fairly uniform eleva-
aa to one which has the great differences in elevation that are seen

o-day.

Mineralogists tell us that the continents are underlaid by granite,
and that granite is absent from the crust under the ocean. Granite

SHAPING THE EARTH—BOWIE 329

has a smaller density than that of the basalts which underlie the
oceans. Originally the earth must have had the granite or hght
material lying over its surface like a huge blanket of fairly uniform
thickness. Why is it that now the granite is absent from such large
portions of the earth’s surface? ‘There are certainly no known
forces that could push the granite up into isolated masses. Gravity
would have resisted such piling up, and if forces had been sufficiently
great to force the granite into separate masses, these masses of
crushed rock would have slumped down soon after the forces had
ceased to operate.
ISOSTASY

It was a geologist, the famous C. E. Dutton, of the United States
Geological Survey, who coined the word “isostasy ” in an address,
entitled “On Some of the Major Problems of Physical Geology,” at
a meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington, in 1889.
Dutton discussed some of the major problems of geology, including,
of course, the formation of mountains and the effect of the tre-
mendous amount of erosion and sedimentation. He came to the
conclusion that the shifting of material caused stresses which could
not be withstood by the strength of the earth’s materials. He felt
that there must be a sagging down of the earth’s surface under the
weight of the sediments and a rising up of the surface where erosion
had carried material away. He stated that in his opinion moun-
tains are not extra loads added to the earth’s crust but that they are
due to lighter than normal material in the crust below them. In
effect he outlined what might be called a flotation hypothesis, that is,
that the continents were floating in heavier material just as ice floats
in water. “A corollary of this hypothesis of Dutton’s is that the
irregularities of the earth’s surface are due to deviations from normal
densities in the outer portion of the earth. Under the oceans the
density is greater and under the continents less than normal.

At the beginning of the present century geodesists realized that
isostasy was a subject of vital interest to them. Previously, for
decades, they had been attempting to explain the abnormal behavior
of the plumb line to which astronomical observations are referred
and of the pendulum by which values of gravity are determined.

THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH

If the earth’s surface had no irregularities but conformed to a
mathematical surface (a spheroid of revolution), then at any place
on it the direction of gravity would be at right angles to a plane
tangent to this spheroid at the point of observation. But the earth
has an irregular surface and due to this irregularity the figure

330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

formed by the surfaces of the waters of the ocean and of the waters
of sea-level canals (extended, in imagination, through the continents)
deviates from a true mathematical figure. This deviation is un-
doubtedly a maximum under the great mountain systems like the
Himalayas and the Alps, where the geoid, or water surface, is above
the mathematical one. Conversely, over the deepest parts of the
ocean the geoid, or water surface, is probably depressed to the maxi-
mum amount below this spheroid. In any event, there is an angle
between the water surface and the mathematical surface at any
point at which astronomical observations may be made. This angle
means a deviation of the direction of gravity, or the plumb line, and
affects the observations for astronomical latitudes and longitudes
accordingly.

‘EFFECT OF TOPOGRAPHY ON GEODETIC DATA

Geodesists had noticed this condition in a number of parts of the
earth where surveying and mapping operations had been under-
taken, and efforts were made to apply a correction for the influence
of the irregularities of the surface. It was evident to each investi-
gator that a mountain system, such as the Himalayas, would have
an attractive effect on the plumb line at stations within a reasonable
distance of it. Efforts were made to compute the effect of these
great masses which lie above sea level, but when such corrections
were applied it was found that they were larger than were necessary
to bring the theoretical and observed values into accord. ‘The moun-
tains, apparently, were lighter than normal, but impossibly small
densities would have to be assumed for the materials composing the
mountains to bring the two values into exact agreement. ©

Pratt and Airy, working on geodetic data about the middle of the
last century, arrived at the conclusion that the reason why moun-
tains and continents stand above sea level is because lighter materi-
als lie below them. While they did not, so far as I am aware, make
any definite statement that the abnormal densities could only extend
to a moderate depth, yet this idea was implied in their statements
regarding the deficiencies in densities that must lie below mountains
and continents. ‘They advanced their ideas about 75 years ago, but
it is only within the last 10 years that their ideas and those of Dut-
ton, expressed 41 years ago, have been accepted generally by stu-
dents of the earth as a working principle in earth studies.

VARIATIONS OF GRAVITY

Geodesists have used geodetic data in the form of triangulation,
of astronomical determinations of longitude and latitude, and of

SHAPING THE EARTH—BOWIE sol

values of gravity to test this flotational hypothesis. It is the only
method, so far as I am aware, by which the idea can be quantita-
tively tested. We have a direct measure of the extent to which the
plumb line deviates from the line that is at right angles to the
spheroid surface, and a measure of the difference between the theo-
retical and observed values of gravity. The idea of isostasy can be
tested by means of these data.

If the earth were a true spheroid and there were no irregularities
on its surface and if the densities along each radius were normal,
gravity would increase slightly as one proceeded from the Equator
to one of the poles. The attraction of the earth at sea level would
be about one two-hundredths part greater at a pole than at the
Equator. Enough work has been done to prove conclusively that
gravity does follow very definite laws. For instance, it changes on
the average about one part in a million for a mile change in latitude.
It changes one part in a million for about 10 feet change of elevation.
These changes are perfectly normal, for the centrifugal force is a
maximum at the Equator and zero at the poles, and, besides, the at-
traction at either pole is greater than it is at a point on the Equator.
Necessarily, too, a particle is attracted less by the mass of the earth
when elevated than when it is exactly at sea level.

It is not necessary to go into details regarding the geodetic tests
of isostasy, for the methods used and the results obtained have all
been set forth in a number of publications of geodetic organizations.
It is sufficient to state that when isostasy is taken into account in
computing geodetic data, harmonious or practically harmonious re-
sults are obtained. By means of geodetic data it has been possible
to determine the approximate depth below sea level to which these
abnormal densities extend. The most probable depth obtained from
mountain and plateau stations of the United States is about 96 kilo-
meters, approximately 60 miles, below sea level. This depth is con-
firmed by determinations of A. H. Miller, of the Dominion Observa-
tory at Ottawa, Canada, who found, from analysis of gravity data
at mountain stations in the western part of that country, a depth also
of approximately 60 miles.

COMPARISON OF PRATT AND AIRY HYPOTHESES

There has been much discussion in literature on isostasy of the
question as to whether the Pratt or the Airy hypothesis is the true
one. Pratt postulated that the densities vary under the different
classes of topography. Under the oceans the density would be ab-
normally great and under the continents it would be abnormally
small. Airy, on the other hand, suggested that the depth of com-

302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

pensation is very irregular and that crustal masses under the con-
tinents extend much farther below sea level than do such masses
under the oceans. Under mountain areas these protuberances would
be greater than under plateaus and valleys.

We have not yet been able to prove which of the two hypotheses
is the true one, since the application of either of them to gravity and
deflection data gives about the same satisfactory results. However,
looking at the matter from a purely physical standpoint, I am in-
clined to think that there are decided weaknesses in the Airy hy-
pothesis and that the Pratt hypothesis is probably the true one.
Perhaps with a greater accumulation of data we may in the future
be able to show which one of these hypotheses is the better one. We
should be able to derive a depth of compensation for each extensive
mountain area and if the Airy hypothesis is the true one, then the
higher the mountain area the greater should be the derived depth
of compensation. When such mountain areas as the Andes and the
Himalayas are covered by geodetic stations, it should be possible
to make this test.

ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING ISOSTATIC INVESTIGATIONS

Necessarily, in carrying on such investigations as have been in-
volved in the tests of isostasy, assumptions have to be made. The
assumptions made by geodesists are approximately as follows: First,
that isostasy is complete or perfect for even quite limited portions
of the earth’s crust; second, that there is a uniform distribution with
respect to depth of the compensating deficiencies of density under
continents and of the excesses of densities under oceans, that is, that
the compensation starts at sea level and extends uniformly about 60
miles to the lower limit of the crust; third, that the compensation
is directly under the topographic feature and not spread out hori-
zontally with respect to that feature; and fourth, that the density
of the rock above sea level is 2.67.

These assumptions are made merely for the convenience of the
investigator. It would be practically impossible for him to assume
anything but very simple conditions because of the very large amount
of work involved in making the computations required for the tests.
We do find that, when these assumptions are made and corresponding
corrections are computed, the theoretical and actual values for the
astronomical longitudes and latitudes and for values of gravity are
brought very closely into agreement. There are some outstanding
differences, and these must be a measure of the degree to which one or
more of the assumed conditions are not true. The lower limit of
compensation may not be a regular surface, it may be very much
deeper under some parts of the continent than under others, and it

SHAPING THE EARTH—BOWIE 333

may be deeper under the continents than under the oceans. The
compensating deficiency of density under a mountain system may
be confined to a rather narrow zone vertically and not extend
throughout the thickness of the crust. The compensation may be
distributed widely in a horizontal direction from the topographic
feature, and deficient densities under land masses and excessive densi-
ties under ocean areas may not be sufficient to balance the irregulari-
ties of the earth’s surface in the regions studied. Finally, the den-
sity of surface rock is variable. Undoubtedly, all of these factors
come in to cause the differences between the theoretical and actual
values which we call anomalies, but the anomalies are so small after
the isostatic method has been apphed that investigators are inclined
to believe that the principle of isostasy has been amply tested and
proved. Some of them, and I am one, believe that the principal
cause of the anomalies is the effect of abnormally heavy or light
material near the earth’s surface and close to the astronomical or
gravity stations. If we could find out the actual distribution of
density in the earth’s materials for a depth of 5 or 10 miles below
the earth’s surface, I am confident that we could reduce nearly all
of the anomalies.

This brings up the question as to whether or not it would be pos-
sible to discover what the geologists call structural features that are
buried below the earth’s surface. This is a matter of great impor-
tance and may have a bearing on the search for petroleum and ores.
The gravity survey conducted over this country indicates certain
places where there are extra heavy or extra light masses of material
fairly close to the earth’s surface. I do not know of any oil having
been found, or drilling for oil having been undertaken, near any of
our gravity stations as a result of our data, but I am sure that an
intensive gravity survey would disclose structure that might be of
value in the oil and mining industries.

SOME ISOSTATIC CONCLUSIONS

The evidence seems to justify the conclusion that all mountain and
plateau areas were at one time occupied by low lying portions of the
earth’s surface on which great beds of sediments were laid down.
Then these areas were raised up to form either mountains or plateaus.
If there was much distortion, mountains resulted, and if the area
went up in a more or less uniform way, extensive plateaus were
formed. What caused these uplifts is one of the outstanding prob-
lems of the science of geology. Many of the investigators of the past
have postulated horizontal thrusts, while some, Dutton included,
were inclined to favor a vertical movement as the predominant one
with horizontal movements as incidental.

334 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

It is absolutely certain that the masses pushed up, whether by
vertical or horizontal forces, are not extra loads above the surface
which limits the depth of isostatic compensation. ‘These masses
above sea level are, of course, extra loads on the sea-level surface,
but they can not be extra loads on the imaginary blocks of the earth’s
crust which are resting on the plastic subcrustal material. If they
were extra loads, this fact would be easily and clearly indicated by
geodetic data in the form of deflections of the vertical and values of
gravity. The masses that appear above sea level are compensated for
by the deficiency of density in the material lying below them.

The zone within which the compensation of topographic features
lies must be of limited depth. If it were otherwise, the computed
effect of the compensation would be practically zero and the material
above sea level would have full effect on the direction and force of
gravity.

Jt has been concluded from a study of the deflection data for the
United States that the actual deflections of the vertical are on the
average not more than about 10 per cent of what they would be if
the masses above sea level and the deficiency of the mass in the oceans
were not compensated by deviations from normal densities in the
crust below. This is the very strongest evidence possible in favor of
isostasy and, also, in favor of the theory that the outer portion of the
earth is rigid and strong. This rigid material, which has been found
by geodesists to extend to an average depth of approximately 60
miles, will resist for extremely long times gravitational forces which
tend to make the earth’s surface a true spheroid. The gravity data
supplement the data derived from the deflection of the vertical in
showing the existence of isostasy.

Since areas of sedimentation and erosion and all plateau and moun-
tain regions are now in isostatic equilibrium, it seems reasonably
certain that they have been in equilibrium throughout the geological
era. If this is true, we must conclude that there has been an actual
uplift of the surface in some places and a down-warping in others.
These changes in the earth’s surface can occur only by vertical move-
ments, due to changes in the density of the crustal or subcrustal
material, or to the action of horizontal forces. I am inclined to favor
the former idea because it is rather difficult to see where horizontal
forces of sufficient magnitude could originate. Since the sea-level
surface of the earth is at all places at right angles to the direction of
gravity, it is difficult to see how any large horizontal component of
the gravitational force could come into existence.

I believe that there has been no collapsing of the outer shell of
the earth on a shrinking nucleus. The outer solid shell of the earth
must be of the magnitude of 60 miles in thickness, and certainly at

SHAPING THE EARTH—BOWIE 335

such a depth as 60 miles there could be no voids; the outer shell, or
crust, of the earth must be in intimate contact with subcrustal ma-
terial and, therefore, there is no opportunity for the crustal material
to collapse on a shrinking interior. Should the interior of the earth
be losing heat and contracting in consequence, and should the crust
of the earth not be losing heat. and, therefore, remaining constant in
volume, it is probable that the crust merely thickens locally as the
nucleus contracts. Any changes in the volume of the nuclear ma-
terial would be so exceedingly slow that the crustal material would
yield locally and the crust would continue to be in contact with the
nucleus around the whole earth.

ISOSTATIC ADJUSTMENTS AND EARTHQUAKES

If we accept the principle of isostasy—and it is a perfectly logi-
cal thing to do—then we are confronted with the problem of how to
apply this principle in geological studies and investigations. It is
especially important to apply the isostatic principle to the question
of earthquakes.

Karthquakes have been occurring for a billion years, more or less,
and probably they will continue to occur as long as the earth has sun-
shine and rain. An earthquake is caused by the breaking of the outer
portion of the earth’s material. Without the break there would be
no elastic shock. Where the material of the earth is hard, brittle,
and elastic, it will resist deformation due to a force acting on it until
the stress is greater than its strength and there will be a sudden yield-
ing in the form of a rupture. Any elastic substance necessarily has
vibrations when it is struck or broken, and that is exactly what hap-
pens to the earth when we have an earthquake. The rock is snapped
or broken, and the elastic waves set up by the sudden rupture travel
great distances.

Records of earthquake waves are made with an apparatus called a
seismograph. There are many of these instruments scattered over the
earth’s surface and the number of earthquakes annually recorded on
them has been recently estimated at 8,000. There are many quakes of
such small intensity that their shocks are not received at the existing
seismological stations. It is impossible to state how many earth-
quakes actually occur over the earth, but if. I might make a guess, I
would say from 30,000 to 40,000 a year.

One of the implications from the proof of isostasy is that the outer
portion of the earth is much stronger than the materials that he
somewhat farther down. In order that the irregular surface of the
earth may be maintained against the tremendous weight of masses of
rock above sea level, this outer portion of the earth must be strong,
that is, it must have a strength sufficient to prevent the continental

336 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

masses slumping down and flowing into the ocean areas to fill up the
basins. This strong material extends, according to geodesists, ap-
proximately 60 miles below sea level. Below that the material must
be lacking in strength and rigidity. It must yield to forces without
breaking. As great masses of material are moved over the earth’s
surface the balance of the crust is disturbed. ‘The extra load caused
by sediments must push down the crust beneath and this must force
the subcrystal material to move sidewise and some of it to push up the
crust from where the eroded material came. The earth’s crust is like
a sheet of ice ona pond or onthe Arctic Ocean. The crust les quietly
on the interior part of the earth until something happens to disturb
the equilibrium. Although the crust of the earth is composed of
strong material, the strength is finite, surely not great enough to with-
stand the weight of the tremendous loads that have been shifted on
the earth’s surface. It is, however, strong enough to maintain the
irregular surface of the earth just because of the floating principle.

Earthquakes have occurred probably in all parts of the earth.
One can not make an accurate estimate of the maximum size of
the portion of the earth’s crust in which, throughout geological
time, no earthquakes have originated, but we see ail about us evi-
dences of uplift or subsidence of the earth’s surface. Each con-
tinent has above sea level much sedimentary rock that must have
been formed below tidal waters. These rocks in many cases are
much tilted, curved, broken, and crushed. It is reasonably certain
that there has been an uplift of the earth’s surface rather than a
decrease in the amount of ocean waters to cause these exposures.
The best evidence that they have been pushed up is the fact that
strata laid down in salt water in horizontal positions are now tilted
at various angles from the horizontal. Then again, the same strata
exposed in a number of widely separated places are found at different
elevations above sea level. This, it seems, is an indication that there
has been an actual uplift of the earth’s surface. Every one who
has engaged in mining operations knows of the tremendous amount
of faulting that has occurred in the rocks. A coal seam will be
followed for a certain distance and then it gives out. Later the
same seam of coal may be found at a higher or lower elevation.
The many fractures that are found in mines and at the earth’s surface
lead one to the very definite conclusion that there has been much
shifting of material in the geological past. Each one of these shifts,
or changes, where a fracture has occurred, has probably caused an
earthquake,

The earth may be elassified as a yielding body. It should not be
classed as a failing structure. A soapbubble or a glass ball, when
subjected to stresses greater than its strength, will collapse, but it is

SHAPING THE EARTH—BOWIB 337

impossible for the earth to collapse. The earth is like a solid rubber
ball which will yield and change its shape to forces that are exerted
upon it. The earth is a globe almost spherical, approximately 8,000
miles in diameter. The number of cubic miles of material in the
earth is great, but this large globe yields in a surprisingly easy
manner to the forces that are acting upon it.

OBJECTIONS TO THE CONTRACTION HYPOTHESIS

Geologists and other students of the earth have for generations
sought for the forces which may have disturbed the earth. Many
ideas have been advanced and some of them have had wide accept-
ance. One of these is that the earth’s interior is losing heat rather
rapidly, while the outer portion of the earth, the crust, is maintaining
its temperature. In consequence, there is a shrinkage of the interior
of the earth and a collapse of the crust, which causes earthquakes
and elevates mountains and plateaus. This process is also held by
some to be the cause of oceans and continents. It seems to me that
a careful analysis of this hypothesis will lead one to the conclusion
that it can not be true. The earth has been likened to an apple
or potato. Every one knows that a baked potato or a baked apple
has wrinkles in its skin. The contraction hypothesis implies that
the nucleus of the earth is like the interior of the apple or potato
and that the crust of the earth is like the skin, but the skins of
the apple and potato have practically no weight, and, therefore,
during the cooking the shrinkage of the interior, due to loss of
moisture, makes the skin wrinkle to fit the reduced size of the interior
of the apple or potato.

The crust of the earth certainly can not be likened to the skin
of the apple or potato. In the first place, the crust is about 60 miles
in thickness and is composed of heavy rock. Then, again, this
material is so heavy that no wrinkles could possibly form which
would have voids under them like the voids under the wrinkles of
the apple and potato. There can be no such thing as a buckling
or crumpling of the earth’s crust on a shrinking interior. If the
interior of the earth is losing heat, while the crust of the earth
is maintaining its temperature, the loss of this heat must be so
exceedingly slow that there can be no chance for stresses to accumu-
late to such an extent as to cause great horizontal forces. I believe
that if in the course of geological time, measured by hundreds of
millions of years, the earth’s interior should cool and contract, the
crust would continue to be in contact with the interior and, therefore,
the crust would merely be thickened rather than buckled into ridges
and troughs. Much has been written against the contraction hypoth-
esis, notably by Mellard Reade and Alfred Wegener.

338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931
DIASTROPHIC FORCES

There are no known forces which have their origin outside of the
earth’s material which can exert horizontal stresses on the crustal
material of the earth of such strength as to form mountains and
plateaus and cause earthquakes. It is true that the attractive forces
of the sun and moon are exerted on the earth, and, since the portion
of the earth that is nearest to the sun or the moon is attracted more
than the material that is farther away, a stress is set up. This stress
is not of sufficient magnitude, however, to rupture the material or to
make it move out of its normal place, except to the extent of a slight
elastic deformation called the earth tide. These tide-producing
forces of the sun and the moon change phase every few hours as the
earth turns on its axis.

I think we can eliminate the attractive effect of the sun and the
moon as being the cause of any geological phenomena involved in
mountain forming, earthquakes, etc. Of course, the time of an
earthquake on an island or near the continental coast may be decided
by an exceptionally high or low water tide in the vicinity, but it is
reasonably certain that the crustal material is brought nearly to the
breaking point by some other cause and that the high or low tide
supples merely the small increment required to increase the stress
beyond the breaking strength of the rock. The real causes of the
major features of diastrophism must lie within the earth itself.

Much has been written in recent years about the effect of the heat
resulting from radioactivity of certain minerals in the outer portion
of the earth. This, it seems to me, may be a factor in earth move-
ments, but I am inclined to think it is one of minor importance. In
the first place, the radioactivity is largely confined to the granitic
material which is supposed to be only from 15 to 20 miles in thick-
ness under the continents. There is no granite under the oceans, but
some of the strongest earthquakes occur there and much of the
ocean bottom is quite active from a geological standpoint. Broken
ground with very steep slopes is found under the oceans, and many
oceanic islands are due to volcanic activity. All of this implies that
movements are going on in the crust under the oceans, and these
surely can not be due alone to the radioactivity of minerals. The
basalts which are supposed to underlie the granites of the continental
areas and to form the bottoms of the oceans have present in them
some radioactive minerals but not in such large proportions as are
present in the granites.

Again, we have the problem of accounting for physical or chemical
activity that probably occurs even to the depth of 60 miles below
sea level. Earth students, who have been writing on radioactive

SHAPING THE EARTH—BOWIE 339

minerals and their effect on geological processes, are inclined to the
opinion that the deep-lying materials have practically no effect on
surface changes.

If we eliminate forces existing outside of the earth, forces due to
the supposed contraction of the earth’s nucleus and the collapsing of
the crust, and forces due to the effect of radioactive minerals as
major causes of earth movements, we must search for some other
forces that might be effective.

We know that the temperature of the earth increases with depth.
For the first 2 miles or less we have definite data from the deter-
minations of temperatures in wells. There is a great variation in the
rate at which the temperature increases with depth, but a fair aver-
age is 50° C. per mile. The temperature certainly continues to
increase below the 2-mile depth, for we have many active volcanoes
in the world which emit cinders and lavas having temperatures of
1,000° C. or more. Such temperatures would be found at a depth
of approximately 20 miles if the temperature gradient were about
the same throughout that depth as it is near the surface. Whether
the temperature keeps on increasing with depth down to the center
of the earth, we can not tell, for there is no way to discover, even
approximately, what the temperature may be at great depths. <A
material may be at a temperature which at the surface would be its
melting point or even its boiling point, yet it probably would act
like a strong solid when confined by the great pressures which must
exist at considerable depths. A very hot interior of the earth, if
there is little change in temperature from one period of time to
another, will not exert any decided influence on the configuration
of the earth’s surface. Change in heat, however, whether a de-
crease or increase, will exert force. It will cause expansion or con-
traction of materials, but the heat of the interior of the earth is
changing so slowly that it can not be a major cause of surface
changes. One would be most unwise to assert that the heat of the
interior of the earth, without any other influences acting, could not
cause changes in elevation and geographic positions of points on
the earth’s surface, but, if this interior heat is a primary cause of
surface movements, no one, so far as I am aware, has given a very
clear explanation as to how the changes are effected. I am rather
inclined to think that we may eliminate the heat of the earth’s
interior as the major cause of geological phenomena. This heat does
affect those portions of the crust which are lowered by sedimen-
tation or raised by erosion, but it is not the primary cause of surface
movements. I believe we should look for something that is closer
at hand and easier of understanding.

102992—32——23

340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931
EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION

There is one process continuously active which is so simple that
apparently its influence on surface phenomena has been ignored or
even overlooked except by a few. This is the phenomenon of ero-
sion. Vast quantities of water fall to the earth each year and pre-
sumbably this has been going on continuously since the beginning
of the sedimentary age of the earth, the one that we are now in.
According to the best geological and geophysical evidence, the earli-
est sedimentary rocks were formed about a billion and a half years
ago. It is absolutely impossible for sedimentary rocks to be formed
without running water, and to have running water there must be
sloping ground. A succession of sedimentary rocks has been formed
during the past billion and a half years and for hundreds of millions
of years there have been living creatures on the earth, so it seems
perfectly logical to assume that rainfall must have occurred during
all of that period.

The average rainfall per year over the land surface of the earth is
about 30 inches. Of course, there are regions where the rainfall is
100 inches or more, but these areas are very restricted in size, and
there are other areas, such as the great deserts, where there is no
vain at all or only a very few inches. A rainfall of 30 inches a year
amounts to about 1 mile in every 2,000 years, and during the whole
of the sedimentary age about 750,000 miles of rain could have fallen.
This, of course, means that by evaporation and precipitation the
ocean waters have been used over and over again. As the water of
the ocean is evaporated, the mineral content remains in the ocean.
When the water runs from the continental or island areas into the
oceans it carries in suspension or solution some solid material. The
solids are mostly in the form of salts. The mineral content of the
ocean waters that we now observe has been caused by this process of
evaporation and precipitation throughout the sedimentary age.

This transfer of water from the oceans to the continents and then
back into the oceans would be of no consequence from a geological
standpoint if it were not for the resulting erosion of the exposed
surface of the earth. Much of the water runs directly to streams
and rivers and eventually reaches tidal water, except in a few desert
basins where the rivers have no outlet to the sea, but these latter are
very unimportant. The water that runs to the sea carries much
material in suspension. The earth’s surface is undergoing disintegra-
tion as the result of frost and chemical action. As soon as a particle
is loosened from a rock, it is subject to transportation to some other
place by wind or water. The effect of water in transporting material
is believed to be far greater than that of wind. In any event
tremendous amounts of material in suspension are carried by water

SHAPING THE EARTH—BOWIE 341

to the streams and rivers. Another large part of the water that
falls to the earth soaks into the ground and absorbs a certain amount
of the mineral matter from the rocks. This water seeping through
the rocks will eventually reach streams and rivers and then will flow
to tidal waters carrying vast quantities of solid material with it. The
combination of the material in suspension and in solution results in
a large amount of continental matter that is transferred to sea areas
each year.

It has been estimated that in the United States the rate of erosion
is approximately 1 foot in 9,000 years. Some areas, of course, have
very much more rapid rates of erosion than others, but this is the
average rate at which material is carried from the area of the United
States as a whole to tidal waters. The rate of erosion for the other
continental areas is probably just about the same as for our country.
This may not seem to be a very rapid rate, for during historic times
it would amount to only about one-half of a foot. The average ele-
vation of the United States is about 2,000 feet, and so to erode all
of the material lying above sea level would require something like
4,000 times the total length of the historic period.

At this rate, however, something like 30 miles of erosion could
have occurred during the sedimentary age. Of course, there has been
no such amount of erosion as that. A particular exposed area that is
undergoing erosion is worn down to sea level eventually and then
erosion ceases, but it is rather remarkable that many areas which
have been eroded down to sea level have in a later period been raised
up again and thus other material has been subjected to erosion.

It seems probable that the average elevation of the continental
areas has never been very much higher or lower than now. I believe
that if there has been any change, the average elevation has been
getting gradually lower. This is because the continental matter
carried to tidal waters is less dense than the subcrustal matter which
moves toward the continents to restore equilibrium. ‘The average
elevation for all of the continental and island areas of the world is
slightly more than 2,000 feet, less than one-half mile, but there are
some parts of the earth where the elevations are 3 or 4 miles or
more. The maximum elevation of the Himalayan Mountains is more
than 29,000 feet, and there are mountain peaks in South America
and Alaska which are 20,000 feet or more in elevation. There are
great plateaus which stand more than 2 miles above sea level. But
these great elevations are offset by vast areas on continents and
islands which are only slightly above sea level. The ocean basins
have an average depth of approximately 10,000 feet. It seems rea-
sonably certain that some of these areas have changed their depths
during the sedimentary age. Some parts of the ocean bottoms have

342 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

come up, while others have gone down, but I am of the opinion that
the average difference in elevation of the ocean beds and of the
continents, now about 214 miles, has not been much less than it is now
at any time during the sedimentary period.

We can now, I believe, get an idea as to where some of the force
originates which changes the configuration of the earth’s surface.
The water falling as rain carries off vast quantities of material in
suspension and solution. It unloads certain portions of the earth’s
crust and overloads others. Some geologists have told us that as
much as 30,000 feet, about 6 miles, of material have been eroded
from some mountain areas. Then there are other areas on which
as much as 40,000 feet, or nearly 8 miles, of sediments have been
placed. The earth’s materials are not strong enough to resist yield-
ing under these great negative and positive loads. ‘There is a bend-
ing down of the crust under the sediments and a deflection upward
of the crust under the areas which have undergone great erosion.

The movement of material within the first 5 or 10 miles resulting
from the loading and unloading by erosion and sedimentation is
not a simple one. We do not have merely a slab of material which
can break or bend, but a shell approximately 60 miles in thickness
completely encircling the earth. Any distortion or change in one
part of this shell would have an effect on all other parts of it if the
earth’s crust were of tremendous strength, but such is not the case.
The crust must yield under comparatively small amounts of sedi-
mentation and erosion. If this were not true, the geodetic data
would certainly enable us to detect without difficulty the extent
of the masses involved. An extra load of 1,000 feet of material over
the Rocky Mountain area would show up at once in the gravity
data. The absence of any large differences from normal conditions
leads us to believe that there is surely no excess or deficiency of ma-
terial for the whole Rocky Mountain region equivalent to a blanket
1,000 feet in thickness. A blanket of even 500 feet of material is
greater than can be present as an undetected excess or deficient load
for an extensive area. We therefore may conclude, I believe, that
a blanket of surface rock 500 feet in thickness over a large surface
area exerts a force that is great enough to make the crust beneath
yield. This yielding at times is so slow that the rocks will merely
be bent and deformed, and at other times it is so rapid as to cause
rocks to break.

THERMAL CHANGES IN CRUST

Isostasy is a condition of rest. When the materials of the earth’s
surface are carried in great amounts from one area to another during

SHAPING THE EARTH—BOWIE 343

the process of erosion and sedimentation, the isostatic balance is dis-
turbed. It is then that gravity comes into play and causes the sub-
crustal material to move horizontally to restore the balance. We
have evidence to show that as much as 6 or 8 miles of sediments
have been deposited in the areas along the shores of an inland sea
or the margin of an ocean. This load of material pushed the crust
down into hotter regions. Each particle of crustal material reached
a position several miles below the one it formerly occupied. The
geoisotherms were depressed with the crustal material. Eventually,
probably millions of years after the cessation of the sedimentation,
the geoisotherms returned to their normal positions. In doing so,
the crustal material which had been depressed increased in temper-
ature, perhaps as much as 400° C. in extreme cases.

This increase in temperature, of course, expanded all of the crust
below the sediments. The expansion tended to be cubical, that is, in
all directions, but the material involved was restrained from move-
ment except in the upward direction; hence, the result of the expan-
sion was an uplift of the earth’s surface. The amount of move-
ment could not have been sufficient to form great mountain masses
rising 2 or more miles high, but is it not possible that certain chem-
ical or physical changes, other than normal expansion took place in
the crustal material and that this independent expansion gave the
added height to the uplifted surface? This idea is in complete har-
mony with isostasy and I believe it has much merit.

When an area is undergoing erosion, it is not lowered at a rate
comparable with the rate of erosion. If a thousand feet of material
is eroded from a mountain area, the crust below will move upward
by the influx of subcrustal material which restores the equilibrium.
The crust will presumably rise up 800 or 900 feet as a result of the
1,000 feet of material taken from the surface. If a mountain area
has an average elevation of about 2 miles, from 5 to 10 miles of
material, or even more, will have to be eroded away, if erosion is
the only acting agent, before the area is brought to a low level where
erosion practically ceases. During this process every cubic yard of
material in the crust below the erosion area will have been brought
upward 5 or 10 miles or more into colder regions. Eventually the
geoisotherms, which have been deflected upward, will resume their
normal positions, and in consequence each particle of the uplifted
crust will become colder by several hundred degrees centigrade.
This causes contraction and the surface becomes depressed. The
surface may be depressed even below sea level, in which case new
material in the form of sediments will be deposited in the trough
or basin that is formed. There is evidence that mountain areas
have been elevated and depressed several times and the explanation

344 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

outlined above would seem to show how this oscillation can take
place.

We have seen from the above analysis what forces are being ex-
erted on the materials of the earth. The movement downward of the
crust under the sediments causes a movement of subcrustal material
back toward the region from which the sediments were derived. The
horizontal movement to restore the balance must occur below and not
within the crust. What the effect is of this horizontal movement of
suberustal material on the surface configuration of the earth between
the areas of erosion and sedimentation we do not know. Some think
that perhaps much of the wrinkling of the earth’s surface is due to
this subcrustal flow. I am inclined to think that the movement of
subcrustal material is so small in extent that there can be little effect
of it on the surface above the crust about 60 miles in thickness. I do
not think there is anything like a river of material flowing from the
region below the sedimentary area to the erosion area. It is more
likely that the moving material involves a large volume, and any
portion moves only a very short distance. I believe that this move-
ment of subcrustal material, which is a part of the isostatic adjust-
ment, exerts only a minor influence on those portions of the surface
of the earth that lie between the areas of sedimentation and erosion.

From the above reasoning there appear to be four definite causes of
changes in the elevation of surface areas aside from the direct effects
of erosion and sedimentation: First, the depression of the crustal
material under an area of sedimentation; second, the moving upward
of crustal material to restore the balance under an area of erosion;
third, the expansion of crustal material which has been depressed
by great loads of sediments; fourth, the contraction of the earth’s
crust and the sinking of the surface under an area of erosion. These
must be the causes of many of the earthquakes of the world, although
it would not be safe to assert that these are the only causes of earth-
quakes and surface movements.

Many geologists do not give as much weight as I do to effects of
sedimentation and erosion on changes in the configuration of the
earth’s surface. Prof. C. K. Leith, in his splendid book entitled,
“ Structural Geology,” published in 1928, tells us that isostasy and
the maintenance of isostatic equilibrium are minor causes of struc-
tural changes. He expresses his views as follows:

So far as it is possible to generalize from this vague state of knowledge,
it may be said that geologists are at present inclined to give principal place
to changing rate of rotation and to the shrinkage of the earth, due to heat
transfer from the interior outward, whether they go back to the nebular or
planetesimal hypothesis of the origin of the earth; that metamorphism and
chemical changes, vuleanism, and forces tending to maintain isostatic equilib-
rium are regarded as subordinate or contributory causes, or perhaps as special
and local expressions of the more basic causes first ‘indicated.

SHAPING THE EARTH—BOWIE 345

Leith advises the student of the earth to be cautious in any accept-
ance of a simple and definite explanation as to the causes of structural
changes near the earth’s surface. He claims that “The problem
includes so many unmeasured and perhaps immeasurable factors that
no living scientist can claim even an approximately correct perspec-
tive; all are groping for the light.”

I agree with Doctor Leith that the problem involved in untangling
the geological record is a very complicated one, but I do not think
it is wise to advise a student to avoid a simple explanation of some
phenomena if other explanations are not available, or if the others
are so complicated as to leave one mystified and confused. I believe
that the only way to attack any scientific problem is to follow a lead,
no matter how simple, until evidence may show that one is not travel-
ing in the right direction.

CONCLUSION

Isostasy is now widely recognized as a scientific principle. Its
advocates hold that there is a maintenance of the isostatic equilib-
rium as materials are moved from one place to another over the
earth’s surface. These are the physical facts which are related to
the processes involved in changes in the earth’s surface. They have
been proven by actual physical measurements. It has been stated
that there are great horizontal movements in mountain areas, but
that isostasy and its maintenance call for only vertical movements.
My answer to this is that I recognize the horizontal movements in
mountain areas, but believe that these horizontal movements are
incidental to the vertical movements which are involved in main-
taining the isostatic balance and which also result from the changes
in the temperature of crustal matter brought about by the mainte-
nance of equilibrium. There is an abundance of space in a mountain
area for horizontal movements to occur, and it seems to me that it is
easier to explain these movements as resulting from upward or down-
ward moving material than as resulting from a shrinking interior
of the earth and a collapsing crust.

Isostasy is a geological problem. It was outlined by the great
geologist, C. E. Dutton. It has been used by the geodesists merely
as an effective means by which to harmonize theoretical and observed
values of geodetic data. The geodesists hope that isostasy may
prove of great value to geologists in their efforts to write the geolog-
ical history of the earth.

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THE EARTH BENEATH IN THE LIGHT OF MODERN
SEISMOLOGY +

By Ernest A. Hopeson
Dominion Observatory, Ottawa, Canada

The earth is an object of special interest to all of us. . We are,
indeed, attracted to it much more strongly than to any other of the
heavenly bodies, of which, we must remember, it is one. For the
votaries of Urania to turn from their contemplation of the heavens
above to a consideration of the earth beneath is in no sense to depart
from their allegiance to the Muse of Astronomy. We need not seek
to justify the propriety of presenting an address on seismology
before an audience of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.

A variety of circumstances make this place peculiarly appropriate
for such a subject. We are met under the auspices of a society which
has published more articles on seismology than any other in this
country. We enjoy the hospitality of a university whose former
president—Dr. J. W. (later Sir William) Dawson—made the first
statistical studies of Canadian earthquakes.? The lecture room is
one of those assigned to the department of physics, one of whose
early professors—Doctor Smallwood—operated, as long ago as 1870,
what was presumably the first seismograph to be set up on this
continent.®

We are gathered on the flank of an extinct volcano, but on a rock
foundation so solid that we should be comparatively safe in any sort
of earthquake we may reasonably expect to experience in Canada.
Yet within a mile of this place we can find conditions of unstable
soil, coupled with old or shoddy workmanship which would cer-
tainly be dangerous were we to experience now an earthquake as

1Presented before the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Montreal Center, on
Thursday, Oct. 31, 1929. Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society of Canada, February, 1930.

2Four papers by Dr. J. W. Dawson, which appeared in the Canadian Nat. and Geol., as
follows:

(i) Old ser., No. 1, pp. 189-196, May 1, 1856.

(ii) Old ser., No. 5, pp. 363-372, Oct. 17, 1860.

(iii) New ser., No. 1, pp. 156-159, Apr. 20, 1864.

(iv) New ser., No. 7, pp. 282—289, Oct. 20, 1870.

® Last three lines of the paper by Doctor Dawson, last mentioned in footnote 2, above.

347

348 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

severe, say, as that which on September 5, 17382, damaged some 300
houses in Montreal alone, resulted in the death of at least one, and
the injury of many under circumstances overwhelmingly less likely
to prove serious than those which obtain in the same locality to-day.
Those engaged in construction work in this country will some day
more generally consider the known precautions with regard to
earthquake tremors which should be observed in varying degree de-
pending on the nature of the ground concerned.

Our subject is not earthquakes, however, but the earth. Astron-
omy first taught us something of our earth as a whole. That science
was partly responsible for and greatly assisted the voyage of Colum-
bus, which demonstrated that one could cross the Atlantic without
at least falling off. The idea that the earth is spherical is now gen-
eral except in Zion City, Il. Astronomy measures for us the radius
of our planet, finding it to be about 4,000 miles, the circumference
being nearly 25,000 miles. Astronomy mothered geodesy, which has
demonstrated that the earth is a spheroid of the oblate order. The
remark about the orange which invariably follows in the schoolbooks
leaves one with an uneasy sense of a religious controversy in this
connection.

The shape and size of the earth being known, mathematical physics,
also an offspring of astronomy, informs us that the average density of
the earth is 5.6 (in c. g. s. units). It weighs, therefore, volume for
volume, 53%; times as much as water. This statement may be taken
as a convenient crossover to geology. Physics and allied sciences are
able to tell us only average values for conditions within the earth—
the average density, the elasticity as a whole, the mean value of
gravity; the details are notably lacking. The geologist is concerned
with surficial details. Informed that the earth, as a whole, weighs
a little more than 514 times as much as an equal volume of water,
he states that the granite, marble, limestone, dolomite, etc., which
form the bulk of our surface rocks weigh only about half as much,
volume for volume, as the earth as a whole and that, therefore, there
must be much denser material below. The questions throng: How
far down do the surface rocks extend? What distribution of den-
sities exists within the earth? In what physical state do the mate-
rials exist, solid, liquid, or gas? We are curious to investigate what
hes within the earth beneath.

The miner has the terse expression, “ Beyond the pick it is dark.” *
If this be so, how far may we penetrate below the surface. The
deepest mine in the world ° is the St. John del Rey, in Brazil. This

*Ambronn, Richard, Elements of geophysics (translation by Margaret C. Cobb), 372 pp.
(see p. 1), McGraw Hill, New York, 1928.

5 Science News, The age and depth of mines, Science, No. 1541, vol. 60, p. vili, July 11,
1924. A short article preparea by the U. 8S. Department of the Interior.

:

MODERN SEISMOLOGY—HODGSON 349

gold mine was begun in 1834. In 1924 it had reached a depth of
6,726 feet. The bottom of this mine is not, however, the point nearest
the center of the earth to which man has penetrated. The Calumet
and Hecla mines in Michigan, though only about 6,000 feet deep,
reach a horizon 4,600 feet below sea level, said to be the point nearest
the center of the earth on which man has been able to tread. The
South American mines being in the mountains, their greater depth
of shaft does not penetrate so far below sea level. Representing the
radius of the earth by a line 120 miles in length—the distance from
Montreal to Ottawa—the bottom of the Michigan mines lies at a
point only 188 feet away. The number of deep mines or deep bores
is small; their cost is enormous. To what depth have you personally
inspected the interior of the earth?

If physics deals with generalities, geology studies details, but
practically only surface details, as we have said. True, time has
broken and uptilted parts of the earth’s crust, exposing at the sur-
face that which must once have lain at considerable depth. True,
also, volcanoes bring up materials from below, though from what
depths these materials come is not so well defined as we could wish.
The geologist, having studied the earth’s surface features, admits
that, so far as he can learn, the average density of the surface crust
is only about half as great as that of the earth as a whole. We leave
him as he argues from the known to the unknown, from the ob-
served to the conjectured, from the fact that near the surface the
temperature increases about 1° F. for each 90 feet in depth to the
possibility that at a depth of 40 miles the temperature may be about
2,300° F. or the “white heat of the blacksmith’s forge,”® from
measures of the elasticity and compressibility of rocks under high
pressures in the laboratory to conjectures as to their properties
at great depths within the earth.?’ We turn to seismology for the
decisive tests of any theory as to the structure of the earth on which
we live and move and have our being, from which we get our means
of livelihood, within which we find our final resting place; the
fortress of mystery which man has, at last, completely surrounded,
but which he has never penetrated, nor ever shall.

For some, an earthquake is a rare phenomenon of passing, if
for the moment absorbing, interest; for others it is a dreaded
nightmare of horror. To the engineer, it is a factor in his problems
of design; to the insurance agent and the financier alike, it is a risk;
to the newspaper man, it means business; to the geologist, it is a
tectonic agent; to the seismologist, it is all of these and more.

® Daly, R. A., Our mobile earth, 342 pp., Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1926.
™Daly, R. A., The outer shells of the earth, Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 15, pp. 108-135,
February, New Haven, 1928.

350 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Our subject requires us to consider the earthquake as a release
of energy—the agent which despatches a signal to be registered on
the seismograph set up at each of a network of stations distributed
over the globe. The signals are there recorded after having trav-
ersed the earth for various distances and along various paths, after
having penetrated to various depths. The nature of the records
indicates the paths by which the signals reached the instrument,
the properties of the materials through which they passed. They
are thus worthy of the greatest care in our choice of the network
of stations, our design of instruments and vaults, our maintenance
of continuous recording and accurate timing, our thoughtful study.
These constitute the modern seismology, in the light of which we
are to view the earth beneath.

Our first problem may be stated thus: At what depth do earth-
quakes release their signals? Some undoubtedly occur on the sur-
face, though, presumably, the causal movements extend deep into the
earth. Others leave no traces of permanent shift at the surface.
The added fact that they are sensibly felt over wide areas indicates
that they originate far below. We can arrive at a conclusion with
regard to depth of focus, as it called, along different lines of rea-
soning. Dutton * used as a means of determining depth a considera-
tion of the rate at which the intensity falls off as the disturbance
spreads out in all directions from the focus and makes its effects
apparent at the surface. He concludes that the maximum depth
of focus is of the order of 20 miles. Walker,® working with Galit-
zin’s measures of the angle,at which the seismic rays emerge from
the earth at the different stations in the vicinity of the focus, de-
duces that the depth of focus is of the order of one-fifth the earth’s
radius—800 miles! Omori,!®? making use of the duration of the
preliminary tremors of earthquake records deduces that the mean
depth of earthquakes in the Kwanto province of Japan is of the
order of 21 miles. Gutenberg ™ studied the curve showing the time
of arrival of the first tremors and determined for an earthquake in
the Schwabian Alps a depth of 34 miles. A recent paper by
Wadati * deals very thoroughly with the various methods. He finds
that the Japanese earthquakes fall into two groups, which he terms
respectively shallow and deep. “The deep earthquakes take place

§ Dutton, Clarence Edward, HBarthquakes, 314 pp. (see pp. 185-193), Putnam’s Sons,
New York, 1904.

® Walker, George W., The problem of finite focal depth revealed by seismometers, Philos.
Trans. Roy. Soe. London, ser. A, vol. 222, pp. 45-56, August 5, 1921.

1? Omori, Fusakichi, On the focal depth of the earthquakes originating in the Kwanto
Province, Journ. Geogr., vol. 34, pp. 237-241, Tokyo, 1922.

4 Gutenberg, B., Neue Methoden zur Bestimntung der Herdtiefe von Erdbeben aus Auf-
zeichnungen an Herdniihegelegenen Stationen, Zeitschr. Geophys., vol. 1, Heft 3, pp. 65-75,
Gottingen, 1923.

2 Wadati, K., Shallow and deep earthquakes, Geophys. Mag., vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 162-202,
Tokyo, 1928.

MODERN SEISMOLOGY—HODGSON 351

at the depth of more than 300 km (186 miles), while the shallow
ones at about 40 km (25 miles).” Gutenberg, in a publication
which has just issued from the press,'* tabulates the values of depth
of focus as determined by nine different seismologists for 16 differ-
ent earthquakes. With the single exception of Wadati’s deep earth-
quakes, the determinations all lie at depths of 28 miles or less.
Seismologists generally agree that the data for determining the
depth of focus are not as precise as could be desired, but that earth-
quakes probably originate, in general, at depths of 25 miles or less.

The uncertainty with regard to the depth of focus is due largely
to our uncertainty as to the velocity of propagation of the seismic
waves in the uppermost layer of the earth’s crust. To determine
this velocity we must have an earthquake of which we know, ac-
curately, the time of occurrence and the depth of focus. We can
be sure of this last requirement only where the depth is zero, 7. e.,
where the focus is at the surface. On February 18, 1911, a dis-
turbance was registered which was traced to the Pamirs, in central
Turkestan. Investigation showed that a great slide had occurred in
which from 7 to 10 billion metric tons of rock had fallen a dis-
tance of from 400 to 800 yards. The tremors, registered on the
seismographs at Ottawa and generally throughout the world, were
believed to have been the result of the rock fall.14 The exact time
of the fall could not be determined. Moreover it is now questioned
whether the fall was the cause or the result of the earthquake.
Such a question could be raised in the case of practically any such
earthquake. We fall back upon the velocity of earth tremors gen-
erated by an explosion.

The velocity of seismic waves has been studied in the case of a
great explosion at Oppau, in the works of the Badische Analin und
Sodafabrik in the Bavarian Palatinate, on September 21, 1921.1
The tremors were registered at five seismograph stations ranging in
distance from 68 miles to 227 miles. The chord from Oppau to De
Bilt—the farthest station—dips only about 2 miles below the sur-
face at the middle of the arc. We may thus consider the waves
as being well within the upper layer of the earth. The exact time
of the explosion is known within one second. The records give the
velocity of propagation of the most rapid tremors as 5.4 km (3.35
miles) per second.

1#Gutenberg, B., Theorie der Erdbebenwellen, Gebriider Borntraeger, Handbuch der
Geophysik, vol. 4, Lief. 1, 298 pp. (see p. 234), Berlin, 1929.

4 Klotz, Otto, The earthquake of Feb. 18, 1911—A discussion of this earthquake by
Prince Galitzin with comments thereon—Journ. Roy. Astron. Soc. Canada, vol. 9, pp. 428—
437, November, 1915. (See also footnote 16.)

%*Macelwane, James B., S. J., Are important earthquakes ever caused by impact?
Bull. Seism. Soc. America, vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 15-18, March, 1926.

16 Jeffreys, Harold, The earth, 278 pp. (see pp. 169-170), Cambridge University Press,

24,

302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

But one swallow does not make a summer. It was desirable to
check the value of the velocity by means of other explosion records,
especially as the velocity as determined for waves generated by earth-
quakes of presumably shallow focus was found to be 7.1 km (4.4
miles) per second. Accordingly, in May, 1924," four explosions, the
first two of 10 metric tons each, of melinite, the second two of 5
metric tons each, were exploded at La Courtine, in central France.
The explosions being predetermined, arrangements were made to
have precise timing and fast-speed chronographs, so that the records
obtained were spread out sufficiently to be readily legible... The
tremors were registered at three stations ranging in distance from
31% to 1514 miles. The mean value of the determined velocity for
the most rapid tremors was found to be 5.5 km (3.4 miles) per sec-
ond, confirming substantially the results obtained from the records
of the Oppau explosion.

This raises a further point. We have referred only to the veloci-
ties of the first movement as registered on the seismograph. The
fact that high-speed chronographs were used at La Courtine to
spread out the record implies that there were other onsets of value.
There were.

Waves propagated in an elastic body (that is to say, a substance
which has the power of recovering its shape if it is not strained
beyond certain limits—and the earth is such a body) are of two
kinds. The first is known as a longitudinal or dilatational type and
the waves so propagated are called P waves, since they are the pri-
mary or first registered. The other type is called transverse or
distortional, the waves being termed S waves because they are the
secondary registration in point of time. The P wave and the §S
wave each travel through the earth from the focus to the station
by paths which may be for the present described as being somewhat
concave upward, or as sagging below the chordal line joining the
focus and the station. The velocity of each depends on the elastic
properties of the earth, being greater in each case if the elasticity
of the material along the path increases, but slowing down for an
increase in density. The S wave has the added important charac-
teristic that it can not be propagated through a liquid.

The velocity of the first, fast tremor, found to be 5.4 km (3.35
miles) per second in the case of the Oppau explosion, and 5.5 km
(3.4 miles) per second, on the average, at La Courtine, was that of
the longitudinal vibrations—the so-called P wave. The velocity of
the S wave was found to be 3.1 km (1.9 miles) per second at Oppau
and 2.8 km (1.7 miles) per second in the mean at La Courtine—

17 Maurain, Charles, Eble, L., and Labrouste, H., Sur les ondes sismiques des explosions
de la Courtine, Journ. Phys. et le Rad., vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 65-78, March, 1925.

MODERN SEISMOLOGY—HODGSON 353

again a fair agreement. We thus have a measure of the velocity of
propagation of the two types of waves in the uppermost layers of
the earth’s crust, based on observations of five separate explosions,
registered at three or more stations in each case. Obviously we wish
to add to our observational data of this nature.

To quote from our legal friends, “time is to be the essence” of
our experiments. The nearest of the La Courtine stations was 314
miles from the blast. The first tremor, marking the time of arrival
of the P wave, registered about one second after the explosion. The
S wave required about two seconds to travel the same distance. The
difference in time of arrival was thus about one second in the case

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Ficure 1.—Upper group: Seismograms registered at Gittingen and Jena, respectively,
of an earthquake in Kansu, China, 1920, December 16. Lower group: Seismograms
registered at Jena, of earthquakes in Kamchatka, on the dates indicated. (This
illustration has been copied from Gutenberg’s discussion of ‘‘ Fernbeben,”’ in Born-
traeger’s “ Handbuch der Geophysik.’”’ See footnote 13)

of the nearest station and about four seconds in the case of the
farthest. To render the onset of the S wave legible it was necessary
to record the tremors at a higher speed than that generally used for
earthquakes. Obviously, if the distance is increased to several hun-
dreds or thousands of miles, the difference in time of arrival will
be increased and, moreover, slight inaccuracies in the determination
of the exact instant of arrival of either phase will not greatly affect
the velocity determination.

In order to convey some idea of the manner in which the two
types of waves make their appearance on a seismogram, the two
groups of records of Figure 1 are shown. The arrival of P and §
is indicated for the two seismograms of the first group. These are

354 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

records registered at Jena and Gottingen, respectively—two German
stations about 80 miles apart—of an earthquake which occurred at
Kansu, China, about 4,600 miles from the recording stations. One
minute of record line is indicated at the beginning of the record and
successive minutes can be seen on the original records as breaks in
the line, a few of which are preserved even in the reproduction.
The difference in time of arrival of S and P is here about 8 minutes
and 50 seconds. To obtain a record such as this a line recording
speed of from half an inch to an inch and a half per minute would
ordinarily be employed, depending on the seismograph used and the
purpose of the registration. Where S and P arrive within a second
or so of each other, as in the case of a blast or explosion, it is cus-
tomary to have a line recording speed of 6 or 7 inches per second.
Such a short-distance but spread out record would resemble those
registered at Gottingen and Jena for the Kansu quake except that
the serrations would be more numerous.

The second group of records is also interesting. It shows the
seismograms registered at Jena for three earthquakes, each of which
originated in Kamchatka—about 5,300 miles distant—in October,
1920, June, 1924, and July, 1924, respectively. This shows how
strikingly alike are the records of the same instrument for earth-
quakes originating at the same epicenter.

A friend of mine, a devotee of bridge, sometimes mutters a brief
prayer in the words, “through strength and up to weakness.” Let
us repeat this solemn incantation now in order that you may be
properly impressed with the strength of that part of seismology
which has become so well established that it now forms the strong
supporting column of the seismological attack on the problem of the
internal structure of the earth. If, at the close of this address, you
feel that the van of that attack is occupying ground which it may
not be able to hold indefinitely, do not forget that all will not be
lost in any event. We are sure of some things—and rather interest-
ing and somewhat surprising things they are, too.

We know, from long experience, that if an earthquake takes place
as a sharp, well-defined, single shock, it will be registered at stations
which are more than 700 miles and less than 7,000 miles distant in
such a manner that the arrival times of P and S can be definitely
determined, the difference computed, and the distance from station
to epicenter (that point on the surface vertically above the focus)
read off from an empirical table or its graph to within 25 or 50 miles.
Furthermore, we can, if the stations are equipped with proper appa-
ratus for recording absolute time, determine the time at the epi-
center so accurately that the values derived from the records of
stations at distances within the above limits will agree within a few

MODERN SEISMOLOGY—-HODGSON S00)

seconds. Moreover, the distances from each of three or more
stations being known, for any given earthquake, the position of the
epicenter can be determined with a surprising degree of accuracy.
And, finally, this work has been done, with ever-increasing accuracy,
by various agencies since 1899, supplementing previous catalogues
of felt earthquakes and giving us an analysis of the relative seis-
micity of the different parts of the earth’s surface, which is very
good, indeed. This analysis is being continuously strengthened
to-day by the efforts of over 200 stations, regularly operating seismo-
graphs and publishing data. Our time distance curves are subject
to but minor corrections for distances between 700 miles and 7,000
miles. We know our seismic areas. The seismic history of many
of these areas is already long continued enough to be of value in
various lines of investigation. From this hard-won but firmly con-
solidated position we step forward into the front-line trenches, the
active sector of seismological research.

To detail the various investigations which combine to give us our
present tentative conception of the internal structure of the earth is
beyond the limits of this address. It must suffice that, after outlining
that conception, the seismological evidence supporting it be briefly
inspected. The methods adopted for checking the details of the pro-
posed earth structure will serve to give us some idea of the procedure
by which that structure has been inferred.

All seismologists agree that the earth has a spherically layered
structure, consisting of a central core surrounded by a series of shells
of different thickness, each with its own distinct properties. The
spherical surfaces separating the various shells are probably fairly
well defined ; that is to say, the transition is relatively sudden. They
are referred to as surfaces of discontinuity, or simply as disconti-
nuities,

Let us consider first the central core. The surface of discontinuity
surrounding it is believed to lie about 2,900 km (1,800 miles) beneath
our feet, or a little less than half the distance to the center of the
earth. The material of the core is believed to be iron, with probably
some nickel as well. If our earth is made of the stuff of which other
worlds are made (and that seems a reasonable assumption) and if the
meteors which occasionally fall to the earth are to be regarded as
samples of that material then we may infer a mixture of iron and
nickel for the central core. Here we have a large part of the extra
density demanded by the physicist to make up for the light surface
rocks and average up the density of the earth to the 5.6 which he
demands. The existence of the core is rather well established. The
P waves are refracted into its surface in such a manner that they fail

102992—32——_24

356 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

to reach stations which are between 7,000 miles and 10,000 miles of the
epicenter, leaving the so-called blind zone as shown in Figure 2.

In what state is the iron of the core—solid, liquid, or gas? The
question is still an open one. The fact that the S wave will not be
transmitted through a liquid or a gas suggests that we apply that
criterion. This is not as easy as might be supposed. Some seismol-
ogists believe the S wave has been identified after transmission
through the core. Most are agreed, however, that it has not been
positively identified, and some are frankly of the opinion that the
central core is liquid or gas. It is supposed to be dense, under high
pressure, of course, but not an elastic solid. The velocity of the
P wave is high for the layer just outside the central core—about

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Ficurn 2.—Cross section through the earth, showing the path of propagation of
characteristic longitudinal waves. (Adapted from Gutenberg’s contribution to
Borntraeger’s Handbuch der Geophysik. See footnote 13)

13 km (8 miles) per second. Within the core it drops suddenly
to 8.5 km (5.3 miles) per second. Does the density suddenly increase
as you pass into the core, or does the elasticity become markedly
less? Always we are left with questions, unanswered as yet but not
unanswerable. Of such is the kingdom of research. Without them
we should develop an orthodoxy of science which would be fatal.

The surface of discontinuity at the central core is, as has been
noted, well defined. It is indicated by the “blind zone” and also
by the sudden drop in velocity, which, in turn, indicates either a
sudden increase in density or a rapid falling off in elasticity or a
combination of these. The fact that there is a sudden drop in
velocity is deduced mathematically from the observational data of
earthquake records—the so-called time-distance or travel-time curves.
A paper by Knott ** presents the method by which this is done. A

18 Knott, C. G., The propagation of earthquake waves through the earth and connected
problems, Proc. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, vol. 39, pt. 2, No, 14, pp. 157-208, 1918-19,

MODERN SEISMOLOGY—HODGSON 304

recent book by Gutenberg (pp. 32-80 of reference 13) outlines the
work of recent writers on this subject. There is no other such well-
marked sudden change of velocity with increase in depths as that
which occurs at the entrance to the core. The other changes are less
abrupt and are, in general, increases in velocity. The other dis-
continuities are thus not so well established, in fact or in position, as
is that at about half way down the earth’s radius.

Ascending from the 2,900 km level we traverse, in turn, three
layers of slightly different properties, the two discontinuites sep-
arating them being so ill defined that we are not sure where—or
even whether—they are. The discontinuity which surrounds the
triple layer is at a depth of 1,200 km (750 miles). The material
composing these three layers is supposed to be silicon impregnated
with iron. The iron content is supposed to increase for points suc-
cessively nearer the core, and to be very small at the outer boundary
at the 1,200 km discontinuity. The three ill-defined layers, taken
together, constitute what is known as the transition layer. The
transition layer and the core, taken together, are sometimes known
as the “nife” (ni=nickel: fe=ferrum=iron).

The next discontinuity is much better marked; its existence is
certain; there is some uncertainty as to its position. It may chance
to be different in different parts of the world. Much remains to
be done in its investigation. The break is usually held to be at a
depth of 60 km (37 miles). It marks the upper boundary of the
shell of silica and magnesium usually designated as the “sima” (the
name indicating the constituents). The increase in velocity with
depth within this layer is so uniform that it is not believed to suffer
any internal discontinuities. The density inevitably increases some-
what with depth due to the superimposed weight; the elasticity must
thus gradually increase downward at a fairly uniform rate in the
sima, and at a less regular rate in the transitional layer of the nife
until finally we get the great reversal, the fall in velocity, at the
central core. Let us come back toward the surface and nearer home.
What is the constitution of the upper 60 km (37 miles) of the
earth’s crust?

Jeffreys '® believes that there are three layers, separated by dis-
continuities at depths of 12 km (7.5 miles) and 37 km (23 miles).
These he terms, in order descending, the granitic layer, the basaltic
layer, and the ultrabasic layer, thus indicating the probable nature
of their constituent rocks. The three taken together are known as
the “sial” (si=silicon; al=aluminum).

19 Jeffreys, Harold, On near earthquakes, Monthly Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., Geophys.
Suppl., vol. 1, No. 8, pp. 385-402, December, 1926.

358 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

To sum up, then, beginning at the surface and continuing down-
ward, we have, in order, a layer of granitic rock 12 km (7.5 miles)
in thickness; 25 km (15.5 miles) thickness of basalt; a 23-km (14
miles) layer of ultrabasic rocks; 1,140 km (700 miles) of silicon-
magnesium—the sima; a transition layer of silicon impregnated
with iron, of a total thickness of 1,700 km (1,060 miles); and,
finally, a great nickel-iron core of radius 3,470 km (2,150 miles).
The best marked discontinuities are those at 60 km and at 2,900 km.

Figure 3 shows in schematic form the various layers.

Fieurp 3.—The structure of the earth

The discontinuities about which we should most like to know
more are those at 12 km, 37 km, and 60 km. We shall learn more
about them only through a study of earthquake waves and waves
generated by explosions. If you look over the edge and into a cup,
diagonally so as to just miss seeing a coin placed in the bottom of
the cup at the side nearest, and then pour water into the cup, the
coin becomes visible, due to the bending of the light ray as it passes
from the water into the air—a phenomenon of refraction. The echo
is a familiar example, in sound, of the phenomenon of reflection.
Earthquake waves are refracted in passing from material of given
density and elasticity into a second with different properties, 1. e.,

MODERN SEISMOLOGY—HODGSON 359

in crossing a discontinuity. They are reflected on reaching the sur-
face or at the inner side of the great discontinuity at 2,900 km
depth. Seismologists name the various phases appearing on their
records according to the paths they have probably taken. For ex-
ample S.P. P.S represents a wave which began as a transverse
vibration, traversed the discontinuity at the core (,); went on as
a P wave but was totally reflected at the inner face of the 2,900 km
discontinuity; proceeded as P; again traversed the core and com-
pleted its journey to the seismograph as a transverse wave. Figure
2 shows some of the waves going directly through the core, re-
fracted but not reflected. These are designated the P’ waves.

U

/ GRANITIC LAYER

iy a ; / BASALTIC LAYER

ULTRABASIC ROCKS

Ficurk 4.—Diagram of the paths of propagation of the longitudinal waves
through the upper layers of the earth (after Gutenberg, see footnote 13)

Where reflection takes place, bars above the letters bracket each
leg of the path, as indicated in the extended symbol above.

Near the surface we have a multiplicity of refractions. Figure 4
shows some of the paths which have been suggested as possible.

It will be seen that we have a very large number of wave arrivals
on our seismogram; at least that we may expect many. As a matter
of fact, some arrive with such small energy content that they register
but faintly. This, nevertheless, affords a further check on the theory,
as that theory attempts to predict which waves should register thus.
The proposed structure may thus be checked in many ways by means
of longitudinal and transverse internal or body waves of earthquakes.
We have not mentioned that there are also two types, at least, of
surface waves. These also serve to throw light on the study of the

360 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

outer earth shells. Time fails for us to enter on a discussion of what
is known as seismic prospecting, by means of which commercial
interests probe the upper 4,000 feet or so of the earth’s crust in the
search for oils and minerals. They delineate many of the details of
the upper layers, but, from a purely scientific standpoint, the most
interesting result is the large mass of data showing the relation of
the wave velocity and the type of material traversed.

We have outlined, then, the present theory of the structure of the
interior of the earth and indicated the means by which it is to be
checked and improved through a study of seismic waves. If a later
modification of the theory should give traveltime curves more nearly
in accord with later and more accurate data, the modification will be
adopted. The present theory is (in the language of the automobile
prospectus) the latest model, which we take pleasure in exhibiting at
this time. We hope it will find its way into the hands of many and
that they may enjoy the fullest service in its use. It may be traded
in as soon as suggested improvements have been found worthy of
adoption. All may rest assured that when better theories of the
internal structure of the earth are built, seismology will build them.

COMING TO GRIPS WITH THE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM?

By N. H. Heck

Chief, Division of Terrestrial Magnetism and Seismology, U. S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey

[With 8 plates]

On February 2, 1931, we had another reminder that the problem
of safeguarding cities against damage from severe earthquakes is
as yet unsolved when the beautiful coast resort city of Napier, North
Island, New Zealand, was nearly destroyed by a great earthquake.
This earthquake also demonstrated that in designing structures to
resist earthquakes the possible cumulative effects of a number of
severe shocks must not be overlooked, since there were at least three
aftershocks comparable with the main shock.

The earthquake is always of absorbing interest to the seismologist,
but we are rapidly approaching a condition in which the heretofore
sporadic interest of the average citizen is being converted into con-
tinuous interest in many parts of the earth, and accordingly the
engineer and architect in the regions concerned are beginning to be
quite as much interested as the seismologist.

The two fields of activity with regard to earthquakes—geophysics
and engineering—although having different purposes, are not inde-
pendent, and results in either field may throw light on the problems
of the other. Prominent engineers have begun to criticize the seis-
mologist for not giving them the information that they need, and
the time now seems ripe for closer coordination of activity.

From the viewpoint of the geophysicist, earthquake investigation
is for the purpose of learning all that there is to know about the
nature of the earthquake itself as a physical phenomenon and the
transmission of waves, and, incidentally, the nature of the trans-
mitting medium, with consequent information about the interior of
the earth, which is obtainable in no other way. From the view-
point of the engineer, the important factors are the probable occur-
rence of a severe earthquake in a given locality, the effect of earth-

1Lecture presented at a meeting of the Franklin Institute held on April 2, 1931.
Reprinted by permission, with considerable alterations, from the Journal of the Franklin
Institute, vol. 212, No. 3, September, 1931.

361

362 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

quakes on structures, and the design of structures to resist or reduce
destruction by earthquakes. There is particular interest in regard
to the large structures which modern civilization makes necessary,
such as office buildings, factories, bridges, high dams, and other
structures.

For a number of years engineers have been gathering information
regarding earthquake effects on structures and to some extent are
basing design of structures on the observed facts. At Stanford Uni-
versity they are operating a large shaking table on which types of
structure and models of buildings are tested under conditions simu-
lating earthquakes. With all this, they feel the need of more exact
knowledge in regard to motions of strong earthquakes, a demand
which the seismologists have not yet met.

The reason for this is a practical one. Seismologists, like engi-
neers, have to be practical. Severe earthquakes are of relatively
infrequent occurrence at any given place, even where great damage
has occurred in the past. Instruments suited to record strong mo-
tions will not record weak ones. Accordingly, in order that we
may have material with which to work, the instruments must be
able to record earthquake waves coming from a considerable dis-
tance, but instruments able to do this will not record strong motion.
The valuable information which the seismologist has been able to
obtain about the interior of the earth has been accompanied by the
introduction of many perplexing problems. It is, therefore, not
surprising that much energy has gone into perfecting instruments
and methods for recording distant earthquakes. In fact, the prin-
cipal problems in this field are well on the way to solution, though
we may continue to expect new instruments and methods from time
to time.

The seismologist in developing these instruments has acquired
much information which is useful for the design of the more rugged
and relatively insensitive instruments which must be used to record
strong motion. His knowledge of wave transmission will also be
essential to the correlation of the information regarding strong
motions when available. It is for the engineer to state exactly
what information he needs and to make use of it after it has been
obtained. The seismologist by his previous accomplishment has
justified the confidence of the engineer in his ability to solve the
problems.

This accomplishment has included both instrumental development
and the development of theories to explain the complexities of the
records in terms of transmission through the earth and, consequently,
reasonable deductions about the physical conditions of the other-

THE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM—HECK 363

wise unexplored medium through which the waves pass—the interior
of the earth.

The working tool of the seismologist is the seismograph. The
present seismographs, several types of which will be described, have
as their purpose as accurate recording as possible of the earth
motions during an earthquake. They have been developed from
the simple pendulum and many of them employ the principle of the
horizontal pendulum. In this the weight or mass which corre-
sponds to the pendulum bob is held at a distance from a vertical
support by means of a boom which rests against a point near the
bottom of the support through a pivot to reduce friction. A diag-
onal wire from the weight to a point near the top of the support
carries the weight. The system is then a triangle free to swing
with one side as a nearly vertical axis (pl. 1, fig. 2). In an
actual earthquake the earth and the vertical support move and
through inertia the mass remains momentarily at rest. It is known
as a steady mass. If the earthquake continues the mass will take
up motion and provision must be made for this. In any case the
record or seismogram is a result of the different motions of the
earth and of the steady mass. The developments of the past 50
years have been directed toward securing the best solution of the
problem and toward refinements which give the desired accuracy for
recording distant earthquakes.

Earthquakes occur in a 8-dimensional medium and waves approach
the seismometer from different directions according to relation of
position of earthquake to that of instrument. In the case of the
horizontal pendulum the record will be quite different if the axis
of the boom is directed toward or away from the earthquake or at
right angles to this line. Obviously the instrument must have a
permanent position, so the plan has been adopted of having two
instruments at right angles to each other and also, where possible,
a third instrument to respond to vertical waves. Formerly the hori-
zontal instruments were placed in north-south and east-west direc-
tions. The practice is now being developed of having the axis of
one boom point in the direction from which the greatest number of
earthquakes may be expected and the other is set at right angles to
this. For convenience we speak of the three components of a seismo-
graph, though each is a complete instrument in itself. Even though
the practice of directing the axis of one component as stated helps
to simplify the record, the results are not entirely satisfactory and
it is a very difficult problem to analyze completely the records of an
earthquake arriving from some other direction than those of the
two axes.

364 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Horizontal component instrument.—In most of these the principle
of the horizontal pendulum is used. For stability combined with
high sensitivity the line joining the upper and lower points of sup-
port must be slightly out of the vertical. Adjustments are provided
to make this possible.

Damping.—In order to prevent the seismograph from oscillating
in its own natural period and producing a very complicated record,
the pendulum is damped, which means that a suitable vane attached
to it moves in an oil well, an air pocket, or in a magnetic field, any
of which will serve as a brake. If the period of the earthquake and
that of an undamped pendulum are equal or nearly equal, resonance
is set up and the pendulum movement as recorded has no relation to
the earth movement. Damping can not be perfectly effective, but
the aim of the seismologist is to make the damping arrangement as
effective as possible.

Magnification—In the case of distant earthquakes the actual
ground movement, if it were directly recorded, would be invisible
for all but the very strongest earthquakes. For near earthquakes of
considerable strength, the magnification must be small. There is
in practice a wide range of requirements. Various instruments use
magnifications of approximately 1,200, 700, 150, and 5 or 2. For
special purposes magnification of 1,000,000 has been used. By optical
or mechanical means the actual movement of the mass or, rather, of
the supporting frame with respect to the mass, can be multiplied to
a considerable degree, and this is known as static magnification. For
a record the magnification to be used differs from this and the so-
called harmonic magnification varies with periods of earth wave and
instrument and with the damping, and therefore for the same instru-
ment magnification will vary with the earth period.

Period.—The period is the interval of time between two successive
passages of a pendulum through the position of rest in the same
direction. For recording near-by earthquakes, short-period instru-
ments are used, both on account of the short periods to be recorded
and because of the necessary optical and mechanical requirements to
obtain the desired magnification. In the case of distant earthquakes
there is a wide range of periods and several might be chosen for
the instrument. Periods of 12 to 15 seconds are in quite general use.

Vertical component instruments.—In these a mass is supported by
a spring, and the difficulty is to secure stability along with great
sensitivity, large magnification, long period, and freedom from
changes due to temperature.

Time.—The accuracy of the time is of great importance. Uniform
speed of rotation is one element and absolute time is another, and
both must be satisfactory. Even with the best of apparatus small

THE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM—HECK 365

departures from uniform rotation are likely and, therefore, it is
desirable to have all components record on one drum or on several
drums on the same shaft (pl. 2, fig. 2). The same activity will
not then be recorded at different times because of variation in speed
of several independent drums, and this is an advantage even if the
absolute time is in error. Time marks from a good clock are placed
on the record and time signals by radio are recorded directly on the
seismograms, and if this can be done with sufficient frequency errors
can be kept small (pl. 3, fig. 1). Rev. James B. Macelwane, S. J.,
in a paper before the section of seismology, International Geodetic
and Geophysical Union, last summer stressed the importance of time
and showed that there is grave danger of assumption at many seis-
mological stations that the accuracy is greater than it actually is.

Galvanometric recording systems.—In such systems the boom, in
addition to carrying the mass, has a coil which moves in the field
of a strong magnet. The currents set up are recorded through
a galvanometer. This system has the advantages that high mag-
nification can be readily obtained, damping is not difficult, and
tilting of the pier is not recorded on the record. Also, it is at times
a great advantage to have the seismometer at a place specially
suited to this purpose and the recorder at another place at some
distance away, where conditions are better suited for recording.
The distance may be considerable if conditions require it.

In the case of most horizontal component instruments with long
periods, as 12-15 seconds or more, tilting of the pier may seriously
confuse the record. The effect is to put successive lines on the record
too far apart or, more serious, to crowd them so close that an earth-
quake record can not be interpreted. This tilt is usually due to
local temperature effects on the building or on the pier itself. The
effect of tilting is eliminated in the galvanometric recording system
and in the case of short period instruments, and it is very desirable
to eliminate it on other types. This has been accomplished success-
fully in an instrument which will be described later.

Haamples of instruments which embody these principles—The
Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer, through the use of a very small
cylindrical mass or a vane attached to a vertical fiber under tension
is able to get a short period with high magnification and so is able
to respond to and to magnify ground movements of very short
period. It is probably the best instrument in existence for the study
of near-by earthquakes. It was developed at Pasadena, Calif., for
the special studies that are being made there. While ordinarily
operated at a period of less than 1 second, it has been operated at
6 seconds, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey is operating such an
instrument at Tucson, Ariz. It not only gives good records of dis-

366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

tant earthquakes, but gives useful records of earthquakes at moderate
distances, as in the Imperial Valley and elsewhere in southern Cali-
fornia and adjacent Mexico, so that the records are useful in connec-
tion with the special investigations being made in southern
California (pl. 3, fig. 2).

Galvanometric recording is used in the Wenner seismometer,
developed by Dr. Frank Wenner, of the Bureau of Standards (pl. 2,
fig. 1). This instrument has been fully described in publications of
the Bureau of Standards? available to anyone interested. It is oper-
ated at high magnification and gives exceptionally good records, ex-
cept when microseisms interfere with interpretation of the records.
Microseisms are small oscillations set up at times in the earth’s crust,
and, according to various investigators, are to be attributed to effect
of breakers on the coasts, and, more probably, to passing areas of
considerable range in barometric pressure. They may last for several
days and in the case of instruments of high sensitivity may make it
impossible to interpret a superimposed earthquake record. These in-
struments are installed at San Juan, P. R., at the observatory of the
Coast and Geodetic Survey, at the Cathedral of Learning at Pitts-
burgh, Pa., and will soon be installed at the station of the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology near Machias, Me., and at the ob-
servatory of the Coast and Geodetic Survey at Sitka, Alaska, and also
in the new Franklin Institute Museum in Philadelphia.

The McComb-Romberg tilt compensation seismometer has tilt
compensation in effective form (pl. 1, fig. 2). The instrument
has been developed by H. E. McComb, of the Coast and Geodetic
Survey, using a principle developed by Arnold Romberg, now of
the University of Texas, but at the University of Hawaii when
he did the work (pl. 4). The instrument has photographic record-
ing with relatively simple and compact optical system, oil damp-
ing, and magnification of about 150. Its distinctive feature is oil
coupling between boom and recording mirror. The mirror, which is
horizontal, has a vertical stem or shaft which carries a vane. The
vane is free to move in a long rectangular container of castor oil,
which is attached to the steady mass. The mirror is pivoted on a
horizontal axis so that it tilts with every movement of the vane. All
rapid movements are transmitted from liquid to vane as if the con-
nection were rigid. If, however, owing to tilt, the boom takes a new
position, the vane drifts through the liquid with the mirror remaining
horizontal. Since the tilt and drift are both very slow, the record is
not affected.

® Wenner, Frank, A new seismometer, etc., Research Paper No. 66, reprint from Bureau
of Standards Journ. Research, vol. 2, May, 1929.

THE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM—HECK 367

With the instruments that have been described or others with
similar characteristics, it is possible to have seismograms to meet the
needs of particular investigations.

It would appear at first thought that there would be such a
complexity of waves from an earthquake that they could not be sorted
out. However, through absorption of energy and the results of re-
flections and refractions within the earth or at its surface only certain
waves have sufficient energy to arrive. The definite arrivals of these

ve (slowes
fee EEA Sates,

Ficurn 1.—The difference in times of arrival of the longitudinal or high-speed
wave and the transverse or slower-speed wave is a measure of the distance
from the earthquake to the seismological station

so-called phases are indicated by sudden or gradual increases of
amplitude or by sudden change of period, or both, and these form an
orderly succession, some of which can be distinguished in all intel-
ligible records. Since many of those present have probably not gone
far into the subject, I will recapitulate the principal facts.

We have the preliminary tremors, designated P for primus, which
are longitudinal; that is, with vibration in the direction of progress.
These follow a direct path from earthquake to recording station, but
a curved one, dipping somewhat below the straight line connecting
these two points. Their velocity near the surface is 7 to 8 kilometers

368 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

per second and their ordinary period 5 to 7 seconds. The second
preliminary, designated S for secundus, is a transverse wave with
vibrations at right angles to direction of progress. The velocity
near the surface is about 4.5 kilometers per second and the period is
11 to 13 seconds. The path is approximately that of the P wave.

Reflections of these waves may occur at the earth’s surface at the
halfway point or even at two points, respectively, one-third and two-
thirds of the way with sufficient energy to be recorded. The first
case is designated as PR,, SR,, and the latter PR, and SR.

The longitudinal waves which pass along the surface are more
complex. ‘Their speed is 3 to 4 kilometers per second, according to

FicurE 2.—Paths of earthquake waves and types of seismogram at different distances
from an epicenter

There may be one or more reflections of the different waves at the surface and these
reflected waves reach the seismograph station later than the unreflected waves. Such
phases may be recognized on some seismograms, their prominence depending upon
the distance to the epicenter, path over which the waves travel, component, ete.
Insért: In some cases the phases on different components of the seismograph are so
well defined that the direction of the epicenter may be estimated from the ratio of
the amplitudes recorded by two instruments operating at right angles to each other.

conditions. The velocity for a path entirely beneath the Pacific
Ocean is about 20 per cent greater than under the continents. The
directions of vibrations are more varied than for the preliminary
waves. The periods vary greatly and may be very large, as 40
seconds or even a minute.

While much more might be said, these statements give the essential
facts. It is not, however, the whole story. When the distance
exceeds 10,000 kilometers, the waves pass through the central metallic
core of the earth, and this modifies the paths so that the system of
phases that has been described is replaced by another. However,
since my purpose is to discuss the central and surrounding region of
an earthquake, I will not go into this.

THE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM—HECK 369

The actual use of the complex phases is made possible through
diagrams with distances plotted as ordinates and intervals in seconds
from time of origin of the earthquake as abscissas. Tables are also
used in which time intervals from time of the earthquake to arrival
of the given phase, or intervals between successive phases, are given
for each distance. Perhaps the most convenient tables that have
been developed are those of Rev. James B. Macelwane, S. J., of St.
Louis University. However, not all tables are in full agreement, and
seismologists are still working on the best values to adopt in some
cases.

An important use of these diagrams and tables is to obtain distance
of station from earthquake in order that the earthquake epicenter
may be known. The epicenter is the point on the surface directly
beneath which the earthquake occurred. This can be located in
several ways but the graphical method of plotting on a large globe
need alone be mentioned. The positions of seismological stations
are marked on the globe and, by means of compasses, arcs are
swung from each for the given distance of the earthquake. The
intersection of the arcs gives the position of the earthquake (pl. 5).
Some years ago little use was made except of records giving
clear P and S phases. Now earthquakes can be located when these
phases are lacking on all available records. Such a location was
made of an earthquake in China, which later was found to agree with
the determination made from all available data, including those of
near stations. An adopted epicenter must meet the requirement of
reasonably good intersection of the ares, and the times of origin of
the earthquake as computed from the several records must be in good
agreement.

The tables and curves have been derived from study of records and
from theory. Certain assumptions are made, and if these agree with
a large mass of observational results they are held to be valid.

In this way a solution can be found for the distribution of density
within the earth. Knowing the surface density and the mean density
as given by astronomy, a distribution can be worked out which fits
the velocity of seismic waves at all distances.

If the observations fit adopted curves through a wide range and
then the agreement suddenly disappears, an explanation must be
found; in this way the existence of certain layers of discontinuity has
been postulated. We do not know exactly what the significance of a
layer of discontinuity is, that is, whether there is a change in physical
conditions or in chemical composition, though there is evidence in
favor of both. We know from seismic evidence that such layers exist
because the characteristics of recorded earthquake waves can not
otherwise be explained. The best known and most definite of these is

370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

the one at 2,900 kilometers that bounds the central core of the earth
which geologists believe to be of iron and nickel. The ability of this
core to change path and energy of the earthquake waves is beyond
argument. It has also been held that the interior, though at very
high pressure and temperature, behaves like a liquid in its inability to
transmit any but longitudinal waves. ‘Transverse waves are practi-
cally lacking, though Doctor Macelwane * has recently found evidence
that they may exist.

Of more importance to our discussion are layers near the surface.
These are not so definite and there is more difference of opinion. In
records of near-by earthquakes there are often two P phases and
sometimes three, and the same may be true of S. An explanation is
called for. The first was that of Mohorovicic who postulated a layer
of discontinuity 60 kilometers beneath the continents, and this seemed
to give fairly good agreement with observations (fig. 2). Changes

Ficurn 3.—Illustrating the refraction of earthquake waves when reaching the
supposed 60-kilometer layer below the surface. Reflected waves are not
shown

in velocity throughout the layer, taking place in a manner similar to
that worked out for the deep interior of the earth, were necessary.
Observations of submarine earthquakes gave evidence of a much
thinner layer beneath the oceans and this in turn corresponds to the
faster surface waves beneath the oceans which have been mentioned.
Seismologists in general had accepted this conclusion almost uni-
versally when Jeffreys suggested a different explanation. As shown
in Figure 4, his theory calls for two layers of discontinuity about 10
and 30 kilometers, respectively, below the surface. Most of the
energy passes along these surfaces and the velocity of the waves
remains nearly constant throughout their paths. | Seismic prospectors
use a somewhat similar theory for layers very near the surface.
Investigations in California fit Jeffreys’ theory very well.

*Macelwane, J. B., South Pacific earthquake of June 26, 1924, Gerland’s Beitr,
Geophys., vol. 28, 1930.

THE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM—HECK 3/1

The consideration of these layers brings us to a very important
question—the depth of focus or depth beneath the surface at which
the earthquake occurs. This is of importance in the case of distant
earthquakes, but it is far more important for those occurring near by.
Theoretically there should be important differences in the records of
two earthquakes at the epicentral distances of, for example, 200
kilometers, but with one having a depth of 20 kilometers and the
other 40.

Methods for determining depth of focus are not yet satisfactory,
and in order that such determinations may be undertaken, there must
be a large number of precise records from near-by stations and time
must be accurately measured to the nearest tenth second. The latter
requirement is met at very few stations and the former only in parts
of Kurope and in Japan, though before long the eastern and extreme

Yieurn 4.—Paths of preliminary earthquake waves through the upper layers of the
earth’s crust according to Jeffreys. Most of the energy passes along layers of dis-
continuity and the velocities remain practically constant along such a path

western portions of the United States should meet this requirement.
Sieberg * gives for a European earthquake depths ranging from 133
to 40 kilometers, according to the method adopted, with 45 to 60
as the most probable. Gutenberg arrives at 50 kilometers as about
the average depth for moderately severe earthquakes.

In the case of the Japanese earthquake of September 1, 1923,
there were enough records made by strong motion instruments with
three components near by so that a simple method, and one inde-
pendent of time, could be adopted. The observations ° were so near
the epicenter that it could be assumed that the angle of emergence
of the waves gave directly the direction of the focus on the assump-
tion of straight-line transmission. The distance of observation points
from epicenter ranged from 70 to 132 kilometers. The depths
ranged from 35 to 55 kilometers with 48 as the average. This is

4 Sieberg, Erdbebenkunde.
5 Mem. Imp. Marine Obs., Kobe, Japan, vol. 1, no. 4, 1924.

102992—32 25

372 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

interesting in view of Gutenberg’s adopted 50 kilometers. This
method becomes uncertain at distances greater than 200 kilometers
both because the ratio of depth to distance is becoming small and
because straight-line transmission can no longer be assumed. There
is still much work to be done on this problem.

When we come to the central region of strong earthquakes, we
find conditions of great complexity. Observations by adequate
instruments are so few that we are driven to study earthquake effects
as the best guide to what has occurred, a method obviously defective.
Men under mental stress are not capable of making observations
with the impartial attitude of a machine. However, invaluable
information is obtained from such reports and when a phenomenon
is reported by many witnesses which seems to conflict with the known
principles of earthquake wave behavior, a careful investigation
should be made. As an illustration, in regions of deep alluvium
or of a moderately thick layer of soft material, earthquake waves
have been seen to pass over the ground in a manner similar to the
ground swell of the ocean. In the case of the California earthquake
of 1906, 16 persons in as many different localities reported seeing
such waves. Similar reports were made in the case of the Porto
Rican earthquake of 1918, and there have been many other examples.

At first thought this might seem not unreasonable, but it must
be remembered that while earthquake waves travel at least 2 miles
per second, the ocean swell rarely exceeds 65 feet par second. It
is therefore difficult to comprehend how we can see the waves pass
along. Crests of such waves have been reported as 2 feet above the
troughs, but, even if the phenomenon is genuine, the probability
is that the height does not exceed 6 inches. It will be interesting
to learn the facts by instrumental observation. In some cases a
series of parallel cracks in the earth have been found parallel to
the crest of the reported waves. Even then the waves may be an
illusion due to the effect of the earthquake itself on the observer.

Railroad tracks sometimes afford evidence that strong forces have
been at work. In some cases the distortion appears to have been
due to shortening, but it is not clear how this shortening has been
brought about. No effort has been made to analyze the forces.
The directions taken by falling monuments in cemeteries bear
witness to the variations in the forces at work. Often the majority
will fall in the same directions, but the remainder will fall at an
angle with, or even at right angles to, the prevailing direction.
There are many striking examples of turning of a monument on
its base, or even of different parts of a monument by different
amounts, but without fall.

THE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM—HECK 373

The effects on buildings are of interest. In many cases the
destruction is so great or the failure so varied that they are not
instructive. Much can be learned, however, from study of selected
details. It is, however, very difficult to deduce the actual earth
movements in this way on account of the complexity and variation
in the stress applied and our lack of knowledge as to just what
part of the activity produced given results. But even then much
can be learned, and a large part of existing effort to prevent damage
from earthquakes has been obtained from the study of damaged
buildings. Much work has been done in Japan by the Earthquake
Research Institute and other organizations, and buildings are being
erected which are expected to resist destruction or even serious
damage. The report of the great earthquake of September 1, 1923,
contains much valuable information, but is not yet available in
English.

The acceleration of the ground movement is the rate of change
in its velocity and it appears to be closely related to the destruc-
tiveness of an earthquake. While there are many other complicat-
ing factors, engineers in designing structures have generally ac-
cepted acceleration as the principal element to consider constants in
the formulas which are not satisfactorily known. One of the most
important of these is the maximum acceleration; without certain
knowledge of this, the engineer is not sure of his factor of safety.

We have all sorts of statements as to the relation between acceler-
ation and damage, and the so-called Mercalli-Cancani scale of earth-
quake intensity is a double scale of equivalents. Engineers are be-
ginning to adopt 0.1 acceleration of gravity for maximum horizontal
and 1/20 g for vertical acceleration. In Italy higher values have
been adopted up to 1/6 g. This must be considered in the light of
the fact that we have few instrumental determinations of accuracy.

There has been no lack of effort to make such determinations. A
favorite device consists of a series of small columns side by side so
arranged that each will fall when a given acceleration has been
reached. The information given by such a device is limited to a
single observation with the time of occurrence unknown and we can
never be certain whether the last column to fall (that responding
to the highest acceleration) has responded to the proper maximum
or whether a rapid series of impulses of lower acceleration have not
through resonance caused the column to fall.

Other attempts have been made to deduce the maximum accelera-
tion from the fall of objects. Here again we do not know whether
there has been a single impulse or the accumulated effect of several.
A typical example of the straits to which seismologists and engineers
have been driven is the attempt of Bailey Willis to deduce this in-

374 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

formation in the case of the Chile earthquake of 1922 from the fall
of boundary walls of adobe. Unfortunately, the bottoms of the walls
were weathered and somewhat rounded and this vitiated the con-
clusions. It is obvious that instrumental observations alone will give
the true values of the acceleration. Acceleration, however, can not
stand alone as the cause of destruction. It is the combination of
acceleration, period, duration of the shock, and perhaps the num-
ber of periods of strong shock which causes the destruction. Im-
amura® gives an example of an earthquake occurring in March,
1930, in Japan where the recorded acceleration was 0.8 g, but the
period and duration were both very short and no serious damage
was done. It is obvious that records to be useful must give all these
factors accurately.

These observations, when made, should be competent to decide the
question of the existence of surface waves of considerable ampli-
tude and of low velocity which have been mentioned. It is also
important to learn more about the differences in the effects of earth-
quakes which rupture the surface and those which are of great in-
tensity but too deep to cause such rupture. Of particular interest
are the vibrations set up by visible slipping along a fault plane. It
would be of great interest to know just what is the difference in
the transmission of energy in earthquakes of this type from that in
such cases as earthquakes associated with volcanic eruptions in which
the energy appears to go out equally in every direction.

Observations of a few strong earthquakes in their central regions
will not solve all these and other problems. The possible number
of combinations are very great. However, with an effective program
the accumulation of information will be steady.

The recent New Zealand earthquake (February 2, 1931) has shown,
as have many others, that certain types of earthquake damage are
inevitable. Types of construction matter little if the building is
directly over a fault line with horizontal or vertical slipping or in the
path of a great landslide. If a great tidal wave occurs buildings in
its path will be swept away. However, for most earthquakes the
number of buildings exposed to these special hazards is not a large
proportion, and the most common needs are ability to resist strong
shocks and fire prevention. In both these fields there are important
possibilities. Earthquakes are no more numerous or more severe
than in the past, but the earth is so much more intensively occupied
that the risk of important damage is greater than ever before and
is constantly increasing.

®Imamura, A., and others, On the recent Ito earthquake, Proc. Imp. Acad., vol. 9,
No. 5, 1930.

THE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM—HECK 375

The problem, then, is prevention of disaster due to moderately
severe earthquakes and reduction of damage due to great ones. Engi-
neers are beginning to agree that major structures should be designed
with regard to earthquake stress if the history of the region indi-
cates that they are likely to be subjected to such stress. They are
recognizing the lack of information and are demanding that more
accurate information be obtained.

UN UTA
ARAN eA PBR! Pa

ou NIN ee es ee ey, 8 ees ey Ce Te ee AS cee
eee Cnn ED es en es Oe Ey CEE SSR ESTES Ca EO ES CT SEE TS CE

et yes

Fa eae ee

ee

te te —

FIGURB 5.—Record made by Wood-Anderson seismometer at Tucson Magnetic Observa-
tory, Tucson, Ariz., on November 18, 1929. Grand Banks earthquake. E.—W.
component

It is of particular interest to know that in 1931 Congress pro-
vided funds for undertaking this work which will start early in
1932. Suitable plans have been worked out in cooperation with
organizations on the Pacific Coast and the first instruments for
securing information regarding earthquake motions of interest to

a

se

. PR, : PR,
—_—. al lie opaap bee a Nescain anne forte ah Rts ocatily B07
fyworS MONET . PLPOL DAS: BRALSLOwWhi ff
SR Ree ‘
b D
mince ti Lee
AGA DES LA DARE trae BESO OI an BRAY Mie Ear ge

Ficurn 6.—Seismogram recorded by Wenner horizontal component seismograph at
United States Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

engineers will be made in this region. This does not mean that this
is the only part of the United States where strong earthquakes may
occur. In fact, the most severe earthquakes in this country during
the past five years have been in the Kast, but it is a region where
earthquakes of severity have occurred in a number of localities and
therefore with suitable distribution of instruments earlier results
may be anticipated there than elsewhere. Furthermore, the demand

376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

for this work comes from that part of the country where a sentiment
of wise preparedness for possible emergency is being developed.

The purpose is to install instruments capable of recording accu-
rately strong earthquake motions in places where history indicates
that there is probability of earthquake activity of some intensity.
It is regrettable that such instruments were not installed in New
Zealand last February when invaluable information could have been
obtained. However, instruments of a satisfactory character were
not in existence, nor are they to-day, except for several types that
have been developed in Japan which are adapted to frequent, strong
activity (pl. 8, fig. 2). In this country the Bureau of Standards,
the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, and the Earthquake Research Laboratory at Pasadena
are all at work on the development of such instruments, and it is
expected that satisfactory instruments, even if not of the ultimate
type, will be available before the end of the present year.

: oS TT OI
aon Le eA

Ficurn 7.—Section of seismogram, actual size, recorded by a McComb-Romberg seéis-
mograph, small model, on August 16, 1931, at Washington, D. C. Component,
N. 75 BE. Time mark indicated by arrow point=11 hr. 45.0 min., Greenwich civil
time. Epicenter: 30.0 N., 140.5 W.; southwestern Texas

It would be premature to describe instruments which, though in
process of development, have not yet been tested, but a few funda-
mental principles may be mentioned.

It is not necessary to have elaborate piers separated from the floor
of the building, as for teleseismic instruments, but these strong
motion instruments may be placed directly on a basement floor or
preferably on a block of concrete resting on the floor. The principle
by which early recorders were set in motion by the earthquake, long
since abandoned because the important earlier and weaker phases
were lost, is being revived in different form. With a continuously
turning drum and with photographic recording started by the earth-
quake the objections are met, with resultant great economy of
operation.

THE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM—HECK BY

If we know the acceleration, amplitude, and period, other desired
information can be deduced. The proposed instruments will be
capable of recording accelerations up to at least 1/5 g and simple
devices will also be available which will record accelerations up to
the value of g, though with no such complete record as for the
instruments just mentioned. The instruments themselves will have
to be safeguarded to resist destruction from earthquake.

Earthquakes are in many cases related to movements of the earth’s
crust which may occur at the time of a severe earthquake or during
the interval between great earthquakes. ‘The only satisfactory way
to determine such movements is by precise triangulation and level-
ing repeated at suitable intervals. Much work of this sort has been
done in Japan, especially leveling with significant results. In this
country triangulation was executed in California after the earth-
quake of 1906 which determined the local movements. During the
last few years, as the result of a special appropriation by Congress,
triangulation has been executed in California with connection to
undisturbed regions to the east, and the plan includes repetition of
the observations from time to time. A similar situation exists in
regard to precise levels, though more of this work remains to be
done. It has been pointed out by geologists that though practically
all of the movement in the 1868 and 1906 California earthquakes
was horizontal, geological studies indicate prevailing vertical move-
ments in the past.

This work has required high accuracy, and it has been strength-
ened both by complete adjustment of all the triangulation of the
western half of the United States and also by the establishment
of Laplace stations in the region of the special triangulation. ‘These
are stations where complete astronomical observations are made and
these are combined with the geodetic observations in such a way as
to improve the azimuths of lines and consequently the geographical
positions of points throughout the scheme. While there are a few
cases of large movements, there seems little doubt that at the Point
Reyes station there has been horizontal movement of the station
from its former position of 101% feet, implying a shift of this amount
of the earth’s crust. This is the greatest amount observed any-
where in California.

The Japanese have added another type of investigation that they
have found very useful. Even before the days of instrumental ob-
servation, as far back as 1793,’ the inhabitants of a coastal village
noticed a sudden movement of the shore beneath their feet, and as-
suming that it meant the arrival of a tidal wave they rushed to the
hills. Nothing occurred for four hours. Then came a great earth-

™ Topographical changes accompanying earthquakes or volcanic eruptions, Publ. Earthq.
Investig. Comm. in Foreign Languages, No. 25, Tokyo, 1930.

378 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

quake and tidal wave. This phenomenon has been observed to a
lesser degree in other earthquakes, and the natural assumption is that
the surface of the earth tilts just before the earthquake. In four
earthquakes the intervals have varied from one-half to four and
one-half hours. Recently instrumental observations have been made
of the tilt of the ground which confirms the earlier observations
and indicates that in Japan, at least, the tilting of the ground is
significant. This does not refer to local tilts due to temperature
which the tilt compensation seismometer eliminates, but it is a long-
period tilting of the ground in regions subject to severe earthquakes
with rapid tilting just before the earthquake. If it can be definitely
established that this is common to all earthquakes in Japan, even
when the amount is less than can be readily perceived, it may be
possible to give an advance notice of a few hours which might be
invaluable. The Japanese have developed a tiltmeter, and another
instrument for this purpose has been designed at the United States
Bureau of Standards, but has not yet been constructed. It is im-
portant to learn whether this phenomenon is peculiar to Japan or
any other region where there is block faulting on a large scale or
whether the same thing will be observed in this country.

My purpose has been to show that a program of earthquake in-
vestigation is being developed which, when added to the already
well organized plan, will fill important gaps in present knowledge.
Stress has been laid on fundamental principles, instruments, and
methods, and this serves to emphasize that we are still in a stage
when these are the all-important things. We are beginning to
utilize the records to find out facts about the earth, but there is
great room for expansion in this. field. There are two great fields
of investigation—that treating the earth as a whole, or dealing with
a substantial portion of its crust such as the area of the United
States, and the local investigation as exemplified by the investiga-
tions in California under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington, the California universities, and other organizations,
the investigations in the Mississippi Valley under the auspices
of St. Louis University and the National Research Council, and
the plan of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for cooperative observa-
tions chiefly for the benefit of the engineer.

The studies with regard to the United States as a whole are car-
ried on by the National Government through the Coast and Geodetic
Survey with the cooperation of the Weather Bureau, the Geological
Survey, the Bureau of Standards, and the National Research Council,
the members of the Jesuit Seismological Association, and the univer-
sities and colleges in different parts of the country. The eventual
aim is to keep informed in regard to the elastic condition of the
earth’s crust.

THE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM—HECK 379

Many are thinking of the future of seismology. I am going to
close by quoting the views of Capt. R. S. Patton, Director of the

Figurp 8.—Known earthquakes of the United States

115°

UNITED STATES

KNOWN EARTHQUAKES
OF THE

‘Coast and Geodetic Survey, who, in addition to his administrative
relation to the work, has a strong personal interest in the future

380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

development of seismology so as to meet all needs. In a recent
statement he said:

I feel that in recent years we have made most gratifying progress in our
attack upon the problems of Seismology in the United States. I can not too
highly commend the little groups of men by whom that progress has been
accomplished. They have not only worked untiringly individually, but their
cooperation with one another has been splendid.

But I also believe, first, that there is need for increased future effort, and,
second, that any such increase will necessitate a more formal means of coordi-
nating the activities of the various participating groups. There will be par-
ticular need to clarify, and to dovetail together, the respective fields occupied
by the two general groups consisting, on the one hand, of the geophysicists,
concerned with the pure science of seismology, and, on the other hand, the
engineers, architects, and others who are concerned with earthquakes because
of their potential menace to life and property.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Heck PLATE 1

1. GALITZIN VERTICAL COMPONENT SEISMOMETER

This consists essentially of a heavy mass, known as the steady mass, mounted on an arm which is
pivoted to a rigid column in such a manner that the boom will move freely in a vertical plane. The
free end of the boom carries a series of coils which move in a strong magnetic field as the boom oscil-
lates. The terminals of this series of coils are connected to a sensitive galvanometer. As the coil
moves in the magnetic field, a current of electricity is generated in the circuit which deflects the gal-
vanometer by an amount depending upon the amplitude of the motion and the frequency. The
ground movements, highly magnified, are recorded photographically by reflecting a beam of light
to a photographic recorder described under Plate 2, Figure 2.

2. TILT-COMPENSATION SEISMOGRAPH, MCCOMB-ROMBERG TYPE

In order to eliminate the troublesome effects of slow (daily) tilting of the ground due to temperature
changes, the steady mass of this instrument is coupled to the multiplying lever through oil. Except
for relatively rapid oscillations the mirror of the multiplying lever tends to remain in a horizontal
position and the effects of slow tilting are adequately eliminated. The operating principle of the
pendulum depends upon the inertia of the steady mass. This instrument is designed to register only
horizontal motion.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Heck PLATE 2

1. WENNER HORIZONTAL COMPONENT SEISMOMETER AND EQUIPMENT

As in the Galitzin seismometer the boom of this instrument carries a coil which moves in a permanent
magnetic field as the boom oscillates. The circuit is closed through a sensitive galvanometer carry-
ing a mirror for use in photographic registration. Suitable resistances are placed in series with the
coils and also in parallel with each branch of the circuit. The latter determine the degree of damp-
ing of seismometer or system. In this instrument the coil of the seismometer moves in a radial mag-
netic field; that is, the axis of the coil is coincident with the axes of the pole pieces, one pole piece
being within the coil and the other without.

2. SEISMOGRAPHIC RECORDER, PHOTOGRAPHIC

This recording drum carries a sheet of photographic paper upon which a beam of light as reflected from
a seismometer or galvanometer is brought to focus. The drum, and with it the paper, is driven on
its axis at a speed of 15 to 60 millimeters per minute and at the same time is translated along its
axis at a speed of about 5 millimeters per minute. The resulting record after photographic devel-
opment in the usual manner is called a seismogram.

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Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Heck PLATE 4

TIPLYING LEVER, BRACKET, AND DAMPING VANE OF MCCOMB-ROMBERG
SEISMOMETER

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Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Heck PLATE 6

1. DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF JAPANESE EARTHQUAKE OF 1923, YOKOHAMA

2. SUBSIDENCE OF THE GROUND WITH CONSEQUENT TILTING OF BUILDINGS IN
THE VICTORIA BATTERY, PORT ROYAL

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GROWING PLANTS WITHOUT SOIL

By Har. 8S. JOHNSTON
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution

[With 4 plates]

Over 300 years ago Johan Baptista van Helmont carried out a very
simple and interesting experiment at Brussels. The following is
a record of the experiment as given by Russell:

I took an earthen vessel in which I put 200 pounds of soil dried in an oven,
then I moistened with rain water and pressed hard into it a shoot of willow
weighing 5 pounds. After exactly five years the tree that had grown up
weighed 169 pounds and about 3 ounces. But the vessel had never received
anything but rain water or distilled water to moisten the soil when this was
necessary, and it remained full of soil, which was still tightly packed, and,
lest any dust from outside should get into the soil, it was covered with a sheet
of iron coated with tin but perforated with many holes. I did not take the
weight of the leaves that fell in the autumn. In the end I dried the soil once
more and got the same 200 pounds that I started with, less about 2 ounces.
Therefore the 164 pounds of wood, bark, and root arose from the water alone.

The experiment is simplicity itself and may be repeated by anyone.
The language describing it is clear and lacks the many technical
terms which are common in modern descriptions of experiments. In
spite of the many good qualities commending this famous old experi-
ment, Van Helmont’s conclusion is illogical and incorrect. As we
shall note directly, the 164 pounds of wood did not arise from the
water alone.

If he had taken the young tree and dried it, thus driving off the
water, its weight would have been reduced 40 to 50 per cent. If he
had then burned this dried wood, ash or noncombustible material
would have remained, though but a small fraction of the final weight
he recorded.

Almost half the weight of woody plants can be attributed to the
water contained in the plant cells and tissues. The other half con-
sists mainly of organic matter which can be burned, forming carbon
dioxide, one of the gases in the air. If approximately 50 per cent of
the plant can be returned to the air as carbon dioxide, it seems reason-
able to suppose that this gas might have been withdrawn from the air

381

382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

by the plant during its growth. Van Helmont had neglected to con-
sider the air as a very important source of material for plant food.
Since his day, scientists have discovered that plants absorb carbon
dioxide from the air, and, by means of the energy of sunlight, unite
it with water to form sugars and starch. This process is known as
photosynthesis. From these manufactured substances the plants
build more complicated food materials which are used in their
growth and reproduction.

The ash that remains after the water and combustible materials
have been driven off by heat should not be overlooked. Although
the amount of ash is small in comparison to the other materials mak-
ing up the plant structure, it contains several very important mineral
elements that are vital to the growth and vigor of the plant. The
more commonly known elements are calcium, phosphorus, potassium,
magnesium, and sulphur. These are some of the elements that form
the essential ingredients of fertilizers. More than 30 elements have
been found in the ash of plants. The amounts of some elements such
as chloride, sodium silicon, and iodine vary greatly in different types
of plants. Even traces of zinc, tin, lead, silver, and copper have been
found. Scientists do not at present know if all these elements are
necessary for the growth of plants, but they are finding that minute
traces of some elements, such as boron, manganese, and zinc are just
as essential as those usually mixed to form commercial fertilizers.

As early as 600 B. C. it was thought that plants obtained all their
food from water. It is not water alone that the plant takes through
the roots, but the mineral elements dissolved in it. Even to-day many
people are surprised to hear that solid particles of fertilizers are not
absorbed by plant roots. ‘These mineral substances must first be dis-
solved in the soil water before they can pass into the plant through
the delicate root membranes. In fact the solid soil may be dispensed
with and the roots surrounded by liquid only. However simple the
technique of growing land plants with their roots in water may now
be, it was not until 1699 that there were any published records of
such plants grown in water cultures. Woodward grew spearmint,
potatoes, and vetch in water from a conduit, in river and spring
water, as well as in rain and distilled water. His purpose was to
determine whether the water itself or what it contained in the way
of dissolved matter was the nutrient material used by plants. He
concluded that the water was the carrier of the necessary “ terrestrial
matter.”

The next important step was for man to add artificial terrestrial
matter to pure or distilled water and thereby determine which ele-
ments were essential to good plant growth and which were not. Then
followed a series of experiments by plant investigators to determine

GROWING PLANTS WITHOUT SOIL—JOHNSTON 383

the relative amounts of these essential elements that would give the
best growth. Years of practical agricultural experience had taught
man that plants needed nitrates, phosphates, and potash in the soil.
By many trials they also found that some proportions were better
than others. Science is now showing by means of water culture
studies why some of the earlier practices worked out so well. By this
method man is endeavoring to find out the exact uses made of the
different elements by plants.

A natural question which arises is, why should investigators pre-
fer to grow plants in water containing dissolved chemicals instead
of putting the same chemicals in the soil where plants grow nor-
mally? A brief discussion of some of the difficulties involved in the
use of soil will show why water cultures are preferable in experi-
ments where all the conditions influencing plant growth are rigidly
controlled. Physically, the soil is made up of rock particles vary-
ing in size and shape which are usually mixed with organic material.
The amount of water that soils hold depends on these properties.
Water easily runs through a loose soil. In a closely packed soil
water movement is slow. In experiments where several plants are
to be grown with their roots in exactly similar media, it is at once
realized how difficult the problem is of potting a number of plants
in soil so that all of them may be rooted among particles of the
same size and shape, and similarly packed. When the packing, or
arrangement of particles, is different, it is found that the capillary
water films in the soil as well as in the air spaces are altered. All
these different physical factors would be possible sources of error in
an otherwise accurately controlled experiment.

The problem of obtaining two soils that are exactly alike in their
chemical composition is even more difficult than that of securing two
that are similar physically. Even a slight difference in the chemi-
cal composition of two soils may bring about a marked difference in
plant growth. A single illustration will serve to show the importance
of this consideration where quantities as small as one part of a certain
element in 2,000,000 parts of the soil water makes enormous differ-
ences in plant growth. Boron, a substance found in boric acid and
borax, and until recently, not seriously considered important in plant
growth was the element involved in this work. Pure quartz sand
was used instead of ordinary garden soil as the medium for grow-
ing a number of potato plants. The sand was watered with a solu-
tion containing all the elements then considered necessary for growth.
New glazed earthenware crocks were used to hold the sand. In the
first two series of experiments the plants grew very well, but in later
work they became unhealthy and usually showed early death of the
stem tips. Later when the importance of small traces of boron was
recognized, the real explanation of the poor growth was obvious.

384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

When the crocks were new the plants obtained a sufficient supply of
boron from the glaze. Later this element was more difficult for the
plants to obtain as the available supply became exhausted.

A simple experiment clearly brought out these facts. The same
crocks were again used, as well as sand from the same source used
in the earlier experiments. However, a very small amount of boron
was dissolved in the solution used for watering half the plants.
This amount was almost inconceivably small, being one part of
boron to 2,000,000 parts of the solution. The potato plants had
little difficulty in detecting and using this minute quantity of boron.
The difference in growth is clearly seen in Plate 1. Imagine to
what extent a man would be nourished by eating pea soup with one
pea to each 182 gallons of water. Yet there are minute quantities
of certain substances just as important to man as boron is to plants.
Certain glands manufacture traces of interesting chemical com-
pounds called hormones which stimulate or retard the growth of
animal tissue. The discovery of iodine in the thyroid was followed
by the isolation of thyroxine, a stable iodine-containing hormone.

Too great quantities of certain elements in the soil are just as
harmful to plants as too small amounts. Slght differences fre-
quently bring about enormous growth responses. To obtain two or
more pots of soil that contain exactly the same amounts of all chem-
ical elements affecting plant growth is a herculean task. Even if
two such pots of soil were obtained it would be even more difficult
to determinate accurately the amounts of all the chemicals used by
the plants. It is hence easy to see that soil cultures are not very
good media for growing plants in accurately controlled experiments.
Yor these reasons and for the simplicity of handling and controlling
the elements, water cultures are being used more and more where
exact information of the plant’s growth and behavior is desired.

Water-culture experiments, or those in which plants are grown
in mineral nutrient solutions made by dissolving pure chemicals in
distilled water, have furnished science a means of distinguishing the
useful or essential plant-food elements from the useless or nonessen-
tial. Jt is true that chemical analysis demonstrates the presence of
many elements in plant tissues. It is poor reasoning, however, to
claim they are all essential. Plants as well as animals take into their
tissues certain nonessential substances along with the essential.
The late Prof. Cyrus Hopkins gave to his students a mnemonic sys-
tem whereby they could easily remember the then supposed essential
elements for plant growth. It read “OC. Hopkins cafe, mighty
good.” When expressed as chemical symbols it appears as follows:
C. HOPKNS, Ca Fe, Mg, which represent the elements carbon, hy-
drogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, sulphur, calcium,

GROWING PLANTS WITHOUT SOIL—JOHNSTON 3885

iron, and magnesium. Boron, manganese, and undoubtedly several
more elements should be added to the list.

In what forms or chemical compounds can these elements be “ fed ”
to the plants? There are numerous combinations of these elements,
but perhaps the salts most frequently used are calcium nitrate,
Ca(NO,).2; magnesium sulphate, MgSO,; monopotassium phosphate,
KH.PO,; potassium nitrate, KNO;; ammonium sulphate, (NH,).SOx.
Iron may be supplied in any one of several compounds such as tar-
trate, citrate, phosphate, or sulphate. A trace of boric acid and
manganese should be added where all other materials are of the
highest purity. To be sure, certain plants require larger amounts
of a given element than others and this same thing is true of a given
plant at different stages of its development, but in spite of such
limitations it is rather surprising to find considerable variation in
the concentrations and proportions of these salts that produce good
growth.

Almost every original investigator in the field of plant nutrition
has devised a particular solution of his own. The result is that
there are many formulae for making plant-nutrient solutions, each
of which has some good points. The chief purpose of any of these
solutions is to give the plant the elements that it needs for its growth
in a readily soluble form. The ones obtained from the soil in larg-
est amounts are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and mag-
nesium. Many different nutrient solutions have been made from
various combinations of these elements. That proposed by Sachs
was the first so-called standard solution. Perhaps none has been
more generally used than the one devised by Knop, which is made
up of the following salts by weight: Four parts calcium nitrate, one
part potassium nitrate, one part magnesium sulphate, one part either
mono or di potassium phosphate, trace of iron.

Knop’s solution was greatly improved by Tottingham for the
growth of wheat and then simplified by Shive to a solution com-
posed of the following volume-molecular proportions of but three
salts:

JSS 21 Cy oa patel opal eagle eR etl: Nl 0. 0180 m
CHUNG ee am bolte Oy er OEE: . 0052 m
MeSOe. codpane (ot ari Iyetraues wlhiieran. 0150 m

To be sure, iron was needed and was supplied in a very small
amount, as FePQ;. Six of the essential ions—K, Ca, Mg, PO,, NOs,
and SO,—used by plants in the greatest amounts were found in
Shive’s simple formula. When very pure salts and distilled water
are used it is necessary to add small amounts (mere traces) of other
necessary elements. Our more recent knowledge of plant nutrition

386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

calls for a more complicated solution than the three-salt one. A
solution which the writer fonnd to be good for growing tomatoes
contained the following ions expressed as parts per million parts of
water used:

Galleim: Soe ae eee Se See) (Ca) eee DL ON UR Serene ee 200
Magnesium s2u.o8 ee ee eee (Mig:) 2 eee Uae ere a ee 60
POLS SUT Tr ee a ie i (ERS) pase a a aa 78
ING ERA see eee ee Be CIN @)5,) eee 620
ASAT 0) O11 CS a i eat a eV ee (SOp)) 22 ae ee ee 290
PhROsphate= eee ee ee (POG) Sa ee SES Ce a RS 74
Manganese ae 84-e.:ciis chet se ee ee (Era) toe a el SE A 1
1 BOW OY 0 tae Sep eae ek pO SU een AUER STE Sen (CB) ee ON eo eh SA eee haa al
ATG YN ae oe ee (He) aes== Enough to keep plants green

The excellent growth made by the plants in this solution can be
seen in Plate 2.

Each ion included in the above list exerts a definite influence on
the growth of plants. So characteristic is the effect of the omission
of a. single element that the plant itself frequently serves as an
index of the element it lacks for normal growth. Again using the
tomato plant as an example, a healthy leaf and one taken from a
plant suffering from “potash hunger ” are contrasted in Plate 3.
An insufficient amount of potassium results in a yellowing of the
older leaves, which later are covered with brown spots. On the
other hand, phosphorous deficiency brings about a deepening of the
green color of the leaves, and in severe cases the lower leaf surfaces
become distinctly purple and the stem grows out slender and sharply
pointed. With extreme calcium deficiency the growing points of the
stem soon die and become dry.

A common method for growing plants in a nutrient solution is,
first, to germinate the seeds between layers of moist filter or blotting
paper kept in a glass dish and covered to conserve the moisture.
When the roots grow to one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch in
length these seedlings are transferred to a germination net. Two
pieces of paraflined cotton fly netting are stretched and fastened
over a suitable dish. It is well to separate the pieces of netting
from each other by a piece of bent glass tubing one-fourth of an
inch in diameter. ‘The dish is then filled with water and the roots
of the seedlings carefully inserted in the meshes of the netting.
During the subsequent growth of the seedlings tap water is allowed
to flow through the dish. After the seedlings have reached a height
of approximately an inch they are transferred to the culture solu-
tions. Each culture contains one or more seedlings supported by
means of a little cotton in holes of paraffined flat cork stoppers,
which fit into the culture jars containing the nutrient solution. The

GROWING PLANTS WITHOUT SOIL—-JOHNSTON 387

jars used are frequently of the “ Mason ” type and should be wrapped
with heavy paper to exclude most of the light from the roots.
This covering prevents algae from growing in the solution.

Recently a very interesting series of experiments has been com-
pleted by Dr. J. E. McMurtrey, of the United States Department of
Agriculture, on the mineral deficiency symptoms of the tobacco
plant. The nutrient solutions he used were so devised that one
element could be omitted without changing the amounts of the other
elements. The general appearance of these plants, each of which
suffered from an insufficient amount of an essential element, is shown
in Plate 4, together with a tobacco plant grown on a complete mineral
diet. In connection with these experiments, a key has been prepared
which gives promise of having considerable value in the diagnosis of
certain malnutritional diseases of the tobacco plant.

The division of radiation and organisms of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution has initiated certain types of research in which extremely ac-
curate measurements are being made of several fundamental plant
activities. In one experiment the absorption of carbon dioxide by
the plant is being studied under accurately controlled conditions. It
is highly desirable that the plants be grown in a medium which can
be better controlled than soil. In other experiments the effect of
various light intensities and wave lengths on the growth of plants
is being investigated. Here again soil can not be used because of
errors it would introduce into the experiment. For the reasons
pointed out in the foregoing discussion the plants used in these
accurately controlled experiments are grown in nutrient solutions
made by adding the proper inorganic chemical compounds to dis-
tilled water.

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Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Johnston PLATE 1

POTATO PLANTS GROWN IN SAND CULTURES TREATED WITH BORON-
DEFICIENT SOLUTION (LEFT) AND WITH A SIMILAR SOLUTION TO WHICH A
SMALL AMOUNT OF BORON HAD BEEN ADDED (RIGHT)

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Johnston PLATE 2

TOMATO PLANTS GROWN TO MATURITY IN NUTRIENT SOLUTION

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SOME ASPECTS OF THE ADAPTATION OF LIVING
ORGANISMS TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT?

By H. 8S. Hatcro WaARDLAW

Our interests as members of this society lead us to consider the
relation of living things to their environment from many points of
view. We are on the whole, perhaps, more usually concerned with
the morphological aspects of this relation, but in this portion of my
address I wish to direct attention to certain chemical relationships
which subsist between the living organism and its surroundings.
After all, the chemical constitution of bodies may be regarded merely
as a more intimate expression of their morphology, as an expression
involving smaller units than those which are commonly studied by
visual examination. And in considering the material relationships
between a living organism and its environment we can not ignore
the relationships involving exchanges of energy. The conditions of
the former are to some extent determined by the requirements of
the latter. A survey of this kind would involve the discussion of a
wide range of questions. I wish to refer only to one or two of these
upon which biochemical information appears to have thrown light,
and to discuss one or two examples where adaptations have more
obviously been brought about by chemical adjustments.

The thesis which I wish to submit to you may be expressed in two
statements: That the changes which living organisms have under-
gone in adapting themselves to their environment have had as their
object the maintenance unchanged of certain essential characters, and
that the organism which has most successfully adapted itself to its
surroundings is that which has acquired, to the greatest extent, the
power of adapting its environment to its needs.

The most bewildering diversity of forms is met with among living
things. All these variations of structure may, no doubt, be regarded
as adaptations of one kind or another to the various environments in
which the different organisms are to be found. It will be as well,
therefore, to make clear at the outset what I wish to be understood by

1 Reprinted by permission from the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South
Wales, vol. 55, pt. 1, No. 227, Apr. 15, 1930.

389

390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

my use of the phrase “ adaptation to environment,” and then to go
on to see whether any common factor can be found for the super-
ficially diverse means by which the living organism seeks to attain
this adaptation, before discussing any particular examples of adap-
tive mechanisms.

By the term environment I mean that portion of its surroundings
with which an organism can enter into exchanges of matter and
energy. The limits of the environment may be hard to define and
will depend upon the particular exchanges which are being con-
sidered. In the more complex organisms one part may be the envi-
ronment of the rest.

I shall use the term “ adaptation ” as implying broadly any means
by which an organism is enabled to survive in its surroundings, not
as an individual but as a species. The term so understood means not
merely the ability to survive, but the ability to survive without alter-
ation of certain characters. A moment’s reflection will show that, by
this criterion, we have no convincing evidence that any living organ-
ism has yet proved itself to be completely adapted to its environment.
On every hand evidence is daily being brought to light of species
which have become extinct, and yet the members of every living
species must have descended, in unbroken succession, from individ-
uals of one or other of those extinct species. Those transient species
were obviously not completely adapted to their surroundings, but
there was within the living matter of the individuals which composed
them, some more effective type of adaptation which has enabled it to
survive the impermanence of its external form.

The extinction of so many species has been due, not so much, per-
haps, to their inability to adapt themselves to their surroundings,
as to their inability to make their adaptions quickly enough to keep
pace with their changing environment. For, during the ages which
have passed since living forms first made their appearance, the nature
of their environment has, no doubt, altered as profoundly as have
the living organisms themselves.

Even the simplest living organism seems to be much more com-
plex than any inanimate system of which we have detailed knowl-
edge. But there is no valid reason for supposing that processes other
than those which are described as physical or chemical play any part
in their fundamental reactions. We may, therefore, expect the
behavior of the living organism to show many similarities and
analogies to that of inanimate systems in their relation to their envi-
ronment. On the other hand, there are what at present seem to be
rather characteristic differences between the two types of system,
although, on close analysis, these distinctions become hard to draw.

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT—WARDLAW 391

A general property of inanimate physical systems is their ten-
dency to reach a state of equilibrium, that is, they tend to reach a
state in which exchanges of matter and energy between the various
parts of the system, and between the system and its surroundings
are no longer apparent. It is true that it may be possible to demon-
strate that fluctuations in the state of different parts have not entirely
ceased in a system which has reached this condition, but these changes
which still continue do not lead to any gross or permanent redis-
tribution of matter or energy.

The same property which makes any physical system tend to reach
a state of equilibrium, will also resist any agency which tends to
disturb this state. If an attempt is made to change such a system
in any way the system will react so that the change produced is not
as great as it would have been if such a reaction had not taken
place. Jor example, if a volume of gas be heated at constant pres-
sure it will expand, and in expanding it will cool, so that the total
rise of temperature will not be as great as it would have been had
the gas not expanded. This system resists the rise of temperature
due to heating. Again, many substances, when they are dissolved
in water, cause the temperature of the resulting solution to fall. But
these substances are less soluble in the colder water, so that less will
dissolve than would have if the temperature had not fallen. The
system resists the change of concentration caused by the substance
going into solution. ‘This behavior is known as the principle of Le
Chatelier.

The reaction of a living organism to changes of its environment
is not, however, limited to that which would take place according
to the principle of Le Chatelier. In the first place a living organ-
ism is continually expending energy, and so prevents itself from ever
attaining a state of equilibrium with its surroundings. Further, it
is provided with regulatory mechanisms which not merely resist
changes due to alterations of environment, but which are able to
neutralize, even to reverse, their effects. To this property of living
things Cannon (1929) has applied the term “ homeostasis.”

Some of these regulating mechanisms are remarkably efficient.
Their object is to maintain unchanged any system of which they
area part. But no such mechanism, however perfect it may be, can
render an organism completely independent of external changes.
Some response to these changes, however small that response may be,
is necessary to set the adjusting mechanism in action, and this
mechanism, once set in motion, will not cease to act until the condi-
tion aimed at is overshot, no matter how slightly. Such an effect
is common to all governing mechanisms. All] that they can do is to
insure that the variations imposed upon the organism by a changing

392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

environment shall be restricted within certain limits. The more
effective the mechanism is, the closer together will these limits be.

Broadly speaking, we may say that the living organism first pro-
tects itself against the variations of its surroundings by placing
barriers between itself and its environment. The process of encyst-
ment and the formation of spores are what appear to be simple
examples of this type of reaction which are shown by very simple
organisms. Even more highly developed organisms make use of
devices of this kind at some stage of their life histories, as in the
formation of seeds by plants.

There is no doubt about the effectiveness of such a mechanism for
protecting an organism against unfavorable changes of its environ-
ment. The extreme difficulty with which the spores of certain
microorganisms are destroyed, even by the most drastic treatment,
is well known. The tenacity with which the seeds of certain plants
retain their viability has been demonstrated by Cambage (1928),
who showed that seeds of Acacia melanoxylon were capable of ger-
mination after 10 years’ soaking in sea water. In its simplest form,
however, a protective mechanism of this kind imposes severe restric-
tions upon the organism using it. At times such an organism must
purchase its survival by an almost complete suspension of its vital
activities. The mechanism can do no more than protect the organ-
ism from destruction by extremes of variation in its environment,
and appears to display the phenomenon of adaptation in its crudest
form. It is a regulatory mechanism which permits of wide varia-
tion in the rate at which the organism is able to carry on its activities.
Except for this power of passive resistance, an organism limited to
this kind of adaptive mechanism is still very largely at the mercy
of its environment. '

Another way in which an organism may place a barrier between
itself and certain parts of its surroundings is by removing itself from
those parts. It is able to do this when possessed of the property of
motility which is shown even by some of the most primitive forms of
life. As an adaptive mechanism, motility in many ways is a distinct
advance beyond processes similar to encystment. The motile organ-
ism is able to make use of one part of its environment to protect itself
against another. Instead of erecting about itself, when conditions
become unfavorable, barriers composed of its own substance, it is
able to place parts of its environment between itself and those
conditions.

It is evident that the freedom of an organism possessing motility
must be much greater than that of similar organisms without this
mechanism. Its effect is to render unnecessary many of the varia-
tions of activity to which the nonmotile organism must be subject,

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT—WARDLAW 393

by avoiding many of the occasions on which those variations would
occur. It is an adaptive mechanism which avoids many adaptive
modifications on the part of the organism. In addition it is capable
of being much more selective in action than a mechanism which
withdraws the organism from a condition of interchange with its
environment. The working of this mechanism is seen most clearly
perhaps in the tropisms which many of the more primitive living
forms display. ‘The movements of the more complex organisms do
not always bear such an evident relation to the effects of environment
as do those of the simpler. They are complicated as a rule by the
simultaneous action of many other adaptive mechanisms. The large-
scale movements, however, even of the higher animals, such as migra-
tions, are sufficiently analogous to tropisms to suggest that they may
be the results of some common underlying mechanism.

An organism possessed of the property of motility is considerably
more independent of its surroundings than an organism limited to the
type of adaptive mechanism first discussed, but its chances of survival
are not necessarily greater. While it does survive, however, its vital
activities are likely to be much less subject to variation than those of
an organism whose only protection is quiescence.

Although this mechanism shows a great advance over that previ-
ously discussed, its effectiveness is still decidedly limited. It is, no
doubt, adequate for those simple organisms whose normal environ-
ment is not subject to much simultaneous variation in several com-
ponents. Such a mechanism is likely to break down, if not assisted by
other regulatory devices, when the organism is faced with concurrent
changes of different factors of its environment. Removal of the
organism from a portion of its environment unfavorable in one re-
spect may deprive it of conditions which may be favorable in other
respects. An organism restricted to this type of adaptive mechanism,
or even possessing it in addition to the power of becoming encysted,
would often find itself in a dilemma.

PRIMITIVE RELATIONS BETWEEN ORGANISM AND ENVIRONMENT

The action of all of the mechanisms which regulate the chemical
relations of the organism is essentially to control the exchange of
material which takes place between the organism and its surround-
ings. In its crudest form this mechanism acts simply by abolishing
interchange between organism and environment when the characters
of the latter become unsuitable. As these mechanisms develop in
effectiveness, and, incidentally, in complexity, so do they increase in
selectivity. They become able to control independently the exchange
of a wide variety of substances with the outside world, and so to regu-
late the concentrations of these substances in contact with the living

394 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

matter that the organism may carry on its activities with a minimum
of adventitious disturbance.

The fact that the living organisms of to-day have evolved from
more primitive forms seems to involve the assumption that the mecha-
nisms which have enabled living matter to survive have done so be-
cause of their ability to preserve at least some of its primitive charac-
ters. It will be interesting, therefore, to cite evidence which has been
adduced in support of the hypothesis that ving organisms tend to
retain some of the properties which they may have possessed at very
early stages of their evolution, no matter how complex they have
eventually become.

Conjectures as to the series of reactions which may have led to the
appearance of organic matter out of which the first living organisms
were formed need not concern us. We are more concerned at the
moment with the conditions of environment which may have existed
when living forms were in the early stages of their evolution. It may
be mentioned, however, that investigations such as those of Moore
(1914) and of Baly (1927) and their coworkers have indicated the
possibility of the synthesis of naturally occurring organic compounds
from water, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts under the influence
of radiant energy and in the presence of inorganic catalysts.

No matter what the conditions may have been under which living
matter first arose, they were obviously favorable to its appearance.
Conversely, since the first living organism may be assumed to have
been a direct product of its environment, there can be no doubt
but that it was eminently well adapted to its surroundings. In the
meantime, the conditions surrounding the living organism have un-
dergone tremendous changes. As far as we know, none of the living
organisms of the present day can be regarded as direct products of
their environment.

When the composition of one of the higher forms of animal life
is compared with that of its surroundings, the differences which are
observed are much more obvious than the resemblances. Out of some
80 elements around it, the organism chooses 4 from which to build
up about 95 parts out of every 100 of its substance. When, however,
certain parts of an organism are compared with certain kinds of
environment, a much closer correspondence can sometimes be seen,
and there are indications that more intimate relations may once have
prevailed between the two than can now be shown.

There must have been something fundamentally essential in the
conditions under which life began. The enormous development of
complexity which has taken place in some of the living organisms
of the present day can be traced largely to the series of modifications
which seems to have had for their object, the maintenance, in the

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT—WARDLAW 395

immediate vicinity of living matter, of conditions resembling those
of its primitive state. From this point of view the whole story of
evolution is one of adaptation to environment. It is a history of
the mechanisms developed, of the subterfuges resorted to, of the
changes undergone by living matter to maintain essential characters
unchanged in a changing world.

There seems to be a general agreement among biologists that liv-
ing forms originated in the sea. The chemical examination of
organisms supports this view. All the reactions of living matter
take place in aqueous solution. The ultimate units of structure, the
cells, even of the most highly developed land forms, still live in a
medium which bears certain striking resemblances to sea water.

We have no direct means of knowing what was the composition
of the aqueous medium in which living matter first made its ap-
pearance. It must, however, have been a dilute salt solution, but
of a composition differing materially from the sea water of the
present time with respect both to the concentrations of and the pro-
portions between the various ions present. The water which first
condensed on the cooling surface of the earth would, in its course
downwards to the lower levels, begin to leach out the soluble mate-
rials with which it came into contact. The more soluble materials
would dissolve more readily than the less soluble. As this leaching
action continued, the available supplies of the more soluble mate-
rials would diminish more rapidly than the available supplies of the
less soluble substances. It may be assumed, then, that the earlier
river waters, and the seas which they fed, were relatively richer in
these more soluble materials than the waters of later periods.

During the period of their evolution in the waters of the seas, liv-
ing organisms have thus been exposed to a medium of continuously,
if slowly, altering composition. Does the study of the chemical
composition of the living organism of the present afford any evi-
dence that it has passed through these conditions? ‘The individuals
of the more highly evolved species during their ontogeny pass
through a series of modifications of structure which summarize, as
it were, the stages through which the present form of the species has
been reached during the course of evolution. Macallum (1926) has
shown that there is reason to believe that just as the complex organ-
ism acquired certain structures at definite stages of its evolution, so
it has perpetuated certain of its chemical properties from remote
phases of the history of its forerunners.

CHEMICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

At present the ontogeny of the chemical characters of organisms
is not known with anything like the detail which is available with

396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

regard to their morphological development. A similar state of
affairs exists with regard to our knowledge of the chemical phy-
logeny of living forms. The paleontologist has access in the sedi-
mentary rocks to records of extinct species from which he can recon-
struct at least some of their morphology. But as a rule the chemical
characters of extinct organisms do not leave any direct record in
the rocks. ‘The information which we have as to the composition
of extinct organisms is largely based on analogies drawn from our
knowledge of the composition of existing structures homologous with
those observed in fossil remains, or from the persistence of structures
which were mainly composed of inorganic material.

Fortunately this rule is not entirely without exceptions. In one
or two rare instances there is reason to believe that organic com-
pounds present in long extinct organisms have been preserved from
the remote past. It is a matter of pride to us to know that the
latest of these rare discoveries has been made by a distinguished
member of this society, our esteemed past president, Sir Edgeworth
David. In the course of the examinations made in connection with
his discovery of structures of living origin in pre-Cambrian strata,
David (1928) observed that some of these structures consist of or-
ganic matter which is apparently the original chitin of which the
skeletons of these animals (annelids) were largely composed.

Direct glimpses like this into what has been termed the paleochem-
istry of living things are of great importance. They give direct
support to the otherwise very indirect evidence upon which is based
our belief in the stability of some of the chemical characters of
living organisms.

The paucity of our knowledge of the detailed composition of living
things does not permit us to classify them in such small subdivi-
sions as are made possible by our more detailed knowledge of their
morphology. In this connection, however, the pioneering work of
Smith and Baker (1920) must receive due mention. These in-
vestigators in their now classical researches followed out the relation
between certain of the chemical constituents and the structure of a
group of Australian plants.

Investigations of this kind, however, relate rather to the associa-
tion which is to be found between highly specialized structures and
compounds in living things. They bring out the changes which
have taken place during the evolution of the chemical characters
of living things rather than emphasize the relative permanence of
some of the more primitive of these characters.

When we wish to consider the more fundamental chemical char-
acters of the living organism, we must examine the less highly spe-
cialized tissues, and the wider divisions of morphological differentia-

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT—WARDLAW 397

tion. We must study the distribution of relatively simple inorganic
compounds, rather than that of the highly complex organic sub-
stances. Only when comparisons are made on the basis of such
broad distinctions of form as that between organisms having a
closed circulatory system and those without it are correspondingly
fundamental differences of chemical properties to be discerned.

THE PROPORTIONS OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS OF THE ORGANISM
AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

There is no doubt that the unicellular organisms represent an
earlier stage in the evolution of living things than do the metazoan
or metaphytan forms. ‘They probably flourished in the primordial
oceans for long periods before multicellular organisms made their
appearance. They must have been much more closely related to
the medium from which they had been produced than the later
forms. In particular, their inorganic constituents are likely to have
corresponded fairly closely with those of the medium which bathed
their cells. The differentiation between the medium and its product
had not proceeded as far as it has reached in more complex forms
of life.

It has been pointed out, however, that the inorganic composition
of these primitive oceans must have been changing all the time.
The effect of regulatory mechanisms in the cell would be to hinder,
if not entirely to prevent, the changes from reaching the interior
of the cell itself. By the time that living organisms had reached
the state of complexity of the primitive multicellular structure,
we may imagine them as groups of cells permeated by a solution
which showed distinct differences in inorganic composition from
that of the solution which bathed them. At first the surrounding
medium would have free access to the cells of such a simple organ-
ism. But, as the complexity of the organism developed, access
would become restricted to certain channels forming a primitive,
open, circulatory system. The next stage in complexity would be
the closure of these channels against the free ingress and egress of
the surrounding medium, and the development of a closed circulatory
system.

At this stage of evolution, the first barrier controlling the ex-
changes which take place between the cell and its environment
would no longer be situated on the surface of the cell itself. Any
changes which reached the liquid actually surrounding the cells
would first be subject to the regulatory mechanisms in the outer
surface of the organism and in the circulating fluid. The cell
would be provided with an immediate environment to some extent
under the control of the organism itself.

398 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

During all the period necessary for these developments, the change
of composition of the surrounding medium would be still in prog-
ress. But once the action of a closed circulatory system became
effective, the changes in composition of the medium bathing the
cells would not proceed so rapidly. Although the composition of
the external medium might continue to change, the changes would
only reach the circulating fluid, the internal environment of the
cells, in a modified form. The organism would tend to preserve the
composition of the fluid with which it had been bathed while a
closed circulatory system was being evolved.

Such an organism would be capable of very considerable inde-
pendence of its external medium, an independence which would
increase as its external regulatory mechanisms grew in perfection.
Not until living organisms had reached this stage of complexity
would they become able to emerge from the medium in which they
had evolved, and their appearance as land forms of multicellular
organisms become possible.

It is well known that the inorganic composition of the cells of
various tissues of an organism differs materially from the inorganic
composition of the circulatory fluid. According to the hypothesis
outlined above, the inorganic constituents of the cells ought to cor-
respond to those of sea water at an early stage in the evolution of
living things. The composition of the circulating fluid ought, on
the other hand, to correspond, with regard to its inorganic constitu-
ents, to the composition of sea water of a much later period.

Macallum (1926) has collected a good deal of evidence in de-
veloping this hypothesis. The most striking difference between the
inorganic constituents present in the cells and those in the circulating
fluids of one of the higher animals is the relative abundance of salts
of potassium in the former and of salts of sodium in the latter.
There is a remarkably close correspondence between the proportions
of these two elements in the circulating fluid of the most highly
organized living forms which have so far been developed and in the
sea water of the present day. If the comparison could be made
with the composition of the sea water during the period in which
the vertebrates first appeared, the correspondence would perhaps
be still closer, owing to the slightly greater proportion of potassium
in the sea water of that period.

The difficulties in the way of forming an accurate estimate of the
composition of sea water during the comparatively recent geological
epoch in which vertebrates appeared are great enough. Much greater
are the difficulties in the way of an attempt to form a similar
estimate of the composition of the sea water of the remote age dur-
ing which unicellular organisms were evolving. Even though no

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT—WARDLAW 399

attempt has been made to fix the proportion within narrow limits,
it seems likely that the proportion of potassium to sodium must
have been many times as great as it is at present. With respect
to these elements, the composition of those primeval seas must have
been considerably closer to that of the cell contents of the present
day than to that of the circulating fluid.

Even when such diverse cellular tissues as human muscles and
herring ova are examined, the difference between the relative pro-
portions of sodium and potassium is not very marked. A general
similarity of the proportions of these elements in cellular tissues
is apparent. These considerations have been used to support the
hypothesis that the living organism has retained with remarkable
tenacity certain of the chemical characters imposed upon it at re-
mote periods of its evolution.

THE CONCENTRATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT OF CELLS

So far only the proportions between certain elements in living
tissue have been considered. It may now be asked whether the actual
concentrations of chemical substances present also show any relation
to those of the medium within which living organisms evolved
during a considerable period of their history.

The most convenient single measure of the total concentration of
materials dissolved in a liquid is the osmotic pressure. The data
which have been collected by Botazzi (1908) show that osmotic
pressures of the body fluids of the most highly developed groups of
terrestrial living forms, vary only between remarkably narrow
limits. When different forms of sea life are examined, however,
a very different state of affairs is found. Even if the examination
be restricted to vertebrate forms, wide ranges of osmotic pressure
of the body fluids are met with. In the elasmobranchs, for example,
the osmotic pressure of the body fluids is practically that of the sea
water in which they live. In the teleosts, on the other hand, the
osmotic pressure of the body fluids differs widely from that of the
sea water and approaches the value found for mammalian fluids.

Dakin (1908) has shown that the differences observable among
different species of fish are due to the fact that they possess adjusting
mechanisms of different degrees of efficiency and not to the mainte-
nance of specifically distinct levels of osmotic pressure. Specimens of
plaice taken in a brackish portion of the North Sea gave values for the
osmotic pressure of their blood 20 per cent lower than that of speci-
mens taken where the osmotic pressure of the sea water was about
74 per cent higher. The osmotic pressure of the blood of cod, on
the other hand, showed a variation of only about 3 per cent, while

400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

the variations of osmotic pressure in the localities from which they
were taken covered as wide a range as 64 per cent.

The same data which have been used to show that the proportions
between some of the elements in the bodies of living organisms are
perpetuations of the proportions to which these organisms were
exposed at certain stages of their development, have been used to
show that the osmotic pressure of the body fluids of the higher
animals may also be a perpetuation of the conditions of an early
stage of their development. The sea water at the time when these
animals were developing closed circulations must have been much
more dilute than it is to-day; its osmotic pressure has been assessed
at a value only about one-third of what it is at present. Such a
value would be very close to the osmotic pressure of the body fluids
of the higher animals.

EXCHANGE OF MATERIAL BETWEEN ORGANISM AND ENVIRONMENT

The mechanism for the control of the proportions between certain
of the constituents of the living organism must be of considerably
more ancient origin than the mechanism for the control of the total
concentrations of these constituents. Even the simplest unicellular
organisms must be possessed to some extent of the former mechanism.
The means for controlling the concentration of materials, as ex-
pressed by their osmotic pressure, has, on the other hand, only been
developed in the most complex metazoa.

It has already been indicated that the action of the former mech-
anism is a result of the control which the barriers between the cell
and its environment are able to exert over the passage of materials
into and out of the interior of the cell. It will also be dependent
to some extent upon what may for the moment be termed the
“affinity ” of the cell contents for certain of these materials.

Very little is yet known about the conditions governing the passage
of different substances across the cell membrane into the body of the
cell. The properties of the surface presented by the cells to their
immediate environment must be the most important factors in the
process. These properties are determined largely by the degree of
dispersion of protein and phospholipide colloids of which the cell
membrane largely consists. The proportions of the ions adsorbed
to these colloids exercise an important influence on their condition.
In particular, they affect the distribution of the dispersant medium
(water) between their sol and gel phases, and so can vary the area
of the portion of the surface through which water soluble substances
would be able to pass.

The importance of maintaining the correct balance between the
proportions of the ions in contact with living tissue was fully

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT—WARDLAW 401

recognized by Ringer (1884). In his classical series of papers he
investigated in some detail the effect of variations of these propor-
tions on the properties of living matter. These investigations have
been the starting point of much of the later work. Hamburgher
(1921), who made use of a rather highly specialized type of cell
for his experiments, was the first to study directly this effect on the
permeability of the cell wall. He was able to demonstrate clearly
that variations of the proportions of the ions in the fluid to
which these cells were exposed were able markedly to alter their
permeability towards different materials.

Comparative studies have not so far been made to show how the
power of the organism to regulate the relative proportions of the
different elements, or more particularly ions, in its substance has
developed during the course of evolution. A great deal of attention
has been paid within recent years to the study of the proportions be-
tween the hydrogen and hydroxyl ions which are derived from the
medium in which all the vital reactions take place. It seems, how-
ever, that the power of regulating the proportion between these ions
must be of later development than the ability to preserve certain
ratios between various other ions. Among the lower organisms con-
siderable variation of the concentration of hydrogen ions may be sur-
vived by some forms. In the highest forms of life, however, the con-
centration of those ions is kept extraordinarily constant. It is al-
lowed to vary between narrower limits even than the osmotic pres-
sure. The proportions between certain inorganic substances in solu-
tions, such as those in the neighborhood of and within living cells,
determine what shall be the proportions between the ions of the sol-
vent water. Indeed, even in the higher organisms, the occurrence of
rapid variations in the proportions of these ions is prevented by the
concentrations of certain other substances which are present. ‘These
are known as buffer substances. Among the inorganic salts which
exercise this controlling action the more important are the sodium
salts of carbonic and phosphoric acids.

The control of the permeability of the living cells must thus largely
depend on the composition of the medium with which they are in con-
tact, and on the presence of certain substances in the cells themselves.

The mechanism controlling the total concentration or osmotic pres-
sure of the medium bathing the cells of an organism, on the other
hand, must also be actuated by the composition of this medium, but
in a manner different from that by which it influences the permea-
bility of the tissues. It is true that the exchange of material between
an organism with a closed circulatory system and its environment is
limited to certain areas of its surface, for example, to the areas
covered by the epithelium of the alimentary and respiratory tracts.

402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

By these epithelia some selective action is, no doubt, exercised over
the materials entering the organism. ‘Their situation alone is such as
to prevent access to them of any but selected parts of the environ-
ment. But as a characteristic feature of organisms possessing this
mechanism is the freedom rather than the restriction of its exchanges
with the outside world, the main regulatory mechanism must be
sought elsewhere.

All organisms which have the power of regulating the osmotic
pressure of their body fluids are provided with an excretory organ
corresponding to a kidney. ‘This mechanism exercises its control over
the composition of the circulating fluid by eliminating from the
organisms those constituents passing through it which are present
in excess. It contributes to the independence of the organism of its
environment, or, in other words, to its adaptation thereto, by placing
another means at its disposal for keeping within suitable limits the
immediate environment of its cells.

Even in those vetebrates in which the osmotic pressure of the body
fluids is close to that of the surrounding medium there is a con-
siderable degree of control exercised over the proportions of the
various materials present. While the proportions between the vari-
ous ions may be close to that of the sea water, their total concen-
tration may be only a fraction of this. The remainder of the osmotic
pressure in these cases is contributed by excretory products, prin-
cipally urea, which are allowed to reach relatively high concentra-
tions. This fact has been taken as evidence that the primary func-
tion of the kidney is not to excrete end-products of metabolism, but
to adjust the composition of the immediate environment of the cells.

The possession of such a mechanism enables the organism to un-
dertake more active measures to adapt itself to its environment and
in some degree to adapt its environment to its needs. The environ-
ment of such an organism has already been modified before it gains
access to any but specialized portions of the living substance. While,
then, the cells of the organism are enabled to continue their existence
under more or less primitive conditions, the organism as a whole is
able to carry on its activities but little affected by the vicissitudes
of a changing environment.

CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENT BY ORGANISM
(A) FOOD SUPPLY

In discussing the means taken by certain primitive organisms to
adapt themselves to their surroundings, reference was made to the
process of encystment and the performance of tropic movements. It

was pointed out that in protecting the organism against unfavorable

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT—WARDLAW 403

conditions, these two classes of mechanism had at least one feature
in common. ‘They owe their effectiveness to the fact that barriers
are placed between the organism and unfavorable conditions. In
the first instance cited, the barrier is composed of the substance of
the organism. The surface of contact between the organism and
its environment is rather sharply defined. In the second instance,
the barrier is composed of a part of the environment, which the
organism places between itself and the unfavorable conditions.
The change which takes place is not in the organism, but in the
distribution of its environment about it. In neither instance, how-
ever, does the environment itself undergo any perceptible modifica-
tion, nor does the organism itself appear to undergo further change.

As our definition of the term adaptation is the power to remain
essentially unchanged in spite of external changes, it might be sup-
posed that, as adaptive mechanisms increased in efficiency, they would
bring about an ever sharper differentiation between the organism
and its environment. An examination of the relevant data shows
that what actually happens is just the reverse of this. Far from
tending to isolate themselves more completely from their surround-
ings, the most perfectly adapted organisms are those in which the
freest interchange is allowed with the environment.

Although the effect of each increase in the complexity of the
mechanism of adaptation is to place additional barriers between the
essential living unit, at the same time it extends further the range
over which the organism is able to modify or, as it were, overlap its
environment. Each adaptation, by increasing the intimacy of the
relations between the organism as a whole and its external surround-
ings, protects the cell itself still more effectively from variations in
the medium in which it lives.

One of the most important factors in the environment of an organ-
ism is the supply of available food materials which it contains. The
ability favorably to control this supply must therefore be of great
assistance to an organism to maintain itself in that uniform state
which we have conceived as one of the principal aims of adaptive
processes. This ability is possessed by man in an outstanding degree,
but many organisms possess this power to a greater or less extent.
It is seen more especially in the provision which they make for the
nutrition of their young.

In oviparous animals and in many plants the young organism,
when it leaves the body of its parent, is enclosed in a more or less
impervious membrane which contains a supply of food material. By
this means the young organism is able to pass through certain stages
of its development in an environment which is entirely independent
of outside fluctuations of food supply. In organisms of this kind,

102992—32——_27

404 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

direct association between the parent and its offspring ceases at a
comparatively early stage of the development of the latter. This
does not mean that the parent ceases to have any influence over the
environment of its offspring as soon as the direct association between
the two ceases. One need only refer to the elaborate precautions
taken by birds to preserve a suitable environment about their young
after hatching.

The direct association between parent and offspring persists in
viviparous animals until a much later stage in the development of
the latter. In these organisms, as in the former class, the environ-
ment of the young during the period of gestation is furnished by the
circulating fluid of the body of its parent. The variations of this
fluid are kept within certain limits by the regulatory mechanisms
of the parent. The young organism is thus provided with a medium
of constant properties while its own regulatory mechanisms are de-
veloping. In some viviparous animals the association between par-
ent and offspring ceases almost completely at birth, and the young
organism, having been provided with its own adjusting mecha-
nisms, as efficient as those of its parent, is left to adapt itself to its
new surroundings.

Like most of their adaptive mechanisms, the devices of mammals
for the care of their young are more complex and effective than those
of other forms of life. In addition to the protective measures to
which allusion has been made, the mammals provide for their off-
spring a special food, milk, during part of their extra-uterine life.
The period for which this provision is made varies widely among
different species. In man it extends, under natural conditions, over
the greater part of a year, in some races much longer.

This mechanism for the adaptation of one factor of the environ-
ment to the needs of the organism, represents one of the last stages
in adaptation by modifications of bodily structure and function. It
is interesting to observe how closely, in this latest adaptive mecha-
nism, certain properties of the environment are adjusted to the needs
of the organism.

It should be remarked at the outset, however, that one of the most
striking properties of milk has probably no significance in relation
to its use as a food by the young organism. This is the fact that the
osmotic pressure of milk has a value very close to that of the body
fluids of the animal by which it is consumed. Milk probably owes
this property to the manner of its secretion from the body fluids
of the maternal organism. Before the milk is absorbed by the young
animal, certain of its constituents must undergo a process of diges-
tion or hydrolysis. The sum of the osmotic pressures of the prod-
ucts of digestion is considerably greater than that of the original

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT—WARDLAW AQ5

milk, so that the osmotic pressure of the solution actually absorbed
differs materially from that of the body fluids of the young animal.

When the composition of milk is examined, it is found that
although the proportions of the various constituents show consider-
able variations among different animals, and even among individuals
of the same species (Wardlaw, 1915, 1917, 1926), the same con-
stituents are present in each. The concentration of each constituent
appears to be adapted to the needs of each species. It will be remem-
bered that in considering the relation of the most primitive living
organisms to their environment, some of the evidence was mentioned
which seemed to point to a close relation between the proportions
of certain elements of inorganic compounds present in the surround-
ing medium, and the proportions of these elements in the body of the
organism itself.

A comparison between the proportions of the various elements in
the inorganic, or more strictly speaking, the incombustible portions
of milk and the proportions of the same elements in the bodies of
the young organisms which consume the milk, also shows a remark-
able correspondence. These proportions are not those of the circu-
lating fluids of the animals. An explanation of this correspondence
is not to be sought, therefore, like that between the osmotic pressure
of milk and body fluids, in an incidental transference of certain
properties from the circulating fluid of the maternal organism to
its offspring. The correspondence seems to be due to a definite
adaptation of this part of the environment to the needs of the young
animal.

A similar correspondence between those organic constituents of the
milk, which are used as building materials, and the composition of
the young organism has not been found. This is partly, no doubt,
because it would be a matter of very great difficulty to estimate
separately the various units into which the proteins of milk are
broken up in the course of digestion. But may it not be due, in part,
to that more primitive and intimate relation between the inorganic
constituents of a living organism and its nutrient medium to which
the evidence discussed earlier seems to point? The most primitive
living things must have had practically no relation to organic com-
pounds in their inorganic environment. The organic compounds of
their own cells they synthesized themselves. The relation between
the organic constituents of the organism and those of its environment
can only have become of importance at a much later stage in the
development of living things, and is likely to be less intimate than
that with the inorganic constituents. If this be so, it gives further
support to the supposition that certain of the fundamental properties
of living matter of to-day are perpetuations of conditions which
existed when life was at its beginning.

406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

It must not be thought, however, that numerous adaptations of
the organic portions of milk to the needs of the young animal can
not be shown. ‘The organic constituents of milk may be divided into
those which can only be used as fuel and those which furnish material
for the construction of the body of the young animal. If we compare
the milks of animals whose young grow at different rates, for ex-
ample, we find that there is a definite relation between the concentra-
tion of the organic building materials and the rate of growth, the
concentrations being greater in the milk of the more rapidly growing
animals. <A similar relation, incidentally, is to be seen between the
rate of growth and the total concentration of the inorganic con-
stituents.

Even the constituents of the milk, which serve only as fuels, al-
though they play no part in the contribution of material for build-
ing up the body of the young animal, show adaptations to the vari-
ous needs, not merely of different species, but even of different indi-
viduals.

The young of warm-blooded animals living in cold climates are, for
example, exposed to greater losses of heat than those of animals liv-
ing in warmer regions. We find a correspondingly higher concen-
tration of the fuel, fat, in the milk of the animals indigenous to cold
regions. Again, other things being equal, small animals tend to
consume relatively greater quantities of energy per day than larger
animals. The milk of small animals is, in general, richer in fat
than the milk of larger animals. This relation can not only be
seen among different species of mammals varying widely in size,
but even in individuals of the same species. The small Jersey cow,
for example, yields a milk richer in fat than larger breeds.

The range of variation of size among human individuals is much
smaller. The correspondences between the composition of the milk
and the needs of the human infant are, therefore, much less obvious.
They require a closer scrutiny for their discovery. But it may be
shown, by suitable methods, that there is a definite correlation be-
tween relatively slight variations of the physical characters of
healthy infants and the composition of the milk with which they
are supplied by their mothers (unpublished observations). This is
surely a striking example of the length to which the adaptation of
the immediate environment to the needs of the organism is carried
by the most highly organized of all animals.

(B) EXCHANGES OF ENERGY

None of the devices to which'the living organism resorts for the
control of the composition of its immediate environment can exert
its full effectiveness if the temperature of this environment is

—_-

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT—wWARDLAW 407

allowed to vary unrestricted. Still less, under these circumstances,
can the organism attain that freedom from external variation of
the rate of its activities which seems to be one of the principal objects
of adaptive mechanisms. The rates of chemical reactions vary
rapidly with the temperature at which they take place. The effect of
these variations upon the activities of organisms without a tempera-
ture-regulating mechanism is so striking and so familiar as to require
no further reference.

The effect of variation of temperature on the composition of living
tissues and of their immediate environment is not so obvious, but is
none the less important. Variations of temperature alter the equi-
librium constants of chemical reactions. In this way they alter the
proportions between the reacting materials which will exist under
given conditions. For example, the proportions between the ions in
the circulating fluids and cells will not be the same at different tem-
peratures. We have seen the permeability of the living cell is largely
controlled by the proportions of the ions present in its immediate
vicinity. As it is this permeability which determines many of
the fundamental properties of living matter, these properties must be
modified by changes of temperature, quite apart from any changes
in the rate of the vital activities which they may bring about.

The temperature-regulating mechanisms of all the warm-blooded
animals are by no means equally effective. In the higher mammals
this mechanism continues to function as long as the external condi-
tions of temperature remain within limits compatible with the life
of the animal. In other species, however, the mechanism goes out
of action if the temperature of the surroundings falls below certain
levels which the animal can still survive. At these lower tempera-
tures the animals behave like cold-blooded animals and have body
temperatures close to those of their external environment. This is
the phenomenon of hibernation. The ease with which this mecha-
nism is thrown out of action by a fall of temperature differs among
different species. It is interesting to observe that in Hchidna, which,
on morphological grounds, is regarded as the most primitive of
mammals, the action of the heat-regulating mechanism is peculiarly
susceptible to disturbance. It ceases to function at external temper-
atures several degrees higher than those at which an effect is to be
seen in other hibernating animals. (Wardlaw, 1915, 1921.)

It is well known also that the effectiveness of the mechanism for
the regulation of body temperature of warm-blooded animals is much
less efficient in the immature individuals than in the adults. Even
in normal infants, for example, the fluctuations of body temperatures
are much greater than those of adults, while in premature infants
this mechanism is so ineffective that survival is often impossible

408 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

without the aid of artificial means for keeping the body temperature
within suitable limits.

The advantage of a mechanism to free the organism from the
effects of still another variable of its environment need not be further
stressed. In analogy with the possible connection between certain
of the chemical characters of the living organism and the composi-
tion of the medium in which it lived at different stages of its devel-
opment, it might be suggested that the constant temperature of
warm-blooded animals is also a perpetuation of conditions which
prevailed while this mechanism was being developed. But even such
scanty data as those on which the previously mentioned suppositions
have been based are in this case lacking.

The living organism is constantly liberating energy, part of which
appears as heat. To preserve a constant body temperature it must,
therefore, maintain a balance between the rates at which heat is lost
and produced. This balance can be maintained by the exercise of a
control over one or both of these rates. As one of the principal
objects of adaptive mechanisms seems to be to protect the organism
against adventitious variations of the rate of its activities, it might
be expected that the control of temperature would be effected by
regulation of the rate of heat loss rather than by variation of the
rate of heat production. This expectation has, to a considerable
extent, been realized in the warm-blooded animals which have been
studied from this point of view in sufficient detail, the dog, and man.

It has been found that when these animals are examined under
comparable states of activity, the rate at which they produce heat is
affected only to a minor extent, even by considerable variations of
the temperature of their surroundings. Not only is the organism
of these animals able to restrict the loss of heat from their bodies
when the external temperature falls, but they are also able to con-
tinue to lose heat to their surroundings, even when the external tem-
perature is above that of their bodies. There are, of course, limits
beyond which this mechanism becomes ineffective. If the external
temperature rises too high, or if the conditions of humidity are such
as to restrict unduly the loss of heat by evaporation, then heat pro-
duction will exceed heat loss, and the body temperature will rise.
The organism is incapable of decreasing its production of heat below
a certain value even under these circumstances.

If the external temperature falls to a low enough level, the mech-
anism for regulating body temperature by controlling the heat loss
also becomes ineffective. The body under these circumstances, how-
ever, does not lose its power of maintaining a constant temperature,
because it is able to increase its heat production until its heat loss
is again balanced. The object of the constant body temperature, the

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT—WARDLAW 409

maintenance of a constant rate of metabolic activity under given
conditions, is certainly nullified to some extent by this adjustment.
The organism is outside of the range of perfect adaptation to the
temperature of its environment. But, on the other hand, such con-
ditions, even when the external temperature is extremely low, can be
survived indefinitely without apparent detriment to the organism.
On the whole, therefore, the organism can adapt itself to tempera-
tures below that of its body better than it can to higher temperatures.

RATE OF ADAPTIVE CHANGE

As the range and the scope of the mechanisms by which the organ-
ism is able to modify its environment increase, the necessity for
adaptive changes on the part of the organism itself must correspond-
ingly decrease. ‘Thus we are led back to our original postulate that
the more effective any adaptive mechanism is, the better does it
enable the living organism to persist unchanged in a changing en-
vironment. We should, therefore, expect evolutionary changes of
structure and function to become progressively slower as we pass to
more and more complex organisms, and the mechanisms which were
at first developed to preserve the primitive characters of the cell
itself, eventually to become so effective as to be able to preserve the
characters of the whole organism.

The organism which possesses, in an outstanding degree, the abil-
ity to modify its environment is, of course, man. He controls his
food supply by the hunting and rearing of food animals, by the
gathering and sowing of edible plants. He modifies certain of
his external conditions by the wearing of clothes and the erection
and use of houses. He adds to the effectiveness of his hands by the
use of tools. He increases the speed and the range of his movements
by traveling in vehicles. By means of various instruments he adds
to the acuity of his sense organs. All these external aids to his
natural powers may be classed as tools. It is his ability to devise
tools which has extended his ability to adapt his environment to his
needs so immeasurably beyond the similar power of any other animal.

One of the most striking features of this type of adaptive mech-
anism is the extraordinary rapidity with which it has been developed,
as compared with the evolutionary modifications of bodily structure.

The conjectures which have been made as to the period which has
elapsed since the appearance of living forms runs into hundreds of
millions of years. The period for which records can be obtained
of the existence of man is measured, on the other hand, by hundreds
of thousands of years. However vague those estimates may be, there
seems to be little doubt that the enormous development of complexity
which some living forms have undergone has occurred within a small

410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

fraction of the time during which living organisms have been in
existence. The development of the power of man to modify his
surroundings as a result of the development of his mental faculties
is a still more rapid and recent growth and is to be measured in
centuries. Indeed, it may be claimed that man has expanded his
powers in this direction more during the last century than during
the whole of his previous history.

We have in man, then, the most perfect adaptation to environ-
ment shown by any form of life. So great is his power of modify-
ing his surroundings, and so rapidly is this power increasing, that
it would seem that further adaptation of his physical structures has
become unnecessary. It has even been suggested that his increasing
use of artificial mechanisms may bring about a degeneration of some
of his bodily powers, and that any further evolutionary develop-
ment in man may be restricted to the growth of his mental facul-
ties. The past history of the evolutionary adaptation of living or-
ganisms to their environment would, however, lead us to expect that
any changes which may take place in the organism of man will not
be such as would adversely affect the conditions of life of the es-
sential units of his structure. In so far as the changes which have
taken place in his habits of life are really adaptations to his en-
vironment, we may expect that their effect will be to establish more
securely the primitive conditions of his cells.

SUMMARY

A characteristic feature of living organisms is the possession of
mechanisms which protect them against the effects of changes of
their environment.

These mechanisms in the earlier forms exert their action by re-
stricting the interchange which they allow between the organism and
its surroundings. As they develop in efficiency, they become more
selective in action, and are able to preserve the essential characters
of the organism while allowing a free interchange with its environ-
ment. They have preserved, even in the higher organisms, some
of the conditions of cell life which probably existed at very early
stages of their evolution.

When sufficiently broad distinctions of form are considered they
are found to possess equally distinct chemical features, for example,
in the proportions of some of the elements which they contain.

As the complexity of organisms has increased, they have rendered
themselves more independent of their external environment by pro-
viding their cells with an immediate environment of their own. By
this means external changes are only allowed to reach the cells in a
modified form. The possession of this internal environment enables

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT—WARDLAW Ail

the organism to obtain the advantages of a freer interchange with
its surroundings without endangering the stability of its essential
living matter.

The evolutionary development of the adaptive mechanisms of the
organism has continually extended the range and scope of its con-
trol over its environment. Hxamples of the most highly specialized
forms of this control are the maintenance of a constant body tem-
perature by homoiothermal animals, and the provision of a special
food supply for their young by mammals.

As the effectiveness of the mechanisms for the adaptation of the
environment to its needs has increased, the need for further adaptive
modification of the organism itself has correspondingly diminished.

REFERENCES

BAKER, R. T., and Smiru, H. G.
1920. A research on the Eucalyptus, especially in regard to their essential
oils. 2d edition, Sydney.
Baty, BH. C. C., et al.
1927, 1928. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, vol. 116A, pp. 197, 212, 219, 1927;
vol. 116A, p. 393, 1928.
Botazzi, F.
1908. Ergeb. d. Physiol., vol. 7, p. 161.
CAMBAGE, R. H.
1928. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. New South Wales, vol. 62, p. 152.
DAKIN, W. J.
1908. Biochem. Journ., vol. 3, p. 478.
Davip, T. W. BH.
1928. Trans. Proc. Roy. Soc. South Australia, vol. 52, p. 191.
HIAMBURGHER, H. J.
1923. Johns Hopkins Hosp. Bull. 34, pp. 226, 266.
MACALLUM, A. B.
1926. Physiol. Rev., vol. 6, p. 316.
Moore, B., and WEBSTER, T. A.
1914. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, vol. 87B, p. 163.
RINGER, S.
1880-1886. Journ. Physiol., vol. 3, p. 380, 1880-82; vol. 5, p. 98, 1884-85;
vol. 7, p. 118, 1886.
WARDLAW, H. S. H.
1915. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. New South Wales, vol. 49, p. 169.
1915. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. 40, p. 281.
1917. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. 42, p. 815.
1918. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. 48, p. 844.
1926. Australian Journ. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci., vol. 3, p. 180.

- ert re se
ies

THE UTILIZATION OF AQUATIC PLANTS AS AIDS IN
MOSQUITO CONTROL?

By Prof. Ropert MATHESON

Cornell Uniwersity

[With 7 plates]

Our knowledge of mosquitoes has been acquired in very recent
years. Previous to 1898, the year in which Sir Ronald Ross an-
nounced his epochal discovery that “ dappled-winged ” mosquitoes
are the intermediate hosts of the malarial parasites, scarcely any-
thing was known of these fiercely biting foes of man and animals.
Their blood-thirstiness was well known, for in many portions of
the earth man was unable to withstand their attacks and some of
our fairest regions had to be abandoned to these tiny victors. Iven
to-day man is rather helpless before them. The writings of ex-
plorers, travelers, etc., often contain accounts that give us a picture
of the fierceness and terribleness of a mass mosquito attack. Since
1898 we have acquired an immense amount of detailed information
about the disease relationships, habits, life histories, biology, etc.,
of mosquitoes. To indicate briefly some of these advances seems
worth while before attempting to outline the importance that plants
may play in solving the problem of mosquito control.

Previous to 1896 the life history of practically only a single species,
the common house mosquito (Culex pipiens), was known. In 1900
Dr. L. O. Howard published the first account of the life history of an
American anopheline. As Anopheles species are the vectors, and the
only known vectors, of malaria, the study of these mosquitoes has
been very intensive, especially since the World War. Malaria is
probably one of the most widespread and most serious of all human
diseases. Though quinine and its various derivatives are used ex-
tensively in alleviating the attacks of malaria, they are not specific
cures, and the only effective method is the control of the anopheline
carriers. In 1900 Dr. Walter Reed and his associates announced the

1 Reprinted by permission from the American Naturalist, vol. 64, January—February,
1930.

413

414 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

discovery that yellow fever is conveyed from man to man by a
mosquito, the so-called tiger mosquito (Aedes aegypti or Aedes
argenteus or Stegomyia fasciata). This discovery greatly increased
the activities of the students of mosquito biology. Yellow fever is
endemic to the Americas, but was established in west Africa some-
time before 1900.2 Recent outbreaks in Africa have aroused world-
wide interest. Until 1928 it was confidently stated that only the
tiger mosquito was the vector of yellow fever. Bauer (1928) has
demonstrated that at least three other species may be vectors in west
Africa.’ Long before this (1879) Sir Patrick Manson had shown
that a round worm (/%laria bancrofti) of man had a mosquito as
its host for part of its life cycle. It was not, however, till 1900 that
the method of transfer of this parasite was finally established. The
variety of diseased conditions produced in man by this parasite is
even yet not well known. ‘This parasite is widespread throughout
the tropical and subtropical regions of the world.

Dengue, a febrile disease of man which often appears in epidemic
form in the tropical and subtropical regions, was shown in 1903-4 to
be transmitted by a mosquito (Culeaw fatigans). Recent work seems
to prove conclusively that Aedes argenteus, the yellow-fever mos-
quito, and Aedes albopictus are the vectors. In addition to these dis-
eases of man, several animal diseases are transmitted by mosquitoes.

The knowledge that mosquitoes are the vectors, and probably the
only vectors, of these serious diseases of man has led to a world-wide
intensive study of mosquito biology. In 1900 some 242 species were
known from the world. To-day probably over 3,000 species are
recorded. All known species of mosquitoes pass their larval stages
in water. They are known to breed in a great variety of aquatic
environment—in ponds, slow-flowing streams, swamps, salt marshes,
pools formed by melting snows, all sorts of artificial water containers,
foul and clear water, reservoirs, rice fields, irrigation ditches, water
in tree holes, in the water contained by the leaves of epiphytic brome-
lads, in the water in the leaves of pitcher plants, etc. However,
from all these studies we are beginning to learn what are the aquatic
conditions essential for the breeding of each species of mosquito.
This has led to more intensive studies of certain species to determine
why certain types of aquatic environment are selected, and others,
apparently identical as far as we can judge, are avoided. It was
early recognized that not all types of water were selected by mos-
quitoes, but it was not till the past few years that attempts were made

*It is now believed that yellow fever had its original home in West Africa and was
introduced into the Americas by the early navigators and explorers.

* At the present time (1932) at least 12 different species of mosquitoes are known as
transmitters of yellow fever (7 species for Africa, 2 for South America, 2 for the Far
East, and 1, Aedes aegypti, of wide distribution).

PLANTS AND MOSQUITO CONTROL—MATHESON 415

to solve the riddle of this selective breeding. It may be admitted at
once that this riddle is far from solved, though the chemical and
physical properties and the fauna and flora of breeding places have
been rather intensively studied by various workers.

The early investigators, noting the absence of mosquito breeding in
certain ponds, pools, etc., tried to offer explanations for such condi-
tions. These explanations ran the gauntlet of a wide variety of sur-
mises, usually observing that the water was unsuitable, that there was
lack of the necessary food (though the food requirements were not
then known and are not even at the present time), or that the exces-
sive plant growth covered the surface of the water so as to prevent
the larvae from obtaining air, or that filamentous algae were abun-
dant in which the larvae became entangled and died or that numerous
natural enemies, as predacious fishes, insects, etc., were present.

That aquatic plants may act as destroyers of living organisms was
observed quite early. Mrs. Treat (1875) noted that the bladders of a
Utricularia sp. contained many organisms, including insect larvae,
and she tried to solve the mystery as to how these animals were caught
and if the plant used them as food. Darwin (1875) in his “ Insectiv-
orous Plants” gives a much more detailed account but failed to solve
the mystery of how the organisms were trapped. Brocher (1911)
fully solved the process, which was later confirmed by Hegner (1926).
Different workers in various parts of the world have called attention
to this group of carnivorous plants and their possible utilization as
agents in mosquito control.

PREDACIOUS PLANTS

The commonest species is probably Utricularia vulgaris (pl. 1,
fig. 1). It often occurs in great abundance floating directly below
the surface of the water. The numerous small bladders and finely
divided leaves distinguish it quite easily. The bladders are most
interesting structures and have been fully described by Brocher and
Heener. These bladders, when “set” for the capture of prey, have
their side walls rigidly compressed; organisms then enter the outer
vestibule and by their movements stimulate the closing valve which
suddenly opens, the side walls expand and the inrushing water car-
ries the entrapped animal within. The valve then closes and the
organism is firmly held. Within the bladders the animals are
gradually digested and furnish food for the growth of the plants.
The enormous amount of food taken by these plants miy be illus-
trated by some of Hegner’s observations. He found that the bladders
on parts of a plant 220 cm (nearly 7 feet) long contained approxi-
mately 150,000 small crustaceans, besides other organisms. From the
standpoint of mosquito control the question may be asked, do these

416 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

bladders capture mosquito larvae and how many? Franca (1922)
observed them capture numerous larvae of7heobaldia longiareolata
and Anopheles bifurcatus; Brumpt (1925) records the capture of the
larvae of Anopheles maculipennis and Culew apicalis. During the
summer of 1929, I carried on a few experiments with this plant to
determine the rate of destruction and the size of larvae they could
capture. Plate 2, Figure 2, shows a small branch containing 10
active bladders. In five of these may be seen mosquito larvae in
various stages of digestion. I have had them capture the smallest
larvae and readily destroy the largest larvae I could obtain. Two
preliminary experiments were conducted to determine the effective-
ness of this plant in small aquaria. Two small branches were placed
in a battery jar with 50 young larvae of Culex territans. On the
following day only two free larvae could be found; the bladders
contained the others. During the next four days 375 larvae were
added and practically all were captured, though toward the end of
the experiment nearly all the bladders had dropped from the
branches. How long a single bladder may live and how often it
can capture such large prey as mosquito larvae, are not known. In
another similar experiment, 225 larvae were added and practically
all these were captured before the bladders began falling from the
plant.

In order to test the size of animals captured, large larvae of
Brachydeutera argentata Walk. (Ephydridae, Diptera) were added
to an aquarium with Utricularia. The results are shown in Plate 1,
Figure 2. In cultures of Utricularia large numbers of these larvae
were readily captured. Though only a small portion of the larva
is first taken into the bladder, our observations show that eventually
the entire larvae is absorbed. How this is done is not easily
explained.

Though the captured food of the Utricularia would appear to be
mainly small organisms belonging to the Crustacea, Protozoa, etc.,
yet it would seem that this group of plants deserves more considera-
tion as a possible agent in mosquito control. The bladderworts are
very graceful plants, grow luxuriantly where they occur and ought
to make an added attraction in fishponds, small lakes, private pools,
etc. Unfortunately we know very little about their biology or
methods of their culture.

SURFACE-COVERING PLANTS

Another group of plants that has attracted considerable attention
among students of the mosquitoes comprises the surface-covering
aquatic plants. These plants are often packed so closely together

PLANTS AND MOSQUITO CONTROL—-MATHESON 417

that the entire surface is covered, causing the larvae to die from
suffocation, or the plants in some way inhibit the female mosquitoes
from laying their eggs in such situations. Smith (1910) investi-
gated the reported effect of a species of Azolla growing on the water
~in the canals of Holland. Here he found it in certain regions, the
peat and turf areas, growing in such profusion as to cover the
canals completely and prevent mosquito breeding. This plant seems
to have restricted breeding areas, and though introduced into Amer-
ica its growth was not very successful. Conflicting reports as to its
value have since been published, but as far as I know no experi-
mental work has been undertaken to test its reported value. Mac-
Gregor (1920) thinks that Azallo filiculoides is a deterrent to ano-
pheline breeding. He found no Jarvae or egg deposition in experi-
mental tanks covered by this plant, whereas oviposition and breed-
ing took place in near-by tanks containing other kinds of aquatic
plants. Eugling (1921) states that the planting of Azolla in Alba-
nia seems to favor the breeding of anophelines. Miihlens (1924,
1925) reports that in parts of Argentina he found no mosquito
larvae in pools and lagoons covered with Azolla sp. and Azolla filicu-
loides, whereas in near-by pools where these plants were absent
mosquitoes bred in abundance.

Various species of the Lemnaceae (duckweeds) have been reported
as effective water coverings (pl. 3). In New Jersey, Johnson (1902)
found that no mosquito breeding took place where the Lemna
formed a complete mantle but where open spaces occurred Culea and
Anopheles bred in small numbers. Furthermore, Lemna-covered
ponds harbor numerous predacious insects which attack mosquito
larvae. Howard, Dyar, and Knab (1913) state that one of the most
abundant breeding grounds of Culex salinarius was a large marsh
completely covered by Zemna. Bentley (1910) found that species
of Lemna were of no value but that a related plant, Wolljfia arhiza,
was quite effective in the tanks in and around Bombay. In Sar-
dinia, Fermi (1917) recommends the planting of Lemna palustris
where oiling can not be employed. In Corsica, Regnault (1919)
reports that Lemna was successfully grown and prevented mosquito
breeding. Whenever the Zemna disappeared breeding took place.
In Russia, Vasilev (1925) found that wherever Lemna minor and
Lemna polyrrhiza covered the surface no mosquito larvae could be
found. Other workers present very conflicting reports, but the
evidence of general observations would seem to indicate that the
various species of the Lemnacae may prove of value in reducing the
abundance of mosquitoes. Plate 8 shows an enlarged (magnified
about seven times) view of Wollfia punctata and Lemna minor cov-

418 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

ering the surface of water. In ponds about Ithaca where these
species grow in abundance few larvae are present. However, our
knowledge of the growth or culture of these plants is very limited.
A pond (pl. 4, fig. 2) which for years past had a compact covering of
Lemna minor suddenly in 1929 became densely coated with Wollfia’
punctata, the Lemna occurring only in small patches.

From all these conflicting observations one fact stands out clearly—
that the study of the growth, culture, distribution, and usefulness of
surface-loving plants deserves the especial attention of botanists and
those engaged in the problems of mosquito control. ‘This may be
further emphasized by the report of Williamson (1928) that in
Malaya the blue-green alga, Microcystis, forms a dense scum in foul
waters, and this accounts for the absence of anopheline larvae.

NONSURFACE-LOVING AQUATIC PLANTS

Though predacious and surface-loving aquatic plants deserve more
study, those graceful plants belonging to the Characeae aroused the
attention of mosquito workers when Cabellero (1919) announced
that Chara foetida had a marked effect in inhibiting the develop-
ment of mosquito larvae. This and his later studies awakened a
renewed interest in the study of aquatic vegetation in relation to
mosquito breeding. ‘These studies have centered largely about the
Characeae, and numerous conflicting reports have been published in
recent years. The various species of Characeae (pl. 7, fig. 1) are |
beautiful and graceful plants often growing with remarkable vigor
and forming a most pleasing bottom covering for otherwise un-
sightly ponds. The species of Characeae are very difficult to identify,
and many workers seem to be of the opinion that certain species do
inhibit larval growth, while others have no effect. What are these
species? This question has not yet been answered, for the experi-
mental work with the various species has been very limited. Most
of the published results deal with general field observations, and
there is no indication by these various authors as to the exact con-
ditions under which the observations were made. Was the Chara
sp. growing vigorously? Were the ponds fouled with wastes?
Were they temporary or permanent ponds? Were they spring fed,
from overflows, surface water, or from other sources? In other
words, an exact analysis of the aquatic environment is seldom given.
In general, such workers as Allaud (1922) in Morocco, Langeron
(1921) in Tunis, Maynar (1923) and Pardo (1923) in Spain, Federici
(1928) in Italy, and Buhot (1927) in Australia have presented brief
experimental data that seem to confirm the findings of Cabellero.
On the other hand, the work of MacGregor (1924) in England,

PLANTS AND MOSQUITO CONTROL—-MATHESON 419

Barber (1924) in the United States, Fisher (1924) in Panama,
Buxton (1924) in Palestine, Swellengrebel (1925) in Holland, Reyne
(1924) in Surinam, Vasilev (1925) and Tarnogradski (1925) in
Russia, and Hamlyn-Harris (1928; 1929) in Australia would indi-
cate that the Characeae have little, if any, effect on mosquito breed-
ing. Blow (1924) reports little mosquito breeding in Madagascar
where species of CAara abound, but in 1927 he states that the
Charophyta (Characeac) possess no larvicidal qualities. Hacker
(1922) reports doubtful results in the Federated Malay States. Such
conflicting results would indicate that we know very little of the
underlying factors that induce or prevent mosquito breeding. Every
worker is fully aware that certain types of aquatic situations induce
mosquito breeding, whereas other or even almost identical situations
do not bring about breeding. In other words, we have what may
be called the selective breeding habits of each species. What are
the factors that control or govern such selective breeding habits?

Early in 1923 I was impressed by such conditions in central New
York and began a certain line of investigation in an attempt to
answer some of these questions. The discovery of a permanent
spring-fed pool (pl. 5, fig. 1) richly carpeted with a growth of
Chara fragilis* enabled me to plan a line of work which might
promise some results. In this pool, and similar ones since discovered,
no mosquito breeding took place. It seemed ideal as a mosquito
habitation. Farmhouses were located near by, and cattle grazed in
large numbers in the surrounding pastures, so that the adults had a
ready source of blood. Why, then, do mosquitoes fail to breed here?
A few preliminary experiments made in 1925 seemed to indicate that
the carpeting of Chara fragilis might be the inhibiting factor. Noth-
ing further could be done till the spring of 1927. At that time I
attempted to obtain answers to the following questions: (1) Does
this species of Chara have an inhibiting effect on larval develop-
ment? (2) Will mosquitoes oviposit readily on Chara-filled pools,
and if they do what becomes of the larvae that hatch out? (3) If.
‘Chara has an inhibiting effect on the development of the larvae what
is the causal agent? (4) Or, if the presence of Chara inhibits ovi-
position what are the factor or factors involved? (5) What is the
food of mosquito larvae?

To answer the first question a long serious of experiments was con-
ducted in aquaria in our greenhouse (pl. 4, fig. 1). The aquaria
were stocked with Chara fragilis, and the larvae of various species
of mosquitoes were added from time to time. Water from a near-by

*This species is now determined as Ohara vulgaris Linn.

102992—32 28

420 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

stream was used both in the Chara aquaria and in the controls. In
the controls the larvae seemed to develop normally so whatever food
was necessary was present in the water added to the Chara aquaria.
The results of these experiments are briefly summarized in Table 1.5

TABLE 1.—Results of Chara experiments

Speci Tenotl as {1 Adults | “orn
pecies er 0 tages of larvae er Time required
larvae emerged | died

INGIS GS) WO. EY oe eee 2, 500 | Second to fourth - ----- 115 | 2,385 | 2 to 14 days.

Gulexipipiens 2222. see ht es 47 D00)|Saaee Goss paisa ece ee 379 | 4,021 Do.

Culex territans--__---.------------ T3100) ViaTious i -228s Saami 108 | 1,092 | 2 to 15 days.

Anopheles punctipennis-_------_-- 460 eeeee dose aha eases 8 138 | 3 to 25 days.

Aedes canadensis ----------------_- 800) Young* oss ca28 Sass 223 577 | 4 to 10 days.

Medes'stimulans!-22 2222 2= =e 1572503) SViarloustees= eee 64 | 1,186 | 6 to 17 days.
Notalics.oc22eset2. 2252S see 10, 296 | 897 | 9,939

The table is self-explanatory. Not a large variety of species was
tested in the experiments, but out of 10,296 larvae there was an
emergence of only 897 adults. In the controls our emergence records
show that nearly all the larvae produced adults. What, then, is the
factor or factors that prevented these larvae from completing their
development? I thought at first that the plant might produce some
lethal substance, judging from the rapid death rate of the larvae.
This, however, seemed to be ruled out, as a great abundance of Cy-
clops, Daphnia, and other small Crustacea, as well as numerous phy-
toplankton, thrived in the experimental aquaria. A factor experi-
mented with was the pH values (acidity versus alkalinity). The ex-
perimental aquaria and our Chara pounds showed a wide daily cycle
of pH values, usually running from a pH of 7.6 to nearly 9.4 each
day. The water was always alkaline and following MacGregor
(1921) and Senior-White (1926) I thought the changing alkalinity
might account for the high death rate. Further experiments con-
firmed the results of other workers that pH values have probably
little to do with inhibiting larval development. The next factor
was the study of the food requirements of the larvae. Could it be
possible that Chara ponds and our Chara aquaria did not possess
sufficient food for the development of the larvae?

An intensive search of the literature showed that the main larval
food consists of the zooplankton and phytoplankton organisms found
in the water. These are swept in by the action of the larval mouth
brushes, and everything that can be swallowed is taken in indis-
criminately. Along with these substances is swept in a considerable
amount of water. Fortunately I had begun an intensive study of the
plankton of a typical mosquito-breeding pool and the spring-fed

5 Pull details may be found in the Amer. Journ. Hygiene, vol. 8, pp. 279-292, 1928.

PLANTS AND MOSQUITO CONTROL—MATHESON 421

Chara pond. This investigation ° soon showed a greater variety and
a much higher density of plankton organisms in our Chara pond
and aquaria than that found in a typical mosquito-breeding pool.
If plankton organisms are the food of mosquito larvae, here then
was an abundant food supply and yet they died amidst plenty.
However, I have never fully believed that plankton organisms con-
stitute the entire larval food but that the larvae probably obtain
most of their food from substances in solution in the water and
from decaying organic wastes. My assistant was in the midst of test-
ing this theory, and his preliminary results indicated that my thesis
held true for the species with which he was experimenting.’ If
plankton does not constitute the main food of mosquito larvae but
rather substances in solution and organic wastes, then the question is
does the Chara remove these substances in solution so rapidly as to
starve the larvae? Decaying organic matter is largely absent in
Chara ponds, as one of their marked characteristics is the crystalline
clarity of the water. I could find no way to test all these suppositions
experimentally.

There was still another factor which always excited my curiosity,
more especially since the publication of Cleveland’s work in defaun-
ating the intestinal tract of termites with oxygen. As Chara gives
off during the day an immense number of tiny bubbles of oxygen
I felt fully convinced that the larvae must sweep hundreds of them
into their intestines. What effect could the presence of oxygen
have on the digestive processes of the larvae? To test this I devised
a rather simple apparatus. Pure oxygen was passed, under pres-
sure, through Berkefeld filters N and W and entered the water in
bubbles almost as tiny as those given off by the Chara. Plate 1, Fig-
ure 1 shows the apparatus in operation. Two cylinders are being
treated with oxygen while two others serve as controls. The same
water and food were supplied to all the jars. This experiment was
conducted for a considerable time and a brief summary is presented
in Table 2.

TABLE 2.—Tests with oxygen

Num- | Num-
Species ber of ber ee Time exposed Controls
larvae | died
Oulexisp sass a= 2 so s- as sseee 50 50 Ol Sidayseesse2=2 Adults emerged 2 days later.
HD 0) Sea 5 ee ee ee ee 50 50 ON eiidays==2==2-=— Adults emerged as experiment
ended.
ID) Osa ceke cctmceucastswaccd 50 50 0 | 3 days.--------| Adults emerged a few days
later.
HD) Oe eee Ny a st 50 50 Ota days:-ee22-5- Do.
Anopheies punctipennis- _---- 20 Ui) Adena Oldavsuss sooo s= Adults all emerged in controls.

pp. 174-188, 1930.
7Full account by Hinman, Amer. Journ. Hygiene, vol. 12, pp. 238-270, 1930.

422 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

These experiments, and many others which were tried, indicate
that the oxygen present in the water in small bubbles may be ingested
by the larvae and may bring about a high death-rate. The larvae in
the oxygen-treated cylinders appeared irritable, and though their
intestines were filled with apparently normal food yet their growth
was slow and they gradually dropped to the bottom and died. There
was great difficulty in preventing the oxygen bubbles from accumu-
lating at the surface. Whether or not larvae could break through
the surface film with their air-tubes remains unsolved. This may
prove the real reason for the death of the larvae. However, the
presence of the oxygen in the intestines (not proved, except by
inference) may interfere with the digestive functions and bring
about the death of the larvae. It may be recalled that Cleveland
(1925) brought about the death of termites by defaunating their
intestinal tracts by means of oxygen. In this case the oxygen killed
the commensals (Protozoa) which converted the eaten wood into
substances capable of being digested by the termites. What oxygen
may do in the intestinal tracts of mosquito larvae remains to be
solved.

In addition to the aquaria experiments with Chara a long series of
tests was conducted with wooden tubs sunk in the ground (pl. 5,
fig. 1), with wooden tanks divided into compartments (pl. 6,
fig. A) so that there would be Chara growths separated from the
ordinary water by screens, and also to provide a method of testing
Chara in still as compared with running water. The results of
these experiments * were uniformly successful and gave additional
evidence that Chara fragilis in some way prevented the development
of the larvae.

The second problem, do females normally oviposit in pools con-
taining vigorous growths of Chara, was also tested experimentally.
A series of aquaria filled with a growth of Chara fragilis was set
up in our greenhouse (pl. 4, fig. 1). An abundant supply of the
adults of two Culex species (C. pipiens and C. territans), Anopheles
punctipennis, and Aedes aegypti (the yellow fever mosquito) was
at all times present in and about our experimental quarters. The
results of these experiments are shown in Table 3.

8A full account of these experiments may be found in the Amer. Journ. Trop. Med.,
vol. 9, pp. 249-266, 1922.

PLANTS AND MOSQUITO CONTROL—MATHESON 423

TABLE 3.—Aquaria experiments with Chara fragilis to test egg deposition

Experi- | pp; Max-
ment pes set imum Condition of Chara Results
No. pH

1052-21 | June 25| 9.5] Vigorous till July 26. Decay till | No egg masses till July 29 (4), 30 (2).
Aug. 23. Vigorous thereafter. Larvae matured. No more egg masses
during season.

1052-22 | June 19 | 9.5 | Vigorous growth all season (Oct. 24).| No egg deposition all season; 65 larvae
C. apicalis added (July 14). All died.

1052-23 |--.do._--| 9.5 | Much decay till July 9. Vigorous | Egg deposition 1 (June 27), 1 (July 2),

thereafter. Larvae from first matured, others died.
MN : No further egg deposition.

1052-24 |_..do._-.| 9,5 | Maintained vigorous growth all sea- | No egg deposition throughout the season.
son.

1052-25 |-..do._--| 9.5 | Much decay till July 9. Vigorous | 1 egg mass (June 26), larvae matured; 1
growth thereafter. (July 2), hatched? No more egg

masses.

1952-285 |e dose so lseeoe Chara died down (July 21). Re- | Egg deposition took place all through the
placed, died (July 30). season and many adults emerged.

1052-29 |_..do._..| 9.5 | Chara did not become vigorous till | Egg masses 1 (June 27), 1 (June 28), 2
July 11. Vigorous thereafter. (July 2), 1 (July 5). No more during

season. Many larvae failed to mature.
1052-42 | Aug. 2} 9.2} Chara began to decay Aug. 4 and | Culex egg masses and larvae through the
completely died down. season. Abundant till Sept. 25.

An examination of the table brings out a most important fact—
that wherever there is decay and dying of the CAara oviposition by
Culex species took place almost immediately. In experiments 1052-
22 and 24 the Chara maintained a vigorous growth throughout the
season and no oviposition took place. In those experiments in
which considerable decay took place at the beginning, oviposition
is recorded and most of the larvae which hatched from the first
egg masses matured. Those that hatched from egg masses deposited
when the Cara was regaining vigor failed, in most cases, to mature.
In those aquaria in which growth did not take place (1052-28, 42,
43, 44, and 45) oviposition was excessive throughout the season and
immense numbers of adults emerged. Yet despite this density of
adults no oviposition took place in those aquaria containing a vigor-
ous growth of Chara. Why mosquitoes do not oviposit on water
containing a vigorous growth is not known. It may be added that
no oviposition took place in our outdoor tubs or wooden troughs
where Chara growth was vigorous. Oviposition always began when
decay started and became excessive as the decay increased.

These and other laboratory experiments appeared so promising
that a survey of the local area was undertaken to discover if pools,
ponds, lakes, etc., where Cara flourished were free from mosquito
breeding. Numerous more or less isolated ponds were found with
vigorous growths of Chara and in practically every case mosquito
breeding did not occur. These results were so encouraging that
attempts were made during the seasons of 1928 and 1929 to introduce
Chara fragilis into as wide a variety of known breeding places as
possible. This was done and several of these introductions were
studied during 1928 and 1929. In order to understand the problems

424 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

of Chara introductions the breeding habits of our northern species
of mosquitoes must be borne in mind. All our Aedes species pass
the winter in the egg stage, the eggs being deposited throughout the
summer on the bottoms or margins of dried-out or greatly lowered
pools. These eggs, with the possible exception of Aedes vewans,
do not hatch till the following spring. All our species of Culea,
Anopheles, and most of our 7heobaldia pass the winter as adults
and oviposit on water during the following spring or summer. It
will thus be seen that we have practically only one brood of the
Aedes species each season, whereas there may be several broods of
Culex, Anopheles, or Theobaldia species. There are exceptions to
this general summary, but the main thesis holds true for the species
under experimentation with Chara. In any attempt to introduce
Chara into pools which dry up during the summer the question of
the renewal of growth the following season was problematical.
However, for a number of years Chara fragilis was found growing
in temporary puddles which dried out each season, so it was thought
that introductions into similar pools might prove successful. Fur-
thermore, the kind of water which would support Chara was not
known, and no information was available on the culture, growth,
etc., of Chara species.

It may be worth while to present the details of two introductions.

Buttermilk Falls pool—This pool (pl. 6, fig. C.) is rather
small and is spring fed. It is about 8 feet in diameter and 214
to 3 feet deep. Aedes canadensis breeds here in great abundance
during the early spring and is followed by Aedes, vexans, Culex
aptcalis, Culex territans, and Anopheles punctipennis. The main
object of the experiment was to obtain a good growth of the Chara
which might prevent the breeding of the summer species and also
prevent the oviposition of Aedes canadensis and Aedes vexans. The
results of this experiment are shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4.—Buttermilk Falls pool

Date Condition of Chara Results
1928
SADT lee aren | eee ee eee ee ee Numerous larvae of Aedes canadensis.
ADI Ore See Introduced 4 pails of Chara__-_| Larvae very inactive, due to cold.
APY. 18.52 eros NOU growing ee oe sees Larvae abundant, growth slow.
May 22sec eee OOS eo Se ee Ree 0.
Meaysigeeoneeees Growth'begins! 2229 es ns Larvae abundant; a few pupae.
Mays?) =e Goadierowthis=2 ease eae Pupae numerous.
Mayol: aS ss aacea ith COs es ee ae se punctipennis, Culex apicalis, a few small
arvae.
Jane Fess spies Slow growthi® 25-242. ik Anopheles punctipennis, 2large larvae. Culex apicalis,
- a few small ones.
Jane 182.) Vigorous growth. ____.________ No breeding; larvae and pupae in near-by pools.
June 16 to 28____|___. (6 (cn, SR A SRE Bl No breeding; near-by pools dry.
JOY B. -. eee Good growth, but decay area | Culex apicalis, few small larvae; Anopheles, a few
in center. larvae.
July 5 to Sept. 6_| Vigorous growth, but a central | Culex apicalis and Anopheles punctipennis bred in fair
area of marked decay. numbers throughout this period.

PLANTS AND MOSQUITO CONTROL—MATHESON 425

TABLE 4.—Buttermilk Falls pool—Continued.

Date Condition of Chara Results
1929
Miron eee NorChara growths 2-0 eee A few young larvae, Aedes canadensis; near-by pools
swarming with this species.
Apri2 Ss ssseos |S Gon sate e es Rte oh Larvae very scarce; A. canadensis and A. excrucians.
I Nag Oars Ee 1 Be Ar eee et Pool high; larvae very scarce; 50 obtained after much
difficulty.
Vip yp lee sete eee Ce ae a eee eee | A few large larvae of A. canadensis.
Mia yale aa eh2 2 eee ek COE SER eee ab itt Bee ee ee! A few small larvae present.
May 238 2 ee 2a eo OG tik ee ai A few small A. canadensis; near-by pools with numerous
large larvae and pupae.
INTER BU aes ell Oe ere ANE NE eae 1 A few large larvae. In near-by pools adults had
emerged.
Jineseee =e BOIS oy Be on ee ee ap pee No larvae present; near-by pools practically dry.
June TE ee ee (0 (0 a eee ee ee A few larvae of Culex apicalis and two of Anopheles
punctipennis found; near-by pools dry.
Af bd br dn Wee Reet Ek) eee soar es pee Aneta Canty ieee) No breeding; near-by pools dry.
Sb as? ANGE eee | (6 (0 Re ee eee ee Do.
Pes Cpg gle SR pean | ere Oat eS See ees Do.

1 During the rest of the season there was no growth of the Chara and no breeding took place.

From Table 4 it will be observed that the Chara was added on
April 9, 1928. At that time larvae of Aedes canadensis were very
abundant. Growth of the Chara did not begin till about May 18,
when the first pupae appeared. ‘The development of the larvae
was undoubtedly retarded, for pupation. took place in near-by pools
a week earlier. From June 7 till July 3 there was no breeding in this
pool except a few larvae on June 7. In the near-by pools Aedes
canadensis, Culex territans, and Culex apicalis were present in both
the larval and pupal stages. Early in July the near-by pools became
dry, and from then till September breeding took place in our experi-
mental pool. It should be noted, however, that early in July (July
3) a considerable area of decay appeared and this continued through-
out the season. Breeding began with the appearance of decay, and
this result agrees with that obtained in our experimental aquaria.
Another point might be noted: Aedes vexans bred in near-by pools
but was never found in the experimental pool. The results for 1929
are not very encouraging. ‘The Chara did not apparently survive the
winter. It is hoped that growth may again appear in 1930. In
1928 the larval density of Aedes canadensis was most extraordinary.
A few sweeps of a small net brought in nearly 2,000 larvae, and
immense numbers of adults emerged. In 1929 it will be seen we
had difficulty in obtaining even 50 larvae. Whether this reduction in
breeding was due to the Chara preventing oviposition in 1928 is
difficult to say. Had the Chara continued to grow in 1929 we might
be justified in concluding that Aedes canadensis refused to oviposit
where Chara grows. However, as compared to near-by pools there
was a reduction of mosquito breeding in 1928 and an even more
marked reduction in 1929. The near-by pools swarmed with Aedes

426 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

canadensis, whereas the Chara pool contained.an extremely small
number of larvae.

The woodland pool—The woodland pool (pl. 7, fig. B) is a
large pothole which usually maintains a water supply till late
August or September. Here breed Aedes stimulans, A. excrucians,
A, fitchii, and A. punctor. The larval density is usually very high,
and immense numbers of adults swarm during the summer in the
surrounding woodlands. Near by are numerous breeding places for
these species so that if Chara would grow and maintain itself in
this pothole we would have an excellent opportunity to test its
efficiency. The introductions were made on April 14 and 21, 1928.
During the summer of 1928 the Chara maintained a considerable
growth, but in 1929 none could be found. Though the experimental
pool had a high larval density in 1928, there were very few larvae
in 1929. Unfortunately the near-by potholes, where there was a high
larval density in 1928, had comparatively few in 1929. In fact, this
whole woodland area, which usually swarmed with mosquitoes dur-
ing the summer, had very few during the season of 1929. The reduc-
tion was probably due to a salamander (Diemictylus viridescens),
which swarmed in all the pools during 1928 and 1929. ‘This sala-
mander has been shown to be a voracious feeder on mosquito larvae.

Though numerous other introductions were made, none of them
could be followed up in detail. Several new introductions were made
in 1929, and I have hopes that some of these may prove more success-
ful. Our failures are due, in all probability, to our ignorance about
the biology and cultivation of the Characeae. ‘Though I have worked
with only one species, Chara fragilis, other investigators have em-
ployed several other species sometimes with apparent success but
unfortunately more often with failure. However, this line of work
is directing more and more students to study the underlying factors
of larval food, selective breeding habits of mosquitoes and the water
conditions which induce or prevent mosquito breeding.

OTHER AQUATIC PLANTS

Little experimental work has been done with other aquatic plants.
Zetek (1920) reports that in the Panama Canal Zone anophelines
were found breeding in the floating islands and other masses of
water lettuce (Pista stratiotes). In Brazil, Bachmann (1921)
found that mosquitoes appear to avoid Pistia stratiotes, Myriophyl-
lium brasiliense, and Lemna. He states that Myriophyllium brasil-
tense is being planted along the streams at points where breeding
places have been cleared away. In the southern United States, Bar-
ber and Hayne (1925) find that anophelines breed amidst water
hyacinth (Piaropis crassipes).

PLANTS AND MOSQUITO CONTROL—-MATHESON 427

I did some work with another aquatic plant, Hlodea (Phyllotria)
canadensis (pl. 7, fig. 2). For a number of years this plant
has grown in abundance in pools along a railway embankment.
The pools seemed ideal places for mosquito breeding, yet larvae were
rarely found. Three experimental aquaria were run under condi-
tions similar to those used with Chara. The results are shown in
Table 5.

Taste 5.—Heperiments with Hlodea (Phyllotria) canadensis

Aquarium Aquarium Aquarium
Date 1052-33 pH 1052-34 pH 1052-35 pH
—— | | 71
JnlyslObs==s SQW) = see ceereoaseecec|hon|| SO Wh Se te eee aoee|| SS Wh) ao eee aoe
Tubyal2 eee Vigorous growth___----- OS IVACOLOUS heme eee nae oe oe QU Z VAC OLOUS meee eee en eee 9.1
July 16a +200 Culex larvae, |9.3 | +200 Culex larvae, |9.3 |_---- CO ree SRO ae 9.3
various. various.
July18; 1922916 adultss=sse=— == Ost z2tadultshus sos Leesec see 9.4 | +200 Aedes vexans, | 9.4
small.
Jolysoleesee +200 Culex small_____-- 9.4 | +200 Culex small______- ONZTIMNio lanviaOne sees see eee 9, 4
Aug. 9s--.-= No larvae, no adults _-_-__ 9.3 | Nolarvae, no adults____- 9.4 | Nolarvae, no adults____- 9.4

This table is self-explanatory. How are we going to account for
the high death-rate? Furthermore, these aquaria were exposed
practically the entire summer to the large numbers of adult mos-
quitoes that were constantly emerging from our other aquaria, yet
in not a single instance did we find an egg mass deposited on them.
I have no explanation to offer for the results. If the experiments
with oxygen can be successfully repeated with more species of mos-
quitoes I would surmise that the excessive amount of oxygen given
off in minute bubbles by this plant may oxidize the organic wastes
too rapidly, destroy any foods in solution or, when ingested by the
larvae, interfere with their digestive processes.

The whole problem of selective mosquito breeding involves a fund-
amental study of aquatic environments. Water which is everywhere
so common and abundant, a substance essential to all life, a funda-
mental necessity to every life process, is one of the most puzzling
substances known. ‘Though much has been attempted little funda-
mental knowledge of water chemistry, of the physicochemical fac-
tors of water, of water solutes and their exact constitution or re-
actions, etc., has been gained. Until we know something more fund-
amental about the physicochemical factors involved in the relation-
ship of water to life processes we can scarcely hope to make much
progress in interpreting the aquatic environments of living plants
and animals.

LITERATURE CITED
ALLAvD, C.
1922. Rapport 4 Monsieur le Directeur Général des services de Sante du
Maroe sur une Mission antipaludique, Bull. Soe. Sci. Nat. Maroc., vol.
2, pp. 3-6.

428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

BACHMANN, A.
1921. Programa de Ducha para Llevarse 4 Cabo en Famailla contra los
Anofeles y sus Larvas, Anal. Dep. Nac. Higiena, Buenos Aires, vol. 27,
pp. 117-137.
BARBER, M. A., and HAYNE, T. B.
1925. Water hyacinth and the breeding of Anopheles, U. S. Pub. Health
Rep., vol. 40, pp. 2557-2562.
BarBer, M. A.
1924. The effect of Chara robinsii on mosquito larvae, U. S. Pub. Health
Rep., vol. 89, pp. 611-615.
BAUER, J. H.
1928. The transmission of yellow fever by mosquitoes other than Aedes
aegypti, Amer. Journ. Trop. Med., vol. 8, pp. 261-282.
BENTLEY, C. A.
1910. Natural history of Bombay Malaria, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.,
vol. 20, pp. 392-422.
Brow, T. B.
1924. Notes on Charophyta in Madagascar, Journ. Bot., vol. 62, pp. 252-2538.
1927. Observations on the alleged larvicidal qualities of the Charophyta,
Proc. Linn. Soe. London, Session 139, pp. 46-47.
BrocHer, IF.
1911. Le Probléme de l’Utriculaire, Ann. Biol. Lacustre, vol. 5, pp. 838-46.
1927. A propos de la capture de larves d’Anopheles par les Utriculaires.
Ann. Parasit. hum. et comp., vol. 5, pp. 46-47.
Brumpt, HL.
1925. Capture des Larves de Culicides par les Plantes du genre Utricularia,
Ann. Parasit. hum. et comp., vol. 8, pp. 4038-411.
Bunor, HE. W. I.
1927. Effects on mosquito larvae of a Queensland Nitella, Proc. Roy. Soc.
Queensland, vol. 38, pp. 59-61.
Buxton, P. A.
1924. Applied entomology of Palestine, being a report to the Palestine
Government, Bull. Ent. Res., vol. 14, pp. 289-240.
CABELLERO, A.
1919. La Chara foetida A Br., y las Larvas de Stegomyia, Culex y Ano-
pheles, Bol. R. Soc. Espafiola Hist. Nat. Madrid, vol. 19, pp. 449-455.
CLEVELAND, L. R.
1925. The effects of oxygenation and starvation on the symbiosis between
the termite Termopsis and its intestinal flagellates, Biol. Bull., vol. 48,
pp. 309-326.
DARWIN, CHARLES.
1875. Insectivorous plants.
EUGLING, M.
1921. Uber malariabekampfung, Beihefte Arch. Schiffs-u. Trop.-Hyg., Leip-
zig, vol. 25, no. 1, 63 pp.
Frpericr, B.
1928. L’azione tossica delle “Charae”’ sulle larve dei Culicidi, Redia,
vol. 16, pp. 18-28.
FERMI, C.
1917. La Profilassi antimalarica in due Citta sarde, Annali d’Igiene, Rome,
vol. 27, pp. 228-236.
FISHER, H. C.
1924. Report of the health department of the Panama Canal Zone for 1922,
Mount Hope, C. Z., 1928. Also in Report for 1923.

PLANTS AND MOSQUITO CONTROL—MATHESON 429

FrANGA, C.
1922. Recherches sur les plantes carnivores. IL. Utricularia vulgaris, Bol.
Soe. Broteriana, Coimbra, vol. 1, (2nd. ser.) pt. 1, pp. 11-37.
HACKER, H. P.
1922. Malaria Bureau Ann. Rep.
1923. Fed. Mal. States, Med. Rep., 1922, Suppl. to F. M. 8S. Govt. Gaz.,
vol. 27, pp. 16-22.
HAMLYN-HARRIS, R.
1928. The relation of certain algae to breeding places of mosquitoes in
Queensland, Bull, Ent. Res., vol. 18, pp. 377-3889.
1929. The relative value of larval destructors and the part they play in
mosquito control in Queensland, Proce. Roy. Soe. Queensland, vol. 41,
pp. 238-38.
HEGner, R. W.
1926. The interrelations of Protozoa and the urticles of Utricularia, Biol.
Bull., vol. 50, pp. 289-270.
Howarp, L. O., Dyar, H. G., and Kwap, F.
1918. The mosquitoes of North and Central America and the West Indies,
vol. 1.
JOHNSON, H. P.
1902. A study of certain mosquitoes in New Jersey and a statement of the
mosquito-malaria-theory, Ann. Rep., New Jersey Agr. Exp. Sta.
LANGERON, M.
1921. Deuxiéme mission parasitologique en Tunisie, Tamerga, Arch. Inst.
Pasteur Afr. Nord., Tunis, vol. 1, pp. 347-882.
MacGrecor, M. EB.
1920. The possible use of Azolla filiculoides as a deterrent to anopheline
breeding, Journ. R. A. M. C., vol. 34, pp. 370-372.
1921. The influence of the hydrogen-ion concentration in the development
of mosquito larvae, Parasitol., vol. 13, pp. 348-351.
1924. Tests with Chara foetida and C. hispida on the development of
mosquito larvae, Parasitol., vol. 15, pp. 882-387.
MATHESON, R., and HInMAN, EH. H.
1928. Chara fragilis and mosquito development, Amer. Journ. Hygiene,
vol. 8, pp. 279-292.
1929. Further studies on Chara spp. and other aquatic plants in relation
to mosquito breeding, Amer. Journ. Trop. Med., vol. 9, pp. 249-266.
1931. Further work on Chara spp. and other biological notes on Culicidae.
Amer. Journ. Hygiene, vol. 14, pp. 99-108.
MAYNAR, J.
1923. Contribution al studio de la accion larvicida de las Caraceas, Bol.
R. Soe. Espafiola Hist. Nat., vol. 23, pp. 389-392.
MUHLENS, P., Dios, R. L., Perroccni, J., and Zuccartnt, J. A.
1925. Notes on the biology of mosquitoes (in Russian), summary in Rey.
Inst. Bact., vol. 4, pp. 207-857.
MUHLENS, P.
1924. Informe preliminar sobre estudios realizados en los territorios del
Chaco y Formosa y en el Paraguay, Ann. Dept. Nac. Higiena, vol. 30,
pp. 189-146.
Parvo, L.
1923. Observaciones acerea de la accion de la Chara sobre les larvas de los
mosquitos, Bol. R. Soc. Espaiiola Hist. Nat., vol. 23, pp. 154-157.

430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

REGNAULT, F.

1919. La culture des lentilles d’eau dans la lutte contra le paludisme, Bull.

Soc. Path. Exot., vol. 12, pp. 7385-736.
REYNE, A.

1924. Henige proeven met vischjes en chemicalien tot het dooden van
muskietenlarven, Dept. Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Surinam,
Bull. 47, 54 pp., Paramaribo.

SENIOR-WHITE, R.
1926. Physical factors in mosquito ecology, Bull. Ent. Res., vol. 16, pp.
187-248.
SmitH, J. B.
1910. Azolla versus Mosquitoes, Ent. News, vol. 21, pp. 437-441.
SWELLENGREBEL, N. H.

1925. A summary of the more important facts on adult anophelines and
their larvae, observed by us or brought to our notice during our tour
through eastern Europe and Italy (May-September, 1924), Fol., 19 pp.
Geneva, Soc. des Nations, May.

TARNOGRADSKI, D. A.

1925. Notes on the biology of mosquitoes, (in Russian), summary in Rey.

App. Ent., ser. B., vol. 18, p. 161.
TREAT, MARY.

1875. Plants that eat animals, The Gardener’s Chronicle, n. s., vol. 3, pp.

303-304.
VASILEY, I. V.

1925. On the biology and ecology of the common malaria mosquito,
Anopheles maculipennis (in Russian), summary in Rey. Appl. Ent., ser.
18}, VAG Jey, joy, alent

WILLIAMSON, K. B.

1928. Mosquito breeding and malaria in relation to the nitrogen cycle,

Bull. Ent. Res., vol. 18, pp. 433-439.
ZETEK, J.

1920. Anopheles breeding among water lettuce. A new habitat, Bull, Ent.

Res., vol. 11, pp. 73-75.

Smithzonian Report, 1931.—Matheson PATE!

1. Portion of Utricularia vulgaris, showing the numerous bladders.
Slightly magnified

2. Small portions of branches of Utricularia vulgaris with bladders
which have captured Brachydeutera argentata. Note the enormous
size of the larvae as compared with the size of the bladders. Magni-
fied about seven times

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Matheson PLATE 2

1. Apparatus for testing the effect of oxygen on larvae. Two cylinders
are being treated while two others serve as controls

2. A small portion of a branch of Utricularia vulgaris. Ten active
bladders are shown and five of them contain mosquito larvae.
Magnified seven times

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Matheson PLATE 3

6 SS
ee

is ae

Surface of water covered with Wollfia pwnctata and a few plants of Lemna minor (the larger
plants). Magnified about seven times

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Matheson PLATE 4

1. A series of aquaria stocked with Chara fragilis to test the effect of this plant on mosquito
larvae and on oviposition by the adults

2. A pond near Ithaca which for several years has been completely covered with Lemna sp.

In 1929 the entire surface became suddenly covered with Wollfia punctata, a plant closely

related to Lemna. Mosquito breeding has rarely been observed in this pool and then only
sattered larvae

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Matheson PLATE 5

1. A pool with a dense bottom covering of Chara fragilis. Along the margins and about the
partiallysubmerged logs wouldseem to beideal places for mosquito breeding. No mosquito
breeding has been found here for the past six years

cuene (aes [7° ae

2. A series of wooden tubs sunk in the ground to test the effect of Chara fragilis under out-door
conditions. Some of these tubs are used as controls

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Matheson PLATE 6

A, Woodentanks divided into compartments to test Chara fragilis in still and running
water; B, a deep woodland pool in which Chara fragilis was introduced; C, a
spring-fed pool (Buttermilk Falls Pool) planted with Chara fragilis

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Matheson PLATE 7

1. A few branches of Chara fragilis growing in an aquarium

2. A small portion of Hlodea (Phyllotria) canadensis growing in an aqua-
rium. Slightly magnified

OUR FRIENDS THE INSECTS?

By W. V. BALDUF

University of Illinois

There is necessarily such a preponderance of emphasis on the
losses man sustains through insects that a statement of the credit the
hexapods are responsible for is occasionally desirable to maintain a
correct mental perspective in regard to their relation with man’s
welfare. It is a common and logical principle in educational psy-
chology that instead of setting up a long series of “‘ don’ts ” to regu-
late childrens’ conduct we aim to substitute legitimate and desirable
activities for those we would prohibit. In a somewhat parallel man-
ner much has been done, and much more may perhaps be accom-
plished in the future, toward subduing injurious insects by estab-
lishing beneficial forms among the undesirable species. Instead of
creating a partial biological vacuum in nature by killing insects by
artificial methods, we may plant a benefactor where a criminal rules,
lest the house that is swept clean and vacated be eventually filled
with seven times more devils than at first. Obviously this plan has
limitations inasmuch as effective checks do not exist for all pests.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

The method of combatting insect pests by the utilization of natural
agencies that hold the destructive forms in check is, perhaps, the most
fascinating chapter in the history of insect control and at once the
least known by the people as a whole. The present attempt is only
to. prepare a brief, simple account of the growth, methods, and ac-
complishments of this phase of warfare against insects. The sub-
ject stated comprehends other phases of entomology than this, but
the present article will be limited to a consideration of our friends,
the parasitic insects. The term “ parasitic” as used here is defined
to include only such insects as live upon other insects, spending a
whole stage or more on or in another individual which is designated
the host.

1Reprinted by permission from the Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of
Science, February, 1929.

431

432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Ever since man began supplying himself with food by tilling the
soil, he has, no doubt, had to fight six-legged enemies of his crops.
And when our agrarian ancestors made more or less intelligent ob-
servations on them, they probably perceived also, though more rarely,
that certain kinds make their living by preying upon, or by eating,
the bodies of their own relatives. And as observations in the field
of natural history became more purposeful and systematic, the idea
of pitting the latter against the former, the benefactor against the
foe, probably grew, in a few minds, to a conviction and a personal
experiment, and eventually to practice. Doctor Howard (1)? tells
us that the “ gardeners and florists in England for very many years
have recognized the value of the ladybirds and have transferred them
from one plat to another.” But a similar use of parasites is not
likely to have been made at that time on account of their small size,
and chiefly because of the general lack of knowledge even regarding
the nature of their habits. It is not too much to say that no one
knew that such a phenomenon as parasitism existed until certain
naturalists (1, pp. 16-17) discovered it in the seventeenth century.
Aldrovandi, in 1602, is supposed (1, p. 16) to have been the “ first
to observe the exit of the larvae of Apanteles glomeratus L.”, a com-
mon small wasplike parasite of the imported cabbage worm. But it
was probably not until more than a half century later that Vallisnieri
(1661-1730) discovered (1, p. 17) “the existence of true, parasitic
insects ” and the real nature of insect parasitism. ‘“ Reaumur (1683-
1757) and DeGeer (1720-1778) each studied the life histories of liv-
ing insects with great care and, among them, worked out the biology
of a number of parasites.” Ratzeburg observed the bionomics of
Hymenoptera parasitic on forest insects, but did not believe that
their efficiency could be increased by man.

Hence, although several biologists had become familiar with the
fact of parasitism, and apparently considered that man might utilize
it in control, the artificial manipulation of parasites was not defi-
nitely suggested until after the middle of the nineteenth century.
Earlier hints at the feasibility of biological factors for pest control
applied to predacious forms, chiefly the lady beetles and ground
beetles, whose manner of checking their prey by direct feeding was
more easily comprehended generally. Hence, the movement for the
use of parasitic insects in what we now call biological control has
been begun and carried forward in the past nine decades, and the
outstanding ingenious accomplishments of an extensive and practical
nature are the work of the past 40 years, and fall mainly within the
lifetime of that chief enthusiast for, and sponsor of, the utilization

? Numbers refer to list of literature cited at the end of this article.

OUR FRIENDS THE INSECTS—BALDUF 433

of insect parasites, Dr. L. O. Howard, who began urging biological
control in 1880 and is still engaged in his favorite field.

THE NATURE OF PARASITIC INSECTS

A very small number of the present population of the world is
aware of the true nature of the white oval bodies seen so commonly
on the backs of certain caterpillars. Aldrovandi, in 1602, supposed
them to be eggs which, he probably thought, gave rise to many more
caterpillars to eat the rest of his crop. His supposition also im-
plies that he was also unfamiliar with the phenomenon of meta-
morphosis of moths and butterflies. The nature of these so-called
“eos,” their source, and their ultimate end could not be appreciated
then, as now, until the fact of metamorphosis among the parasites,
and their hosts as well, is understood. Parasitic insects that attack
other insects have a common mode of development from the egg to
the parent, or adult stage. These friends of ours usually begin life
as an egg which the parent places into, on, or near the host. Wasp-
like parasites or Hymenoptera have hollow boring instruments, or
ovipositors, by means of which the eggs are usually passed into the
very bodies of their hosts, whereas two-winged flies or Diptera de-
posit their eggs on the surfaces of the host, and the responsibility of
entering the body of the latter belongs to the young parasite or larva.
Certain true wasps, the Tiphiidae and Scoliidae, are parasitic upon
beetle grubs in the soil, and their larvae are ectoparasitic, clinging
to and feeding only on the outside of their hosts. The Rhipipho-
ridae, a family of beetles, are also ectoparasites of white grubs,
while the little-known minute twisted-winged parasites spend the
larval stage in the bodies of wasps and leaf hoppers. When the
parasite larvae become full-sized they do, or do not, leave the host,
if they happen to be endoparasitic. Wasplike parasite larvae often
spin silken cocoons, either in the empty shell of the host, or near
by outside: the “ maggots” or larvae of flies retain their last skin
instead of shedding it as before, and live in it as a covering or pu-
parium. In the puparium or cocoon the larva transforms to the
adult stage, the process of transformation being called pupation,
and the insect during the transition period is referred to as being a
pupa or in the pupa stage. Each of the four stages—egg, larva,
pupa and adult—is remarkably different from each of the others,
for which reason this mode of development is named complete meta-
morphosis. On the other hand, insects like the grasshoppers and
true bugs have young resembling the adults in form and have only
three stages, lacking the pupa. None of the insect parasites of other
insects have this type of metamorphosis. Only the larval stage of

434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

parasitic insects feeds upon its host, which ordinarily lives only as
long as necessary for the parasite to become mature. The parasites
do not feed upon the vital organs of the host, but instead are nour-
ished from the blood which flows about through the open spaces
of the host’s body, and from the fat body which represents the re-
serve food supply of the victim. While residing in the host’s body
the hymenopterous parasite larva retains in its alimentary canal,
which is saclike and closed behind, all the wastes from the digestive
process. The waste materials are voided concurrently with the last
moulting.

It is a significant fact that all parasitic insects attacking others of
their class have complete metamorphosis. The larva is no doubt
more adaptable to a multitude of circumstances of life than the
nymph type of young, such as is present in grasshopper life cycles.
While limited in locomotor capacity, the larva has a flexible body
capable of entering the soil or boring into and out of a host, and by
its tenacious hold on the host, or by virtue of its position in the host,
ceases to use, and has long since lost, all the legs it ever had. The
parasitic larvae have been engaged in the business of living at the
expense of others a long time, as witness the reduction of the legs,
antennae, and mouth parts. That they once possessed these organs
is suggested by the facts that some nonparasitic relatives still have
them and that some parasitic larvae, notably of the ichneumonoid
flies, retain their large falcate mandibles in the first larval instar but
lose them when they moult the first time. While the nymphs of such
external parasites as the sucking lice of mammals and the chewing
lice of birds are parasitic, they do not exhibit the versatility in choice
of and fitness for life in a considerable variety of host situations such
as hymenopterous and dipterous parasitic larvae display. Among
the many thousands of species of parasitic insects there is material
for a very interesting study of the multiplicity of form and habit
changes or adaptations, such as the means by which the parent gets
its progeny upon or into the host, how and in what stage the parasite
emerges again, and the variety of hosts it may attack. In a single
superfamily, the ichneumonoids, we find one species an ectoparasite
on caterpillars, another an internal parasite in a hard-shelled, swift-
running beetle, a third in a minute, sluggish, soft-bodied plant louse,
and a fourth more than a hundred times larger than the former and
carrying a set of drills much longer than itself for reaching into the
burrow of a tree borer which is the larva of another member of its
own order. In fact, one stage or more of some member or members
of practically all the 24 orders of insects are probably subject to
attack by one species or another of parasitic insects. Furthermore,
some parasitic larvae have come to attack other parasite larvae, and

OUR FRIENDS THE INSECTS—BALDUF 435

the latter may be subjugated by a third parasite, which, better than
anywhere else in the animal world, illustrates well the poem of the
fleas that have lesser fleas, and so ad infinitum. We see, then, by
these examples that parasitic insects are by no means limited to any
particular place, host, or host stage, and still they are so bound to
their habits by heredity that they select their hosts within certain
group limits and die without progeny if certain hosts, or sometimes
a single species of host, are not available. It is this relative uni-
formity and, furthermore, their limitation to a parasitic life that
makes them dependable for use in biological control.

METHODS OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

It is necessary to admit at once that the use of parasites to combat
their injurious relatives has limitations. Where a native parasite
of an indigenous pest already exists and fails to hold its host sufli-
ciently in check, there is not much that has been done to increase
the numbers of the benefactor, but new methods may possibly be
originated in the future. Their rate of growth is much controlled
by weather and the available numbers of the host, and men can
scarcely hope to regulate these influences. However, even in the
instance of native parasites various means of utilizing them are
known or may be developed. It is a well known fact that winters
reduce the numbers of parasites considerably below their status of
the previous year. The host is likewise reduced, oftentimes, but the
parasite can not reproduce extensively until its host is first plentiful.
Consequently, the host is free to do more or less damage in the first
months of the growing season, whereas the parasite requires a month
or two to “catch up ” or reach effective numbers. At present, proj-
ects begun in California are under way in several States of this
country to develop an abundance of the egg parasite (7'7richogramma
minutum) of certain moths in laboratories during the early spring.
‘They are then released in orchards for the control of the codling
moth, or in southern fields to hold the cane stalk borer or celery
leaf tyer in check, while the outdoor parasites are building up a
controlling number. The method of securing the parasite in plenty
is to use the Angumois grain moth which reproduces in stored grains
indoors under warm conditions during the early spring and whose
eggs can, therefore, be secured in large numbers. These eggs are
exposed to the adult parasites which deposit their eggs into those
of the moth. The life cycle of the parasite is short, hence a good
number of generations is produced annually and many thousand
individuals are reared quickly with proper mechanism and man-
agement.

102992—32——_29

436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The variation in the beginning of the growth period from the
north to the south extreme of the United States amounts to several
weeks. For example, between southern Ohio and Illinois and the
northern boundaries of these States there is, in the instance of some
crops, a difference of three weeks. As an illustration, let me cite the
instance of the imported cabbage worm and its Apanteles parasite in
Ohio. In the Muskingum Valley of that State early cabbage harvest |
is begun by the 4th of July, whereas some cabbages are only being
set into the field in the north part at the same time. The chief
pest of cabbage there is the imported cabbage worm, whose very
efficient parasite was intentionally introduced from Europe many
years ago to check the worm. In the first two generations the worm
gradually develops injurious numbers, but the parasites also multiply
rapidly. By the time that the cabbage crop is removed the parasites
dominate the situation, but must soon be weakened in numbers again
because the host grows scarce due to parasitism and many thousands
of parasites die without reproducing. At this time the worm is
probably doing its worst damage 200 miles north. Valuable cab-
bages grown in the vicinity of large cities like Cleveland and Toledo
are probably being injured, or artificial control may be practiced.
Inasmuch as many thousands of the parasite may be gathered in a
few days at Marietta, it would seem feasible to ship or carry such
for release in the north parts to greatly supplement the work of the
individuals present there and perhaps prevent severe damage to the
crop and possibly avoid the extensive use of insecticides,

Perhaps the most feasible mode of favoring parasites of insect
pests is to modify slightly the application of certain other insect
control measures. When a pest is known to possess one or more
effective parasites, wholesale slaughter of the hosts should be avoided
in order to permit the parasites to increase. For example, the large
green injurious tomato and tobacco horn worms are freely parasitized
by a small wasplike species whose mature larvae issue through the
back of the host and spin their white cocoons there. When such
cocoons begin to appear, many caterpillars could easily be assembled
and placed in a screened cage, from which the parasites can go forth
but which retains any moth that might have escaped the parasite.
Many other insects might be kept at a minimum in this manner or a
modification of it without excessive costs, if their parasites were
better known and this method of biological control were studied with
reference to them. Probably no other plan for the use of para-
sites has been more frequently suggested in earlier times.

In spite of careful State and interstate inspection service to pre-
vent the spread of insect pests, some of these inevitably penetrate
into new territory. Trade within and between States has been

OUR FRIENDS THE INSECTS—-BALDUF 437

instrumental in transporting or disseminating such insects. It
occurs also that their parasites are not spread at the same time,
permitting the host to multiply to unprecedented numbers and to
greatly increase damage. The common asparagus beetle, a Kuropean
species, is capable of causing severe loss under favorable conditions.
In the East it is in part checked by a chalcid egg parasite, which,
as far as known from several attempts to locate it in Ohio and Ilh-
nois, has not followed its host into all its present geographical range
in America. On the other hand, the squash bug, a native species
of general distribution, seems to be without its egg parasite in Ilh-
nois, whereas such a species is known to exist in the eastern States.
Providing a more extended study of these and other insects should
confirm such findings as the above, the artificial spread of the para-
sites of these pests might be undertaken, and the parasites could
probably be established with little cost or difficulty. Deserts, moun-
tain ranges, or large bodies of water may act as deterrents or bar-
riers to the spread of parasites into the areas which may be reached
with relative ease by their hosts on account of their better equipment
for long-distance travel.

The most obvious as well as most productive use that can be made
of parasites is based on the fact that some of our plant-eating in-
sects are of foreign origin. These have usually come to our country
without their natural enemies, hence multiply without limitations
and constitute some of our “ millionaire ” insect pests. A few major
examples are the European corn borer, the gypsy and brown-tail
moths, the Japanese beetle, the codling moth, and the imported
cabbage worm. It has been recognized for about 40 years, since
the gypsy-moth problem became acute, that one of the fundamental
steps to take in attempts to control such imported and liberated
pests is to study them in their native situations. These studies soon
revealed that the insects were usually of relatively small importance
in their old homes and that this difference in their status was caused
by the work of one or more parasites. Thus was suggested the idea
of bringing these parasites to this country, where it was hoped they
would eventually perform the same good service as in their native
lands. The result is that many species of parasitic insects have
been introduced and successfully established here in the last four
decades and with more or less of the desired effect.

The procedure in such introductions naturally varies much due to
the difference in habits of the parasites and their hosts and the
advantage taken of earlier experiences for development of better
methods of handling them. But the general essentials are as follows:
Specialists in parasitic insects are sent by the States or usually the
Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agricul-

438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

ture to the native abode of the pests and their parasites. These men
go for a year, or several years, or more, and establish laboratories in
a crucial area where the host and its enemies are carefully studied
before shipments of parasites to this country are attempted. Such
studies are in the nature of bringing out facts that will lead to the
intelligent manipulation of the parasites when they are transported,
and even more for the sake of ascertaining whether the beneficial
primary parasite may have parasites of its own, or secondary para-
sites, which, if introduced, would more or less impair the efficiency of
the primary species. By means of laboratory technique the secondary
parasites may be eliminated and a quantity of free primaries ob-
tained for shipment. Other species have no secondary enemies.
Native men, women, and children are employed to collect the para-
sitized insects desired and deliver them at the laboratories. After
their habits and life histories are studied, numbers of them are packed
for shipment. ‘They may be in the egg, larva, pupa, or adult stage
when sent, the stage preferred being determined by the knowledge
man has gained of the ways of the parasite and its host. Frequently
the parasite is a larva in the egg or other stage of the host, or in a
cocoon of its own, out of, or in, the hosts’ body or cocoon. A conven-
ient time to send Some parasites is in a cold season, when they are
naturally dormant due to low temperature, or if sent in a warm season
they have frequently been stored in refrigerators at temperatures of
40° to 50° F. on ship to prevent further development before they
reach their destination. Or food and hosts may be supplied in cages
to enable the parasite to continue its growth in a normal way in
transit. If the parasite larva be in the host when sent, it may reach
the pupa or even the adult state by the time it arrives after a journey
tasting from one to two weeks.

If the parasites make the trip successfully, they are next placed
in a laboratory to study further their habits, to determine whether
hyperparasites may be present, and to develop large numbers for
liberation. The breeding is done in many ways, depending again
on the species concerned, and a considerable variety of cages and
technique are employed. The hosts are provided in these cages to
allow the parasites to multiply upon them. Usually when thousands
are developed, they are taken, at the most opportune time known, to
selected spots where the host is abundant, and where the environment
is otherwise favorable to the survival of the parasite. Thereafter
the parasite is dependent entirely on.its own persistence in finding
its hosts and in resisting the climate and other untoward influences.
Sometimes our own parasites attack it, even when its native enemies
have been left behind. Probably less than half the species intro-
duced from other countries are established, or, if established may

OUR FRIENDS THE INSECTS—BALDUF 439

be of minor importance as factors in host control. Success depends
on so many influences that the entomologists concerned need have
intimate knowledge of every phase that composes the parasite’s en-
vironment as well as of its habits and development. However, in
spite of failures due to inadequate facts, the specialists who are close
to the work are optimistic for the future, and Dr. L. O. Howard
(2, p. 282) says “work of this kind is in its infancy, and its
possibilities are great.” It is necessary to point out again, however,
that this method of combating insect pests is not advocated as a
panacea for all insect troubles, and can not be regarded as a solitary
substitute for any or all other methods now in use.

INSTANCES OF PARASITE TRANSPORTATION

The transportations of parasitic insects have by no means been
to the United States alone, although this country started this type
of work on a large scale. Porto Rico imported experimentally in
1911-1913 from our own State certain wasp parasites (7'7phia sp.)
for the control of the sugar-cane grubs which are related to the
Illinois corn-root destroying white grubs.

The mulberry scale threatened the silk industry in Italy (3), but
it was almost completely freed of this pest by a minute parasite
(Prospaltella berlesei) established there from America and Japan.

Australia inadvertently received the woolly apple aphis, a notori-
ous louse pest of the apple, because its covering of woolly secretion
protects its body against ordinary contact sprays. The apple indus-
try had prospered greatly in that favorable country until the arrival
of this aphis. Professor Tillyard, of Australia, with the aid of
our entomologists, received importations of a small wasplike para-
site from the United States where it holds this pest in check. The
parasite is flourishing in Australia, and, as a result, the apple indus-
try is doing the same.

The larch forests of Canada have been severely injured by an:
imported sawfly, whose larva eats foliage. About 14 years ago,
one of its foreign parasites was established, and by gradually increas-
ing has now practical control of the host, the last reports indicating
over 70 per cent mortality due to the parasite.

The Hawaiian islands present a peculiar biological situation in
that they originally harbored few native crop pests. By interna-
tional commerce the sugar cane leaf hopper became established
there, and created heavy losses amounting in 1903 to $3,000,000.
By 1906 some species of egg parasites obtained in Australia were
multiplying rapidly, and after 10 years Doctor Howard (3, p. 7)
found that the leaf hoppers had been reduced to practical insignifi-
cance. ‘This is only an example of numerous other instances of com-

440) ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

plete success with imported parasites in Hawaii. But this case is
not typical of most introductions into the United States and else-
where, for the reason that parasites taken to Hawaii have no native
secondary enemies awaiting them, hence multiply with extraordinary
rapidity.

Extensive attempts have been made with varying success to estab-
lish foreign parasites of imported pests in the United States. Cali-
fornia has always been a leading State in experiments with biological
control, and (4) “ because of the spectacular results of the introduc-
tion of Vedalia the Australian ladybird, in the early days of Cali-
fornia horticulture, the general public was inclined to favor this
method of control to the exclusion of all others.” The black scale
“is still the most important pest of citrus in the State,” and effective
natural enemies are still being sought.

From 1911 to 1918 (5) the cocoons of the parasite of the alfalfa
weevil were sent to Utah where alfalfa culture was damaged by
this snoutbeetle. By 1922 the parasite “was practically covering
the weevil territory,’ and parasitism sometimes reached 85 to 90
per cent or more.

Generally, the appearance of a new insect pest of importance in
this country is a signal for the beginning of a search for its para-
sites. In the New England States thousands of acres of woodlands,
and shade and forest trees have been defoliated at various times since
1889 by the caterpillars of the gypsy and brown-tail moths, both of
which are of European origin. Than this there is no more extensive
instance of damage by introduced pests and there is scarcely an
example of a more far-reaching attempt to control such pests by its
introduced parasites. Since 1905 (6) “ over 60 species of parasites ”
of these enemies of trees, “ including predacious bettles, have been
imported from Europe and Japan.” Mr. Burgess indicates that
many attempts failed, for “ of this number 16 species have become
established in New England. One-half of these have not become
very abundant and are probably of slight importance.” The dam-
age, however, decreased “ with more or less regularity until 1924,
when only a small number of localized areas were defoliated.” Ob-
servations over many years indicate that the number of parasites
fluctuates with the result that occasional injury of more or less ex-
tent may be expected in the future. The same consequences will
normally result in the instance of any other pest for whose control
parasites are chiefly employed. The ideal of parasite importation
in this and other instances is perhaps to find and establish a series
of parasites, one or more attacking each stage of the host, and thus
developing a sequence that will strike the host at various seasons of
the year and perchance effect an adequate control in spite of varia-

OUR FRIENDS THE INSECTS—BALDUF 441

tions in factors governing host and parasite abundance. However,
this point of view has been criticized, and certain other plans may be
more effective.

While the gypsy and brown-tail moths were the occasions for the
first large-scale biological control project of the United States Bu-
reau of Entomology, others of large dimensions have since been in-
stituted. The Japanese beetle is a relative of our common May
beetles or white grubs. It was first seen in this country in New
Jersey in 1916 and the grubs in the soil wrought havoc on lawns,
meadows and golf courses since that date, while the adults have done
likewise to foliage, flowers, and fruits in general. In 1920, the
study of its natural enemies, including parasites, was begun in Japan
(7), and up to January, 1927, nine species of parasites were found
there and in Chosen (Korea). One of the three tachinid flies para-
sitizing the adult beetle frequently destroys from 50 to 100 per cent
of its host and this species, among other parasites, has been intro-
duced into this country. Six other species attack the host in the
larval stage.

Among other pests of primary importance are the Mexican bean
beetle, the Oriental fruit moth, and the European corn borer; all of
which have occasioned the investigation of their native parasites, but
those of the corn borer, the worst threat we ever had on our corn
crop, deserve special mention. Although six two-winged (Diptera)
parasites and seventeen wasplike species (Hymenoptera), all native,
have been found attacking the eggs, larvae, and pupae here, “the
combined parasitism ” by these species “ has totaled less than one per
cent of the larvae and pupae collected each year” (8). The native
parasites are therefore “ practically negligible except in the case of
the sporadic egg parasite, Z'’richogramma minutum Riley” (8).
Eight species of Diptera and Hymenoptera that parasitize the corn
borer in Europe had been liberated in the infested area of the United
States up to February, 1927. Two of these (Microgaster tibialis Nees
and E'xeristes roborator) had been recovered incidentally at that time.
It can not be predicted what the status of the imported species will
be in the future. Ten years or more are sometimes necessary for a
normal adjustment of parasites to their new surroundings and to
reach their maximum efficiency, providing they become established
at all. It is generally believed that parasites of the corn borer can
not be expected to become an adequate check alone on this pest, the
chief factor operating against a high proportion of mortality seem-
ing to be the habit of the host of feeding sheltered within the corn
stalk most of the time during the stages susceptible to attack.

The amount of hope to be placed in the method of control by the
use of entomogenous insect parasites is obviously various, according

442 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

to the species considered. But whether they are in themselves suffi-
cient to keep to an insignificant minimum the economic loss occa-
sioned by their host, or must be supplemented by other methods of
control, our friends, the parasitic insects, constitute one significant
ally of man. Their importance does not permit them to be omitted
from any program of control for foreign introduced pests, and
furthermore, it may be truthfully said that the appreciation of the
possibility of their use against native pests has probably only begun.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Howard, L. O., and Fiske, W. F., The importation into the United States
of the parasites of the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth. U.S. Bur. Ent.,
BL. s. Bull. 91, 344 pp., 1911.

(2) Howard, L. O., Journ. Econ. Ent., vol. 19, p. 282, 1926.

(8) Yearbook, U. S. Dep. Agr., p. 14, 1916.

(4) Smith, H. S., Journ. Econ. Ent., vol. 19, p. 294, 1926.

(5) Chamberlin, T. R., Journ. Econ. Ent., vol. 19, p. 304, 1926.

(6) Burgess, A. F., Journ. Econ. Ent., vol. 19, p. 291, 1926.

(7) Clausen, C. P., and King, J. L., U. S. Dep. Agr., Bull. 1429, 1927.

(8) Caffrey, D. J.. and Worthley, L. H., U. S. Dep. Agr., Bull. 1476, 1927.

EVOLUTION OF THE INSECT HEAD AND THE ORGANS
OF FEEDING

By R. BH. SNopeRAss

Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture

The organs of feeding in nearly all animals are intimately asso-
ciated with the head, because it is the head end of the body that goes
forward in the usual modes of progression and is, therefore, the first
to come into contact with the food. The head is at the anterior end
of the body because the head was probably differentiated primarily
as the sensory pole of the animal. The primitive head did not neces-
sarily contain the mouth, and in some of the worms the mouth is
still located near the middle of the ventral side of the body.

The head of an insect is a composite structure formed of several
of the primitive anterior body segments. The mouth is located on
the head and the principal external organs of feeding are appendages
of some of the segments associated with the mouth. The head seg-
ments are so closely united in the cranium-like head capsule that the
primitive segmental areas are no longer discernible. The mouth
appendages were undoubtedly at one time legs, but they have become
so altered in adaptation to the feeding function that the primitive
leg structure is seldom apparent in them and is often entirely oblit-
erated. It is very difficult, therefore, to decipher the evolution of the
insect head and the organs of feeding from a study of adult insects,
and, though the development of the embryo throws some light on
the subject, embryological evidence is always subject to various
interpretations. Furthermore, the oldest known insects of the geo-
logical records are so much like modern insects that paleontology
gives little assistance in a study of the origin of insect structures.
Probably no other group of animals have so effectively covered their
evolutionary tracks as have the insects.

It is an easy thing for anyone to becloud his intentions, or to
create uncertainty as to his future course of action, but to keep his
past a secret is quite a different matter. It often happens that in-
formation on an obscure subject is more easily acquired in a round-
about way than by going direct to the object of investigation. For

443

444 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

example, if we should wish to know something about some par-
ticular person, we might find on an interview with him that he had
forgotten many things of his past, which his relatives, with better
memories in such matters, would readily divulge, if approached in
the right way. So it is in the study of insects—their relatives in
many cases will reveal things about them that we should never be
able to get from the insects themselves. One reason why our under-
standing of insects is not all that it might be is that entomologists
have been too diffident in the matter of making intimate acquain-
tances with arthropods other than insects. A formal letter of in.
troduction to them, therefore, may not be out of place here, especially
since the members of the arthropod classes will not be familiar to
all readers under their scientific names.

The Arthropoda are the “ jointed-legged ” animals, so named not
because other animals do not have jointed legs but because the legs
of arthropods are so conspicuously jointed. The familiar arthropods
are the crabs, lobsters, crayfish, spiders, millipedes, centipedes, and
insects. Associated with these forms, however, are many obscure
relatives known for the most part only to zoologists. The following
table will show briefly the way in which the Arthropoda may be
classified according to their structural characters.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARTHROPODA

I. Cuericerata—Arthropods in which the principal feeding
organs, or chelicerae, are appendages of the first postantennal somite,
and generally have the form of a pair of small pincers. The legs
often have a segment, the patella, interpolated between the femur
and the tibia.

Burypterida (extinet fossil forms).

Xiphosura (horseshoe crabs).

Pycnogonida (spiderlike, marine arthropods).

Arachnida (spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites).

II. Manprpunata.—Arthropods in which the principal feeding
organs, the mandibles, are appendages of the second postantennal
somite, and have typically a jawlike form. A patellar segment
is never present in the leg.

Crustacea (shrimps, crayfish, lobsters, crabs, sowbugs).

Symphyla (small, centipedelike relatives of the diplopods).

Pauropoda (relatives of the the diplopods having only a few legs).

Diplopoda (‘‘ thousand-legs,” or millipedes).

Chilopoda (centipedes).

Hexapoda (proturans and insects).

The insects comprise two principal groups, the Apterygota, or
primitive wingless insects, and the Pterygota, including all winged

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 445

forms, and wingless species that are undoubtedly descended from
winged ancestors. The Onychophora (Peripatus and related genera)
are sometimes classed with the Arthropoda, but these curious, many-
legged animals are more evidently related to the annelid worms.
The latter include the well-known earthworms and many worms that
live in the ocean, all comprised in the Annelida, which also we shall
have occasion to mention frequently in the following discussions.

I. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE HEAD AND FEEDING ORGANS

The head of an animal may be defined as the specialized anterior
part of the body. The organs of feeding are, primarily, the mouth
and whatever part of the alimentary canal serves for the ingestion
of food; and secondarily, external structures functionally asso-
ciated with the mouth. In insects, as we have seen, the head is a
consolidation of several anterior body segments; the mouth is an

Ficurme 1.—Head structures of annelid worms

A, earthworm. B, marine worm, Nereis virens. Mth, mouth; Pip, palpus; Ppd,
parapodium ; Pst, prostomium; T7'l, tentacles.

aperture on the ventral wall of the head; the ingestive part of the
alimentary canal is the stomodeum, the external organs of feeding
are appendages and lobes of the head associated with the mouth,
known collectively as the mouth parts.

Cephalization.—A. head is a prominent feature in the organization
of nearly all animals; but all animals do not have a head to the same
degree, which is to say, cephalization has not progressed equally
far or accomplished the same results in all cases. The term cephali-
zation (from Greek xepadn’, a head) means the structural specializa-
tion of the anterior end of the body for whatever purposes the
animal has found it advantageous to have its anterior end physio-
logically specialized. Anatomical cephalization assumes that in
the evolution of any group of animals there was a time when the
ancestors of the group did not have a head or that the primitive
head was nothing more than the pole of the body directed forward
during progression. The habit of moving always with the same

446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

end forward, therefore, first established the distinction between a
head end and a tail end in the animal, and was the precursor of
cephalization.

A good example of well-established physiological differentiation
between the two poles of the body, but with a minimum of anatomical
cephalization, is seen in the Annelida, or segmented worms (earth-
worms and their marine relatives). The “head” of these worms
consists only of a small apical lobe of the body, called the prostomium
(fig. 1, Pst), which is highly sensitive and gives rise from its
ectoderm to the first ganglion of the central nervous system, but
it does not bear feeding organs, and the mouth (Mth) is located
behind it. The annelids show also a good example of simple seg-
mentation of the body, since the entire length of the worm behind
the prostomium is divided by circular grooves into short body parts,
or somites, commonly termed “segments.” The mouth (Mth) lies
in the ventral wall of the first segment, or between this segment
and the base of the prostomium. The earthworms lack segmental
appendages, but some of the marine annelids have a series of mov-
able flaps along each side of the body, called parapodia (fig. 1 B,
Ppd).

The Arthropoda are segmented animals having much in the basic
plan of their organization that resembles that of the Annelida; but
in most respects they are far more highly evolved animals than are
the segmented worms, and their complex segmental appendages, as
we have seen, are characteristic features of their anatomy. In the
arthropods, cephalization has progressed so far that the head con-
sists not only of the prostomium but of a varying number of the
anterior segments of the body, all intimately combined in a composite
head structure. The head, moreover, retains most of the appendages
of its component segments, which are structurally modified for
various purposes, and its united nerve ganglia form specially
developed nerve centers.

The degree of cephalization, however, varies much even within the
Arthropoda. A relatively simple head occurs in many of the Crusta-
cea, in which the head consists of not more than three primitive body
segments combined with the prostomium (figs. 2 A, 16 A, Pre). A
head of this type of structure bears the eyes (/), two pairs of an-
tennal appendages (7Ant, 2Ant), the mouth on its under surface, and
a median prostomial lobe (Lm) before the mouth. The jaws (Md)
and other appendicular organs that function in connection with feed-
ing are carried on the body segments immediately following the
head. In some other crustaceans, however, the segments of the feed-
ing organs also are added to the head, and in such cases the entire
head complex possibly contains as many as six or seven segments.

THE INSECT HEAD—-SNODGRASS 447

The Diplopoda and Chilopoda have likewise a composite head struc-
ture in which, so far as known, six segments are united in a cranium-
like head capsule. The insects have a highly individualized head
(fig. 2 B), in the composition of which there appear to be six seg-
ments, or possibly seven. In the Chelicerata, on the other hand, most
of the members have no distinct head, but this does not mean that
they preserve the primitive annelid condition; on the contrary, in
most of the Chelicerata cephalization has progressed so far that not
only the segments of the true head region, but also the segments of
the leg region of the body as well are all united into a large structure
known as the cephalothorax.

The insect head.—A typical insect head (fig. 8 A) is a craniumlike
capsule supported on the body by the membranous neck (Cv). Its
anterior lateral and dorsal walls are strongly sclerotized, as is also

Fiagurp 2.,—Examples of different degrees of cephalization in adult arthropods

A, head of a phyllopod crustacean, Hubranchipus, in which the principal part of
the head is the protocephalon (Pre), bearing the first antennae (1Ant), second
antennae (2A4Ant), compound eyes (#), and labrum (Lm), followed by a distinct
mandibular segment (JV), and the united maxillary segments (V+VI). B,
head of an apterygote insect, Machilis, in which are combined the protocephalon,
and the mandibular and maxillary segments.

whatever there may be of a posterior wall surrounding the attach-
ment of the neck. The ventral wall (B) is so cramped between the
bases of the head appendages as to be scarcely recognized as the
floor of the head, and a large part of it is bulged out in the form of
a median lobe, which is known as the hypopharyna (Hphy).

The exposed, hard-walled part of the head is often called the
“epicranium,” but since different writers use this word with differ-
ent restrictions, the term craniwm will serve just as well, or better, in
a general sense to designate the skull-like part of the head in distinc-
tion to the appendicular parts and the ventral area between the bases
of the appendages. From the facial aspect of the head arise the
antennae (fig. 8, Ant), and on the sides are located the compound

448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

eyes (E). In many insects there are three simple eyes, distinguished
as ocelli (O), placed on the top of the head or on the upper part of
the face. From the lower part of the face there hangs before the
jaws a free transverse lobe, the labrum (Lm). Behind the labrum
are suspended from the lower lateral margins of the cranium three
pairs of feeding appendages, or gnathopods (Md, 1Mx, 2Mx), which
are legs transformed into organs for manipulating and chewing the
food. The cavity of the head communicates with that of the body
by an opening in the posterior wall of the cranium, usually of large
size (figs. 9 B, 18, Yor), commonly called the occipital foramen,
though by analogy it corresponds with the foramen magnum of a
vertebrate skull.

/
7
H hy <=. \
AY OPY Mx 2Mx(Lb)
FicurE 3.—Diagrams showing the general structure of an insect’s head and the
relations of the mouth parts to the cranium

A, lateral view. B, transverse section. a, dorsal articulation of basis of a
gnathal appendage with lower edge of cranium; Ant, antenna; at, anterior
tentorial pit; b, ventral end of basis; Bnd, basendites, or mesal lobes of
appendage basis; Cv, cervix, or neck; cvpl, cervical sclerites; D, dorsum ;
FE, compound eye; es, epistomal suture; Hphy, hypopharynx; LB, basis of the
appendage; Lb, labium; Lm, labrum; Md, mandible; 1Ma, first maxilla;
2Mq@, second maxilla; O, ocelli; occ, occipital condyle; ocs, occipital suture ;
P, P, pleural areas; pt, posterior tentorial pit; SgR, subgenal ridge; sgs,
subgenal suture; Tlpd, telopodite (palpus) of appendage; V, venter.

If we analyze a cross-section through the posterior part of the
head (fig. 3 B) in terms of the structure of a body segment cut trans-
versely, we arrive at the following results. The cranial wall above
the dorsal articulations of the appendages (a, a) is the dorsum (DP),
and its sclerotization represents the tergum of a body segment; the
ventral wall (V) between the lower ends of the appendage bases
(6, 6), including the hypopharynx (Hp/y), is the venter, or region
of a body segment that contains the sternum; the ventrolateral areas
(P, P), in which the appendages are broadly implanted correspond
with the so-called pleural areas of a body segment; and finally, the
appendages themselves represent a pair of legs, each with an enlarged

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 449

basis (LB) bearing a pair of mesal lobes (Bnd), and a reduced, seg-
mented distal shaft (Zlpd) corresponding with the part of a leg
beyond the coxa.

The neck, or cervia (fig. 3 A Cv), is a membranous cylinder unit-
ing the head with the first segment of the thorax (prothorax).
Usually there are two small neck plates, the lateral cervical sclerites
(cvpl), in each side of the neck serving to link the head with the
thorax and to control the movements of the head on the body. The
first sclerite of each pair articulates with an occipital condyle (occ)
on the posterior rim of the cranium; the second articulates with the
anterior margin of the first lateral plate (episternum) of the pro-
thorax. In some insects there is only one plate on each side of the
neck, and a few insects have no cervical sclerites, while, on the other
hand, there may be several accessory neck plates, especially in the
lateral and ventral walls of the neck.

The mouth parits—The external feeding organs of insects are
known collectively as the “ mouth parts.” They include the labrum
(fig. 8 A, Zm), the hypopharynx (Hphy), and the three pairs of
gnathopods. The first pair of gnathopods, or mandibles (Md), are
typically, in biting insects, strong biting and chewing jawlke or-
gans; the second pair, or first mawillae (1Mx), known as “the
maxillae” in insects, are usually more leglke than either of the
others; those of the third pair, or second mawillae (2M), are always
united with each other in insects to form the single organ called the
labium (Lb).

The mouth parts undergo innumerable modifications of form in
the various orders of insects by way of adaptation to different ways
of feeding or to feeding on different kinds of food. They always
preserve their basic structure and their fundamental relations to the
head, but the ways in which the primary structure and relationships
have become obscured create many perplexing problems for entomolo-
gists to solve. Insects that feed by biting off, masticating, and
swallowing pieces of their food material undoubtedly retain the
more primitive type of mouth parts, and a study of the head and the
organs of ingestion in species of this kind, known as the biting and
chewing insects, will serve as a foundation for the study of the more
highly specialized types, whose feeding habits are mostly sucking, or
piercing and sucking.

The mouth and the stomodewm.—The mouth of an insect is a
median aperture in the ventral wall of the head immediately behind
the base of the labrum (fig. 4, th). The space between the mouth
parts is often erroneously called the “ mouth cavity,” and sometimes
the “buccal cavity,” but morphologically it is entirely outside the
alimentary canal, and is only an external space partially inclosed by
the mouth parts. It should be termed the preoral cavity (PrC).

450 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The true buccal cavity of the insect is the anterior part of the
stomodeum lying immediately within the mouth (fig. 4, Bu(). It is
to be identified by the attachments of its dorsal dilator muscles
(dibuc) on the head wall, the origins of these muscles being always
on the lower part of the face known as the clypeus (Clp). Ordi-
narily the buccal cavity is small, but in some insects it is greatly
enlarged to form a sucking pump.

Woretumerellh oye sii esau

Fieurr 4.—Diagrammatic median vertical section of an insect’s head

Ao, aorta; APhy, anterior pharynx; Br, brain; BuC, buccal cavity ;
Olp, clypeus; cplr, compressor muscles of labrum; Ov, neck; dlaphy,
dilator muscles of anterior pharynx; dlbuc, dilators of buccal
cavity; dlpphy, dilators of posterior pharynx; Hphy, epipharynx;
Fr, frons; Fr@ng, frontal ganglion; Hphy, hypopharynx; Lm,
labrum; mlra, anterior labral muscle; mirp, posterior labral mus-
cle; Mt, mentum; Mth, mouth; Oe, oesophagus; Pmt, prementum ;
PPhy, posterior pharynx; PrC, preoral cavity; SID, salivary duct;
S10, opening of salivary duct; Smt, submentum; Soe@ng, sub-
oesophageal ganglion; T,, tergum of prothorax; Jnt, tentorium;
Vo, vertex.

Following the buccal cavity is the pharyna (fig. 4, APhy), a spec-
ialized part of the stomodeum usually ending between the nerve con-
nectives that unite the brain (Br) with the suboesophageal ganglion
(SoeGng). The dilator muscles of the pharynx arise on the head
wall above the region of the clypeus and on the tentorium (7'n¢).
In certain insects, particularly in Orthoptera and Coleoptera, the
pharynx extends beyond the nerve connectives, and its two parts,
separated by the nerve ring, are then distinguished as the anterior
pharynx (APhy) and the posterior pharynz (PPhy). In some suck-

THE INSECT HEAD—-SNODGRASS 451

ing insects the pharynx and not the buccal cavity forms the sucking
pump; in still others the pump is a bucco-pharyngeal structure.

Beyond the pharynx the stomodeum generally narrows to a tubular
oesophagus (Oe). Posteriorly, however, the oesophagus often widens
into a crop, and in some insects the crop occupies almost the entire
length of the oesophageal region. The stomodeum terminates in a
proventriculus, from which a valvular fold of its wall projects into
the stomach, or ventriculus.

II. EVOLUTION OF THE INSECT HEAD

When we examine an insect embryo in an early stage of develop-
ment (fig. 5 A, B) we see that its head consists of an enlargement
(Pre) of the anterior end of the elongate body, formed of lateral

-Pre

Pre
4

Figurp 5.—Series of insect embryos showing development of the procephalic lobes
(Pre) and head appendages

A, young embryo of a roach (from Riley, 1904). B, older embryo of same, show-
ing enlarged procephalic lobes, with mouth (Stom) and antennae (Ant)
forming on under surface (from Riley, 1904). C, young embryo of Lepisma,
showing third head segment (JIZ) united with protocephalon (from Heymons,
1897). D, embryo of roach in later stage, showing rudiments of postantennal
appendages (Pnt), and developing gnathal appendages (Md, 1Ma, 2M) on
region behind procephalic lobes (from Riley, 1904).

swellings of the germ band, which embryologists call the cephalic
lobes. On this embryonic head there are later formed the eyes,
the antennae (D, Ant), the mouth (Mth), and a median lobe before
the mouth, which is the rudiment of the labrum (Zm). In addition
to these parts, however, there has been observed in the embryo of a
walking-stick insect (Wiesmann, 1926), and also of a centipede
(Heymons, 1901), very small rudiments of a pair of preantennal
appendages; and there are commonly present in insect embryos rudi-
ments of a pair of postantennal appendages, though the latter are
sometimes situated not definitely on the region of the cephalic lobes,
but very close behind them (D, Pant).
102992—32——_30

452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The cephalic lobes of the insect embryo do not in themselves show
any sign of division into segments, but the presence of three pairs
of appendages on them, or closely associated with them, is taken
as evidence that the cephalic region includes three primitive segmen-
tal areas, and this assumption appears to be confirmed by the fact
that the head region of the embryo contains three successive pairs
of cavities (coelomic sacs) in the mesoderm. ‘The assumed pro-
cephalic segments, or primitive head somites, then, may be distin-
guished according to their appendages in insects as the preantennal,
the antennal, and the postantennal head segments; though, according
to the names given to the head appendages in Crustacea, they are
called the preantennular, antennular, and antennal segments, respec-
tively.

In addition to the segmental areas in the procephalic region of
the embryo, there is still the large, anterior apical area on which the
labral rudiment is situated. This area, which some embryologists
call the acron, would appear to be the equivalent of the prostomium
of an annelid worm (fig. 1, Pst), since it is preoral in position. The
acron has no true appendages, unless the labrum represents a pair
of united appendages, but, according to some investigators, the com-
pound eyes are developed upon it. Generally it has been supposed
that the compound eyes belong to the first true segment, and since
the eyes are borne on movable stalks in some Crustacea, it has often
been thought that the eye stalks are the appendages of the first
head segment. If it is true, however, that there are appendage
rudiments on the first segment having nothing to do with the com-
pound eyes, the appendage idea of the eye stalks must be discarded.
In the light of recent comparative studies on the internal structure
of the brain and optic lobes of annelids and arthropods (see Han-
stro6m, 1928), it now appears certain that the compound eyes, the
ocelli, and most of the forebrain of the arthropods must be assigned
to the prostomium. The preantennal appendage rudiments have at
most an evanescent embryonic existence; the antennal rudiments be-
come the antennae of the adult. insect, or the first antennae (anten-
nules) of Crustacea; the postantennal rudiments are also suppressed
in insects, though perhaps they persist in certain species as small
lobes of the mature head, but in Crustacea they become the large
second antennae of the adult (fig. 16 B, 2Ant).

If we attempt, now, to translate the facts of the embryonic develop-
ment of the head into a phylogenetic concept, we must believe that
the ancestors of the insects at some time in their history had a head
corresponding with the region of the cephalic lobes in the embryos
of modern insects. Since we have no record of earlier stages in
the evolution of the arthropod head, though presumably such stages

THE INSECT HEAD—-SNODGRASS 453

existed, we may call the phylogenetic equivalent of the embryonic
head the protocephalon. The protocephalon is preserved as the en-
tire adult head in many Crustacea, as in the phyllopods (fig. 2 A,
Pre) and in the shrimps, crabs, and lobsters (fig. 16 A, Pre). In
insects, chilopods, diplopods, and some crustaceans it forms only the
procephalic part of the definitive head.

Looking again at an insect embryo in a late protocephalic stage
of its head development (fig. 5 D), we observe that the body seg-
ments immediately following the cephalic lobes have each a pair
of well-developed appendage rudiments (A/d, 1Ma, 2Mx). These
appendages do not differ at first from the leg rudiments (Z), but
they do not keep up in growth with
the legs, and in some insects the region
of the legs, or thorax (fig. 6, Zh), is
soon differentiated from a region of
three segments (Gn) between the tho-
rax and the protocephalon (Prec). The
appendages of these segments (J/d,
1Mx, 2Mx) become the mandibles and
the two pairs of maxillae of the adult
insect. The part of the embryonic
body bearing them is termed, there-
fore, the gnathal region. Before the
insect embryo hatches, the gnathal
segments are united with the cephalic
lobes, and all the parts thus brought
together are consolidated in the defin-

as R : Figurp 6.—An insect embryo show-
itive head. The intersegmental lines, ing distinct differentiation of the
o s : : body into four parts, protocepha-
Ww
ith the possible exception of the line iba” (Bre). Banthat Meese t GRY.
between the two maxillary segments, thorax (Th), and abdomen (Ab).

Embryo of Ranatra fusca (from

are completely obliterated, while the Hussey, 1926)

surface of the mature head capsule

becomes secondarily subdivided by the lines of cuticular inflections
forming internal ridges which strengthen its walls. The gnathal
appendages constitute the principal external feeding organs of the
insect. Being crowded forward on the ventral side of the head,
the first pair, or mandibles, come to lie at the sides of the mouth,
and are transformed into jawlike organs having a biting and
chewing function.

There is no doubt, from the embryological evidence, that the insect
head has been formed from the union of two regions of the primi-
tive trunk, the first region, bearing the eyes, the labrum, the mouth,
and the antennae, being the procephalon, the second, bearing the
gnathopods and the hypopharynx, the gnathocephalon. The idea

454 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

that the procephalon is composed of the prostomium and three post-
oral somites, and that the gnathocephalon contains three somites is
currently accepted by most entomologists as approximately repre-
senting the facts, but there are several reasons for questioning if the
evidence of segmentation in each of the two parts of the head has
been rightly interpreted.

A comparative study of the brain in the Arthropoda and Annelida
leads to quite a different concept of the head segmentation than that
derived from a study of the appendages. According to Holmgren
(1916) and Hanstrém (1928), the three divisions of the arthropod
brain, ordinarily assumed to correspond with three segments in the
procephalic head region, represent only two primary nerve centers
instead of three. The first of the two primary parts, these writers
claim, represents the prostomial archicerebrum of the Annelida, and
is secondarily differentiated into the definitive forebrain and mid-
brain (protocerebrum and deutocerebrum) of the Arthropoda; the
second primary part (tritocerebrum) is formed of the first pair of
ventral, postoral ganglia, which have united with the primitive
preoral ganglion, but retain their ventral commissure.

As a corollary to this theory we should have to beiieve that the
cephalic lobes of the arthropod embryo (fig. 5, Prec) represent the
annelid prostomium, with the first (tritocerebral) segment generally
more or less united with it. The preantennal and antennal append-
ages, and the eye stalks of Crustacea then become organs equivalent
to the annelid prostomial tentacles (fig. 1 B, 77), while the second
antennae are the first true segmental appendages. There is much
in the structure of the brain and in the innervation of the head to
support this theory. On the other hand, the preantennal and anten-
nal rudiments of the embryo appear to be true ventral, postoral
appendages homologous with the second antennae and the mouth
appendages, and the presence of three pairs of coelomic sacs in the
procephalic region indicates that there are here three true segments
in addition to the prostomium.

Another problem in the theoretical morphology of the insect head
is one that concerns the number of somites that enter into the com-
position of the gnathal region of the definitive head capsule, and
the homologies of the mouth-part appendages of insects with those
of the Crustacea.

The insect mouth parts, as we have seen, include a median, tongue-
like lobe of the ventral wall of the head, lying between the mandibles
and the maxillae, known as the hypopharynx. In some insects the
hypopharynx has a pair of lateral lobes, and in such cases the median
part of the organ is distinguished as the lingua (fig. 7 A, Zin), and
the lateral lobes as the superlinguae (Slin). The superlinguae are

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 455

said to be developed in the embryos of more primitive insects sepa-
rate from the lingua and somewhat anterior to it. They are, there-
fore, regarded by some writers (Folsom, 1900, Denis, 1928, Hansen,
1930) as a pair of true segmental appendages in the gnathal region
of the head. In the apterygote family Machilidae the superlinguae
have a structure suggestive of their being reduced appendicular
organs (fig. 7 B), each having two terminal lobes (a, 6), and near its
base a small, palpuslike process (c).

A hypopharyngeal structure similar to that of the apterygote
insects occurs in some of the Crustacea (fig. 7 C), but the lateral
lobes of the crustacean hypopharynx are called paragnatha (Pgn),
and the median, lingual lobe is not always present (fig. 18 B).
Because of the similarity between the superlinguae and the para-
gnatha many students of arthropods, following Crampton (1921),

Figure 7.—Showing similarity in structure of the hypopharynx between certain
insects and some crustaceans

A, hypopharynx of an apterygote insect, Nesomachilis, composed of a median
lingua (Zin) and lateral superlinguae (Slin), posterior view. B, left super-
lingua of same, anterior view. C, Hypopharynx of an isopod crustacean,
formed of median lingua and lateral paragnatha (Pgn), posterior view.

have regarded the two organs as homologous structures. Others,
however, including Folsom (1900), Henriksen (1929), Hansen
(1930), and Tuxen (1931), believe that the superlinguae are the
first maxillae (maxillulae) of Crustacea, and that the paragnatha
are not appendicular organs. Folsom (1900) claimed to have
found in a collembolan insect that the superlinguae are innervated
from a special center in the suboesophageal ganglion of the head,
as does also Denis (1928), but the two investigators do not agree
as to the position of the nerve center. On the other hand, Philip-
tschenko (1912) denies the existence of a superlingual nerve center,
and Hoffman (1911) asserts that the superlinguae are mere second-
ary outgrowths of the head wall at the inner angles of the mandibles.
The idea that the paragnatha of the Crustacea are segmental append-
ages appears to have no champion, though Denis (1928) recognizes

456 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

it as a possibility. The paragnatha are said to be innervated by
branches of the mandibular nerves.

If the superlinguae are true appendages, the gnathal region of
the insect head must contain four segments instead of three, as it
does in some Crustacea. Then, if the paragnatha are not true
appendages, the insect superlinguae must represent the first maxillae
(maxillulae) of Crustacea, the maxillae the second maxillae (maxil-

lae), and the labial ap-
cs pee gs pendages the first pair of
as crustacean maxillipeds.

The dispute as to the
nature of the superlinguae,
the number of segments in
the gnathal region of the
insect head, and the ho-
mology between the mouth
parts of insects and crus-
taceans is now over 30
years of age and appears
to be destined to a long
life. The best advice that
can be offered to the stu-
Figurp 8.—Diagram of the principal sutures and dent is that there is much

areas of an insect’s cranium to be said on both sides,

Fe a acer ist i meee a’’, artiou:; which has already been
g ax : , articulation of labium; a

AntS, antennal socket; as, antennal suture; said, and that some con-

ASc, antennal sclerite; at, anterior tentorial clusive evidence would be
pit; c, anterior articulation of mandible; Clp, ; :
clypeus; cs, coronal suture; H, compound eye; more convincing. The

es, epistomal suture; Fr, frons; fs, frontal subject of the seomenta-
suture; hs, hypostomal suture; Hst, hypostoma; 2

Lm, labrum; Oc, occipital arch; occ, occipital tion of the arthropod

condyle; ocs, occipital suture; os, ocular suture; head and the homologies
OSc, ocular sclerite; Plst, pleurostoma; Poc,

postocciput; pos, postoccipital suture; Prtl, of the head appendages
parietal; ps, pleurostomal suture; pt, posterior between insects and crus-

tentorial pit; sgs, subgenal suture. >
taceans has been reviewed
recently by Denis (1928), Henriksen (1929), Imms (1931), and
Tuxen (1981).

Ill. STRUCTURE OF THE MATURE HEAD CAPSULE

Whatever may be the exact facts concerning the evolutionary
history of the cephalic region of insects, the component elements of
the mature cranial capsule are so closely consolidated in modern
insects that entomologists can find little evidence of the lines that
formerly demarked the constituent parts or segments. Only one
constant suture of the insect head appears to have an intersegmental

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 457

value. This suture is a groove lying very close to the posterior rim
of the cranium (fig. 8, pos), where it forms an inflection, or internal
ridge, around the dorsal and lateral aspects of the foramen magnum.
Since this suture hes behind the region of the head commonly called
the occiput (Oc), we may term it the postoccipital suture (pos).
The narrow marginal rim of the cranium (Poc) set off at the base
of the neck (fig. 12 A, Cv) by the postoccipital suture may be desig-
nated, therefore, the postocciput (Poc). The postocciput is well
developed in the cricket (fig. 9 B, Poc), and its internal inflection,
the postoccipital ridge (Pol), is particularly large.

One reason for regarding the postoccipital suture as an inter-
segmental groove is the fact that the dorsal head muscles from the
thorax are always attached on its internal ridge, just as the other
longitudinal muscles of the body are attached on intersegmental
ridges of the thoracic and abdominal skeletal plates. We might,
therefore, regard the postoccipital suture as the true separation
between the head and the prothorax, the neck being thus included
in the latter; but evidence derived from embryonic development
(Riley, 1904, Eastham, 1930) suggests, rather, that the postoccipital
suture is the line of separation between the two maxillary segments
of the head. The usual attachment of the maxillae on the head
(figs. 8, a’’, 12 A, Mw) before the lower ends of the suture, and that
of the labium, behind the suture (figs. 8, a’’’, 12 A, Zb) is in accord
with this theory. If the second view is correct, then the postocciput
of the cranium is a sclerotic remnant of the dorsal arch of the labial
segment. Dorsal muscles of the labium, in this case, should arise on
the postocciput, but since the labium ordinarily has no dorsal muscles,
a crucial point in the evidence is missing. The region of the neck
may be supposed to include a posterior membranous part of the
labial segment, and the anterior part of the first thoracic segment.

We have already observed that in the Crustacea the dorsal plates
of the two maxillary segments are always intimately fused, as in
Eubranchipus and Anaspides (figs. 2 A, 16, V + VJ), in which
respect the crustaceans appear to differ from the insects. In both
of these crustacean forms, however, the mandibular segment is
separated from the maxillary segment by a distinct suture (vy),
which suture is possibly represented in the thysanuran insect Machilis
(fig. 2 B) by the suture on the back part of the head (v7) that ends
ventrally between the bases of the mandibles and the first maxillae.

The sutures of the head.—Aside from the postoccipital suture,
the surface of the cranium is usually marked by other impressed
lines, collectively termed “sutures,” which are characteristic fea-
tures of the head, though they all appear to be of secondary forma-
tion. The so-called sutures of this type have no significance in

458 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

themselves—most of them are merely the lines of inflections form-
ing internal skeletal ridges which strengthen the cranial capsule,
but the sutures divide the head walls into areas that are convenient
units for descriptive purposes. The cranial sutures are not always
present, but those described in the following paragraphs recur so
frequently that they are regarded as typical features of the insect
head.

On the top of the cranium there is in many insects a median
coronal suture (figs. 8,9 A, 10, cs). Anteriorly the suture forks
into two frontal sutures, which, when complete, diverge downward
on the facial region (fig. 8, fs) between the bases of the antennae,
to the neighborhood of the anterior mandibular articulations (c).

oes Oc pes Poc PoR
K \ \ } / /

Ficurn 9.—Head of a ericket, Gryllus assimilis

A, anterior view; B, posterior view; a’, a’’, a’’’, primary articulations of mandible,
maxilla, and labium; at, anterior tentorial pit; c, secondary anterior articulation
of mandible; Od, cardo; Clp, clypeus; cs, coronal suture; H, compound eye; es,
epistomal suture; For, foramen magnum; Fr, frons; fs, frontal suture; hs, hypo-
stomal suture; Hst, hypostoma; Lm, labrum; LbPIp, labial palpus; Md, mandible;
Mt, mentum; Ma, maxilla; Ma#Plp, maxillary palpus; Oc, occiput; ocs, occipital
suture; Pge, postgena; Plst, pleurostoma; Pmt, prementum; Poc, postocciput ;
PoR, postoccipital ridge; pos, postoccipital suture; ps, pleurostomal suture; pt,
posterior tentorial pit; Smt, submentum; sos, subocular suture.

In the cricket (fig. 9 A) the coronal suture is but weakly marked,
and the frontal sutures end at the lateral ocelli. In the cockroach
also the frontal sutures’ are incomplete (fig. 10). Both the coronal
and the frontal sutures are often entirely suppressed, and in some
cases secondary sutures branch from the coronal suture and diverge
laterad of the antennal bases. During molting the cuticula of the
head usually splits along the coronal suture, and may extend down
one or both of the frontal sutures; but there are many exceptions
to this rule, as in caterpillars, where, in all but the last molt, the
head capsule breaks off at the neck.

Near the lower margins of the lateral walls of the cranium there
is usually on each side a horizontal subgenal suture (fig. 8, sgs),

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 459

which when fully developed extends forward from the posterior
tentorial pit (pt) in the lower end of the postoccipital suture to a
point just above the anterior articulation of the mandible (¢). The
part of the subgenal suture between the two mandibular articula-
tions (¢, a’) is sometimes distinguished as the pleurostomal suture
(ps), and the part behind the mandible as the hypostomal suture
(As). Very commonly the anterior ends of the subgenal sutures are
connected across the face by an epistomal suture (es). The subgenal
sutures are well developed in both the cricket and the cockroach
(figs. 9, 10), but in the roach the epistomal suture is absent.

The anterior tentorial pits of pterygote insects (fig. 8 at) are
always located somewhere in the pleurostomal or epistomal sutures,
but their position in the sutures is subject to much variation in dif-
ferent insects. In the cricket (fig. 9 A) each “ pit” (at) is a long
slit occupying almost the entire length of the pleurostomal suture
and extending a considerable distance into the epistomal suture.
More commonly the pits he entirely within the epistomal suture,
and are often carried upward on the face with the dorsal arching of
the suture common in many insects.

Extending across the back of the cranium there is in some insects
an occipital suture (fig. 8, ocs), which may reach downward on the
lateral head walls to the subgenal sutures. An occipital suture is
well developed in most Orthoptera, as in the cricket (fig. 9 B, ocs),
along the line where the dorsal and lateral walls of the cranium are
inflected into the posterior wall. The postoccipital suture (Pos)
has already been described. It is always present, but if the post-
occiput (Poc) is absent, the postoccipital suture becomes merely a
groove marking the line of attachment of the neck membrane to the
posterior rim of the head.

Still other sutures frequently occur in the head wall, but they are
less constant than those described above. Often an ocular suture
(fig. 8, os) surrounds the compound eye; and generally the antennal
socket is encircled by an antennal suture (as), the internal ridge of
which strengthens the rim of the socket. In the cricket a subocular
suture (fig. 9, A, sos) extends from the compound eye to the subgenal
suture, and in the roach a subantennal suture (fig. 10, sas) extends
from the antennal socket to the subgenal suture. These sutures are
sometimes called “ fronto-genal” sutures, but it is doubtful if the
part of the head wall immediately before them belongs to the area
of the true frons (fig. 8, ¥7).

The areas of the head—The head areas are merely the spaces be-
tween the head sutures. They are often called “ sclerites,” but they
must not be thought of as plates united along the sutures; they are

460

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

simply the result of the secondary division of the cranial wall by
the linear inflections, or “ sutures,” forming the internal ridges.
Above the line of the subgenal and epistomal sutures there are
five principal head areas (fig. 8). On the face between the frontal
sutures is the median, triangular frons (fr). The side walls of the
head between the frontal and occipital sutures, separated above by
the coronal suture, are the parictals (Prtl), inclosing the compound
eyes and the antennal sockets. The top of the two parietals is
known as the vertex, and the parts below the eyes are the genae.
On the back of the head, between the occipital and postoccipital su-
tures, is the occiput, or
occipital arch (Oc).
The dorsal part of the
arch is usually termed
the occiput in a more re-
stricted sense (fig. 9 B,
Oc), and the lateral
parts the postgenae
(Pge). In the grass-
hopper Jfelanoplus a
suture on each side sep-
arates the dorsal occipi-
tal area from the lateral
postgenal areas. The
posterior rim of the cra-
nium behind the post-
occipital suture is the
postocciput (fig.8,Poe).

Fieurp 10.—Facial view of the head of a roach,
Blatta orientalis

Aclp, anteclypeus; Ant, antenna; as, antennal suture;
at, anterior tentorial pit; cs, coronal suture; JH,
compound eye; Fr, frons; fs, frontal suture; Ge,

gena; LbPlp, labial palpus; Lm, labrum; Md, man-
dible; Mz, maxilla; MaPlp, maxillary palpus; Pelp,
postclypeus ; sas, substantennal suture; sgs, Subgenal
suture.

The postocciput bears
the occipital condyles
(occ) by which the an-

terior neck plates artic-
ulate with the head (fig. 12 A, cevpl). In most insects the postocciput
is a narrow sclerotic flange to which the neck membrane is attached
(fig. 9 B, Poc); but it is often much reduced, except for remnants
bearing the occipital condyles (fig. 13), and it is sometimes com-
pletely obliterated.

Below the line of the subgenal and epistomal sutures (fig. 8, sgs,
es) there is on each side of the head a narrow marginal band above
the bases of the mouth parts (fig. 12 A), and on the front of the
head a broad area, known as the clypeus (figs. 8, 12 A, Clp), which
supports the Zabrum (Im). Just as the parts of the subgenal su-
ture lying before and behind the posterior mandibular articulation
(fig. 8, a’) are distinguished for descriptive purposes as the pleuro-
stomal suture (ps) and the hypostomal suture (As), so the corre-

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 461

sponding parts of the subgenal strip may be distinguished as the
pleurostoma (Plst) and the hypostoma (Hst). In conformity with
this nomenclature, the upper part of the clypeus is sometimes called
the epistoma, though, when the clypeus is divided, its parts are more
commonly termed the anteclypeus and the postelypeus. The pleuro-
stoma is usually a small but distinct subgenal area above the mandible
(fig. 9 A, Plst) ; the hypostoma is typically a narrow marginal band
of the postgenal area of the cranium (figs. 9 B, 13, Hst), but in some
insects, as in lepidopterous larvae and in adult Hymenoptera and
Diptera, the hypostomata are greatly enlarged and extended medi-
ally on the ventral wall of the head, where, in the higher Hymenop-
tera and Diptera, they are united into a continuous hypostomal
bridge. The epistomal-pleurostomal-hypostomal marginal area of
the cranium constitutes the peristome.

The internal skeleton of the head—The ventral edges of the
cranium are usually braced by an internal skeletal structure known

CT

C

Figure 11.—Diagrams showing progressive modifications of the tentorium from
the generalized condition at A, through B, to specialized structure at C

At, anterior arm; at, anterior tentorial pit; CZ, corpotentorium; Cv, neck;
DT, dorsal arms; PT, posterior arms; pt, posterior tentorial pits; Poc, post-
Occiput ; TB, posterior tentorial bar.

as the tentortwm, which, in the absence of a substantial floor to the
cranium, gives attachment to the ventral muscles of the mouth
appendages. The tentorium, in its typical form (fig. 11 A), con-
sists of a transverse posterior tentorial bar (7B) extending through
the back part of the head between the posterior tentorial pits (pt, pt),
and of two longitudinal anterior tentorial arms (At, At), arising
at the anterior tentorial pits (at, at) and uniting posteriorly with
the transverse bar near its lateral extremities. The whole structure
is formed by four cuticular invaginations, the roots of which are
marked by the external pits. In many insects the posterior ends
of the anterior arms are approximated (fig. 11 B), and they may
be united in a broad median plate (C). By such modifications the
tentorium in appearance often departs radically from its more prim-
itive structure. ‘The central plate is called the corpotentorium
(C, C7), and the lateral parts of the transverse bar become the
posterior tentorial arms (B, C, PT, PT). Branches from the ante-

462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

rior arms commonly extend upward to the facial wall of the head
and attach to the latter in the neighborhood of the antennal bases.
These branches constitute the dorsal tentorial arms (B, DT).

The posterior tentorial bar always forms a bridge between the
lower ends of the postoccipital suture; it never departs from this
position. The roots of the anterior arms vary in position, though
in pterygote insects they always le somewhere in the pleurostomal
or epistomal sutures. In most of the apterygote insects, however,
the anterior tentorial arms arise from the ventral wall of the head
near the base of the hypopharynx. In their origin, therefore, the
anterior arms are sternal apophyses, on which the ventral muscles
of the mouth appendages take their origin. It can not be explained
exactly how the primitively ventral arms have acquired lateral or

Ficurm 12.—Diagrams showing hypognathous (A) and prognathous (B) types
of head structure

Ant, antenna; at, anterior tentorial pit; Clp, clypeus; Cv, neck; ecvpl, cervical
sclerites ; #, compound eye; es, epistomal suture; Gu, gula; Lb, labium; Lm,
labrum; Md, mandible; Mt, mentum; Ma, maxilla; occ, occipital condyle ;
Pmt, prementum; Poc, postocciput; pos, postoccipital suture; pt, posterior
tentorial pit; sgs, subgenal suture.

facial attachments on the walls of the cranium in pterygote insects,
but the altered position of their bases has come about probably
either by a lateral migration before the mandibles, or by the estab-
lishment of secondary connections with the cranial walls accompa-
nied by a loss of the primary sternal connections with the floor of
the head.

Modifications in the form of the head.—The relative size or the
shape of an insect’s head is no index of the brain power of the
insect; on the contrary it usually expresses the strength of the jaws,
or some other quality connected with feeding. In the biting and
chewing insects the parietal areas of the cranium are often enlarged
to accommodate the jaw muscles; in sucking insects the facial area
may be amplified to provide space for the muscles of the suction
pump.

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 463

With most of the more generalized insects the frontal aspect of
the head is directed forward, and the mouth appendages hang
downward from the subgenal margin. A head having this position
(fig. 12 A) is said to be of the hypognathous type. ‘The hypognath-
ous type of head undoubtedly preserves the primitive relation of
the cranium with the body, because the mouth appendages are modi-
fied legs, and in the pendent position they correspond with the legs,
and retain the embryonic position of the primitive appendages.

There are many insects, however, in which the frontal aspect of
the head is turned upward, and the mouth appendages are directed
forward. When the cranium has this relation to the body (fig. 12
B), the head is of the prognathous type. The prognathous position
of the head is unquestionably a secondary one, as is shown in the
structure of the cranium. The back of the head usually maintains
the primitive relation with the neck (B, Cv), but the forward
position of the jaws has involved a lengthening of the ventral head
wall and the basal region of the labium (Smt). In many prog-
nathous insects, particularly in Coleoptera, the posterior tentorial
pits (pt) have been drawn forward on the ventral head wall, and
the lower ends of the postoccipital suture (pos), which terminate
in the pits, have been correspondingly lengthened by a forward
extension on the ventral side of the cranium. The suture continued
anteriorly from each tentorial pit is the subgenal suture (sgs), which
ends at the anterior tentorial pit (at) in the usual manner.

The position or structure of all the mouth appendages is more or
less affected by the transformation from the hypognathous to a
prognathous condition. The hinge line of the mandible (fig. 12 B,
Md) comes to approach a vertical position. The maxillae are car-
ried forward on the ventral side of the head, since they retain the
normal articulation with the hypostomal margins of the head im-
mediately behind the mandibles. It is the labium that is most
affected by the change. Its basal region becomes greatly elongate
between the ventral extensions of the postoccipital suture and the
posterior, or hypostomal, parts of the subgenal sutures, and appears
to be a plate of the ventral wall of the head. The part of the labium
posterior to the tentorial pits (pt) is now called the gula (Gu).

A concrete example of the structure of a prognathous head in the
Coleoptera is well shown by the head of a blister beetle (fig. 13).
The postoccipital rim of the cranium is here almost obliterated,
except laterally where it bears the large occipital condyles (occ).
The ventral parts of the postoccipital sutures (pos), however, are
extended forward on the ventral side of the head to the posterior
tentorial pits (pt, pt), and they separate the enlarged gular area
of the labium (Gu) from the postgenal regions of the cranial wall.

464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The parts of the postgenal sutures lying at the sides of the gula are
distinguished as the gular sutures. The sutures extending forward
from the tentorial pits are the hypostomal sutures (As), which
diverge anteriorly to the lower margins of the compound eyes (EF),
and set off distinct hypostomal areas (st) behind the bases of the
maxillae (Mz).

IV. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF

ARTHROPOD APPENDAGES

For oce
~

When we come to study
the appendicular organs of
the head associated with
the mouth, by which insects
obtain their food, we must
bear in mind that these
structures are legs modified
for purposes of feeding.
The primitive feeding legs,
or gnathopods, were not
necessarily like the tho-
racic legs of insects, which
are specialized locomotory
organs, but it is probable
that they resembled the
locomotory appendages, or
pereiopods, of modern Ar-
Se ee

y other

Fieurp 13.—Ventral surface of the head of a specialized group of ap-
blister beetle, Hpicauta marginata, illustrating

the development of the gula (@u) in an elon- pendages.

gate prognathous head. Posterior tentorial pits An appendicular organ
(pt, pt) transposed forward on ventral side of

head; lower ends of postoccipital suture (pos) having a locomotor func-
crrepondinelyelongnts et sides of gulerreelon tion must be movable on
the body. Movement im-

plies the presence of muscles so attached on the base of the append-
age that the muscles and the appendage together will constitute a
definite mechanism capable of a specific kind of action. Since we do
not have any examples of really primitive arthropods, and could not
study the muscular system if we had a fossil specimen of one, we can
only construct an imaginary picture of the mechanism of a primitive
arthropod appendage from theoretical considerations. But, inas-
much as unknown truth in actuality must take some specific form, a
theory has at least a chance of being right. There can be little ques-
tion, now, that a primitive locomotory appendage turned forward

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 465

and rearward on a vertical or approximately vertical line of flection
between its base and the side or ventrolateral aspect of the body seg-
ment to which it was attached. It must have had, therefore, promotor
and remotor muscles; and, if so, it is reasonable to assume that these
muscles took their origins on the dorsum and on the venter of the
segment supporting the appendage. We have thus a very simple pic-
ture of the mechanism of a primitive limb (fig. 14, Appd), or loco-
motor appendage capable of turning forward and rearward on a
dorsoventral axis (@-b) with the body by dorsal promotor and re-
motor muscles (J, J), and ventral promotor and remotor muscles
(XK, Z). A concrete example of this type of limb musculature may
be found in the annelid worms provided with parapodia, and like-
wise in the worm-like peripatids (Onychophora). From this begin-

Ficurp 14.—Diagram of the musculature of a primitive segmental
appendage

a-b, axis of basal movement of appendage on body; Appd, append-
age; I, dorsal promotor muscle; J, dorsal remotor; K, ventral
promotor; Z, ventral remotor; Stn, sternum; 7, tergum.

ning we may follow in our imagination the evolutionary course of the
appendage into a more efficient organ of locomotion with a more
diversified structure and mechanism.

An appendage movable only at its base, such as the annelid para-
podia, can be at best only a crude organ of progression. The
arthropods owe their superiority over the worms to the greater
efficiency of their appendages.

The first step in the development of the appendages in the primi-
tive Arthropoda, it would seem, must have consisted of a functional
division of each organ into a basis (fig. 15 A, ZB), and a distal
shaft, or telopodite (Tlpd). The appendage as a whole having al-
ready a basal movement in a horizontal direction, the telopodite
must naturally have moved in a vertical plane on the basis, and it
then must have had levator and depressor muscles (O, @) arising in
the basis. The baso-telopodite joint (ct) can be identified apparently

466 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

in the limbs of all present-day arthropods by the uniformity of its
movement and musculature.

The next step in line with greater mechanical improvement in the
appendage produced a point of flexure near the middle of the telo-
podite (fig. 15 B, 7¢), enabling the distal part of the latter to be
more effectively brought down against the support. Hence, in all
fully developed arthropod limbs there is a “knee” joint (C, f¢) in
the telopodite with a principal downward movement of the part
beyond the knee.

Ficurn 15.—Diagrams of segmentation of arthropod legs

A, primary division into basis (LB) and telopodite (Tlpd) at coxo-trochan-
teral joint (ct). B, division of telopodite at knee joint (ft). C, com-
plete segmentation of an insect’s leg. D, a typical arachnid leg. a-b,
axis of limb basis on body; ct, coxo-trochanteral joint; Ox, coxa: Fm,
femur; ft, femoro-tibial joint; LB, limb basis; O, levator muscle of
telopodite; Pat, patella; pt, patello-tibial joint; Ptar, praetarsus; Q,
depressor muscle of telopodite; Sew, subcoxa; Jar, tarsus; Tb, tibia;
Tlpd, telopodite; 17’, first trochanter; 27'r, second trochanter.

We may thus conceive of the early arthropods as being centipede-
like creatures with a series of legs on each side of the body, the legs
all jointed in the same way, and moving by a uniform kind of motion.
The appendages all turned forward and rearward on the body; they
all turned upward along the line of the baso-telopodite joints; and
the distal parts uniformly bent downward at the knee joints. Subse-
quently the major parts of the telopodite of each limb have been still
further segmented (fig. 15 C, D), and in some arthropods the basis,
too, appears to have been subdivided (C, ZB).

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 467

If we define a limb segment (podite, or podomere) as any mova-
ble section of the appendage individually provided with muscles,
it is found that in the Crustacea, Myriapoda, and Hexapoda each
fully developed appendage has six segments in the telopodite. There
are two sets of names applied to the limb segments, one set generally
used by entomologists, the other by carcinologists, as follows: First
trochanter, or basipodite, (fig. 15 C, 17'r) ; second trochanter, prae-
femur, or ischiopodite (2Tr) ; femur, or meropodite (Fm) ; tibia, or
carpopodite (Tb) ; tarsus, or propodite (Tar) ; and practarsus, claw
segment (Krallenglied), or dactylopodite (Ptar). In the legs of
most insects the two trochanters are fused into a single segment, and
in some Hymenoptera a subsegment resembling a trochanter is con-
stricted from the base of the femur. The tarsus is often secondarily
broken up into two or more subsegments, but the tarsal subseg-
ments are never provided with muscles. A different type of seg-
mentation occurs in some of the appendages of most of the Cheli-
cerata (fig. 15 D), in which there are two segments intervening be-
tween the femur and the tarsus, the first called the patella (Pat),
the second the tibia (7d).

The limb basis becomes functionally the most important part
of a gnathal appendage. In the Arachnida and in most of the
Crustacea the basis is a single segment, known as the cowopodite
(fig. 15 D, ZB). In the legs of Chilopoda and Hexapoda, however,
the basis appears to include two segments ,the swhcowa and the coxa
(C, Scw, Cx), the first of which becomes an immovable support for
the rest of the limb incorporated into the body wall. The primitive
hinge between the subcoxa and the coxa was probably vertical, since
it replaces the primary articulation of the limb with the body; but
in the legs of many insects it has undergone various modifications.
The basis of the mouth appendages may also be subdivided into a
proximal and a distal part, the so-called cardo and stipes (fig. 19,
Cd, St), but it is questionable if these parts are equivalent to the
subcoxa and coxa of a leg.

Finally, we should observe that in most of the arthropod groups
some of the appendages may be provided with accessory lobes borne
by the limb segments, and often furnished with muscles arising in the
segments to which the lobes are attached. Lobes on the outer margin
of an appendage are distinguished as exites, lobes on the inner margin
as endites. In the Crustacea an exite of the first trochanter (ischi-
opodite) often forms a large branch of the appendage, known as the
exopodite. Endite lobes are particularly developed on the gnathal
appendages, where they have special functions in connection with
feeding.

102992—32——31

468 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Vv. MOUTH PARTS OF A CRUSTACEAN

It was recommended in the introductory section of this paper
that entomologists should not confine their investigations to insects,
since valuable information bearing on the structural evolution of
insects may often be obtained from members of related groups of
animals. Specialization is a necessity, but it should not be carried to
the extent it is practised in some institutions, where it is regarded as
a breach of professional etiquette for a specialist in one group to
acquire any first-hand information in the field of another specialist.

In sleuthing out information by the method of examining the rela-
tives of an animal under investigation it is always important to be
able to pick out a communicative subject. On the island of Tasmania
there live two little fresh-water crustaceans, named Anaspides and
Paranaspides. An interesting account of the life and habits of these
two isolated creatures is given by Miss S. M. Manton (1930).
Paranaspides inhabits the Great Lake of Tasmania situated at a
height of 3,700 feet. Anaspides lives on Mount Wellington in
streams and pools provided with running water, mostly above 1,400
feet and up to an altitude of 3,600 feet. The general appearance
and attitudes of these crustaceans, as shown in Miss Manton’s col-
ored plates, are very much lke those of such apterygote insects
as Machilis and its relatives; but we must be cautious of assuming
any close relationship between insects and crustaceans, though their
appearance and even their structure may be in some cases strikingly
parallel. However, Anaspides and Paranaspides are relatively prim-
itive members of the group of crustaceans (Malacostraca) that in-
cludes the shrimps, crayfish, and crabs, and a study of their mouth
parts will give a very plausible suggestion of how some of the
structural features of insect mouth parts may have been evolved from
ordinary leg structures. The feeding habits of Anaspides and its
relatives, described by Cannon and Manton (1929), are of course
different from those of any insect, but functional differences do not
often obscure fundamental structural similarities.

Through the interest of Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, of the United
States National Museum, the writer has been able to make a personal
study of specimens of Anaspides tasmaniae (fig. 16). As already
shown in the description of the head, the large mandibular segment
of Anaspides (B, IV) is followed by a composite segment (V+
VI+V/Z) bearing two pairs of maxillae (1 Ma, 2 Mz) and the first
pair of maxillipeds (1 Map). The maxillipeds are typical, leglike
appendages, each composed of seven segments (fig. 17 A). The
first segment is the basis (ZB), usually called the coxopodite (Capd)
by students of Crustacea. The next three segments are the first

469
At the

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS
end of the femur is a kneelike bend in the limb, followed by the

and second trochanters (177, 27r) and the femur (/’m).

‘wnijs01 ‘4 { UO;eqdedoad ‘org ‘ yJeUseied ‘wh ‘ podl[xvm 4sig “dayT { BI[Ixeml puooes “wyys : BI[IXBU JsIg ‘XPT

Satqipuvm ‘py ‘ wnaqel ‘w 7 + ai{podoxe ‘pda {a\tpodoxoo Jo saqol 3}1xe ‘aq +: ea punodwood ‘yy ! ajtpodoxoos ‘pd@p *: vuusayUe PUOIVS
quyg {vuusjuB ISIy “PUPT “JUaTISES S}r JO (JIZA) WN319} aq} puv poediy[Ixem puoosss ‘QO “(TJA+IA +A) SjusmSes pedr[ixvul Jsig
pue s1vy[Ixeu OM} 9q} JO ojRI[d [BS1a} o[sUIS oy} PUL ‘safo dq} WadM}joq (4) WniJsot 94} OJUT Po9oNpord (AJ) JUPeMISOS IvINqIpurUM
ay} jo aed [es10} aSavp ay} SutMoys ‘Apoqd 9g} JO Pus AOT10OjUB ‘q ‘saSepuedde s}t puv uoreydoooid oy} JO MOIA JoOT1ojuR “VW
(URedBISNAD Weder}Soovp[wul aAT}IWMMIId) apyupusy}? sapidspu~— QT FANASIA

The seg-

ments evidently correspond with the segments of an insect’s leg,
and are therefore here named according to the entomological leg

tibia (7b), the tarsus (Zar), and the praetarsus (Ptar).

470 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

nomenclature. The shaft of the limb beyond the basis constitutes
the telopodite.

The most important feature of the first maxilliped of Anaspides,
for our present purpose, is the presence of lobes borne on its basal
parts. Viewed from the side (fig. 17 A) it is seen that the basis
carries two long exite lobes (Ja, 2x), and that a third exite
(3£a) arises from the proximal end of the first trochanter. Turn-
ing the limb outward (B), it is to be observed, furthermore, that
the basis is provided also with two mesal lobes, or endites. The
first endite we may call the lacinia (Le), and the second the galea
(Ga), since these are familiar entomological names for similar
lobes of the maxillae. Considering, now, that there are two exite
lobes and two endite lobes on the maxilliped basis, it might be argued
that the apparent single basal segment of the appendage is really
formed by the union of two more primitive segments, each provided

1B x

FIGURE 17.—First maxilliped of Anaspides tasmaniae

A, outer view of left appendage. B, anterior view of base of same. Ez, exite
lobes ; Ga, galea; Le, lacinia. Other lettering as on Figure 15.

with an exite and an endite. If this is really the case, the basis, or
coxopodite, of the maxilliped is composed of a coxa and a subcoxa,
which have become united. There are certain other theoretical rea-
sons for believing that the basis is a compound segment, but the
visible facts do not in themselves give support to the idea, and the
writer prefers to take the facts at their face value. The basis, there-
fore, is here assumed to be a single segment bearing two exite lobes
and two endite lobes.

The two pairs of appendages that precede the maxillipeds are the
first and the second maxillae. The maxillae are small, flat append-
ages (fig. 18 C, D, E) having no suggestion of the leglike form of
the maxillipeds, but on close inspection it is to be seen that each
differs from a maxilliped simply in the reduction of the telopodite
(Tlpd) and in an elaboration of the basis. In other words, each
maxilla is mostly the basis of an appendage, bearing the two endite
lobes (Ze, Ga) but having no exites, and supporting a rudimentary

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 471

telopodite. The appendage is attached to the body in such a way
that its principal motion is in a transverse plane, and its strongest
muscles are the adductors (AZ). ,

The second maxilla (fig. 18 C) has in some respects a more simple
structure than the first. The dorsal part of its outer wall is bent
toward the articulation with the lateral wall of the body, evidently
to give more effectiveness to the groups of adductor muscles (AL)

Ficurn 18.—Mouth appendages of Anaspides tasmaniae

A, mandibles, posterior view. B, paragnatha, posterior view. C, second
maxilla, right, anterior view. D, first maxilla, right, anterior view.

,

E, second maxilla, right, posterior view. a’, basal articulation of
mandible; a’’, basal articulation of first maxilla; Bnd, basendite; Cd,
cardo; Ga, galea; J, dorsal promotor; J, dorsal remotor; k, ligamentous
membrane ; KL, ventral adductors; LB, limb basis; Le, lacinia ; 1Ma@Stn,
first maxillary sternum; 2MzStn, second maxillary sternum; O, levator
of telopodite; Pgn, paragnatha; Q, depressor of telopodite; Tlpd,
telopodite.

which arise on a sternal plate (24/aStn) in the ventral wall of the
body. The basis of this maxilla is thus mechanically differentiated
into a proximal part (Cd) and a distal part (St), which may be
termed cardo and stipes, respectively, since they suggest the parts
so-named in the maxilla of an insect. The maxillary endites of
Anaspides (Lc, Ga) appear to have no muscles; but the small, one-
segmented telopodite (Z7/pd) is provided with two muscles (O, @)
taking their origins in the stipital region (St) of the appendage.

472 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The first maxillae (fig. 18, D, E) have a structure similar to that
of the second maxillae, but they differ from the latter in a number
of details. The body of the appendage is divided by a distinct line
of articulation between the cardo (Cd) and the stipes (St), and is
provided with strong sternal adductor muscles (AZ) inserted on
both the cardo and the stipes. The dorsal musculature consists of
two groups of promotor fibers (J) and a group of remotor fibers (/).
The promotors are inserted on the base of the cardo and on the
distal end of the stipes; the remotors are inserted on the basal angle
of the lacinia (E, Zc). The endite lobes of the first maxilla are well
developed. The lacinia (Ze) is an independent plate attached by
membrane to the stipes; but the galea (@a) is a direct continuation
of the distal part of the stipes. The telopodite (Zlpd) is reduced
to a peglike rudiment arising from the stipes at the base of the
galeal lobe. As we shall see, there are many points of resemblance
between the first maxilla of Anaspides and the maxilla of an insect.

Lying immediately before the first maxillae and behind the man-
dibles is a pair of large, flat, transverse lobes, the paragnatha (fig.
18 B, Pgn). The paragnatha hang downward from the anterior
end of the median sternal plate of the first maxillary segment, which
has a median channel ending at the base of the narrow cleft between
the bases of the paragnathal lobes. The possible homology of the
crustacean paragnatha with the insect superlinguae has already been
discussed (p. 455), and we have observed that the paragnatha in
some Crustacea are intimately associated with a median sternal
lobe (fig. 7 C), the three forming a composite organ much resembling
the insect hypopharynx, and having the same situation between the
mandibles and the first maxillae.

The mandibles of Anaspides are strong jaws (fig. 18 A) suspended
from the mandibular segment, to which each is articulated by a
single dorsal point of articulation (a’) with the inner surface of the
overlapping lateral lobe of the tergum. Ventrally the free end of
each jaw is produced into a large lobe (Bnd), subdivided into a
distal, toothed incisor part, and a heavier, proximal molar part.
Laterad of the base of the terminal lobe arises a three-segmented
telopodite, or palpus (Tlpd). It is clear that each mandible of
Anaspides consists of the limb basis of an appendage (ZB), bearing
a large, immovable endite lobe (Bnd), and of a small, segmented
telopodite (Z77pd). The mandibular basis shows no subdivisions
corresponding with the cardo and stipes of a maxilla.

The musculature of the Anaspides mandibles is characteristic of
the musculature of all arthropod mandibles that are movable on
single points of articulation. Each jaw is provided with two dorsal
muscles (fig. 18 A) and strong ventral muscles. The dorsal muscles

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 473

consist of an anterior promotor muscle (/) and a posterior remoter
muscle (J), both arising on the tergum of the mandibular segment
and inserted on opposite edges of the mandible. These two muscles
evidently serve to rotate the jaw, or to swing it forward and back-
ward on its dorsal point of articulation (a). The ventral muscles
(AL) are adductors. They consist of two groups of fibers. The
fibers of a dorsal group form a flat muscle band extending continu-
ously across the median line from one mandible to the other. The
fibers of a much larger ventral group for each jaw arise medially on a
ventral lgamentous membrane (%) between the mandibles, and
diverge laterally to their insertions within the cavity of the mandible.
The supporting membrane apparently arises from the ventral wall of
the mandibular segment; it turns posteriorly over the adductor
muscles, where it gives attachment to several small muscles not con-
nected with the mandibles, and is suspended by a number of slender
ligaments arising dorsally on the mandibular tergum. The jaws have
no muscles antagonistic to the adductors; they probably relax by the
elasticity of their connections with the body.

VI. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF A GNATHAL APPENDAGE

The study of the mouth parts of Anaspides leaves little doubt that
the maxillae and the mandibles have been derived from appendages
resembling the first maxillipeds, which latter, in turn, are clearly
but shghtly modified legs. The essential difference between a gna-
thal appendage and a locomotory appendage is that, in the former,
the emphasis is placed on the basis, while in the latter it is given
to the telopodite.

In the maxillae, as clearly shown in Anaspides (fig. 18 C, D, E),
the basis of each appendage is differentiated for mechanical effi-
ciency into a proximal cardo, and a distal stipes. The distinction
between these two parts of the basis is a characteristic feature of the
maxillae of all insects (figs. 19, 21 C, Cd, St). The basis of the
mandible in Anaspides (fig. 18 A) is undivided, as it is also in all
other crustaceans and in the insects and the centipedes (Chilopoda).
In the millipedes (Diplopoda), however, the mandibular basis is
subdivided into two parts apparently corresponding with the cardo
and stipes of a maxilla. Hence, we might infer that the differentia-
tion of the basis into a proximal and a distal part was a primitive
character of all the gnathopods, though, on the other hand, if we
assume that the subdivision’of the basis is a secondary mechanical
adaptation, it is possible that the cardo and stipes have been inde-
pendently differentiated in the diplopod mandibles, and possibly
also in the maxillae of insects and crustaceans.

A474 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The presence of endite lobes on the basis is particularly charac-
teristic of the gnathal appendages. The presence of two such lobes,
lacinia and galea, is typical of the maxillae of crustaceans and insects
(fig. 19, Le, Ga). The maxillary lobes are usually movable. When
the lobes are provided with muscles, the muscles always (in insects,

\
\ Ptar-
\ee

Iligurn 19.—Diagram of the structure and musculature of
the first maxilla of an insect

a’’, basal articulation with cranium; Cd, eardo; ct, coxo-
trochanteral joint; fga, flexor of galea; flcc, cranial
flexor of lacinia; files, stipital flexor of lacinia; Fm,
femur; ft, femoro-tibial joint; Ga, galea; J, dorsal
promotors; J, dorsal remotor; KLt, tentorial adduc-
tors; LB, limb basis; Le, lacinia; O, levator of palpus;
Plp, palpus; Ptar, praetarsus; Q, depressor of palpus;
rtmea, anterior rotator of maxilla; St, stipes; Tar,
tarsus; Tb, tibia; Tlpd, telopodite, or palpus; Tnt,
tentorium; 77, trochanters.

at least) take their origin in the stipes (flcs, fga), except a muscle

often associated with the lacinia (flcé), which arises on the head

wall, and therefore apparently belongs to the dorsal promotor system
(7) of the basis.

The mandibles have each only a single terminal lobe. In the
Diplopoda the mandibular lobe is freely movable on the basis, and is

THE INSECT HEAD—-SNODGRASS 475

provided with muscles like those of a maxillary lacinia; in the chilo-
pods it is hkewise movable on the basis, but is not so definitely articu-
lated with the latter as in the diplopods; in the Crustacea and insects
the mandibular endite is always amalgamated with the basis, and the
jaw thus becomes a single, unified appendicular organ without mov-
able parts (fig. 20). The most simple representatives of the mandi-
bular appendages occur in the Chelicerata, in which the organs have
the form of shortened legs, called the pedipalps. The basal segment
of each pedipalp, however, may have a large endite lobe closely
associated with the mouth.

Considering the mouth parts of the Arthropoda generally, there
ean be little doubt that the mandibles as well as the maxillae have
been evolved from leglike appendages. It seems highly probable,
moreover, that in the Mandibulata the mandibles first attained a
structure similar to that of the insect maxillae, but, being the most
anterior in the series of gnathal appendages, they have since de-
parted more radically from the typical structure in their evolution
into biting and chewing jaws. The first maxillae of insects, in their
more generalized form, would appear to retain very closely the primi-
tive structure of a gnathal appendage. The crustacean maxillae are
generally more reduced and simplified than those of biting insects;
the maxillae of the chilopods evidently have never departed far from
the leg structure; the corresponding appendages of diplopods are so
highly specialized that it is impossible to judge what their primitive
structure may have been.

The structure and musculature typical of an insect maxilla is shown
diagrammatically in Figure 19. The similarity to the maxillae of
Anaspides (fig. 18 D, E) is striking. The reduction of the telopodite
in the maxillae of Anaspides is a mere detail—the maxillary palpi
are better developed in some other Crustacea. In the insect maxilla
the body of the appendage, or basis (fig. 19, LB), is membranously
attached to the lateroventral aspect of the head by its entire inner
margin, but it is definitely suspended from the lateral ventral margin
of the cranium by a single dorsal point of articulation (a’’) on the
base of the cardo. The cardo (Cd) and stipes (St) are separated by
a distinct suture, or line of flexibility, which ends in the basal mar-
gin of the appendage. The cardo and stipes thus do not have the
relation of segments to each other. The stipes bears distally a mov-
able lacinia (Ze), and a movable galea (Ga). The telopodite, or
palpus (Z7lpd), is generally well developed; the number of its
segments is variable, but the segmentation suggests that of a leg
(fig. 15 C).

The musculature of a maxilla includes extrinsic and intrinsic
muscles. The extrinsic muscles arise on the head wall, or on endo-

476 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

skeletal processes of the cranium, and are inserted on the cardo and
the stipes. The principal extrinsic muscles are the adductors (fig.
19, A7t), the fibers of which arise on the tentorium (7’nt), and are
inserted within the cardo and stipes. They are evidently the primi-
tive ventral promoters and remoters of a generalized limb (fig. 14,
K, L), the origins of which have been carried into the head with the
development and transposition of the anterior arms of the tentorium.
The other extrinsic muscles are usually but two in number. One
is an anterior rotator of the maxilla (fig. 19, rtmza) inserted on the
cardo anterior to the articulation (a’’) of the latter with the head;
the other (flec) is inserted at the base of the lacinia, and functions as
a cranial flexor of the lacinia. These two muscles appear to repre-
sent the dorsal promotor of a generalized limb (fig. 14,7). A repre-
sentative of the dorsal remotor is generally absent from the maxilla,
but it is indicated in the diagram (fig. 19, 7) because it is an impor-
tant muscle of the mandible, and is sometimes retained in the maxil-
lary musculature as a posterior rotator inserted on the cardo. The
intrinsic muscles of the maxilla include the muscles of the endite
lobes (lacinia and galea) and the muscles of the palpus, all of which
take their origins within the stipes. The muscles of the lobes (flcs,
fga) never include antagonistic pairs of muscles; the palpus muscles,
on the other hand, nearly always consist of a levator (QO) and a
depressor (@), corresponding with the muscles of the telopodite of
a leg inserted on the base of the first trochanter (fig. 15, A, B, O, Q).

It will be shown in the following section how the mandibles and
the second maxillae (labium) conform with, and depart from, the
more generalized structure of a typical first maxilla.

VII. THE BITING TYPE OF INSECT MOUTH PARTS

When the gnathal appendages gave up their primitive function as
organs of locomotion, and became transferred to the head in the
capacity of organs accessory to ingestion, the mandibles, being closest
to the mouth, were undoubtedly the first to undergo structural modi-
fications in adaptation to their new duties. At first they probably
served as mere prehensile or grasping appendages for obtaining the
food and for passing it into the mouth; but in the Crustacea and
Hexapoda they eventually evolved into strong biting and chewing
jaws, and lost all semblance to their former leglike structure, except
in the retention of the palpi in some of the crustaceans. The first
maxillae, on the other hand, did not so completely lose their primi-
tive form until, in some of the piercing and sucking insects, they
became highly specialized as parts of an apparatus for feeding on
liquid food. The second maxillae have had a more eventful history

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 477

in insects, because at an early evolutionary period they were united
with each other forming the median, posterior appendicular organ
of the head known as the labium, which has since undergone many
special modifications in its structure. The labrum and the hypo-
pharynx have been least affected in the evolution of the mouth parts,
but even these organs in some of the piercing insects have suffered
radical changes of form in compliance with special functions they
have assumed.

In the following descriptions there will be discussed only the
fundamental modifications of the primitive mouth parts that have
given these organs their typical structure in the so-called biting and
chewing insects.

The labrum.—The labrum in its typical form, as seen in the
cricket (figs. 9 A, Zm, 21 A), is a broad flat lobe movable by a
transverse line of flection on the lower edge of the clypeus. The
muscles of the labrum take their origin on the frons. In general-
ized insects there are two pairs of them, one pair (fig. 21 A) inserted
anteriorly, the other posteriorly, on the labral base, the posterior
pair being usually attached on small bars known as the tormae.
In the cricket the anterior labral muscles are united into a single
bundle of fibers. The posterior wall of the clypeus is often elevated
in the form of a median lobe, of various shapes in different insects,
called the epipharyna (fig. 4, Ephy).

The mandibles—The mandibles are the jaws of ordinary biting
insects. Their primary structure as jaws is seen in some of the
apterygote insects (fig. 2 B, Md), where they closely resemble the
mandibles of the more generalized crustaceans, such as the phyllo-
pods (fig. 2 A, Wd), and Anaspides (fig. 18 A). The insect mandi-
bles differ from the crustacean mandibles in that they always lack
palpi.

A generalized mandible of the apterygote insect type of structure
is an elongate organ, implanted by the broad inner surface of its
base on the membranous lateroventral wall of the head (fig. 2 B,
Md), to which it is hinged by a single dorsal point of articulation
(a’). The jaw is moved by dorsal and ventral muscles. The dorsal
muscles comprise two distinct fiber bundles arising on the dorsal
wall of the head, one inserted anteriorly on the base of the mandi-
ble (fig. 20 A, 7), the other (7) posteriorly. These muscles, there-
fore, are the primitive dorsal promotor and the dorsal remotor of
the appendage (fig. 14, 7, 7.), and probably serve to rotate the mandi-
ble on its long axis. The ventral muscles, which are functionally
adductors, usually comprise two groups of fibers (fig. 20 A, AZ)
arising within the hollow of the mandible. Those of one group
(ALz) are attached on a median ligament (z), and the fibers from

478 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

the opposite jaws thus pull against each other, the whole structure
forming a zygomatic mandibular adductor. Those of the other
group (AZt) arise on a pair of sternal processes (HA), which are
clearly the prototypes of the anterior tentorial arms of pterygote
insects. ‘The ventral muscles, considered as a single functional
group of fibers, evidently represent the ventral promotors and re-
motors of a generalized limb (fig. 14, A, Z), and hence are col-
lectively designated AZ, as in Figures 18, 19, and 20.

In the pterygote insects, and in some of the Apterygota, the man-
dibles have a quite different type of mechanism from that character-
istic of an apterygote mandible. Each jaw has a broad base, and,
instead of a single dorsal point of articulation, it has a long hinge

——y

f —————~

SS=—=
=,
—="

——S

———
S>S=
=

\

Wh
HH]
i
Hf

Ficgurm 20.—Diagrams of typical apterygote (A) and pterygote (B)
mandibles

a’, primary articulation with cranium; a’—c, secondary longitudinal axis of
movement on cranium; HA, hypopharyngeal apophyses (anterior tentorial
arms) ; Z, dorsal promotor; J, dorsal remotor; KLt, tentorial adductors ;
KLz2, zygomatic adductor; z, ligament of zygomatic muscle.

line on the lower lateral margin of the cranium (fig. 12 A, Mfd)
between strong anterior and posterior articulations with the latter
(fig. 8,¢,@’). The posterior articulation (fig.20B,a@’) represents the
primary dorsal articulation (A a’). The anterior articulation (B, ¢c)
is a secondary one; its acquisition limits the movement of the appen-
dage to that of a hinge with a longitudinal axis (c-a’). By this
change in the articulation of the mandible, the muscles assume al-
tered functions. The primitive dorsal promotor (A, 7) becomes
a dorsal adductor (B, 7), and the primitive remoter (A, /)
becomes a dorsal adductor (B, J). The ventral adductor muscles
are either greatly reduced or are entirely obliterated in the Ptery-
gota. Remnants of them (B, AZ) persist, however, in some of the
more generalized pterygote insects, as in the mandibles of the cricket
and some other Orthoptera, where the ventral adductors are repre-

THE INSECT HEAD—-SNODGRASS 479

sented by small groups of fibers (fig. 21 B, AZt) arising on the
tentorium, or at the base of the hypopharynx. Since the mandibles
usually do their hardest work with the inward movement, the dorsal

FIGURE 21.—Mouth parts and tentorium of a cricket, Gryllus assimilis

A, labrum and muscles, anterior view. B, right mandible and muscles, posterior
view. C, right maxilla, posterior view. D, hypopharynx and labium, lateral
view. EE, tentorium, dorsal view. F, labium, posterior view. a’, a’’, a’’’,
articulations of mandible, maxilla, and labium with cranium; admd, adductor of
mandible; abmd, abductor of mandible; Cd, cardo; C7, corpotentorium; DT,
dorsal arm of tentorium; Ga, galea; Gl, glossa; Hphy, hypopharynx; KLt, ten-
torial adductor of mandible; Le, lacinia; Lst, labiostipites; mlra, mirp, anterior
and posterior labral muscles; Mt, mentum; Pgl, paraglossa; Plf, palpifer; Plg,
palpiger; Plp, palpus; Pmt, prementum; PT, posterior arm of tentorium; Smt,
submentum ; St, stipes.

adductor muscles are commonly very large and powerful (fig. 21 B,
admd), while the abductors (abmd) are small and relatively weak.
Both dorsal muscles are generally inserted on apodemal stalks or
plates, which are not attached directly to the mandibles, but arise
from the articular membrane close to the edge of the mandible.

480 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The maxillae—tThe first pair of maxillary appendages of insects
are usually called “ the maxillae,” because the second pair are united
in the labium. The maxillae in their typical form are the most
leglike of the gnathal appendages. The usual structure of a maxilla
of biting insects is well illustrated in the maxilla of the cricket,
shown in Figure 21 C, which presents the posterior surface of a
right appendage. The anterior wall is less complete, because the
maxilla is broadly attached by most of the anterior surface of its
basal part to the wall of the head. The basis of the appendage is
divided into the proximal cardo (@d) and the distal stipes (S?).
The stipes bears laterally the long palpus (P/p), and distally the
two endite lobes, lacinia (Zc) and galea (Ga). <A lobe of the stipes
supporting the galea is sometimes distinguished as the subgalea
(sga), and a more or less differentiated lateral lobe bearing the
palpus is known as the palpifer (Pif). The cardo is usually divided
externally by the line of a strong internal ridge, and the area of
the stipes may also be marked by external grooves, or “sutures,”
that form internal strengthening ridges.

The maxilla is always articulated to the hypostomal rim of the
cranium by a single point of articulation (fig. 8, a’) borne on the
base of the cardo (fig. 21 C, a’’). It thus preserves the primitive
single ‘articulation with the head, which corresponds with the primi-
tive mandibular articulation (figs. 2 B, 20 A, @’), or with the pos-
terior articulation of the mandible in pterygote insects (fig. 20
Bien):

The musculature of the maxilla is so nearly identical with that
described in the last section for a generalized gnathal appendage
(fig. 19) that it need not be described in detail here. Usually there
are only two maxillary muscles arising on the dorsal part of the
cranium, both of which (/) apparently belong to the dorsal pro-
motor system of a primitive appendage (fig. 14, 7), though they
are widely separated on the anterior margin of the maxillary base.
One is inserted on the cardo (fig. 19 r¢maa), the other at the basal
angle of the lacinia (flcec); the latter functions, therefore, as a
cranial flexor of the lacinia. The dorsal remotor (J) is usually
lacking, but is sometimes present as a posterior muscle of the cardo.
The ventral muscles (AZ¢) are powerful adductors. They take
their origin on the tentorium, and are inserted within both the
cardo and the stipes. The intrinsic muscles of the maxilla all arise
within the stipes. They comprise a levator and depressor of the
palpus (O, @), a flexor of the galea (fga), and a stipital flexor of
the lacinia (les).

The disposition of the maxillary muscles leaves little doubt that
the cardo and stipes are but secondary subdivisions of the primitive

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 481

basis of the appendage, and that they do not represent true limb
segments, as some writers have supposed. The same conclusion, as
we have seen, is even more strongly suggested by a study of the
maxillae of the crustacean Anaspides (fig. 18, C, D, E) in which the
eardo and stipes are clearly but differentiated parts of the basis,
which in the maxilliped (fig. 17, 2B) is an undivided segment. The
origin of the palpus muscles (fig. 19, O, @) in the mesal part of
the stipes and the origin of the galea muscle (fga) in the base of
the stipes also leave no support for the idea, held by some writers,
that the palpifer (fig. 21, C, Pf) is a segment of the appendage
bearing the palpus and the galea. The two small basal segments
of the palpus (fig. 19, 77), therefore, belong to the trochanteral
region of the telopodite, and the basal articulation of the proximal

a al”

Ficgurpn 22.—Diagrams comparing the labium with a pair of united maxillae

A, a primitive 2-part labium and its internal muscles. B, a pair of second maxillae
as theoretically united with each other and with a part of the labial sternum.
Blb, basilabium; H/b, eulabium; lbs, labial suture; stn, labial sternum. Other
lettering as on Figures 19 and 23.

one (ct) corresponds with the coxo-trochanteral joint of a leg (fig.
15 C, ct), or with the baso-telopodite joint of a primitive limb
(Aer).

The labtwum.—The labium is an insect specialty. Though a pair
of head appendages may be united in some of the other groups of
Arthropoda, the union has not produced an organ equal to that
evolved from the second maxillae by the insects. While it is well
known that the insect labium contains the second maxillary append-
ages, it is not certain that it does not include also a part of the ven-
tral wall of the labial segment of the head. There are, in fact,
several reasons for believing that the proximal part of the labrum
is a composite structure, consisting of the maxillary cardines and
a median part of the labial sternum; but a discussion of these reasons
can be better presented after describing the general structure of the
labium.

482 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The labium in its simplest generalized form (fig. 22 A) is divided
by a transverse suture, or line of flexibility (/bs), into two principal
parts, one proximal, the other distal. ‘The distal part has been
termed the ewlabium (1b) by Crampton (1928). In a functional
sense, at least, it is the “true” labium, i. e., the under lip of the
insect, though it is perhaps not the entire second maxillae as Cramp-
ton implied. The proximal, basal part of the labium may be called
the basilabium (Bib). The basilabium is generally not a free part
of the labium, since it is usually implanted by most of its extent on
the posterior ventral wall of the head, anterior to the neck. Its
lateral basal angles (a’’’), however, are attached to the ventral
margin of the cranium (fig. 83 A) just behind the posterior tentorial
pits (pt) in line with the articulations of the maxillae (J/x) and the
mandibles (Md). The body of the eulabium (fig. 22 A, #7b) hangs
as a free flap from the distal edge of the basilabium. It bears all
the appendicular parts of the labium, including a pair of lateral
palpi (P/p), and four terminal lobes (G/, Pgl). The eulabium is
sometimes deeply divided between the median pair of terminal lobes
(fig. 23), but the cleft never extends into the basilabium.

The identities of the parts of the labium, as compared with the
parts of a pair of united maxillae, can be established only by a study
of the labial musculature. The principal internal muscles of the
labium (fig. 22 A) consist of levators and depressors of the palpi
(O, @), flexors of the terminal lobes (fgl, fpgl), and retractors of
the eulabium (7st). ‘The muscles of the palpi and the terminal lobes
take their origins within the body of the eulabium; the retractors
of the eulabium (rst) arise medially in the basilabium, and are
inserted on thé proximal margin of the eulabium.

A comparison of the labial musculature (fig. 22 A) with that
of a maxilla (B) shows at once that the body of the eulabium is
the stipital region (St) of the united second maxillae. The body
of the eulabium, therefore, is the pars stipitalis labii, and is correctly
named stipites labialis, or labiostipites. Lateral lobes of the labial
stipites supporting the palpi (A, Plg) are equivalent to the palpifers
of the maxillae (B, P//), but are sometimes distinguished as pal-
pigers (Plg). The terminal lobes of the labium are called glossae
(A, G1) and paraglossae (Pgl); they clearly correspond with the
laciniae and galeae of a pair of maxillae (B, Ze, Ga). Sometimes the
two labial lobes on each side are united, sometimes the two median
lobes are fused, or again all four may be unified in a single flap.
The terminal lobes collectively constitute the ligula (fig. 24, Lig).

The morphology of the basilabium is much more difficult to deter-
mine than that of the eulabium. Some writers believe that the sus-
pensory plate of the eulabium is the sternum of the labial segment.

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 483

The attachment of the basilabium on the lower margin of the cranium
by its basal angles in line with the cranial articulations of the
maxillae and mandibles (fig. 3 A), however, would suggest that the
basilabium contains the cardines of the second maxillae (fig. 22 B.
Cd). On the other hand, the origin of retractor muscles of the
lJabiostipites on the basilabium (figs. 22 A, 24, 7st) makes it seem
unlikely that the labial base is formed of the cardines alone, since
there are never cardino-stipital muscles in the first maxillae; but if
the basilabium contains a median sternal element (fig. 22 B, stn),
these muscles might be sterno-stipital muscles without objection.
In the Dermaptera (fig. 25 A) a pair of large ventral muscles of the
hypopharynx (mAv) also take their origin on the basilabium.
Furthermore, the opening of the salivary duct, which originates in
the embryo on the labial sternum between the bases of the second
maxillae, is situated in generalized adult insects anterior to the base
of the eulabium (fig. 4, S70), and this fact suggests that the primi-
tive labial sternum has been constricted between the approximated
bases of the appendages while the salivary opening was crowded
forward between the latter. Finally, the basal part of the labium
is never divided medially, though the stipital region may be split
almost completely into its lateral components.

A concrete example indicating the composite nature of the basi-
labium is seen in the labium of Machilis (fig. 23 A): A pair of
faintly marked but distinct lines converge distally in the basilabium,
subdividing the latter according to the very pattern we might sup-
pose would result from the fusion of the cardines with a posterior
median part of the labial sternum (fig. 22 B).

According to Holmgren (1909), the entire basal plate of the
labium in termites, which is greatly elongate in the soldier caste
(fig. 24 B, Bmt), is formed as a sclerotization of the neck membrane
behind the bases of the second maxillary appendages, which latter
move forward during the course of development. As to the fate of
the cardines, Holmgren is uncertain, though he suggests that they
perhaps are lost in the membrane between the eulabium and the basal
plate. In the termite soldier the posterior tentorial pits are stretched
out almost to the distal end of the basilabium, so that here the car-
dinal parts of the labium must in any case be very small, but this
condition does not pertain to the usual structure characteristic of
most insects.

While there can be little doubt that the labium is fundamentally
a two-part structure, the sclerotization of its exposed posterior wall
is seldom so simple and has been the cause of much confusion in
labial nomenclature. The region of the basilabium may be entirely
membranous or wholly sclerotized; its sclerotization may take the

102992—32——_32

484 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

form of one, two, or even three distinct plates. In the stipital
region there may be two separate lateral sclerites, though generally
most of the stipital area is covered by a single plate.

When the basilabium contains two distinct plates (fig. 23 D), the
distal one is generally termed the mentum (Mt), and the proximal

/ \
B Gl Ps}
Ficukp 23.—Various types of labial structure

A, Machilis, showing faint subdivision of basilabium (Blb) into lateral and
median areas (Cd, stn). B, soldier of Jermopsis, with a single large
plate, the postmentum (Bmt), in the basilabial region. C, Blatta orien-
talis, with reduced mental sclerites (Mt). D, Scudderia, a typical 3-part
labium. Lettering as on Figure 24.

one the submentum (Smt). The stipital sclerotization is then called
the prementum (Pmt). Some entomologists, however, especially
those studying insects having a single basal plate, give the name
“mentum ” to the stipital plate, and term the basal plate the “ sub-
mentum.” ‘This system, as Kadié (1902) and Walker (1931, 1931a)
have shown, is the most logical nomenclature that can be applied
to the labium, since it is based on the primitive structure retained

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 485

in such insects as Apterygota (fig. 28 A), Isoptera (B), Odonata,
Diptera, the larvae of Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, and others.
When there are two sclerites in the basal region Walker would dis-
tinguish the proximal one as the primary submental plate, and the
distal one (“ Vorderplatte ” of Kadi¢) as the secondary submental
plate.

While agreeing in spirit, and in former usage (1928), with the
plan of labial nomenclature advocated by Kadié and by Walker,
the writer here follows the more common practise of giving the
names “mentum” and “submentum ” to the two principal plates
that may be formed in the region of the basilabium. This usage,
however, leaves us without an appropriate name for a primitive
single sclerite occupying the basilabium, or for one that can not be
certainly identified with either the submentum or the mentum. [or
a sclerite of this nature the term postmentum (fig. 28, B, Bmt) is
suggested. It would appear in some cases that the mentum and
submentum are differentiations from a primitive postmentum, and
in others that the mentum is formed from the membranous anterior
part of the basilabium. In any case, however, the mentum belongs
to the sub-stipital region of the labium, since it always les proximal
to the insertions of the retractor muscles of the stipites (fig. 24, 7st)
inserted on the base of the prementum. ‘The mentum in some insects
evidently has suffered a secondary reduction, as in the Blattidae
(fig. 23 C, Mt.) ; in the Acrididae it is practically obliterated.

The complete musculature of the labium (fig. 24) comprises four
groups of muscles. Those of the first group include two pairs of
muscles arising typically on the tentorium, both of which are in-
serted on the prementum, one pair proximally (/ad/b), the other
distally (2ad/b). These muscles correspond with the tentorial ad-
ductors of the first maxillae (fig 19, AZ¢). The second set of labial
muscles includes the muscles of the palpi (fig. 24, 7plp, dplp), and of
the terminal lobes (fgl, fpgl), all of which arise within the pre-
mentum, and have their exact counterparts in the maxillae (fig. 19,
O. Q, fles, fga). The third group of labial muscles includes two
pairs (fig. 24, /s, 2s) arising within the prementum and inserted on
or near the orifice of the salivary duct. These muscles are not rep-
resented in the maxillae. The labial muscles of the fourth set are
the stipital retractors (fig. 24, rst) arising medially on the basila-
bium (always proximal to the mentum when the latter is present),
and inserted on the extreme base of the prementum. ‘These are im-
portant muscles of the labium, but they have no representatives in
the maxillae.

Lastly, we must observe what happens to the labium in insects
having a prognathous type of head (fig. 12 B), and particularly in

486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

insects of this kind in which the posterior part of the head is
elongate.

A simple elongation of the posterior part of the head, unaccom-
panied by structural changes in the cranium, has no other effect on
the labium than a mere lengthening of the basilabial or submental
region of the appendage. In many prognathous insects, however,

aw ws

a a

Smt |
a |

au

Fiagurn 24.—Musculature of the labium of a cricket, Gryllus
assimilis, anterior view
, articulation of labium with cranium: Jadib, proximal
adductor of labium; 2adlb, distal adductor of labium; BIb,
basilabium ; dplp, depressor of palpus; fgl, flexor of glossa ;
fpgl, flexor of paraglossa; Gl, glossa; lbs, labial suture;
Lig, ligula; Iplp, levator of palpus; Lst, labiostipites; Mt,
mentum; Pgl, paraglossa; Plp, palpus; Pmt, prementum ;
1s, 28, muscles attached on base of hypopharynx near open-
ing of salivary duct; Smt, submentum.

ror

a

the elongation of the head has been accompanied by a forward
migration of the posterior tentorial pits on the ventral head wall
(figs. 12 B, 18, pt), with a consequent lengthening of the lower
ends of the postoccipital suture (pos) behind the pits. In some
cases, as in the soldiers of termites, the tentorial pits themselves
become long, linear slits. In either case, the submental region of
the labium is enlarged by an increment to its posterior part, found
as an extension of its base, or gular area, lying proximal to the

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 487

tentorial pits. There is thus added to the submental region of the
basilabium (fig. 18, Smt) a proximal area of varying extent known
as the gula (Gu). Though the gula is thus but an extension of
the base of the primary submentum, the two areas of the basilabium
separated by an imaginary or real line between the anterior ends
of the tentorial pits are now distinguished as “submentum” and
“oula” (Smt, Gu). It is clear that the evolutionary capacity of
the labium can not be made to conform with the niceties of nomen-
clatural consistency. In the Dermaptera (fig. 25 A) a gular plate
(Gu) is distinctly separated from the large basilabial plate (Bmt),
but there is no mentum present.

Figure 25.—Examples of unusual labial structures

A, labium of an earwig, Anisolabis maritima, with distinct gular sclerite
(Gu) separated from a large basimental plate (Bmt) on which arises
the stipital retractors (7st), and ventral muscles of hypopharynx (mhv).
B, labium of a May beetle, Phyllophaga, in which the submentum (Smt)
is inflected between the mentum (Mt) and the gula (Gu).

The necessity of studying the muscles for identifying the parts
of the labium can not be overemphasized. ‘The stipital region
(prementum), as we have seen, is the part of the labium (fig. 24, Zs¢)
that contains the muscles of the palpi and terminal lobes, and on
which are inserted the cranial muscles of the labium. The retractors
of the stipites (vst), when present, are always inserted on the base
of the prementum, never on the mentum. A good example of the
value of the muscles in determining the homologies of the labial
parts is furnished by the adult May beetle (Phyllophaga), in which
the labium (fig. 25 B) at first sight appears to have no submentum,
though a distinct gula (Gw) and mentum (Mt) are present. An
examination of the inner surface of the labium, however, reveals
the submentum in the form of a deep inflection (Smt) between the

488 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

mentum and the gula, with the retractor muscles (7st) of the
prementum (Pmt) taking their origins upon it.

REFERENCES

Cannon, H. G., and Manton, S. M.

1929. On the feeding mechanism of the syncarid Crustacea. Trans. Roy.

Soc. Edinburgh, vol. 56, pp. 175-189, 8 figs.
CRAMPTON, G. C.

1921. The origin and homologies of the so-called “ superlinguae” or “ para-
glossae”’ (paragnaths) of insects and related arthropods. Psyche, vol.
28, pp. 84-92, pl. 5.

1928. The eulabium, mentum, submentum, and gular region of insects
Journ. Ent. Zool., vol. 20, pp. 1-15, 3*pls.

DENIs, J. R.

1928. Etudes sur l’anatomie de la téte de quelques Collemboles. Arch. Zool,

Exp. Gén., vol. 68, pp. 1-291, 66 figs.
EastHAM, L. B.S.

1930. The embryology of Pieris rapae—Organogeny. Phil. Trans. Roy.

Soe. London, ser. B, vol. 219, pp. 1-50, pls. 1-9.
Foitsom, J, W.

1900. The development of the mouth-parts of Anurida maritima. Bull.

Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 86, pp. 87-157, pls. 1-8.
HANSEN, H. J.

1930. Studies on Arthropoda. III. On the comparative morphology of the

appendages in Arthropoda, 376 pp., 16 pls. Copenhagen.
HANSTROM, B.

1928. Vergleichende Anatomie des Nervensystems der wirbellosen Tiere,

628 pp., 650 figs. Berlin.
HENRIKSEN, K, L.

1929. Contribution to the interpretation of the cephalic segments of

Arthropoda. IV. Internat. Cong. Ent., Ithaca, vol. 2, pp. 489-5938.
Heymons, R.

1897. Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen an Lepisma saccharina L.
Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., vol. 62, pp. 581-6381, pls. 29, 30.

1901. Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Scolopender, Zoologica, Orig-Abhandl.
Gesamt. Zool., vol. 33, 244 pp., 8 pls.

HorrMan, R. W.

1911. Zur Kenntnis der Entwicklungsgeschichte der Collembolen. Zool. Anz.,

vol. 37, pp. 353-377, 7 figs.
HouMGREN, N.

1909. Termitenstudien 1. Anatomische Untersuchungen. Kungl. Sven.
Vetenskapsakad. Handl., vol. 44, 215 pp., 3 pls.

1916. Zur vergleichenden Anatomie des Gehirns von Polychaeten, Ony-
chophoren, Xiphosuren, Arachniden, Crustaceen, Myriopoden, und Insek-
ten. Kungl. Sven. Vetenskapsakad. Handbl., vol. 56, No. 1, 303 pp., 12 pls.

Hussry, Priscrua B.

1926. Studies on the pleuropodia of Belostoma flumineum Say and Ranatra
fusca Palisot de Beauvais. Entomologica Americana, vol. 7, pp. 1-59,
pls. 1-11.

ImMms, A. D.

1931. Recent advances in entomology, 874 pp., 84 figs. Philadelphia.

THE INSECT HEAD—SNODGRASS 489

KaApié, O.

1902. Studien iiber das Labium der Coleopteren. Jen. Zeitschr. Naturw.,

vol. 36, pp. 207-228, pl. 12.
MAnTon, S. M.

1930. Notes on the habits and feeding mechanism of Anaspides and Para-
naspides (Crustacea, Synearida). Proe. Zool. Soc. London, vol. for 1930,
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PHILIPTSCHENKO, J.

1912. Beitrige zur Kenntnis der Apterygoten. III. Die Embryonalent-
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Riney, W. A.

1904. The embryological development of the skeleton of the head of Blatta.

Amer. Nat., vol. 38, pp. 777-810, 12 figs.
Snoperass, R. BE.

1928. Morphology and evolution of the insect head and its appendages.

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UKE Sarkis

19381. Monographie der Proturen. I. Morphologie, nebst Bemerkungen
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671-720, 20 figs.

Wa ker, E. M.

1931. On the elypeus and labium of primitive insects. Canad. Ent., vol.
63, pp. 75-81, pl. 6.

193la. On the anatomy of Grylloblatta campodeiformis. Walker. 1. Exo-
skeleton and musculature of the head. Ann. Hnt. Soc. Amer., vol. 24,
pp. 519-536, 4 pls.

WIESMANN, R.

1926. Zur Kenntnis der Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte der Stab-
heuschrecke Carausius morosus Br. III. Entwicklung und Organoge-
nese der Célomblasen, pp. 123-828, 86 figs. Zool.-verg], Anat. Inst, Univ.
Ziirich.

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ae BY 1 a

THE DEBT OF AGRICULTURE TO TROPICAL AMERICA*

By O. F. Cook

Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture

[With 7 plates]

The extent to which our present civilization has drawn upon the
native agriculture of tropical America is seldom recognized and is
little understood by the general public. A new consciousness and
interest in civilization has developed in recent years from issues
raised in the war period. It begins to be seen that the origin and
growth of civilization should be studied primarily as a biological
problem in order to gain a more practical understanding of the
conditions and factors of human progress.

Civilization is made possible by agriculture and the best prospect
of understanding civilization is through the study of agriculture. A
first step toward civilization was taken when plants were domesti-
cated and a settled existence became possible. The conditions of
agriculture are required, with people living as separate families upon
the land, for the experience of successive generations to accumulate,
and the arts of civilization to develop. A debt of appreciation is due
to the prehistoric domesticators of food plants who opened the way
of advancement for the race. A poet of humanity has enjoined such
a sentiment upon us, that we “ forget not the forgotten and unknown.”
The nations have enshrined their unknown soldiers, but agriculture
is a service no less than warfare.

The natives of America were inferior to the European invaders in
weapons and military equipment, but in the arts of agriculture they
had attained a higher development than any of the European na-
tions. Early accounts of Mexico and Peru reflect the amazement
of the Spanish explorers at the extent and perfection of the native
cultures. The modern traveler shares the same feeling when he
examines the remains of the ancient systems and finds that the
prehistoric people went far beyond our present conceptions of agri-
cultural possibilities. Study of the ancient systems may enlarge
our ideas of improvements that are possible in agriculture. The
industrial and commercial accomplishments of our civilization have

1 Reprinted by permission from the Bulletin of the Pan American Union, September,
1930.

491

492 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

overshadowed our normal and instinctive interest in the welfare of
agriculture. No doubt we shall find that agriculture is as necessary
to maintain an advanced civilization as it was for the primitive
beginnings.

The ancient Peruvians undoubtedly excelled us in the art of irriga-
tion, and they went much further in reclamation of land. Not only
were leveling and terracing done to lessen the slopes of hillsides,
but also land was constructed even in places that could have had no
natural soil, on precipitous slopes or in eroded stream beds. Sub-
stantial retaining walls were built and the inclosed space was filled
in, below with rubble work for drainage and above with ample
layers of good soil, which still raise good crops every year, after
centuries of continuous cultivation. In many of the valleys of the
eastern Andes all of the cultivated lands are of artificial terrace
constriction. Rivers were straightened and mountains resurfaced
as incidents of these extensive reclamations. ‘The narrow terraces
on the slopes of the mountains, of course, have been recognized as
artificial, but the vastly more extensive construction of artificial
lands in the bottoms of the valleys were overlooked by many trav-
elers, as though the terrace walls supporting the different levels
were mere fences between fields. The development of such inten-
sive methods of agriculture must have required centuries or
millenniums.

DOMESTICATION OF AMERICAN PLANTS

The many plants domesticated in America are an evidence of the
high development of agriculture and of the vast periods of time tha’
must have been required. The Peruvian region is considered as the
chief center of domestication. Between 70 and 80 different species
appear to have been domesticated in pre-Spanish times, as indicated
by native names and uses. The list includes numerous root and
seed crops adapted to the different elevations, also fruits and vege-
tables, potherbs, condiments, medicines, intoxicants, fish poisons, dye
plants, fibers, and numerous ornamental plants. The ancient
Peruvians had potatoes, beans, maize, cotton, peppers, peanuts,
cassava, and sweetpotatoes; also guavas, chirimoyas, avocados,
tuberoses, marigolds, and many other fruits and flowers which are
still entirely unknown in North America.?

Tobacco apparently was known to the ancient Peruvians, but was
considered injurious. The chewing of coca leaves was a regular
habit before the conquest, as it is at the present time, and an extensive
culture of the coca shrub is still maintained in the eastern Andes.

2A list of names of Peruvian domesticated plants was published in an article on
“Peru as a Center of Domestication,” Journ. Hered., February and March, 1925.

DEBT OF AGRICULTURE TO AMERICA—COOK 493

Potatoes from the high altitudes, preserved by freezing and drying,
are still carried down the eastern valleys on the backs of llamas and
exchanged for coca. Some of the high-altitude varieties of potatoes
are too bitter to be eaten in the fresh state, but are suited for drying
into chufos, as the mummified potatoes are called.

The plant domestications apparently were more ancient in America
than in the Old World. The lapse of time is indicated by the fact
that several of the American cultivated plants are not known to
exist in a wild state. Several have reached the condition of seed-
lessness and some have lost even the tendency to produce flowers.
Many of the high-altitude crops of Peru are specialized for particular
conditions and have not been established in any other countries.

The discovery and conquest of new continents beyond the Atlantic
was an event that has overwhelmed and preoccupied the imagination
of historians in recent centuries, but the plant treasures of the
New World are still to be appreciated. Spain was in advance of
other European countries at the time of discovery. The period
of Arab rule in Spain had witnessed a revival or a reintroduction of
many of the arts of agriculture, including irrigation, as developed in
north Africa, Egypt, and Syria. Neither Spain nor the rest of
Europe was able to form any conception of the importance of the
new plant world of America. Only a few of our modern historic
writers have perceived the significance of the discovery of a new
economic flora in America as affording new materials of human
advancement which the Western Hemisphere has contributed to the
enrichment of our European civilization. Though only a partial
utilization of the American cultivated plants has yet taken place,
the entire world has profited and vastly increased its production by
using plants that were domesticated in America.

That we as north Europeans should continue to attach homeland
sentiments to the plants that came to America with the first settlers
is partly a misunderstanding of the past. Agriculture was not origi-
nal with the northern races or even indigenous in Europe, as archeo-
logical investigations have shown. The traditional Old-World
cereals—barley, wheat, and rye—were not natives of any part of
Europe, but of Asiatic origin. A long succession of primitive
peoples have been traced in Europe, going back to the glacial periods,
variously estimated from 20,000 to 100,000 years ago, but with no
indications of agriculture before the so-called Neolithic people come
into Europe, in the late prehistoric period, 6,000 to 10,000 years ago.
Moreover, this invading race had passed the stage of first beginnings
in agriculture, being proficient in irrigation, terracing, and mega-
lithic stonework. The subsequent history of Europe was not marked
by advances in agriculture, but rather by decline. In Greece, for

494 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

example, archeologists are finding that agricultural improvements
of the megalithic age were not maintained in the classic period.

INTERCHANGE OF CROPS

That the world had need of the American crop plants is shown by
the wide distribution that many of them have attained in Europe,
Asia, and Africa. Some are grown more extensively in the Old
World than in America. The potato is the chief dependence of
northern Europe, and maize is a staple food in parts of Spain, Italy,
Hungary, and many other countries. Cassava has become the prin-
cipal root crop in parts of tropical Africa and of the East Indies.
An acre of cassava is said to yield “ more nutritious matter than six
times the same area under wheat.” The manufacture of tapioca
from cassava is now conducted in the East Indies as well as in
Brazil. The sweet potato was distributed across the Pacific and is
well-nigh universal in tropical and subtropical regions. The peanut
or ground nut is grown commercially in Senegal and in several other
districts of Africa and Asia. The principal production of cacao is
in West Africa. The vanilla plant grows wild in Mexico, but most
of the commercial vanilla comes from the French colonies. Sisal
is grown in East Africa and in the Philippines. The Hevea rubber
tree, a native of Brazil, is cultivated extensively in the East Indies.
Quinine and cocaine are supplied from the East Indies, though the
plants are native in Peru.

Some of the Old World crops, on the other hand, are grown most
extensively in America. Taking a plant to a new region may enable
it to escape pests or diseases which tend to increase in long-established
cultivations. The fungus which destroyed the coffee plantations of
the East Indies has not reached America, where most of the world’s
supply of this beverage is now produced. Brazil is the great coffee
country, though coffee is important also in Colombia, Venezuela,
Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Haiti, and Puerto Rico. The
largest commercial cultivations of bananas are in Central America
and the West Indies, whence 63,530,000 bunches were imported into
the United States in 1929. More sugar is grown in Cuba than in any
other country, in favorable seasons more than 5,000,000 tons being
produced. Rice from Louisiana and California is shipped to tropi-
cal America, Japan, and China. Our high-priced labor raises food
for low-price countries.

TROPICAL AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES

Though we are not accustomed to think of the United States as a
tropical country, three of our principal crops—maize, cotton, and
tobacco—are treated in European textbooks as tropical cultures and

DEBT OF AGRICULTURE TO AMERICA—COOK 495

our extensive production places us quite definitely in the tropical
category. Our summer climate is essentially tropical in providing
sufficient heat for the maturity of these crops. The summer heat in
Europe is not sufficient to mature maize regularly north of the Alps,
and only a few localities in the south of Spain, Italy, and the Balkan
peninsula are warm enough for cotton. The European production of
cotton in 1929 totaled about 24,000 bales, while the southern coun-
ties of Virginia produced 46,000 bales. On this basis Virginia is more
tropical than the south of Europe.

The tropic of the geography passes below the southern tip of
Florida, but is only a conventional imaginary line. A plant-life tropic
would touch our east coast of North Carolina, follow the coast plain
to Texas, and continue westward through southern Arizona and Cali-
fornia. Botanists would not deny that countries with native palms
should be reckoned as tropical. The southern palmetto extends to
North Carolina; two native palms are found in South Carolina and
four in Georgia. Louisiana, Texas, Arizona, and California, and
their endemic species of palms, Sabal louisiana, Inodres texana,
Washingtonia arizonica, and Washingtonia filifera. The palm flora
of Florida, with more than a dozen native species, exceeds that of
many countries crossed by the Equator, to say nothing of the coco-
nuts in Florida, the dates in California, or the many ornamental
palms which are suited to open-air cultivation.

The southern part of Florida, below Bradenton and Fort Pierce,
has frost protection for tropical perennials and tree crops, especially
near the coast. Most of the native flora of southern Florida is
essentially tropical, like that of the West Indies. Mangoes, avoca-
dos, sapodillas, bananas, papayas, and coconuts, with many other
palms and ornamental trees of distinctively tropical character, are
in regular cultivation. Recently it has been learned that all of
the more prominent rubber-producing trees, including the Hevea
or Para rubber tree of Brazil, are able to thrive in southern Florida.

MAIZE OUR PREPONDERANT CROP

The native agriculture of America had an essential unity and
continuity over both continents. From Canada in the north to
Patagonia in the south maize was the principal human food. The
local maize cultures were endlessly varied and differently combined
with other crops, but maize was the chief reliance over most of the
agricultural area. The native populations of each district in trop-
ical America usually have several varieties of starch corns, some
for early and some for late planting, also pop corns and sweet corns,
which often are closely adapted to the local conditions.

Many varieties from tropical American countries have been
brought to the United States and tested in different regions. Under

496 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

the new conditions the behavior of the variety may be completely
changed and may become definitely abnormal. The large-grained
Cuzco maize which grows in Peru as a rather small, productive
plant 6 or 7 feet high, may grow in the United States to a height of
16 feet, and usually fails to mature any seed.

The general distribution of maize, as well as the local diversity
of varieties and uses, affords further indications of the antiquity of
agriculture in America, though several of the tropical root crops
also are widely distributed. The general custom of grinding the
maize kernels into paste after soaking in water may indicate a
previous use of root crops, and especially of cassava. Cassava and
other root crops have continued to be more important than maize
in some of the humid lowlands, while in the very high altitudes
in South America maize was supplemented by another series of root
crops, which included the potato.

Small tribes of wandering, nonagricultural people survived in
several parts of the New World, subsisting on natural products, or
by hunting and fishing. Most of the natives of America planted
crops and lived permanently in the same districts, though usually
they did not farm continuously on the same land. A new clearing,
or milpa, was cut and burned each year, planted for one or two sea-
sons, and then left to grow up in “bush” for several years. In
many districts the milpa system had given place to permanent
cultivation, with a maize crop grown every year. The large-grained
Cuzco maize was the principal crop that was grown in the special-
ized terrace agriculture of Peru. Likewise in Mexico and in Guate-
mala all of the ancient specialized systems of agriculture were
applied to the production of maize.

Our preponderant cultivation of maize in the United States is in
line with the traditions of ancient America. It is significant that in
the United States the word “corn,” the traditional name for the
cereals of northern Europe, has been transferred in popular usage
to the maize plant. Vastly more corn is planted than wheat. In
1929 there was a total of 98,000,000 acres devoted to corn as against
61,000,000 to wheat, the corn having an average yield of 26 bushels
per acre and the wheat 13 bushels. The corn crop was more than
three times the wheat crop in volume, and the value $2,000,000,000,
more than double. Of cotton, 46,000,000 acres were planted, with a
value of a billion and a quarter. Of potatoes 3,000,000 acres were
grown, and of tobacco 2,000,000 acres.

FOOD HABITS DIFFICULT TO CHANGE

The growth of civilization that has occurred since the discovery of
America would not have been possible if our European forefathers
who settled in America had not found ready for their use a new series

DEBT OF AGRICULTURE TO AMERICA—COOK 497

of domesticated plants specially adapted to the local conditions in
America which were often very different from the conditions that
the colonists had known in Europe. The survival of the early
colonists often depended acutely upon their readiness of adjustment
to the new conditions, by learning how to use and grow the new crops.

Changes in food habits are notoriously difficult to make, as they
generally are resisted by an immense and unconscious inertia.
Under the compulsion of starvation the Pilgrim Fathers learned to
use “ Indian corn ” in Massachusetts, but the French still insist that
they would starve before eating it. That maize in various forms is
relished and preferred to other grains by millions of Europeans who
have settled in America would not induce the French to try it, even
in wartime. Out of consideration for our allies, we were enjoined
to eat maize and send wheat to France. We ate the maize and the
French lost their chance of learning about it.

Our own use of maize as human food still is more limited than it
might be, and probably more limited than it should be. On account
of their better keeping qualities, “ flint corn” and other hard-texture
maize varieties are preferred in the United States for feeding ani-
mals, while for human consumption the soft “ starch-corn ” varieties
are preferred. Many acceptable uses of maize current in the Tropics
are not known in the United States. A native community in eastern
Guatemala was supplied with hard maize from the United States in
a famine season, but the imported grain made inferior tortillas and
proved unwholesome.

VALUABLE COTTONS FROM MEXICO

The Upland cotton of the United States is identified in many text-
books with an Asiatic species, Gossypium herbaceum, which in
reality is not cultivated in America. An early reference is found
to seed coming from the Levant, but from the plant characters it is
certain that the varieties now grown commercially in the United
States are not related to Gossypium herbaceum. Many Asiatic cot-
tons have been planted experimentally in the United States and
found to be much less productive than Upland varieties brought
from tropical America.

The westward extension of cotton culture in the United States was
facilitated by a new type of Upland cotton that appeared in Texas
near the middle of the last century and probably came from Mexico,
although no contemporary record of that fact has yet been found.
Several varieties are recognized, as Mebane, Lone Star, and Rowden,
which are known collectively as Texas Big-Boll cottons. In view
of the rapid and continued increase of production in Texas and adja-
cent States, it may be estimated that the Texas Big-Boll cottons

498 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

probably are contributing at least half of the cotton that is produced
in the United States. The crops that have been raised from this
type of cotton would have aggregate values of many billions of
dollars.

Other superior types of Upland cotton have come from Mexico
and Guatemala in the present century. <A cotton from the State of
Durango in northern Mexico was grown successfully in many dis-
tricts from southern Virginia to the irrigated valleys of southern
California, and later was replaced by the Acala cotton, another
Mexican variety which is well adapted to conditions of production
over a large part of the American Cotton Belt. The native cottons
of Guatemala and southern Mexico were studied for several seasons,
beginning in 1902, by expeditions sent out by the United States
Department of Agriculture to learn the possibilities of production
in the presence of the boll weevil. In the summer of 1906 a cotton
expedition crossed Guatemala from the east by way of Panzos,
Purulha, Salama, Rabinal, Quiche, Totonicapan, Quezaltenango,
and Huehuetenango, passed the Mexican border at Nenton, and
traversed the State of Chiapas through Comitan, Ocosingo, and Salto
de Agua. The existence of a superior type of cotton was recognized
at Ocosingo, and in December of the same year another expedition
to southern Mexico obtained a supply of seed at a town called Acala.
A select stock bred from this seed has been grown extensively in
recent years both in the United States and in Mexico. Most of the
cotton of the irrigated valleys of the Southwestern States is of this
Acala variety, and several advantages over the Texas Big-Boll cot-
tons have been shown. The plants are of more erect habit, with more
open foliage and greater resistance to adverse conditions. Larger
crops of bolls can be set in shorter periods, and the fiber quality is
superior. Eventually the Acala cotton may be used as extensively
as the Texas Big-Boll cottons, if adequate supplies of pure seed can
be established and maintained.

DOMESTICATION OF QUININE AND RUBBER

Two important domestications of South American plants were
accomplished in the last century and may be credited to the scientific
interest and initiative of one man—Sir Clements Markham. Fore-
seeing that the natural supplies of quinine and rubber would soon
be inadequate, a systematic project for agricultural production of
both commodities was undertaken and, after many vicissitudes,
accomplished.

Markham and his assistants explored the forests of the eastern
Andes in Peru and Ecuador and carried many kinds of Cinchona

DEBT OF AGRICULTURE TO AMERICA—COOK 499

trees to British India. Other experiments were made in the Dutch
colonies, and the present commercial production of quinine is in Java.
Following the introduction of the Cinchona into other parts of the
world, botanists were sent to tropical America for seeds of the differ-
ent rubber trees. Repeated efforts were made to obtain Hevea seeds
from Brazil, and a large shipment reached England in the summer
of 1876. The seedlings were forwarded promptly from the Kew
Gardens to Ceylon and Singapore, but commercial planting did not
begin till 1896, after a practical system of tapping had been dis-
covered.

Sanitary control of malaria may have rendered the quinine
domestication less significant than it was at first, but cultivated
rubber has mounted rapidly to first-rank importance, both indus-
trially and commercially. Not only have the producing districts
in the British and Dutch colonies been transformed, but life in all
civilized countries has been profoundly changed through the use
of rubber in motor vehicles. The world was waiting to ride on
rubber, and in a few years has become thoroughly addicted to the
pleasure and convenience of rubber transportation. From an inci-
dental status as a water-proofing material half a century ago, rubber
has become the largest of our imports, and is recognized as an in-
dispensable material of our present civilization. The imports of
crude rubber into the United States during 1929 reached a total
of 563,812 tons, with a value of approximately $240,966,780. Also
motor vehicles are the largest of our exports, with the single ex-
ception of cotton.

OUR TROPICAL HERITAGE

Our acute dependence upon rubber may work a change in our
traditional neglect of the tropical aspects of our national economy.
Perhaps from excess of European patriotism we have refused to
recognize our tropical status and interest in tropical possibilities.
Little inclination has been shown in the past to consider that our
agricultural production is on a different footing from that of Euro-
pean nations. They see us as a tropical country, but we refuse to
consider ourselves in that capacity. Vast territories remain un-
utilized in our Southern and Southwestern States, awaiting more
suitable crops which probably must come from the tropics. Tem-
perate crops from Europe have been tried persistently since the first
settlements were made, but are restricted to winter growth, while
all of the crops that are grown in the summer are of tropical origin.

The industrial expansion of some of the European nations in the
last century made them customers for wheat or other European

102992—32——_33,

500 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

crops that could be grown in the United States. The importance of
home production of food in Europe, however, is now being recog-
nized; one result of this will be a more careful consideration in
America of a home market for food products. The time may soon
come when we shall be willing to lay aside our remaining European
prepossessions and face the necessity of making the most of our own
country. With this viewpoint we shall cooperate more construc-
tively with our American neighbors who are facing the same prob-
lems of utilizing tropical plants as the basis of economic and social
advancement.

Neglect of such considerations is responsible for the present situa-
tion in the United States in regard to rubber, which undoubtedly
could be produced as well or better in tropical America than in the
East Indies. The history of the rubber development shows that
much has depended on mere accident, through lack of interest. The
accident whereby American rubber companies began with a different
tree in Mexico resulted in discouragement at a critical stage when
the East Indian plantations were beginning to be successful, so that
valuable time has been lost. It was supposed that the world’s need
of rubber would soon be supplied, and this mistake is now being
repeated.

The discovery of a suitable tapping method for the Hevea tree
in the East Indies also was accidental, except that the conditions
for making such a discovery had been provided by the introduction
of the tree. If the tapping method for Hevea had not been dis-
covered, the cultivation of Castilla in Mexico and Central America
would not have appeared as a complete failure. The rubber prob-
lems have been studied but little as yet, and practical ways of
utilizing the Castilla tree or other rubber-producing plants may
still be found. Mechanical extraction of rubber instead of the
laborious tapping operation is the line of improvement to be ex-
pected, but different extraction processes, as well as different cul-
tural methods, will probably have to be developed for each of the
producing species.

The lesson is that in each country stocks of the different kinds
of rubber trees or other useful plants should be available to furnish
ample supplies of seed or propagating material for those who are
interested in determining the possibilities of the new plants. The
history of rubber affords many illustrations of the general require-
ment for progress in agriculture—namely, that the facts must be
learned by actual experience and familiarity with the plants. There
is no way to prophesy in advance that a plant will not grow in a
new country, or that new uses will not be discovered. Nobody
would have guessed that the Hevea tree would thrive in Florida or

DEBT OF AGRICULTURE TO AMERICA—COOK 501

that it would be less susceptible to cold than the Castilla tree, but
such are the facts. Though the seedlings of the Hevea tree often
require shade and wind protection, the range of possible cultivation
is much wider than has been supposed and undoubtedly extends
through the West Indies, Central America, and Mexico.

There is no apparent reason why the Hevea tree should not be a
regular farm asset in many countries of tropical America. Only the
lack of knowledge and the absence of the plant material can explain
the absence of a rubber industry in tropical regions of farm produc-
tion. Few crops can be handled with simpler tools or less machin-
ery. The native farmers of the East Indies are now producing
rubber to better advantage than the owners of large plantations.
The use of motor transportation is extending in the Tropics, and
the countries that can produce rubber should seek to supply their
own needs.

The tropical world is rapidly becoming accessible to civiliza-
tion, and even greater transformations may be expected than have
occurred in temperate regions. Rubber gives us new powers that
are producing magical changes in human life, in all civilized coun-
tries. A century ago the experiments of Hancock and Goodyear
were being made, which opened the period of industrial invention
and exploitation of rubber. Sixty years later the tropical forests
of both hemispheres had been ravaged of their wild rubber. Only
three decades have elapsed since plantation rubber began to be
available in practical quantities. No other event in history has
changed the world so rapidly as the domestication of the Brazilian
rubber tree.

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Smithsonian Refert, 1931.—Coock PEATE 1

CUZCO, THE LARGE-KERNEL MAIZE OF PERU

In the middle farming zone of Peru, at elevations between 8,000 and 11,000 feet, the Cuzco type of
maize is the principal crop. The large kernels, sometimes nearly an inch broad, are eaten one by one
like grapes or chestnuts. Compared with rice pop corn. Natural size.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Cook PLATE 2

PIGMY MAIZE

Pigmy maize of the highest altitudes on the islands and slopes around Lake Titicaca, at an altitude of
nearly 13,000 feet. Natural size.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—-Cook PEATE Ss

PIGMY MAIZE

Far of pigmy maize compared with kernels of Cuzco maize. Natural size.

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Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Cook PLATE 5

ACALA COTTON

A mature plant showing abundant fruiting habit.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Cook PLATE 6

9

1. Combed fiber and seeds of Acala cotton showing compact storm-proof bolls and uniform fiber.
Natural size. 2. Open boll of Acala cotton. Natural size

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Cook PIRATE

TAPPING A RUBBER T REE

Tapping a hevea or para rubber tree in a small plantation on the north coast of Haiti. The trees have
made normal growth and experiments have shown that the yields of rubber are comparable to those
obtained in the plantations of the Orient.

SOME WILD FLOWERS FROM SWISS MEADOWS AND
MOUNTAINS

By Casry A. Woop

[With 6 plates]

The north slopes of the Lake of Lucerne form an important area
of the Four Forest Cantons. There nature seems to have arranged
them especially for an exuberant growth of Alpine and sub-Alpine
wild flowers. This charming locality with its southern exposure is
protected from cold winds by the surrounding hills, while rainfall
and sunshine are justly proportioned to stimulate the growth of
foliage and bloom from the meadow flowers on the lake margins to
the pines and snow plants of the Rigi-Kulm, 6,000 feet above it.

After a winter in Rome we arrived at Vitznau, 10 miles from
Lucerne, at the end of April to witness the unfolding of a second
semitropical spring. The Park Hotel, surrounded by what is virtu-
ally a small botanical garden of 5 acres, furnished the trees and
plants—oleanders, magnolias, wisterias, roses, forsythias, weigelias,
hydrangeas, judas trees, spiraeas, azaleas, flowering chestnuts, etc.—
that had passed their bloom when we left the Eternal City, but once
more opened in all their belated charm and glory to give us a hos-
pitable Swiss greeting.

It was not, however, to the official gardener and his assistants that
we turned for botanical information, but to the lovely hills and
high mountains that walled us in on the north and spread before
us in seductive vistas—snow-capped some of them, verdure-clad all
of them—to the far south. We organized walking expeditions,
steamer excursions, and motor trips to explore this naturalist’s par-
adise. Even the feeblest climber of our party finally did a 6-mile
hike over the hills and far away to a Swiss hamlet near the snows,
passing through indescribably beautiful Alpine meadows and green
pastures carpeted with wild flowers. On these walking tours (and
Baedecker was undoubtedly right when he said that the only way
really to see a country is to tramp through it) we had ample op-
portunity to admire the cleanly, effective, and artistic fashion in
which the Swiss people have regulated, adapted, and improved even

503

504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

the smallest village and its surroundings with an eye to their chief
source of income—the tourist traffic. Their hotels are the best in
the world; even off the beaten path of travel one is sure to find a
warm welcome in some well kept, clean, and reasonably cheap inn
or pension.

The abundant rainfall of the Forest Cantons and the melting
snows not only supply the moisture needed for a luxuriant vegeta-
tion, but they furnish in the shape of waterfalls delightful attrac-
tions to the Alpine scenery. The falls vary in size from the tiny
but decorative tricklings that are wholly dependent for existence
on intermittent rains to the more or less permanent cataracts largely
fed by the eternal snows. More than that, water power is a valua-
able asset. One of its numberless local uses is its cheap and uni-
versal employment in electrically lighting the whole country, the
surplus power being sold to neighboring countries.

One must not forget the birds in this brief account of the glories
of the Forest Cantonal scenery. The notes of the cuckoo, the black-
bird, the song sparrow, the nightingale, and other songsters are heard
in this delectable land. One might, on a tramp over sub-Alpine
hills and valleys, recall Marlowe’s lines:

Shallow rivers to whose falls
Melodious birds sing madrigals.

Over a hundred years ago Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte, one
of our foremost authorities on American ornithology, wrote for an
Italian journal a comparative account? of the birds of Rome and
Philadelphia, in which he showed that although many of the 247
species observed in the former metropolis differ in some respects
from 281 avian visitors to the American city, there are in numerous
instances few external characters to distinguish the Old World from
the New World birds. Much the same experience has characterized
the present writer’s desultory adventures with Alpine flora and
fauna, since the differences between the flowers and birds of, let us
say, California and the Forest Cantons, are not, after all, so very
great.

In the present paper it is proposed to emphasize the differences
and similarities of some Swiss species of wild flowers not unfamiliar
to Americans, and it may be said at the outset that one suffers from
an embarras de richesse in such a study because, as many botanical
authorities have noted, no country in the world can produce in a
similar limited area as many species of indigenous plants as the
two cantons of Schwyz and Lucerne. Stuart Thompson, for ex-
ample, has estimated that, excluding varieties and subspecies, there

* Specchio comparativo della ornitologia di Roma e di Filadelfia. Nuova Gior-
nale dei Letterati, 1827.

SWISS WILD FLOWERS—WO0OD 505

are at least 2,540 species of wild ferns and flowering plants in
Switzerland, and it is not claiming too much for the mountains
and valleys of the Forest Cantons to say that they possess about
2,000 indigenous species.

The greatest variety and most brilliant display of these blooms
are found from April to November in the Swiss meadows and
pastures, a cultivated acre or two wrested here and there from the
forest and rocks of a stern and mountainous land. It is when and
where the peasant farmer waits for the development of his biennial
crops of grass, hay, and other fodder—that is to say, anywhere from
the margin of the lake to the pines that grow almost to the line of
perpetual snow—that these small but brilliantly green oases of
cultivated land are to be searched for wild flowers. A mountain
meadow in May is a joy lost to the traveler who sees only the more
widely advertised and monumental sights of Switzerland.

Hoffmann strikes the correct note when he remarks that the serious
student of Swiss wild flowers soon realizes that besides the classic
Alpenrosen and Edelweiss there are many other species of wild
flowers “that find their home only in the Swiss mountains, where
their blossoms sometimes stand so close together as practically to
form a covering for pastures, meadows, and rocks. Such floral
carpets, quite characteristic of the landscape, fascinate by their
brilliant coloring even the eyes of those who take but a moderate
interest in the more scattered flora of their own native land.” (PI. 1.)

Imagine, then, a relatively small patch of cultivated hillside 1,000
to 8,000 feet above sea level on which, throughout most of the spring
and summer, grow blooming masses of centaurea (especially C.
montana), vetches, rampion (Phyteuma spicatum and P. orbicu-
lare, both purple and white), eglantine, gentian (4 varieties),
wild geranium (4 varieties near Vitznau), lilies, violas, columbine,
saxifrage, blue bells, globe flowers, pinks (Dianthus superbus), cycla-
men, eyebright, nettles, fragrant cow-parsley, shasta-like daisies (and
their first cousins, the Alpine chrysanthemums), arnica, primroses,
monkshood, Alpine meadow rue, speedwell (interspersed with many-
hued clovers and ornamental grasses), scabiosa, catchfly (Szlene
inflata) both mauve and white-flowered forms, Alpine balsam
(Lrinus alpinus), groundsel (Senecio doronicum), soapwort (Sapo-
naria ocymoides), milkwort (Polygala alpestris), sainfoin (Onobry-
chis montana), cotton grass (Lriophorum angustifolium), plantains,
St. Bernard’s lily (Anthericwm lliago), blue chicory (rarely the
flowers are white), yellow and white ranunculus, mustard, pink
bistort, hawkweed, alpenrosen (Rhododendron), and dozens of other
flowering plants of which our limited space does not permit even
the bare mention.

506 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Perhaps also, especially during the first weeks of spring, one may
be lucky enough to come in the higher hills upon a field whose center
is occupied by a melting snowbank or ice layer, a hundred or more
feet across, whose periphery is aglow with flourishing groups of
soldanella, oxlip, silver thistle, hepatica, crocuses, blue snow gentians,
primroses (among them Primula auricula), the Mediterranean heath
(Lrica carnea), butterwort (Pinguicula alpina), spring columbine,
violets, for-get-me-not (Myosotis alpestris), buttercups (Ranunculus
glacialis), and other early flowers, mixed with still earlier grasses
and small shrubs. The present writer has on several occasions
picked bunches of many-colored flowers on the margins of a névé
whose ice-cold water warmed in the sun became a fit stimulant and
food solvent for the surrounding vegetation.

In the protected Alpine woods a somewhat different flower exhibit
is held. Here, for example, most of the Swiss orchids are found,
more than 20 species in the Forest Cantons, a remarkable showing
when contrasted with the few species found in the whole of North
America. Then again, harebells, wood geranium, rockrose (Helian-
themum vulgare), St. Johnswort (Hypericum maeulatum), cinque-
foils (Potentilla aurea and P. argentea), Prenanthes purpurea, chick-
weed (Cerastium arvense), willow-herb (pilobrium angustifo-
lium), Moehringia muscosa, Digitalis ambigua, valerian (Valeriana
trypteris), adenostyles alpina, several mints (among them Mentha
sylvestris), Turkscap lily (Ziliwm martagon), broom (Genista tine-
toria), rockcress (Arabis alpina), clematis, honeysuckle, chicory,
woodbine, cowslips, and many other shade and water loving plants
flourish along the banks of the mountain rills, together with a multi-
tude of lovely ferns, mosses, and rock plants.

Speaking of the last named, the geologic formations of the Swiss
mountains, especially the glacial and other sedimentary rocks, form
admirable backgrounds for rock gardens, and here rather than in
artificial creations, however extensive and well kept, are to be found
the most wonderful of these peculiarly attractive examples of flori-
culture. Scattered over and almost covering some of the “ pudding-
stone” areas (glacial moraines) of the Forest Cantons may be seen
many a flourishing wild “ garden ” that puts to shame both in variety
and quantity of bloom the vaunted and carefully cultivated imita-
tions to be found in our botanical parks.

From the foregoing will be readily imagined the difficulty at-
tendant upon an attempt to describe in anything like detail the
hundreds of wild species that flourish in the meadows, pastures,
forests, valleys, and rugged mountains of the cantons bordering on
the Lake of Lucerne. Even when one confines oneself, as in this
short paper, to the indigenous flowers of the two cantons, Schwyz

SWISS WILD FLOWERS—WO0OOD 507

and Lucerne, an apology is due to the reader for this scant treatment
of the theme. However, the following are a few of the most attrac-
tive plants the writer has seen in his rambles about the Vierwald-
stattersee.

Edelweiss, the “noble white” or, to give its high-sounding but
cacophonic systematic name, Gnaphalium leontopodium, is popu-
larly supposed to be a denizen of only the high Alps, but although
it is now found only in wild and secluded mountain areas, usually
about 10,000 feet above sea level, this is in part the result of the
ruthless fashion in which it has been plucked by the root for the
past century by careless or unscrupulous tourists and flower sellers.
Throughout Switzerland, as a protection against complete extinc-
tion of this plant, the taking of the root is forbidden by law. More-
over, as a further preventive of the eradication of this pretty plant,
its cultivation at low levels as a garden flower is almost universal
throughout the Confederation. For many years the edelweiss flour-
ished in a famous Alpine garden conducted by Herr Stierlin, a
well-known hotel proprietor, on the Rigi-Scheidegg. Since the
World War this garden has, unfortunately, been abandoned. How-
ever, the flowers are successfully cultivated in a private garden at
Gersau, on the Lake of Lucerne, Canton Schwyz, where the size of the
plant has much increased and the colors of the flowers have greatly
improved under domestic care. It is now well understood that the
plants may be raised from seed, and Stuart Thompson notes that
it has grown well and flowered profusely on the top of a house
in the center of London (pl. 3).

Taking it all in all, the most interesting flower that blooms in
Alpine heights is the blue Soldanella alpina Li. There are four
species of this genus, at least one variety of which, the blue moon-
wort, has been grown at low levels and naturalized in foreign
gardens. We are indebted to that charming writer, Grant Allen,
for one of the best descriptions of this wonderful species and of
its ice-boring qualities. The appearance of the crocus and other
early flowering plants as they push their way through the snow
is always a source of joy and wonder to the lover of spring flowers,
but the activities of a plant that actually drills a passage to air
and sunshine through several inches of solid ice is not observed by
every naturalist.

In the autumn the soldanella develops thick, leathery leaves, well
provided with fuel (starch, protoplasm) for the coming winter.
These lie flat upon the ground (see fig. 1) expectant of the snow
and ice sheet that may cover them to a depth of several feet. When
the spring arrives and the hot sun melts most of the snow and some

508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

of the ice, water trickles down to the rootlets and arouses growth
in the sleeping plant. Internal combustion ensues within the floral

‘y

Sih
ag :

Ficure 1.—The autumn leaves of Soldanella alpina—the plant that
melts ice and snow

tissues. The resulting heat melts the ice about the uprising flower
buds, and the stem pushes its way upward. More water flows to
the roots; increased activity is induced, and finally, after several
‘tai hive wed ©) dsetbaéks ori “regelations as Dyn
ae ue ace : i “= dall calls them—the plant, espe-
cially if its race is run along the
Ss iA margin of the ice sheet, soon tunnels
ele LN Sans a passage to the air and sunshine.
So long as the heat given off
from the growing stem and buds
is sufficient to prevent actual solid
freezing of the parts, the soldanella
is indifferent to the surrounding
ice-cold temperature; it under-
goes the usual transformations,
is fertilized by early bees, and
forms many hundreds of wonder-
ful blue flower groups that crowd
the margins of the névé, some of
Fieurp 2.—Flower-stalk of soldanella which look for all the world as
melting a passage to the surface of if they were beds of bloom actually
cee Toe) eheet. .(Atter Grant. rootedoin ‘atdiprowing coutros Ja
thick layer of transparent ice.
If one now examines the leaves of the plant it will be noticed
that they are no longer thick and fleshy, but are thin and papery;

nT

SWISS WILD FLOWERS—WOOD 509

they have yielded up their carbon compounds as fuel to melt a
tunnel in the ice, and the production of the buds and blossoms on
the flower stem above the ice mantle. The illustrations (figs. 1, 2,
and 8) attempt to show the progress of the flower stalk from the
autumn leaf beds to the full development of the flowering plant
the following spring. (See a!so pl. 2, fig. 1.)

The Swiss Orchidaceae have already been mentioned, but their
number and the beauty of their blooms call for special reference.
Many have fragrant flowers, beautifully colored, with fantastically
shaped separate flowers or flowerlets borne on long spikes. They

Figure 38.—Soldanella flowers that have by their own heat tunneled
a passage to light and air through the overlying sheet of ice.
(After Grant Allen.)

are commonly found at middle and high altitudes. The great
majority of Alpine orchids are also native elsewhere—in Europe,
Asia, and America.

These highly valued plants are generally thought to be difficult
of cultivation, and it is true that some of them do not readily bloom
after transplantation. All of them require a deep planting, many
in a limestone soil mixed with peat. They should never be moved
except in the late autumn after flowering and plant growth have
ceased. A few of the most interesting are as follows:

The green-winged orchid (Orchis morio) has four color varieties—
mauve, purple, pink, and white. They have erect stems 6 to 8
inches high, and the flowers are disposed in a handsome, loosely

510 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

arranged spike, the sepals curiously arched like a helmet. The
morio is among the most attractive of the native orchids. It is
well known also as an English species, and at least six others of this
attractive genus are found in the British Isles.

Of the genus Gymnadenia, the species odoratissima, 4 to 10 inches
high, presents mauve flowers on a long spike that have a pleasant
odor.

Nigritella angustifolia is found throughout Europe. It is 3 to 8
inches in height and carries its small dark carmine flowers as a
crowded spike. It is found in upland Swiss pastures from 5,000 to
8,000 feet above sea level. It is called the vanilla orchid, and has a
pronounced odor of that bean.

Cypripedium is a genus well known to Americans as ladyslipper.
The Swiss species (C’. calceolus) closely resembles our own plants.
It is found at low levels, not being strictly Alpine. As is well
known, species of this beautiful genus are found all over the world
(ply 6):

The charming butterfly orchids (Platanthera bifolia and chlor-
antha) are also widely distributed. Their stems are 12 to 30 inches
high; the flowers are white to whitish green, arising loosely in a
3 to 6 inch spike, and they are both fragrant.

An orchid that grows on mossy banks and mountain pastures up
to 4,000 feet is Herminium monorchis, called from its pronounced
odor, the musk orchid. It has a pretty “ flower,” a slender spike
with numerous small, yellow-green blooms.

A curious sub-Alpine plant, found in shady woods up to 4,500
feet—at Engelberg, for example—is the birdnest orchid (Neottia
nidus-avis L.) 'The stem is 12 inches high, with loose scales taking
the place of leaves. Two or three pale-brown flowers are borne on
a 4-inch spike. Its name derives from the dense mass of fibers con-
stituting the root system.

A very pretty orchid, also found throughout Europe, is Zimo-
dorum abortivum. The whole plant (12 to 24 inches high, including
the large flowers) is violet in color. It is commonly found in pine
woods.

The smallest European orchid is very rarely seen above Lucerne.
This is the bog orchid (Malaxis paludosa). The flowers are insig-
nificant, and the plant is difficult to find in the peat bogs where it
gTOWSs.

A very handsome genus with many species, found in the Forest
Cantons, is Cephalanthera. C. rubra (red helleborine) may grow
to a height of 20 inches, supporting its bright pink flowers in a loose
spike. This fine plant prefers the shelter of woods and thickets,
growing in a limestone soil. A pure white variety (or perhaps dis-

SWISS WILD FLOWERS—WOOD Sel

tinct species) closely resembles the foregoing. Another Swiss spe-
cies of this genus is the charming (. latifolia, 12 to 20 inches high,
whose flowers are cream colored and are found in June on sub-Alpine
wooded hills.

Finally, to mention another orchid genus represented in North
America, is /'pipactis. The 10 Swiss species are rather tall plants
with leafy stems bearing brown, purple, or greenish-white flowers,
occasionally tinged with red, in a loose raceme. In £. palustris the
white, green, orange, and purple flowers are large and very beautiful.
The smooth stem is about a foot high, and the plant prefers marshes
and watered meadows reaching 4,000 feet above the sea.

The crocus—that harbinger of spring—is represented in Swiss up-
land pastures and snow fields (to 7,000 feet) by the very pretty C@.
vernus. The white or violet flowers open before or with the coming
of the grasslike leaves, and sometimes appear (April to June, accord-
ing to elevation and situation) surrounded by the, as yet, unmelted
snow.

Seven other wild species of the iris family are known in Switzer-
land, all capable of domestication in gardens and at low levels.

Primula elatior, the oxlip, resembles P. veris, the familiar cowslip,
only it is more erect than the latter, has larger and longer leaves, and
its many-flowered umbel is straw-colored and larger than the cow-
slip bloom. It is not scented. This early plant is common from
April to July in meadows, woods, and pastures up to 7,000 feet
(pl. 2, fig. 2).

Anemone sulphurea, with a stem 6 to 18 inches high, bearing a
large, solitary yellow-white flower (pl. 4), is by some regarded
as a variety of A. alpina, which it closely resembles, although the
latter has a white flower tinged with blue below. Both have ternate,
bipinnatifid root-leaves with deeply cut segments. These species
affect pastures and rough ground on Alpine slopes, and bloom from
May to July.

Monkshood (Aconitum napellus): There are several Swiss aco-
nites, but this species is the commonest about the Vierwaldstittersee.

It has a striking resemblance to the delphiniums of our gardens
and is equally capable of cultivation and improvement in color and
size. Perhaps its violent poisonous qualities act somewhat as a
deterrent in that direction. In our own American gardens it ap-
pears as a beautiful plant with dark violet (occasionally purple, light
blue, or white) flowers borne in a simple, cylindrical raceme. The
plant loves upland woods, damp meadows, the margins of a small
stream, or the vicinity of a herdsman’s hut, in return for whose shade
it provides the decoration of its charming flowers. It blooms from
June to August between 3,000 and 8,000 feet above sea level (pl. 5).

512 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

That immense family Ranunculaceae is so largely represented
about the Lake of Lucerne that all the allotted space for this paper
might easily be filled with the briefest sketch of its pretty Swiss
species. One of these is Clematis alpina, that fine creeping shrub
with large, solitary violet flowers borne on long stalks. It loves
stony, wooded uplands 2,000 to 7,000 feet above the sea. The flowers
persist for a long time in shady nooks from June to August, and the
plant has a pleasing habit of covering the rugged limestone rocks
among which it grows with its present leaves and last year’s tendrils.

Of the numerous Swiss anemones, A. hepatica, as described in
Flemwell’s “Alpine Flowers and Gardens,” reminds one of our own
spring flower, the earliest of the year. “As the snow recedes,” says
he, “the brown bed of the pine forests (around Bex in the Rhone
valley) is decked with myriads of Hepatica; their thick clusters of
mauve-blue flowers, relieved here and there by the rarer forms of
white and rose, . . . creating a veritable laughing fairyland where,
usually, all is sedate if not gloomy.”

The gentians: The Forest Cantons have their proper share of this
world family. There are fully 20 species of the genus found in
Switzerland, most of them about the Lake of Lucerne. The flowers
of the gentians are usually a deep blue, but in some species are
mauve, yellow, purple, or nearly white. Though they are generally
solitary on the flower stalk, yet they also occur in terminal cymes.
Both corolla and calyx are distinctly tubular and often angled.
The accompanying figure (pl. 3) shows Gentiana acaulis, the stem-
less gentian. Although in this species the flower stem is very short,
it is not absent, as Linnaeus pointed out in his description of the type
specimen now in the Linnaean Herbarium at Burlington House,
London. The corolla is 1 to 114 inches long and is deep blue, with
greenish (rarely) white or mauve streaks. This beautiful plant
grows in grassy Alpine pastures and meadows up to 8,500 feet.
Its association with the edelweiss in the illustration (pl. 3) is car-
ried out in bouquets sold to tourists where the one flower is a foil
to the other—both supposed to have been gathered well up to the
snow line.

Gentiana nivalis must also be mentioned, as it is the species that
from June to September shows its small blue or mauve flowers at
great elevations (5,000 to 10,000 feet) and opens them only when
the sun shines brightly. It is a small plant, 1 to 6 inches high.

Fringed gentian (Gentiana ciliata): This beautiful species has
been justly celebrated in verse and prose. It is a hardy biennial or
perennial, with a stem 3 to 10 inches high, carrying large, handsome,
pale (electric) blue flowers with a strongly divided corolla, whose
margins are strongly “ fringed ” or ciliated. The flowers are often
solitary, or there may be several to the stalk. This lovely plant

SWISS WILD FLOWERS—WOOD 513

blooms from August to October, being distinctly an autumnal
species. It prefers Alpine pastures and hillsides up to 8,000 feet,
and is especially fond of shade and a soil of limestone detritus.

Few subjects in local natural history have produced a more exten-
sive literature, in English, French, and German, both popular and
systematic, than Alpine plant life. Both the tourist and the ama-
teur botanist are confronted by a small library of works when either
proposes seriously to pursue this fascinating study. The English
reader will, however, find that two well-illustrated volumes of H.
Stuart Thompson cover the ground fairly well. ‘These are “Alpine
Plants of Europe,” 287 pp., 64 colored plates, London, 1911; and
“ Sub-Alpine Plants; or Flowers of the Swiss Woods and Meadows,”
325 pp., 33 colored plates, London, 1912.

To these might be added an excellent English translation of a
book by Correvon and Robert, “The Alpine Flora,” 436 pp., 180
water colors, Geneva; and another but smaller work by L. and C.
Schroter, “ Coloured Vade-Mecum to the Alpine Flora,” 217 colored
and plain drawings, 21st edition, Zurich.

In the preparation of this paper the writer has had the assistance
of Miss Marjorie Fyfe, Mrs. Howard Wilson, and Mrs. Constance
Domvile. These ladies spent many days (from April to September,
1930) exploring the wooded heights, mountain meadows, hilly slopes,
and natural rock gardens of Lucerne and Schwyz, searching for
botanical specimens. The result is an amateur herbarium showing
several hundred species of wild flowers, which has been a decided
help toward an appreciation of the abundant flora of at least two
delectable Forest Cantons.

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Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Wood PLATE 1

AN ALPINE MEADOW CARPETED MOSTLY WITH THE YELLOW GLOBE FLOWER
(TROLLIUS EUROPAEUS)

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Wood PLATE 2

1. GROUP OF BLUE SOLDANELLAS FREE OF SURROUNDING ICE AND SNOW

2. THE SWISS OXLIP (PRIMULA ELATIOR) GROWING NEAR A STREAM IN AN
UPLAND PASTURE

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Wood PEATE 3

EDELWEISS (LEONTOPODIUM ALPINUM) AND GENTIAN (GENTIANA
ACAULIS)

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Wood PLATE 4

SWISS YELLOW ANEMONE (ANEMONE SULPHUREA)

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Wood PLATE 5

WILD MONKSHOOD (ACONITUM NAPELLUS) FROM A SWISS UP-
LAND POND

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Wood PLATE 6

A GROUP OF LADY’'S-SLIPPER (CYPRIPEDIUM CALCEOLUS) IN AN
ALPINE THICKET

THE ANTIQUITY OF CIVILIZED MAN?

By A. H. Sayce

Many years ago Professor Huxley remarked to me: “If you wish
to clarify your ideas, you can not do better than give a lecture.” The
remark made a deep impression on me, and the truth of it has been
abundantly verified by my subsequent experience. Our conclusions
are not infrequently derived from premises which have been for-
gotten or never fully thought out. We are apt to assume that facts
or ideas familiar to ourselves are equally well known to the rest of
the world, and the attempt to explain them to others makes us realize
how far this often is from the case. Each of us lives to a large ex-
tent in an intellectual world of his own, and it is not until we have
to make it clear to others that we discover how much of it is over-
shadowed or rendered misty by familiarity.

It is not, however, the individual only whose ideas need clarifying.
Science, as we know, is progressive, and the successive stages in its
progress are each marked by a general atmosphere of its own. As-
sumptions are made upon evidence which is undefined or ill defined,
but which is taken for granted as was animism by primitive man. I
am old enough to remember the time when layman and scholar alike
assumed that the appearance of man upon this globe was a thing of
yesterday. The geologists, it is true, had already begun to accustom
the more intelligent portion of the public to the conception of a long
period of existence for the earth itself, but so far as man was con-
cerned, his history was still limited by the dates in the margins of
our Bibles. Even to-day the old idea of his recent appearance still
prevails in quarters where we should least expect to find it and so-
called critical historians still occupy themselves in endeavoring to
reduce the dates of his earlier history. In fact, his extremely mod-
ern character had become so fundamental a part of our stock of
beliefs that it is difficult to realize with what a shock the announce-
ment came upon the ordinary educated world when as a schoolboy I
listened to Sir Charles Lyell’s famous address to the British Asso-

1The Huxley Memorial Lecture for 1930. Reprinted by permission from the Journal
of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 60, July to
December, 19380.

102992—32——34 515

516 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

ciation at Bath in 1864. To a generation which had been brought up
to believe that in 4004 B. C., or thereabouts, the world was being
created, the idea that man himself went back to some 100,000 years
ago was both incredible and inconceivable.

But it was uncivilized man, not homo sapiens, as he is called to-
day, of whom this was postulated, and between homo sapiens and his
predecessor or predecessors the scientist still inserts a period of
untold centuries. It is true that the Tasmanian with his paleolithic
implements and mathematical deficiencies still survived into our own
time; but he possessed a language and could even cook his food and
make clay vessels. It is also true that Cromagnon man had a skill
which rivalled that of the modern European and has left us works
of art which, considering the conditions under which they were
produced, place him on the highest stage of artistic ability. But
he, too, possessed speech and belonged to the later and not to the
older Paleolithic age of Europe. After all, it has been assumed, his
distance in time from us has not been so great when measured with
that which separates us from Chellean and still more Eolithic man.

Recent discoveries, however, in Southern and Eastern Africa have
been disturbing. I learn from Sir Arthur Keith and L. S. B.
Leakey that homo sapiens already appears in the Rift Valley of
Kenya at the beginning of the second major pluvial period which
may roughly correspond with the two last glacial epochs of Europe
(the Riss and Wiirm). He had already invented pottery before
the closing stages of that period, so that by the next wet period or
the first post-pluvial wet phases of it he had developed a class of
pottery of really good character. The Mousterian type of culture
in Kenya existed contemporaneously with the Aurignacian through-
out the second major pluvial epoch, gradually developing as time
progressed. Homo sapiens, therefore, with his art of pottery mak-
ing and the use of fire which it implies, is thus pushed back to an
age which we have hitherto associated with his semisimian pre-
decessors.

Man, that is to say, civilized man, or man in the true sense of the
word, must therefore have existed untold centuries ago. He already
possessed the potentiality of speech; we may argue from his artistic
skill and products that that potentiality had been already translated
into fact. The greatest invention ever made by him had already
been made. That language was an invention we know; every child
born into the world has to learn it. And language exists irrespective
of race. Wherever we find man, however low he may be in the
scale of humanity, he is possessed of language. The further we go
back in his history, the more multitudinous are the languages which
he has spoken. The tendency of an advance in civilization is to

ANTIQUITY OF MAN—SAYCE 5IT.

minimize their number and merge the languages of the smaller
tribes or nations into that of the dominant power. The Roman
Empire was a case in point. And what is true of the multiplicity
of languages is true also of their character. Simplicity is a sign
of age and progress; the most intricate and complex grammar is
usually to be found among peoples of a low type. If we could
transport ourselves back to the Aurignacian artists of France and
the draughtsmen of the extinct animals of Africa, I fancy we should
find a multiplicity of dialects and languages and a corresponding
complexity of grammar.

What all this indicates is obvious. Civilized man—and man who
had invented language and was a first-class artist, was already civi-
lized man—is exceedingly old; his antiquity can not be measured
by centuries or even by millennia. This much is the teaching of
prehistoric archeology. Let us now turn to archeology in the more
restricted sense of the name and see what it can tell us.

At the outset we are met by the historians on what may be termed
the “lower margin of archeology,” whose sphere of work begins
where that of the archeologist ends. The historian has to deal with
literary records and his outlook, therefore, is subjective rather than
objective. The interpretation, and, still more, the valuation of them,
is a purely subjective matter dependent on his own judgment, preju-
dices, and knowledge. Words, as we know, can be twisted in mani-
fold ways and it does not follow that what the original writer meant
by them is what his later critic believes them to signify. Where the
documents belong to a distant past, more especially if that past be-
longs to a different world and civilization from his own, the con-
clusions of the critic are apt to be mistaken. They represent his
own surroundings and not those of the past.

The more distant the past and the more scanty the literary re-
mains which belong to it the more doubtful and open to suspicion
must the verdict of the historian be. His interpretation of the evi-
dence must be purely subjective and colored by the assumptions and
prejudices of his own time. Before we can accept it, it must be
tested by the objective facts of archeology.

One of the leading obsessions of the historian has been the belief
in the recent evolution of civilization and the shortness of the period
during which it has endured. The obsession, as I have already
noted, is derived from medieval tradition—civilization was believed
to have been coeval with the creation of man, and man, like the rest
of the universe, to have been in existence only about 6,000 years.
The science of geology in its early days had hardly penetrated into
the ranks of the historical scholars, and the famous presidential
address of Sir Charles Lyell on the Antiquity of Man, to which I

518 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

have alluded at the beginning of my lecture, fell like a bombshell
upon an unbelieving world. I well remember the sensation it cre-
ated and the numerous criticisms and “replies” which it called
forth. But the historian comforted himself with the assurance that
the “man” of the geologist was not the civilized and literary man
with whom he had to deal, but merely a superior sort of ape. Civ-
ilized man was the man who had left books behind him which could
be criticized and fully explained by the modern writer of books.

Medieval tradition had left yet another belief behind it which co-
existed with the belief in the brief duration of humanity and the
universe. It was the belief in the decline instead of the progress
of civilization and culture. The belief had been handed down from
the classical world which had looked back with regret upon “a
golden age,” and it had been fostered by the manifest relapse into
barbarism which characterized medieval Europe. Travelers in
Egypt brought back stories of the marvelous monuments of a re-
mote past which were still to be found there; Roman culture had
been inferior to that of Greece, and the civilization of the Roman
Empire had been succeeded by the Dark Ages. Civilized man, in
short, had had but a brief existence, and it was accordingly evident
that documents which ascribed to him an earlier date were unworthy
of credence. It needed but little ingenuity on the part of the critic
to resolve the earlier narratives given in them into myths and inven-
tions and to lay down that literature in the true sense of the term
did not exist before the seventh century B.C. The heroes of the
old legends became solar myths and the “ancient empires of the
East ” were stripped of their antiquity.

A new era has dawned upon us. The scientific method, aided by
the spade, has opened up a new world and furnished us with facts
instead of theories. And the result is that the same story, as that
which geology had to tell us, is being retold. The age of civilized
man must be pushed back through the centuries like the age of un-
civilized man. Catastrophic theories are no more applicable to him
than they are to the human being who had not yet invented language
or learned how to cook his food. Art and culture did not spring
suddenly into existence like Athena from the head of Zeus.

The last hundred years have, indeed, unfolded to us a new world,
that of the civilized past. It is difficult for me to realize to-day
how little we knew of it in the days when I was a boy. The in-
scriptions of Egypt and Assyria, it is true, were beginning to be
deciphered, but the historian still looked upon their interpretation
with suspicion, and some, like Sir George Cornewall Lewis, rejected
it altogether. So far as the Aigean was concerned, its history began
with the Ionic colonization of the Asiatic coast, and the “ Homeric

ANTIQUITY OF MAN—SAYCE 519

age”? was synonymous with the mythological period. When listen-
ing to a lecture last year by an eminent classical scholar upon the
successive naval hegemonies in the eastern basin of the Mediter-
ranean, to each of which he assigned a precise date, I could not but
think of the contrast with the orthodox attitude of mind in my
younger days toward what were then considered the inventions of
a later literature. It was then grudgingly admitted that lbraries
might have existed in Greece in the fifth century before our era, but
even so, they would not have been libraries in our modern sense of
the word, in which the various branches of literature are represented
and students come to study them.

It is true that there were some old-fashioned people who still be-
lieved that the earlier books of the Old Testament belonged to their
traditional date and that some of them were written by Moses him-
self. But this was the exception to the rule, so much the exception,
indeed, that a special revelation from above was called in to explain
it. And we of the younger generation, trained in the critical meth-
ods of Germany, were unable to accept the dogma; it rested only on
unproved assertions and was contradicted by the character of the
documents themselves. If there were no libraries and literature in
early Greece, still less probable was it that they should have been
found in the Hebrew world.

And where there was no literature to hand down the facts of his-
tory it was assumed to be unlikely that history could exist. Human
memory is notoriously defective and forgetful and the phantoms
of imagination take the place of sober facts. Instead of history we
should expect to have folklore and fairy tales. More especially
would this be the case in a literary community, such as that of mod-
ern Europe, to which the critics belonged; here the memory had
been weakened by centuries of literary tradition and the critics found
it difficult to believe the stories that were told of Indian scholars who
had handed down the Rig-Veda orally, or of Polynesians who pro-
fessed to remember the names and deeds of former chieftains for
numberless generations. The argument seemed unassailable; with-
out books and libraries there can be no history, and since books and
libraries could not be traced back beyond a few centuries befove
our era, the earlier so-called history of the world, it was clear, must
be little more than myth. And from this it further followed that
where we have no history we can not assume that civilized man ex-
isted or could have existed for any considerable period of time.

The historian is still largely under the spell of these preposses-
sions and beliefs. The purely archeological record naturally leaves
him untouched. He is content to let the archeologist discourse about
stone and bronze ages and assign to them long periods of time so

520 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

long as there is no question of exact dating or of interference with
the antiquity which he would assign to his own protégé, literary
man. Here he believes he can count the generations, and the oftener
he counts them the fewer they become.

But archeological science, hand in hand with the decipherment
of the languages and records of the past, has come with a rude shock,
and the most recent discoveries have been more than usually subver-
sive. Civilized man in the fullest sense of the word is immeasur-
ably old. His history forms no exception to that of the rest of the
world; though the latest comer, he too has a past which can not be
measured by the half-dozen inches of the literary historian’s rod.
Archeology is repeating the lesson of geology and physical science.

I have already touched upon the discoveries in southern and east-
ern Africa. The consummate artists who depicted the animals of an
extinct fauna, like their brethren in France and Spain, were repre-
sentatives not only of homo sapiens, but of homo sapiens in a highly
developed form. And think only of the conditions under which in
Europe he drew his pictures on the walls and even the roofs of the
caves he inhabited or carved the mammoth tusk and moulded the
clay into lifelike figures! The exhibition of primitive art organized
at Manchester in 1928 by the late Sir William Boyd Dawkins must
have been a revelation to many of us. In the subterranean dark-
ness of a world in which the conditions were those of Iceland or
even Greenland to-day, and by such light as could be obtained from
a little grease, works of art were produced worthy of being grouped
with those of a fifteenth century painter. But the artistic achieve-
ment was more than matched by an achievement of an even greater
nature. Man had already invented articulate language, the greatest
and most outstanding invention he has ever made.

But I must leave the history of homo sapiens in his earlier years to
the geologist and prehistoric archeologist. There is one experience
of my own, however, which I will record, as it impressed me in a
way that no amount of books or museum specimens could have done.
Some 80 years ago I undertook to make an archeological survey of
the sandstone district of Gebel es-Silsila, in Upper Egypt, for the
Egyptian Department of Antiquities. A barrage was to be built
across the Nile at Esna, and as the engineers wished to get their
stone for it from the sandstone rocks at Silsila, it became necessary
to ascertain where they could do so without destroying or injuring
any remains of antiquity. In the course of my work a few miles
north of the Gebel I found a wadi on the western bank of the river,
which had been the bed of a torrent that had poured into the valley
of the Nile from the jungle that then flourished on what is now the
western desert in the Pluvial Age, when the Sahara was covered

ANTIQUITY OF MAN—SAYCE H2A

with forest and intersected by streams. In the middle of the wadi
was a huge boulder of sandstone, washed down from the plateau
above and marked at about two-thirds from its base by the high-
water level of the ancient torrent. Above this level the rock was
covered with drawings of elephants, giraffes, and ostriches—which,
it may be noted, had already ceased to exist in Egypt when the
hieroglyphic script was first known in its present form. The out-
lines of the drawings had been chipped by flint tools, some of which
I found at the foot of the boulder. Over some of the drawings had
been cut a hieroglyphic inscription in the age of the Eleventh Dy-
nasty, between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. The inscription looked
as fresh as if it had been engraved yesterday, whereas the prehistoric
pictures were weathered to the color of the stone. The contrast made
me realize in a startling way the enormous length of time which
must have elapsed since the pictures themselves were drawn.

But historical Egypt also now has its lessons to teach us. While
the literary historians have been vying with one another in the en-
deavor to minimize its antiquity, the spade of the excavator has
made discoveries which have rightly been termed “ revolutionary.”
At Saqqara, under the shadow of the step pyramid, generally con-
sidered the earliest of the pyramids still existing, Mr. Firth has laid
bare a complex of buildings without parallel elsewhere in the coun-
try. A stately avenue of fluted columns—indicating from whence
the Greeks, centuries later, derived the so-called Ionic design, a
record office or library, storage magazines, tombs, and temples, have
been discovered, all surrounded by a vast wall 17 meters thick and
faced on both sides with the finest masonry in Egypt. It is, in fact,
the masonry of modern Paris or London rather than that which we
have been accustomed to associate with the Egypt of later days.
And at the southwestern corner the wall is overshadowed by a cir-
cular bastion, the only circular building which ancient Egypt has
bequeathed to us. Within the fortified enclosure subterranean pas-
sages cut through the solid rock lead to what may have been a me-
morial chapel of the king, while another passage to the north
descends some 72 feet below the level of the ground to the royal
tomb under the pyramid itself. The passages consist of wide and
lofty corridors, the longest of which, like the tomb, has on one side
a wall encrusted with small plaques covered with a blue glaze and
grouped at times into the form of lotos buds or papyri bound to-
gether.’ This wall of tiles is broken into three niches built of exqui-
sitely white limestone, in each of which is a figure of the Pharaoh
standing or in the act of running, and set in a frame on which his

name and titles are engraved in hieroglyphs of extraordinary beauty.

tg Ne ee eb edgy el

? Mr. Firth points out that these bundles of papyri are the origin of the Egyptian
hieroglyph dad.

p22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Both figure and hieroglyphs are in low relief, and the figures of the
king are marvels of art. Indeed, if we did not know that they
represent King Zoser, described only as recently as 1895 in Beedeker’s
Handbook to Lower Egypt (p. 164) as “the mythical King Zoser,”
and that they were carved by Egyptian artists of the Third Dynasty,
we should have little hesitation in ascribing them to a Greek artist
of the age of Pericles. The muscles of the arms and legs, like the
pose of the figures, are represented as they might have been by a
Greek sculptor of the classical epoch. I know of nothing compar-
able with them elsewhere in Egypt, just as I know of nothing com-
parable with the architecture of the buildings above them; in archi-
tecture and in art alike Egypt would seem to have reached its climax
in the age of Zoser, and from that period onwards, instead of prog-
ress, there was more or less decline. A still more modern touch is
to be found in a side passage leading from one of the corridors of
which I have spoken, which terminates in a small chamber cut in
the rock and presenting a startling resemblance to a retiring cham-
ber of to-day.

Architecture, art, and glazed tiles all testify to the long centuries
of development which must have preceded the period of perfection
to which they belong. And the impression made by them upon us
is heightened when we come to examine the hieroglyphic script. It
is already as complete and conventionalized by use as in the days of
Rameses or Darius. The alphabet is there by the side of the syllabary
and ideographs, and there are indications that the hieratic or cursive
hand was already employed. As for the smaller objects of daily
life—the furniture of the house, the jewelry and garments that were
worn, or the articles of toilet-—the discoveries made by Doctor Reis-
ner in the tomb of the mother of Kheops, the builder of the Great
Pyramid of Giza, prove that at the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty
the culture and art of Egypt were still at their highest level. The
bedstead and carrying chair of the queen, with their golden fittings,
might even now adorn a royal palace. It will be remembered that
Sir Flinders Petrie, when he was working at the Great Pyramid
many years ago, discovered that the huge granite blocks used in its
construction had been smoothed by means of tubular drills fitted
with hard-stone points. The world had to wait until the era of the
Mont Cénis tunnel before a similar instrument was employed again.

When we turn to Babylonia, here also the latest discoveries have
pushed back the highest development of its art yet known to us to
an undetermined but remote antiquity. Hitherto ancient Babylonia,
whether Sumerian or Semitic, has seemed artistically deficient and
inferior; its inhabitants were primarily men of business and trade,
the initiators of banking and international commerce but with little
artistic sense. The royal and other tombs found by Mr. Woolley

ANTIQUITY OF MAN—SAYCE 523

at Ur have revolutionized our judgment on this matter. The gold
and silver work, the inlaid designs in shell and ivory, have revealed
an art of the first order. To those of us who have been devoting a
lifetime to the study of Babylonian antiquity the revelation has,
indeed, been startling. Some of the inlaid designs, with their touches
of modern humor, seem to belong to the European world of to-day
rather than to the oriental world of the past. And yet the tombs
and their contents actually belong to Babylonian prehistory rather
than history. The few inscriptions found with them are not yet
in the fully developed cuneiform or linear script, which already had
a long history behind it when Sargon of Akkad founded the first
Babylonian empire in 2750 B. C. They are, in fact, still the picto-
graphic signs out of which first the semilinear and then the cunei-
form characters slowly developed. And along with these early semi-
pictographic forms goes another remarkable fact. The advanced art
and culture exhibited by the objects found in the tombs is accom-
panied by evidence of human sacrifice on a vast scale which reminds
us of Dahomey rather than of the Near East. Human sacrifice, how-
ever, was not only unknown in historical Babylonia, but its very ex-
istence at any period in the past history of the country was ignored.
In the multitudinous religious texts which we now possess I can find
no specific reference to it. The references which I thought I had
discovered some 55 years ago have since proved to be mistaken.
When Babylonian history begins the past existence of human sacri-
fice is even less known to its records than it is to the beginnings of
Anglo-Saxon history.

And yet the royal tombs of Ur by no means belong to what, it
is now clear, was the earliest period of Babylonian history. “Above
the graves,” Mr. Woolley tells us, “there runs, virtually unbroken,
a stratum dated (by written tablets or clay jar stoppers) to the First
Dynasty of Ur, about 3100 B. C., and a little below is (another) the
seals from which seem to be rather earlier. Then comes (No. 3) a
deep zone in which lie nearly all the graves. Below it the stratifi-
cation continues, and in five further layers more tablets and seal
impressions occur freely. All these are necessarily older than the
“cemetery ” into which the “ royal tombs” were sunk. The stratifi-
cation of the city itself, where house has been built over house,
agrees with that of the cemetery. Here, too, there are eight succes-
sive layers, each distinguished by the remains found in it, which
include inscribed objects. In one of the strata (the sixth) “ which
was more than 20 feet underground when the first of the royal tombs
was made,” four bulls’ hooves of hammered copper were discovered
vias had belonged to a life-size statute, and in the eighth layer

the painted pottery resembling that of aeneolithic Susa and even

524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

distant China, which hitherto (had) been reported only from Jem-
det Nasr, near Kish,” makes its appearance. “ Below this begin to
appear the black and green sherds of the El-’Ubaid type,” the pot-
tery, namely, found at El-’Ubaid near Ur. We are thus taken back
to the time when the alluvial plain of Babylonia was only beginning
to be formed at the head of the Persian Gulf.*

My own belief is that the royal tombs of Ur, modern as they are
when compared with the strata below them, belong to a pre-Sumerian
time and to a pre-Sumerian race, which would explain the existence
of human sacrifice to which they testify. The Sumerians called
themselves “ the black-headed people.” ‘This implies that there was
also a blond race in the country from which their black hair and eyes
distinguished them, and the conclusion is confirmed by the further
fact that whereas Sumerian art represents them as broad skulled,
most of the early skulls discovered at Ur and examined by Sir Arthur
Keith prove to be dolichocephalic. Berossus, the Babylonian his-
torian, tells us that the plain of Babylonia was originally inhabited
by peoples of various origin, and an early Sumerian poem published
by Professor Langdon explicitly states that in the prehistoric days
Lugal-banda, king of Dér, on the eastern side of the Tigris, invaded
the country and expelled “the wicked Murri ”—the Amorites of
Semitic writers—from Erech, the future capital of a Sumerian dy-
nasty.* On the Egyptian monuments, it must be remembered, the
Amorites of Palestine are depicted as blonds with fair hair and blue
eyes. I believe that in these blond Murrti we must see the Mesopo-
tamian Mitannians of later history; in a letter of the Mitannian
king Dusratta, Mitanni is called Murrit-khe, or “ Murrti-land,” and
I have tried to show elsewhere that the name given to the Mitannian
neighbors of the Hittites in eastern Asia Minor which has been read
Kharri, or Khurri, ought to be Murri.’ The latter have been iden-
tified with the Sanskrit-speaking tribes of whom we hear in the Hit-
tite tablets.© At any rate, we may safely assume that they were of
Caucasian origin. And we may, I think, further assume that the
people, represented by the artistic treasures and human sacrifices
in the royal tombs of Ur, were the Murrian or Amorite predecessors
of the Sumerians. At Tepe Gawra, near Ninevah, Doctor Speiser
has discovered two strata of cultural remains below the stratum which
belongs to the Early Bronze Age and the appearance of the Sumer-
ians. In this last, the copper objects resemble those found at Ur and

®’ Barly Art in Sumeria, Times, Feb. 11, 1930.

*Langdon, Weld-Blundell collection in the Ashmolean Museum, yol. 1, p. 5: Legend of
Lugalbanda, ji, 12-3, “From all the land of Sumer and Akkad let the impious Amorite
depart ss (Kengi Uri nigin-ba Murrad galu senuzu khu-mu-zi). :

aa mae Buoy Haiecwe” 1924.

drozny, however, would make the “K 4) - - i
the Mitanni or Maiteni the Tig Mase aaeage ees ee sok ie Ree erie

ANTIQUITY OF MAN—SAYCE YAR)

El-Obeid, which are dated to the period of the First Dynasty of
Ur (about 3100 B. C.), whereas the earlier strata take us back to
the aeneolithic epoch and the painted pottery of Jemdet Nasr.’
But the tombs of Ur testify to something more than an advanced
art and human sacrifices. They indicate a wide international trade
and the working of mines. Gold, silver, and lapis-lazuli are all
found in them in profusion as well as copper. The gold probably
came from the shores of the Persian Gulf, but the silver, like that
of the Sixth Egyptian Dynasty, found by Sir Flinders Petrie at
Abydos, was probably brought from the mines of the Taurus, while
the lapis-lazuli, we are now assured by the geologists, was derived,
not from northern Persia, but from northwestern India.* The
fact is in harmony with the discoveries recently made in China and
northwestern India itself. In China, Professor Anderson has found
painted and polished pottery of the neolithic and chalcolithic age,
which is related to the neolithic pottery discovered in Susa; similar
ware has been found in Babylonia and (by Professor Garstang) at
Sakche-gozii, north of the Gulf of Antioch, while the recent excava-
tions of Professor Li at Yin in Honan—the first official excavations
of a scientific character made in China—have shown not only that
the Shang Dynasty (1766-1154 B. C.) was historical but that the
account of its culture and script with the long preceding develop-
ment and commercial intercourse implied by them was based on fact.
In India, both at Mohenjo-daro in Sind and at Harappa in the
Punjab, a prehistoric civilization has been brought to light which
was in close contact with that of Elam and Sumerian Babylonia.
The painted pottery, the inlaid work in mother-of-pearl and ivory,
even the drains in the streets, all have their connections in Baby-
lonia, and hundreds of seals and sealings have been disinterred,
which prove that there was an active trade between northwestern
India and western Asia. The sealings have inscriptions in picto-
graphic script, often accompanied by representations of an Indian
buffalo or the like and of an altar of various forms. In shape and
size and general character the sealings resemble those found at
Susa, which also bear pictographic inscriptions as well as figures of
animals. Some of the Indian sealings have actually been found in
Babylonia, at Jokha, the ancient Umma, as well as in the early strata
of Kish. It is evident that a large and regular trade must have
existed between the two countries; a good deal of it was doubtless
carried on by sea, but there must have been a land route as well.
Indeed, more than 80 years ago some antiquities were discovered
near Herat which included a Babylonian seal cylinder belonging to

™The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research, vol. 9, pp. 39-51.

® According to a Babylonian tablet (W. A. I., vol. 2, 51.1.18), the source of the lapis-
lazuli was ‘‘Mount Dapara,”’ called Tapara (Tefreret) in an Egyptian inscription of
Rameses II. But this may have been the Persian depot rather than the quarry itself.

526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

the age of the Third Dynasty of Ur about 2300 B. C., which shows
that the land trade still existed at that period.2 When this trade
first began we have yet to learn, but it must go back to the time when
in Elam at least the primitive pictographs had not yet been super-
seded by the cuneiform script. At a later date the so-called Cappa-
docian cuneiform tablets discovered at Kara Eyuk, 18 kilometers
north of Kaisariyeh, have shown how extensive and modern in char-
acter Babylonian commerce must have been at that time. Here sev-
eral thousand tablets have been brought to light, mostly consisting
of trading and legal documents and including a good many private
letters. At the time when they were written the copper, lead, and
more especially silver mines of the Taurus Mountains were being
worked by Babylonian firms whose agents had their depot and chief
center at Ganis, the present Kara Eyuk. ‘“ Companies ” (illati) had
been formed to exploit them and caravans traveled regularity along
the roads which led from Asia Minor to Assur, the original capital
of Assyria, on the one hand, and to Babylon, on the other. There
was, in fact, what we should call a postal service, and one of the let-
ters expresses the hope that the moon will shine brightly so that
there might be no delay in the delivery of the mail, while another
letter states that a particular route was being taken, as it was now
considered safe. The tablets were enclosed in clay envelopes on
which the addresses were inscribed as well as a statement of the
contents.

Some of the tablets are of the nature of cheques and bills of credit.
The writer states in them that they represent so many manehs or
shekels of silver, gold, or copper, in return for which cloths or other
goods are to be sent. Besides metals, a large trade was carried on
in textiles and clothes, showing that Asia Minor at the time was
not only exporting metals on a large scale, but was also the seat, like
Babylonia, of an extensive textile industry. Among the articles
manufactured it is interesting to note the berigani, the braccae of
the Keltic languages, and our English “ breeches,” which can, there-
fore, claim a Hittite ancestry.

The principal silver mines were at the modern Bereketli, where
traces of the old workings have been found extending over several
miles. Gold was also mined, but in small quantities; one of the
sources from which it was derived seems to have been in the north-
west of the peninsula. Iron is also mentioned, but it is uncertain
whether this was derived from the rock or from a meteoric source.
In the later days of the Hittite Empire we are told that “ black
iron” as distinguished from “iron,” came “ from heaven,” like the
ba-n-pet, “ metal of heaven,” which denoted “iron” in the Egyptian

®See the Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal., vol. 11, pp. 316 sqq. ‘The seal was bought by

Major Pottinger, but afterwards lost—fortunately, not before a good copy of the in-
scription had been made by the purchaser and published in the Journal.

ANTIQUITY OF MAN—SAYCE 527

hieroglyphs. At any rate, iron was already worked at a consider-
ably earlier date than the foundation of that empire; in one of the
Hittite tablets a king (Anittas), who seems to have flourished about
1900 B. C., speaks of “an iron chair,’ and “an iron boomerang,”
having been brought to him from Buruskhanda, where the principal
silver mines were.?°

The date of the Kara Eyuk documents is fortunately known. The
forms of the characters, as well as the Assyrian proper names oc-
curring in them, point to the age of the Third Dynasty of Ur (2418-
2300 B. C.), and this dating has been verified by the discovery of
two sealings published by M. Thureau-Dangin and myself, one of
which gives the name of Ibi-Sin, the fifth king of the Third Dynasty
of Ur (2324-2300 B. C.) while the other has the name of Sargon I,
the son of Ikunum of Assyria. We may, therefore, assign the bulk
of the tablets to about 2300 B. C. They were preserved in chests
of stone or terra-cotta, which took the place of our safes, and often
bore the “crest” or name of the banker to whom they belonged.
Thus, Professor Hrozny has disinterred one of them in the form of
a terra-cotta box, on the lid of which a monkey is molded in relief.
They appear to have been kept in the vaults of the banks or offices
of the companies established at Ganis. It is all very modern and
implies a long preceding period of development and history.

We can trace it back a few centuries. In 2750 B. C., Sargon, the
founder of the dynasty of Akkad and of the first Semitic Empire,
carried his arms into Cappadocia, and made his way as far as a
mountain called Galasu, which Doctor Weidner would identify with
Ganis, and from which he brought back various plants, including
the rose tree, for acclimatization in Babylonia. ‘The chief object of
the expedition seems to have been to support the Assyro-Babylonian
damgari or trading agents and commercial travelers who lived there
and were occupied with the trade in minerals. A sort of “ commer-
cial treaty ” was made, and a century later we find Naram-Sin, the
grandson of Sargon, receiving homage from Zipani, King of Ganis,
and other princes in that part of the world, one of whom was Pamba,
the Hittite. It is worth mention that Khati in Hittite signified
“ silver,” so that the Khatti or Hittites would have been “ the Silver
men ” who mined and exported that metal to the ancient world.

I need not dwell upon the length of time presupposed for the rise
and development of all this trading activity with the means of
traffic and use of writing which it implies. The archeological rec-
ord of civilization is being steadily pushed back and the disturbing
discrepancy between the facts of archeology and literary criticism is

0K, B. K., vol. 3, 2, No. 22.75. The ideographs PA-GUR, which I have translated
“ boomerang,” signify literally ‘‘a bent rod.” Hrozny suggests the translation “ scepter.”
1 Illustrated London News, Oct. 2, 1926.

528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

disappearing. Civilized man is far older than the merely literary
scholar has dreamed.

But the archeologist also must be careful not to exceed his evi-
dence, and, above all, not to make assumptions which belong to a
prescientific age. When I was young, the assumption that language
and race were interchangeable terms was still widely prevalent, and
one of my first incursions into linguistic science was an article pro-
testing against it in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute.
To-day, every scientist would acknowledge its falsity, but neverthe-
less the assumption sometimes appears even in quarters where it
might least be expected. It can not be too often made clear that all
linguistic science can do is to indicate geographical contact; where
we have allied languages we have evidence of social intercourse, but
nothing more.

The old fallacy, however, which confused language and race to-
gether, has been succeeded by another fallacy, which is unfortunately
not infrequent in modern anthropological books. Similarities in
technique are assumed without question to indicate relationship or
contact in race and history. It is especially when dealing with
pottery that the archeologist is tempted to assume without further
evidence that such contact or relationship exists. But it is clear that
mere similarity in form proves nothing of the sort when standing
alone. The number of possible forms, for instance, belonging to
vessels intended for use is necessarily limited; man is an inventive
animal, and the same form could have been devised independently
in different parts of the world. Coloration and ornament are more
evidential, but even here there is plenty of room for the existence
of accidental similarities. Moreover, we have to allow for primitive
barter, which implies, not actual ‘trade between two widely sepa-
rated communities, but the passage of certain objects through a
number of intervening hands. Thus, the painted aeneolithic pottery
of China does not prove that there was intercourse between its
makers and the early inhabitants of Susa and Babylonia; all that
can be inferred is that at a particular period in the history of Asia
there was a trade which passed slowly through a multitude of sepa-
rate communities and races, generally assuming on its way peculiari-
ties of its own.1? Even the megalithic monuments erected to the

12 Jn an article on the early pottery of Ur (Antiquaries’ Journ., vol. 9, No. 4, p, 344),
Mr. Frankfort justly remarks: ‘ Generalizations are of no avail. Thinness and thickness
of ware has been taken to illustrate differences in period as long as Susa only was
considered; ‘Musyan’ has disqualified this criterion. Polychromy and monochromy of
decoration no longer provide chronological indications, since Sir Aurel Stein’s discoveries
in Seistan and Professor Langdon’s work at Jemdet Nasr suggest that certain monochrome
fabrics survive and overlap the polychrome wares. Yet all these isolated qualities are
still used as criteria for classification. But only if we insist on a many-sided resemblance,
a resemblance affecting technique, shape, and decoration alike, before claiming the
existence of relationship between wares from different sites, is there any likelihood of
our not combining heterogeneous elements.”

ANTIQUITY OF MAN—SAYCE 529

dead, of which we have heard so much of late, are in themselves
of little historical value; long centuries, for example, separate those
which are found in Western Europe from those which are found in
Japan.

In the case of an inductive science, the false assumptions or other
faults with which it starts are corrected in time. It deals with ob-
jective facts and not with the tastes and predilections of an individ-
ual scholar. And the interpretation of the facts becomes more exact
and limited with the progress of the science. Archeology has out-
lived its years of infancy, and in its broad outlines can now take
rank with geology. And like the geologist, the archeologist has had
to leave catastrophic theorizing to the literary amateur. Athena
did not spring full-grown from the head of Zeus. The art and cul-
ture of classical Greece, we now know, had its origin in the Greece
of the Minoan and Mycenaean Age; the invasion of the barbarian
north overshadowed it only for awhile, but the seed remained ready
to bud and blossom again as soon as the older race had freed itself
from the domination of their feudal conquerors. So, too, in West-
ern Europe, the Dark Ages were but a break in the history of its
civilization. A thousand years are but as a day in the life of civil-
ized man, and the Renaissance meant, not that the culture of the
Roman Empire was reborn, but that it had been lying like the seed
in the soil, ready to spring up again and burst.into leaf as soon as
the conditions that environed it were favorable. In scientific arche-
ology catastrophic theories have as little place as they have in geol-
ogy or physics.

RO A, ee | eo SerEtORMMW OM spite Me aes
pcb asinine bao al on Domne

do dsirw aonb in i on ne oe i ve
ee aint ae 7

ielaciaoarsedaesselinglivin faonckoadh eho Bion cere wr a
Dadieall dicoloarors ail) Seigotooy ede dlii bast):
BAA, ashnasrtetoMl told oLgninitogls /2
dnote ew eK Eseries to Pier rics inar mre
eonanhd ort ie aint ati hadron wo aw 990i, Inoivents to oa)
qitindiad sit: hy cotewanradd cay eet
bie Dont rors hes sald God yolteivrn fokogino wth bertolssiieratee dnote
Masti leerdehsdvaoscehile okt em:
deo ot ott ,oBioedotai pave Labarstk ained ‘io ive eects sult tert
ai Qo! ro leiel pilin: dowd ye diet coop eaph Gadsden atte.
alivie to Sti eds etoyeblues bud.oraindoybraanadt ih aoitees
elite owiina. ont tert vom iimont Pomeuabetind abt (oe cmatlbadt
have sit sali gnigl mood. hacditt tackhi dnd cachet ee entky thine aoe
et aoe ay) Teal obed dei babi atogope eingy oer ehwdd!
-odois sitineine the whigwrasiempod di fumorets ves sae aise idétamasigny
tomy rival gods es, ooaekey, altel tals tend |
ial Rae ath BU Hae RAE DiastMORA i Codsall waved: ononveniet ely mentgge
HMeuseiiel) Doihenseeaty Andinye: Mune Nba ie ad ecient ie ea ee
itn yy wi yitendtakiad ys i ORY: es ASA ny widen, Se HO
Hither winnie Dieodint, Gotha aibink tedih (Ren ineeann ira mT iy, Sein ie
AG! nh aera haat, Dee ORL panied idl manent losing, ta om aan
eM ee el crane ivige neds) Tied eh MAR ny hide) te pi he
Lee ee bisa Aiduawele sa ante, vith a a heveiaaw sian
pipe tay) a Ne Cai ORLY Aititet Pt oe ane ON, mgd Ayes andy ible int
eer ee af a, r pre Wet enamide ah didi hintory, ae |
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oe © Ae Boon ote sre lee enter te Win
eM eae eh ceca ce Bary hens oan kN) ome Parr re

Oy hi ee wt he a: guy ov, oy i antiaaarie Terk eB ce
ee ee ae |

ee Ce nh Deihae h! ARUN a sletan ae oad
co AD) Miedo dudes URAL? E Ove Wii Matern
ws oe ii in’ Vb ig 3 Ue ni rae, amc et Me if ara Magrnney

4 ean J eeienat, hvkqitweae seh eel: a tae ate eae '

: Meg yy Yin DA Lg Me were) iste
Ave ® ae edit seen te Livni) ogi 2 wee! Ae Dy
‘ giant er ins Phtilih. a UN ae ; Leataagt 2 fe
Pr ted oo? MMe. tonne & byoule Hmm sean) 4 ds
1 te? ote “og heaped eres i) eye
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’ Palit it
vé ao ey A
re, iin
A lieviveue segue

THE DISCOVERY OF PRIMITIVE MAN IN CHINA}?

By G ELLior SMITH

[With 9 plates] ‘

At the time when Darwin published his Descent of Man compara-
tively little was known of the fossil remains either of men or apes,
so that the discussion of the evidence of paleontology played an alto-
gether insignificant part in his argument. Apart from the discov-
eries that had been made in the Neanderthal cave and at Gibraltar,
nothing was known of fossil man, and what little was known was
puzzling rather than helpful. Little more had then been recovered
of the fossil remains of apes than a few fragments of Pliopithecus
and Dryopithecus.

During the 60 years that have elapsed since those times, however,
the evidence of paleontology has come to play an increasingly promi-
nent part in the discussion of human evolution, until at the present
day it is the aspect of the problem that appeals most to the man in
the street when the question of man’s origin comes up for considera-
tion. It is only 40 years since any really early remains of the human
family were discovered, and it is a matter of some interest to discuss
the circumstances which have led to the recovery of the remains of
early Pleistocene man.

Pithecanthropus was discovered 20 years after the publication of
Darwin’s Descent of Man. There had been much discussion, not
merely on the morphological side of the question, but also on the
problems of geographical distribution of apes and men that so closely
affected the problem of man’s evolution. The anthropoid apes
ranged from Africa and Europe in the west as far as the eastern
limits of the original Asiatic continent at a time when it included
Borneo and Java as part of the unbroken land-mass. But whereas
the chimpanzee, gorilla, and Dryopithecus seem to have wandered
toward the west from their original home in the region of the Si-
walik Hills of northern India, the orang-utans seem to have pre-
ferred the Far East, where also the gibbons, after wandering west
and east, have survived. Their presence in Borneo and elsewhere

1 Reprinted by permission, with author’s revision, from Antiquity, March, 1981.
102992—32——35 531

5382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

in the Malay Archipelago suggested the possibility that man’s
ancestors may also have gone east.

In the year 1887 Dr. Eugéne Dubois, a junior member of the staff
of the anatomy department in the University of Amsterdam, was
offered promotion to the position of prosector, which was the step
toward the eventual attainment of the full professorship. To the
surprise of his colleagues he declined this promotion, and surprise
turned to amazement when he gave the reason that he was going out
to the East Indies to search for fossil remains of primitive man! He
was impressed by the fact that as the western area of migration of
the higher Primates had failed to provide any conclusive evidence
of really early man, it might be worth exploiting the possibilities of
the eastern route and determining whether the archaic members of
the human family may not have followed the footsteps of the ances-
tors of the orang-utan. He resigned his position in Amsterdam and
went out to the Indies as an army doctor, and began to search in the
caves of Sumatra and the fossiliferous deposits in Java for the object
of his quest. The most amazing aspect of this adventure was Doc-
tor Dubois’s discovery of the sort of thing that had inspired his
mission. In 1891 he found in the gravels on the banks of the Solo
River, which natives of central Java refer to as Bengawan or “ Great
River,” the fossilized remains of a braincase, a couple of teeth, and
a femur. When these fossils were shown at the International Con-
gress of Zoologists in Leyden in 1894 they provoked a controversy
which has continued ever since then.

In the first place the nature of the braincase was a matter of dis-
pute—whether it was part of a hitherto unknown gigantic ape or of
an equally unknown primitive type of human being, or, as Doctor
Dubois himself maintained, a creature that was not strictly either
simian or human, but a link between the two, the position of which
was so enigmatic that it would be misleading to call it either an ape
or aman. This problem, in spite of nearly 40 years of discussion,
is still in dispute. Although the majority of anthropologists admit
Pithecanthropus to membership of the human family, there is still
wide divergence of opinion as to what his position in the family is,
whether he is in the direct line of descent of later men, or whether he
represents a specialized and divergent member of the family. Then
again there is the question as to whether or not the teeth and the
thigh bone which were found in the same gravels, and in a similar
state of fossilization, are parts of the same or similar individuals, or
whether the femur of a more definitely human type of being hap-
pened to be deposited in the same bed of gravel with the remains of
the Ape Man, who was a fantastic caricature of a human being.
There are the widest divergences of opinion even at the present time
on this issue.

PRIMITIVE MAN IN CHINA—SMITH ao0

Then again the question of the geological age of the fossils has
been a subject of controversy. When Doctor Dubois first discovered
the fossils he was impressed by the fact that the associated mam-
malian remains seemed to be identical with types which occur in the
Pliocene beds in the Indian Siwaliks. Hence he regarded the fossils
as evidence of the former existence in Java of Tertiary man. The
further study of these remains, and in particular the gradual ac-
cumulation of knowledge regarding the fossil mammalia of Asia,
have since convinced most paleontologists that the age of the Java
fossils is Pleistocene and not Pliocene. Two years ago (February 22,
1929) Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn, the president of the American
Museum in New York, called attention (Science, vol. 69, p. 216) to
certain facts, which had impressed Professor Dietrich of Berlin and
himself, that the proboscidean and other mammalian remains asso-
ciated with the human fossils belong not to the Early Pleistocene
but to the Middle Pleistocene Age, suggesting that the Ape man of
Java was relatively much more recent than had hitherto been
supposed.

The total result of these discussions is that the precise age and the
significance of the fossils found by Doctor Dubois 40 years ago are
still matters of lively controversy and considerable doubt.

Nearly 30 years ago the late Mr. Charles Dawson, a lawyer
practising at Lewes in Sussex, who had then devoted more than 30
years of his life to the hobby of hunting for fossil remains of ex-
tinct animals in the Weald of Sussex, was attending a land court at
the Manor of Barkham near Piltdown, when he noticed the road
leading up to the manor house being repaired with flint. During
the sitting of the manorial court over which he was presiding, in-
stead of giving the whole of his attention to the legal business in
hand, he was unable to restrain his roving fancies from wondering
why people should be using such poor material as flint to repair a
road when, as he thought, the cost of bringing it from the nearest
source known to him, which was more than 5 miles away, would have
been almost sufficient to have paid for proper road metal. Hence,
as soon as the court rose for lunch he went out to make further en-
quiries, and discovered from the workmen that the reason why flint
was being used was that it was present on the spot. The road itself
crossed the small patch of gravel which the men were digging up to
mend it. Mr. Dawson instructed the workmen to keep a lookout for
any fossil remains which they might find in this bed of gravel, and
from time to time, whenever any excavation was going on, he vis-
ited Barkham Manor to keep a watch on the excavation.

Years afterwards he visited the spot to find the workmen, in defi-
ance of the instructions he had given them, throwing stones at what

534 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

they thought was an old coconut obtained from the gravels. He
at once rescued the fossilized remains of a piece of a phenomenally
thick human braincase, and began excavating there and recovering
other pieces. The massiveness of the skull and the Pleistocene age
of the deposits suggested to Mr. Dawson’s mind that he had found
part of the braincase of the only Pleistocene man at that time known
in Europe. The Heidelberg jaw had been found in 1907 and is all
that we know of this peculiar type of the human family which prob-
ably represents the distinct genus of Palaeanthropus. In 1912 he
took the fragments to Dr. (now Sir Arthur) Smith Woodward, at
that time Keeper of Geology at the British Museum (Natural His-
tory), and they set to work to dig the gravels at Piltdown.

In the summer of 1912 they found a fossilized jaw, which at once
convinced them that they were dealing with a creature totally distinct
from the Heidelberg man, one who was very much more primitive
and apelike and also much older even than that Pleistocene man of
Germany. The announcement of these discoveries, at a meeting of
the Geological Society in London in December, 1912, started a series
of controversies which were even livelier and more confusing than
those which had raged since 1894 around Pithecanthropus. Yor
there was not only the same element of doubt as to the significance
and age of the Piltdown fragments, but there were several new
elements of controversy in the Sussex discoveries. The question of
age was subject to the same uncertainty as I have mentioned in the
case of Pithecanthropus; the fragments of bone had been deposited
by running water in gravels; and in these gravels there were the
remains of Pliocene as well as Pleistocene mammals. As the skull
itself showed no signs of rolling, such as many of the Pliocene fos-
sils displayed, it was assumed that it was contemporaneous with the
undamaged Pleistocene fossils. But there were many elements of
uncertainty in the determination of the geological age of the speci-
mens, and recently Professor Osborn has been putting forward a
view in opposition to the one which is now commonly accepted, that
the Piltdown skull may possibly be Tertiary in age and not Quater-
nary as was supposed. ‘“ The problem is whether it came from a
Pliocene gravel bank with a primitive elephant and mastodon, or
from a Pleistocene gravel bank with a primitive hippopotamus.”
(Science, 1929, p. 217.) There has, moreover, been the liveliest dis-
cussion as to whether or not the jaw which was found at Piltdown
was not that of a chimpanzee rather than of a human being. Even
after 20 years of discussion there is no complete consensus of opinion
upon this issue.

The problem of the precise mode of reconstruction of the skull
gave rise to unseemly and wholly unnecessary discussions which

PRIMITIVE MAN IN CHINA—SMITH 5390

served to create a widespread confusion in the minds, not merely of
the general public, but even of anatomists and paleontologists, and
profound doubt as to the importance and precise significance of this
great discovery in Sussex. This lack of confidence in the validity of
the remains of Pithecanthropus and EHoanthropus was intensified by
the fact that these two doubtful members of the human family were
so dissimilar that they seemed to be hardly compatible with one an-
other. This increased the doubt as to whether two primitive mem-
bers of the human family who were supposed to be roughly com
temporaneous one with the other—that is, Early Pleistocene in age—~
could differ so profoundly as these two skulls did, although the
whole breadth of the great continent of Europe and Asia separated
them from one another. So profound is the scepticism concerning
Piltdown Man that important treatises on the fossil remains of man
published in Germany during the last few years have either re-
frained altogether from referring to the Piltdown discovery (which
obviously is of crucial importance) or have stated that the issue is so
doubtful as to be excluded from the argument.

Even those of us who have always been convinced that both
Pithecanthropus and Eoanthropus were genuine members of the
human family, were somewhat puzzled to know how to define their
relations to one another, and precisely what light they shed upon
the process of the evolution of later types of human beings.

The discovery of Sinanthropus in China has put an end to this
uncertainty and marks a new epoch in human paleontology. The
skull found at Chou Kou Tien on December 2, 1929, has dissipated
the chief elements of doubt and uncertainty in regard to the other
two genera of the human family, for it not only provides us with
much fuller and unequivocal, information concerning a third and
hitherto unknown genus of early Pleistocene man, but in addition
it establishes a bond of union between the other two types, and
shows that the Ape Man of Java and the Dawn Man of Piltdown are
not really incompatible with one another. Many of the most charac-
teristic features of these two divergent types are combined in the
same individual of the genus Sinanthropus. Hence it clears away
the mists of doubt and suspicion. Thus the discovery in China is not
only a tremendous contribution to the exact knowledge of early
Pleistocene man, but in addition it gives a respectability to these
other early men, whose remains were being discredited, and a co-
herence to our knowledge of all three types which thus establishes
upon a sure foundation our knowledge of the most primitive men
so far recovered.

The discovery of the Peking remains is a romantic story, differing
from the finding of the other two genera, just as the nature of the

536 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

circumstances under which the fossils were deposited differs from
those revealed in Java and in Sussex respectively. The remains of
the Peking man were not deposited by running water in river
gravels, but left by their original owners on the floor of a cave of
Ordovician limestone where they and a large series of mammals dwelt
in Early Pleistocene times. Hence the geological age is certain.
The elements of doubt which arise in the case of Pithecanthropus and
Foanthropus do not arise in the case of Sinanthropus.

Nearly 30 years ago Doctor Haberer purchased in a druggist’s
shop in Peking a collection of “ dragon’s bones” which he sent to
Prof. Max Schlosser in the University of Munich. Shortly after-
wards, in 1903, Professor Schlosser published (in Abh. k6énigl. Ba-
verisch-Akad., Wiss. Math. Phys. K1., vol. 22, pp. 20-21, 1903) a mem-
oir under the title “ Die fossilen Siiugethiere Chinas nebst einer Od-
ontographie der recenten Antilopen,” giving his identifications of the
series of fossil remains he was able to recognize among this collec-
tion of Chinese drugs. On pages 20 and 21 of this memoir there is
a section called “‘ The Description of the Primate Types,” which is
of such exceptional interest and importance that I shall translate
that portion of the description which is defined as “ ? Anthropoide
g@.n. et sp. ind.” ? In his account Professor Schlosser says, “ In the
collection recently sent by Doctor Haberer from Peking there was
a left upper third molar, either of a man or a hitherto unknown
anthropoid ape. This tooth is completely fossilized and is quite
opaque. Moreover it exhibits between its roots a reddish clay such
as is found only in teeth which belong to the Tertiary period and
are earlier than the loess. Hence it is probable that a Tertiary age
should be ascribed to the specimen. Unfortunately the tooth is al-
ready much damaged and its surface corroded by the roots of plants,
so that the original appearance of its surface can not be accurately
determined.” After giving an account of the position of the various
projections on the surface of the crown in comparison with other
teeth, and describing the form of the body of the tooth and its
roots with their respective measurements, Professor Schlosser pro-
ceeds to consider how to determine the zoological status of the orig-
inal possessor of the tooth. The form of the tooth and morphology
of the roots are distinctly manlike. On the other hand the state of
preservation of the tooth makes it clear that it is of remote antiquity,
possibly as old as the Tertiary period, which suggests the improb-
ability of it belonging to the genus Homo.

In fact the Tertiary existence of any type of man is not yet
established. Hence the possibility has to be considered whether
this tooth may belong to a hitherto unknown genus of anthro-
poid ape, which in the structure of its teeth approached more

PRIMITIVE MAN IN CHINA—SMITH 537

nearly to man than any other known anthropoid ape. Another
possibility, he says, is that the tooth may be that of a human being
which in some way became displaced and got into the Tertiary
beds although belonging to a more recent period. He suggests,
for instance, that possibly the tooth was only of Pleistocene age,
which raises the difficulty that the state of fossilization is such
as he has found only in teeth which are either Tertiary in age
or are referable to the very beginning of the Pleistocene. He ad-
mits that he can not pretend to distinguish between the state of
fossilization between the earliest Pleistocene and the Tertiary. He
admits that a definite answer to this riddle must necessarily be only
tentative—for no other early human remains except Pithecanthropus
were then available for comparison. No useful purpose would be
served by comparing this third molar tooth (with its marked differ-
ence in size and much more strongly reduced roots) with the tooth
of Pithecanthropus, the roots of which were much more exception-
ally divergent. He calls particular attention to the fact that the
fossil found in China presents a much nearer likeness to the tooth
from the Indian Siwaliks which Lydekker has described as 7'roglo-
dytes sivalensis, to which Dubois refers as Palwopithecus sivalensis.
The third molar tooth in this Indian anthropoid presents a close
resemblance to the Chinese tooth. It is distinguished, however, only
by relatively slight differences in size and the position of the roots.
After detailed comparisons between these teeth of fossil anthro-
poids and primitive men (including Pithecanthropus and the Nean-
derthal remains from Krapina) Schlosser refers to the possibility
that the tooth from Peking may be the remains of the oldest human
being known at that time and one that displayed a closer likeness to
the apes than any other known fossil. While admitting that, how-
ever unpardonable it might be tacitly to evade the issue, it is im-
portant to try to define a systematic position which obviously
could not be finally determined by the scanty evidence at that time
available.

Hence he defines the aim of his communication to suggest to later
investigators who may enjoy the privilege of carrying out excava-
tions in China the desirability of searching for the remains either
of a new fossil anthropoid, a Tertiary man, or an Early Pleistocene
human being. In recording the complete realization of the third
possibility adumbrated by the veteran German paleontologist, it
would be unpardonable not to refer to Professor Schlosser’s insight
and courage. He correctly predicted the age and the nature of the
type of being whose damaged tooth came into his possession without
any indication either of its provenance or of the geological circum-
stances under which it had been recovered. One can not withhold

538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

admiration for his wonderful imagination which enabled him to
make this amazingly accurate prediction, which the discoveries of
the last five years in China have so amply corroborated.

This brilliant forecast was made in 1903, but nothing further was
done towards the realization of it until the year 1921, when Prof.
J. Gunnar Andersson, the Swedish geologist who was acting as the
Adviser to the Geological Survey of China, was directed to a deposit
of fossil bones at Chou Kou Tien through overhearing the chatter
of his native workmen. When he started to examine the rich de-
posit of fossil bones in the cave at Chou Kou Tien he found amongst
these remains a piece of quartz, and at once remarked to his assist-
ants, “ This is primitive man,” implying by that statement that
as quartz did not naturally occur in this spot, some early Pleisto-
cene human agency must have been responsible for its presence
among the bones which he was examining. In a way this inference
is almost as remarkable as that which Professor Schlosser had made
over 20 years previously.

The funds available for the Chinese Geological Service were inad-
equate to carry out the examination of these fossils with the thor-
oughness which their importance merited, but Doctor Andersson
obtained from Mr. Ivar Kreuger, of Stockholm, financial aid which
enabled the investigations to be continued and extended.

The material obtained from Doctor Zdansky’s excavations at Chou
Kou Tien in 1922 was taken to Professor Wiman’s laboratory in
Upsala for examination; and in 1926, on the occasion of the visit
of the Crown Prince of Sweden to Peking it was announced that
two human teeth had been found, an immature left lower molar, and
a somewhat worn adult right upper premolar.

In the Bulletin of the Geological Society of China, volume 5,
Nos. 3-4, page 284, 1927, Doctor Zdansky gave an account of these

teeth, the concluding two paragraphs of which I quote in his own
words:

Granted the human origin of the teeth, there arises the question of their
relation to the living and prehistoric races of man. . .. 1 am indeed con-
vinced that the existing material provides a wholly inadequate foundation for
many of the various theories based upon it. As every fresh discovery of what
may be human remains is of such great interest not only to the scientist but
also to the layman, it follows only too naturally that it becomes at once the
object of the most detailed—and, in my opinion, too detailed—investigation.
I decline absolutely to venture any far-reaching conclusions regarding the ex-
tremely meagre material described here, and which, I think, can not be more
closely identified than as Homo gp.

The above has been written largely because I find I am credited, in certain
quarters, with the discovery of the “ Peking man” (vide daily newspapers),
which is supposed to be of Tertiary age. Leaving until a future date the
publication of a detailed description of the fossil fauna from Chou Kou Tien,

PRIMITIVE MAN IN CHINA—SMITH 539

my purpose here is only to make it clear that my discovery of these teeth
(which are of Quaternary age) should be regarded as decidedly interesting
but not of epoch-making importance.

Dr. Davidson Black, however, took a different view of the signifi-
cance of the teeth. To him they were definitely of epoch-making
importance. Moreover, he had the courage to act upon his convic-
tion. He had been profoundly influenced by the memoir published
in 1915 by the late Prof. W. D. Matthew, F. R. S., “ Climate and
Evolution.” (Ann. New York Acad. Sc., vol. 24, 171.) In fact,
the possibility (suggested by Doctor Matthew’s argument) of the
discovery of primitive man in China decided Dr. Davidson Black
to accept the invitation, which he received after the war, to join
the staff of the Anatomy Department in the Peking Union Medical
College. The reality of Doctor Black’s conviction was known to me,
not only by statements in his private letters, but also in the memoir
which he published in 1925 entitled “Asia and the Dispersal of Pri-
mates.” (Bull. Geol. Soc. China, vol. 4, no. 2, p. 133.) Hence when,
a year later, Doctor Zdansky found human teeth in the early Pleis-
tocene or, as was then thought, late Pliocene, beds, Dr. Davidson
Black regarded this as a definite realization of the aim which he had
set before him several years before, and naturally regarded the
discovery as truly epoch-making.

In a communication which, at the request of Doctor Andersson, he
made at the scientific meeting held in Peking on October 22, 1926,
he emphasized these considerations, and was able to interest Dr.
Henry Houghton, then director of the Peking Union Medical Col-
lege, and Edwin Embree, then secretary of the Rockefeller founda-
tion, to support an appeal for financial help to carry on the search at
Chou Kou Tien. The late Dr. Richard Pearce, at that time director
of the medical division of the Rockefeller Foundation, so far appre-
ciated the significance of the possibilities that he induced the Founda-
tion to make an appropriation for two years’ work on the site.

This project met with immediate success, for on October 16, 1927,
Dr. Birger Bohlin found a human lower molar tooth in the deposit
at Chou Kou Tien, where Doctor Zdansky found the teeth reported
on October 22, 1926. On December 2, 1927, Dr. Davidson Black an-
nounced to the Geological Society of China this important discov-
ery and his courageous decision to use it as evidence for the creation
of a new genus and species of the human family.

On the suggestion of Dr. A. W. Grabau, professor of paleontology
in the National University of Peking, he called it Stnanthropus
pekinensis. The age of the deposits in which the fossils were found
was thought at this time to be Upper Pliocene; but a more careful

540 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

sifting of the evidence provided by the associated mammals subse-
quently led the geologists to decide that the real age was Lower
Quaternary (very early Pleistocene). Professor Schlosser in 1903
and all subsequent writers for the next quarter of a century believed
that fossils found in deposits earlier than the loess of the Chili
plain were Pliocene. But investigations during the season 1927-28,
fully recorded in the exhaustive report published by Pére Teilhard
de Chardin and Dr. C. C. Young (Bull. Geol. Soc. China, 1929, p.
173), established the age of the fossils as Early Pleistocene.

Dr. Davidson Black claimed that the morphology and the pro-
portions of the tooth left no doubt either of its human origin or of
the fact that it is generically distinct from all other known human
types. He came to the conclusion that its original possessor was a
child corresponding in age to that attained by modern children at
8 years, and presumed that it was derived from the same jaw as the
lower premolar tooth whose discovery was reported in 1926 by
Doctor Zdansky.

In 1903 Professor Schlosser had emphasized the fact that while
the tooth he was describing on that occasion differed from those of
other known human and simian remains, morphologically it was
essentially human in type, but revealed certain remarkable points of
similarity to one of the fossil apes from the Siwalik Hills. The tooth
found in 1927, like that of 1903, was partly embedded in a stony
matrix which, in addition to the condition of mineralization of the
tooth itself, corroborated the extreme age of the specimen.

In a monograph published in 1927 (Palaeontologia Sinica, ser. D,
vol. 7) Dr. Davidson Biack gave a detailed description of the tooth
found by Doctor Bohlin in that year. He called attention to its dis-
tinctive characters, and contrasted it with a series of primitive hu-
man and simian teeth. He provides ample justification for his action
in creating a new genus and species of the human family. He shows
how every character of the tooth, the form and proportions of the
crown, the peculiarities of the roots and the size and form of the
pulp cavity all agree in conferring upon Sinanthropus a distinctive
position intermediate between man and ape. Moreover, he shows
how generalized are the characters of the tooth, so that it enables us
to understand how the peculiarities revealed in the later types of the
human family have been derived from this extremely primitive type
by differentiation of some of the potentialities so clearly manifest
in this interesting tooth. He showed also with great clearness how
the pattern of the crown showed a distinct likeness to that revealed
in the fossil ape Dryopithecus.

In spite of the very thorough and complete demonstration of the
fact that the tooth of Sinanthropus was of early Pleistocene age and

PRIMITIVE MAN IN CHINA—SMITH 541

so definitely different from that of all other known human teeth (an
extremely generalized human type presenting obvious analogies to
the conditions found in the fossil apes which most nearly conform
to the human type) Doctor Black’s action in creating a new genus
did not meet with any widespread support. A year later, however.
the discovery made by Dr. Birger Bohlin, working in conjunction
with Dr. C. C. Young and Mr. W. C. Pei, of fragments of two jaws
and braincases, provided evidence which confirmed the validity of
the genus founded in 1927. The tooth upon which Doctor Black
based his definition of the new genus conformed in character to the
two teeth whose discovery was announced in 1926, as well as to the
tooth described by Schlosser in 1903, and there can be no doubt that
these four teeth all belong to Sinanthropus. One of the teeth found
by Doctor Zdansky in 1926 probably came from the same jaw as
the type specimen found in 1927. The two jaws found in 1928 con-
tained a number of teeth conforming to the same characteristic mor-
phological types as that found in 1927. Both jaw fragments, one
of a child and the other of an adult, display very significant peculi-
arities in the chin region. The oblique slope of the anterior surface
is comparable only to that of anthropoid apes and the Piltdown jaw;
and a peculiar conformation of the lingual aspect of the jaw is
analogous to, though not exactly identical with, the peculiarities of
the jaw found at Piltdown in 1912, which has been a subject of the
liveliest controversy ever since.

While the finding of this peculiar apelike type of jaw in associa-
tion with fragments of braincases, which are unquestionably human,
provides corroboration of the justice of regarding the tooth of 1927
as a new genus, it also affords evidence which can not be ignored in
support of the validity of regarding the jaw found at Piltdown as
part of the same human individual whose broken skull was also
found alongside it. The features of the jaws of Sinanthropus at first
raised the possibility that the fossil man of China might be more
nearly akin to the early Pleistocene man of Piltdown than to the
Ape Man of Java. It would, however, be more accurate to say that,
as nothing whatever is known of the type of jaw of Pithecanthropus,
the only human jaw susceptible of comparison with the Peking jaws
was that found at Piltdown. The contrast between the teeth of Pithec-
anthropus and those of Sinanthropus suggest that there must have
been a considerable difference between the jaws of those two primitive
genera. In 1929, however, the finding of an almost complete brain-
case of Sinanthropus by Mr. W. C. Pei revealed a type of skull
which, while it was still embedded in the hard matrix of travertine
(involving the base and a greater part of the sides of the skull)
seemed to be much more nearly akin to the skull of Pithecanthropus

542 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

than to that of Hoanthropus. While there is this obtrusive general
resemblance to Pithecanthropus, however, it is important not to
minimize the peculiarly significant expansion of the frontal and
parietal parts of the braincase which so definitely distinguishes it

Ficur® 1.—Base of the Peking skull after removing the travertine from its interior

from the skull of Pithecanthropus. There can be no doubt, however,
that just as the finding of the jaws in 1928 suggested the possibility
of some kinship with the Piltdown man, the skull found in 1929
caused opinion to swing in the other direction and suggested a nearer
kinship with Pithecanthropus. In 1930, however, when after four

PRIMITIVE MAN IN CHINA—SMITH 543

months of intensive work, Dr. Davidson Black completely liberated
the skull from the matrix of travertine, the braincase was revealed
with a curious blend of characters hitherto regarded as distinctive,
some of them of Pithecanthropus and others of Hoanthropus. ‘The
combination in the same specimen of peculiar characters hitherto
regarded as incompatible one with the other was not only important
as a revelation of the extremely primitive and generalized qualities
of Sinanthropus, but, what was even more important, it formed a
link between the other two genera of early Pleistocene men, concern-
ing the validity and significance of which there had been so much
doubt and suspicion. Hence the skull found in 1929 not only estab-
lished on a firm foundation our knowledge of primitive man to which
it gave coherence and in which it inspired confidence, but in addition
it revealed a type which was so primitive as to enable us to visualize
the characters of the common ancestor of all three genera.

If the size and form of the eyebrow-ridges (pl. 4) and the median
frontal crest (pl. 2) suggest a kinship with Pithecanthropus, the
form of the posterior aspect of the skull (pl. 1, fig. 2) presents a
marked contrast to the Java fossil and a definite likeness to
Foanthropus.

As long ago as 1903, Professor Schlosser defined the contrast be-
tween the tooth he was discussing and those of Pithecanthropus,
differences which have been still further emphasized by Dr. Davidson
Black with the fuller material at his disposal.

The braincase of Sinanthropus differs from that of Pithecan-
thropus not only in the matter of the local expansions of the frontal
and parietal areas, but also in its general form and the characters
of its cranial bones, for the exceptional thickness of the cranium
(pls. 5 and 6), and the peculiar architecture of the bones repro-
duce conditions which hitherto have been regarded as distinctive
of Hoanthropus. The form of the surprisingly small cranial cavity
presents a significant contrast to that of Pithecanthropus, being nar-
rower and loftier, and free from the grosser type of distortion re-
vealed in the broad flat endocranial cast of Pithecanthropus. The
kraincase of Stnanthropus reveals many features which are un-
known either in the Ape Man of Java or in the Piltdown skull, and
throws a great deal of light upon the characters of the common
ancestor of the human family, from which all these genera had been
derived. One of the most striking illustrations of this fact is the
peculiar form of the mastoid region of the temporal bone, recalling
as it does the condition found in the new-born child and in the adult
anthropoid apes, for it lacks that salient character which is so
distinctive of the adult human of other genera (pls. 3 and 4, fig. 1).

544 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The skull found in 1929 is that of a young adult corresponding
in the state of its development with the condition found in modern
human skulls at about 16 years of age. When the skull was first
examined Dr. Davidson Black was impressed by the grace of its
contours in comparison with the uncouth outlines of Pithec-
anthropus, and suggested the possibility that it might be female, with
the reservation, of course, that the evidence at our disposal regard-
ing this hitherto unknown type of being was altogether inadequate
for any definite decision upon this matter. Its grace, however, may
be due to its primitiveness and the fact that it is free from those
secondary distortions which give the degenerate Pithecanthropus
its bizarre character. The discovery of another braincase (pl. 9) was
made in July, 1930, by recovering from material brought in from the
Chou Kou Tien cave (in October, 1929) a series of fragments which
naturally articulated one with the other to form the greater part
of the calvaria. This discovery of a skull of another individual
probably more than 10 years older than the one found in Decem-
ber, 1929, revealed a more lightly built skull with small eyebrow
ridges, a less prominent forehead and less obtrusive parietal emin-
ences, which both Dr. Davidson Black and I consider to be probably
of different sex from the other skull. It seems probable, however,
that the skull reported in July, 1930, may prove to be female and the
other skull (found on December 2, 1929) male; but at present
neither opinion can be said to be based upon any really decisive
evidence. The discovery of a second skull enormously enhances
the value of the information we have because it permits compari-
sons to be made. In Figure 2, SD indicates the place where this
skull was found, a few feet noone the spot (SE) where the skull was
found in imeeeaber 1929:

In the material found in 1928 there are remains of two other
broken skulls (still embedded in travertine), which provide other
important comparative material for studying the range of variation
of the skulls.

Whether or not the Peking man was older than the fossils found
in Java and Sussex, there is no doubt that he represents a more
primitive type. His characters are more generalized, some of them
distinctly reminiscent of man’s simian ancestry and others strangely
foreshadowing the qualities hitherto regarded as distinctive of Homo
sapiens. In other words, Sinanthropus enables us to picture the
qualities of the original members of the human family by revealing
a type which, though human, was curiously ape-like, and obviously
close to the main line of descent of modern man.

The work of investigation and of recording the results has been
carried on with exceptional thoroughness and imaginative insight.

PRIMITIVE MAN IN CHINA—SMITH

‘Ul Ose

i falttild
Gea

Fa unl
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N\
= sie

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a=

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Kou Tien (I) has been combined with a further section of the lower cave (II) excavated in 1929 and 1930, and the Kotzetang Cave (III)

excavated in 1931

“
Figure 2.—Drawing from W. C. Pei’s memoir in which the diagram of a section made by Teilhard and Young of the main deposit at Chou
The line of the section passe

CONN fH
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AM B.30M.

545

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from east (EH) to west (W). ‘The various places mark
obtained in October, 1929, from which, in July, 1930,

moves

ments of Sinanthropus have been recovered. SE is the spot where the skull was

the blocks of limestone wer
places where the original f

of quartz have been found; LW, lime waste; P, rubbish; R, limestone blocks pre

various layers of deposits.

546 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

It was hoped by Dr. Davidson Black that the prompt publication
of bulletins and the wide circulation of manuscript reports even
before they were published, would have prevented the development
of such misunderstandings as had marred the discussions of the
fossil remains of man in the past. In spite of these precautions,
eminent paleontologists in Germany and France are already claiming
that the Peking man belongs to the genus Pithecanthropus; others
in America have suggested that he is merely a Far Eastern example
of Neanderthal Man; and others again that the Chinese fossils were
not human.

Having made a careful examination of the actual fossils in Peking
and compared them with human and simian skulls, and the casts
of the other kinds of extinct members of the human family, I can

P|LT DOWN
SKULL

roe

i \
=s
= \
i — 4)
rH W\
At |)

ites

hah

N
I

Mi

Figure 3.—Transverse sections in the plane of the acoustic meatus of the Peking skull
(SIN. 1), of the second Peking skull (SIN. 2), and of the Piltdown skull (EO.)

confidently support the opinion of Dr. Davidson Black that Sinan-
thropus is an undoubted member of the human family, who reveals
in every part of his skull and teeth evidence to distinguish him from
all other known human types, and to justify the separate generic
rank suggested to define his status.

THE INDUSTRIES

In studying the remains of early man it is always a matter of
particular importance to search for the tools and implements which
might bring the human beings into association with some definite
phase of industry. At Chou Kou Tien, in spite of the most careful
search in the caves during four years, no trace whatever of im-

PRIMITIVE MAN IN CHINA—SMITH 547

plements had been found. When it is considered how vast a quan-
tity of fossils were recovered and the scrupulous care which has
been exercised in the search, it seems something more than a mere
coincidence that no trace of any stone implements were found. Not
only were the various excavators on the constant lookout for such
artifacts (in particular Father Teilhard has been looking for ar-
cheological evidence), but after the material was removed from the
caves, a group of boys was put on to sift the material once more
to make quite certain that no such evidence had been overlooked
by the geological explorers. It must not be forgotten, however, that
Doctor Andersson in 1921 found pieces of quartz in association with
the fossil bones, and that in the later stages of the excavation Mr. Pei
found further examples of this alien material. Those who have been
searching in vain for evidence of human craftsmanship on this site
were being forced to the conclusion that the Peking man was in
such an early phase of development as not yet to have begun to
shape implements of stone for the ordinary needs of his daily life.

In the spring of 1931, however, Mr. Pei began to examine the
adjoining cave of Kotzetang (fig. 2) and was at once rewarded by dis-
coveries of exceptional interest and significance. In association with
two large fragments of a human jaw and three pieces of a brain case
(found at SG, fig. 2) thousands of pieces of quartz, quartzite, and
other alien stones were found. Some of these had been fashioned
into implements which the discoverers regard as the crudest possible
type of flaking, but the Abbé Breuil claims to be surprisingly ad-
vanced. (Bull. Geol. Soc. China, 1931; also Man, Jan. and April,
1932.) Not only so but Mr. Pei and Dr. Davidson Black found
conclusive evidence of the use of fire and, according to. the Abbé
Breuil, of the splitting of the bones of large mammals to obtain
marrow, the making of implements of bone and deer-horn, and the
working of the brain-cases of deer to make drinking cups. No longer
then is there any room for doubt that the most generalized member
of the human family had already acquired the skill and the intelli-
gence which are the hall-marks of his humanity.

102992—32——_36

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Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Smith PLATE 1

1. FRONT VIEW OF THE PEKING SKULL

2. POSTERIOR ASPECT OF THE BRAIN CASE

The right and left hand sides of this photograph have been reversed in the
engraving.

PLATE 2

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Smith

UPPER SURFACE OF THE PEKING SKULL

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Smith PLATE 3

5 APS San
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UNDER SURFACE OF THE PEKING SKULL BEFORE THE MATRIX WAS REMOVED
FROM ITS INTERIOR

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Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Smith PLATE 8

THE PARIETAL BONES OF THE PEKING SKULL (2) COMPARED WITH THOSE
OF A MODERN YOUTH (1) OF CORRESPONDING AGE

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Smith PLATE 9

IULYA2 6.19350

THE SECOND PEKING SKULL

THE CULTURE OF THE SHANG DYNASTY?
By JAMES M. MENzIES

THE PERIOD

The Shang Dynasty is the name given by Chinese historians to
that line of kings which preceded the Chou.? According to the west-
ern equivalents of the dates calculated by Sst-ma Ch‘ien, the author
of the Shih Chi or “ Historical Record,” the Shang Dynasty lasted
from 1766 B. C. to 1122 B. C., or, in other words, for 644 years
beginning some 12 centuries before Confucius. These traditional
calculations are, however, probably incorrect, and I have provision-
ally adopted two statements made in the ancient “ Bamboo Books,”
excavated about the year 281 A. D. and dating from the fourth or
third century B. C. These state that “from the founding of the
Shang Dynasty by Ch‘éng T‘ang until its destruction by the Chou
people was a period of 496 years”; and that “from the time of the
moving of the capital by P‘an Kéng to the present Waste of Yin
until the end of the dynasty, 273 years elapsed.” According to the
“orthodox ” dating of the overthrow of the Shang Dynasty, 1122
B. C. (although some would place it as late as 1050 B. C.), its found-
ing would have occurred in 1618 B. C., and the movement of its
capital, just mentioned, in 1395 B. C.

In any case, the Shang period corresponds to that of the Late
Bronze Age in the Near East. Within it fall the reigns of the
religious reformer Akhenaton and his son-in-law Tutankhamon in
Egypt; the occupation of Canaan by the Hebrews; the Minoan Pe-
riod in Crete; and the Heroic Age in Greece. During its course
Babylonia was under the sway of the Kassites; and it was perhaps
then that the Aryan invasion of India took place. This historical
background will aid us to correlate the Shang period in China with
the better known history of the Occident.

THE SOURCES

Let us see now upon what evidence an appraisal of the culture of
the Shang Dynasty must be based. Our principal and most author-

1Lecture delivered before the North China Union Language School, Peiping, China,
on Feb. 6, 1931.

2'The title which we translate as ‘‘emperor’”’ was not assumed by the rulers of China
until 221 B. C. Before that date they are properly called kings.

549

550 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

itative source is to be found in the inscribed bones from the Waste
of Yin. In 1899 the first of these to attract attention were found
5 li (nearly 2 miles) northwest of the city of Chang-té Fu, otherwise
known as An-yang, in northern Honan. It long remained unknown
whence these bones came, although collections of them were made by
Chinese antiquarians, among them L‘iu T‘ieh-yiin and Lo Chen-yii.
Some specimens, both genuine and forged, were also secured by the
Rey. Samuel Couling and Dr. Frank Chalfant, and later by L. C.
Hopkins and by Dr. Richard Wilhelm. Certain curio dealers stated
that the place of origin of the bones was the tomb of Pi Kan, near
Wei-hsien, while others claimed that they came from Yu-li, in T‘ang-
yin, where Wén Wang was imprisoned.* Again, Lo Chen-yii, the
well known antiquarian above mentioned, was informed that they
were being found at An-yang. No responsible scientist, however,
had personally confirmed the place of their origin, and everyone was
dependent upon the hearsay reports of dealers.

I first visited the Waste of Yin in the early spring of 1914. The
site has nothing about it to attract particular attention, save for
the broken potsherds, which the farmers have carefully gathered
from the surface of the ground, and which have become buried along
the edges of the fields. From 1914 until the present I have carefully
collected the many fragments of inscribed bones which have come
in my way. The dealers from the cities would purchase only large
specimens; small pieces were not wanted. Of these latter I was
fortunate enough, in the course of 15 years, to collect many thou-
sands, some no larger than a bean. These fragments have formed
the source material for my study. Broken potsherds and stone and
bone implements I also found and kept. It was at no time possible,
however, to do any excavating. I could only make observations on
exposed sections of the soil along the river bank. Unfortunately
all my material was destroyed during the disturbances which took
place in 1927.

In the autumn of 1928 the Academia Sinica (the scientific branch
of the newly established Chinese Government) sent one of its repre-
sentatives, Tung Tso-pin, to undertake investigations on the site.
Early in the following year he was joined by Dr. C. Li, then on the
field staff of the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C., which
then undertook the entire cost of the excavation. Work was carried
on through the greater part of 1929, and the Academia Sinica has
since published two reports (in Chinese), which add considerably to
the information which we have been able to extract from the in-
scribed bones themselves and from the surface finds.

’The date ascribed by the “orthodox’’ chronology to Wén Wang, the father of the
founder of the Chou Dynasty, is 1231-1135 B. C.

THE SHANG DYNASTY—MENZIES BOL

Tt is earnestly to be hoped that the An-yang site will be carefully
and scientifically excavated in accordance with the most approved
modern methods; for it is the only one thus far known which gives
us datable material for a study of the Shang Dynasty. To fail to
treat it with the same exactness and care that are being exercised, for
example, in the excavations at Ur or Kish in Mesopotamia, or in
those of Megiddo or Bethshean in Palestine, would be one of the
greatest archeological losses possible, not only to China but to the
entire civilized world.

In addition to the inscribed bones, there are certain other literary
sources for our interpretation of the culture of the Shang Dynasty.
These are to be found, in part, in the very few authentic sections of
the earlier part of the Shu Ching, or “ Book of History.” The Pan
Kéng Ptien and the “ Day of Supplementary Sacrifice ” are the prin-
cipal ones. These were re-edited during the Confucian period, and
thus are not entirely in their original form. But the most important
literary sources that link up with the information yielded by the
inscribed bones are the traditions preserved in the ancient “ Bamboo
Books ”; in the “ Spring and Autumn Annals ” of Lu Pu Wei; in the
T‘ien Wén Ptien of the Ch‘u Elegies; and also in that fabulous
wonder-book, the Shan Hai Ching, or “ Mountain and Sea Classic.”

In our study of the culture of the Shang Dynasty we must always
bear in mind that the entire literary history of the period was written
under the strict editorial censorship of scholars of the orthodox Con-
fucian school. Many statements in the ancient records not in har-
mony with their politico-ethical interpretation of life were deleted, as
spurious interpolations, and an imaginary Golden Age conforming
to their own conception of history was thus manufactured. It is this
medley of the true and the false which has created in the minds of
all serious students the feeling of the unreliability of early Chinese
history. But now that we have available in collections, both those
published and others as yet unpublished but accessible to investiga-
tors, more than 10,000 readable bone inscriptions, all antedating the
Chou dynasty, we have a reliable means of testing the literary and
folklore source material.

THE LANGUAGE

Let us now turn to the language as we find it in these documents,
which date in the main from the period between P‘an Kéng’s removal
of his capital to the Waste of Yin in 1395 B. C. and a time not long
before the overthrow of the Shang Dynasty in 1122 B. C. Within
this period of 273 years the forms of the characters show some defi-
nite change or development; but we may say that on the whole they
remained pictographic throughout; that is, a horse was indicated by
the drawing of a horse, a stuck pig by that of a pig pierced a

552 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

spear; and soon. But ideographs were also used; thus wei, “ to do,”
is represented by a drawing of a hand guiding an elephant, just as
the “ mali” guides the elephants piling teak in Rangoon to-day; and
nien, “harvest” or “year,” is pictured by a farmer bringing in
sheaves of grain on his back.

How do we determine the modern equivalents of this ancient
script? We have no Rosetta stone such as provided the clue to the
ancient hieroglyphics of Egypt. We must restrict ourselves to the
Chinese writing itself and trace the development of its characters
down through the various periods with the aid of actual archeologi-
cal evidence. Literary sources can not be trusted except when au-
thenticated by actual remains. Hence we are restricted to the
inscriptions on the bones themselves, on bronze vessels, and on stone.
Those on the bronzes are very important, and when we have elim-
inated the forgeries we have a valuable body of source material,
such as the San Shih P‘an, now in the Old Palace in Peiping and
dating from about 860 B. C. Following the bronzes, we have the
Han stone monuments, mainly in the official or li script, which show
that the characters were first written with a brush and then carved
in the stone. From these we may trace the evolution of the Chinese
writing down to its present form, which has altered comparatively
little since the beginning of the Christian Kra. This development
during the period from about 1400 B. C. down to the time of Christ
has to do mainly with the form of character. But what of its mean-
ing and of its sound? At present I have catalogued all the charac-
ters in my own collection of bones and in most of those published
by others. For purposes of comparison I am arranging in order all
the sentences in which a given character appears, whether on the
bones, the bronzes, the early stone monuments, or in the classical
literary sources. From such an arrangement of these groups of
sentences, sometimes containing a hundred or more examples, it is
possible through comparison and a study of the context, largely to
fix the meaning of an individual character. In this task the reli-
ance has been very largely on the bone inscriptions, which have thus
been used to interpret themselves.

As for the sound attached to the characters in the Shang Dynasty,
to my mind this problem is to be attacked by means of the “bor-
rowed characters” (chia chieh), where two characters having the
same sound are used interchangeably. In the Shang period it was
not uncommon for a simpler character to be substituted for a more
intricate one having the same sound. During the official examina-
tion period, when the so-called eight-legged essay was in vogue,
a man would have been “ plucked ” for using a character in this way.
Starting with this use of homophones and with the rhymes found on
the ancient bronze bells and in the Shih Ching or “ Book of Odes,”

THE SHANG DYNASTY—MENZIES 553

we have a fruitful source of information regarding the sounds of
the ancient Shang Dynasty language.

Let us now turn from the technical interpretation of the latter to
some of the more obvious results of its study. First, let us not be
misled by the notion that because its script was pictorial, it was
therefore in its infancy. That this was not the case is shown at once
by the most common characters which it possesses, viz., the numerals
and the 22 cyclical characters. ‘These are already conventionalized
in many cases. Thus while it is possible to see the reason for the use
of the symbols for 1, 2, 3, 4, and 10, I think I am safe in saying that
the meaning of the remaining numerals and of the*cyclical charac-
ters is not obvious, nor is it clear what they portray. This fact
indicates that the script was already old and conventionalized and
that it had already undergone a long process of development before
the fourteenth century B. C.

Secondly, let us not allow ourselves to be carried away with the
idea that Chinese writing, simply because of its age, had its origin
in Sumeria. In 1929 I visited the sites of Ur and of Kish, in
Mesopotamia, and can assure you that the most pictographic scripts
found in those two places, dating from before 3000 B. C., are far
more conventionalized than is our Chinese script of about 1400 B. C.
It is inconceivable that a form of writing already well convention-
alized before 3000 B. C. should have retrograded into a more primi-
tive pictographic form 16 centuries later. Such similarities as exist
are to be explained by the fact that the minds of the Shang Dynasty
Chinese and those of the ancient Sumerians worked in similar ways.
Such a book, for example, as C. J. Ball’s “ Chinese and Sumerian ”
is so defective on the side of the ancient Chinese script as to be value-
less for purposes of comparison.

THE CHINESE PEOPLE BEFORE THE SHANG DYNASTY

As to the origin of the Chinese people and the relationship of the
Shang Dynasty culture to the older prehistoric finds from northern
China, all that our present knowledge justifies us in saying is that
the interval between the Paleolithic Period and the fourteenth cen-
tury B. C. is so enormous that the two fall into two entirely different
and widely separated epochs. We are, however, sure of two very
important points. One is, that man did exist in North China in
very remote times, so that there is no necessity of introducing him
from the West within the historical period. The other point is, that
by 1400 B. C. the Chinese people had already developed a very high
indigenous culture on the great plain of North China.

Now Dr. J. G. Andersson has found numerous examples of a
“painted pottery ” ware in various parts of northwestern China,

554 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

from Kansu as far east as the village of Yang Shao, in the Province
of Honan, just south of the Yellow River. He has dated this mate-
rial as preceding the culture of the Shang Dynasty, perhaps by as
much as a thousand years. And Dr. C. Li reports the finding of a
single fragment of this painted ware in a pit which also yielded in-
scribed bones, at the An-yang site, the “ Waste of Yin.” On this
evidence, he also considers that the “ painted pottery ” period had its
beginning, at least, before the founding of the Shang Dynasty. The
pottery of the latter, as found at An-yang, is mainly either of red
or gray monochrome or else of that fine incised white ware regarded
as especially distinctive of that period. It is to be hoped that a
complete excavation of this important site will throw further light
on this and other points.

SHANG DYNASTY HISTORY

Over half of the inscriptions on the oracle bones are records of
divinations or inquiries by means of the bones themselves, regarding
the ancestral sacrifices. In them we find recorded the names of
the ancestors to whom sacrifices were to be offered. Often a sacri-
fice was offered to a number of ancestors in common. On one bone
we have mention of a sacrifice to Kao Tsu (“ Exalted Ancestor ”)
Wang Hai. Then follow in order three ancestors whose personal
name was the cyclical character I: T‘ai I, called T‘ien I or Ch‘éng
T‘ang (the founder of the dynasty) ; then Tsu I; and lastly Hsiao I.
After these follows Father Ting, by whom is meant Wu Ting, the
father of Tsu Kéng. From such oracular records as this we can
work out the whole ancestral line of the Shang Dynasty. Not only
are the names of its kings given, but so also are those of its queens
through whom the succession was passed on to the following gen-
eration. It may be asked whether this indicates the existence of a
matriarchate. Nothing in the line of descent seems to show this.
Women were honored in their character of mothers, just as the
matron of Honan to-day is most often referred to as “the mother
of So-and-so.” Several mothers are often associated with one king’s
name. Whether these were consecutive or concurrent wives does not
appear, although there is no reason to suppose that the Shang
Dynasty kings were monogamous. In one respect alone does the
mother seem to take precedence in the ancestral sacrifice offered to
her by her descendants; when a deceased king and queen receive
a sacrifice in common, the rite is always performed on the cyclical
birthday of the queen and not of the king.

Succession under the Shang Dynasty was fraternal; that is, the
kingly office passed from elder brother to younger brother, and only

THE SHANG DYNASTY—MENZIES 555

after the members of one generation had thus had their turn did
it devolve upon a member of the next. What rule was followed in
passing from one generation to another, we are not in a position to
say. Sometimes the succession went to the son of the eldest brother,
and at others to that of the youngest; but in no instance does it
appear to have gone to a son of one of the intervening brothers.
This type of succession is in marked contrast to that of the succeed-
ing dynasty, that of the Chou, which was from father to son. In
the main we may say that the line of descent worked out from the
bone inscriptions confirms that recorded for the Shang Dynasty
by the Chinese historical books.

THE ORACLE BONES AND THE CLASSICS

The inscribed bones further enable us to interpret certain signif-
icant portions of the ancient classics, such, for example, as the
genuine document known as “ The Day of Supplementary Sacrifice.”
The orthodox view concerning this was that Tsu Chi was a minister
of Kao Tsu Wu Ting, who was offering the supplementary sacrifice
to Ch‘éng T‘ang, the founder of the Dynasty. Now, however, we
know from the oracle records that Tsu Chi and Tsu Kéng were
brothers, the former being the elder. It was the younger, however,
who was offering the supplementary sacrifice to their father Kao
Tsu Wu Ting. How is this to be explained? From the bones as
well as from tradition preserved in the literary sources, we learn
the following story. King Wu Ting had three wives, named respec-
tively Pi Hsin, Pi Wu, and Pi Kuei. By these he had three sons,
known to later generations as Tsu Chi, Tsu Kéng, and Tsu Chia.
The eldest, Tsu Chi, was a good man; but his mother died young.
The mother of Tsu Kéng held the affections of the king, and pre-
vailed on him to pass over Tsu Chi in the succession and place her
son Tsu Kéng on the throne. Tsu Chi made no effort to assert
his rights, although he was a favorite among the people. Tsu
Kéng, feeling insecure on the throne, endeavored to ensure his hold
upon it by offering excessive sacrifices to his father Wu Ting. Of
all the oracle bones which record the sacrifices of sons to their fathers,
those referring to the ones offered by Tsu Kéng to Wu Ting far
outnumber all the rest; there are a hundred or more of them.

During one of Tsu Kéng’s sacrifices to his father a wild pheasant
flew into the ancestral temple, and, attracted by the seething grain
in the bronze tripod cauldron, perched on its handle and crowed at
the king. The latter was much frightened at this evil omen, and his
sage elder brother, whose place on the throne he had usurped, entered
and read him a lesson as follows:

556 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The former successful kings
Were upright, and served the people.
Heaven mirrors the people below,
Their laws and their just rights,
And sends down harvests in perpetuity,
Or not in perpetuity.
It is not that Heaven oppresses the people,
Cutting off its divine decree in the middle,
But that people will not follow goodness,
Will not listen to their faults.
Heaven has sent forth its decree
For uprightness and good conduct.
What will you do in regard to it?
You, O King, must work reverently at caring for your people
And not oppose Heaven,
Putting at naught the laws of succession and of sacrifice
By excessive rites at the shrine of our father.

Tsu Chi apparently never ascended the throne. He may have
died before Tsu Keng, who was in any case succeeded by the young-
est brother, Tsu Chia. The latter sacrificed to his two older brothers
together, putting Tsu Chi in his rightful place of honor above Tsu
Keng. The succession passed not through Tsu Kéng, who was so
anxious to hold the throne, but through the son of Tsu Chia, K‘ang
Tsu Ting, who maintained the old tradition of sacrificing to his two
deceased uncles, Tsu Chi and Tsu Kéng, as fathers, according to
one bone inscription. In another we have T’su Chi referred to as
Hsiao Wang, “ Little King,” a title which so far as I know does not
occur in the literary sources.

Another erroneous orthodox Confucian interpretation of an inci-
dent recorded in the Book of History is that of P‘an Kéng’s moving
his capital. This was not from the north to the south of the river,
as hitherto believed. Instead, it was from the east, near the birth-
place of Confucius in Shantung, across the marshy river system to
the Waste of Yin, west of the Yellow River, which then flowed
almost due north, a few miles east of the present Peiping-Hankow
Railway. This is apparently the reason why he was called P‘an
Kéng—because he “moved house” (pan chia); for the character
for “P‘an” is connected with that for pan, a picture of a man
poling a boat along a river.

We can not here do more than mention the wars of Wu Ting, and
his struggle against the land of Kuei Fang referred to in the I
Ching or “Book of Changes”; or to the intermarriage of the
daughter of Ti I into the House of Chou. We must also pass over
the untangling of many of the cryptic historical references in the
I Ching, merely stating that the latter work, the material of which
dates back to times long before Wén Wang,‘ seems to be one of

‘For the date of Wen Wang, or “ King Wén,” cf. footnote, 3, p. 550.

THE SHANG DYNASTY—MENZIES 557

reference—a sort of key to the type of divination based on the oracle
bones. A similar book, recording the historical fulfillment of
auguries, was compiled during the Third Dynasty of Ur, in Meso-
potamia, about 2500 B. C. There is no reference in the bone inscrip-
tions to that later philosophical concept of the Yin and Yang (the
Female and Male Principles in Nature), which appears to form the
backbone of the I Ching as we have it to-day. There does seem,
however, to be a definite relationship between the six successive
divinations, each covering ten consecutive days in the cycle of sixty,
and the six continuous and broken lines of the hexagrams. For in
both bones and hexagrams, the order is from bottom to top and
not the reverse, as one would expect.

THE SHANG RACE BEFORE THE BEGINNING OF THE DYNASTY

The Shang race naturally claimed descent from a long line of
ancestors. Allowing 25 years to a generation, we are able to trace
the existence of the family back to a period around 2200 B. C.
There were undoubtedly other ancestors in the line, and in fact
about most of them we have some historical statement in addition
to the mere recording of their names. We have no space here to
tell of Wang Hai and his troubles with the Yu I, or Ti as they
were called in later times.° The story is given in part in a verse
or two of the T‘ien Wén P‘ien of the Elegies of Ch‘u, as well as in
passages in the Shan Hai Ching, and is confirmed by the inscribed
bones. Nor can we pause to speak of Hsiang T‘u, or of Ti K‘u,
whose personal name was Chiin. It is of interest, however, to note
that the name Chiin of his Exalted Ancestor (called Kao Tsu Chiin)
is interpreted in the Shuo Wen dictionary as Mu Hou, or “ Mother
Monkey,” as the character graphically pictures.

THE ART AND MATERIAL CIVILIZATION OF THE SHANG DYNASTY

Let us now turn from the history to the art of the Shang Dynasty.
It is a common mistake to confuse the long development of the hu-
man race with the period of historic time, or to suppose that the art
of Egypt and Mesopotamia, or Crete and India and China, must
have been very rude at the time when the written record begins.
Nothing is further from the truth. This is shown, in the present
connection, by the sculpture of the Shang Dynasty, as exemplified
by the torso which Dr. C. Li found at An-yang, and by a broken
piece of ivory representing a coiled dragon in my own collection.
These are superb in their execution. The jade carvings and bronze
castings were magnificent, much excelling the work of any succeed-
ing dynasty down to the present. The incised white pottery already

5A group of “barbarian” tribes on the north of the ancient Chinese feudal states
which was not thoroughly subdued by the latter until well along in the first mil-
lenium, B. C.

558 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

mentioned, of which we have now several hundred fragments,® has
never been excelled in design. And from the bits of shell, ivory, and
semiprecious stone evidently once inlaid on wooden objects which
have disappeared, as well as from a few examples of bronze and
bone where the turquoise still remains, we know that the artists
of the Shang period were no less skilled in this type of decorative
work. On a plain pottery bowl we find a quality of line hardly
later surpassed. So we do also on a bronze vessel, almost certainly
of the Shang Dynasty, now in the Museum of Fine Arts at Boston.
This, a beautiful wine pail or yin, found 380 years ago near I-chou,
the ancient capital of Yen, has an excellence both of design and
of material (the latter evidenced by its patination) which is not
often exceeded. Last year (1930), while engaged in making rub-
bings of nearly all the inscribed early bronze vessels in America, I
identified this specimen, which was valued only for its intrinsic
beauty and not for its historical importance. This vessel and like-
wise the inscribed bronze halberds found near the Lai Shui? suggest
that the Shang culture extended as far north as I-chou, not far from
Peiping.

Now in contrast note the crude design of the most important
bronze of the Chou Dynasty which followed the Shang, that known
as the Mao Kung Ting. Its inscription is so significant that had
Confucius known of it, declares the scholar Wang Kuo-wei, he
would have included it in that compilation of official records known
as the Shu Ching, or “ Book of History.” Surely the recording
of such an important inscription on a vessel of so poor a design
marks a distinct decline in the art appreciation of the early rulers
of the Chou Dynasty in comparison with those of the Shang who
preceded them.

Occidental museums and authorities unite in refusing to allow
any bronzes to be labeled “ Shang,” and unfortunately the Palace
Museum here in Peiping has followed suit. But the Shang Dynasty
was, we know, prolific in its art; and I am convinced that many of
our existing bronzes belong to that period. On a fragment of in-
scribed bone which dates from the time of Tsu Kéng are two im-
portant statements: One which mentions the honorable (or valuable)
tripod of Wu Ting; and another which speaks of writing on bamboo
tablets. Here we have proof that not only were costly sacrificial
vessels in existence in the time of King Wu Ting, but also that at
that period, in addition to the oracle records on bone, there were also
other writings, on slips of bamboo, which, however, have unfortu-
nately not been preserved.

°No entire vessel appears ever to have been found.
7A small stream in the province of Hopei (that in which Peiping is situated).

TOTEM POLES: A RECENT NATIVE ART OF THE NORTH-
WEST COAST OF AMERICA +

By Marius BARBEAU

National Musewm of Canada

[With 6 plates]

The totem poles of British Columbia and Alaska on the northwest
coast of North America have long since achieved world-wide repute.
Their decorative style at its best is unique and so effective that it is
nowhere surpassed in excellence among the other forms of aboriginal
art at large. They express native personality and craftsmanship in
terms impressive and intriguing. The museums of Europe and
America treasure a number of them, principally from the Queen
Charlotte Islands; some adorn the parks of our western cities.
These picturesque creations, however, can be seen to full advantage
only in their true home, at the edge of the ocean, amid tall cedars
and hemlocks, and in the shadow of lofty mountains. With their
bold profiles, reminiscent of Asiatic divinities and monsters, they
conjure impressions strangely un-American in their surroundings of
luxuriant dark-green vegetation under skies of bluish mist.

The art of carving poles belongs to the past. Racial customs and
stamina are on the wane everywhere, even in their former strong-
holds. ‘Totem poles are no longer made. Many of them have fallen
from old age, decayed, and disappeared. Some were sold, others
removed in maritime raids without the consent or knowledge of the
owners. Quite a few were destroyed by the owners themselves dur-
ing hysterical revivals under a spurious banner of Christianity; for
instance the poles of two Tsimsyan tribes, in the winters of 1917
and 1918, at Gitlarhdamks and Port Simpson near the Alaskan
frontier.

Not even a remnant of the famous clusters of former days remains
among the Haidas of the Queen Charlotte Islands. Barely a few
are still left among the Bellacoolas, the Kwakiutl, and the Nootkas
of the west coast of British Columbia; in a few years these will have
totally disappeared.

1 Reprinted by permission from the Geographical Review, vol. 20, No. 2, April, 1930.
559

560 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The only collection of poles that still remains fairly complete
is that of the upper Skeena, in British Columbia, a short distance
southeast of the Alaskan border, from 150 to 250 miles inland, at the
edge of the area where this art is practiced. Nowhere else but on the
Nass, where a number of poles also survive, are they to be seen far
inland. The Canadian Government and the Canadian National
Railways a few years ago inaugurated the policy of preserving the
Skeena River poles in their original location. And the Department
of Education of the American Government is also restoring some of
the Tlingit poles of the Alaskan coast.

Kisgagas

-/Gitlarhdamks *

sdoeatian °
itn & Gitwintkul

(isthatn Js Rope i\ sft

Kitwangae?
Cs

Ss 4 CO UiMir Beek

Port ESimpson Kitsalas

. 50 MILES
50 KILOMETERS

THE GEOGR. REVIEW, APR., 1930

FigurE 1.—The Nass and Skeena River Basins

Well known as is this striking form of native art, one is apt to
suppose that our enthnographic literature is well supplied with data
on their features and history. The supposition, however, is unjusti-
fied. Casual descriptions of poles or models of poles have been
furnished by Doctor Swanton, Lieutenant Emmons, Doctor Boas,
Doctor Newcombe, and others; but their notes usually appear with-
out the necessary historical context. It is too late now to recover
much of this knowledge. The present writer made a complete study
of the poles of the three Tsimsyan nations, while engaged in several

TOTEM POLES—BARBEAU 561

ethnographic explorations on the northwest coast for the National
Museum of Canada from 1914 to 1927; and a summary of his con-
clusions is here presented.”

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TOTEM POLE

The characteristic figures on totem poles consist of symbols com-
parable to heraldic devices—not pagan gods or demons, as is often
supposed. They usually illustrate myths or tribal traditions. They
were never worshiped; and if they were held sacred, it was only
because of their implications.

Those of the Tsimsyan and the Tlingit in particular—and the
same thing is also largely true of the Haida poles—were monuments
erected by the various families in the tribe to commemorate the
dead. In intent they were the equivalent of our tombstones. In-
deed, the natives now have some of their crests carved out of stone
or marble at Port Simpson or Vancouver and place them as tomb-
stones in their modern graveyards. The owners’ object in thus
showing their coat of arms was to publish at large their claims to
vested rights and privileges. The emblems or totems varied with
each family; they were their exclusive property and _ jealously
guarded. They picturized legends, phenomena, and the animals
of the country. The eagle, the raven, the frog, the finback whale,
the grizzly bear, the wolf, the thunderbird, and many others are
among the most familiar themes. Others less frequently seen ap-
pear to be more recent: for instance the owl, the salmon, the wood-
pecker, the beaver, the starfish, the shark, the halibut, the bullhead,
the split person, the mountain goat, the puma, the moon, the stars,
and the rainbow. These symbols in the last resort were property
marks.

The legendary origin of the emblems is explained in traditional
narratives that used to be recited in the winter festivals or potlatch.
They are still remembered by the members of the older generation,
in spite of the decay of tribal customs. They recount how the an-
cestors long ago met with tribulations and adventures; how they were
harassed or rescued by spirits and monsters of the unseen regions;
how benevolent spirits appeared in visions and invested their
protégés with charms; and how ancient warriors conquered their
enemies. The carved illustrations of the stories served a definite
purpose, besides those of commemoration and ownership; they
made familiar the legends and recollections of the past to all in
tribal life.

Soon after the death of a chief his prospective heirs appointed
his leading nephew to his post. His induction took place in the

2 Published with the approval of the Director at the National Museum of Canada.

562 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

midst of a large number of invited guests during elaborate festivals,
where liberality was an outstanding feature. The name of the uncle
passed on to his nephew, and the erection of a totem pole crowned
the event. Groups of related families mustered all available
resources to make the feast memorable, as their standing and influ-
ence depended exactly on their resources thus advantageously
displayed.
MAKING AND ERECTING A POLE

The labor of cutting a large red cedar tree, hauling it overland or
on the sea for a considerable distance, carving it, and erecting it
often took years. The owners required sufficient time to gather
their resources and proceeded with expenditures in installments, as
it were. A tree was first selected and felled. The allies of the
family interested took charge of the work—no relative could accept
the stipend. They were fed and paid publicly at the conclusion. A
carver was then hired also from among the allies. Should he lack
the required skill, it was his privilege to appoint a substitute, over
whom he stood ceremonially, assuming the credit of the work for
himself. The carving was accomplished as secretly as possible, the
figures being selected by the owners from their list of available
crests, which often exceeded the fingers of one hand in number. Far
more costly was the actual planting of the pole in the ground. When
enough food and wealth were amassed, invitations were sent forth
to all the leading families of the neighboring tribes; and the pole
was erected in the presence or with the help of the hundreds of
people gathered in festivities that were the corner stone of social life
until about 40 years ago.

These carved memorials as a rule face the water front, and the
rivers or the ocean were the main highways. They stand apart from
one another, in front of the owners’ houses, and dot the whole length
of the village in an irregular line. In recent years the villages have
been moved to new sites, and the poles seem forsaken in the deserted
abodes of the past. Trees have grown up around them in several
places, and it is difficult to find them—particularly along the Nass.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART OF THE TOTEM POLE

Enough material has been retrieved from oblivion for a detailed
history of Tsimsyan plastic art and the making of totem poles. Our
study covers over 150 such memorials. The villages of the upper
Skeena are the only ones that still retain some of their earlier barbaric
features. Kispayaks, Gitsegyukla, and Kitwanga each claim about
20 poles. Gitwinlkul now is the most remarkable of all the tribal
villages. It stands on the Grease Trail from the Skeena to the Nass,
claiming the largest number of poles now standing anywhere in a

TOTEM POLES—BARBEAU 563

single cluster—about 30 in all. It is impressive. Its poles are among
the tallest and best; they are also the oldest.

It is evident that the carving of the poles was a truly popular art.
If some artists were at times preferred to others for their skill, their
choice for specific tasks was governed by customs largely unconcerned
with craftsmanship. Each family of standing had every inducement
to resort to its own carvers for important functions in ceremonial
life. We have statistical evidence of this. The hundred totem poles
of the upper Skeena were produced by more than 30 local carvers and
13 foreigners. Six of the foreigners were from the Nass, and they
had been engaged in the earliest period when the Skeena artists were
not yet proficient in the new calling; 3 others were from the lower
Skeena, and 4 from the Bulkley River, a tributary of the Skeena.
The Skeena carvers belonged to independent and widely scattered
social groups or families; that is 23 of them were of the Raven-Frog
phratry; 9 of the Wolf, 5 of the Eagle, and 3 of the Fireweed.
Seventy-eight out of the hundred poles are ascribed to Gitksan
artists, while the rest are credited to foreigners.

The art of carving and erecting memorial columns is not really as
ancient on the northwest coast as is generally believed. Popular mis-
conceptions that totem poles are hundreds of years old are fantastic.
They could not be, from the nature of the materials and the climatic
conditions. A green cedar can not stand upright much longer than
50 or 60 years on the upper Skeena, where precipitation is moderate
and the soil usually consists of gravel and sand. Along the coast it
can not endure the intense moisture that prevails most of the year
and the muskeg foundation much more than 40 years. The totem
poles of Port Simpson, for instance, all decayed on the south side first,
which is exposed to warm rainy winds. Most of the well-known
poles now in our parks and museums were carved after 1860, while
not a few of those seen in Indian villages, such as Alert Bay, were
erected after 1890.

The growth of native technique to its present state is largely
confined to the past century. It hinged upon European tools—the
steel ax, the adze, and the curved knife—which were traded off in
large numbers to the natives from the days of the early circum-
navigators—that is after 1778. The lack of suitable tools, of wealth,
and of leisure in the prehistoric period precluded the elaboration of
ambitious structures and displays. The benefits accruing from the
fur trade at once stimulated local ambitions; they stirred up jeal-
ousies and rivalries and incited incredible efforts for higher prestige
and leadership. The totem pole came into fashion after 1830 through
the rise of these ambitions. The size of the pole and the beauty of
its figures published abroad the fame of those it represented.

102992—32-—37

564 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Feuds over the size of poles at times broke out between semi-
independent leaders within a village. The bitter quarrel between
Hladerh and Sispegoot, on the Nass, will not soon be forgotten.
Hladerh, head chief of the Wolves, would not allow the erection of
any pole that exceeded his own in height. Sispegoot, head chief of
the Finback Whales, could afford to disregard his rival’s jealousy.
When his new pole was carved, more than 60 years ago, the news
went out that it would be the tallest in the village. In spite of
Hladerh’s repeated warnings, Sispegoot issued invitations for its
erection. But he was shot and wounded by Hladerh as he passed
in front of his house in a canoe. The festival was perforce post-
poned for a year. Meanwhile Hladerh managed, through a clever
plot, to have Sispegoot murdered by one of his own subordinates.
He later compelled another chief of his own phratry, much to his
humiliation, to shorten his pole twice after it was erected; and he
was effectively checked only when he tried to spread his rule abroad
to an upper Nass village.

The present crop of poles is the first of its kind to stand on the
Skeena, with the exception of a few of the oldest that have already
fallen and decayed. The oldest poles of Gitsegyukla (at Skeena
Crossing) have stood only since the fire destroyed the earlier village
in 1872; those of Hazelton were carved after the establishment of the
Indian reserve about 1892. But several of the poles in the other
villages—including Kitwanga—are many years older; they are
particularly interesting, as they illustrate the growth of totem pole
carving within two or three generations in the nineteenth century.

Most of the poles of the upper Skeena were erected in the past
40 or 50 years. The oldest five or six may slightly exceed 70 years
of age. Not a few are less than 30 years old. It is safe to say that
this feature of native life among the Gitksan became fashionable
only after 1870 and 1880. Only 6 out of nearly 30 poles at Gitwinl-
kul—the earliest of these villages to adopt the art—exceed 50 years
of age; and only a few poles at that time stood in the neighboring
villages.

TECHNIQUE AND ITS EVOLUTION

Native accounts and the evidence of the carved memorials lead
to the conclusion that, among the Tsimsyan, carved house-front poles
and house-corner posts were introduced first, many years before the
first detached columns appeared. Several houses and posts of this
kind are still remembered by the elders and have been described;
a few are still to be observed, particularly at the lower canyon of the
Skeena, though most of them are in an advanced state of decay.
The archaic style of house decoration was abandoned as soon as the

TOTEM POLES—-BARBEAU 565

natives gave up building large communal lodges in the purely native
manner, and memorial columns that could no longer serve as cere-
monial doorways, or traps, became the new fashion. Some of the
upper Skeena villages, indeed, never adopted the fashion wholesale;
at least four of them boasted of no more than a few poles, and part
of these were put up only after 1890.

Internal evidence tells the same tale. The technique of carving
on several of the oldest poles on the upper Skeena discloses anterior
stages in the art. It is essentially the technique of making masks or
of carving small detached objects; or, again, of representing masked
and costumed performers as they appeared in festivals rather than
the real animals or objects as they exist in nature. These early
Skeena River carvers had not yet acquired the skill of their Nass
River masters, who had advanced to the point of thinking of a large
pole as an architectural unit that called for harmony of decorative
treatment.

Haesem-hliyawn and Hlamee, of Gitwinlkul, represent distinctive
periods of the craft among the Gitksan. To Haesem-hliyawn goes
the credit of carving some of the best poles in existence. He lived as
late as 1868, while Hlamee, his junior and follower, died after 1900.

The style of Haesem-hliyawn was of the finest, in the purely
native vein. He combined a keen sense of realism with a fondness
for decorative treatment. His art sought inspiration in nature,
while maintaining itself within the frontiers of ancient stylistic
technique. Haesem-hliyawn belonged to the generation wherein the
totem pole art was still in its growth (1840-1880) and all at once
reached its apogee. His handling of human figures counts among
the outstanding achievements of west coast art—indeed, of aborig-
inal art in any part of the world. The faces he carved, with their
pronounced expression and amusing contortions, are characteristic
of the race.

Hlamee, a prolific worker, introduced the white man’s paint to
enhance the features of his carvings. While he used paint with
discretion and to good effect, it immediately lessened the sculptural
quality of the work. The new fashion did not compensate for the
evident loss of native inspiration and artistry.

The carved poles of the Nass maintain a much higher average
standard of art than those of the Skeena; but they are less numerous,
for the reason that the Nass people gave up their ancient customs
much earlier than the Kitksan—that is 40 or 50 years ago. The
technique of pole carving in both areas represents well the passage
from the earlier and better art of the Haesem-hliyawn type to that
of Hlamee.

The Tsimsyan of the lower Skeena, on the other hand, never were
devoted to the art of carving totem poles. When they were moved

566 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

long ago to commemorate a historical event of first magnitude,
they erected a tall slab of stone. If the Tsimsyan proper as a body
were not swayed by the modern fashion of erecting carved memo-
rials to their dead, they retained until fairly late the older custom of
painting in native pigments their heraldic symbols on the front of
their houses. While not a single totem pole seems ever to have
stood in the village of Gitsees, near the mouth of the Skeena, five
house-front paintings were still clearly remembered and described
a few years ago. And it was related that many houses in the neigh-
boring tribes were decorated in this style, which at one time may
have been fairly general along the coast.

The remarkable west coast custom of carving and erecting house
poles and tall mortuary columns or of painting coats of arms on
house fronts is sufficiently uniform in type to suggest that it origi-
nated in a single center and thence spread outward in various direc-
tions. The limits of its distributions coincide with those of the west
coast art proper which embrace the carving or painting of wood,
leather, stone, bone, and ivory.

This art itself seems much more ancient in some of its smaller
‘forms than in its larger ones. Its origin on the northwest coast is
remote. It goes back to prehistoric times. It was already in existence
and fully mature and quite as conventionalized as it is today at the
time of the early Spanish, English, and French explorers (1775-1800).
Most of the early circumnavigators—Cook, Dixon, Meares, Vancou-
ver, Marchand, and La Pérouse—give ample evidence that masks,
chests, ceremonial objects were at the end of the last century deco-
rated in the style now familiar to us. They also mention that house
fronts were decorated with painted designs. There is, however, a
striking lack of evidence everywhere as to the existence of totem
poles proper or detached memorial columns, either south or north.
For instance, Dixon examined several of the Haida villages on the
Queen Charlotte Islands; but he fails to mention totem or even house
poles, even though he minutely described small carved trays and
spoons.

But there were already, from 1780 to 1800, some carved house
posts in existence. Captain Cook * observed a few carved posts inside
the house of some chiefs at Nootka Sound, where he wintered in
1780; and Webster, his artist, reproduced the features of two of
them in his sketches. Meares, in 1788 and 1789, observed like Nootka
carvings in the same neighborhood, which he describes thus: “ Three
enormous trees, rudely carved and painted, formed the rafters, which
were supported at the ends and in the middle by gigantic images,

3 Cook, James, A voyage to the Pacific Ocean, vol. 2, p. 317. 3 vols., London, 1784.

TOTEM POLES—BARBEAU 567

carved out of huge blocks of timber.” * And he calls them elsewhere
“misshapen figures.” The earliest drawing of a carved pole is that
of a house frontal or entrance pole (not a real totem pole) of the
Haidas; and it is found in Bartlett’s Journal, 1790.°

ORIGIN OF THE TOTEM POLE ART

The custom of carving and erecting mortuary columns to honor
the dead is therefore modern, that is post-Columbian; it may exceed
shghtly the span of the last century. In spite of this, it is not easy
to trace back its origin to its very birthplace. Even the simple poles
of the Nootkas as described by Cook are not likely in themselves to
represent a form of native art of the stone age in its purely aboriginal
state, undisturbed by foreign influences. Iron and copper tools at
that date were already in the possession of the natives; and they
were used everywhere as only they could be by expert craftsmen
through lifelong habit. The west coast at that date was no longer
unchanged. The Russians had discovered it many decades before,
and the Spanish had left more recent traces of their passage. More-
over, the influence of the French and the English had crossed the
continent through contacts between intermediate tribes and the arri-
val of halfbreeds and coureurs de bois west of the mountain passes.
From our records of exploration and adventure it appears certain
that the northwest coast people were accessible to foreign influence
for more than 200 years, to say the least. The natives themselves
were highly amenable to foreign influence. Nowhere in America
did they show more avidity or greater skill to acquire and utilize
from the sundry goods and crafts of the white man whatever suited
their needs.

Precisely where the totem poles, or mortuary columns, first ap-
peared and at exactly what moment is an interesting though elusive,
point. Our evidence eliminates the Gitksan, or the Tsimsyan proper,
from among the possibilities. Evidence abundantly shows that the
Nass River tribes made totem poles at an earlier period than the
upper Skeena people. Many families on both sides are mutually
related. Several of the Gitwinlkul villagers have their hunting
grounds on the upper Nass; and the Gitksan used to travel every
spring to the lower Nass for eulachan fishing or to trade pelts or
dried fruit cakes with the coast tribes. In the course of time a strong
cultural influence from the more progressive tribes of the coast thus
resulted.

“Meares, John, Voyages made in the years 1788 and 1789, from China to the North
West Coast of America, p. 188, London, 1790.

5Cf. The Sea, the Ship, and the Sailor: Tales of Adventure, ete., with an introduction
by Capt. Elliot Snow, Salem, Mass., 19265.

568 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

Likewise the tribes farther south can not be considered. The
Bellabellas were painters rather than carvers. The Kwakiutl and
the Nootka plastic art always remained very crude compared with
that of the northern nations; and, besides, it reveled in grotesque
forms by preference. It seldom was at the service of heraldry
as in the north, heraldry being of minor import on the coast
south of the Skeena. Totem poles among the Kwakiut] and the
Nootka are all very recent; not many of them, as they are currently
known, may antedate 1880. The most familiar of the Kwakiutl poles,
those of Alert Bay, were all carved and erected since 1890. None
of them stood at the time when the late C. F. Newcombe visited the
village at that date.

At first sight it seems more likely that the Tlingit, of the southern
Alaskan frontier, might have initiated the custom of erecting me-
morials to the dead. They were closer to the Russian headquarters
and must have been among the first to obtain iron tools. There is no
doubt, besides, that they were most skillful carvers and weavers,
through the whole local evolution of these crafts. Yet there are good
reasons why the credit for originating totem poles should not fall
to their lot. The early circumnayigators that called at some of their
villages made no mention of large carvings that we know, not even
of such house or grave posts as they observed among the Haidas far-
ther south. Krom a keen and experienced observer of these people,
Lieut. G. T. Emmons, who was stationed on the Alaskan coast for
many years in an official capacity, we learn that the northern half of
the Tlingit nation never had totem poles until very recently; and
the few of those that have sprung up in that district within the scope
of his observation are the property of a family or families that origi-
nally belonged to the southern tribes and have retained their southern
affiliations.

The Haidas must next be dismissed from consideration as likely
originators of the art. The Haida poles, as we know them, are partly
house poles and partly totem poles proper; the former far more
numerous proportionally than among the Tsimsyan. Indeed, almost
none of the present Nass River carvings were house poles. The two
large posts observed among the Haidas by Bartlett and Marchand
in 1788-1792 were house portals. Though the Haida villages were
often visited at the end of the eighteenth century and in the first part
of the nineteenth, we find no other reference to large poles, still less
to the famous rows of poles at Massett and Skidegate as they were
photographed about 1880. The Haida poles as we know them in our
museums are all of the same advanced type of conventionalism, all
of the same period, that is 1830-1880, and presumably all from
the hands of carvers that were contemporaries. They were from 10

TOTEM POLES—BARBEAU 569

to 30 years old when the Haidas became converts to Christianity and
in consequence gave up their customs, cut down their poles, and sold
them to white people about the year 1890 or afterwards. It is a
common saying, however inaccurate it may be, that the fine row of
poles in one of their best-known towns had risen from the proceeds
of an inglorious type of barter in Victoria. There is no evidence of
mortuary poles among the Haidas antedating 1840 or 1850, though a
few earlier and transitional ones may have served to introduce the
fashion.

The probabilities are that totem poles proper originated among
the Nisrae or northern Tsimsyan of the Nass River. It is evident,
from traditional recollections, that the custom of thus commemorat-
ing the dead is not very ancient among them; yet it certainly ante-
dated that of the Gitksan or the Tsimsyan. It is far more likely
that the Haidas and the Tlingit imitated them than the reverse.
The estuary of the Nass was the most important thoroughfare of
Indian life in all the northern parts. Eulachan fishing in the neigh-
borhood of what is now called Fishery Bay near Gitrhateen, the
largest Nisrae center, was a dominant feature in native hfe. The
grease from the eulachan, or candlefish, was a fairly universal and
indispensable staple along the coast. For the purpose of securing
their supply of it the Haidas, the Tlingit, the Tsimsyan, and the
Gitksan traveled over the sea or the inland trails every spring and
camped in several temporary villages of their own from Red Bluffs
eastwards on the lower Nass, side by side, for weeks at a time. Dur-
ing these yearly seasons exchanges of all kinds—barter, social ameni-
ties, or feuds—were quite normal. As a result, cultural features of
the local hosts—whether they were willing hosts or not is an open
question—were constantly under the observation of the strangers
and were often a cause for envy or aggression. It is doubtful, on
the other hand, whether the Tsimsyan ever traveled to the Queen
Charlotte Islands or the Tlingit country unless to make a raid or
an occasional visit to relatives.

It is agreed among specialists that the Nass River carvers were
on the whole the best in the country. Their art reached the highest
point of development ever attained on the northwest coast. And
their totem poles—more than 20 of which can still be observed in
their original location—are the best and among the tallest seen any-
where. The Haida poles are stilted, conventional, and offer little
variety in comparison. It is noteworthy, besides, that the Tlingit
poles resemble in character those of the Nass River. And the Nisrae
assert that a number of totem poles at Tongas (Cape Fox), the
southernmost of the Tlingit villages, were the work of their carvers
within the memory of the passing generation.

570 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

The close similarities between the plastic arts of the northwest
coast and those of the various people around the edges of the Pacific
Ocean should not be overlooked. Common features in the art and
technology of our coast natives and the Polynesians, for instance, are
too persistently alike in some aspects to be unrelated, at least in some
remote way. The early navigators noticed, about 1780-1790, the
striking resemblance between the fortresses of the Haidas and other
coast tribes and the “hippah ” of the New Zealand natives. Totem
poles, as fairly recently carved and erected on both sides of the
Pacific, offer the same compelling resemblance. Their technique of
erection, besides, was identical. It will gradually become an estab-
lished conclusion, we believe, that much of the growth of native crafts
in wood carving and decoration as now exemplified in the museums
of the world is far more recent than is generally believed.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Barbeau PLATE 1

1. THE MOUTH OF THE NASS RIVER NEAR PORTLAND CANAL

2. GITWINLKUL, A GITKSAN VILLAGE OF THE GREASE TRAIL BETWEEN THE
NASS AND THE SKEENA, SUMMER OF 1924

Writer’s camp in the foreground.

PRATE 2

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Barbeau

2. THE POLE OF TRALARHAET, A BEAVER-

1. TWO POLES AT KISPAYAKS, SKEENA
RIVER, ERECTED AT 20 YEARS’ INTER- HALIBUT CLAN OF THE EAGLE PHRA-
VAL IN MEMORY OF TWO SUCCESSIVE TRY, AT GITIKS, NASS RIVER
The crests illustrate the myth of a migration south-
ward of the owners.

CHIEFS

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Barbeau PEATESS

is hOvEM POLES AT GITWINLKUL, 2. TOTEM POLES AT GITWINLKUL,
CARVED BY HAESEM-HLIYAWN, A CARVED BY HLAMEE, A LATTER-DAY
LEADING CARVER ABOUT 50 YEARS FOLLOWER OF HAESEM-HLIYAWN

AGO

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Barbeau PLATE 4

1. ONE OF THE OLDEST AND FINEST 2. ONE OF THE FINEST OLD POLES AT
POLES IN EXISTENCE, AT GITWINLKUL ANG YEDERH ON THE LOWER NASS

This was formerly a house-front portal, the cere-
monial entrance being through the opening at the
bottom.

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Barbeau PEAT ELS

——————————————————

2. TOTEM POLES AT KITWANGA (THE

1. AN EAGLE POLE AT GITIKS, THE
THE UPPER

FORMER NASS RIVER VILLAGE NEAR- RABBIT TRIBE), ON

EST TO THE ALASKAN BORDER SKEENA

The nearest pole—that of the Ensnared grizzly—
counts among the finest. It was carved by
Haesen-hliyawn about 60 years ago.

This is one of the finest and tallest poles in existence.

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BROBDINGNAGIAN BRIDGES?

By Orumar H. AMMANN

[With 7 plates]

A hundred years ago it was predicted that the famous bridge across
the Menai Straits in England, with a span of 570 feet, would forever
constitute a world wonder. Only 50 years later that maximum
length of span was more than doubled and the suspended mass in-
creased tenfold in the Brooklyn Bridge across the East River in
New York. And if we compare Brooklyn Bridge, which 50 years
ago was by far the most outstanding engineering work of its kind,
with the George Washington Bridge in New York now nearing com-
pletion, we find that the span length in the last 50 years has been
again more than doubled, the traffic capacity multiplied at least four
times, and the total mass suspended over the river more than eight
times.

It is also of interest to note that in spite of this enormous increase in
the mass and quantity of material in the George Washington Bridge,
the time of construction will be less than one-half that consumed by
the Brooklyn Bridge, and that the total cost, in proper consideration
of the depreciation of the purchase value of money, will be less than
twice that consumed by the much smaller Brooklyn Bridge. These
results have, of course, been made possible only by the far-reaching
developments in other technical lines, such as mechanical and electri-
cal engineering, and metallurgy, as well as in the field of theory and
experiment.

From the engineering or technical point of view, progress in bridge
construction manifests itself in improved types and forms of con-
struction and details, in better and stronger materials, in more accu-
rate and cheaper shopwork, and in more expeditious and safer erec-
tion, all of which are essential for the construction of larger bridges.
It is principally along these lines that I desire to illustrate progress
made in recent years.

TYPES OF BRIDGES

The selection of the type or form of bridge to be used for any
particular crossing is, from the engineering point of view, one of the

1 Reprinted by permission from the Technology Review, vol. 33, No. 9, July, 1931.
571

572 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

most important factors in the construction of large bridges, and is
a question which has often led to animated discussions and differences
of opinions in the profession. It is a question which depends upon
many different factors and not in the least upon the personal con-
ceptions of the designer.

At the beginning of this century and up to as late as the World
War, two types of bridges appeared to be particularly favored,
although they are generally the least satisfactory from the esthetic
point of view: the cantilever bridge for the longer spans and the
simple span truss type for the lesser span lengths of up to 700 feet.
The most outstanding example of the former t¥pe is the Quebec
Bridge across the St. Lawrence River with a main span of 1,800 feet,
which until recently has been the longest span in existence. The
longest simple span is that of the bridge across the Mississippi at
Metropolis with a length of 720 feet (pl. 5, fig. 2).

Many bridges of the cantilever type have been built across the
Ohio, Mississippi, and other wide streams. To the most recent and
typical examples belong the two bridges built by the Port of New
York Authority across the Arthur Kill in New York. The type
is particularly suitable where foundation conditions make other
types expensive or subject to the effect of possible settlements.
But its merits, particularly the alleged advantage of its being stati-
cally determinate, have been overrated.

For a long period there existed a very general prejudice against
the so-called continuous truss, so much so that, in spite of its eco-
nomic advantages, it was practically excluded from consideration in
favor of the simple truss or the cantilever. Its application in 1916
in the bridge across the Ohio at Sciotoville with two spans of 775
feet each marked a revival of that meritorious type and it has since
been employed in quite a number of bridges (pl. 4, fig. 1).

Less frequently, and only under favorable circumstances, such
as the presence of rocky abutments to resist its thrust, has the arch
type been used. Until the present the famous Hell Gate Bridge,
completed in 1917, across the East River in New York with a span
of nearly 1,000 feet has been the most outstanding example, but it
is now being outranked by two bridges, both now nearing comple-
tion; namely, that across the entrance to Sydney Harbor in Australia
with a span of 1,650 feet, and that across the Kill van Kull in New
York with a span of 1,675 feet.

The suspension bridge is the type eminently suited for long
spans and is now recognized as the only one to be considered for
very long spans. The true nature of this naturally graceful type
has long been misunderstood and it is only very recently that it

BRIDGES—AMMANN 573

has begun to regain the prominent position which it occupied in
the early part of the nineteenth century. A large number of
bridges of this type, particularly for highway and combined high-
way and rapid transit rail traffic, have been built in the last 10 or
15 years, even with moderate spans, and its greatest length of span
has been continuously leaping to new records.

The Manhattan Bridge in New York with a span of 1,470 feet
was the most outstanding modern suspension bridge only 10 years
ago. Since then there followed in rapid succession the Bear Moun-
tain Bridge across the Hudson with a 1,630-foot span, the Delaware
River Bridge in Philadelphia with 1,750 feet, the Detroit River
Bridge with 1,850 feet and now the George Washington Bridge near-
ing completion with 3,500 feet. And a start has been made on the
Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco with a span of 4,200 feet.

A factor which, I believe, has very materially contributed to the
revival of the suspension bridge, is the changed conception regarding
the proportioning of the so-called stiffening system of this type. As
a result of the insufficient rigidity of many of the early light and
short suspension bridges it became a general practice here and abroad
to proportion suspension systems as rigid systems, such as the truss
or the upright arch. This theory leads to enormous waste of material
in long-span suspension bridges, more particularly those bridges
carrying highway or mixed highway and rail traffic, because it does
not take into consideration the stiffening effect of the large suspended
mass, compared to the relatively much smaller load units which
cause the span to sag or oscillate. Conspicuous stiffening systems
also give an unsightly, clumsy appearance to such bridges and destroy
the gracefulness of the cables hanging in their natural catenary.

To-day the justification of a flexible, more economical, and more
graceful stiffening system in long and heavy suspension bridges is
generally recognized. Studies made in connection with the George
Washington Bridge indicated that such a long span of 38,500 feet, with
comparatively short side spans, designed to carry vehicular and rapid
transit traffic, required practically no stiffening of the freely sus-
pended cables. Accordingly, the bridge was designed and is being
built without any stiffening whatsoever in its initial stage, in which
only the upper deck for highway traffic will be in place. When the
lower deck for rapid transit rail traffic is added, it will have com-
paratively flexible, very light stiffening trusses between the two decks.

When it is considered that in such a long span every pound of
steel unnecessarily applied for stiffening is merely ballast, and that
this pound of useless material requires the use of another pound of
material in the cables, towers, and anchorages it may be realized that
such wasteful proportioning involves millions of dollars.

574 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931
QUALITY OF MATERIALS

An important phase in the development of long span bridge build-
ing is the improvement of the materials, more particularly the intro-
duction of so-called high strength alloy steels, for high strength
material does not only effect a reduction in the dead weight which in
large bridges may mean a saving of millions of dollars, but it makes
possible certain structural members and connections of large propor-
tions which would be impracticable with ordinary steel. For riveted
members and connections a medium hard structural steel of from
55,000 to 70,000 pounds per square inch is still generally used for
ordinary bridges.

About 25 years ago nickel steel, which has a strength of about 50
per cent greater than the ordinary steel, was introduced and found
increasing application in large bridges, as for instance in the Quebec
Cantilever Bridge, in the stiffening trusses of the Manhattan Bridge,
and also in a number of long simple span trusses.

During and after the World War silicon steel entered the field in
sharp competition with nickel steel. Its strength is about 40 per cent
greater than ordinary steel or about 7 per cent less than nickel steel,
but it can be manufactured at a materially smaller cost than the
latter. In fact, its cost has now been so reduced that it can be used
economically even in bridges of medium size in place of ordinary
steel. The towers and floor structure of the George Washington
Bridge are built almost entirely of silicon steel.

In the case of the Bayonne Bridge with its exceptional span of
1,675 feet, manganese steel was introduced for the heavy main arch
ribs. Its strength is equivalent to that of nickel steel, but its price
was slightly less. In this same bridge there was also used for the
first time manganese steel for the rivets with a strength of about 60
per cent in excess of that of ordinary steel rivets.

For suspension bridges in particular the marked improvement in
quality of wire steel was of importance. Since the construction of
the Brooklyn Bridge in which steel wire of 160,000 pounds per square
inch strength was used for the first time in place of the earlier
wrought-iron wire, the strength of wire successively stepped up to a
new record in almost each new large bridge until it has now reached
a strength of nearly 240,000 pounds per square inch in the cables of
the George Washington Bridge.

The question is frequently asked, What would be the maximum
practical length of span? The answer to this depends essentially
upon the quality of steel wire. With the quality now available it
would be structurally feasible to build suspension spans of up to
about 10,000 feet in length. Such a span, of course, would be ex-
tremely costly and probably nowhere justified financially.

BRIDGES—AMMANN BaD
SHOP FABRICATION

In the fabrication of structural steel members in the shops impor-
tant improvements have been made in the past 20 years which were
essential for the building of large bridges. Imaccuracies in the
fabrication of steel members were largely responsible for the failure
of the Quebec Bridge in 1907. Since then more accurate methods
and powerful machines have been introduced so that in the present-
day large bridges a remarkable degree of accuracy is being obtained.
Thus, for instance, the towers of the George Washington Bridge were
erected with an accuracy of three-sixteenths inch in a height of 600
feet, and the 1,675-foot arch span of the Bayonne Bridge was closed
with a difference of one-half inch from the theoretical length.

To-day individual members of greater size and weight are being
completely assembled in the shops. While 30 years ago members
of 25 to 30 tons weight were exceptional, the weight attained to-day
is not infrequently 80 to 100 tons and in a few cases 150 tons. The
accurate fitting together of connecting members is also being given
great care to-day. In some cases whole trusses, or large portions
thereof, have been completely assembled at the shops.

FIELD ERECTION

When we compare the present day erection of large bridges with
that of 20 or 30 years ago, we notice two striking improvements;
the speed with which enormous masses of steel for large bridges as
well as buildings are being assembled in the field, and the avoidance
of cumbersome falsework and erection equipment. The structures
often appear during construction as if they were erecting themselves,
and this is literally the fact to the extent that frequently members of
the final structure proper are being used to lift or temporarily sup-
port other members or parts of the structure. Where falsework is
unavoidable, it is almost invariably built of steel members which
are often members of the permanent structure.

Erection of bridges by the so-called cantilever method with or
without partial use of false work, is very common to-day, not only
for cantilever bridges, but for simple and continuous trusses and for
arches. The absence of false work of any kind is particularly strik-
ing in the erection of the towers of suspension bridges. A simple
frame carrying the erection derricks and lifting itself up along the
completed portion of the tower is the only temporary structure.

The erection of the wire cables in America is accomplished by the
old and well-tried method of “ aerial spinning,” in which the indi-
vidual wires are pulled from one anchorage to the other over the
towers. Then, packed in bundles or strands, the wires are lifted

576 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

from temporary into final position in the cable and finally the cable
is compacted into cylindrical form and wrapped with a layer of
finer wire (pl. 3, fig. 1). While the principle of this method is an
old one, having been used already 50 years ago in the Brooklyn
Bridge, the machinery and equipment necessary for the spinning
have undergone radical improvements which have resulted in greater
accuracy and speed of erection.

THEORY AND RESEARCH

Advances in theory and extensive research work have aided
materially the construction of large bridges, in fact, refinements in
theory and experiments are called for and justified mainly in con-
nection with structures of unusual size. The refinements in theory
include the elaborate calculation of secondary stresses of all kinds,
stresses which are usually neglected in ordinary structures, but
whose magnitude it is well to determine, and where necessary pro-
vide for, in larger ones. Such elaborate calculations were carried
out in connection with the Hell Gate Bridge, the George Washington
Bridge, and more extensively in the Bayonne Bridge.

Stress determinations by calculation are now being supplemented
by stress measurements on models. In order to check the highly
statically indeterminate stresses in the towers of the George Washing-
ton Bridge a celluloid model 6 feet high of one of the tower bents
was constructed and the stresses were measured by means of very
sensitive extensometers. For the Bayonne Bridge a complete model
of the main arch was built of brass, loaded in various manners ver-
tically as well as horizontally and the stresses measured by exten-
someter. A complete model of the Mount Hope Suspension Bridge
was recently built by Professor Beggs of Princeton and the stresses
in it measured with excellent results.

As a further means to check the theory, stress measurements by
extensometers on the actual structure have been undertaken. Such
measurements are now in progress in certain parts of the George
Washington Bridge and more extensively in the Bayonne Bridge.

Finally, in order to gain further knowledge of the actual be-
havior of large-sized members and connections when loaded to de-
struction, a series of such strength tests have been undertaken. In
connection with the George Washington and Bayonne Bridges, for
instance, compression tests were made of a number of columns of
various materials and of the largest sizes ever tested, taxing the 10,-
000,000-pound testing machine of the Bureau of Standards in Wash-
ington to its capacity. Many tests of large-size riveted connections
have also been made in recent years.

BRIDGES—AMMANN 577
ESTHETICS

Besides the technical advance in bridge construction we may record
welcome developments with respect to the esthetic side. While engi-
neers generally are possessed of a strong sense of utility and are
inclined to justify the appearance of any structure from the economic
and scientific point of view, there is a marked recognition of the de-
mand of public opinion that proper esthetic treatment be given to
our public structures, and that the collaboration of the architect who
is trained and better qualified to develop esthetic forms and archi-
tectural embellishments is essential for that purpose.

In large bridges, of course, the principal lines and proportions of
the structure must be determined by the engineer, for they are, to
a large extent, dictated by the fundamentals of strength and stability
and by local geographical and topographical conditions. Within
certain limits, however, the engineer must and can apply his own
sense of beauty in determining them. But it is often essential, in
order to improve the general appearance of a structure, to mask or
supplement certain crude engineering features by architectural em-
bellishments, the design of which must be left to the architect. It is
by such collaboration between engineer and architect that some of
our modern large bridges have progressed beyond the field of purely
utilitarian and scientific structures.

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- iii biautygnetds to el stospghlrarieds yay hones, Aisne, staid, ig.
PAPI eneiiibaod: Lestdqetgoqad! fan bisisiqar gnay" Ledok Sigil” hein ay
reat wegen Ai bre senotemenions odtuetorgd vation aiuet no 4
HE siaeees itesto 4b oi aT conted yotalnasiod whined: ter. ogra” i
esa od oni Pyenie ‘ssi umehey gy {asco wilierorgntivod cabin |
Ge Mntattonditilene vd eotrriperl Uriodiyan, obsieo (aivdr Weronalyye a
BP eT oSottdeneedporvtetdd lenthalsidw te ngieatead) Phicemleiiieds iit
| SoMbHied Isdt sutilyig bis aeons sodwied widiberodal! foo tulosa mee
. (fon t to hfea iat buoyed baverigorg ded esghisd egtol nepibeignennie o 7
Very setlrtoreates Petes hs hear: ceabetilings a

Nae - ue ; ' aye On bg ptt pte : iy: hia a) 4 ho ohh i
- : 1 é 4 i dhe HIN mins ‘ ry my) om vole ©
Vinh Viel ope | Rae ‘ ' at (ho
d 44 Hi Aart be (ar tj at
i ia UPd dace Te wile (epee one
: 4 J ie. \ , ; ; a /- ow =, 1%
eee mip De miithy aril Cle whee asian jee anes
nn i (ie POT ee en ry. auld =
: p¥asnay eink wh Pot AD tec a
J ‘ Mie) oe ee Li " iy iy
i it a) a?
a ey LAT Mocs 7 ;
Ard ] i Pi rye Tg “i : vor re Pta% _ +
@ prey A3t bw Adee”
7 ;
ih { ee, GS i Sat ah Sy halal are paiee
) a ee ee UO OO aaah CON Rie Seat ts
a. : a 7 ini) om TVAACDLON wart cet De :
- ; > tele Tate: be Oy Minity hog py.
7 _— we: ey) ‘ rider eta *t vont Moa
- . vi Ley ey Mad a i ier ne ao a wa iti
. ‘ ; - *
wih SU e any atte “i dee Kea nls: fatingy he i iy
, ‘ ¢) oh j eka fy .4 i iw. a Aa ini pt: fs Bendis D vet ee
ate Cah My: ayy Gen OC eae site ectieax
ave a re t emt aaa
Pp y ; ; Ah

|

* "vy, ~ i
r ve oo ane 7 nee Ne

7T1NM NVA T11IM SHL SSOMOY 3A9D0I¥gG ANNOAVG SHL

| 3LV1d uurwWy—*|¢6| ‘oda UPTUOSyITWG

*‘SpoyyoUul YIOM-os[R] AIVIOdU19} PUB IOASTIYUBO POUTQUIOd JO SUBETE AQ TOIL [9048 JSOTUOT S,p[IOM oy Suryoo1g

TINH NVA T1IM SHL SSOHOY 39018¥g ANNOAYG 3SHL

(ouy) sk9AIng JeUeY plrmqore.y

c 3LV 1d uurWwiWy—"|¢6| ‘y10dayy URTuOsyzIWIS

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Ammann PEATE 3

1. COMPACTING THE WIRE CABLES OF THE GEORGE WASHINGTON BRIDGE

om

2. CANTILEVER ERECTION OF HELL GATE ARCH BY TEMPORARY BACKSTAYS

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Ammann PLATE 4

1. SCIOTOVILLE BRIDGE OVER THE OHIO RIVER, LONG SPAN
CONTINUOUS TRUSS (2 SPANS OF 775 FEET)

2. BUILDING THE CONCRETE ARCHES OF THE WESTINGHOUSE MEMORIAL BRIDGE,
PITTSBURGH

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Ammann PLATE 5

1. 720-FOOT SIMPLE SPAN OF THE METROPOLIS BRIDGE OVER
THE OHIO

2. METHOD OF ERECTING CANTILEVER BRIDGE, OUTERBRIDGE CROSSING AT NEW
YORK

YSAIM NOSGNH AHL SSOYNOY ADCIYG NOLONIHSVM 3ADYOsSDS AHL

9 ALV1d uuRWwuly—"|¢¢| ‘j4odayy ue

PLATE 7

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Ammann

THE GEORGE WASHINGTON BRIDGE ACROSS THE HUDSON RIVER SHOWING THE

DETAILS OF ONE OF THE TOWERS

Smithsonian Report, 1931.—Moulton PLATE 1

ALBERT ABRAHAM MICHELSON 1852-1931

ALBERT ABRAHAM MICHELSON?

By Forrest R. MouLton

[With one plate]

On May 9, 1931, in his seventy-ninth year and at the zenith of his
fame, Albert Abraham Michelson died. As the news of his death was
spread by telegraph and cable, the whole world acclaimed his incom-
prehensible genius; but his intimate acquaintances mourned and still
mourn the loss of a friend who was gentle and wholly without
affectation.

No scientist of the present day has had a more romantic life than
that of Michelson. As a small child, his parents brought him to the
United States from Strelno, Germany, where he was born on Decem-
ber 19, 1852. His school days were spent in San Francisco, Calif.
In 1869, at the age of 17 years, he made a journey alone across the
continent to Washington in order to apply personally to President
Grant for an appointment as a cadet in the United States Naval
Academy at Annapolis, Md. Since genius has a habit of recognizing
its kind, he received the appointment. He graduated in 1873 and
became a midshipman in the United States Navy. From 1875 to
1879, inclusive, he was an instructor in physics and chemistry in the
Naval Academy; in 1880 he served on the staff of the Nautical Alma-
nac, in Washington; from 1881 to 1883 he studied in Berlin, Heidel-
berg, and Paris; he was professor of physics in Case School of Ap-
plied Science, in Cleveland, Ohio, from 1888 to 1889; from 1889 to
1892 he was a professor in Clark University, in Worcester, Mass.;
and in 1892 he answered President W. R. Harper’s call to join the
new adventures in research, scholarship, and education which were
then being started on the Midway, in Chicago. Until his retire-
ment in 1927, he was head of the department of physics in the Uni-
versity of Chicago and he was the first distinguished service professor
in the university.

Many of the great scientific societies of the world elected Michelson
to their membership. Moreover, he received numerous prizes and
medals, among which were the Copley medal of the Royal Society

+ Reprinted by permission from Popular Astronomy, vol, 29, No. 6, June-July, 1931.
102992—32 38 579

580 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

and the Nobel prize for physics, in 1927, in each case the first granted
toan American. Many universities, both American and foreign, hon-
ored themselves by bestowing upon him honorary degrees. He was
president of the American Physical Society, in 1901-3; of the Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1910-11; and of
the National Academy of Sciences, in 1928-1927,

Dates and lists of honors do not really constitute biography; at the
most they form a framework on which may be hung a more or less
adequate picture of an individual. No intimate friend of Michelson
ever thought of him in terms of high positions or great honors. To
me he was like the sea on a summer’s day—serene, illimitable, un-
fathomable. This was not a superficial impression, for I knew him
intimately for more than 25 years. On scores of occasions I played
tennis with him and against him; on a larger number of occasions
I played billiards with him. I accompanied him to tennis champion-
ships, to billiard matches, and once we occupied ring side seats at
a professional wrestling match. Often we took lunch together; many
times I called on him in his simple office in Ryerson Laboratory.

I said that to me Michelson was like a serene sea. He was un-
hurried and unfretful. He was never rushed by university duties;
he never drove himself to complete a laborious task; he never feared
that science, the university, or mankind was at a critical turning
point; he never trembled on the brink of a great discovery. He
gave the impression of the serenity of illimitable breadth and un-
fathomable depth. Though one had a feeling that the depths on
occasion might be disturbed by a storm, I never heard him raise his
voice above its accustomed level.

There are doubtless many motives that inspire men to scientific
achievements. If I have correctly caught the dominant note of his
life, Michelson was moved only by the esthetic enjoyment his work
gave him. In everything he did, whether it was work or play, he
was an artist. His coordination was so perfect and his touch was so
deft that there was more satisfaction in being defeated by him
at billiards than in winning from another opponent. I recall with
what pleasure Professor Sargent, of the art department, used to
watch the gracefulness of his playing. Michelson was an artist also
in the more ordinary sense of the word, for he was a skillful amateur
performer on the violin and his water colors were a delight. And
often at luncheon on the back of a menu card he would sketch the
profile of a colleague. But all these expressions of his artistic nature
were in private and purely for his own pleasure, and many of his
friends were quite unaware that he had these accomplishments.

Michelson’s art was also manifested in his experiments, even in
the first experiment he performed, that of measuring the velocity of
light as a class demonstration, at Annapolis. With his hastily con-

MICHELSON—-MOULTON 581

structed apparatus he secured results of a higher order of accuracy
than any that had theretofore been attained. Much of his scientific
work throughout his long life related to light, and his last experi-
ment, completed just before his death, was an extraordinarily ac-
curate measurement of its velocity. In all of his experiments he
exhibited an uncanny ability to make apparatus work. For example,
after French physicists thought they had proved both theoretically
and experimentally that interference phenomena could not be se-
cured in white light, he set up in Paris his recently invented inter-
ferometer with the materials that happened to be available and aston-
ished the French scientists with its performance. For the purpose
of measuring short distances or small angles, the interferometer is
incomparably superior to the microscope. An outgrowth of this
early instrument is his later stellar interferometer with which in
recent years the diameters of several stars have been measured.

Early in his scientific career Michelson, in association with E. W.
Morley, performed an experiment which marks a turning point in the
philosophy of physical science. To the mass of mankind the sur-
face of the earth appears fixed, but to the astronomer the earth is a
tiny globe which spins on its axis and revolves about the sun. If
one should be tempted to conclude that motion with respect to the
sun is absolute, astronomers would inform him that the sun moves
with respect to the stars; and recently it has been found that our
galaxy is moving with respect to exterior galaxies.

In 1887 Michelson and Morley undertook to measure the motion of
the earth, not with respect to the sun, or our galaxy, or exterior
galaxies, but with respect to the ether, an assumed all-pervading
medium through which light is transmitted and which, if anything,
would give absolute motion. The quantity to be determined was so
minute that it could be measured only with the aid of Michelson’s
interferometer. ‘To the astonishment of scientists no certain motion
of the earth with respect to the assumed ether was found. ‘Though
light has the properties of wave motion, it appears to be propagated
with a speed which is independent of the motion of its source.

Einstein’s theory of relativity has its roots in the Michelson-Mor-
ley experiment. All the changes in point of view it has introduced
into physics and astronomy rest upon the experiment carried out in
Cleveland in 1887, and upon the subsequent verification of its sur-
prising results. Whatever modifications the theory of relativity
may undergo and whatever may be its ultimate fate, the results of
the Michelson-Morley experiment stand.

In 1918, Michelson and Gale carried out their first earth-tide ex-
periment, the purpose of which was to determine the degree of
rigidity and of elasticity of the earth, Sir George Darwin had built

582 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1931

up a beautiful theory of the tidal evolution of the earth-moon sys-
tem, including the separation of the moon from the earth by fission,
on the hypothesis that the earth as a whole is a viscous body. A
number of us in 1909 had concluded from dynamical and geophysical
considerations that the theory of tidal evolution is quantitatively
errroneous. The tide experiment and the associated laborious
mathematical work were undertaken cooperatively for the purpose
of testing the basic hypothesis of the tidal theory. As scientists
generally know, it was found that the earth on the whole is as stiff
and as elastic as steel.

The brilliancy of Michelson as an experimenter is well illustrated
by the tide experiment. Although the radius of the earth is uncer-
tain by several hundred feet, he measured the variations it under-
goes as a consequence of the tidal forces of the moon and the sun
to within one-hundredth of an inch. The final series of measure-
ments, extending throughout all of 1917, were automatically recorded
on motion picture film by the aid of his interferometer.

Another adaption of the interferometer led to a means of measur-
ing the diameters of minute satellites and planetoids and of the
larger of the stars. It is applicable also to measuring the distances
between the components of double stars which are so close together
as to be completely inseparable by the most powerful telescopes.

Although Michelson’s work has had an enormous influence on
science and will be referred to as basic for generations to come, he
published a relatively small number of papers and books, only about
75 in all. He never rushed into print with immature work. He was
not in the habit of publishing the same thing over and over again in
slightly varying form. He did not run around the country, posing
as a genius and addressing minor scientific organizations. He never
invited the press to carefully timed dramatic announcements before
the major scientific societies. He never proclaimed the explosion
of the universe. He never attracted popular attention and approval
by claiming to find support for theological dogmas or the doctrine
of the freedom of the will in the laws of falling bodies or in any
other scientific principles. Instead, he pursued his modest and
serene way along the frontiers of science, entering new pathways
and ascending to unattained heights as leisurely and as easily as
though he were taking an evening stroll.

LANDA X

A

Page
Abbot, Dr. Charles G., secretary of the Institution_______ TLE Xs OT KITT ets
21, 42, 44, 45, 58, 59, 74, 85, 116, 124, 187, 139, 151, 158, 168,169
(Twenty-five years’ study of solar radiation) -_.__._..__..-_________ 175
aN} 09 9,0) re tped Dg) otal Wahl ahead Sh ge la NS a dele AN Doe ape eg Ae ep 4, 32
ETSTAG Vp OE CLLGS Geena ee eee tee Oey ae lee SR RL RE URS ORE A Pe, SEO NEON 45

Adams, Charles Francis, Secretary of the Navy (member of the Institu-

COVA) ee noe an earl Ln hea Se ee ea ee eR ea Scene XI
PCLATIUS ot ERED G Ie a crete es ee nd a ny Seuss eee eee ae 46
Agriculture, debt of, to Tropical America, The, (Cook)__..-_.-_._-_____-_- 491
Agriculture, Secretary.of (member of the Institution)__.._._._..__-_-____- XI
Agriculture, United States Department of. _._._-.-_-- 14, 26, 27, 125, 129, 1386
PNUC RECS nad Bs aoe Co) ob agli! UE mance lentes aaah alent cs hahaa eter AL A Laat Ale dy xr, 134
Aldrich, Loyal B., assistant director, Astrophysical Observatory_....---- XIII
A OCMERtS OL Prin bin Oak as See ee ee ONC ee ae See ee 158
ANETICAD EMISLOTICAl ASSOCIATION TEPOlt. - = a stan ee Nooo’
Ammann, Othmar H. (Brobdingnagian bridges) _-_..-2--__..2.-_2l2L2 571
Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory._----.----------- 2,18) 117, 124) 1153
Antevs, Ernst (Late-glacial clay chronology of North America) ___-_---- 313
Antevs, Ernst, A. E. Douglass and, Research Corporation awards to, for

NESCArChes INC hLONOlOR yest wea eee eS a Ek ced 303
Archeological Society: of Washingtomes.---. 2455. 2.55 Mew e ee ee 26
Archives; Researches in. Huropean 2". ee bees IF ik ee 9
ATURE SAEs fEStAtG Of oe c.0 2 See eS es Tei ee 4

BLES CLE Se 2 he 0 F 3 ik ee BS eon le 8 Bo Sr lpe ER coos he 2, 4, 159, 165
Assistant secretary of the Institution__________ XI, XII, 26, 28, 32, 35, 87, 168, 169
AS inopiysicalk Observatory: 2.40 ee oe Ge Sa xap, 1, L817

ETAT EO LS a eee Ne aN eed Men Py ie a Ll BoE 2, 18, 114, 153

AUC POMS Gi euOIS et oh a2 2 ee ey ee ee ee eh eel 2, 123

Mi Tray i ee Sh es ers ee ns a ed Be es 140, 146

plantiandiobjectsi hash 9 gaci wr ee Hee el $e fA So chad Bly

TEPOLRbSS Sale DA sec ee be me eee sel ed ed te ks ee 117

SU Lene es A te en ee eee Se ee ES XIII

worsiatiWashing tons ext 92s bees ook doen Si edocs eel 117
Atomic disintegration and atomic synthesis, Present status of theory and

experiment. as, to) (Millikan)e 35 5 seo es A ee ee ee 277
Adonis vAssault ion s(Compuon)) 22222). eos ae ee eo ts ee 287
Attorney General (member of the Institution) ._._.........-..---_----- XI
LASS: 28 LU 00 (BO Re ee Ee RPE, Pee ne tot Sm eae Nn ee 2 4

B
Bacon fund wVirginiaeburay setter enn tee Be ee Res cel Be eb gee 4, 159, 165
Bacon traveling scholarship, Walter Rathbone--..-------------------- 33
Bearcat) Taery Ey eee ct BB gg ae rane hee Dg Sh NS 4, 159, 165

583

584 INDEX

Page
Balduteaweven Ouriniends thernsects) aes se ae eee ee 431
Barbeau, Marius (Totem poles: a recent native art of the northwest coast
ofpAmenrica) Aas suk: SR ee ee ieee tee ee eee eee 559
Barstow fund, Frederic: D=. 22 eee ee ees 4, 88, 159, 165, 169
Barstow; William S22 os A020 Se 2 eae 2 pea Sees eee 88
Bartscla, rs Parti ice ae aes es A adh ce ne x11, 11, 26, 33
Bassler Dr Ray So.c2 se ae oe ee ace ae ee re ee ee ae ee x11, 158
Belote?. Theodore Tile se Se Sos Shs Se Se es See ee eee XII
Benedict, Dr. w James) Bk ee tek cy ea ae ey ae a epee ree 41
Benjamin, Dr: Marcus si. (2.2 oe) ee te ee 41, 152, 156
Biological Survey, Bureau of, United States Department of Agriculture -- 87
Bishop, Carl Whiting, associate curator, Freer Gallery of Art-------- xu, 16, 59
Boettcher Wire Wora iWin gic co MbTAary =e ew oe We ee ete eee 13
Bowie; . William) (Shapingithe earth) sos. eee a ee eee 325

Brackett, Dr. Frederick S., chief, Division of Radiation and Organisms__ xu,
19, 182, 137

Brice, (Miss Jame iB otk laa a ak Be el ah 2 ig ip a 45
Bridges, Brobdingnagian (Ammann) 222 — eee ee Se ee oe 571
Brookings, Robert S. (regent)__-.--------.- Yi POR RSE Metal P: SANE Neh a Mile 3
Brooklyn Botanic: Gardens. 920 koe lute ey Fe see PER Ree eee 27
Brown, Walter F., Postmaster General (member of the Institution) -__--- XI
Bryant, Herbert S., chief of correspondence and documents, National
DG GUTSY E01 ee aa A ea a ee eS See ee re eee ee eee ae XII
Bundy, John, superintendent, Freer Gallery of Art._-.---------------- XII
BB ater Ce a ha ATE ON ee Fe ES SY a feed ee a a hel ee Ee 123
Byrd, Admiral Richard Evelyn, presentation of Langley Medal to_-_----_--- Gs
8, 168, 169, 170
C
@anfieldicollectionifunds a4. eo ee Sp ies ee 4, 160
Carnesiedmstitution of aWeashing tomes eee ere te ee ee ee 25
Casey, fund,.Phomias Muses an eS Serena ctor ee ee 4, 160, 165
@aseyasMirsss Tamar Wels ties eee ee rc er re ge rae a are 4
Catalogue of Scientific Literature, International, Regional Bureau for the
United, States. i. doh. eet eel a i x11, 1, 20
TE OT Ge ee a ag i oe Beh cf ant el 138
(O1aVenoaloysvd by bolle AbbcYo were Seems Neue We pvents muerte eye SUN ANd Nn Seer OE ar 4, 160, 165
Chancellor of the Institution._..........-.-.------ x1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 168, 169, 170
Chief clerk of the Institution and administrative assistant to the Secretary_. = XI
Chief Justice of the United States (chancellor and member of the Institu-
GLO DY) Sree Seale en ea OS pe ee x1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 168, 169, 170
Chronology, researches in, Research Corporation awards to A. E. Douglass
and Erist,Antevs fort 2. {OU 20! eile Lie Dee OES ERS 303
@larkks, Asner ‘lS Sh rh ct A a RO En XII
Olarle, Dir Cs Ua Re Sia AA OES te) Ee 9, 169
Clark; Leland» Bow cele bn ek. ee ya ee ee xii, 135, 136
Clarke..Dr,-Erank ‘Wiggleswortha3 2.94450) saat sa a ene eee 20, 21, 42
Clay chronology of North America, Late-glacial (Antevs)___._.._.-.------- 313
Collins; Henry Bs 5 jr aie yh RO i eA a ee 11, 14, 25, 31
Commerce, Secretary of (member of the Institution)__.___._.____._------ XI
Compton, Arthur. H.. (Assault-on atoms) /Ui Wea eee eet 287
Cook, O. F. (The debt of agriculture to Tropical America) _______------ 491

Corbin, William L., librarian of the Institution._._..........._-_-- x1, 57, 151

INDEX 585

Page
CovillesPb rene Gericke Ve let ae Leh oA Pl YG BE ON eh Ue Ae eo Xai
@urators ofthe instinution ew ei. oe Te es a oe XII
Curtis, Charles, Vice President of the United States (regent and member of
thevinstitution) Aner sayeo eee ee ee ke ee Ce Xi, 2, 3; Loo
D
Daughters of the American Revolution, National Society, report of the-_.. 158
Dawes seron., © darles GS # ae Wels Fe Rie i win ek wles diy eal ee as eh Me 4,9
Delano. Erederic A® (repent)! tit sews noe ie ed re x1, 3, 167, 168, 169
Denmark Clay tonwiecs se ae eee ee ie ea ee ee Ee tend XII
Densmore; Mrancesn0' (Ace teens ne fA ead ee ee ee Lt as 17, 69, 70
Doak, William N., Secretary of Labor (member of the Institution) -__--_- XI
Dorsey, Harry W., chief clerk of the Institution and administrative
SSSIStADL LO) Ue SCChEtALY ooo 2k ee = a ae aie eae aa ae a a Xl
Dorsey, Nicholas W., treasurer and disbursing agent___..._-..-_------ >I oat
Douglass, A. E. and Ernst Antevs, Research Corporation awards to, for
EESCALCHeSs IM CHLONOLO RY As ee ae Dene eee eee ae eae eee 303
Douglass, A. E. (Tree rings and their relation to solar variations and chro-
TROY) at eek a eI elt ta ol AER AN eS rt 304
Dunham; Theodore, jr. (Stellar laboratories) <2 202/222. -<-2222222.-200 259
E
Earth beneath in the light of modern seismology, The (Hodgson) - ---_-_-- 347
Harths Soa pine hey (Bowie ioe oie ee ice oye ed ee ee 325
Earthquake problem, Coming to grips with the (Heck) -_______-__-_--- 361
Hddington, Avs. (he rotation of the galaxy) ss==24) 22-2222. 239
Editorial work of the Institution consolidated_______._.__._-.------_- 1, 41, 152
Editors of the Institution and branches______________- XI, x11, 41, 74, 152, 156
NGO wMent hun Gee STAM SOME Tey eee eee ee pee 3
Statement) Olsson en ee ee AN TS AOI EL te Lay 7
Environment, adaptation of living organisms to their, Some aspects of
GQWiardlawir 2 aoe ee Oe SU RAMEE ENE LCRA OATS TOE LS 2 ep OLS Sees 389
Ethnological and archeological investigations, cooperative_____-_-------- 10
Hthnology,;bpuresw of “American 202 4.82255 x 2 ORT OPe Gy eo a 1, 2, 16, 32
COMES CHO TS eee ee EIN APSR AD rt hd alps PAS IES Tp PENSE 0 73
editorial work and-publicationse = 2U2 3 Ve BOG eee. FURY OS eae Ss 71
APTI TR AGL OTA oie es ea pec el Mi at aa lg ats a BR EER alc 72
RES Te SAT yee ae eng SA hg a eho ala Santa el SA Sa EN ta alan 73, 140, 146
UDI CATT OMS eas emir tarts, ety a sts RL og Ale LR UO WA UE ak 12,72, 153, 157
Fig] OO) 5 NS gi nal pel Mi par Seslp opel eae ee ree LL 60
BPCCIAI PESCAT CHES! eee ee BR A Malte ality ee tare cacy I 69
CS EEN BN I i eas Sel eek ge Sek eR ND A ete areca nice eee at EOL XII
Huropeanvarchives, researches ina som] ae ese 2 ae See Ne er ay Ae ey oe 9
HiVans nV 1CLOL. J. DEQUESU— ee ee eee Pte ee ek DAE 14, 17, 25, 86
EVOlvineiumiverse, Ami (Jeans) eso eee reer eek ee eRe ee 229
Exchange Service; International2= = 22.222 22 ag ee Bu ee 1,17
foreign depositories of Governmental documents-_--___------------ 77
FOTEIATIMEKCHAN PLE! ASIICISS eee weet mer ne ae lesa eats LULA ENE 82
interparliamentary exchange of the official journal________-_------- 80
TEP OL US s eesen See ee Re ree ee eee erg AD ND, EO ROOD oe AL ROOT, ho
SS Usa Lege ae RS ee ea eee Se Wea he de oe oe AO EEE EL XII

586 INDEX

F Page
Hinances, of, the Institution. 22 aS ose ees es oe ee ee ea 3
Fisheries, Bureau of, United States Department of Commerce_-_-_-___-__- 27
Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, United States Department of Agri-
COIGUITGS! 12sec oe a aoe ae ee ee 2, 20, 123; 125, 132,135; 136
Flowers, wild, from Swiss meadows and mountains, Some (Wood) -_-_-- .- 503
Horbes/ leila _.G: ,assistant librarian 2_- 22-2222 .2 325 sees en ee ee XII
COT, Ais VA et Sie Aopey ntpen se hae Oe ah ae 31
Roshag rs Wi kysso. sce ee Se ha ie eS oe a a ee emer eee nes aire ee XIE
PHO WAL NP IR OG) gl CaS ep Te ce eae as ee yh ge eR ede XIII
GFSSCY, Jd ATES In ta eee oe oS i Ok Se ence Ses es, he er 44, 45
reer: s@ban) ese sheila pe hae ec ae Ge ae On She ee 160
reer Gallery (Oly Agt ee f thee Soe ee as te UE ea Beale ae ee 1,15
attendancerseeee oh. 25s Poe ple te eee SA ge ed er ee 58
Joy VD Ko Liha 3%, ee ee aie AQMD aS RR ia hee ORE no a GRE eee pa ck Bnet oe 58
rel ER WOT a ese eo eR eras pS OI SR Bs FN SE eh PE ee ret 59
103 BRT cop MMPCL yen 12 See SRP A PORN ae UN Rr Ee 4, 160, 165
TID PAT yee ate eee ae See er ee ee 57, 140, 148, 156
PUbIGa TIONS See Gee ae Sy Ba ko ek ne ol eee a re ara ae 156
reproductions and pamphlets: - 2229s ae ee ee ee ee 57
BE) Of OP | Toon cee a ge emf ON ye eG al i yee Shy 54
SCS Les on pepe, Bie ae tS ST NS es ee Sh eae, aN XII
Hriedmanin. Wr Ver Derbi ce oc See ear a cater alee aap ae XII
G
Galaxy, Che rotation of the, (Bddington)) 542-522 4 eae ea ee 239
Gellatly, John 2) 222 .o 9 Seo Sok pa ae ee ae ake oe ee 169
CesthRI LE tes 2). cp 20 oe Dy ei ARR eee oe ag eae Ae ee 44, 45
Ce POU Shpall ESA eB yen ge De eo BN eR TENG APU Pe On Le Seat 14, 28, 36
Gilbert: | @hesteni Gant Seek te wee. 0 Bo Se gee ee oer XII
Gill, De Lancey, illustrator, Bureau of American Ethnology__-._------- Xi, of 2
Gilmore; Ghanles pw. stoc4 oko 50 2 ee es Se x11, 14, 28, 36

Goldsmith, James S8., superintendent of buildings and labor, National

Museu ee 3 oe ied aes ys ates eet ee de cere ape XII
Graf, John E., associate director, National Museum-_~__--.------------ xr, 40
Graliam Reva avigiGs. ol Sohne hes Paes eee ee oe ee 11, 14, 26, 33
Guest, Grace Dunham, assistant curator, Freer Gallery of Art---------- XII
Gunnell: TeonardiG@s stash NS kg eae ae ee xn, 139

H

Fabel fund xc dpe nO ie tea eh ee ok on ee eee te 4
achenbergfundh tse.) USS os ow oe eS eee 4
VAM GO meh yt le a NS I ee a
Herriman Alaska Hxpedition, Téeporte 3s -<52 226.4" ae ee 153
Migerinetome: don: (Pi ao see BE hare cee ee x11, 16, 63, 64
ay, Dr. Oliver Perry} ss-ctek oe oe Se ee eee ee 42
Heck, N. H. (Coming to grips with the earthquake problem) ---_-------- 361
Henderson whdward Po. Ace ec toe ee eee ee ee ee 35, 36
FR Tar VisPear a eg te A ace cn BE ee ge ee 4
Frewitt,, JobngN s Bi Weenie ae eee oe pe oe eee es Xin, 17,07, 68
Hill, James H., property clerk of the Institution_____----------------- XI
Hodgisingfurnd: geéneralé.. 3.42 oes bee cee ee ee eee 4, 165

SPOON! 22 fee ae Se SC ae ee eee ee ee 4, 160

INDEX 587

Page
Hodgson, Ernest A. (The earth beneath in the light of modern seismology). 347
Holmes, Dr. William H., director, National Gallery of Art__._.---_-_-- XII,
15, 44, 48, 51, 52, 53
Voli sbrenest Ge a Saeko cae Rees Cece e were aa yete 14, 26, 34
Hoover, Herbert, President of the United States(member of the Institution)_ x
loo mers Vis: Ft er Wert fs 2 i oat a Se See dyertok Due ea el 50
EGO wer Whi sara a Se oe a eee aaa y Lie Nile eh Lage Satan x11, 19, 129, 135
EV grr ea VV ALLO ere ee ee SN ss ck een ee XII
HowarcdyOr. Leland /@ 25202 tek sy coach nuh. pe ee x11, 2, 46, 148
Ble cli Chas rs A GS ee eerie as eras eRe ciel ert ei X11, 2, 11, 14, 25, 33, 39
Hughes, Charles Evans, Chief Justice of the United States (chancellor and
memberiof the) Institution) 2=- 5-25-- 222222525... xI, 2, 3, 7, 8, 168, 169, 170
ghost Cwm Ecos seers none ee aun eCard ee ok ce 4, 25, 160, 165
Hurley, Patrick J., Secretary of War (member of the Institution) _____-_ XI
Hyde, Arthur M., Secretary of Agriculture (member of the Institution) -- XI
; if
Insect head and the organs of feeding, Evolution of the (Snodgrass) - __-- 443
IMSeCtS Our tri|emds Me Cesc kU) eters a ci wetaie jon saveN tuna empha arctan aay laa ac 431
Interior, Secretary of (member of the Institution)____._.__.__-____-___-_ XI
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, Regional Bureau for the
WMITEG States saa eee nae eee oc tye ais Spe AG a cee rirees a goa KI 1120
EE OY 0) RN ag eg MPa A a ae eS Ne 138
international Hixchange Services aaa e ak See es ee ee eee aa ly
foreign depositories of Governmental documents____-___-_-_--_-_-- Cs
LOTCIPMVEXCO ANP EIA PENCLES eee Ne eee eyo aay Lye RP OAD ay WARM 82
interparliamentary exchange of the official journal_________________ 80
FREY OO) Sess es Sia i ets Sg LE a sae NI ie Pa te DAC Eh a eld Ree SAL Oe 75
FSAI 0s a wl gat a ed ep A ARE YR NE AL ERO oe NCE eB Ta XII
ives MeLbertrbiy (lWO-Way CeleVISION) © =e oe ooo et fh ls PN ee 297
J
Jeans som, James (An evolving universe). 22--.222--2- 0 nh he 229
Jomns ee epkinssUiniversityses s-seb. 22) eee eke eee ee 132
Johnson, Representative Albert (regent) _......../.-.____._______- x1, 3, 168
JORUStOn, WO GHATS) eck eee sees st SL x11, 19, 127, 129, 134
(Groming«plantsiwithoutisoil) mani. Gadde) Yonsei s ote Yeh at 381
AIRECRGE A ING UM N38 39 pe a gs is py at 9 apg a ai ees VE ee a x11, 40
K
Kellers, Lieut. Henry C., United States Navy________.__--_____ 11, 14, 26, 34
RGN pS Ells worhhybes ve eter esc yee) ge pet cpa oe Bg XII
Knowles, William A., property clerk, National Museum________________ XII
eploo eran OLberts Wert ena. eee ee ee i cet xi, 16, 31; 32) 35, 61
L
Lamont, Robert P., Secretary of Commerce (member of the Institution) - XI
angley aeronautical library 22 Sees ae eure he a 140, 147
Langley Medal, presentation of, to Manly and Byrd_______________ 7, 168, 170

agli. swine.) (REZeNb) ots Nees Rh ae Sue soe he Sal al ee 8 xi, 3

588 INDEX

Page
Leary, Ella, librarian, Bureau of American Ethnology__._.______-_____ x11, 73
Lenman,i Isobel. HU. oot. J veneer py en tnaredty . PT iin We deg 41
DewboniDreilimederick Tis oe eC Si iene eo yah a A XII
Libraries of the Institution and branches....__.......--.-------=222Lk 12
TEPOPtsSVa gL LE eA DST UE Meee deere 140
SUMMDALY IOL. ACCESSIONS en esse tn ere ee I Ee 149
Library of Congress, Smithsonian deposit in____.._._..______-_____- 140, 143
j Era (a (25 Til Of 01 2) eect MMe tht dn aN eS Oe RIEU RT Ty eT | 20, 132
Lodge, John Ellerton, curator, Freer Gallery of Art__._.___________ x11, 44, 59
ieveworth; Hon. Nicbolass 22 2:0 seve Lecce sees eee ee ta 40
Luce, Representative Robert (regent)___.......-_-22--222 25-4. x1, 3, 168, 169
M
Mallery,: Otto vRaue rs tent sie Se Sanity) ie. 2a petit Hera. 4, 169
Man, civilized}The antiquityiofi(Sayde)ibiuce 4: yoss ee, ae 515
Man, primitive, in China, The discovery of (Smith)____.______________- 531
Manly, Charles Matthews, presentation of Langley Medal to________- 7, 8, 168
Miambye@ barlesi Wists fins ea tek oe ee acted ag aera Be REN BLO Ato ae aoe oe 8, 168
Mann, William M., director, National Zoological Park_______- xu, 87, 116, 158
Naver ETON Ks, ft Mes OMe. oon oe op ee ee Sry nee 44, 46
Matheson, Robert (The utilization of aquatic plants as aids in mosquito
(OXON 0115 G0) |) BS Arrears ab mana, ep eelse nN ole ec patuliry orgue fil Bed aig otal cand ee 413
UVES Cav ceed Da gale GUE ool 5 Sagem i ae iments tesa loreal ey «al teal teh te i ost XII
NMCATISteD ry Pine De oe ae a, Seen ey ee ee ae eae xi1I, 19, 20, 127, 133, 134
Meier, Droilorence BS cn settee yam eae a ae oe ed 19, 129
Mele hers 5 Gare 75 42 ae epee EIN 3s SE 5 ih ee Clee ann a oe 44, 46
Mellon, Andrew W., former Secretary of the Treasury (member of the
GAYS OTL AE CH Co) 01) japan RRS apie oe th pe ceria pclae Ak A uri emp h nile ies rtet nb vapid. xI
Members: df.the institution’: (2030) Sk ee ne og epee meena ma ees XI
Menzies, James M. (The culture of the Shang Dynasty) _-_____________-_ 549
Merriam,” Drs John Cs (regent) esa ai ne aoe. ye nenal ne x1, 3, 167, 168
Merrill, Mrs. George P., books presented to library_____._..__--___-_- 13
Michelson, ‘Albert; Abraham (Moulton) 2 ec i) 579
Michelson, ‘Dr: Truman 52020 Pete ertele aie aod xT, 16,62
Miller: \Gerritys., ihe so iye oe eR Ah hd Oi ara ct a X11, 29, 35
Millikan, Robert A. (Present status of theory and experiment as to atomic
disintegration and: atomic symthesis) 63). 6 OE 277
Mitchell, William D., Attorney General (member of the Institution) ____- XI
Mitmaan: Carl Ween Soko ee i Be Dn Ale si ener XII
Moore Al ict Sea es eN SRLUE fe 0 aol oak art mm, 19, 123, 124
Moore sCharies 5 = oc ts Sikk s Oe ek WE ok ce 44
Moore, Representative R. Walton (regent)_.__...____-_--__--- x1, 3, 167, 168
Norrow, Senator “Dwight: o-22.- 2 LT Oie Oe sae be ee eee 3
Mosquito control, The utilization of aquatic plants as aids in (Matheson). 413
Moulton, Forest R. (Albert Abraham Michelson)__......._._-------_-- 579
Munroe? Helent.) 8+ a0+ ot bh ene 4 eerie hea ee eee 72
Myer. fund; 'Gatherine Waldene43232_ 222 Seno son a ee eee 4, 160, 165
N
National Academy of Design; ‘Council-of the=2= 25" 5-2 ee 50
National 'Gallery ‘of -Artes2:02 i) Pe Tia Se eee 2 oe See 1,15
art collections, present distribution of the......__.__._.-__--_-___--- 43
art works received during the year___________ eB ie te eS 48

INDEX 589

National Gallery of Art—Continued. Page
CEE DUES AUN py Sa ea pp ye al a as Pen epee SS 46
GOMMIITSS] Orne ee eae SN I ee eI ee a ae 15, 44, 46
GITCCLOR ee een eee Noe ee ae xut, 15, 44, 48, 51, 52, 53
GUNS ae OND OH OY a A a ga ale ya ee 50
exhibitions el avduningy they earees a sete an ee. ee eee ee 46
TI eS Pa a eg SSP ea a eo en an 51, 140, 148
LOPE a Syste Se AN a ge ad lal ni lp i ay NN 48, 50
>OLSY 6450) (of a pep a ye 5 ea lh yi i A 53
pO CL UU CPE Ap aye gy A 8 i See 53, 153
Fey OO SU tee yey Sieh ye gal A Le Sa 43

INE GIOnaIE GeOpTaApHiC SOCIGhy maa sacs te ee wa ono ee eee 14, 26

INE bIOT Ss eV lnie Urine eeen iceereet ote he Ee ee ce ape ae ale cm rete Li2sis
bundinesandsequipmentuc=s@een aan at eee on ew Soe oem 37
Collechionge ssa. a ee ee eee ee ee Se he 24

TG AM MITT CLUS GT] CS eet eta teres nee ee Di een Hy ey Severe fey ay ees 28
SH THTOPOLO Gy ar ett eS ee I SS tear Sy 25
W510) 0 pays ete ee ree is wd yee yh BN ee SS ee ee eine 26
F510) (OY a fe Ry i A de ee ee 27
LODE) oy wy os ays SPs pa ia NR Se eee es a a SR NS ea t= 29
ERED UGIOTIS COVE CB yin eee eee meee ee ees eel ect eer ee 30
explorations and field) worki2s 42 2S wee Soe eee ee ee 30
meetings and TeceptiOns-=-==— ---— eee esos Soe ee ee eee 38
Natural History Building, appropriation for extensions to---------- 1, 24
Dublications=- -So ese sh eee ee ee 12, 40, 152, 153, 156
FRE) OO) As See en he gE ea Sl Se Ss RN BOSE ES ES ee ars 22
SSE eee cs en cee Lp RR Be ee ou eet eyewel ey Se po XII
WASH C Oy genre ee a eo eo ere eee Ss Ae ee ea 40

NationalyZoologicals bark. 2. te eee eee ae oe eee Wan We
UCC ESATO TIS a ere ete RU RI IN Ly OG Ls eS a Te 86
aniumnalshnethecollection June oO Ooi ee = ae ee ae ee ie ee ees 95
ran e164 i Sp dOMk. Sys Op AU UR Sy RP UO ge Se ey Sg nee xil, 87, 116, 158
ETON Tabs aa ec a ati hl lg a Be ee eh ete aha ol 88
ANP T.O VTL CTU ees eet ae cae eh arcane ee er 1S
DS Tr ER peas eee a a ad al a A cS aft at gh ee ee 149
waYSXS{OES| HOVE) [HOV ey AA OLOY sees ne ek RA aL Sa NT ees et OH gS aE 116
bE) OY 0) et eee eg eo es we sr Er aye NUL POS Ay Se ge Oe Oy Oe a 86
FSS Ep ALIS Ap Tea a es ee Ip eyewear iver, Spyeeee et Heh eS XII
SY AESTULRCOY Gf pee ea ange cet a RE Ug rE ae eee 18, 114

Natural History, Building, additions|to:.42421 552 2eesie ee eee eee 1, 24

Navy, Secretary of the (member of the Institution) ---_-.-------------- xI

INGCTOLO Ry eee Se a ee ee a Se ee ei ee 20

O
Oehser, Paul H., editor, National Museum---_--------------- x11, 41, 152, 156

Olmsted br Ay ioc s ance pete see a a yet ee eee eee ee ee eta Po raiaiae
Organisms, living, adaptation to their environment, Some aspects of

CVV iecrclsaie, Pero ep ote ee Reh epee hae es eet Re ah ae el 389

12
iParmelee sd aimesis 2244 ose ns Aa ee a ee Bs ee ER 53
Patrights Sica chide 2a Eas Sk LN LS OU EN RUSS See 3 val

PTS EN Ve ee ee eas aes a er eee eA ee es eee ese 11, 35

590 INDEX

Page
Pell fund; Comelia luivingstont 2422-752. S45 ses 5-—2- ee eee 4, 160
Plant Industry, Bureau of, United States Department of Agriculture -- ---- 88
Plants, aquatic, The utilization of, as aids in mosquito control (Matheson). 413
Plants without. soil, Growing @ohnston) ——--- 2. 22255202 See 381
Poore fund; Lucy, -l..and George Wa--=252 022-6. Se 4, 160, 165
Postmaster General (member of the Institution) _...------------------ XI
President of the United States (member of the Institution)_---___------ 5a)
Printing and publication, Smithsonian advisory committee on-_--------- 158
Public Buildings and Public Parks, Office of__....-------------------- 37, 88
Publications: of the Institution. and branches_...-+-_..--=~-=2-=4-- =. - Til
TOPORG= 2) ey ste ee ee a ak Si ie a eee ee ee 152
R

Radiation and: Organisms, Division of2= 2222-2 5-2 —- =e =e 1, 2, 19, 169
Cl AWS GR ee i ee ee AE Me RS Ree EL LY RL lee ee XIII
POCO] axe) EN DICeNN KO) Gl ecient tt 131, 136
UI a 6 Pa rye aS a gE Ke A 3 140, 147
Tg) 80) 4 er ea ae et ep EP hy ey Pa Ih 125
TESeATeh sin: PYOPTCSS 2 oa ee a ee ee 125
FE 18 i a AS Se ae eR Ns Rig eg Se MU Se Stahl hag Ses XII
Radiation, solar, Twenty-five years’ study of (Abbot) _.---- ------------ 175
Radio reception, Sun spots and- (Stetson) 22222-22248 sss eee 215
Ranger bequest, Henry Ward, paintings purchased from ------------ 15, 45, 50
Ravenel, W. de C., administrative assistant to the Secretary -_- .- .------- XII
Redfield. HW sorseso et Eo See eee eee 44
Regents of the Institution, Board of___-- Bi Pech eee ey oleh ee Bel x1, 3, 45
executive committees. oan ee ase Sh eee xI, 167
TOPOL Lee ea Rees ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 159
PTOCCCC LI Ras Seah es pe se rete nae 7 Re ee ee 168
Reid fund Addison ih =e sae ee ek Oe On ee ee oe 4, 160, 166
Research Corporation =. 22 soo ee 5) Peas eee 4, 134, 185, 136, 169

Research Corporation awards to A. E. Douglass and Ernst Antevs for
TescarehesincChTOnOlOgy =.= ae ee eee ee ee 303
Resser: Drs ‘Gharles> Wiel se ee ee eee ee xu, 36
I Rays (ers Wb GDN eV o estate sear canta Teak Miah eRe SATO RTT Te a eye Ep kg ey a ER hae a 4
Rhoades, Katherine Nash, associate, Freer Gallery of Art__.------------- XII
Richmond.,Wr- Charles Wesses toss eee Se ee eee ae XII
VOR GE GS se Coe Gs a he ra Av cee ene ee a een 14, 25
Roberts, Dr. “PranksH i) reste eee Ree ee x11, 17, 64, 66
Robinson, Senator Joseph T. (regent) -_-.--------------------- x1, 3, 168, 169
Roebling funds Se ee 4, 160, 165
Roebling John Ass 22 2 sakes a as eee ee ae eee ee ee 4, 123, 169
Russell, Henry Norris (The composition of the sun) - ------------------ 199
Russell: J. Lownsend, jt---22-- 252200 pee a ee 32, 148

Ss

SF rhivose(o tn fu hao Lemay esi eR ea ener Sein ee Se ee ed PrP ie et Po a
Sayce, A. H. (The antiquity of civilized man)------------------------- 515
Schmitt, Dr. -Wald@@: . -.---222 2-80 22222 eee ee xl, 34
Sculpture Society2....2 2-3-5222 22 2S see ee ee ee 46
Searles, Stanley, editor, Bureau of American Ethnology- ----- xu, 74, 152, 158

INDEX 591

Page
Secrevany of che. Insvibution= 22-25 Sob las eee eases Bh, Boh Sodan! >Gale
1, 10, 21, 42, 44, 45, 53, 59, 74, 85, 116, 124, 137, 139, 151, 158, 168, 169
Seismology, modern, The earth beneath in the light of (Hodgson) --____-- 347
SeuzlerwiHrankeViee os 4 Ge ee aos De Sean Lee Soe eS eae 32, 41
Shang Oynassy, Lhe culvure of the. (Menzies)e is a2 ose te 2a ee 549
Shoemaker, Coates W., chief clerk, International Exchange Service____ x11, 85
Smith, G. Elliot (The discovery of primitive man in China)_-_-__-______-- 531
Saat In ee ear deb settee Seige mre eer aah ete ee Se ie ag 14, 26
PSTAOGII A aVSYOW ONG Fo 60Y =) = UR PR I OO sagt oT VEY ei ON le pe See ee RE ave lee Nae 2
Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication_---_____-_- 158
CONGEOUMOMSiLONKMOWICOS Cre 5 cose ne eye Oe a ey ee 153
EIMELOWAITLETNG PLUNGE pene ee eet eye ip er ee Rn eee ee ees areas 159
TANTS COMATICOUSNC OLE CUO TS meyer a ls 12, 152, 153
DGIEM GIO RO CRICS - ener 2a 2 ace cles ee ee se Ra ieee Vp Bah ey Saath te 8, 169
SPecialG publica tiom shes sess eee ee See ee eae eae a ee 152, 153, 156
HU a ge SY =H eo Oh of SY UO A V6 RU A 0 I Ni 8 EV a a 4,165
Smootus senator needs. (repent)izas 2 aware es We oa ee ee eS XTo
Snodgrass, R. E. (Evolution of the insect head and the organs of feeding)--_ 448
Solar radiation, Twenty-five years’ study of (Abbot)-----_------------- 175
Noes oa kexes oak Avg ne (NGA Ta ef) al aM SATE es a a Ae ee ete re 3, 4, 160, 165
State, Secretary of (member of the Institution) -__-_-._---------------- SI
ASUS HGCEy ete aNd a el Svan OF 6 WO TP Se a xu, 158
Silanes (Drea) soso. eee eee ee eee eS 259
Stetson, Harlan T. (Sun spots and radio reception) _-._-_-------------- 215
Stimson, Henry L., Secretary of State (member of the Institution) -___- xi
Stirling, Matthew W., chief, Bureau of American Ethnology_-___-_--_-_- XII,
16, 35, 60, 61, 68, 74, 158
Strong ry Wilts) em eS res rai cee ei ee eke Ae xu, 74
Sun, Arthur fund for promoting knowledge of__.-222.-.2....-.-2_1---- 2
io, lune: compositionfof, the (Russell)=_ =.) 52252522 obs ee 199
SUM spots ane radio reception (Stetson) =.-2. 6.22 22 22 eee 215
Swansonsoenatom ClaimderAn (reg ember XI, 3
“SHEE SER POD IG LD RANI LI’0) 0 aN) 8 ey gel tp eS ren A Ue tm tag RE x1, 16, 61, 62, 74, 169
Swine Ore Wilber i 2 2 lee pe coe ee Ng tk eh LOMS
Swiss meadows and mountains, Some wild flowers from (Wood)__-____-_- 503
Aly
elevision. -Lwo-wayu(lves)ee=ssssscses5 So sess ess soe e eee 297
Totem poles: a recent native art of the northwest coast of America
(Barbeatt)=s-s aes sane Sires bee a ate oe ek fa ee Bae EE is 559
Traylor, James G., appointment clerk of the Institution___...__._________ XI
Treasurer and disbursing agent of the Institution....-..._....._._____ XI
‘Preasury Department,» United /Statess: sss ~22=s=22252sceeecesc22ele 30
Treasury, Secretary of the (member of the Institution) __._._..__..______ XI
Tree rings and their relation to solar variations and chronology (Douglass). 304
Tropical America, The debt of agriculture to (Cook)_--.--.-.__.___-_-- 491
True, Webster P., editor of the Institution._._..__._._..____-- xI, 41, 156, 158
Tyne Foundation: of Pngland, Stephen. H- 2... .---.2--5.2225-.----- 29
U

Universe Am CVOlvines (CANS). ete ee eos ee eT 229

592 INDEX

Vi
Page
Vice President of the United States (regent and member of the Institu-
TION) csenejn ast Hoge Sue Ss yale eA gene Aah Ee ae xI, 2, 3, 168
W
Walcott fund, ‘Charles, and: Mary, Valxcu a aoe le oe ee 4, 160, 165
WV AICOLG, WERE: VRE cr Mista ye cnt mi nen acne gee, COE amet Ret ates vee OE 169
Walker, Ernest P., assistant director, National Zoological Park ._._______ XII
Wialllcers WV Ine) owi Vieete eae ren s h eae See eee eae agence ne ee x11, 17, 69, 74
War, secretary of (member of the Institution)-_.--- ---_--- 2 eee dl
Wardlaw, H. S. Halcro (Some aspects of the adaptation of living organ-

ASINS GUO CHM SLEF CTT OTIILE TG) payee eta a see és 389
Washington bicentennial celebration, The__--~.2-2-._- :_._-____-_=__-_ 46
Wenley, Archibald G., assistant, Freer Gallery of Art_._.......-_----_- XII
Wetmore, Dr. Alexander, assistant secretary of the Institution.________- >.

XII, 26, 28, 32, 35, 87, 168, 169

NV UVETGPS etd Bes BA iat a aeep aan a CRD Ati o-eBiee i Aid EA Deh ky) pele ek WE XII
Wilbur, Ray Lyman, Secretary of the Interior (member of the Institution) _ XI
Wood, Casey A. (Some wild flowers from Swiss meadows and mountains). 503
Wioudlevancharles) Oe an cos Oe aes Sn ale REE ener re eer ee ee 4
Wit eri ver hess ane So Rant Se Seen Sine ee nes eee ee 20: 123; 1142

6
Meaeger'& CounWyilliam Wisse 82 See 2 es ee oe 167
Vounger/fund,’ Helen Walcott 35 s42225 bo ee dee 3, 4, 160, 165
Z

Zerbee fund, Franees: Brincklé.22 2. SY SOL a Os AL ey a) 4, 88, 160, 165, 169
Zerpec, Maj; heigh-Fs Jissco22feseo% = sas PRB PARE 5 Pe 4, 88
Zoatner;: bis Pits sees aes si ass so 28 t COR BOOT Dae Ba 123
Zoological Park, Nationalis.22252 <5) <v222u NINO) eRe! ae 107
RECESSIONS Joe nel ees Se eed ee ek eee ee SO ee 86
animals in the collection June30, 1931.--==<=222=-22- 2. 2225/2222 -2 95
directorss 2232 S525 220202 SPO baie Sc ER ay eae x11, 87, 116, 158
GONOTSPAN Gee N ery OTe GA (LS UCL) eee eee a 88
endowmients== 220. see ae olen we sd Soe fase tall ee Se ae 88
Improvements. 5 55.25 68 oe ee eae ee 115
Libranyo< 522. $8592 ap ete cet be Be ae ee ee 149
needs:of the Zoe... 25. 4: wate: ok SS eee ae 116
TEPOlta2 ioe so 5 ets eee Ronde 2 = See ey ee ee Sa ee 86
slafie~ = 2c. ho le eg ee ae Se ay fa ee ee XII
VISItOTS 2 2 jt Sos ee oe Se eee Ss A ne 18, 114

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