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ANNUAL REPORT OF THE 
BOARD OF REGENTS OF 


THE SMITHSONIAN 
ENS thw PlON 


SHOWING THE 


OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND 
CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION 
FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30 


eA 


(Publication 3705) 


UNITED STATES 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
WASHINGTON : 1943 


For sale by the Si iperintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office 
Jashington, D.C. - Price $1.50 


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ia Re OT RAN S MET TAL 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
Washington, December 10, 1942. 
To the Congress of the United States: 

In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the 
United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, 
to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- 
tures, and conditions of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 
ended June 30, 1942. I have the honor to be, 

Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 
C. G. Anpor, Secretary. 


pans 


CONTENTS 


TERUG COVE CON TOS EES SS SS BA a he age Fo aie eee 
Tina: Cran ag ornnienn col Paves yess 2 ee ee eee eee eeooce 
nding. of Wrght-smithsonian controversy... 222.225, --.--- 24255 
Summary of the year’s activities of the branches of the Institution_______ 
sihesestabushinent setter ee ate i a Ee Ae ea ees 
POP BOATCEOm Recents sta: aoa eas ae ee See ee ene 
PESGHIEN EAT CC 6p ne me ee rc ee ea fs ES ee eee Ws 
Neattersqouneeneralointeresy 22282 2b ee ee Ee es le oe Se 
Siam ioovanyn weKChio) joywoyarnon = Co ee ee ee 
Wialterunathbonessacon scholars iui = wae ae ee 
MeventheArthurgplechure=-)se — ae ee ee ee 
PED lOLaponus and nies WOT 2 oe) 22 2 pee te oe ee Eee se 
IRUbICablOns sees cpak eee eee ee ES ee ee ge Be 


Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum_--_-~--__~- 
2. Report on the National Gallery of Art-_.._...-.-.--------= 
3. Report on the National Collection of Fine Arts_-_-------_-- 
Ay Report.onjithe Breer Gallery of Art-.-222. 222-225 2224-2 =— 
5. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology - -------_----- 
6. Report on the International Exchange Service_.----------- 
7. Report, on the National. Zoological), Rark...-4.-----==--=--- 
8. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory ---.----.-------- 
9. Report on the Division of Radiation and Organisms-_----- - - 
LORE pOntrOmat Meir siraye se ee eee ee eee 
Wil, Jeph Ola OMOEA ee eee ee ee oases 
Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents__-_-_--_----- 


GENERAL APPENDIX 


The 1914 tests of the Langley “aerodrome,” by C. G. Abbot______-__-_- 
The problem of the expanding universe, by Edwin Hubble____________ ~~ 
(eat asxdes pe bos get re] Oya LEAL yy pene ee a eae ee 
Is there life on the other worlds? by Sir James Jeans____________-_____- 
Solar radiation and the state of the atmosphere, by Harlan True Stetson____ 
The sun and the earth’s magnetic field, by J. A. Fleming._____________- 
Ultraviolet light as a sanitary aid, by Louis Gershenfeld_______________- 
‘trends injpetroleum geology, by A. I. Levorsen. ..-=~.-.-.=-2--.--.--2 
Meteorites and their metallic constituents, by E. P. Henderson and Stuart 


Philippine tektites and the tektite problem in general, by H. Otley Beyer _ _- 
Chemical properties of viruses, by W. M. Stanley_____.___._______--_--_- 
Industrial development of synthetic vitamins, by Randolph T. Major__--_- 
The nutritional requirements of man, by C. A. Elvehjem_____--______-- 


111 
119 
133 
145 
151 
173 
209 
227 


235 
253 
261 
273 
289 


VI CONTENTS 


Past and present status of the marine mammals of South America and the 

West Indies;;by Remington Kelloges =. 22225525 sone een eee ee 
The return of the musk ox, by Stanley P. Young. ....-...-_._..__-_--- 
Insect enemies of our cereal crops, by C. M. Packard_____-_______-_-_-_ 
The geographical aspects of malaria, by Sir Malcolm Watson- ----___-_- 
The bromeliads of Brazil, by Mulford B. Foster__...--..-------------- 
Canada’s Indian problems, by Diamond Jenness___...----------------- 
Dakar and the other Cape Verde settlements, by Derwent Whittlesey --__-- 


Page 


299 
317 
323 
339 
351 
367 
381 


LIST OF PLATES 


Secretary’s Report: Page 

DET Lg I ee pL Lee a ae EY ee a 44 
Galaxies (Shapley): 

NEAT ELE CB lie eee ee ea rate ace a ae 2) Ie eee ea ah ie Be ete = 144 
Solar radiation and the state of the atmosphere (Stetson): 

ELS GOS and yt erate tan ete eee a ate ale iad ee ae 2 be oh a a 172 
The sun and the earth’s magnetic field (Fleming) : 

Wear ioe Tesh Ur ile a oan ee Res, Seiad nL a eee Se eee 208 
Meteorites and their metallic constituents (Henderson and Perry): 

EAE VCSy Tee oper apne th a0 eR ce OnE ren OO eo 252 
Chemical properties of viruses (Stanley): 

J EAR HOT er TE eee i sat Sead a fy le i oa Se RS Pe eee ee ee ie 272 
Industrial development of synthetic vitamins (Major): 

nT St pple eres rs te ea ceo eae eer eee ee are ete ele Se et 288 
The return of the musk ox (Young): 

VEL ET Wa WG ae ae Ll ae oe MeN ac Se ne cee Oe AS et oe 322 
Insect enemies of our cereal crops (Packard): 

V Ede yey} Ted 0 paps ae Rk A el Sipe a AO 1 ee Py Se 338 
The bromeliads of Brazil (Foster): 

Ces pL Osea mere ese ee er eet em ate Seat eee Oe ae 366 
Canada’s Indian problems (Jenness) : 

J 2 RSH CES) a LS ah tale pa a ar 8 ey A ce 380 
Dakar and the other Cape Verde settlements (Whittlesey) : 

Bed COS el 4 series mete ec er eR et nomen Late a ee nen eee 408 


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THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
June 30, 1942 


Presiding officer ex officio—FRANKLIN D. ROoosEvELtT, President of the United 
States. 
Chancellor.—HARLAn I. Stone, Chief Justice of the United States. 
Members of the Institution: 
FRANKLIN D. RoosEvEtt, President of the United States. 
Henry A. WALLACE, Vice President of the United States. 
Haran F. Stone, Chief Justice of the United States. 
CorbDELL HUuLL, Secretary of State. 
HENRY MORGENTHAU, Jr., Secretary of the Treasury. 
Henry L. Srimson, Secretary of War. 
Francis Bippie, Attorney General. 
FRANK C. WaArKer, Postmaster General. 
FRANK KNox, Secretary of the Navy. 
HArotp L. IckKgEs, Secretary of the Interior. 
CLAUDE R. WicKArD, Secretary of Agriculture. 
JESSE H. JoNES, Secretary of Commerce. 
FRANCES PERKINS, Secretary of Labor. 
Regents of the Institution: 
HARLAN FE. Stone, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. 
Henry A. WALLACE, Vice President of the United States. 
CHARLES L. McNary, Member of the Senate. 
ALBEN W. BARKLEY, Member of the Senate. 
BENNETT CHAMP CLARK, Member of the Senate. 
CLARENCE CANNON, Member of the House of Representatives. 
WittrAm P. Corr, Jr., Member of the House of Representatives. 
Foster STEARNS, Member of the House of Representatives. 
I’repertic A. DELANO, citizen of Washington, D. C. 
ROLAND S. Morris, citizen of Pennsylvania. 
Harvey N. Davis, citizen of New Jersey. 
ARTHUR H. Compton, citizen of Illinois. 
VANNEVAR BUSH, citizen of Washington, D. C. 
Freperio C. WALCcoTT, citizen of Connecticut. 
Ezecutive Committee.—F reveric A. DELANO, VANNEVAR BUSH, CLARENCE CANNON, 
Secretary.—CHARLES G. ABBOT. 
Assistant Secretary.— ALEXANDER WE) MORE. 
Administrative assistant to the Secretary.—HARRY W. DoRSEY. 
Treasurer.—NICcHOLAS W. DoRSEY. 
Chief, editorial division—Wexster P. Trur. 
Librarian.—LeEILa F.. CLARK. 
Personnel officer.— HELEN A. OLMSTED. 
Property clerk.—JAMrs H. HILn. 


x ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM 


Keeper ex officio CHARLES G. ABBOT. 
Assistant Secretary (in charge).—ALEXANDER WETMORE. 
Associate Director.—JOHN HE. GRAF. 


SCIENTIFIC STAFF 
DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY : 
Frank M. Setzler, head curator; A. J. Andrews, chief preparator. 

Division of Ethnology: H. W. Krieger, curator; J. H. Weckler, Jr., associate 
curator; Arthur P. Rice, collaborator. 

Section of Ceramics: Samuel W. Woodhouse, collaborator. 

Division of Archeology: Neil M. Judd, curator; Waldo R. Wedel, associate 
curator; R. G. Paine, senior scientific aid; J. Townsend Russell, honorary 
assistant curator of Old World archeology. 

Division of Physical Anthropology: T. Dale Stewart, curator; M. T. Newman, 
associate curator. 

Collaborator in anthropology: George Grant MacCurdy. Associate in 
anthropology: AleS Hrdlitka. 
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY: 
Leonhard Stejneger, head curator; W. L. Brown, chief taxidermist; 
Aime M. Awl, illustrator. 

Division of Mammals: Remington Kellogg, curator; D. H. Johnson, associate 
curator; H. Harold Shamel, senior scientific aid; A. Brazier Howell, col- 
laborator; Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., associate. 

Division of Birds: Herbert Friedmann, curator; H. G. Deignan, associate 
curator; §. Dillon Ripley, II, assistant curator; Alexander Wetmore, cus- 
todian of alcoholic and skeleton collections ; Arthur C. Bent, collaborator. 

Division of Reptiles and Batrachians: Leonhard Stejneger, curator; Doris 
M. Cochran, associate curator. 

Division of Fishes: Leonard P. Schultz, curator; H. D. Reid, senior scientific 
aid. 

Division of Insects: L. O. Howard, honorary curator; Edward A. Chapin, 
curator; R. E. Blackwelder, associate curator. 

Section of Hymenoptera: S. A. Rohwer, custodian; W. M. Mann, assist- 
ant custodian; Robert A. Cushman, assistant custodian. 

Section of Myriapoda: O. F. Cook, custodian. 

Section of Diptera: Charles T. Greene, assistant custodian. 

Section of Coleoptera: L. L. Buchanan, specialist for Casey collection. 

Section of Lepidoptera: J. T. Barnes, collaborator. 

Section of Forest Tree Beetles: A. D. Hopkins, custodian. 

Division of Marine Invertebrates: Waldo L. Schmitt, curator; C. R. Shoe- 
maker, associate curator; James O. Maloney, aid; Mrs. Harriet Rich- 
ardson Searle, collaborator; Max M. Ellis, collaborator; J. Percy Moore, 
collaborator ; Joseph A. Cushman, collaborator in Foraminifera. 

Division of Mollusks: Paul Bartsch, curator; Harald A. Rehder, associate 
curator; Joseph P. E. Morrison, senior scientific aid. 

Section of Helminthological Collections: Benjamin Schwartz, col- 
laborator. 

Division of Echinoderms: Austin H. Clark, curator. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY xI 


DEPARTMENT OF BroLogy—Continued. 

Division of Plants (National Herbarium): W. R. Maxon, curator; Ells- 
worth P. Killip, associate curator; Emery C. Leonard, assistant curator ; 
Conrad V. Morton, assistant curator; Egbert H. Walker, assistant cu- 
rator; John A. Stevenson, custodian of C. G, Lloyd mycological collection. 

Section of Grasses: Agnes Chase, custodian. 

Section of Cryptogamic Collections: O. F. Cook, assistant curator. 
Section of Higher Algae: W. T. Swingle, custodian. 

Section of Lower Fungi: D. G. Fairchild, custodian. 

Section of Diatoms: Paul 8S. Conger, custodian. 

Associates in Zoology: Mary J. Rathbun, Theodore S. Palmer, William B. 
Marshall, A. G. Boving. 

Associate in Marine Sediments: T. Wayland Vaughan. 

Associate in Botany: Henri Pittier. 

Collaborator in Zoology: Robert Sterling Clark. 

Collaborators in Biology: A. K. Fisher, David C. Graham. 

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY: 
R. 8S. Bassler, head curator; Jessie G. Beach, aid. 

Division of Mineralogy and Petrology: W. F. Foshag, curator; E. P. Hender- 
son, associate curator; B. O. Reberholt, senior scientific aid; Frank I. 
Hess, custodian of rare metals and rare earths. 

Division of Invertebrate Paleontology and Paleobotany: Charles E. Resser, 
curator; Gustav A. Cooper associate curator; Marion F. Willoughby, 
senior scientific aid. 

Section of Invertebrate Paleontology: T. W. Stanton, custodian of 
Mesozoic collection; Paul Bartsch, curator of Cenezoie collection. 

Division of Vertebrate Paleontology: Charles W. Gilmore, curator; C. Lewis 
Gazin, associate curator; Norman H. Boss, chief preparator. 

Associates in Mineralogy: W. T. Schaller, S. H. Perry. 

Associate in Paleontology : E. O. Ulrich. 

Associate in Petrology: Whitman Cross. 

IDEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIES: 
Carl W. Mitman, head curator. 

Division of Engineering: Frank A. Taylor, curator. 

Section of Transportation and Civil Engineering: Frank A. Taylor, in 
charge. 

Section of Aeronautics: Paul H. Garber, associate curator. 

Section of Mechanical Engineering: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. 

Section of Electrical Engineering and Communications: Frank A. 
Taylor, in charge. 

Section of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering: Carl W. Mitman, in 
charge. 

Section of Physical Sciences and Measurement: Frank A. Taylor, in 
charge. 

Section of Tools: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. 

Division of Crafts and Industries: Frederick L. Lewton, curator; Elizabeth 

W. Rosson, senior scientific aid. 
Section of Textiles: Frederick L. Lewton, in charge. 
Section of Woods and Wood Technology: William N. Watkins, associate 
curator. 
Section of Chemical Industries: Wallace BH. Duncan, assistant curator. 
Section of Agricultural Industries: Frederick L. Lewton, in charge. 


XII ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIES—Continued. 
Division of Medicine and Public Health: Charles Whitebread, associate 
curator. 
Division of Graphic Aris: R. P. Tolman, curator. 
Section of Photography: A. J. Olmsted, associate curator. 
Diviston or History: Tf. T. Belote, curator; Charles Carey, assistant curator ; 
Catherine L. Manning, philatelist. 


ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF 


Chief of correspondence and documents.—H. 8. Bryant. 

Assistant chief of correspondence and documents.—l. BH. COMMERFORD. 
Superintendent of buildings and labor.—R. H. TREMBLY. 

Assistant superintendent of buildings and labor.—CHARLeES C. SINCLAIR. 
Editor.—PaAvu H. OFHSER. 

Accountant and auditor.—N. W. DORSEY. 

Photographer.—A. J. OLMSTED. 

Property clerk.—LAWRENCE L. OLIVER. 

Assistant librarian.—H.IsABetTH P. Hosss. 


NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART 
Trustees: 


Tue CHIEF JUSTICE OF THE UNITED STATES, Chairman. 
THE SECRETARY OF STATE. 
THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY. 
THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 
Davip K. HE. Bruce. 
FERDINAND LAMMOT BELIN. 
DUNCAN PHILLIPS. 
SAMUEL H. Kress. 
JOSEPH 1). WIDENER. 
President.—Davip K. E. Bruce. 
Vice President.—FERDINAND LAMMOT BELIN. 
Associate Vice President.—CHESTER DALE. 
Secretary-Treasurer and General Counsel—Donatp D. SHEPARD. 
Director.—DaAvin E. FIN Ley. 
Assistant Director.—MAcaiLit JAMES. 
Administrator.—H. A. McBripe. 
Chief Curator.—JOHN WALKER. 


NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS 


Acting Director.—Rwrt P. ToLMAN. 


FREER GALLERY OF ART 


Director.— JOHN ELLERTON LODGE. 

Assistant Director.—GRACE DUNHAM GUEST, 
Associate in research.—ARCHIBALD G. WENLEY. 
Superintendent.—W. N. RAWLEY. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY XUI 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


Chief.—MATTHEW W. STIRLING. 

Senior ethnologists.—H. B. Coxtins, Jr., JoHN P. HarRinetTon, JOHN R. Swanton. 
Senior archeologist —FRANK H. H. Roperrs, Jr. 

Senior anthropologist. JULIAN H. STEWARD. 

Associate anthropologist —W. N. Fen Tron. 

Editor.—M. HELEN PALMER. 

Librarian.—MiriaM B. KetcHuM. 

Illustrator.—Epwin G. CASSEDY. 


INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE 
Secretary (in charge) —CHARLES G. ABBOT. 
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK 


Director.—WILLIAM M. MANN. 
Assistant Director.—ERNEST P. WALKEL. 


ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY 


Director.—CHARLES G. ABBOT. 


Division or ASTROPHYSICAL ReseArcH: Loyal B. Aldrich, assistant director: 
William H. Hoover, senior astrophysicist. 

DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS: Earl 8. Johnston, assistant director ; 
Hdward D. McAlister, senior physicist; Leland B. Clark, senior mechanical 
engineer; Robert L. Weintraub, junior biochemist. 


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REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 


C. G. ABBOT 
FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1942 


To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. 

GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith my report show- 
ing the activities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and the 
Government bureaus under its administrative charge during the fiscal 
year ended June 30, 1942. The first 23 pages contain a summary 
account of the affairs of the Institution, and appendixes 1 to 11 
give more detailed reports of the operations of the National Museum, 
the National Gallery of Art, the National Collection of Fine Arts, the 
Freer Gallery of Art, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Inter- 
national Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical 
Observatory, which now includes the Division of Radiation and 
Organisms, the Smithsonian library, and of the publications issued 
under the direction of the Institution. On page 99 is the financial 
report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents. 


THE SMITHSONIAN AND THE WAR 


In my last report I stated that in the fiscal year 1941 the Smithson- 
ian had been assigned several problems connected with national 
defense and stood ready to devote all its resources to such work when 
called upon. After Pearl Harbor, calls upon the Institution for 
special information relating to the war increased rapidly, and early in 
1942 I appointed a War Committee for the purpose of exploiting 
every facility of the Institution in aiding the war effort. Such a 
highly specialized organization as the Smithsonian obviously can only 
undertake those things which its staff is trained and equipped to do, 
but the exploratory investigations of the War Committee revealed 
a surprisingly wide range of activities in which the Institution could 
engage that are directly or indirectly of real service in the war effort. 

For some organizations whose normal activities are in fields directly 
applicable to war work, such for example as those concerned with 
strategic materials or those with large physical laboratories, the prob- 
lem of going over to a war footing is solved for them. For such 


1 


2, ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


establishments as the Smithsonian, with its normal functions of 
research, chiefly in the natural sciences, publication of results of scien- 
tific researches, museum and art gallery exhibition, and international 
exchange of literature, the problem is not so simple. Every member 
of the staff desires earnestly to do his utmost to aid in the war effort, 
but in many instances, as the following summary of Smithsonian 
war activities shows, the only possible way of putting the desire into 
effect. is connected only indirectly with war work. Nevertheless, 
work such as that which the Smithsonian is qualified to perform will, 
T believe, be seen to fill a definite place in the Nation’s all-out war 
effort. 

The membership of the War Committee is as follows: C. W. Mit- 
man, engineer, chairman; L. B. Aldrich, physicist; W. N. Fenton, 
ethnologist; Herbert Friedmann, biologist; and W. P. True, chief, 
editorial division. For several weeks the committee met every day 
in the effort to speed up the diversion of as much as possible of the 
Institution’s work into war channels. Several questionnaires were 
sent to the staff asking for suggestions and detailed information as 
to the qualifications, travel, and special knowledge of each member. 
With these data before them, the committee began to make recom- 
mendations, most of which I approved and put into effect. Those 
projects which had been initiated up to June 30, 1942, are as follows: 

1. The Institution has prepared a detailed roster of the scientific 
staff totaling nearly 100 scientists, listing their geographic and special- 
ized knowledge. Some of this knowledge has proved to be readily 
available nowhere else, and the roster has been extensively used in 
connection with inquiries from war agencies. 

2. A record of requests from war agencies for specific informa- 
tion from individual staff members shows a total of 460 such received 
since Pearl Harbor. Fifty percent came directly from the War and 
Navy Departments, the rest from 25 different other war agencies. 
In short, the Smithsonian is serving as an important source of tech- 
nical and geographic information. 

3. The Smithsonian, together with the National Research Council, 
the American Council of Learned Societies, and the Social Science 
Research Council, has actively participated in the setting up of the 
Ethnogeographic Board. The Institution furnishes financial sup- 
port and facilities, and serves as the headquarters for the Board, 
whose purpose is to provide a central clearinghouse for information 
to Army and Navy Intelligence and other war agencies in the fields 
of geography, languages, and social sciences. Dr. William Duncan 
Strong, formerly of the Bureau of American Ethnology and now a 
member of the staff of Columbia University, was appointed director 
of the Board. Members of the staff of the Institution are cooperat- 
ing closely in the work. 


REPORT OF THB SECRETARY S 


4, The Smithsonian has thousands of published and unpublished 
photographs taken by its scientists in all parts of the world, includ- 
ing many out-of-the-way places not commonly photographed. An 
index is being compiled of the published material, and members of 
the staff have put their photographic files in shape for ready con- 
sultation by war agencies. Many of its photographs have already 
been so consulted. 

5. In the very important field of Latin American cooperation, the 
Institution has undertaken two large-scale scientific projects. One 
is a Handbook of the Indians of South America, under the editorship 
of Dr. Julian H. Steward, of the Bureau of American Ethnology. 
The various articles will be contributed by both Latin American and 
North American anthropologists. This will be published under the 
auspices of the Institution. The other is a list of the insects of 
South and Central America, a much-needed tool for all future en- 
tomological work in those areas. The completed list, which is esti- 
mated to make more than a thousand pages of print, will also appear 
as a Smithsonian publication. 

6. Approximately 10 percent of the scientific staff are engaged in 
full-time war projects assigned to them by the Army, Navy, or 
other war agencies. This work is being done either at the Institution 
or through transfer of personnel to the agency requesting the work. 
All the rest of the staff members devote a portion of their time to 
work related directly or indirectly to the war, the actual amount of 
time depending on the extent to which their special knowledge is 
needed by war agencies. 

7. In the line of its normal function of diffusion of knowledge, the 
Institution has initiated several wartime projects. A new series of 
pamphlets entitled “War Background Studies” and a series of news 
releases headed “War Background Data” have as their purpose the 
increasing of popular understanding of the various regions and peo- 
ples involved in the world conflict. In the Smithsonian’s radio pro- 
gram, “The World Is Yours,” four broadcasts were given on a Nation- 
wide network comprising a series on the peoples of the United Na- 
tions. Several special war exhibits were shown in the Smithsonian 
and Museum buildings and others are definitely planned. A series 
of special lectures on war topics has been arranged, and at the close 
of the fiscal year its beginning awaited only the installation of new 
projection equipment in the Museum auditorium. A set of six post- 
cards illustrating Museum exhibits was printed for free distribution 
to service men; in conjunction with these, writing counters and a mail 
box were installed at the entrance to the Arts and Industries Build- 
ing where men in uniform write and mail the cards. Thousands of 
sets had been given out at the close of the year, and this service 

501591-—43 


9 
ht 


4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


seems to be much appreciated. All the Museum buildings are now 
open all day Sunday for the benefit of service men and war workers. 

8. The War Committee and officials of the Institution have estab- 
lished definite contacts with the War and Navy Departments and 
other war agencies; through these contacts continual efforts are being 
made to channel more war-time researches and other suitable activities 
to the Institution. 

The War Committee will continue to function for the duration. 


ENDING OF WRIGHT-SMITHSONIAN CONTROVERSY 

By anticipation, I report with great relief and peculiar satisfaction 
the ending of the long controversy between Dr. Orville Wright and 
the Smithsonian Institution. Negotiations, in which Colonel Lind- 
bergh and others had taken part, had proceeded intermittently be- 
tween the Secretary and Dr. Wright since 1928. Since June 1942, in 
part with the mediation of Fred C. Kelly, an active interchange of 
communications has gone on. It resulted in a statement acceptable 
to Dr. Wright which was published by the Institution in its Mis- 
cellaneous Collections, volume 103, No. 8, October 24, 1942. This 
statement, which speaks for itself, it is intended to republish as the 
first article of the Appendix to the Smithsonian Report for 1942. In 
his letter of October 17, 1942, Dr. Wright says: “I hope the relations 
between the Institution and myself may again be as amicable as they 
were in Dr, Langley’s administration.” 


SUMMARY OF THE YEAR’S ACTIVITIES OF THE BRANCHES OF 
THE INSTITUTION 


National Museum.—Accessions for the year totaled 284,582 speci- 
mens, bringing the number of catalog entries in all departments to 
17,578,240. Among the outstanding accessions may be mentioned the 
following: In anthropology, 200 artifacts from the old Indian village 
site of Potawomeke, Stafford County, Va.; cult objects from voodoo 
shrines in Haiti, and weapons of the Moro of Mindanao, P. I.; in 
biology, 80 Antarctic seals, 54 Manchurian mammals, 1,845 birds from 
Colombia collected by Dr. Alexander Wetmore and M. A. Carriker, 
Jr., 14,219 fishes from the area between Peru and Alaska received 
from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, a collection of 
25,000 specimens of Hemiptera received from W. L. McAtee, 7,600 
specimens, mostly termites, collected in Jamaica by Dr. Edward A. 
Chapin, and 2,169 specimens of plants of Colombia received in con- 
tinuation of exchanges from the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, 
Bogota, Colombia; in geology, a large aquamarine from Agua Preta, 
Minas Geraes, Brazil, purchased from the Roebling fund, a 2,690- 
gram specimen of the Rose City, Mich., stony meteorite presented by 
Dr. Stuart H. Perry, 4 tons of limestone blocks of beautifully pre- 
served silicified Permian fossils collected in Texas by Dr. G. A. 


- 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY o 


Cooper, and 8,000 Cambrian and Devonian fossils collected by Dr. C. 
E. Resser in Montana, Utah, and the Canadian Rockies; in engineer- 
ing and industries, a number of models of historic aircraft, an example 
of the Allison liquid-cooled aircraft engine, type V-1710-C, a jeep 
lent by the War Department, the first Emerson iron lung completed 
in 1931, and a collection of 183 Currier and Ives prints given by Miss 
Adele S. Colgate. Although field expeditions were greatly curtailed 
because of war conditions, those to which the Museum was previously 
committed were carried through with valuable results in specimens 
and new information. Visitors to the Museum numbered 2,042,817. 
Although this was nearly half a million less than in the previous 
year, nevertheless the decrease was less than had been anticipated in 
view of restrictions on automobile travel. The Museum issued 44 
publications and distributed 82,545 copies during the year. Fifteen 
special exhibits were held in the Museum under the auspices of 
various scientific and other groups. Among numerous changes in 
the staff may be mentioned the retirement, after nearly 39 years of 
service, of Dr. Ale’ Hrdlitka as curator of the division of physical 
anthropology; Dr. T. Dale Stewart, associate curator of the division, 
was promoted to the curatorship to succeed him. 

National Gallery of Art—The total attendance at the Gallery for 
the first full year of its operation was 2,005,328, a daily average of 
over 5,500 visitors. In June the Gallery began a series of Sunday 
evening openings for the benefit of service men and war workers. 
Concerts and special lectures featured these Sunday openings, which 
proved so successful that it was decided to continue them indefinite- 
ly. Publications available to the public are a general information 
booklet, a catalog of the paintings and sculpture, a book of illustra- 
tions of all the works of art in the Gallery, color reproductions, and 
postcards. Since Pearl Harbor the Gallery has been blacked out 
nightly, and frequent air-raid drills have been held. A _ limited 
number of the most fragile and irreplaceable works of art have been 
removed to a place of greater safety, but it is the expressed belief 
of the Board of Trustees that the Gallery has a duty to the public 
and an obligation as a source of recreation and education to con- 
tinue its activities and even increase them in war time. Gifts of 
prints, paintings, and sculpture were accepted from eight different 
donors, and a number of important loans were received. Seven 
special exhibitions were held at the Gallery, including one of draw- 
ings of war-time London, another of the art of Australia, and one 
of 11 portrait busts of the Presidents of the Republics of South 
America, by Jo Davidson. The Gallery’s educational program in- 
cluded Gallery tours of the collection conducted twice daily ; a series 
of 34 special lectures, one given each Saturday afternoon from Octo- 
ber to April, and Gallery talks and other lectures dealing with a 


6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


specific school or specific works of art. Beginning in December, 
special tours for members of the armed forces were arranged for 
Saturday afternoons. 

National Collection of Fine Arts—The necessary plans were made 
during the year for the protection and evacuation of works of art 
in the National Collection. Four oil paintings and a number of 
other works of art were accepted for the collection by the Smith- 
sonian Art Commission. Three miniatures were acquired through 
the Catherine Walden Myer fund. Eight special exhibitions were 
held as follows: Miniatures Jent by Count and Countess Bohdan de 
Castellane; oils and water colors by Roy M. Mason, N. A.; oils, 
prints, and drawings by Antonio Rodriguez Luna, of Mexico; jade 
lent by Georges Estoppey; paintings on metal and prints by Buell 
Mullen; oils, water colors, and prints by members of the Landscape 
Club of Washington, D. C.; plaster busts by Marina Nufiez del 
Prado, of Bolivia; oil paintings, pencil drawings, lithographs, and 
water colors by Ignacio Aguirre, of Mexico. 

Freer Gallery of Art—Additions to the collections included Per- 
sian and Syrian brass; Chinese bronze; Chinese jade; Arabic man- 
uscript; Arabic, Chinese, and Persian painting; Arabic, Mesopo- 
tamian, Persian, and Syro-Egyptian pottery. The regular work of 
the curatorial staff was devoted to the study and recording of these 
new acquisitions and other art objects already in the collection. In 
addition, 770 objects and 235 photographs of objects were submitted 
to the Director by their owners for information as to identity, prov- 
enance, quality, date, or inscriptions. Besides this usual work, the 
staff devoted much of its time during the winter and spring to work 
connected with the war. The total number of visitors to the Gallery 
for the year was 87,890. A number of groups were given docent 
service in the exhibition galleries and study rooms. Carl Whiting 
Bishop associate in archeology, a member of the Gallery staff since 
1922, died on June 16, 1942. From 1923 to 1927, and from 1929 to 
1934, Mr. Bishop was in charge of the Freer Gallery field work in 
China. He published numerous articles on Chinese archeology in 
various journals and was widely known as an authority on the 
earlier phases of Chinese culture. 

Bureau of American E'thnology.—The time of the members of the 
Bureau’s scientific staff has been devoted more and more to activities 
concerned with the war effort. Their specialized geographical, 
racial, and linguistic knowledge has been in constant demand by the 
Army, Navy, and other war agencies, and certain staff members 
have cooperated closely with the Ethnogeographic Board, an agency 
that acts as a clearinghouse for anthropological, geographical, and 
related information needed in the war effort. As time permitted, 
the Bureau continued its normal work of studying the American 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 7 


Indian. M. W. Stirling, Chief of the Bureau, spent 2 months in 
Mexico in continuation of the Smithsonian Institution-National 
Geographic Society archeological project in that country. Dr. John 
R. Swanton continued work on a study of the language of the 
Timucua Indians of Florida and on the revision of a large general 
paper on the Indians of North America. Dr. John P. Harrington 
earried forward work on two problems involving linguistic studies 
of Aleut, the language of the islands between Asia and America, and 
of Athapascan, the language of the northern Rockies, of a large 
part of the Pacific coast, and of the southern deserts. Dr. Frank H. 
H. Roberts, Jr., conducted archeological excavations at a site near 
San Jon, N. Mex., uncovering an interesting sequence of projectile 
points and other artifact types and obtaining new information on 
aboriginal occupation of that area. Just before the close of the 
year Dr. Roberts went to Newcastle, Wyo., to inspect a promising 
archeological site. Dr. Julian H. Steward continued his work as 
editor of the Handbook of South American Indians, in the course 
of which he visited Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Chile for con- 
ferences with Latin-American anthropologists. Dr. Henry B. Col- 
lins, Jr., continued the study of archeological materials from pre- 
historic Eskimo village sites around Bering Strait. Dr. W. N. Fen- 
ton carried on several investigations relating to the Iroquois Indians. 
Dr. Philip Drucker made an analysis of the pottery collections made 
in Mexico in 1941 by the Smithsonian Institution-National Geo- 
graphic Society expedition. In continuation of the work of this ex- 
pedition he went in January 1942 to a site at La Venta, in north- 
west Tabasco, where excavations resulted in a number of interesting 
discoveries. Miss Frances Densmore, a collaborator of the Bureau, 
recorded Omaha songs at Macy, Nebr. The Bureau published its 
Annual Report and three Bulletins. The lbrary accessioned 350 
items; the reclassification of the library was practically completed 
during the year. 

International Eachanges—The Exchange Service acts as the 
official United States agency for the interchange of parliamentary, 
governmental, and scientific publications between this country and 
the rest of the world. The Service handled during the year 561,151 
packages of publications weighing 326,406 pounds. As would be ex- 
pected, the work of the Exchange Sernice was greatly hampered by 
the war. In the Eastern Hemicphere only Great Britain and the 
Union of South Africa continued to receive shipments from this 
country. In the Western Hemisphere, where all packages are sent 
by mail, there was no interruption to the sending of exchanges, 
although censorship caused some delay. In April 1942 the Sadan 
of the Congressional Record to foreign countries through the Ex- 


8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


change Service was discontinued for the duration at the request of 
the Office of Censorship. 

National Zoological Park.—Although war conditions reduced the 
number of out-of-town visitors to the Zoo, more people from nearby 
areas came by bus and streetcar and on foot, bringing the total at- 
tendance for the year to 2,523,300, or sightly more than the number 
for the previous year. A considerable proportion of the attendance 
was made up of men in the armed services, many of them enjoying 
their first oportunity of visiting a large zoo. As usual, a large num- 
ber of gifts of animals came to the Park, and there were 65 mammals 
born, 40 birds hatched, and 2 reptiles born during the year. Deaths 
included a sulphur-crested cockatoo that had been in the Zoo for 52 
years, and the American bald eagle “Jerry,” a Zoo resident for 26 
years. The epidemic of psittacosis that caused serious losses of 
birds and caused the closing of the bird house to the public for 3 
months, as noted in last year’s report, was finally subdued through 
the cooperation of the United States Public Health Service and the 
District of Columbia Health Department. Many of the poisonous 
reptiles have been removed from the Zoo, leaving so few that they 
could be quickly disposed of in an emergency. At the close of the 
year, the collection contained a total of 2,411 animals, representing 
722 different species. 

Astrophysical Observatory—The most important event of the 
year was the publication of volume 6 of the Annals of the Observa- 
tory, which covers its operations from 1920 to 1939. Besides de- 
scribing in detail the principal research on the variation of the sun’s 
radiation, the volume is the culmination of several years’ work de- 
voted to revising the daily results of observation of the solar con- 
stant of radiation at the three field observing stations at Montezuma, 
Chile, Table Mountain, Calif., and Mount St. Katherine, Egypt, 
from 1923 to 1939. The values published clearly indicate the vari- 
ation of the sun between extreme ranges up to about 3 percent for 
the period covered. The variation is shown to be composed of 14 
periodicities ranging from 8 months to 273 months. Each of these 
periods is reflected in terrestrial temperature and precipitation as 
recorded by official weather services. Another important event was 
the incorporation as a branch of the Observatory of the Smithson- 
ian Division of Radiation and Organisms, hitherto supported by 
private funds. Considerable confidential work for military purposes 
was done in the Observatory’s instrument shop under the care of 
the Director. Because of the discovery that the percentage varia- 
tions of the intensity of sun’s rays is 6 times as great for ultraviolet 
rays as for the total of all wave lengths, apparatus was prepared in 
the instrument shop for restricting the determinations of solar varia- 
tions to the spectral regions of the green, blue, violet, and ultraviolet 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 9g 


rays. This apparatus has been installed at all three field stations. 
Also prepared in the instrument shop were three copies of a sky 
polarization device invented by the late Prof. E. C. Pickering. It 
is believed that the use of this device at the observing stations will 
obviate the unsatisfactory results brought about by certain types of 
sky conditions. Solar observations on all favorable days have been 
continued at the three present field stations at Table Mountain, 
Calif., Burro Mountain, N. Mex., and Montezuma, Chile. 

Division of Radiation and Organisms.—On July 1, 1941, the Divi- 
sion became a branch of the Astrophysical Observatory and received 
Congressional appropriation for the support of its researches. Mem- 
bers of its staff were given Civil Service status. The present 
research work of the Division comes under three headings: Photo- 
synthesis, plant growth and radiation, and development of 
apparatus and methods. Experiments were continued on the factors 
that influence the change in rates of respiration in plants, which led 
to speculation on the possibility ot the existence of a carbon dioxide 
reservoir connected with the cell mechanism. ‘There is evidence also 
that the humidity of the air plays an important role in this gaseous 
exchange. The study of the relationship between light intensity and 
inhibition of growth of the oats mesocotyl was extended to higher 
intensities. Work is in progress on the isolation and separation of 
two pigments indicated to occur in dark-grown oat seedlings. Pre- 
vious work in the Division had shown that illumination increases the 
rate of carbon dioxide production by etiolated barley seedlings. Ap- 
paratus was assembled and preliminary experiments were begun to 
study the influence of radiation on the respiration of other types of 
plants. (Since October 1942 the Division has done war work only.) 


THE ESTABLISHMENT 


The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 
1846, according to the terms of the will of James Smithson, of 
England, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States 
of America “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of 
knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and accepting 
the trust, Congress determined that the Federal Government was 
without authority to administer the trust directly, and, therefore, 
constituted an “establishment” whose statutory members are “the 
President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of 
the executive departments.” 


THE BOARD OF REGENTS 


Changes in the Board of Regents during the fiscal year included 
the election at the Board meeting on January 16, 1942, of Chief 


10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Justice Harlan F. Stone as Chancellor of the Institution, to succeed 
former Chief Justice Charles E. Hughes, and the appointment by 
Joint Resolution of Congress approved August 21, 1941, of the 
Honorable Frederic C. Walcott, a citizen of Connecticut, to succeed 
the late R. Walton Moore. By Joint Resolution of Congress approved 
August 21, 1941, Frederic A. Delano, of the city of Washington, D. C., 
was reappointed to succeed himself for the statutory term of 6 years. 

The roll of regents at the close of the fiscal year was as follows: 
Harlan F. Stone, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor; 
Henry A. Wallace, Vice President of the United States; members 
from the Senate—Charles L. McNary, Alben W. Barkley, Bennett 
Champ Clark;members from the House of Representatives— 
Clarence Cannon, William P. Cole, Jr., Foster Stearns; citizen 
members—Frederic A. Delano, Washington, D. C.; Roland S. Mor- 
ris, Pennsylvania; Harvey N. Davis, New Jersey; Arthur H. Comp- 
ton, Illinois; Vannevar Bush, Washington, D. C.; and Frederic C. 
Walcott, Connecticut. 

Proceedings —The annual meeting of the Board of Regents was 
held on January 16, 1942. The regents present were Chief Justice 
Harlan F. Stone, Chancellor; Vice President Henry A. Wallace; 
Representatives Clarence Cannon, William P. Cole, Jr., and Foster 
Stearns; citizen regents Frederic A. Delano, Roland §. Morris, Harvey 
N. Davis, Vannevar Bush, and Frederic C. Walcott; and the Secretary, 
Dr. Charles G. Abbot. 

The Board received and accepted the Secretary’s annual report 
covering the year’s activities of the parent Institution and the sev- 
eral Government branches. The Board also received and accepted 
the report by Mr. Delano, of the executive committee, covering 
financial statistics of the Institution; and the annual report of the 
Smithsonian Art Commission. 

In his special report the Secretary outlined some of the more im- 
portant activities carried on by the Institution and the branches 
during the year. 

FINANCES 


A statement on finances will be found in the report of the exec- 
utive committee of the Board of Regents, page 99. 


MATTERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 
SMITHSONIAN RADIO PROGRAM 


The educational radio program known as “The World Is Yours,” 
sponsored jointly by the Smithsonian Institution, the United States 
Office of Education, and the National Broadcasting Co., was ter- 
minated with the broadcast of May 10, 1942, after nearly 6 years 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY ie 


of successful operation. On the air every week almost without a 
break for more than 300 weeks, the series finally was brought to 
an end because of the urgent demand of war agencies for radio 
time. In explaining the necessity for closing the program, Thomas 
D. Rishworth, director of public service programs, Eastern Division, 
National Broadcasting Co., wrote to the Institution: 

I regret that it was necessary to cancel “The World Is Yours” in view of 
its long and successful history as one of our oldest educational broadcasts 
* * * The war emergency has brought upon radio many difficulties that 
were unforseen, not the least of which is the impossibility of expanding a 
strictly limited schedule to meet the needs of all agencies involved in the war 
effort * * * JI believe everyone will agree that through “The World Is 
Yours” you have made a unique contribution to the development of the educa- 
tional significance of radio in terms that were interesting to all types of 
listeners. 

“The World Is Yours,” a half-hour dramatized program, first went 
on the air on June 7, 1936, and almost every week since that time it has 
presented over a Nation-wide National Broadcasting Company net- 
work some phase of science, invention, history, and art. The series from 
the beginning struck a responsive chord in radio listeners throughout 
the country. Supplementary articles on the subjects discussed were 
offered to listeners, and many thousands of those who responded 
took occasion to express enthusiastic commendation of the program. 
It was made very evident that the American public is keenly inter- 
ested in science, history, and related fields if the subjects are brought 
alive by dramatization and if excessive technicality is avoided. 

Radio proved to be an ideal aid in achieving a principal goal of 
the Institution, namely, the diffusion of knowledge. For this rea- 
son it was with great regret that “The World Is Yours” was brought 
to an end as one of the sacrifices that have to be made when the 
country is at war. 

The subjects presented during the year up to the close of the series 
on May 10 were as follows: ? 


1941 
PEO MAS rel CRSOMs 22 eae S758. ee ee ee July 5 
iBuilderszot, American *Aircraftu..¢ = 32 ee oS July 12 
Piratesvofthe Deep CU2ek eae Ves Wipoehl yi July 19 
Dusti Storms: - eee = ah ceriyet Sie ET oe Ea bee AS a OS July 26 
Te (evel OPeveUe, AVG V6 Ete ee at es aT | Aug 2 2 
Our Nearest Neighbor in Space______________________- Aug. 9 
FORBES EICSSOM)! tess er eo eee ere ih eaten ee a ee Aug. 16 
Chemistry—and American Independence______-_______ Aug. 23 
ThetNorsementiniGreenlande 1st. 1, fron mramed | uy Aug. 30 
Gilbert yStuantem eBay. Dap ppp cy ee fe Pe cede. Fp prev oe 9 bE Sept. 7 
@avevand ClittDwellersh: = 32.82) 9 Fes | Sept. 14 
ROM Pele livesuNgaine eae ee 2 a ee Sept. 21 
IBNISLOm cal Gemssmesit sore a eo a ed ya Sept. 28 


1 Because of National Broadcasting Co. commitments, no programs were given on November 
16, 1941, and January 11, February 22, March 15, and April 12, 1942. 


12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


1941 
Industry ‘Calls onvPhysics2 2) 28h >See Oct: 295 
samuel Slaters2 222) ce ses fe Aap h he cee ee LPN ine pepe a Oct. . 12 
Insect Alliesiof (Man=)- 5... tp ec) ae eee Oct. 19 
Southsea Islanders... te.) ee a ee Oct. 26 
eDhesS tory Of, Wheaties eee re ee ene ee ao Nove) 2 
Unsung American’ Heroesul- — ote eae ee Nov. 9 
Aretic Explorers: cisipnit 2 cyst ANS are ONE 2 eh ee ees Nov. 23 
Ishubstaboyes son (Cfollovontl Aine. 3. So et Nov. 30 
Ancient: Carthage. 2 asm ne eee ee see canes pas eye enon Dec. 7 
Miracles.of: Moderm:Medicine. 592. ose se. Dee Dec. 14 
A GreatcAmencaniGeolopist= 2. =.) 20 22 ee eee Dec. 21 
Light that sheals 2 i tie 3 ye Ss eee Aye pes ee Dec. 28 
1942 
Our Expandiney Knowledges] 22a oe ee ete Jan. 4 
Horests and tne Wanse ee sohe  sce sae Pao ee Jan. 18 
Stephen’ Decatur—Naval Hero- 2-4-2 Jan. 25 
ZebulonyMontgomeryoPikes:- 2225 sees) oe See Feb; “1 
Chemicals"iromuthewAirs Steyr s Bec ee pe ee age Feb. 8 
ThejiGasolineEngin@ure ss¢41—-l cule Teen Tests Feb. 15 
hep Vinsks Oc s,s tee ey Pee ir eR ke Marys 1 
ithe Sacavor the Comstock Lodges 2532 see eee Mar. 8 
(Phevhichton'the Arikaree. 2. 2) eh ee ee Se eee Mar. 22 
Bigelow and the’Carpet Industry22222 =o es Mar. 29 
Balboa and the Discovery of the Pacific______________- Apr. 5 
Australia? se 2aen8 2. Sone sd on Pee ote ey oe ge Been Apr. 19 
COTS 6s Se pal eNO EY Sr ease a a Dl ne Apr. 26 
ADhe- Philippines a= = nee eee me ee eo ee ee May 3 
USS Se eee os led cet ar a kre ae ols a a May 10 


WALTER RATHBONE BACON SCHOLARSHIP 


The Walter Rathbone Bacon scholarship of the Smithsonian In- 
stitution for 1941-1943 was awarded in July 1941 to Philip Hersh- 
kovitz, of the University of Michigan, for a study of the distribution 
of mammals in Colombia. On November 8, 1941, Mr. Hershkovitz 
departed from New York on the steamship Platano and arrived 
November 14 at Barranquilla, Colombia, where arrangements for 
field work were completed with the assistance of the Department of 
State through the Hon. Nelson R. Park, the American consul. 
After having obtained the necessary permits for travel and for the 
collecting of natural history specimens from the Governor of the 
Department of Atlantico, Mr. Hershkovitz was invited by Mr. 
Crump, owner of a ranch at Sabana Larga, to set up camp on his 
land. Collections were made in the northern portion of the Ciénaga 
de Guajaro near Arroya de Piedra and on Cerro de la Guayta from 
November 28 to December 18. Returning to Barranquilla, he ex- 
amined the Indian burial ground uncovered at the Soledad airport 
south of that city, and with the help of P. J. De Guerin, office 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13 


engineer of Avionca, a subsidiary of the Pan-American Airways, 
excavated pottery and portions of human skeletons. 

After some delay, Mr. Hershkovitz departed on January 3, 1942, 
from Barranquilla for Caracolicito, arriving there January 4. On 
invitation from the director, Sr. José I. Martinez, Mr. Hershkovitz 
made collections in the tropical forests surrounding Colonia Agricola 
de Caracolicito from January 9 to March 16. From this region he 
moved camp to Pueblo Bello (Pueblo Viejo Sur) on the southern 
flank of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Department of Magda- 
lena, and worked there from April 19 to June 6. As a result of cen- 
turies of deforesting, overgrazing, and burning by the Indians, the 
general appearance of this region is now that of a savanna with 
small stands of second-growth timber in the valleys and small patches 
of virgin forest on the inaccessible parts of the hills. Consequently, 
collecting did not produce as good results as had been anticipated. 
About the middle of June, collecting was begun at El Salado, about 
halfway between Pueblo Bello and Valencia. 


ELEVENTH ARTHUR LECTURE 


The late James Arthur, of New York, in 1931 bequeathed to the 
Smithsonian Institution a sum of money, part of the income from 
which should be used for an annual lecture on the sun. 

The eleventh Arthur lecture, under the title “The Sun and the 
Earth’s Magnetic Field,” was given by John A. Fleming, director, 
department of terrestrial magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Wash- 
ington, in the auditorium of the National Museum on February 26, 
1942. The lecture is published in full in the General Appendix to this 
Report. 

The 10 previous Arthur lectures have been as follows: 


1. The Composition of the Sun, by Henry Norris Russell, professor of as- 
tronomy at Princeton University. January 27, 1982. 

2. Gravitation in the Solar System, by Ernest William Brown, professor of 
mathematics at Yale University. January 25, 1933. 

3. How the Sun Warms the Earth, by Charles G. Abbot, Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution. February 26, 1934. 

4. The Sun’s Place among the Stars, by Walter §. Adams, director of the 
Mount Wilson Observatory. December 18, 1934. 

5. Sun Rays and Plant Life, by Earl S. Johnston, assistant director of the 
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution. February 
25, 1936. 

6. Discoveries from Eclipse Expeditions, by Samuel Alfred Mitchell, director 
of the Leander McCormick Observatory, University of Virginia. February 
9, 1937. 

7. The Sun and the Atmosphere, by Harlan True Stetson, research associate, 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. February 24, 1938. 

8. Sun Worship, by Herbert J. Spinden, curator of American Indian Art and 
Primitive Cultures, Brooklyn Museums. February 21, 1939. 


14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


9. Solar Prominences in Motion, by Robert R. MeMath, director of the McMath- 
Hulbert Observatory of the University of Michigan. January 16, 1940. 
10. Biological Effects of Solar Radiation on Higher Animals and Man, by Brian 
O’Brien, professor of Physiological Optics, University of Rochester 
February 25, 1941. 


EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD WORK 


Explorations, often in out-of-the-way corners of the earth, have 
always formed a major part of the Institution’s program for the 
“inerease and diffusion of knowledge.” Although world conditions 
during the past year have made it either impracticable or undesir- 
able to send out many of the expeditions that normally would have 
taken the field, nevertheless, even under the present unfavorable con- 
ditions it was found possible to carry on some field work in connec- 
tion with researches previously commenced. 

In astrophysics, the Institution’s field observers carried on their 
study of the intensity of solar radiation at the three Smithsonian 
observing stations on Mount Montezuma, Chile, Table Mountain, 
Calif., and Burro Mountain, N. Mex. Observations were made on 
every suitable day throughout the year, and the results were trans- 
mitted to Washington where they are used in investigations on the 
variability of solar radiation and on the relation between this varia- 
bility and the earth’s weather. 

In geology, Dr. W. F. Foshag directed an expedition in coopera- 
tion with the United States Geological Survey with the purpose of 
studying certain strategic-mineral resources of Mexico. Dr. Charles 
K. Resser continued his studies of Cambrian rocks from Montana 
into the Canadian Rockies, obtaining much new information and 
many desirable specimens pertaining to the ancient Cambrian period. 
Dr. G. Arthur Cooper made large collections of Carboniferous and 
Permian fossils in Texas and Oklahoma, including much material 
hitherto lacking in the National Museum collections. A third ex- 
pedition to the Bridger Badlands of southwestern Wyoming in 
search of extinct vertebrate animals was directed by Dr. C. Lewis 
Gazin; many interesting exhibition and study specimens were 
brought back to the Museum, including a 1,270-pound slab containing 
12 or 13 fossil turtles. 

In biology, Dr. E. A. Chapin visited the island of Jamaica to con- 
tinue his studies of the insect fauna with special reference to the 
termites. Large collections of the plants of Cuba were made by C. 
V. Morton, who spent 2 months on the island in botanical field work 
accompanied by two Cuban Government botanists. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 15 


In anthropology, Dr. T. D. Stewart visited Peru to make a scien- 
tific examination of the skeletal remains exposed in the numerous 
ancient cemeteries of that country; he also gathered information on 
the skeletal collections in Peruvian museums. As an extension of 
Smithsonian cave explorations in the Big Bend region of Texas, 
Walter W. Taylor investigated caves in the region of Ciénegas, Co- 
ahuila, Mexico, some 20 caves being excavated in the course of the 
work. Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., conducted archeological mves- 
tigations near the town of San Jon, eastern New Mexico, revealing 
four types of projectile points from four stratigraphic horizons, the 
oldest type in association with an extinct bison and with indications 
that it may be contemporaneous with the Folsom horizon. Dr. Wil- 
liam N. Fenton recorded Iroquois songs in New York State and 
Canada in cooperation with the Division of Music in the Library of 


Congress. 
PUBLICATIONS 


The publications of the Institution and its branches, issued in several 
distinct series, constitute its chief means of accomplishing the “dif- 
fusion of knoweldge.” The Smithsonian Annual Report contains, 
in addition to the Secretary’s administrative report, a general ap- 
pendix made up of selected nontechnical articles which together 
constitute a survey of the current state of knowledge in many fields 
of scientific investigation. The series Smithsonian Miscellaneous 
Collections provides an outlet for the results of researches by Smith- 
sonian scientists or collaborators of the Institution without restriction 
as to the field covered. The Bulletin and Proceedings of the National 
Museum record the investigations of members of its staff, as well as 
of outside scientists, based on the great collections of the Museum. 
The Bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology deal with 
various phases of the study of the American Indians. Other series 
include the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, the title of 
which is self-explanatory, and Smithsonian War Background Studies, 
a new series intended to disseminate information on the peoples 
and areas involved in the present war. 

During the year, 100 publications were issued, 51 by the Institution 
proper, 44 by the National Museum, 4 by the Bureau of American 
Ethnology, and 1 by the Astrophysical Observatory. The titles, 
authors, and other details ot these publications will be found in the 
report of the chief of the editorial division, appendix 11. The total 
number of publications distributed was 162,525. 

Outstanding among the year’s publications may be mentioned 
volume 6 of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, covering 
20 years’ investigations of the solar radiation; a paper by the late 
Carl Whiting Bishop entitled “Origin of the Far Eastern Civiliza- 


16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


tions: a Brief Handbook”; a paper by Frank C. Hibben on “Evi- 
dences of Early Occupation in Sandia Cave, New Mexico * * *,” 
which throws more light on the earliest occupants of this continent ; 
a new edition of the “Handbook of the National Aircraft Collection,” 
by Paul E. Garber; and another volume in the series on life histories 
of North American birds by Arthur Cleveland Bent, “Life Histories 
of North American Flycatchers, Larks, Swallows, and Their Allies.” 
The continued demand for the Smithsonian volumes of tables, in 
large part from war agencies, necessitated a reprinting of the Smith- 
sonian Meteorological Tables and the Smithsonian Physical Tables. 


LIBRARY 


In common with the scientific libraries of international scope, the 
Smithsonian library suffered severe disruption from the impact of 
the war. Publication of scientific books and periodicals declined 
abroad, and those that were issued were obtainable only with great 
difficulty if they could be obtained at all. After Pearl Harbor, of 
course, library exchanges ceased with nearly all countries except 
those in the Western Hemisphere. The brighter side of the picture, 
however, is the service the library has been able to render to war 
agency officials, not only by providing access to published informa- 
tion, but also by putting inquirers in touch with members of the 
Institution’s staff having specialized knowledge and by arranging 
introductions to outside sources. Taking advantage of the decreased 
amount of time devoted to foreign exchanges, the library staff grasped 
the opportunity of recataloging older material that has long needed 
attention and of strengthening and extending domestic exchanges. 
As usual many gifts came to the library from associations and in- 
dividuals, noteworthy among them being 724 publications from the 
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 68 from the 
American Association of Museums, and a library of some 2,000 items 
on Copepoda assembled by the late Dr. Charles Branch Wilson and 
presented by his son, Carroll A. Wilson. The most important of 
the changes in the library personnel was the retirement on January 
31, 1942, of William L. Corbin, librarian for more than 17 years, and 
the appointment to succeed him of Mrs, Leila F. Clark, who had been 
assistant librarian in charge of the National Museum library since 
1929. The year’s statistics show 5,685 accessions, bringing the library’s 
total holdings to 867,200; 229 new exchanges arranged; 4,040 “wants” 
received ; 4,775 volumes and pamphlets cataloged; 29,826 cards filed 
in catalogs and shelflists; 12,258 periodicals entered ; 9,978 books and 
periodicals loaned; and 1,400 volumes sent to the bindery. 

Respectfully submitted. 

C. G. Aspot, Secretary. 


APPENDIX 1 
REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM 


Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the con- 
dition and operation of the United States National Museum for the 
fiscal year ended June 380, 1942: 

Appropriations for the maintenance and operation of the National 
Museum for the-year totaled $830,978, which was $12,673 more than 
for the previous year. 

COLLECTIONS 


Additions to the collections of the Museum aggregated 1,388 sepa- 
rate accessions, comprising 284,582 individual specimens, a decrease, 
compared with the previous year, of 180 accessions and 42,104 speci- 
mens. Distribution of these additions among the five departments 
was as follows: Anthropology, 3,000; biology, 245,200; geology, 32,- 
418; engineering and industries, 2,415; and history, 1,549. These ac- 
quisitions were received principally as gifts from individuals, or as 
a result of expeditions sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution. 
All are listed in detail in the full report on the Museum, published as 
a separate document, but the more important are summarized below. 
The total number of catalog entries in all departments is now 17,- 
578,240. 

Anthropology.—The division of archeology received 68 Greek, 
Roman, and Egyptian specimens collected by Thomas Nelson Page; 
several examples of ancient Persian pottery and armor; about 700 
artifacts excavated in Florida; more than 200 stone, bone, pottery, 
and shell specimens from the old Indian village site of Potawomeke, 
Stafford County, Va.; and 175 artifacts from southern California. 
In ethnology, blankets, jewelry, and wearing apparel, representing 
the culture of the Navaho of Arizona, the Zuni, the Tule Indians of 
the San Blas coast of Panama, the Indians of Guatemala, the Chocé 
Indians of Darién, and the Comanche Indians were of outstanding 
interest. The ethnological collections were also augmented by 
masks, food bowls, head rests, and cult objects from voodoo shrines in 
Haiti, and cutting and slashing weapons made by the Moro of Min- 
danao, P. I. Among the important accessions to the collection of 
ceramics were a glazed Parian pitcher made about 1850 in Vermont; 
a Bilston snuffbox made in 1759; an interesting collection of 


17 


18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


eighteenth- and nineteenth-century European ware including pottery, 
porcelain, and glass; and examples of Sandwich glass dating to 
about 1840. 

Biology—The important mammalian accessions of the year in- 
cluded 30 Antarctic seals, representing 4 genera and including 3 
skins and 3 skeletons of the rare Ross’s seal; 151 mammals from Mo- 
have County, Ariz.; 54 Manchurian mammals, one of which was new 
to science; a Tibetan fox skin (Cynalopex corsac), a genus hitherto 
unrepresented in the Museum, from Yunnan, China; and 35 bats 
collected in caves near Washington. 

Among the most important and valuable avian accessions of the 
year are 1,845 skins collected in Colombia by Dr. Alexander Wet- 
more and M. A. Carriker, Jr.; 447 birds from Brazil from the Rocke- 
feller Foundation; bird skins from Mexico, Manchuria, Paraguay, 
and Alaska. Skins representing forms new to the Museum collection 
included 5 from Venezuela, 1 from Chile, and 1 from Ecuador. The 
Fish and Wildlife Service of the Department of the Interior trans- 
ferred 58 birds from various parts of the world and 8 sets of eggs of 
rare North American waterfowl. Of the skeletal material acquired, 
63 skeletons were collected by members of the staff, and 90 were re- 
ceived from the National Zoological Park. 

An outstanding accession of the division of fishes consisted of 
14,219 specimens from the area between Peru and Alaska, received by 
transfer from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Presi- 
dent Franklin D. Roosevelt presented a fine “mother of eels,” 
Macrozoarces americanus, caught off Novia Scotia on August 9, 1941. 
The type material of Hypsoblenniops rickettsi was included in a col- 
lection of 107 specimens of fishes from the Gulf of California. New 
material, received in exchange, included the following: Holotypes 
and paratypes of new species from Liberia and Cameroons; 29 para- 
types from Brazil, Yucatan, and Venezuela; a cotype of Hlanura 
forficata from Bering Sea; and one paratype each of Sebastodes 
owstoni, Nectarges nepenthe, Machaerenchelys vanderbilti, and 
Spinoblennius spiniger. 

The division of insects received the collection of Hemiptera built 
up by Waldo L. McAtee, of the Fish and Wildlife Service, consisting 
of approximately 25,000 specimens and containing much type ma- 
terial. Mr. McAtee also presented volumes and papers on entomo- 
logical subjects needed for the division’s sectional library. The col- 
lection of the late George P. Engelhardt and his entomological books 
were also acquired by the division—these in addition to the more than 
5,000 specimens of Lepidoptera presented by Mr. Engelhardt before 
his death. The material collected by the curator, Dr. Edward A. 
Chapin, during an expedition in Jamaica, consisting of about 7,600 
specimens, mostly termites, was accessioned during the year. A large 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 19 


collection, mostly beetles, was received as a gift from the Colombian 
Government. Among other large lots of insects received was a col- 
lection of 52,000 specimens taken by the United States Bureau of 
Wwntomology and Plant Quarantine, in connection with its activities. 

Accessions to the division of marine invertebrates included 17 
species new to the collections, representing crayfish, crabs, stoma- 
topods, pyenogonids, ostracods, turbellarian and sipunculid worms, 
earthworms, rotifers, sponges, and barnacles. The division’s sec- 
tional library received as a bequest from Dr. Charles Branch Wilson 
a comprehensive library (approximately 2,500 books and pam- 
phlets) on copepods. Among the more important accessions received 
by the division of mollusks during the year was a collection made by 
Dr. Alexander Wetmore and M. A. Carriker, Jr., in Colombia. This 
collection included several new species of mollusks. Two purchases 
were made through the Frances Lea Chamberlain fund, consisting of 
203 lots of 843 specimens. Several large collections of mollusks were 
received, representing the fauna of Fiji, Australia, New Zealand, 
Costa Rica, and Hawaii, as well as various localities in the United 
States. Many smaller accessions included types of new species. Ad- 
ditions to the helminthological collection also contained numerous 
types and cotypes. The Museum’s collection of corals was augmented 
by 447 specimens, and among the more important accessions of the 
division of echinoderms is the first specimen of the brittlestar 
Ophiocoma aethiops known from Peru. 

Among the more important accessions recorded by the division of 
plants (National Herbarium) was a lot of 2,169 specimens received 
in continuation of exchange from the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, 
Bogota, Colombia. A ccoperative project between this institution 
and the National Museum now in preparation, a descriptive Flora of 
Colombia, will include a report on the above-mentioned material. 

Geology.—Among the 156 minerals added by purchase to the Roeb- 
ling collection was a large, deeply etched aquamarine from Agua 
Preta, Minas Geraes, Brazil, the finest single specimen acquired dur- 
ing the year. Other accessions included exceptional examples of 
copper minerals and lead carbonate, an unusual crystallized turquoise, 
a monazite crystal from Brazil, and a mass of the phosphate 
lithiophilite. Three acquisitions of exceptionally fine minerals were 
obtained by purchase from the collection of Dr. Otto Runge through 
the Canfield fund. The most outstanding additions to the gem col- 
lection came through a bequest of Mrs. Mary Vaux Walcott, among 
Which a valuable 12-carat alexandrite, a string of pearls, and 14 
necklaces of gem quality are worthy of special mention. ‘The geo- 
logical collections were also augmented by several important speci- 
mens of meteorites and ores, among them a complete specimen of the 


501591—43——_3 


20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Rose City, Mich., stony meteorite, weighing 2,690 grams, one of the 
largest individuals of that fall, presented by Dr. Stuart H. Perry, 
and a 184-pound mass of cassiterite from Goodwin Gulch, Stewart 
Peninsula, Alaska, perhaps the largest ee piece of this fan mineral 
ever found. 

Outstanding among the accessions by the division of invertebrate 
paleontology and paleobotany are a lot of more than 1,500 type speci- 
mens of fossil invertebrates; 4 tons of limestone blocks containing 
beautifully preserved silicified fossils obtained by Dr. G. A. Cooper 
in the Permian formations of the Glass Mountains of Texas; and 
8,000 invertebrate fossils obtained by Dr. C. E. Resser from the Cam- 
brian and Devonian rocks of Montana, Utah, and the Canadian 
Rockies. 

Engineering and Industries—Scale models of historic aircraft 
formed the largest group of important objects received by the division 
of engineering. Among these are models of 10 winners of the Thomp- 
son Trophy air races and a model of Sikorsky’s 4-motor biplane, 
Grand, of 1913, which is called the first successful 4-motor airplane. A 
timely addition to the division’s extensive series of aircraft engines is 
an example of the Allison liquid-cooled internal combustion engine, 
type V-1710-C, which represents one of industry’s great contributions 
to the present war. Another very timely accession is a 14-ton, 4-wheel- 
drive reconnaissance and command automobile, or “jeep,” lent by the 
War Department. A transparent, plastic-body 1939 Pontiac automo- 
bile, received as a loan, fills the division’s need for a late-model car. 

With the consent of interested persons, the material contained in 
boxes deposited in the care of the Smithsonian Institution by Alex- 
ander Graham Bell in 1880 and 1881 was transferred to the division of 
engineering. Included are several photophone transmitters, selenium 
cell elements of receivers, an electrotype phonogram, and a grapho- 
phone equipped with a reproducing element designed to reproduce 
sound through the medium of a jet of air without mechanical contact 
with the record. 

The most valuable object added to the medical exhibit was the first 
Kmerson iron lung, completed in 1931, and used for several years to 
produce artificial respiration. 

The most noteworthy accession in graphic arts was the gift of 183 
Currier and Ives prints previously loaned to the division of graphic 
arts by Miss Adele 8. Colgate. This accession was reported and de- 
scribed briefly in the report for 1941. With the cooperation of the 
Evening Star Newspaper Co. of Washington, the division’s exhibit 
showing the steps in the printing of a newspaper was entirely reno- 
vated by the substitution of 23 new specimens to replace those now 
obsolete. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY ya 


History —The art material accessioned by the division of history in- 
cludes a water-color sketch, painted in 1918, by Georges Scott, emblem- 
atic of the cordial relations existing between France and the United 
States. For the numismatic collection the Treasury Department for- 
warded a number of California gold tokens, coins, and examples of the 
bronze, nickel, and silver coins struck at the Denver, Philadelphia, and 
San Francisco mints in 1941. The philatelic material was increased by 
1,801 specimens, which were transferred from the Post Office Depart- 
ment. Among these are stamps for countries now occupied by Ger- 
many, including German stamps overprinted “Luxemburg,” and stamps 
issued by Germany for Poland. 


EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD WORK 


Explorations by members of the Museum staff have produced val- 
uable information and highly useful series of specimens in various 
fields. The work has been made possible mainly by funds provided 
by the Smithsonian Institution, and by interested friends. With 
the entry of the United States into the war in December, the pro- 
gram of field ‘activities was definitely curtailed. The expeditions 
from that date were those already in the field, or those that were 
required because of commitments previously made. Though the 
scope of the work has been decidedly less than in normal years, 
valuable results have been obtained. 

Anthropology.—Walter W. Taylor, Jr., honorary collaborator in 
anthropology, completed archeological explorations around Cuatro 
Ciénegas in Coahuila, northern Mexico, which he inaugurated during 
the previous fiscal year. He conducted excavations in Fat Burro 
Cave and in Nopal Shelter, in Canyon de Jora, about 21 miles west 
of Cuatro Ciénegas. He then moved camp to Sierra de San Vicente, 
20 miles southeast of Ciénegas, where he excavated a large site called 
Frightful Cave, located in the only through canyon in the San Vi- 
cente range. In this cave, which measures about 200 feet long and 
tapers in width from 30 feet at the entrance to 3 feet at the rear, the 
deposits ranged in depth from 10 feet to 3 feet, and consisted of 
compact floors, over which were superimposed strata of fire-cracked 
stones, ash, and fiber. Noteworthy specimens recovered from Fat 
Burro Cave consist of an atlatl, or throwing-stick foreshaft, with an 
arrow attached by sinew; a series of split-twig loops, comparable 
to those from the Big Bend area in Texas; stone projectile points 
similar to those from caves along the Pecos River, Texas; and a few 
pieces of split-stitch basketry. From Frightful Cave he recovered 
twilled woven bags filled with buckeyes, grooved clubs, four dis- 
tinct types of fiber sandals, twined woven mats, and aprons. All 
the material collected was packed and transported to Mexico City 
for inspection by the scientists of the Instituto Nacional de Anthro- 


22, ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


pologia e Historia, where Mr. Taylor received every courtesy from 
the Director of the Institution, Sr. Lic. Alfonso Caso, and the Di- 
rector of the Department of Prehispanic Monuments, Sr. Ing. Ig- 
nacio Marquina. 

From the end of May to the middle of June 1942, Frank M. Setz- 
ler, head curator of the department of anthropology, was detailed 
to the National Park Service for the purpose of directing a rapid 
archeological reconnaissance within the canyons formed by the 
Yampa and Green Rivers in northwestern Colorado and eastern 
Utah, to locate and evaluate the prehistoric caves, shelters, and vil- 
lage sites within an area that may be inundated eventually, if pro- 
posed dams are built along these rivers. The expedition traveled by 
boat through the various rapids within the canyon, and discovered 
and tested numerous sites. A detailed report covering the results 
of these investigations was prepared and submitted to the National 
Park Service before the close of the fiscal year. 

Biology.—In March, M. A. Carriker, Jr., carrying on the work 
begun last year with Dr. Wetmore, continued the study and collec- 
tion of birds in northeastern Colombia. From Codazzi, in the De- 
partment of Magdalena, he traveled into the mountains to establish 
a base that gave access to the higher peaks along the Venezuelan 
border. These investigations were supplemented by collections from 
the lowland areas, which were of value in connection with materials 
obtained in March 1941 at Caracolicito, in the drainage of the Rio 
Ariguani. At the close of the fiscal year these studies, which were 
made possible by the W. L. Abbott fund of the Smithsonian Inst1- 
tution, were still in progress. 

Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes, was absent from Febru- 
ary 1 to May 28 in Venezuela in connection with the program of the 
Department of State for promoting cultural relations with other 
American countries. Dr. Schultz spent 2 weeks in Caracas, where 
he consulted with various scientific groups, and the remainder of 
his time in the Maracaibo Basin, studying the fish fauna of that region. 
His work there was made possible by the friendly cooperation of the 
Lago Petroleum Corporation at Maracaibo and Lagunillas. For § 
days Dr. Schultz collected in the valleys of the Rio Motatan, Rio 
Chama, Rio Catatumbo, and Rio Torbes, all in the Andes. He ob- 
tained about 10,000 fish specimens, including approximately 115 
species, and other natural-history material. The fish collection is 
the most complete one that has been made in this region and will 
afford valuable new information in this field. 

Dr. E. A. Chapin, curator of insects, worked for 6 weeks in 
Colombia, in connection with the above-mentioned program of the 
Department of State. For 5 weeks he was in the vicinity of Bogota, 
mainly at the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales in the University 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 23 


Center. Through the courtesy of Dr. Armando Dugand, Director of 
the Instituto, Dr. Chapin’s researches were conducted with the close 
cooperation of Luis M. Murillo, chief entomologist of the Colombian 
Government, Francisco Otoya, assistant entomologist, and Hernando 
Osorno, preparator. Mr. Murillo conducted several field trips that 
permitted Dr. Chapin to become acquainted with some of the major 
entomological problems of the country. These included investiga- 
tions in the citrus regions near Cachetaé, Pacho, and Guateque, and 
two trips into the Paramo near Guasca. Study in the Bogota area 
was accompanied by a tour of other scientific agencies in Colombia. 
Dr. Chapin visited the agricultural institute at Medellin, where 
work on the collection of insects is under the direction of Dr. F. L. 
Gallego. The party, consisting of Messrs. Murillo, Otova, and Cabal 
(an entomological student), and Dr. and Mrs. Chapin, then pro- 
ceeded to the Agricultural Experiment Station at Palmira. While 
they were in Cali Dr. Belisario Losada escorted the party on a col- 
lecting trip into the Cordillera. They then returned to Bogota 
for a final week of work at the Instituto, where special attention was 
given to the family Coccinellidae, which is of considerable economic 
importance in Colombia. Pians were formulated for further collab- 
oration between the Instituto and the United States National Museum, 
with a monographic account of the Coccinellidae of Colombia as 
the end in view. 

C. V. Morton, assistant curator of plants, spent October and 
November in Cuba, under the sponsorship of the National Museum 
and the Department of State, for the dual purpose of botanical field 
work and the furthering of cooperation with Cuban scientists. Mr. 
Morton was occupied part of the time in making partial catalogs of 
the ferns in various herbaria. In cooperation with the Cuban De- 
partment of Agriculture, and in association with Messrs. Acuna and 
Alonzo, of the Estacion Agronémica at Santiago de Las Vegas, he 
also undertook field work in the mountainous part of Oriente, espe- 
cially on the Sierra Nipe, and the northern slopes of the Sierra 
Maestra. Later he made collections in the Trinidad Mountains of 
Las Villas, with the Harvard Botanical Garden at Soledad as a 
base, and, through the friendly interest of the Colegio de La Salle 
of Habana, in the Sierra de Los Organos in Pinar del Rio. These 
expeditions resulted in the collection of 6,000 specimens, represent- 
ing approximately 1,600 numbers. 

Dr. EK. H. Walker, assistant curator of plants, was occupied for < 
week in June in the Piedmont and the Blue Ridge Mountains of 
North Carolina and South Carolina, making botanical collections. 
Under Dr. Walker’s leadership, local field work has been carried on 
by members of the Conference on the District of Columbia Flora. 


24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Geology.—Field trips to the West for vertebrate and invertebrate 
paleontological collections were specially successful this year. 

Dr. C. E. Resser, curator of invertebrate paleontology spent part 
of the summer in Montana, and part in the Canadian Rockies. Ac- 
companied by George Burke Maxey, of Missoula, Mont., he first made 
a brief collecting trip to the northern Wasatch Mountains in search 
of Cambrian fossils. In the Canadian Rockies they devoted the first 
2 weeks to the study of Cambrian beds in the mountains adjacent to 
the Bow Valley, chiefly at Castle Mountain, and in the Valley of the 
Ten Peaks at Moraine Lake, where they found excellent fossils high 
on nearby Eiffel Peak. They worked for more than a month from 
a base camp at the foot of Mount Stephen, 3 miles west of Field, 
covering an area as far east as Lake Louise and west beyond Emerald 
Lake. For nearly three-quarters of a century the fossil bed on 
Mount Stephen has been known to paleontologists throughout the 
world. The trail leading up from Field is only 3 miles long, but it 
climbs 2,700 feet. Entire trilobites are common, and many other 
fossils are obtainable. With the permission of the Canadian Na- 
tional Park Service, Dr. Resser and his party collected excellent ma- 
terial. Later it was Dr. Resser’s privilege to follow the trail on the 
north side of the Kicking Horse River to Burgess Pass, made famous 
by Dr. C. D. Walcott, former Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, by his discovery of the most remarkable fauna of these earliest 
geological periods yet found. 

Dr. G. Arthur Cooper, associate curator of vertebrate paleontology, 
collected fossils in Texas and Oklahoma. In Fort Worth he met 
Dr. N. D. Newell, and for 3 days, together with Dr. Ralph H. King, 
of the Kansas Geological Survey, they collected in north-central 
Texas, proceeding from there to Marathon, Tex., where they spent a 
month collecting Permian limestone blocks containing silicified fos- 
sils. In late July Dr. Cooper met Mrs. J. H. Renfro and her daugh- 
ter at Fort Worth for investigations of the Pennsylvanian rocks of 
Jack County and the Cretaceous rocks around Fort Worth, where 
they obtained many interesting fossils. In August Dr. Cooper col- 
lected Devonian and Ordovician fossils at Ardmore, Okla., and then 
continued to Ada, Okla., where he was joined by Dr. C. Lalicker, of 
the University of Oklahoma, who guided him to numerous localities 
where free Pennsylvanian fossils are obtainable. At Muskogee he 
made a fine collection of Mississippian fossils, and from there made a 
short trip into southern Kansas to collect Pennsylvanian fossils. This 
is the third season that Dr. Cooper has collected in these fields, and with 
the 4 tons of blocks containing silicified fossils collected in the Glass 
Mountains, and many thousand specimens of free Pennsylvanian 
fossils obtained this year in north-central Texas and Oklahoma, the 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 25 


Museum now has an important series of Permian and Pennsylvanian 
fossils. 

As the field expedition in vertebrate paleontology into the Upper 
Cretaceous and Paleocene regions of Utah, under Dr. C. L. Gazin, 
associate curator, extended well into the present year, only brief men- 
tion was made of it in last year’s report. The party succeeded in ob- 
taining some unusually good material of the smaller mammals, the most 
outstanding being the lower jaws and fragmentary parts of the skeleton 
of the rare Stylinodon, and good specimens of the larger forms such as 
Hyrachyus and Paleosyops. Other interesting materials are a large 
slab of turtle remains, which will make an interesting exhibition piece, 
and a small collection of Paleocene mammals from the Alma forma- 
tion in western Wyoming. 

Starting early in June 1942, C. W. Gilmore, curator of vertebrate 
paleontology, led a party to explore the Oligocene rocks of eastern 
Wyoming and western Nebraska, where good progress in the discovery 
of mammalian remains has already been reported. Mr. Gilmore had as 
assistant the experienced collector George H. Sternberg, and was ac- 
companied also by Alfonso Segura Paguaga, of the Museo Nacional, 
San José, Costa Rica. The account of operations will be carried in 
next year’s report. 

In continuation of former field work in Mexico, Dr. W. F. Foshag, 
curator of mineralogy and petrology, returned to that country in Feb- 
ruary, under a cooperative arrangement with the United States Ge- 
ological Survey and with the Board of Economic Warfare, to direct 
further strategic-mineral work. At the end of the fiscal year he was 
still in the field. 

From March 17 until May 15, 1942, Dr. Remington Kellogg, curator 
of mammals, with Watson M. Perrygo, scientific aid, as assistant, was 
engaged in excavating Rampart Cave, in the lower cliff-forming mem- 
ber of the Middle Cambrian Peasley limestone, on the south side of the 
lower end of the Colorado River canyon, in the Boulder Dam National 
Recreational Area, Ariz. This was a cooperative project, undertaken 
by the Smithsonian Institution and the National Park Service. The 
latter agency detailed Edward T. Schenk, senior geological foreman, 
Samuel D. Hendricks, assistant engineer, Dr. Gordon C. Baldwin, 
archeologist, Ray Poyser, boat pilot, and seven men from the Boulder 
City Civilian Conservation Corps camp for intervals of varying length 
to assist in the work. The party obtained skeletal remains of ground 
sloths, mountain goats, pumas, marmots, skunks, and several species 
of birds, lizards, and snakes. Part of the cave was left undisturbed 
as a display for visitors, if it should seem desirable to develop it for 
that purpose at some time in the future. 


26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 
MISCELLANEOUS 


Visitors.—Curtailment of travel because of the war had less effect 
than anticipated upon the number of visitors at the various Museum 
buildings. The total recorded during the year was 2,042,817, as against 
2,505,817 for the previous year. The largest attendance for a single 
month was in August 1941, with 381,952 visitors, and the second largest 
was in July 1941, with 329,927. The attendance in the four Smith- 
sonian and Museum buildings was as follows: Smithsonian Building, 
375,630; Arts and Industries Building, 936,625; Natural History 
Building, 622,989; Aircraft Building (closed from July to November 
6), 107,573. 

Publications and printing —Vhe sum of $34,750 was available during 
the fiscal year 1942 for the publication of the Annual Report, Bulletins, 
and Proceedings. Forty-four publications were issued—the Annual 
Report, 3 Bulletins, 1 part each of Bulletins 50, 82, and 161, 1 separate 
paper from volume 28 of the Contributions from the United States 
National Herbarium, and 36 separate Proceedings papers. Titles and 
authors of these publications will be found in the report on publica- 
tions, appendix 11. 

Volumes and separates distributed during the year to libraries, in- 
stitutions, and individuals throughout the world aggregated 82,545 
copies. 

Special exhibits—F ifteen special exhibits were held during the year 
under the auspices of various educational, scientific, recreational, and 
governmental groups. In addition the department of engineering 
and industries arranged 21 special displays—10 in graphic arts and 11 
in photography. 


CHANGES IN ORGANIZATION AND STAFF 


In the department of anthropology, Dr. T. Dale Stewart succeeded 
to the curatorship of physical anthropology on April 1, 1942, following 
the retirement of Dr. AleS Hrdli¢ka, and Dr. Marshall T. Newman 
was appointed associate curator on June 22, 1942. 

In the department of biology, division of birds, Herbert G. Deig- 
nan was advanced to associate curator on February 1, 1942, and S. 
Dillon Ripley, 2d, was appointed assistant curator on March 13, 1942, 
In the division of mammals, Dr. David H. Johnson was appointed 
associate curator on August 18, 1941. On February 1, 1942, Dr. 
Egbert H. Walker was reallocated to assistant curator, division of 
plants. 

In the department of geology, the division of physical and chemi- 
cal geology (systematic and applied) and the division of mineralogy 
and petrology were combined under the title of division of mineral- 
ogy and petrology, with Dr. William F. Foshag as curator and KEd- 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Dae 


ward P. Henderson as associate curator. ‘The division of stratigraphic 
paleontology became the division of invertebrate paleontology and 
paleobotany, with Dr. Charles E. Resser as curator and Dr. G. Arthur 
Cooper as associate curator. These changes were effective June 17, 
1942. 

On March 1, 1942, the following members of the staff were ad- 
vanced to associate curator: In the department of anthropology, 
J. E. Weckler, Jr., and Waldo R. Wedel; in the department of bi- 
ology, Doris M. Cochran, R. E. Blackwelder, C. R. Shoemaker, and 
Harald A. Rehder; in the department of geology, C. Lewis Gazin; 
in the department of engineering and industries, Paul E. Garber, 
William N. Watkins, and A. J. Olmsted. On the same date, B. O. 
Reberholt, of the division of mineralogy and petrology, was made 
senior scientific aid. 

On February 1, 1942, Mrs. Leila F. Clark was appointed hbrarian 
of the Smithsonian Institution, in the position made vacant through 
the retirement of William L. Corbin, and Elisabeth P. Hobbs was 
advanced to associate librarian on May 21, 1942. 

Honorary appointments were conferred on W. W. Taylor, Jr., as 
collaborator in the department of anthropology, July 1, 1941; on Dr. 
AleS Hrdlicka, as associate in anthropology, April 1, 1942; and on 
Dr. Henry Pittier, as associate in botany, September 25, 1941. 

The following employees were furloughed indefinitely for military 
service: Clyde E. Bauman, January 22, 1942; Stephen C. Stuntz, 
March 9, 1942; Shallie Youngblood, May 20, 1942; and Earl W. 
Cook, May 24, 1942. 

Employees who left the service through the operation of the re- 
tirement act were as follows: For age, Dr. AleS Hrdlitka, curator, 
on March 31, 1942, with 38 years 11 months of service; Joseph P. 
Germuiller, guard, on December 8, 1941, with 23 years 3 months of 
service. Through optional retirement: Fred Kaske, scientific aid, 
with 39 years 11 months of service, on May 31, 1942, and Samuel P. 
Darby, guard, with 33 years 7 months of service, on May 31, 1942. 
Through disability retirement: William H. Smith, heutenant of the 
guard, on December 31, 1942; Robert G. Tegeler, guard, on October 
1, 1941; Thomas J. Shannon, guard, on November 14, 1941; and 
Arthur O. Wickert, under mechanic (electrician’s helper), on Jan- 
uary 31, 1942. 

The honorary appointments of W. L. McAtee, acting custodian, 
section of Hemiptera, and of W. W. Taylor, Jr., collaborator in 
anthropology, terminated on June 30, 1942. 

The Museum lost through death 3 active workers: Joseph R. Riley, 
associate curator, division of birds, on December 17, 1941; William 
H. Bray, preparator, department of anthropology, on December 18, 


28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


1941; Jacob C. Earnhart, guard, on February 10, 1942; and 5 honor- 
ary members of the staff who were long associated with its activities: 
Dr. Charles Branch Wilson, honorary collaborator in copepods, divi- 
sion of marine invertebrates, on August 18, 1941; Dr. Hugh M. Smith, 
associate in zoology, on September 28, 1941; Dr. Casey Albert Wood, 
collaborator, division of birds, on January 26, 1942; Dr. C. Hart 
Merriam, associate in zoology, on March 19, 1942; and Dr. William 
Schaus, honorary assistant curator of insects, on June 20, 1942. 

Respectfully submitted. 

ALEXANDER WETMORE, Assistant Secretary. 
Dr. C. G. Axszor, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


APPENDIX 2 
REPORT ON THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART 


Sir: I have the honor to submit, on behalf of the Board of Trus- 
tees of the National Gallery of Art, the fifth annual report of the 
Board covering its operations for the fiscal year ended June 30, 
1942. This report is being made pursuant to the provisions of the act 
of March 24, 1937 (50 Stat. 51), as amended by the public resolu- 
tion of April 13, 1939 (Pub. Res. No. 9, 76th Cong.). 


ORGANIZATION AND STAFF 


During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1942, the Board was com- 
prised of the Chief Justice of the United States, Harlan F’. Stone, 
who succeeded the Honorable Charles Evans Hughes as Chief Jus- 
tice and took office on July 3, 1941; the Secretary of State, Cordell 
Hull; the Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Morgenthau, Jr.; and 
the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. C. G. Abbot, ex 
officio; and five general trustees, David K. E. Bruce, Duncan Phil- 
lips, Ferdinand Lammot Belin, Joseph E. Widener, and Samuel H. 
Kress. 

At its annual meeting held February 9, 1942, the Board reelected 
David K. E. Bruce, President, and Ferdinand Lammot Belin, Vice 
President of the Board, to serve the ensuing year. The executive 
officers continuing in office during the year were Donald D. Shepard, 
Secretary-Treasurer and General Counsel; David E. Finley, Direc- 
tor; Harry A. McBride, Administrator; John Walker, Chief Cura- 
tor; and Macgill James, Assistant Director. At the annual meeting 
the Board elected Chester Dale of New York as an honorary officer 
of the Gallery, giving him the title of Associate Vice President. At 
a. meeting of the Board held December 29, 1941, the Board provided 
for the appointment of Otto R. Eggers and Daniel P. Higgins, con- 
stituting the firm of Eggers & Higgins of New York, as consultant 
architects for the National Gallery of Art. During the year, George 
T. Heckert was appointed Assistant Administrator, such appoint- 
ment being made possible because of the reclassification of his office 
by the Civil Service Commission. 

Also at the annual meeting the Board, pursuant to its bylaws, con- 
stituted its three standing committees as follows: 


29 


30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


Chief Justice of the United States, Harlan F. Stone, chairman. 
David K. E. Bruce, vice chairman. 
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. C. G. Abbot. 
Ferdinand Lammot Belin. 
Dunean Phillips. 

FINANCE COMMITTEE 


Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Morgenthau, Jr., chairman. 
David K. BE. Bruce, vice chairman. 
Secretary of State, Cordell Hull. 
Ferdinand Lammot Belin. 
Samuel H. Kress. 
ACQUISITIONS COMMITTEE 


David K. BH. Bruce, chairman, 
Ferdinand Lammot Belin, vice chairman 
Dunean Phillips. 

Joseph E. Widener. 

David FE. Finley, ex officio. 

All positions with the Gallery, with the exception of the executive 
and honorary officers, are filled from the registers of the United 
States Civil Service Commission or with its approval, By June 30, 
1942, the permanent Civil Service staff numbered 234 employees. 
Since the opening of hostilities, 12 members of the staff had joined 
the armed forces. 

APPROPRIATIONS 


For salaries and expenses, for the upkeep and operation of the 
National Gallery of Art, the protection and care of the works of art 
acquired by the Board, and all administrative expenses incident 
thereto, as authorized by the act of March 24, 1937 (50 Stat. 51), as 
amended by the public resolution of April 18, 1939 (Pub. Res. No. 9, 
76th Cong.), the Congress appropriated for the fiscal year ending 
June 30, 1942, the sum of $533,300, to cover the first full year of 
operation. From this appropriation the following expenditures and 
encumbrances were made: 


EXPENDITURES AND ENCUMBRANCES 


Personal services__-_______ See EE ee ee eee NOOO POCO ES 

Brintinesandsbind ng ee 6, 880. 70 

Supplies and equipment; fete 0-2 aaa eee eee 133, 087. 18 

ReESEnVG) 2. nee ot ed ee A ee ae I ls oes 36, 080. 00 

Wnencumbered balances] 2 = ee 3, 668. 90 

MO tal ce ee ee ae eee _--. 080, 600, 00 
ATTENDANCE 


The total attendance for the first year during which the National 
Gallery was open was 2,005,328, a daily average of over 5,500 visitors. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 31 


A unique record for museum attendance was established on July 7, 
1941, when the one millionth visitor entered the Gallery, less than 4 
months after its dedication. ‘The Gallery is open to the public each 
week day of the year between the hours of 10 a.m. and 5 p. m., except 
for Christmas and New Year’s Day, and on Sundays from 2 until 
op. m. 

On June 7, 1942, the Gallery inaugurated an experimental series 
of Sunday evening openings, primarily for the benefit of men in the 
armed forces and war workers in the city. The exhibition galleries 
were open from 2 to 10 p. m., and orchestral concerts during the 
summer months were given, through the generosity of Chester Dale, 
from 7:15 to closing time. Special lectures with color slides were 
given by the Gallery staff at 7:30 and 8:30 in the lecture hall, and 
the cafeteria in the Gallery building was open from 4 to 8. Each 
Sunday evening from 50 to 75 service men were invited by members 
of the staff and by friends of the Gallery to supper in the cafeteria. 
On Sundays the attendance frequently exceeded 8,000; and, in view 
of the popularity of the Sunday evening openings, it was decided 
to continue the arrangement indefinitely. 

Through the generosity of Mrs. Matthew John Whittall, the Gal- 
lery presented in the lecture hall on the ground floor, a concert by 
the Budapest String Quartet on Sunday afternoon, May 31, 1942. 
This concert had been planned for men in the Service and their 
friends, the program lasting approximately 1 hour. 


PUBLICATIONS 


In the information rooms in the Gallery building, a general in- 
formation booklet is given without charge to visitors on request. It 
contains a short survey of the collections and information which has 
been found to be of great assistance to visitors to the Gallery. Also 
available, are catalogs of the paintings and sculpture, a complete book 
of illustrations of all the works of art in the Gallery’s collection, color 
reproductions, and postcards in color and black and white, all made 
available through the Publications Fund. These publications are on 
sale at moderate cost. 

AIR-RAID PROTECTION 


Immediately following the outbreak of hostilities on December 7, 
1941, the National Gallery building was blacked out nightly. The 
staff was organized into five air-raid services: Fire, police (includ- 
ing morale), health (first aid), maintenance, and evacuation. Drills 
were started and repeated frequently in order that the units might 
operate smoothly in the event of an actual air raid. Drills that were 
held in coordination with the District of Columbia authorities, when 
visitors were in the building, evidenced the measure of efficiency 


a4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


which had been reached by the protective organization in the Gallery. 
Purchases of air-raid protection equipment were also made as 
promptly as possible and to the extent permitted by the great de- 
mand for such equipment. 


REMOVAL OF WORKS OF ART TO A PLACE OF SAFEKEEPING 


At a special meeting held December 29, 1941, the Board approved 
the recommendations of the executive officers of the Gallery that a 
limited number of the most fragile and irreplaceable works of art 
in the national collection be removed to a place of greater safety, in 
view of the responsibility which rests with the Trustees for safe- 
guarding the collection. Early in January, therefore, the paintings 
and sculpture to be evacuated were removed from exhibition and 
shipped under guard to the place of safety which had-been deter- 
mined upon and adapted for the purpose. All of the works of art 
arrived in excellent condition. While thus in storage, they are under 
constant guard by members of the National Gallery guard force and 
under supervision and inspection by a member of the curatorial staff 
of the Gallery. 

Beyond this partial evacuation, however, it was the expressed be- 
lief of the Trustees that the Gallery has a duty to the public (as a 
unit of the Government establishment), and an obligation as a source 
of recreation and education to continue its activities, and even in- 
crease them, as far as practicable, in wartime. 


ACQUISITIONS 
GIFTS OF PRINTS 


On February 9, 1942, the Board of Trustees accepted from Philip 
Hofer a woodcut, “Saint Sebastian,” by Hans Baldung (Grien), to 
be added to his earlier gift of prints which was included in last 
year’s Annual Report; and again on April 27, 1942, the Board ac- 
cepted a gift of 58 prints from Miss Elisabeth Achelis. 


GIFTS OF PAINTINGS AND SCULPTURE 


On September 8, 1941, the Board of Trustees accepted from Mr. 
and Mrs. Peter H. B. Frelinghuysen the gift of two paintings by 
Goya: 

Portrait of Dona Bartolome Sureda 

Portrait of Dona Teresa Sureda 
both given in memory of Mrs. Frelinghuysen’s mother and father, 
Mr. and Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer. These paintings are now on 


exhibition. 
On February 9, 1942, the Board of Trustees accepted from Dun- 
can Phillips, a Trustee of the Gallery, the gift of a portrait of 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY ao 


former Chief Justice Hughes, first Chairman of the Board, painted 
by Augustus Vincent Tack, which has been hung in the Board Room. 

On February 9, 1942, the Board accepted from Mrs. Ralph Har- 
man Booth, the gift of the following pieces of sculpture, given in 
memory of her husband: 


Greek(fourthecentury: Bs (C)) eee eee Head of a Youth. 
Middle Rhenish?: Schoo lat se aamees Snes Pieta. 
NOEineh ame Schoo] es staat eee ee ee Painted alabaster, Christ 


supported by an Angel. 


On April 27, 1942, the Board of Trustees accepted from Mr. and 
Mrs. George W. Davison the gift of a portrait of George Washing- 
ton by Rembrandt Peale. 

Also, on April 27, 1942, the Board accepted from Mrs. Gordon 
Dexter the gift of two paintings by John Singleton Copley: 

Red Cross Knight 
Portrait of Sir Robert Graham 
The paintings have been received and are now on exhibition. 

On April 27, 1942, the Board accepted from Mrs. John W. Simpson 
the gift of a group of paintings, drawings, and sculpture. Included 
in the gift are two paintings, one entitled “Soap Bubbles,” by Jean- 
Baptiste-Simeon Chardin, and the other, “The Binning Children,” 
by Sir Henry Raeburn, the latter presented in memory of the late 
John Woodruff Simpson. The 11 drawings and 18 pieces of sculpture 
by Auguste Rodin constitute a unique collection acquired by the 
donor some 40 years ago directly from the artist. The Clodion terra- 
cotta plaque also served as a model for the decoration of one of the 
monumental urns by Clodion now in the Gallery. 


SALE OR EXCHANGE OF WORKS OF ART 


During the year no works of art belonging to the Gallery were sold 
or exchanged. 


LOAN OF WORKS OF ART TO THE GALLERY 


During the year the following works of art were received on loan: 


From Copley Amory of Washington, D. C.: 


Artist Subject 
John Singleton’ Copleyes sees The Copley Family 
1) YERES SER DEUS ES 2 FEY OD ee 2 ee Self-portrait 
INE) ee tee ecto Fie SEY at Be, Portrait of Elisabeth Copley 
Henry sWilliam Pickerseillze 9.22 Portrait of John Singleton Copley, Jr. 
Johnysingleton, Copleysae eens Red crayon drawing of a hand 


From Chester Dale, of New York, 126 important paintings of the 
French nineteenth-century school and other schools of painting, to- 
gether with 31 French drawings. 


o4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Through the French Government from museums and private col- 
lectors in Europe, 154 paintings of the French school of the late 
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In addition, this loan has been 
supplemented by 101 French drawings which have not yet been placed 
on exhibition. 

From the heirs of the late Right Reverend William Lawrence a por- 
trait of their ancestor, Amos Lawrence, by Chester Harding. 

From the J. H. Whittemore Co., of Naugatuck, Conn., 24 French 
and American paintings from the Harris Whittemore collection. The 
following paintings from the collection have been placed on exhi- 
bition: 


Artist Subject 
WdgarvDe@gasn- 4 fb, nese a Ree SF. nb: The Rehearsal 
Auguste: Renoir) see a ee ae ee Nude in Landseape 

DO bse ea ee oe Se ee aah Sin ret 2 Girl with a Cat 
Als do MIN is ANI eR oe ae ee etihe wihite Gin) 

Does ee Pe ede We ee Se LE Reed 

DD) sees ee oe ae eS ae el nok sree Lhe L’Andalusienne 


LOAN OF WORKS OF ART RETURNED 


During the year the following works of art which had been placed 
on loan at the Gallery were returned : 

To Duncan Phillips, a Trustee of the Gallery, two paintings previ- 
ously loaned by him: 


Artist Subject 
Camillei@orotes 2-222 5= =e ee The Dairy Farm 
Gustave: Courbet=-2—_=-2- eee Rocks at Ornans, Afterglow 


LOAN OF WORKS OF ART BY THE GALLERY 


During the year no works of art, belonging to the Gallery, were 
placed on loan. 
EXHIBITIONS 


The following exhibitions were held at the National Gallery during 
the last year: 

An exhibition, entitled “The Great Fire of London, 1940,” cf 107 
paintings and drawings of wartime London by artists serving in 
the London Auxiliary Fire Service, was shown in the Gallery from 
July 18 through August 10, 1941. Sponsored by the British Govern- 
ment under the auspices of the British Library of Information, this 
exhibition—selected by Sir Kenneth Clark, Director of the National 
Gallery, London; Sir Walter W. Russell, R. A., Keeper of the Royal 
Academy; and J. B. Mason, former Curator of the Tate Gallery, 
London—after the completion of its first showing in the United States 
at the National Gallery, toured the United States and Canada. 

Seventy paintings and drawings, and sculpture, representing the 
art of Australia from 1788 to 1941, were placed on exhibition at the 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 18) 


Gallery from October 2 to 26, 1941. These works of art, the first 
comprehensive exhibition of Australian art to be shown in the United 
States, were sent, under the auspices of the Carnegie Corporation 
of New York, by the Commonwealth of Australia. 

Architectural drawings of the National Gallery building, to- 
gether with progress photographs and a model of the exterior of the 
building, showing the development of the building from the first 
sketch to the final drawings, were loaned by Eggers & Higgins, the 
architects, for exhibition at the Gallery from December 18, 1941, to 
January 28, 1942. The A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable 
Trust, to augment the exhibition, loaned a number of renderings and 
photographs of the progress of the building from their own records. 

Two groups of American water colors, drawings and prints— 
“American Artists’ Record of War and Defense” and “Soldiers of 
Production”—were shown at the National Gallery; the former from 
February 7 to March 8, 1941, and the latter from March 17 to April 
15, 1942. The water colors in the first group had been submitted 
in national competition for pictures recording war and defense activ- 
ities, conducted by the Section of Fine Arts for the Office for 
Emergency Management, and most of them were purchased by the 
United States Government after selection by the appointed jury. 
Those in the second group were water colors and drawings by eight 
artists appointed on recommendation of the Section of Fine Arts by 
the Office for Emergency Management and who, through the courtesy 
of the War and Navy Departments, were permitted to make drawings 
and paintings of what is known as restricted material. 

The Citizens Committee for the Army and Navy, Inc., exhibited 
at the Gallery for a period of approximately 2 weeks, beginning 
April 8, 1942, three triptychs by contemporary artists, which had 
been selected by the Committee for later presentation to the Chapel 
at Arlington Cemetery, Va. 

An exhibition of paintings, posters, water colors, and prints, show- 
ing activities of the American Red Cross, were exhibited from May 2 
to 30, 1942. These paintings were submitted in a national competi- 
tion conducted for the American Red Cross by the Section of Fine 
Arts, Public Buildings Administration, Federal Works Agency. The 
exhibition included the paintings which were purchased for the Red 
Cross on advice of a jury, together with a eroup of other pictures 
also recommended by the jury for exhibition. 

An exhibition of 11 portrait busts of the Presidents of the Repub- 
lics of South America, by the American sculptor, Jo Davidson, was 
held in the west garden court at the National Gallery of Art, begin- 
ning Saturday afternoon, June 27, and continuing for about a 
month. These busts were commissioned by the Office of the Co- 

501591—43—4 


36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


ordinator of Inter-American Affairs and will be presented to the 
Governments of the South American Republics by the Department 
of State of the United States of America. Portrait busts in bronze, 
also by Jo Davidson, of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and 
Vice President Henry A. Wallace, were shown at this time. 


CURATORIAL DEPARTMENT 


The curatorial work for the year consisted in the rearrangement 
of the permanent collection necessitated by additional gifts and by 
various precautions that were required by the outbreak of the war; 
in the installation of 17 temporary exhibitions; in various lectures 
on the collection and related fields in conjunction with the work of 
the educational department; and in further cataloging of the paint- 
ines and sculpture. During the year the preliminary Catalog of 
the Permanent Collection and the Book of Illustrations were brought 
up to date and reprinted; two catalogs containing a historical sur- 
vey, notes, and bibliography of the French paintings loaned from 
the Chester Dale collection were compiled, and a new general in- 
formation pamphlet was prepared. 

In the course of the year, 209 works of art were submitted to the 
acquisitions committee with written recommendations regarding 
their acceptability for the collection of the National Gallery of Art; 
40 private collections were visited in Washington and other cities 
in connection with offers to the Gallery of gifts or loans; 152 works 
of art were brought to the Gallery and submitted to the staff for 
expert opinion; and 44 letters were written in answer to inquiries 
involving research in the history of art. 


RESTORATION AND REPAIR OF WORKS OF ART 


During the year, as authorized by the Board and with the approval 
of the Director and Chief Curator, Stephen Pichetto, consultant re- 
storer to the Gallery, has undertaken such restoration and repair of 
paintings and sculpture in the collection as has been found to be 
necessary. All of this work was carried on in the restorer’s rooms 
in the Gallery except in three cases, once when unusually delicate 
and complicated restoration was required, and twice when the pic- 
tures had to be relined to prevent damage in shipment from New 
York. These three paintings were restored in Mr. Pichetto’s studios 


in New York. 
EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM 


As indicated in the following summary, public response to the 
program of educational activities of the Gallery has constantly in- 
creased month by month until the total attendance recorded for 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY ol 


June, 1942 (6,884), more than doubled that recorded for July, 1941 
(2,882). 

A basic part of the Gallery’s educational program has been the 
gallery tours of the collection, conducted twice daily, except on 
Saturday and Sunday, which have attracted 18,935 visitors. In ad- 
dition to these tours there has been a series of special lectures: a 
special program of 34 lectures, beginning in October and contin- 
uing through April, presented a special lecture each Saturday aiter- 
noon in the lecture hall, which 7,292 persons attended, and the in- 
timate “gallery talks” and other lectures presented in the auditorium, 
dealing with a specific school or works of art, attracted a combined 
total of 17,752. 

The educational department feeling the need for a short noontime 
feature, in view of the increased number of visitors from nearby 
Government buildings during this time, inaugurated on January 2, 
1942, the “Picture of the Week,” a 15-minute talk given twice each 
day and once on Sunday, which in turn attracted 7,947 people, in- 
dicating that this educational feature of the program was one of 
the most popular. 

In addition, members of the educational department staff have 
conducted private and group conferences, totaling 3,065 individuals, 
of which 700 were members of the armed forces for whom special 
tours were arranged on Saturday afternoon, beginning in December 
1941. 

LIBRARY 


A total of 242 books and 1,087 pamphlets and pericdicals were 
presented to the Gallery; 962 books and catalogs were acquired 
through exchange; 37 books and catalogs were purchased; and 20 
books were received on indefinite loan. 


PHOTOGRAPHIC DEPARTMENT 


Prints totaling 6,094, 1,187 black and white slides, and 709 color 
slides have been made by the photographic laboratory. The prints 
have been placed on file in the Library where they are for sale and 
for the use of the Gallery staff. The slides, together with an addi- 
tional 420 which were purchased during the year, have been made 
available for the staff in connection with the public lectures given at 
the Gallery, and have likewise been lent to lecturers outside the 
National Gallery and to other galleries. 


THE GALLERY BUILDING 


During the fiscal year, certain alterations and improvements have 
been made in the building upon the recommendation of the com- 
mittee on the building, among which may be mentioned the construc- 


38 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


tion of snow steps for the Mall entrance, the redecoration of gallery 
rooms for the exhibition of the Chester Dale collection, and addi- 
tional air conditioning in the smoking room and the information 
rooms on the main and ground floors. The National Gallery Cafeteria 
has become so popular that it is somewhat congested during certain 
hours of the day. It became evident that some acoustical treatment 
of the ceiling should be undertaken, and this work, resulting in 
great improvement in the noise condition in the cafeteria, was com- 
pleted with funds supplied by The A. W. Mellon Educational and 
Charitable Trust. It was also recommended that a revolving door 
be installed to replace one of the heavy bronze doors at the Constitu- 
tion Avenue entrance. Although funds were made available it was 
not possible to proceed with this improvement because the materials 
required were restricted by priority rulings, 


OTHER GIFTS 


During the year there were gifts to the Gallery of furnishings, 
equipment, ornamental trees and plants, prints, films, and color 
slides; also certain expenses were paid by others on behalf of the 
Gallery, the donors being David K. E. Bruce, Frederick 'T. Bon- 
ham, William R. Coe, David E. Finley, Samuel H. Kress, Donald 
D. Shepard, Percy S. Strauss, Mr. and Mrs. J. L. McGrew, Mrs. 
Matthew John Whittall, Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, 
Propagating Gardens of the Department of the Interior, American 
Red Cross, and The A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable 
Trust. Gifts of moneys were made to the Gallery during the year 
by Paul Mellon, Chester Dale, Howard J. Heinz, Jr., and The A. W. 
Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust. 


AUDIT OF PRIVATE FUNDS OF THE GALLERY 


An audit has been made of the private funds of the Gallery for 
the year ended June 30, 1942, by Price, Waterhouse & Co., a nation- — 
ally known firm of public accountants, and the certificate of that 
company on its examination of the accounting records maintained 
for such funds has been submitted to the Gallery. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Davwp K. E. Bruce, President. 

Dr. C. G. ABpor, 


Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


APPENDIX 3 


REPORT OF THE NATIONAL COLLECTION 
OF FINE ARTS 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the ac- 
tivities of the National Collection of Fine Arts for the fiscal year 
ended June 30, 1942: 

After Pearl Harbor plans were made for the protection of the 
works of art in the National Collection of Fine Arts. The center 
portion of the wall behind the large painting “Diana of the Tides,” 
by John Elliott, was strengthened sufficiently to resist bomb frag- 
ments. Protection against damage from incendiary bombs has been 
provided, but means have not yet been devised to prevent such 
bombs from reaching the ground floors where the exhibits are shown. 
Plans for packing and shipping paintings for evacuation have been 
made, and the miniatures and part of the Gellatly collection are to 
be moved to the ground-floor lobby, where they would be protected 
against incendiary bombs. 

Several proffered gifts of paintings, furniture, miniatures, and 
vases have been deposited here to be passed upon by the Smithsonian 
Art Commission in December 1942. 

Eight special exhibitions were held in the foyer, including three 
under the sponsorship of the Pan American Union and the Ministers 
of the various countries, involving the installation of 428 specimens. 
Nine special Graphic Arts exhibits were shown in the lobby. 

From July 10 to 27, 1941, the Acting Director visited galleries and 
private collections between Washington and Boston for the purpose 
of studying various collections of American miniatures. 

An illustrated lecture on the National Collection of Fine Arts was 
given by the Acting Director before the Chevy Chase Women’s Club 
on November 11, 1941. 

A painting, “The First Reading of the Emancipation Procla- 
mation,” by Francis B. Carpenter, 9 feet x 14 feet 6 inches, was 
cleaned and restored at the United States Capitol. 


APPROPRIATIONS 


For the administration of the National Collection of Fine Arts 
by the Smithsonian Institution, including compensation of necessary 
employees, purchase of books of reference and periodicals, traveling 


39 


AQ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


expenses, uniforms for guards, and necessary incidental expenses, 
$29,880.14 was appropriated, of which over $18,000 was expended 
for the care and maintenance of the Freer Gallery of Art, a unit 
of the National Collection of Fine Arts. ‘The balance was spent for 
the care and upkeep of the National Collection of Fine Arts, nearly 
all of this sum being required for the payment of salaries, traveling 
expenses, purchase of books and periodicals, and necessary disburse- 
ments for the care of the collection. 


THE SMITHSONIAN ART COMMISSION 


The twenty-first annual meeting of the Smithsonian Art Com- 
mission was held on December 2, 1941. The members met at 10: 30a. m. 
in the Natural History Building, where, as the advisory committee 
on the acceptance of works of art which had been submitted during 
the year, they accepted the following: 


Oil painting, “Portrait of My Wife,” by Louis Betts, N. A. Gift of Mrs. Louis 
Betts (Zara Symons Betts). 

Oil painting, “Stable Interior, Horses and Groom,” by John F. Herring (1795- 
1865). Gift of John EH. Lodge. 

Oil painting, “Portrait of Lieut. Gen. Henry Clark Corbin (1842-1909),” by 
Adolph Muller-Ury (1868- ). Gift of Mrs. Henry Clark Corbin. 

Oil painting, “The Other Shore,’ by Robert Spencer, N. A. (1879-1981), as- 
signed to the Newark Museum Association, Newark, N. J., on February 2, 1925, 
by the Council of the National Academy of Design, which was withdrawn and 
claimed in accordance with the provision in the Ranger Bequest. 

Three miniatures, water color on ivory, “Portrait of A. S. N.,” by Jean Fran- 
cois de la Valle (fl. 1785-1815) ; “Portrait of Mrs. Elves,” attributed to Hone, 
and “Portrait of Ira Allen (1751-1814),” copy of a miniature in the University 
of Vermont, by an unknown artist. Gift ef Mrs. Norvin H. Green. 

Miniature, water color on ivory, “Portrait of Mrs. Bertha H. Jaques (1863- 
1941),” by Nelly MeKenzie Tolman. Bequest of Mrs. Bertha H. Jaques. 

Miniature, water color on paper, “Portrait of Rubens Peale (1784-1864) ,” by 
Raphael Peale (1774-1825), unframed. Gift of Dr. Edwin Kirk. 

Thirty-six prints by 26 members of the Chicago Society of Htchers, to be 
added to the Chicago Society of Etchers collection. Gift of the Chicago Society 
of Etchers. 

Drypoint, “For All the World,’ by R. H. Palensky (1884—- -_), to be added 
to the Chicago Society of Etchers collection. Gift of the artist. 

One Japanese Shippo vase and stand. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. H. Foster Bain. 


The members then proceeded to the regents’ room in the Smith- 
sonian Building for the further proceedings, the meeting being called 
to order by the chairman, Mr. Borie. 

The members present were: Charles L. Borie, Jr., chairman; Frank 
Jewett Mather, Jr., vice chairman; Dr. Charles G. Abbot (ex officio), 
secretary; and Herbert Adams, Gifford Beal, David E. Finley, James 
EK. Fraser, John E. Lodge, Paul Manship, Edward W. Redfield, and 
Mahonri M. Young. Ruel P. Tolman, curator of the division of 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 41 


graphic arts in the United States National Museum and acting direc- 
tor of the National Collection of Fine Arts, was also present. 

Three persons were nominated to succeed the late Col. George B. 
McClellan, and the secretary was directed to correspond with them in 
the order they were nominated to ascertain their willingness to serve 
as a member of the Commission. 

The Commission recommended to the Board of Regents the re- 
election of Mahonri M. Young, Charles L. Borie, Jr., Frederick P. 
Keppel, and the nominee selected to fill Colonel McClellan’s place. 

The following officers were reelected for the ensuing year: Charles 
L. Borie, Jr., chairman; Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., vice chairman, 
and Dr. Charles G. Abbot, secretary. 

The following were reelected members of the executive committee 
for the ensuing year: Herbert Adams, Gilmore D. Clark, John E. 
Lodge, Charles L. Borie, Jr. (ex officio), and Dr. Charles G. Abbot 
(ex officio). 

The chairman brought to the attention of the Commission the 
matter of the proposed prohibition of the use of sculptural bronze 
for castings and, after discussion, resolutions were approved to be 
sent to the Office of Production Management. 


THE CATHERINE WALDEN MYER FUND 


Three miniatures, water color on ivory, were acquired from the 
fund established through the bequest of the late Catherine Walden 
Myer, as follows: 

25. “Portrait of G. D.,” by an unknown artist; from Sherman Reilley, New 
Haven, Conn. 

26. “Portrait of a Man,” by an unknown artist; from Sherman Reilley, New 
Haven, Conn. 

27. “Mr. Nichol,” by John Wesley Jarvis (1780-1840), signed “Jarvis 1809 
N York”; from Mrs. Dora Lee Curtis, New York City. 


LOANS ACCEPTED 


Two miniatures, water color on ivory, “Roswell Shurtleff (17738- 
1861)” and “Anna Pope Shurtleff (1812-1881),” daughter of Roswell 
Shurtleff, by unknown artists, were lent by Mrs. O. A. Mechlin, 
through Miss Leila Mechlin. 

One miniature, water color on ivory, “Captain Frederick Augustus 
Smith, U. S. A. (1812-?),” by Caroline Dorcas (Smith) Murdoch, 
was lent by Miss Leila Mechlin. 

One miniature, water color on ivory, “Portrait of a Boy,” by 
Joseph Wood (ab. 1780-1830), was lent by Miss Sarah Lee. 

An oil painting, “The Right Honorable Winston Churchill,” by 
Hal Denton, presented to the President of the United States by the 


42 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Mayor and the Council of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 
was lent by the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt. 


LOANS TO OTHER MUSEUMS AND ORGANIZATIONS 


An oil painting, “The Visit of the Mistress,” by Winslow Homer, 
was lent to the Howard University Gallery of Art to be included in 
an exhibition of “Paintings Showing Negroes in America” from 
March 2 through April 12, 1942. (Returned April 17, 1942.) 


WITHDRAWALS BY OWNERS 


An oil painting, “Portrait of Mr. Justice Brandeis,” by Joseph 
Tepper, was withdrawn on the order of Paul A. Freund and re- 
turned to Joseph Tepper, the owner, on November 3, 1941. 

An oil painting, “Portrait of Lady Evelyn Cook,” by John Hopp- 
ner, R. A., was withdrawn by Thomas Davis Lee, administrator of 
the estate of Mrs. Arthur Lee, on February 13, 1942. 

Three oil paintings, “Portrait of a Boy,” by John Hoppner, R. A. ; 
“Portrait of a Girl,” by John Opie, R. A.; and “Study of Ruins,” by 
Richard Wilson, R. A., were withdrawn from the collection lent 
by the estate of Henry Cleveland Perkins by the owner, Miss Ruth 
Perkins, on March 12, 1942. 

Two miniatures, water color on ivory, “Virginia Casterton” and 
“Mme. Tamakai Miura,” by Eda Nemoede Casterton, were withdrawn 
by the owner, Mrs. Casterton, on May 26, 1942. 


LOANS RETURNED 


Three pieces of sculpture by Edward Kemeys, “Fighting Panther 
and Deer” (bronze), “Bronze Wolf” (No. 3), and “Bronze Wolf” 
(No. 4), lent with the consent of their owner, William Kemeys; 
“Grizzly Bear” (plaster No. 28), the property of the Smithsonian 
Institution, and a blue Sevres vase (Pell Collection No. 371), with 
a wooden base, lent to the Procurement Division of the United 
States Treasury on May 2, 1938, to be placed in the Reception 
Room, Union Station, were returned December 18, 1941. 


THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS REFERENCE LIBRARY 


Because of the transfer of the hbrarian, Mrs. Lucile T. Barrett, to 
Mobile, Ala., in February 1942 there is no report of details available, 
as a new hbrarian has not been appointed. 


= 
ore) 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 


SPECIAL EXHIBITIONS 


The following exhibitions were held: 

August 1 through September 30, 1941.—FExhibition of 92 miniatures 
lent by Count and Countess Bohdan de Castellane, of Washington, 
DTC: 

December 5 through 31, 1941.—Exhibition of 23 oils and 20 water 
colors by Roy M. Mason, N. A., of Woodchuck Hollow, Batavia, N. Y. 

January 7 through 31, 1942.—Exhibition of 26 oils and 88 prints 
and drawings, by Antonio Rodriguez Luna, of Mexico, sponsored by 
the Mexican Ambassador and the Pan American Union. 

January 15 through March 1, 1942.—Exhibition of 54 pieces of jade 
lent by Georges Estoppey, of Newark, N. J. 

February 8 through 27, 1942.—Exhibition of 20 paintings on metal 
and 4 prints by Buell Mullen of Lake Forest, Il. 

April 5 through 28, 1942.—Exhibition of 80 oils, 86 water colors and 
5 prints, by members of the Landscape Club of Washington, D. C. 

May 12 through 28, 1942.—Exhibition of 15 plaster busts by Marina 
Nunez del Prado of Bolivia, sponsored by the Bolivian Minister and 
the Pan American Union, 

June 1 through 28, 1942—Exhibition of 17 oil paintings and 37 
pencil drawings, lithographs, and water colors, by Ignacio Aguirre, 
of Mexico, sponsored by the Mexican Ambassador and the Pan Amer- 
ican Union. 

PUBLICATIONS 


ToLMAnN, R. I’. Report on the National Collection of Fine Arts for the year ended 
June 380, 1941. Appendix 8, Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian 
Institution for the year ended June 380, 1941, pp. 45-50. 

Lopce, J. Hi. Report on the Freer Gallery of Art for the year ended June 39, 
1941. Appendix 4, Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 
for the year ended June 30, 1941, pp. 51-55. 


Respectfully submitted. 
R. P. Toitman, Acting Director. 
Dr. C. G. Axspor, 


Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


APPENDIX 4 
REPORT ON THE FREER GALLERY OF ART 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the twenty-second annual report 
on the Freer Gallery of Art for the year ended June 80, 1942. 


THE COLLECTIONS 


Additions to the collections by purchase are as follows: 


42.8. 


41.9. 


42.6. 


BRASS 


Persian, dated 1127 (A. D. 1715). Made by ‘Abd-al-A‘immah. Astro- 
labe. A northern instrument fitted with a ring and handle for 
suspension, a rete or ‘ankabit, three sexpartite tablets, an alidade 
equipped with sights, a pin and a bolt. Inscriptions, including signa- 
ture, in naskhi script. Diameter: 0.129. 

Syrian (Damascus?), mid-thirteenth century. Mosul school. A can- 
teen with a pit in one side and a strainer in the neck. The outer 
surfaces are decorated with designs of both Christian and Islamic 
origin executed in silver inlay, and include inscriptions written in 
Kufic and in naskhi scripts. Height: 0.447; diameter: 0.365; depth: 
0.213. 

BRONZE 


Chinese, late Chou dynasty, circa 500-300 B. C. A large bell, with two 
confronted bird forms on the top. Decoration in slight relief, details 
incised. Gray-green patination. 0.663 x 0.470 over all. 

Chinese, early Chou dynasty, twelfth-eleventh century B. C. <A cere- 
monial vessel of the type huo, with a cover in the form of a human 
face with horns. Patination: outside, gray green with sparse mala- 
chite incrustations; inside, gray, gray-green, malachite, cuprite, 
azurite, and caleareous deposit. 0.182 x 0.210 over all. (Mllustrated.) 


JADE 


Chinese, early Chou dynasty or earlier. A pointed implement for 
loosening knots; pierced for suspension. Somewhat translucent pale 
gray-green nephrite with pale tan mottling. The handle carved in 
silhouette and countersunk linear relief to represent a long-haired 
human figure seen in profile. Length: 0.106 over all. 


MANUSCRIPT 


42.3-42.4. Arabic, thirteenth century. Two leaves from a Qur‘dn. The text is 


written in naskhi script, which is drawn in black outline and filled 


44 


Secretary's Report, 1942.—Appendix 4 PLATE 1 


ee ieee a 


iis) %, 


42.1 


A RECENT ADDITION TO THE COLLECTION OF THE FREER GALLERY OF ART. 


Secretary's Report, 1942.—Appendix 4 PLATE 2 


42.2 


RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTION OF THE FREER GALLERY OF ART. 


42.10. 


42.7. 


42.11-— 
42.12. 


42.2. 


41.12. 


41.11. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 45 


in with gold; vowels and erthographical signs in blue and (oc- 
easional) red. Illuminated verse-stops and marginal ornaments. 
Paper leaves: 0.485 x 0.345, 


PAINTING 


Arabic (Northern Mesopotamia), A. D. 1315. Amida. An illustration 
from a copy of al-Jazari’s treatise on automata, Kitdb fi ma‘arifat 
al-hiyal al-handastya: the face of the water clock called “The Clock 
of the Drummer.” Painted in full color and gold; text in black 
naskhi script. Paper leaf: 0.308 x 0.215. (One of a set: 380.71-77, 
42.10.) 

Chinese, Ming dynasty. By Ni Ytian-lu (1593-1644). Six flower sprays. 
Ink on paper. Seven inscriptions, 10 seals. Signature. Makimono: 
0.269 x 3.186. 

Persian, thirteenth—fourteenth century. Two leaves from a Shdhnadmah 
with illustrations painted in color and slight gold as follows: 

42.11. Rustam confronting the Turanian, Pilsam; horsemen on a 

red ground. 0.099 x 0.240. 

42.12. Kai Khusraw crossing the water of Zirih. 0.133 x 0.241. 
Text in a delicate naskhi script. Paper leaves (trimmed): 0.370 x 
0.303 ; 0.870 x 0.301. 

Persian, Mongol (1l-Khin) period, fourteenth century. Tabriz school. 
An illustration from a Shahndmah: Shih Nishirwin bestows largess 
upon his minister Bizurjmihr. Painted in full color and gold. Text 
in black naskhi script, titles in gold on blue and red grounds. Paper 
leaf: 0.412 x 0.295; painting: 0.185 x 0.196. (One of a set: 23.5, 30.78, 
80.79, 35.28, 35.24, 38.8, 42.2. (Illustrated.) 


POTTERY 


Arabie (Egypt) tenth-eleventh century (?). Fatimid period. A large, 
wide-rimmed dish; bold foot-ring (broken, repaired and, in places, 
restored). Body of soft, white clay, covered with an opaque cream- 
white glaze. Decoration painted in gold luster with iridescent reflec- 
tions. Kufic inscriptions; potter’s mark underneath. 0.383 (diameter). 
(Illustrated. ) 

Mesopotamian, Rakka twelfth-thirteenth century. A shallow bowl with 
broad everted rim; bold foot-ring (one perforation). Soft, sandy, 
white clay covered with a transparent, greenish-white glaze; areas of 
pearly iridescence due to decay. Decoration painted over glaze in 
golden-brown luster; four spots of turquoise blue. Two naskhi in- 
scriptions, one partly lost under iridescence. 0.075 x 0.259 (diameter). 

Persian, dated 607 (A. D. 1210). Kashan. Signed by Sayyid Shams-ad- 
din al-Hasani. A plate with scalloped, upright sides and a narrow, 
grooved rim (broken, repaired and, in places, restored). Body of soft 
white clay covered with an opaque, cream-white glaze. Decoration 
painted in golden-brown luster with ruby reflections. Marginal in- 
scription, including the signature and date. 0.037 x 0.852 (diameter). 

Syro-Egyptian, thirteenth century (?). A deep bowl (broken and re- 
paired). Body of soft rosy-buff clay covered with a white slip under a 
transparent glaze of greenish cast (crazed). Decoration painted in 
brown on the slip under glaze. 0.080 x 0.194. 


46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


The work of the curatorial staff has been devoted to the study and 
recording of the new acquisitions listed above, and to other Arabic, 
Chinese, Japanese, Persian, Syrian, and Syro-Egyptian art objects 
either already in the collection or submitted for purchase. Other 
Arabic, Chinese, East Indian, Japanese, Persian, European, and Amer- 
ican objects were sent or brought to the Director by their owners for 
information as to identity, provenance, quality, date, or inscriptions. 
Tn all, 770 objects and 235 photographs of objects were so submitted, 
and written or oral reports upon them were made. Written transla- 
tions of 41 inscriptions in oriental languages were made upon request. 
In addition to this regular curatorial work, much time during the 
winter and spring has been spent by members of the staff upon work 
connected with the war. 

Two hundred and thirty-six changes were made in exhibition as 
follows: 


American: painting! 22 = 2. 2 oe ee a ee eee = 28 
AMERICA ONUeIy =e] a eee ene Dene ee ee Ld 
Chinese) eee ee ene eae eae a eee 129 
Chinese goldtandsinon=22 42 Soe aoe ee eee eee eee 
Chinese silver___----_- EE ee ee ee ee poe ee 2 
Chinese silver:gilts = 2a22 eee SAE Ss SSE Se eee 6 
Chinese pottery__.___-__--- sos et tie ae a pe es aoe a 12 
Japaneses painting. ee =e eho ee eee atee eS 1AS 
Japaneses potiery asses sae Ee ae Se ee ee eee Mpc a: 
Syniangbrassvandesilvert== === SSS ee eee ae | 
Repairs to the collection were as follows: 
American’, paintings= =~ > a eee aoe eke = 15 
Chinese: bronz@22222-.32 oe oe 1 
Ghinesenpanelapainiing.— == Se ee il 
@hinese- jades 2222 2253 ee ee eae ee 1 
3 


Japanese: .screens 222 oa 2h 2 Se ee eee 


A scale model of a Japanese print-maker’s workshop was made 
for the Division of Graphic Arts, Smithsonian Institution. 


ATTENDANCE 


The Gallery has been open to the public every day from 9 until 4: 30 
o’clock, with the exception of Mondays, Christmas Day and New 
Year’s Day. 

The total attendance of visitors coming in at the main entrance was 
87,812. Seventy-eight other visitors on Mondays bring the grand 
total to 87,890. The total attendance on weekdays, exclusive of Mon- 
days, was 57,240; Sundays 30,572. The average weekday attendance 
was 222 persons; the average Sunday attendance 588. The highest 
monthly attendance was in August with 13,055 visitors; the lowest in 
January with 4,417 visitors. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY AZ 


There were 1,223 visitors to the main office during the year. The 
purposes of their visits were as follows: 


RomEcencralmintOnnia GW ONE ==! ses aan eee eee 214 
To see objects in storage__-_—_ EAA EAST OS oe ee eae dy AOA 
HanwHasternespalmeln eS sees ee aes oe eee eee ee ee ee eee 31 
Near Hastern paintings and manuscripts__._--~.--_____+-_<22__=-—— (G 
Kast Indian) paintings) and: manuscripts===2 Se eek! 12 
AIMeGIGANeeD ATM ne Sikh rues hs eee ee es See 41 
WVNEStlemso rit Gee ee eee es ee hs a et 2 
Oriental pottery, jade, bronzes, sculpture, lacquer and bamboo___— 89 
Byzantine: opjectSa=a—===2=——— Al ep Bist thee 1p Bp PEE, EEE Reopen eae 2 
NVESHINGEOM MVNONILSCIUD US) eee ene ee ee eee mE pepe re ene 8 a 50 
Antoy seceyaol ithay eavewe Ubi] ovegs Wests ee BO eee RY a ee a ee 9 a ee ee 180 
To make tracings and sketches from library books_____._--_------_---~- 7 
Tonsee thespulldinzsand installation= === === Se ce ee oe Bere 3 8 
Torobtainspermission tosphotograph or Sket@hsss2— 2 2-2 =- ye 
Fosubmitsobjects tor-examination=.-- 2 cots ee ee ee ee aE 
TlosSceemMempersoLmune iStAfres eee 2 ee ee ee eee 363 
To see the exhibition galleries on Monday_---~------------- eee oaks 19 
Tovexamine or. purchase photographsh2es= =a ae eee Ds da Ws gym 280 


LECTURES AND DOCENT SERVICE 


One lecture by a staff member was given to a woman’s club organiza- 
tion (20 members) ; 5 groups (total 81 persons) were given instruction 
in the study room; 1 group (20 persons) was given docent service in 
storage rooms, and 9 groups (total 190 persons) were given docent serv- 
ice in the exhibition galleries. The total number of persons receiving 
such services, by request, was 311. 

A series of lectures upon air-raid precautions, addressed to Smith- 
sonian and Freer Gallery employees, was given in the auditorium by 
Kenneth M. Perry of the United States National Museum, June 9, 11, 
and 13, 1942; total attendance, 97. 


PERSONNEL 


Grace T. Whitney worked intermittently at the Gallery from No- 
vember 3, 1941, to June 22, 1942, on the translation of Persian texts. 

On March 7, 1942, Margaret B. Arnold resigned as assistant after 2 
years of service. 

Miss M. Eleanor Morsell was appointed to succeed Miss Arnold on 
May 1, 1942. 

On June 16, after a month’s serious illness, occurred the death of 
Carl Whiting Bishop, associate in archeology. Mr. Bishop became 
a member of the Gallery staff April 10, 1922, to work in his chosen 
field of Far Eastern archeology. From 1923 to 1927, and again from 


48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


1929 to 19384, Mr. Bishop was in charge of the Freer Gallery field 
work in China, making reconnaissance studies at neolithic stations 
in Shansi Province as well as general surveys of burial sites of the 
historic period. He published numerous articles upon these subjects 
im various journals, being widely known as an authority on the earlier 
phases of Chinese culture. His death, at 61, is a matter of deep regret 
to his colleagues. 

Other changes in personnel are as follows: 

Appointments: Glen P. Shephard, guard, July 30, 1941; Edith B. 
Bauer, attendant (intermittent), October 19, 1941; Thomas J. Rey- 
nolds, guard, January 14, 1942; V. Lee Turner, attendant (intermit- 
tent), February 1, 1942; Florence E. James, attendant (intermittent), 
May 3, 1942; Alice EK. Hall, charwoman, May 7, 1942; Frank M. Mur- 
phy, guard, June 6, 1942; Milton V. Harper, attendant (intermittent), 
June 21, 1942. 

Separations from the service: Mary C. Burke, attendant (intermit- 
tent), resigned October 1, 1941; Joseph P. Germuiller, guard, retired 
from active duty December 8, 1941; George W. Grigsby, attendant 
(intermittent), resigned January 26, 1942; V. Lee Turner, attendant 
(intermittent), resigned February 27, 1942; James Rice, attendant 
(intermittent), resigned March 15, 1942; Ollie Smoot, charwoman, 
resigned March 17, 1942; Edith B. Bauer, attendant (intermittent), 
resigned April 15, 1942; Oliver W. Puckett, guard, resigned May 26, 
1942; Thomas J. Reynolds, guard, resigned June 30, 1942. 

Respectfully submitted. 

J. E. Loner, Director. 

Dr. C. G. Axzort, 

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


APPENDIX 5 
REPORT ON THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the field 
researches, office work, and other operations of the Bureau of American 
Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1942, conducted in 
accordance with the act of Congress of April 5, 1941, which provides 
«“# #* * for continuing ethnological researches among the American 
Indians and the natives of Hawaii and the excavation and preservation 
of archeologic remains. * * *” 

During the fiscal year, the energies of the Bureau have been diverted 
to an increasing extent to activities concerned with the war effort. In 
particular, members of the Bureau staff have cooperated with the 
Ethnogeographic Board, and it is expected that diversion of effort in 
this direction will increase as the war continues. Activities concerned 
with Latin America have likewise been emphasized. 


SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES 


M. W. Stirling, Chief of the Bureau, left Washington for Mexico 
early in April 1942 in continuation of the program of work for the 
Smithsonian Institution-National Geographic Society archeological 
project in southern Mexico. A visit of 2 weeks was made to the site 
of La Venta in Tabasco, where Dr. Philip Drucker was conducting 
excavations on the same project. From La Venta, Mr. Stirling went 
to Tuxtla Gutierrez in Chiapas in order to attend the archeological 
conference held under the sponsorship of the Sociedad Mexicana de 
Antropologia. While in Chiapas opportunity was taken to visit vil- 
lages of the Zoque, Tzotzil, and Chamula Indians. <A trip was also 
made to the ancient Maya ruins of Palenque, where a week was spent 
at the site. Mr. Stirling returned to Washington early in June. 

The remainder of the year was spent in Washington administering 
the affiairs of the Bureau and in the preparation of reports dealing 
with the work in Mexico. 

Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, devoted the greater part of the 
fiscal year to digesting and carding the extant materials in the lan- 
guage of the Timucua Indians of Florida, a language which passed out 
of existence early in the eighteenth century. He also devoted some 
time to the revision of a large general paper on the Indians of North 


49 


a0) ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


America. This manuscript has not been submitted for publication as, 
owing to its size, there is little likelihood of its being printed in the near 
future. A brief paper was prepared on The Evolution of Nations, 
and this was published in the series of War Background Studies of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 

Dr. Swanton has also continued to serve as the representative of 
the Institution on the United States Board of Geographical Names. 

Dr. John P. Harrington, ethnologist, conducted field work during 
the year on two problems involving linguistic studies of Aleut, the 
language of the islands between Asia and America, and of Athapascan, 
the language of the northern Rockies, of a large part of the Pacific 
coast, and of the southern deserts. He left Washington in August 
1941 to visit the Aleutian Islands, where he was fortunate enough to 
secure the services of Ivan Yatchmeneff, son of the Unalaska chief. 
The Aleuts consist of three divisions, popularly known as Unalas- 
kans, Atkans, and Attuans, but all of them are under the Unalaska 
chief. Working on St. Paul Island, famous as the breeding place of 
the fur seal, and elsewhere, he made a complete study of the sounds 
and grammar of the language, with the result that it proved to be a 
penetrant from the American side, a typically American language of 
sastern origin, which has penetrated westward never quite to cross the 
Aleutian Chain. The Unalaska dialect is related to and undoubtedly 
derived from the language of the Alaska peninsula. The fact that the 
Chain was occupied by an American language is important because 
of its possible fundamental relationship to the Athapascan stock of 
inland Alaska. 

A byproduct of the field studies was the obtaining of a probable 
etymology of the name “Aleut” which differs from those previously 
offered by other investigators. The name is still pronounced with 
three syllables in Russian, as Al-e-ut, and is the same as the tribal 
name “Aglimyut,” in modern usage applied to a Bristol Bay tribe. 
The name of the high hill on St. George Island also omits the interior 
m, just as it is omitted in the word “Aleut.” Early Russian usage 
took over the name with inclusive application, which later became 
crystallized into application to speakers of the Aleut language alone, 
although the Kodiak Islanders are still spoken of in Russian and 
Aleut as the Kodiak Aleuts, even at the present day. 

Following the Aleutian work, Dr. Harrington proceeded to British 
Columbia, where he undertook studies of the relationship of Navaho 
and Apache with the Athapascan stock of the northernmost Rocky 
Mountains. This relationship was first reported by Horatio Haie 
and by William Turner. In British Columbia Dr. Harrington recov- 
ered traditions that the Chilcotin language had formerly occupied 
the Nicola Valley, and was able to obtain a large number of Chilcotin 
words in that region, handed down in individual families. Following 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 51 


this lead, he was able to discover individuals who had in their remote 
youth actually spoken the extinct Kwalhioqua and Tlatskanai dialects 
of Washington and Oregon, and to recover vocabularies of these with 
all their original phonetics. He also recorded the tradition that the 
Upper Umpqua language of what is now the vicinity of Roseburg, 
Oreg., had come from the Kwalhioqua. The Roseburg language is 
related to the languages of the Rogue River region of southern Oregon 
and those of northern California. In confirmation of these findings, 
he obtained the tradition that the Blue Lake Indians had come from 
the south bend of the Smith River, far to the north. Dr. Harrington 
has traced the Chilcotin or Chilco language all the way from Lake 
Chilcotin, which drains into the Fraser River, to the head of Eel River 
in northern California. This work has demonstrated that the Eel 
River language is merely a Chilco dialect which has drifted south. 
The exact provenience of these southern tongues is Dr. Harrington’s 
present goal. 

At the beginning of the fiscal year Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., 
was engaged in archeological excavations at a site on the north rim 
of the Staked Plains, 1014 miles south of the town of San Jon, 
N. Mex. These investigations were continued until September 6. 
The work produced evidence for an interesting sequence of projectile 
points and other artifact types and new information on some phases 
of the aboriginal occupation of that portion of the Southwest. The 
oldest archeological material present was found to be in association 
with bones from an extinct species of bison and in the same stratum 
as mammoth remains. Indications are that, although from a dif- 
ferent complex, this material probably dates from about the end of 
the Folsom horizon some 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. Between this 
level and the next in the series there was a gap of an, as yet, un- 
determined although appreciable length of time. During this inter- 
val the large bison were replaced by a smaller species, the modern 
buffalo. From the start of the second stage down to protohistoric 
times there was no break in the occupation of the area investigated, 
and the points and artifacts were found to progress from forms 
similar to those found in the Texas area to the east to those com- 
monly associated with late sites in many parts of the country. ‘The 
specimens from the second level belong to the so-called Yuma cate- 
gory, and the evidence from San Jon indicates that chronologically 
they are much later than hitherto supposed. The artifacts from the 
late horizon show that several different Indian groups used that 
area as hunting territory. In the light of present knowledge, how- 
ever, it is not possible to identify the specific groups from the arti- 
fact types. 


501591—43———-5 


52 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


In keeping with the Smithsonian Institution’s policy of coopera- 
tion with and aid to other institutions, Dr. Roberts took leave from 
July 28 to August 9 to give a series of lectures on Southwestern 
archeology and to direct student excavations at the University of 
New Mexico Field Session in the Chaco Canyon, N. Mex. During 
his absence, the work at San Jon was continued under the supervision 
of Eugene C. Worman, Jr., of the department of anthropology, 
Harvard University. From the Chaco Canyon, Dr. Roberts re- 
turned to San Jon, and, upon completion of the work there, returned 
to Washington. 

The fall and winter months were spent in regular office routine; 
in the preparation of a manuscript entitled “Archeological and 
Geological Investigations in the San Jon District, Eastern New 
Mexico” for publication in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec- 
tions; in library researches for information for and sponsoring 
programs on Carthage, Zebulon M. Pike, and Babylon for “The 
World Is Yours” broadcasts; in organizing air-raid protection groups 
for the Smithsonian building and serving as building warden under 
the Public Buildings Administration Civilian Defense program; and 
in assisting in the preparation of material for evacuation to storage 
places outside of Washington. 

On June 27 Dr. Roberts left Washington for Newcastle, Wyo., to 
inspect a site on the Cheyenne River where animal bones and arti- 
facts were reported to be eroding from a gully bank and possible 
valuable information was in danger of being lost through the action 
of natural agencies. This investigation was just starting at the close 
of the fiscal year. 

Dr. Julian H. Steward, anthropologist, continued his activities as 
editor of the Handbook of South American Indians. On September 
9, 1941, Dr. A. Métraux was appointed to assist Dr. Steward in the 
preparation of the Handbook. 

At the end of the fiscal year, completed manuscripts totaling about 
600,000 words had been received from approximately 90 contributors. 
Half of the contributions are from Latin American scientists, while 
the remainder are from North American specialists on Middle and 
South American Indian tribes. The very important tribal map 
covering a large portion of South America was completed for the 
Handbook by Curt Nimuendaju and is now in Dr. Steward’s hands. 
A collection of photographs of South American Indians was begun, 
and between 4,000 and 5,000 bibliographic items had been assembled. 

From February to May 1942, Dr. Steward visited Brazil, Argen- 
tina, Paraguay, and Chile, where he conferred with Latin American 
anthropologists and arranged for their cooperation in matters per- 
taining to the Handbook. He also discussed plans for the formation 
of an “inter-American anthropological and geographic society,” for 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 53 


the development of cooperative anthropological and geographic re- 
search, and for the expansion of the exchange of publications. 
During this visit, Dr. Steward was made an honorary member of 
Academia Guarani of Paraguay and Sociedad de Antropologia de 
Argentina. 

Dr. Steward has also served during the year as a member of the 
Policy Board of the American Indian Institute, the Advisory Board 
Strategic Index, and Publications Subcommittee of the Joint Com- 
mittee on Latin American Studies. 

During the past fiscal year, Dr. Henry B. Collins, Jr., ethnologist, 
continued with the study of archeological materials from prehistoric 
Eskimo village sites around Bering Strait. In April he presented 
a paper at the annual meeting of the American Philosophical Society, 
at Philadelphia, in which he discussed the relationships between pre- 
historic Eskimo culture and recently described Neolithic remains from 
the Lake Baikal region, southern Siberia, which have been regarded 
as the source of the basic American Indian culture. The paper, 
which is to be published in somewhat expanded form in the Proceed- 
ings of the Society, points out a number of close resemblances between 
the oldest Eskimo cultures—which probably date from around the 
beginning of the Christian era—and the Siberian Neolithic. The 
older stages of culture elsewhere in America, such as Folsom and 
Sandia, exhibit no such resemblances; it seems unlikely, therefore, 
that the Siberian Neolithic was the reservoir from which American 
culture in general was derived. 

In the latter part of the fiscal year, Dr. Collins devoted considerable 
time to work in connection with the war effort, including the prepara- 
tion of illustrated reports on various strategic areas. Preparation 
was also begun on a general paper on Alaska for the Smithsonian 
War Background Studies. 

Dr. William N. Fenton, associate anthropologist, devoted the 
summer months of 1941 to the preparation of an introduction to his 
materials on Iroquois medical botany. Since a surprising number of 
Indian herbs have been taken into our pharmacopoeia, it was decided 
to publish the section on Contacts between Iroquois Herbalism and 
Colonial Medicine, a unit of itself, as an article in the appendix to 
the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1941, reserving 
the balance of the study for a longer monograph. 

In November, Dr. Fenton went to Brantford, Ontario, to work with 
Simeon Gibson of Six Nations Reserve at translating Onondaga texts 
bearing on the Iroquois League which his father, Chief John A. Gibson, 
had dictated to the late J. N. B. Hewitt. Of these the principal manu- 
script is a 189-page version in Onondaga of the “Deganawi’dah” legend 
of the founding of the Iroquois confederacy. Some 13 years later, 
Chief Gibson dictated a longer version of the same legend to Dr. Alex- 


54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


ander Goldenweiser, and this manuscript was turned over to Dr. Fen- 
ton some years ago by its collector. A translation of the Hewitt 
manuscript was completed in the field, and this has been reworked in 
part during the winter. Plans were made to translate the Golden- 
Weiser manuscript during the ensuing year. 

Two other research projects continued through the year. New mate- 
rials were discovered by Dr. Fenton’s collaborators in a study of Corn- 
planter’s Senecas on the upper Allegheny River, mentioned in the 
report of last year, and the search for journals of the Quaker missions 
after 1798 has continued with some success. In this work Dr. Fenton 
acknowledges the labors of Messrs. M. H. Deardorff, of Warren, Pa., 
and C. E. Congdon, of Salamanca, N. Y., in transcribing manuscript 
sources and collecting much new material in the field. 

The second project was conceived several years ago to fulfill a grow- 
ing need among Americanists for an English edition of J. F. Lafitau’s 
important but now rare Moeurs des Sauvages Ameriquains (2 vols., 
Paris, 1724). Dr. Elizabeth L. Moore, of Parkersburg, W. Va., one- 
time member of the French department at St. Lawrence University, 
has undertaken the translation, and at the end of the year had com- 
pleted, under Dr. Fenton’s direction, the translation of those sections 
in volume 1 which include Lafitau’s observations of the American sav- 
ages at his mission among the Mohawks of Caughnawaga and the 
Abenaki of nearby St. Francis, omitting for the most part long ex- 
tracts from contemporary and earlier works that Lafitau felt obliged 
to copy. In order to conserve the Bureau’s copy of this rare work, a 
microfilm copy was made, which is fortunate since the original library 
copy has been evacuated for the duration. 

Early in March Dr. Fenton commenced compiling, with the help 
of Drs. Métraux, Collins, and Steward, a cumulative list of anthropolo- 
gists arriving in Washington for war work and the agencies in which 
they were employed. 

Following appointment to the Smithsonian War Committee on April 
1, a large proportion of Dr. Fenton’s time and efforts have gone into 
the work of the Committee, of which he has served as secretary At 
his suggestion the Committee drafted and distributed questionnaires 
soliciting basic data for “A roster of personnel, world travel, and spe- 
cial knowledge available to war agencies at the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion,” and by early June the roster had been ushered through a pre- 
liminary and a first edition. The Smithsonian roster was patterned 
after personnel lists of the Oceania committee of the old “Ethnographic 
Board” of the National Research Council, and through these contacts 
the Smithsonian participated in setting up the Ethnogeographic 
Board. At the end of the fiscal year Dr. Fenton was detailed to act 
as an assistant to the director of the Board, Dr, William Duncan 
Strong. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 55 


During the year, Dr. Fenton delivered several illustrated lectures 
presenting some of the results of his studies of Iroquois culture. 

At the end of the fiscal year a manuscript entitled “Songs from the 
Iroquois Longhouse; Program Notes for an Album of American In- 
dian Music from the Eastern Woodlands” was accepted for publica- 
tion by the Institution to accompany an album of phonograph records 
by the same title which the Archive of American Folk Song, Library 
of Congress, is bringing out as volume 6 of Folk Music of the United 
States. 

Dr. Philip Drucker, assistant anthropologist, devoted the first half 
of the fiscal year to analysis of the pottery collections made in 1941 by 
the Smithsonian Institution-National Geographic Society expedition 
at Cerro de las Mesas, Veracruz, Mexico, and the preparation of a re- 
port on this material, Ceramic Stratigraphy at Cerro de las Mesas, 
Veracruz. Thanks to the cooperation of the Department of Archeol- 
ogy of the Mexican Government, he was able to study comparative col- 
lections of materials stored in the Museo Nacional de Mexico from 
adjacent regions, which greatly facilitated the placing of the Cerro de 
las Mesas culture. It was found that this site was occupied from a 
time level corresponding to that of Teotihuacan III of the Highland 
cultures until shortly before the Spanish conquest. The Ninth Cycle 
dates discovered in 1940 probably belong to the early period of oc- 
cupation at Cerro de las Mesas. Of added interest is the fact that these 
dates are not only of importance to the archeology of the Gulf Coast, 
but in addition are the first actual carved dates even indirectly refer- 
able to the important center of civilization of the Mexican Highland, 
Teotihuacin. Following the period of Teotihuacan influence, a new 
set of influences appeared, probably an actual immigration, of Mixte- 
can people who brought with them their pottery craft, so that during 
the Upper Period at Cerro de las Mesas great quantities of Mixtecan- 
type (Cholultecan) wares were made. The modern designation of 
this coastal region as the “Mistequilla,” incidentally, thus may be seen 
to be a well-based ethnic identification. 

In the latter part of January, Dr. Drucker set out for the site of La 
Venta, in northwest Tabasco, where discoveries in 1940 indicated the 
importance of the place as an ancient ceremonial center. Excavations 
were carried out, aimed primarily at recovering stratigraphic material 
for the analysis and placing of the site in relation to the Tres Zapotes 
and Cerro de las Mesas “pottery yardsticks” established in former 
years, and for comparisons with material from more distant sites as 
well. Toward the end of the season some exploratory excavations were 
undertaken in structures at the site, especially in the large ceremonial 
patio. These efforts were rewarded by the finding of an elaborate 
tomb of basalt columns, and a number of pieces of small but exquisitely 
carved jade. Most of these jade pieces represent the little-known art 


56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


style often designated “Olmec,” and are among the first of such objects 
to have been scientifically excavated. Their study will be important in 
defining and placing this art in its proper cultural context. 

At the conclusion of the work, the materials were brought to Mexico 
City, where a division was made with the Department of Archeology 
of the Mexican Government. The entire body of stratigraphic ma- 
terials, and a part of the remaining objects, were then shipped to 
Washington for purposes of study. 


SPECIAL RESEARCHES 


At the beginning of the fiscal year, Miss Frances Densmore, a 
collaborator of the Bureau, began the recording of Omaha songs at 
Macy, Nebr., on the Omaha Reservation. Musical studies had been 
made among the Omaha by Miss Alice C. Fletcher prior to 1893, 
and Miss Densmore wished, if possible, to contact singers who had 
recorded for Miss Fletcher and also to obtain duplicate recordings 
for comparative purposes. Among the older Indians, Miss Dens- 
more located three singers, Edward Cline, Benjamin Parker, and 
Mattie Merrick White Parker, from whom songs had been obtained 
by Miss Fletcher. Miss Densmore recorded 32 songs from this 
group, including several which had been sung for Miss Fletcher. 
Joseph Hamilton and Henry J. Springer, who had been too young 
to sing for Miss Fletcher, were familiar with the songs of old war 
societies and recorded 33 songs. A third group comprised younger 
men, George R. Phillips, Robert Dale, and John G. Miller, from 
whom 6 songs connected with the first World War were obtained. 

Some of Miss Fletcher’s published Omaha songs were played on a 
piano and were recognized by the Indians as having been recorded 
for her. Miss Densmore obtained new recordings of these which 
were transcribed and compared with the versions presented by Miss 
Fletcher. It was noted that while the general effect of each melody 
is the same in both versions, differences are rather marked. An ade- 
quate comparison of the singing of these songs in the two periods 
of time could be made only if the original recordings were available 
for comparison with the records made in 1941. In contrast to the 
differences in these serious songs, it was said that the song of the 
hand game, presented by Miss Fletcher, is in use at the present time. 
This was re-recorded for the present work, and the two versions 
differ only in the omission in the new recording of a few bytones. 
From this it appears that songs in common use are preserved among 
the Omaha without change, while songs connected with ancient cus- 
toms or ceremonies, which have not been sung for many years, are 
being forgotten and will soon disappear. 

Miss Densmore also obtained from Benjamin Parker a description 
and a model of an old type of drum. In former times the cylinder 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 57 


of this drum was a charred log, preferably of oak or elm. The 
lower head was of hide from the lower part of a buffalo’s neck, and 
the upper head, which was struck, was made of deer hide or the hide 
from a hindquarter of an elk. These heads were laced together 
with buffalo thongs and tightened with bits of wood in the lacing, 
a custom not observed previously among the Indians. 

During the year Miss Densmore arranged in final order 245 songs 
to accompany her manuscript on Seminole music and revised por- 
tions of the text to conform to this arrangement of the material. 

In December 1941 Miss Densmore was appointed as consultant at 
The National Archives for work in connection with the Smithso- 
nian-Densmore collection of sound recordings of American Indian 
music, and during the ensuing months she was engaged in planning 
the organization of the collection. 


EDITORIAL WORK AND PUBLICATIONS 


The editorial work of the Bureau has continued during the year 
under the immediate direction of the editor, M. Helen Palmer. 
There were issued one Annual Report and three Bulletins, as follows: 


Fifty-eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1940-1941. 
13 pp. 

Bulletin 129. An archeological survey of Pickwick Basin in the adjacent 
portions of the States of Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee, by William S. 
Webb and David L. DeJarnette. With additions by Walter B. Jones, J. P. EB. 
Morrison, Marshall T. Newman and Charles E. Snow, and William G. Haag. 
536 pp., 316 pis., 99 text figs. 

Bulletin 130. Archeological investigations at Buena Vista Lake, Kern 
County, California, by Waldo R. Wedel. With appendix, Skeletal remains from 
the Buena Vista sites, California, by T. D. Stewart. 194 pp., 57 pls., 19 text 
figs. 

Bulletin 131. Peachtree Mound and village site, Cherokee County, North Caro- 
lina, by Frank M. Setzler and Jesse D. Jennings. With appendix, Skeletal remains 
from the Peachtree Site, North Carolina, by T. D. Stewart. 103 pp., 50 pls., 
12 text figs. 


The following Bulletins were in press at the close of the fiscal year: 


Bulletin 182. Source material on the history and ethnology of the Caddo 
Indians, by John R. Swanton. 
Bulletin 133. Anthropological papers, numbers 19-26: 


No. 19. A search for songs among the Chitimacha Indians in Louisiana, 
by Frances Densmore. 

No. 20. Archeological survey on the northern Northwest Coast, by Philip 
Drucker. 

No. 21. Some notes on a few sites in Beaufort County, South Carolina, by 
Regina Flannery. 

No. 22. An analysis and interpretation of the ceramic remains from two 
sites near Beaufort, South Carolina, by James B. Griffin. 


58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


No. 23. The eastern Cherokees, by William Harlen Gilbert, Jr. 

No. 24. Aconite poison whaling in Asia and America: An Aleutian transfer 
to the New World, by Robert F. Heizer. 

No. 25. The Carrier Indians of the Bulkley River: Their social and re 
ligious life, by Diamond Jenness. 

No. 26. The quipu and Peruvian civilization, by John R. Swanton. 


Bulletin 134. Native tribes of eastern Bolivia and western Matto Grosso, by 
Alfred Métraux. 

Bulletin 135. Origin myth of Acoma and other records, by Matthew W. 
Stirling. 

Bulletin 186. Anthropological papers, numbers 27-32: 


No. 27. Music of the Indians of British Columbia, by Frances Densmore, 

No. 28. Choctaw music, by Frances Densmore. 

No. 29. Some enthnological data concerning one hundred Yucatan plants, 
by Morris Steggerda. 

No. 30. A description of 30 towns in Yucatan, 1987-39, with introductory and 
explanatory remarks, by Morris Steggerda. 

No. 31. Some western Shoshoni myths, by Julian H. Steward. 

No. 32. New material from Acoma, by Leslie A. White. 

Bulletin 137. The Indians of the Southeastern United States, by John R. 
Swanton. 


Publications distributed totaled 11,631. 
LIBRARY 


There has been no change in the library staff during the fiscal year. 
Accessions during the fiscal year totaled 350. Volumes received by 
exchange have fallen off sharply owing to the war, which has prac- 
tically stopped exchange except from Great Britain and her posses- 
sions and from South America. Several new exchange sets have been 
started during the year. 

The reclassification of the library is practically completed. The 
foreign society transactions and the foreign periodicals have been 
reshelved and a temporary shelflist made. The publications of Indian 
schools and missions have been classified, reshelved, and a temporary 
shelflist made. All available Library of Congress cards for periodi- 
cals in our collection have been obtained, and these cards have been 
sorted and will be prepared as soon as time permits. 

The rare-book collection has been classified, reshelved, and shelf- 
listed, and Library of Congress cards were obtained for nearly all this 
collection. About 600 volumes of the rare-book collection were 
packed for shipment to war storage in April. 

New books received during the year have been classified and shelf- 
listed and are now on the shelf. The usual work of recording new 
periodicals and society transactions and examining them for material 
of interest and for book reviews has been kept up to date. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 59 


A beginning has been made on bringing analytical entries up to 
date. The American Anthropologist, American Journal of Physical 
Anthropology, American Antiquity, and other important sets have 
been brought up to date with main cards only. Other sets and sub- 
ject entries remain to be done. 

The librarian attended the meetings of the Inter-American Biblio- 
graphical and Library Society in February 1942, and assisted in the 
formation of a Map and Geography group in the Washington chapter 
of the Special Libraries Association. Talks by the librarian on the 
library and the rare-book collection were given before the Map group 
of the Special Libraries Association on January 6, 1942, and before 
the Museum group on March 10, 1942. 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


During the year Mr. E. G. Cassedy, illustrator, continued the 
preparation of illustrations, maps, and drawings for the publications 
of the Bureau and for those of other branches of the Institution. 


COLLECTIONS 


Collections transferred by the Bureau of American Ethnology to 
the Department of Anthropology, United States National Museum, 
during the fiscal year were as follows: 


Accession 
No. 

161294, Cult objects from voodoo shrines in the region of Croix des Bouquets near 
Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and a small lot of archeological objects from 
Tortuga Island off the north coast of Haiti; coliected by Dr. A. Métraux 
during the summer of 1941. 

162205. Archeological materials from Ventura, Santa Barbara, Inyo, and Kern 
Counties, Calif., collected by Dr. W. D. Strong in 1954. 


MISCELLANEOUS 


During the course of the year information was furnished by members 
of the Bureau staff in reply to numerous inquiries concerning the 
North American Indians, both past and present, and the Mexican 
peoples of the prehistoric and early historic periods. Various speci- 
mens sent to the Bureau were identified and data on them furnished 
for their owners. 

Personnel.—Dr. Philip Drucker was appointed on August 1, 1941, 
as assistant anthropologist; Dr. Alfred Métraux was appointed on 
September 2, 1941, as anthropologist; Miss Ethelwyn HE. Carter was 
appointed on September 2, 1941, as assistant clerk-stenographer in con- 
nection with the preparation of the Handbook of South American 
Indians; Mrs. Catherine M. Phillips, junior stenographer, was pro- 


60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


moted to assistant clerk-stenographer on January 16, 1942, in the 
editorial division, Smithsonian Institution, and Mrs. Ruth 8. Abram- 
son was appointed on March 12, 1942, to fill this vacancy; W. B. Green- 
wood was transferred on February 12, 1942, to the United States 
National Museum, and on April 1, 1942, was reassigned to his former 
position in the Bureau library. 

Respectfully submitted. 


M. W. Stizuine, Chief. 
Dr. C. G. Apso, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


APPENDIX 6 
REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- 
ties of the International Exchange Service for the fiscal year ended 
June 380, 1942: 

The congressional appropriation for the Exchanges was $44,880, 
the same amount granted for the previous year. As was done last 
year, the Department of State transferred $500 to the Exchange 
Service from an appropriation made by Congress to that Department 
for carrying on its work of increasing the cultural relations between 
the United States and other American republics. This amount was 
used by the Exchange Service to send packages directly to corre- 
spondents in Argentina and Brazil by mail instead of forwarding 
them in boxes to exchange bureaus for distribution, thereby greatly 
reducing the time required for packages to reach their destinations. 
To all other South and Central American countries, as well as to 
Canada, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Mexico, and Newfound- 
land, packages of publications are transmitted by mail under govern- 
mental frank. The $500 was not sufficient to meet the entire cost of 
postage on all the packages for Argentina and Brazil but the extra 
amount needed for this item was met from the congressional appro- 
priation for the Exchanges. The total available resources for carry- 
ing on the exchange work was $48,505.50, there having been received 
during the year on account of repayments $3,125.50. 

During the year 561,151 packages passed through the service, a 
decrease from last year of 15,181. The weight was 326,406 pounds, 
a decrease of 62,243 pounds. The publications sent and received 
through the Exchange Service are classified under three heads: 
Parliamentary documents, departmental documents, and miscellane- 
ous scientific and literary publications. The term “parliamentary 
documents,” as here used, refers to publications set aside by act of 
Congress for exchange with foreign governments, and includes not 
only documents printed by order of either House of Congress, but 
also copies of each publication issued by any department, bureau, 
commission, or officer of the Government. Governments to which 
this class of publications are forwarded send to this country in ex- 
change copies of their own official documents for deposit in the Library 
of Congress. The term “departmental documents” embraces publica- 


61 


62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


tions delivered at the Institution by governmental departments, bu- 
reaus, or commissions for distribution to their correspondents abroad. 
Publications received in return are deposited in the various depart- 
mental libraries. ‘Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications” 
are received chiefly from learned societies, universities, colleges, scien- 
tific institutions, and museums in the United States for transmission 
to similar establishments in all parts of the world. 

Detailed figures under these three headings are given in the 
following table: 


Packages Weight 
Received Received 
sfent, [rom | Sent, | fom 
abroad abroad 
Pounds | Pounds 
United States parliamentary documents sent abroad_-__-------- 36556203 |222-25--— = 325 798 ylesceo-8 
Publications received in return for parliamentary documents-_--j---------- S01 |--22- ee 1, 555 
United States departmental documents sent abroad------------ 935247) jeanne 87,432; |22-0----2= 
Publications received in return for departmental documents____}---------- 7083) |asensoe ee 2, 508 
Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications sent abroad__. CERO AM beeen se 94,1655) 3-222. S22 
Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from_ 
abroad for distribution in the United States___.....-----_---_|---------- 71673) |= e522. 8=2 14, 458 
PRO taNe seem tena aeo eas ee eee. eS ane eae 552, 244 8,907 | 307,885 18, 521 
Granditotal a seres ees eee ae et ene eee 561, 151 326, 406 


Packages are forwarded abroad partly by freight to exchange 
bureaus for distribution and partly by mail directly to their destina- 
tions. The number of boxes shipped was 599, a decrease from last 
year of 366. Of these boxes 304 were for depositories of full sets 
of governmental documents and the contents of the remainder (295) 
were for depositories of partial sets and for various establishments 
and individuals. The number of mail packages was 127,454. 

The work of the Service is still greatly interfered with by the war, 
which at the close of the year had resulted in the suspension of ship- 
ments of exchanges to all countries in the Eastern Hemisphere except 
Great Britain and the Union of South Africa. In the Western 
Hemisphere, where packages are forwarded to their destinations by 
mail, mostly under governmental frank, there has been no interrup- 
tion to the sending of packages, although some delay results from 
their examination by the Office of Censorship before being allowed 
to leave the United States. 

The dates of the last shipments to the countries to which the send- 
ing of consignments was suspended during the year are given below: 


a oY 0 Dt; Dennen NNN RE meine Cen ERT ANIA SPER, Miner SOD EL Loe een eiefee see Oct. 17, 1941 
Portugal... 2222 ee ae ee Apr. 7, 1942 
PONV OT ee ee fee Dee. 2, 1941 
Switzerland_____ pa a ah Dee. 8, 1941 


INew Zealand 222) 406 se eee sh eae oe etree: Sept. 22, 1941 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 63 


New SouthuWales! 2322 33 sores sae Sees Dec. 22, 1941 
@ueensland=!2 = esa 2 ae See eee Do. 
South? Australias: 222 2eh 2 ee eee ea Do. 
Tasmaniaa == Jos Ss 2S oe ees SO ee ae Sept. 22, 1941 
WicCtonl ata tee ee eens eee eee ee Dec. 22, 1941 
WesternPAustraliaga ss sse ss See eee — Sept. 22, 1941 


FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS 


There now are received at the Institution for transmission through 
the International Exchange Service to foreign depositories 55 full 
sets and 36 partial sets of United States governmental documents— 
a total of 91 sets. At the close of the year no sets of governmental 
documents were being forwarded to any countries in the Eastern 
Hemisphere. In the Western Hemisphere the full and partial series 
were being transmitted after eliminating those publications not 
allowed to be exported by the Office of Censorship because they were 
considered to contain matter of possible aid to the enemy. All the 
publications forming the full and partial sets of governmental docu- 
ments now being held will be forwarded at the close of the war. 

The depository in South Australia was changed from the Parlia- 
mentary Library to the Public Library. The partial sets sent to the 
Straits Settlements and the State of Rio de Janeiro were discontinued. 
The Biblioteca Nacional in San Salvador was added to the list of 
depositories of those sets. 

A complete list of the depositories is given below: 


DEPOSITORIES OF FULL SETS 


ARGENTINA: Direccién de Investigaciones, Archivo, Biblioteca y Legislacién 
Extranjera, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, Buenos Aires. 
AUSTRALIA: Commonwealth Parliament and National Library, Canberra. 
New SourH WaLsEs: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. 
QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. 
SoutH AUSTRALIA: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide. 
TASMANIA; Parliamentary Library, Hobart. 
VicroriA: Publie Library of Victoria, Melbourne. 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. 
BELGIUM: Bibliothégue Royale, Bruxelles. 
Brazit: Instituto Nacional do Livro, Rio de Janeiro. 
CANADA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. 
ManitTospA: Provincial Library, Winnipeg. 
OnTARIO: Legislative Library, Toronto. 
QuesEc: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec. 
CHILE: Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago. 
CHINA: Bureau of International Exchange, Ministry of Education, Chungking. 
CoLtomsBt1a: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. 
Costa Rica: Oficina de Depésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San 
José. 
Cusa: Ministerio de Estado, Direccién de Relaciones Culturales, Habana. 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA : Bibliothéque de Assemblée Nationale, Prague. 


64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


DENMARK: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen. 
Ecypt: Bureau des Publications, Ministére des Finances, Cairo. 
EsToniA: Riigiraamatukogu (State Library), Tallinn. 
FINLAND: Parliamentary Library, Helsinki. 
FRANCE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. 
GERMANY: Reichstauschstelle im Reichsministerium fiir Wissenschaft, Erzie- 
hung und Volksbildung, Berlin, N. W. 7. 
Prussia: Preussische Staatsbibliothek, Berlin, N. W. 7. 
GREAT BRITAIN: 
ENGLAND: British Museum, London. 
Lonpon: London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository 
of the London County Council.) 
Huneary: Library, Hungarian House of Delegates, Budapest. 
Inp1A: Imperial Library, Calcutta. 
IRELAND: National Library of Ireland, Dublin. 
ItaLty: Ministero dell’Educazione Nazionale, Rome. 
JAPAN: Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo. 
LaTvIA: Bibliothéque d’Etat, Riga. 
LEAGUE oF NATIONS: Library of the League of Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. 
Mexico: Direccién General de Informaci6n, Secretaria de Gobernaci6n, 
Mexico, D. F. 
NETHERLANDS: Royal Library, The Hague. 
NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. 
NorTHERN IRELAND: H. M. Stationery Office, Belfast. 
Norway: Universitets-Bibliothek, Oslo. (Depository of the Government of 
Norway.) 
Peru: Seccién de Propaganda y Publicaciones, Ministerio de Relaciones Ex- 
teriores, Lima. 
PoLAND: Bibliothéque Nationale, Warsaw. 
PortucaAL: Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. 
RuMANIA: Academia Romana, Bucharest. 
Spain: Cambio Internacional de Publicaciones, Avenida de Calvo Sotelo 20, 
Madrid. 
SWEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. 
SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque Centrale Fédérale, Berne. 
Turkey: Department of Printing and Engraving, Ministry of Education, 
Istanbul. 
Union oF SoutH ArricA: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. 
Union or Soviet Soctatist Repusrics: All-Union Lenin Library, Moscow 115. 
UKRAINE: Ukrainian Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, 
Kiev. 
Uruauay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. 
VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. 
Yucostavia: Ministére de 1-ENducation, Belgrade. 


DEPOSITORIES OF PARTIAL SETS 


AFGHANISTAN: Ministery of Foreign Affairs, Publications Department, Kabul. 
Boriv1a: Biblioteca del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, La Paz. 
BRAZIL: 

Minas GerArs: Directoria Geral de Estatistica em Minas, Bello Horizonte. 
BRITISH GUIANA: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara. _ 
CANADA: 

ALBERTA: Provincial Library, Edmonton. 

BritisH CoLuMBIA: Provincial Library, Victoria. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 65 


CanapA—Continued. 
New Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton. 
Nova Scotia: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax. 
Prince EpwaArp ISLAND: Legislative and Public Library, Charlottetown. 
SASKATCHEWAN: Legislative Library, Regina. 
CEYLON: Chief Secretary’s Office (Record Department of the Library), Colombo. 
CHINA: National Library of Peiping. 
DomINICAN REpuBLIc: Biblioteca del Senado, Ciudad Trujillo. 
Ecuapdor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. 
GUATEMALA: Biblioteca Nacional, Guatemala. 
HAITI: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. 
Honpvuras: 
Biblioteca y Archivo Nacionales, Tegucigalpa. 
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Tegucigalpa. 
IcELAND: National Library, Reykjavik. 
INDIA: 
BENGAL: Secretary, Bengal Legislative Council Department, Council House, 
Calcutta. 
BIHAR AND ORISSA: Revenue Department, Patna. 
BomBay: Undersecretary to the Government of Bombay, General Depart- 
ment, Bombay. 
BurmMA: Secretary to the Government of Burma, Education Department, 
Rangoon. 
PunsAas: Chief Secretary to the Government of the Punjab, Lahore. 
UNITED PROVINCES OF AGRA AND OuDH: University of Allahabad, Allahabad. 
JAMAICA: Colonial Secretary, Kingston. 
LIBERIA: Department of State, Monrovia. 
Matra: Minister for the Treasury, Valletta. 
NEWFOUNDLAND: Department of Home Affairs, St. John’s. 
NicARAGUA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua. 
PanAMA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama. 
Paracuay: Secretario de la Presidencia de la Reptiblica, Asunci6n, 
SALVADOR : 
Biblioteca Nacional, San Salvador. 
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. 
THAILAND: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok. 
VATICAN CIty: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Italy. 


INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL 


The number of depositories of the Congressional Record and Fed- 
eral Register was reduced during the first 9 months of the year, the 
number forwarded being 71. Those sent to the following countries 
were discontinued in March 1942: Gibraltar, Hungary, Indochina, 
Netherlands Indies, Rumania (2 copies), and Vatican City. In April 
1942, the sending of the Congressional Record to foreign countries 
through the International Exchange Service was discontinued for the 
duration of the war by request of the Office of Censorship. 


66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


DEPOSITORIES OF CONGRESSIONAL RECORD 


ARGENTINA : 
Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Buenos Aires. 
CAmara de Diputados, Oficina de Informacién Parlamentaria, Buenos Aires. 
Boletin Oficial de la Repfiblica Argentina, Ministerio de Justicia e Instrucci6n 
Poablica, Buenos Aires. 
AUSTRALIA : 
Commonwealth Parliament and National Library, Canberra. 
New Souru WALES: Library of Parliament of New South Wales, Sydney. 
QUEENSLAND: Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane. 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Library of Parliament of Western Australia, Perth. 
BRAZIL: 
Biblioteca do Congresso Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. 
Amazonas: Archivo, Biblioteca e Imprensa Publica, Manfos. 
Banta: Governador do Estado da Bahia, Sio Salvador. 
Esprirrro Santo: Presidencia do Estado do Espirito Santo, Victoria. 
Rio GRANDE bo Sut: “A Federacao,” Porto Alegre. 
Srercire: Biblioteca Publica do Estado de Sergipe, Aracajt. 
SAo Pavuto: Diario Official do Estado de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo. 
BritisH HonpurAs: Colonial Secretary, Belize. 
OANADAS 
Library of Parliament, Ottawa. 
Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa. 
Cura: Biblioteca del Capitolio, Habana. 
HeyPt: 
Chambre des Députés, Cairo. 
Sénat, Cairo. 
Great Brirain: Library of the Foreign Office, London. 
GUATEMALA: Biblioteca de la ASamblea Legislativa, Guatemala. 
Hartt: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. 
Honpuras: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa. 
InpIA: Legislative Department, Simla. 
Iran: Library of the Iranian Parliament, Téhéran. 
TrRaAQ: Chamber of Deputies, Baghdad. 
IrtsH Free Strate: Dail Hireann, Dublin. 
LEAGUE oF Nations: Library of the League of Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. 
LEBANON: Ministére des Finances de la République Libanaise, Service du Matériel, 
Beirut. 
Liserta: Department of State, Monrovia. 
Mexico: Direccién General de Informacion, Secretarfa de Gobernacién, Mexico, 
D. F. 
AGUASCALIENTES: Gobernador del Hstado de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes. 
CAMPECHE: Gobernador del Estado de Campeche, Campeche. 
CnHrapss: Gobernador del Estado de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutierrez. 
CHIHUAHUA: Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua, Chihuahua. 
Coanuita: Periédico Oficial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno, 
Saltillo. 
CorimA: Gobernador de] Estado de Colima, Colima. 
Duranaeo: Gobernador Constitucional del Estado de Durango, Durango, 
GUANAJUATO: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado, Guanajuato. 
GurrrERo: Gobernador del Estado de Guerrero, Chilpancingo, 
JaLisco: Biblioteca del Estado, Guadalajara, 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 67 


Mexico—Continued.’ 
Lowrk CaALirorniA: Gobernador del Distrito Norte, Mexicali. 
MExiIco: Gaceta del Gobierno, Toluca. 
MicHoacAn: Secretarfa General de Gobierno del Estado de Michoacan, 
Morelia. 
MoreELos: Palacio de Gobierno, Cuernavaca. 
NayakiT: Gobernador de Nayarit, Tepic. 
NveEvo LEON: Biblioteca del Estado, Monterrey. 
OaxAcaA: Periddico Oficial, Palacio de Gobierno, Oaxaca. 
PursLta: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Puebla. 
QUERETARO: Secretarfa General de Gobierno, Secci6n de Archivo, Querétaro, 
San Luts Porosi: Congreso del Estado, San Luis Potosf. 
SrnaLoa : Gobernador del Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacan. 
Sonora: Gobernador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo. 
Tapasco: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccién 3a, Ramo de Prensa, Villa- 
hermosa, 
TAMAULIPAS: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Victoria. 
TLAXCALA : Secretaria de Gobierno del Estado, Tlaxcala. 
Veracruz: Gobernador del Estado de Veracruz, Departamento de Goberna- 
cién y Justicia, Jalapa. 
YucaTAN: Gobernador del Estado de Yucatfin, Mérida, Yucatan. 
NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. 
Peru: Camara de Diputados, Lima. 
SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque de l’Assemblée Fédérale Suisse, Berne. 
Bern: Staatskanzlei des Kantons Bern. 
St. GALLEN: Staatskanzlei des Kantons St. Gallen. 
ScHAFFHAUSEN: Staatskanzlei des Kantons Schaffhausen. 
ZuricHo: Staatskanzlei des Kantons Ztirich. 
TurKEY: Turkish Grand National Assembly, Ankara. 
UNION oF SOUTH AFRICA: 
Library of Parliament, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope. 
State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. 
Urueuay: Diario Oficial, Calle Florida 1178, Montevideo. 
VENEZUELA: Biblioteca del Congreso, Caracas. 


FOREIGN EXCHANGE AGENCIES 


The following is a list of bureaus or agencies to which consignments 
are forwarded in boxes by freight when the Service is in full opera- 
tion To all countries not appearing in the list, packages are sent 
directly to their destinations by mail. 


LIST OF AGENCIES 


ALGERIA, via France. 

ANGOLA, via Portugal. 

AUSTRIA, via Germany. 

Azores, via Portugal. 

BELGIUM: Service Belge des Michanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale de 
Belgique, Bruxelles. 

CANARY IsLANDS, via Spain. 

Cuina: Bureau of International Exchange, Ministry of Education, Chungking. 


501591—43——6 


68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


CzECHOSLOVAKIA: Service des [changes Internationaux, Bibliotheque de 
l’Assemblée Nationale, Prague 1-79. 

DENMARK: Service Danois des Echanges Internationaux, Kongelige Danske 
Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen Y. 

EeayptT: Government Press, Publications Office, Bulaq, Cairo. 

FINLAND: Delegation of the Scientific Societies of Finland, Kasirngatan 24, 
Helsinki. 

FRANCE: Service Francais des Echanges Internationaux, 110 Rue de Grenelle, 
Paris. 

GERMANY: Amerika-Institut, Universitaétstrasse 8, Berlin, N. W. 7. 

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND: Wheldon & Wesley, 721 North Circular Road, 
Willesden, London, NW. 2. 

Huneary: Hungarian Libraries Board, Ferenciektere 5, Budapest, IV. 

InpraA: Superintendent of Government Printing and Stationery, Bombay. 

ITALY: Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionli, Ministero dell’Educazione Nazionale, 
Rome. 

JAPAN: International Exchange Service, Imperial Library of Japan, Uyeno 
Park, Tokyo. 

LaTy1A: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque d’Etat de Lettonie, 
Riga. 

LUxEMBourG, via Belgium. 

MADAGASCAR, Via France. 

MApEIRA, via Portugal. 

MOZAMBIQUE, via Portugal. 

NETHERLANDS: International Exchange Bureau of the Netherlands, Royal Li- 
brary, The Hague. 

New SoutH WaAtEs: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. 

NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. 

Norway: Service Norvégien des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque de 
VUniversité Royale, Oslo. 

PALESTINE: Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem. 

PotanD: Service Polonais des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, 
Warsaw. 

PorTUGAL: Seccado de Trocas Internacionaes, Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. 

QUEENSLAND: Bureau of Exchanges of International Publications, Chief Secre- 
tary’s Office, Brisbane. 

RumantA: Ministére de la Propagande Nationale, Service des Echanges Inter- 
nationaux, Bucharest. 

SoutH AvusTRrALIA: South Australian Government Exchanges Bureau, Govern- 
ment Printing and Stationery Office, Adelaide. 

Spain: Junta de Intercambio y Adquisicién de Libros y Revistas para Bibliote- 
cas Piiblicas, Ministerio de Educaci6én Nacional, Avenida Calvo Sotelo, 20, 
Madrid. 

SwevEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. 

SwitzERLAND: Service Suisse des changes Internationaux, Bibliothéque Cen- 
trale Fédérale, Berne. 

TASMANIA: Secretary to the Premier, Hobart. 

TuRKEY: Ministry of Education, Department of Printing and Engraving, 
Istanbul. 

Union or Souru ArricA: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Cape Town, 
Cape of Good Hope. 

Unton or Soviet Socrartist Repustics: International Book Exchange Depart- 
ment, Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, Moscow, 56. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 69 


Victror1A: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. 

YUGOSLAVIA: Section des KEchanges Internationaux, Ministére des Affaires 
Dtrangeéres, Belgrade. 


C. W. Shoemaker, Chief Clerk of the Exchanges, was retired on 
November 30, 1941, after more than 59 years of service with the 
Institution and after having worked 11 years over the statutory re- 
tirement age of 70. In this connection it may be mentioned that the 
International Exchanges is noted for the length of service of some 
of its employees. M. A. Tolson has served under the Institution for 
more than 61 years and F. E. Gass for 55 years. 

Respectfully submitted. 

F. E. Gass, Acting Chief Clerk. 

Dr. C. G. Assor, 

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


APPENDIX 7 
REPORT ON THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- 
tions of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ended June 
30, 1942: 

The regular appropriation made by Congress was $239,260, all of 
which was expended with the exception of $4,000, which represents 
savings of salaries for positions not filled. 


PERSONNEL 


In common with other agencies, the Zoo has had considerable per- 
sonnel turn-over, losing a number of its capable employees through 
transfer to military service. These have been replaced, as far as 
possible, with employees who will serve for the duration and until 
the return of the regular staff. 


IMPROVEMENTS 


The cessation of W. P. A. work and the conditions resulting from 
the war have prevented the making of material improvements. 
Before our entry into the war, a small amount of work was done at 
the reptile pit in front of the reptile house to improve its appearance 
as a natural habitat area. 


NEEDS OF THE ZOO 


The needs of the Zoo remain the same as outlined in previous 
reports. On account of war conditions, no request is being made for 
unusual expenditures at this time. 


VISITORS FOR THE YEAR 


The attendance for the year was slightly more than that for last 
year. The tire and gasoline rationing which went into effect in late 
spring brought about a perceptible increase in visitors by bus and 
streetcar and on foot. 


Oya oon tab. ba Wo 249 (S00 Nebruary 222 2 —-~ # 101,500 
VAM SUStL Sete nee 20S: 400 ne Marche 222) So eae ee 159, 900 
September]. ae 295 300WApril se a ee 244, 500 
Octobern2e ween ARs kin! he 251800 May 2. 2 ee sere 2 eee 217, 200 
November ts 22 Skee os cs 2033 200% JUNC Soe ae ee 248, 100 
December 22s 2 ae 161, 000 === 
JANUAR ea, Ee ee 121, 100 Moy 21 eee eee eet Es — 2,523, 300 


70 


REPORT OF THE SECRETAFY yak 


The attendance of organizations, mainly classes of students, of 
which there is definite record, was 10,660, from 212 different schools 
or groups in 15 States and the District of Columbia. This large 
decrease from last year of visitors in this group was due mainly to 
restrictions on chartered bus travel which went into effect the first 
part of June, a month during which the largest number of schools 
or classes usually visit the Zoo. A complete listing by States follows: 


Number | Number Number | Number 
State of of State of of 
persons parties persons | parties 
Connecticut =o ae 179 4 || North Carolina_-.-_._.-_-_..- 281 8 
Delaware tis. we er Cee 48 9) 10 Se eee eee a en are 28 1 
District of Columbia__-_____- 1, 638 30) |tREennSylvaniges ss) see eee eo 2, 569 45 
pine sen Le 1 eSouthi@arolin ge: se... 2 ess 244 9 
Maryland ssi i en 1,375 slaiimhennesseetasc-os ee ereeei ies 35 1 
Massachusetts__---_-:_-__---- 439 Sailevireinineenns ons or eee 1, 333 33 
Michigan 2eesiniaieeete erate 176 2ileWest.Virginias 220s einieee 220 6 
INOW OLS y recon se eee 1523) 20 —_——— 
ING wi Works er Bett edt 530 6 Totaliee =: 225. es seexee 10, 660 212 


As in preceding years, a census was made every afternoon at about 
3 o’clock of the cars parked on the Zoo ground. During the year 
56,585 cars were so listed, representing every State in the Union, as 
well as Alaska, Brazil, Canal Zone, Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti, Hawaii, 
Mexico, Puerto Rico, Panama, Philippine Islands, and Venezuela. 

This count is not of value as showing a total attendance, but only 
as indicating the percentage of attendance by States. The record 
for the year shows that the District of Columbia automobiles com- 
prised 39 percent, Maryland 22 percent, Virginia 15 percent, Penn- 
sylvania 4 percent; and the remaining 20 percent were from other 
States, Territories, and countries. 

The attendance at the Zoo reflects changed conditions incident to 
the war. Formerly there were relatively few visitors in the early 
days of the week and in the mornings, but now there is a pronounced 
increase during these periods, so that the highs and lows of attendance 
are less pronounced. 

Owing to the large increase in Washington population, the local 
attendance at the Zoo has so increased that it offsets the decrease in the 
number of transient visitors brought about by the curtailment of 
automobile travel. 

Large numbers of men in uniform are enjoying their first oppor- 
tunity to visit a large zoo, and some groups of injured or sick are 
brought by nurses or Red Cross drivers. The Zoo continues to he a 
regular study ground for art and biology classes, as well as an impor- 
tant focal point for letters, telephone calls, and personal queries 
regarding animals, their behavior, and methods to be followed in 
preventing or remedying injuries from animals, how to care for 
animals, and many miscellaneous questions. 


72 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 
AIR-RAID PRECAUTIONS 


So far as can be learned, the experience of other zoos in the war 
area suggests that the National Zoological Park will probably be one 
of the safest places about Washington during air raids. By the very 
nature of the construction of most of the cages, it is practically certain 
that any dangerous animal would be killed if it were in a cage 
damaged badly enough to let the animal escape. 

The Zoo has endeavored to take precautions to provide for such 
contingencies as may arise. A number of key men have received 
instruction regarding incendiary bombs, gas bombs, and first aid, 
and the entire organization has been instructed and drilled in taking 
their respective posts during daylight tests and raids. The personnel 
has been divided into groups, so that in the event of attacks becoming 
imminent, the practice will be inaugurated of requiring some of the 
personnel to remain in the Zoo overnight, in order to be available in 
the event of emergency. This is with the idea of having trained men 
for emergencies at night, as well as during daytime. 


ACCESSIONS 
FIELD WORK 


On account of world conditions, no expeditions were sent abroad; 
hence the Zoo did not receive the large numbers of animals that are 
usually brought in by such efforts. 


GIFTS 


Among important gifts during the year was a magnificent Texas 
longhorn steer from the ranch of Col. T. T. East, brought to Wash- 
ington through the courtesy of the Texas and Southwestern Cattle 
Raisers Association. The animal was presented to the Zoo by the 
Texas State Society through the Honorable Wright Patman, and, as 
the first of its kind ever to be shown in the collection, it has attracted 
a great deal of attention. 

A pet mule deer fawn was received from L. S. Marriott, Soda 
Springs, Idaho. Dr. Carlos G. Aguayo, of Habana, Cuba, presented 
a very rare Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer), the first ever 
exhibited here. Otto Martin Locke, of New Braunfels, Tex., pre- 
sented a large number of horned lizards and a nine-banded armadillo. 
From Kenly Chiles, of Washington, D. C., was received a guenon 
monkey. 

Dr. Thomas Barbour, Director of the Museum of Comparative Zool- 
ogy at Cambridge, Mass., presented two extra large and fine specimens 
of the African lungfish, which he had kept for observation since 1937. 


- 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 7 


© 


DONORS AND THEIR GIFTS 


Dr. Carlos G. Aguayo, Habana, Cuba, Cuban crocodile. 

G. B. Arthur, Washington, D. C., common rabbit. 

Clarence Attwood, Rockville, Md., duck hawk. 

Baltimore & Ohio Freight Office, Washington, D. C., skunk. 

Dr. T. Barbour, Cambridge, Mass., 2 African lungfish. 

Carl Beale, Washington, D. C., gray fox. 

Hdgar Beckley, Washington, D. C., night hawk. 

Mr. and Mrs. B. A. Bower, Mount Rainier, Md., 7 canaries. 

D. Bresnahan, Washington, D. C., alligator. 

R. A. Brown, Chevy Chase, Md., screech owl. 

J. A. Bryant, Waverly, Va., otter. 

Ruth Buchanan, Washington, D. C., grass paroquet. 

Mrs. Frank R. Chase, Takoma Park, Md., Pekin duck. 

Kenly Chiles, Washington, D. C., green guenon. 

J. A. Clark, Silver Spring, Md., golden pheasant. 

Marvin Cohen and Bill Wright, Washington, D. C., alligator. 

Ralph E. Day, Washington, D. C., horned lizard. 

Mrs. L. Diggs, Berwyn, Md., sparrow hawk. 

Barney Dillard, Emporia, Fla., box tortoise. 

Charles F. Dodge, Washington, D. C., sharp-shinned hawk. 

William H. Dorsey, Arlington, Va., alligator. 

Col. T. T. East, Hebbronville, Tex., Texas longhorn steer. 

Col. H. E. Eastwood, Washington, D. C., common rabbit. 

Hon. Clyde T. Ellis, Washington, D. C., opossum. 

Alden Evans and George Clarke, Washington, D. C., copperhead. 

Mrs. James L. Ewin, Washington, D. C., alligator. 

Robert J. Feeney, Washington, D. C., ferret. 

Dr. J. H. Ferguson, Washington, D. C., bald eagle. 

Fish and Wildlife Service, Pawtuxent Research Refuge: through Ford Willkie, 
2 barn owls; through F. C. Lincoln, Washington, D. C., hybrid duck; through 
F. T. Staunton, Moffit, N. Dak., 4 Hutchins geese, 1 white-fronted goose; 
through William C. Bunch, Edenton, N. C., great blue heron; through John N. 
Hamlet, Washington, D. C., 16 cotton rats, 2 southern pocket gophers, 7 round- 
tailed wood rats, 5 ord kangaroo rats, 4 collared lizards, 3 coachwhip snakes, 
2 striped racerunners, whip-tailed lizard, 13 Holbrook’s lizards. 

Mrs. E. H. Fisher, Washington, D. ©., zebra finch. 

James B. Fox, Washington, D. C., goshawk. 

Paul Fundenberg, Fort Lauderdale, Fla., marine turtle. 

Kathleen Garvin, Chevy Chase, Md., box tortoise. 

Mrs. J. F. Gates, Hyattsville, Md., 4 eastern weasels. 

L. J. Gauthier, Washington, D. C., Pekin duck. 

Mrs. Malcolm George, Silver Spring, Md., yellow-naped parrot. 

Jane Gibbons, Washington, D. C., horned lizard. 

A. F. Gibson, Washington, D. C., woodchuck or ground hog. 

Richard Goetz, Waldorf, Md., 2 red-tailed hawks. 

J. S. Goldsmith, Washington, D. C., 6 box tortoises, 2 painted turtles, pilot snake. 


74 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


W. Bart Greenwood, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., 2 southern 
red-shouldered hawks, western diamond-back rattlesnake. 

Mr. Greeson, Washington, D. C., 2 banded rattlesnakes. 

Mrs. F. S. Haas, Kenwood, Md., goose. 

Winifree Hall, Washington, D. C., night hawk. 

BE. W. Harkins, Washington, D. C., ring-necked pheasant. 

M. Helberg, Arlington, Va., opossum. 

L. A. Helms, Takoma Park, Md., rhesus monkey. 

Henlopin Game Farms, Milton, Del., 2 ring-necked pheasants. 

A. S. Henning, Washington, D. C., flying squirrel. 

R. W. Henrich and B. EF. Parris, Washington, D. C., red fox. 

Fred Hill, Washington, D. C., skunk. 

Russell Hill, Washington, D. C., great horned owl. 

Ella Holmes, Washington, D. C., common rabbit. 

D. F. Humphrey, Washington, D. C., blacksnake, 2 chicken snakes, 2 water 
snakes, garter snake. 

R. F. Johnson, Washington, D. C., rhesus monkey. 

Mrs. L. Jones, Washington, D. C., red, blue, and yellow macaw. 

Mrs. W. A. Justice, Edgewater, Md., double yellow-head parrot. 

Mrs. J. EB. Keel, Washington, D. C., common marmoset. 

Gail and Lynn Kerwin, Washington, D. C., 2 white rabbits. 

M. King, Takoma Park, Md., opossum. 

W. M. King, Washington, D. C., snapping turtle. 

Mrs. B. Krasnick, Chevy Chase, Md., common boa, water snake, 2 fence lizards, 
2 brown skinks, 5 glass snakes or legless lizards, 11 toads. 

WH. D. Lambert, Washington, D. C., woodchuck or ground hog. 

Otto M. Locke, New Braunfels, Tex., 100 horned lizards, 9-banded armadillo. 

A. Loveridge, Cambridge, Mass., 7 turtles. 

Col. T. H. Lowe, Washington, D. C., barred owl. 

Walter Lucas, Washington, D. C., gray fox. 

W. Mansfield, Washington, D. C., common rabbit. 

L. S. Marriott, Soda Springs, Idaho, mule deer. 

R. S. Mathew, New York Aquarium, New York, N. Y., boa constrictor. 

Mrs. EB. Matteossian, Bethesda, Md., 4 flying squirrels. 

Mr. May, Washington, D. C., chain or king snake. 

Adam S. McAllister and Micah H. Naftalin, Washington, D. C., brown bat. 

H. H. McClure, Washington, D. C., 2 false chameleons, box tortoise. 

M. McClure, Washington, D. C., alligator. 

Mrs. J. C. Meilsle, Washington, D. C., 4 grass paroquets. 

F. C. Metcalfe, Washington, D. C., white-throated capuchin. 

Metropolitan Police, Precinct No. 12, Washington, D. C., muscovy duck. 

R. Miller, Washington, D. C., 9 opossums. 

W. S. Morian, Washington, D. C., hog-nosed snake. 

M. Moser, Washington, D. C., barred owl. 

Mrs. J. Murphy, Washington, D. C., 2 grass paroquets. 

Martha Nuland, Washington, D. C., alligator. 

A. Parsell, Buena Vista, Va., banded rattlesnake. 

Mrs. Peterson, Washington, D. C., small finch. 

A. S. Polito, Washington, D. C., barn owl. 

J. J. Porter, Davis, Okla., bald eagle. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 75 


L. Poston, Washington, D. C., soft-shelled turtle. 

Mr. and Mrs. W. J. Preston, Baltimore, Md., 2 bishop weavers. 

Bunny Reid, Washington, D. C., Pekin duck. 

Nancy Reynolds, Washington, D. C., 2 Pekin ducks. 

Mrs. R. H. Rhodes, Washington, D. C., opossum. 

H. M. Rice, Germantown, Md., painted turtle. 

J. L. Richardson, Richmond, Va., rhesus monkey. 

Bertrand Robbins, Washington, D. C., chain or king snake. 

Louis Ruhe, Inc., New York, N. Y., 2 collared finch-billed bulbuls. 

Samuel Russell, Washington, D. C., 23 horned lizards. 

Mrs. W. Rutledge, Washington, D. C., 2 Pekin ducks. 

San Diego Zoo, San Diego, Calif., kinkajou, 3 ring-tail or cacomistle. 

Walter Schmidt, Bethesda, Md., alligator. 

Mrs. W. L. Schubert, Washington, D. C., common rabbit. 

D. S. Seott, Washington, D. C., copperhead. 

Col. Shalerladd, Chevy Chase, Md., alligator. 

Mrs. Joseph Smith, Washington, D. C., grass paroquet. 

Daisy Rice Spradling, Athens, Tenn., banded rattlesnake. 

Corp. W. D. Sprouse, Vienna, Va., red fox. 

James Stallings, Washington, D. C., alligator. 

Mrs. S. Stanley, Greenacres, Md., Pekin duck. 

Mr. Stone, Wardman Park Hotel, Washington, D. C., duck hawk. 

W. W. Swaggart, Washington, D. C., canary. 

Mrs. George Swanson, Mount Rainier, Md., 2 Pekin ducks, 3 Toulouse geese. 

Bertha Sweet, Washington, D. C., 2 common rabbits. 

Mrs. Thomas Terry, Witchville, Md., yellow-head parrot. 

D. C. Thomas, Washington, D. C., black snake. 

Ira B. Tice, Washington, D. C., Pekin ducks. 

L. W. Turner, Washington, D. C., Pekin ducks. 

T. Van Hyning, Gainesville, Fla., bald eagle. 

Senator Frederick Van Nuys, Vienna, Va., rhesus monkey. 

Mrs. Van Patten, Washington, D. C., Pekin duck. 

A. W. Walker, Takoma Park, Md., opossum. 

Ernest P. Walker, National Zoological Park, Washington, D. C., 2 picket pin 
ground squirrels, golden-breasted mouse, 3 True’s white-footed mice, 2 grass- 
hopper mice, Hopi chipmunk, golden-mantled ground squirrel, 2 5-toed kanga- 
roo rats, 5 Uinta ground squirrels, 6 13-striped ground squirrels, 2 northern 
chipmunks, 10 plains toads, least weasel or ermine. 

Miss V. Walston, Takoma Park, Md., red fox. 

W. F. Ward, Washington, D. C., raccoon. 

Mrs. J. M. Waters, Bethesda, Md., cottontail rabbit. 

J. C. Watters, Atlanta, Ga., 2 raccoons. 

J. M. Weedon, Washington, D. C., museovy duck. 

Fletcher Welch, Washington, D. C., Pekin duck. 

F. C. Wells, Washington, D. C., barred owl. 

Mrs. H. E. White, Washington, D. C., 2 box tortoises. 

Mrs. H. A. Wood, Washington, D. C., Mexican parrot. 

Walter Wuenschel, Washington, D. C., painted turtle. 

Carlo Zeimet, Vienna, Va., peafowl. 


76 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 
BIRTHS 


There were 65 mammals born, 40 birds hatched, and 2 reptiles 
born during the year. 


MAMMALS 

Scientific name Common name Number 
Ammotragus lenvid._- (AQUGAG: 22-2 es ee eee 4 
Aglavanigu sit wth ie Oe hele hoes Axis deer Ulster 2 oot ae 3 
BivOstgGuruse ee eee Gaurd. 22 Ue eee ee eee 1 
BiSOW DISON = 2k Sr ee Se Nh Ameri cand bison. ee 3 
BOs indicus eee eee ee ee Se ee Tei ieee le 1 
CAMECHISHOCCIONU Saas eeeee Bactrian ‘cane eee 1 
Cephalophus nigrifrons_______-------- Black-fronted duiker_——.----=-=--— 1 
Cervusicanadensis=_ ee Ae ee ie ee eee iL 
Cercusielaphis ee European red deer_--------—-+_-- 2 
Choloepus, didaciylus=- = Two-toed slothe= es 1 
Cynomys udovicianis.— 22-2 = Praitie doguee= sts] tS 2 12 
JONG EUOR’ GROTON eBie te re Mallow: deers sae s ae eee 6 
Dolichotis magellanica___——=-—_ == Patazoniankeavynse. ss. see 2 
HCL ShRONCES Sees a ae Ae eee hs a JG Ua a eet oe re NS ee 3 
Hippopotamus amphibius__-—-~-----~- ippopotamus== eee il 
EAMG Glam Gees se eee ee Wlam a. £2 2s eee eS ee ee 1 
Macccammulatta= = eee Rhesussmonke ye 1 
MaACECGINemestiind== === eee Pig-tailed macaque __-____-=---_- 2 
AT AGUS NCAT US Se eee eee elie Moormonkey2 a eae 1 
My OCASLOT COU DUS = = a ee ee INTERAC OT COYpUs === ae eee 8 
OCT GRUSHNON IIL CT Sa =e fal Eeoera tM AP et OC pete ee Vg ba 1 
OCOSNUOUUS See oe ae Aina jou ae ie te ee ee 1 
PSCULOUS ENON UNG ae eee ee Bharal or blue sheep_-—---_-----__ 72 
SCIUMUS Mm LRLCY SON =a ee ee Lesser white squirrel__..-________ 2 
SURG Mp PONS. 2B oi es te adlae es Japanese deer==s=e2 eee 1 
SUNCCHOSACH || Che  e eae AEricantpuitalo eee ee 1 
SEG NE RIG UGG a ee SouthyAmerican tapin22 2 ae al 
WVatlpes Nfulvas = Ato e Sos eee tS ee REGS EO Kee ese eee eee eee i 

BIRDS 
ANAS: DLatyrhynCchOsen= ss ee ee Mallard) 22223) 522 oe ee 12 
Calonezusaclicgans=——— ee @restediitinamoQu2s=2—== =a 2 
Tnmnocorar flavirostra__ = Airicant bla @kyt ails see 10 
Nycticoraz nycticoraz naevius________ Black-crowned night heron____-~- 16 
REPTILES 
ZONMULUS GIG AILCUS= a Spinyolizards=.= eee z 
EXCHANGES 


A splendid pair of British Park cattle was received in exchange 
from the Zoo at Toronto, Canada; and from W. A. King, at Browns- 
ville, Tex., were received 6 Yucatan jays, 4 Mexican caciques, a pair 
of spider monkeys, 4 red-bellied squirrels, and a pair of West High- 
land or Kyloe cattle, 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 77 
PURCHASES 


Important specimens acquired by purchase were a secretary bird; 
a number of South African snakes, which were obtained from the 
Fitzsimons’ Snake Farm, Durban, South Africa; 6 two-toed sloths; 
a pair of raccoon dogs; and a pair of East African wart hogs. Also 
purchased during the year were a pair of guanacos and a pair of 
single-humped camels. This provides specimens of all living forms 
of the camel family. 

REMOVALS 


Many of the poisonous reptiles have been removed from the Zoo, 
leaving so few in the collection that they can be instantly disposed 
of should the occasion require. 

In the report for 1941, there was described a very serious loss of 
birds resulting from an epidemic of psittacosis in the bird house. The 
bird house was closed to the public for about 3 months, and at the 
beginning of this fiscal year the parrot room was still closed. A 
release from quarantine for the parrot section was received from 
the District of Columbia Health Department on September 27, 1941, 
and the room was reopened to visitors several days later. 

Through splendid assistance and cooperation on the part of the 
United States Public Health Service and the District of Columbia 
Health Department this disease has been eradicated. Suspected birds 
that die are sent to the Public Health Service for examination, and 
for nearly a year the results of the examination have all been negative. 


DEATHS 


The principal losses for the past year have been of very old resi- 
dents. A sulphur-crested cockatoo, which was presented by Richard 
znd Harry Hunt, Bethesda, Md., April 19, 1890, before the present 
Zoo was actually established, died June 20, 1942, after 52 years and 
2 months in the Zoo. It had been a pet of the Hunt family for 5 
years before coming to the Park. It had come to the United States 
in a sailing ship around Cape Horn. 

The female reticulated giraffe which had been received June 21, 
1939, died April 24, 1942. Other losses by death of animals which 
also had been in the Zoo for long periods included an Alaska Pen- 
insula bear in the collection 19 years; Baird’s tapir, in the Zoo since 
May, 1924; and a Malay porcupine that had lived here for 22 years. 

The American bald eagle, “Jerry,” probably the most photographed 
bird in the world, died April 15, 1942. It had come as a gift from 
President Wilson and had been a Zoo resident for 26 years. Photo- 
graphs of “Jerry” were used as models for the eagle on our defense 
posters. 


78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


As usual, all specimens of scientific value that died during the year 
were sent to the National Museum 


SPECIES NEW TO THE HISTORY OF THE COLLECTION 


Very few exotic specimens were acquired during the year, and these 
were mainly replacements. The collection was augmented by the addi- 
tion of three different types of cattle which had never been exhibited 
here before They were a Texas longhorn steer, a pair of British 
Park cattle, and a pair of West Highland or Kyloe cattle. 


How acquired Men Birds a aehD: Fishes | Total 
resented sae: ase sat tae meet ewan era ae en eS 80 80 86 14 2 262 
Bornion hatched esac eS bees ee 65 40 2 ees Tees eee eS 107 
Receivediiniexchanves. 2a 5. so eee oe 10 23 £1) (egies a iar | AF | 42 
IP UTC ASC a et ee ees ee 34 107 LOO Rasen sees 42 283 
Onde posites cae SEE BLL ae ae La 18 7 3h) pa ee a Re 33 
Collected by National Zoological Park staff__.____-- Si cae creel eae ners 103|f22 38 
BC) 82 ee ee ee ee ee 235 257 205 24 44 765 
Summary 
AnimailsronesnandssUly, ke. Loa ee ee ee eee eee — 2,380 
Aceessions: during thesyearss22 = Se eee 765 
Total animals in collection during year______________________--__ 8, 145 
Removal from collection by death, exchange, and return of animals on 
CLP OS Ge a Rae et ee ee, mre ae 734 
in collection: June 80;: 1942.52 20s ese Se eee eee ee 2, 411 
Status of collection 
Class Species Hndivid Class Species raed 
IMammals2i eee eee ee 229 7045's nSECtS heats ee eee ee ee 1 25 
yo hae oe ee ee ee 332 O45 aiVCOllusks sas eeu ae eee aes 1 1 
Reptiles. 225 -< tele Ree 110 530) |eCrustaccansee sas ae ena 1 2 
Am phibians=s ses) =e eeees 17 68 SS | SS 
misheses: ) se ee ee 29 133 ‘Total 22 = 2-72 ee 2 722 2,411 
Arachnids == 2222s < Seer ae 2 3 


Respectfully submitted. 


W. M. Mann, Director. 
Dr. C. G. Axzort, 


Sceretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


APPENDIX 8 
REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY 


Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- 
ties of the Astrophysical Observatory for the fiscal year ended June 
30, 1942: 


WORK AT WASHINGTON 
PUBLICATION OF VOLUME 6 OF THE ANNALS 


The outstanding event was the completion and publication of 
volume 6 of the Annals of the Observatory. The volume begins with 
extracts from these reports continuing the annals of the Observatory 
operations from 1931 to 1940. Next, the principal research on the 
variation of the sun’s radiation is minutely described, with illustra- 
tive graphical and tabular matter relating to every feature. Then 
follow 78 quarto tabular pages giving in detail daily results of 
observation of the solar constant of radiation (i. e., the intensity of 
the sun’s rays as they exist at mean solar distance outside the earth’s 
atmosphere). This table covers all observations over the interval 
from 1923 to 1939 at Montezuma, Chile; Table Mountain, Calif.; and 
Mount St. Katherine, Egypt. The results are given in 12 columns 
for each day, covering not only the final results at each station, but 
the more important observations leading up to them. For some 
individual dates as many as 12 lines are required. Each page of the 
Annals includes 3 such groups of columns or 386 in all, and each page 
has approximately 80 lines. The enormous task of preparing this 
table has been mentioned repeatedly in preceding reports. 

Then follows a chapter on the derived results and conclusions based 
on this great tabular compilation, and including related additional 
information for the years 1920 to 1928, derived from volume 5 of the 
Annals. 

As regards accuracy, the probable accidental error of a single day’s 
determination of the solar constant from observations at the stations 
is one-sixth of 1 percent, and for 10-day and monthly means, it is 
one-ninth and one-twentieth of 1 percent, respectively. 

The variation of the sun, as our life-supporting star, is clearly 
indicated and between extreme ranges up to about 3 percent for the 
interval 1920 to 1939. It is verified not only by comparisons of our 


79 


80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


own radiation observations at widely separated stations but by com- 
parison of them with the publications of visual and photographic 
studies of the sun’s surface made at other observatories. Such com- 
parisons show, for instance, that the rotation of the sun upon its 
axis in the approximate period of 27 days frequently is attended by 
1 percent change in solar radiation associated with well-marked 
changes in the visual and photographic appearance of the sun. 

The variation of the sun is shown not to be of uniform percentage 
for all colors and wave lengths, but to increase rapidly in percentage 
toward the shorter wave lengths of the violet and ultraviolet rays. 
For ultraviolet rays of wave length 3500 angstroms, the percentage 
variation is 6 times as great as for the solar radiation as a whole. 

Fourteen simultaneously operative regular periodicities are found 
in solar radiation ranging from 8 months to 273 months in periods. 
Each of these is reflected in temperatures and precipitations recorded 
by meteorological observations of official weather services. Long 
records, extending for 140 years, like those of Copenhagen, Vienna, 
and New Haven, prove that the 14 solar periodic variations have 
continued in unchanged phases, though perhaps not in unchanged 
amplitudes, during all that interval. Assuming that the phases will 
continue unchanged, and the amplitudes will be the average of 
amplitudes since 1920, a prediction of the solar variation to 1945 is 
hazarded. 

The publication of volume 6 of the Annals, in such beautiful form 
and at so early a date, was made possible by funds generously sup- 
plied by Mr. John A. Roebling. Without his long-continued and 
munificent support and advice, the research could not have reached 
this satisfactory fruition. It is greatly hoped that it will furnish 
valuable aids to the science of meteorology. 


TRANSFER OF THE DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS 


A second outstanding event of the year is the acceptance by the 
Bureau of the Budget and the Congress of the proposal, strongly 
recommended by the Regents of the Institution, that the Division of 
Radiation and Organisms, hitherto for 13 years supported by private 
funds, and hitherto concerned with the fundamental study of plant 
growth, be incorporated as a branch of the Astrophysical Observa- 
tory. Since the beginning of the fiscal year 1942, this interesting 
fundamental research has been supported by Congressional appropria- 
tions, and its staff has been a part of the Government Civil Service. 


INSTRUMENTS 


Our detailed studies of the observations of the solar radiation 
disclosed, as above said, that the percentage variation of the intensity 
of the sun’s rays is six times as great for ultraviolet rays as for the 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Sl 


total of all wave lengths. It also appeared plainly that the chief 
source of error remaining in the determinations arises from uncer- 
tainty of the exact effect of absorption in the great infrared water- 
vapor bands, occurring in a spectral region where solar variation is 
almost nil. 

These considerations led the Director to devise a method whereby 
with a few additional observations using special glass absorbing 
screens determinations of solar variation could be restricted to the 
spectral region of the green, blue, violet, and ultraviolet rays. 
Apparatus for such determinations was prepared at our Washington 
instrument shop and has been installed at all three of the field sta- 
tions. It has been in regular use at all of them since about July 
1941 in addition to the ordinary observing. 

It also appeared that certain types of sky conditions tended to 
produce unsatisfactory results by our present usual methods of 
observing the solar constant of radiation. It seemed possible that 
if in addition to our usual measurements we should observe the 
degree of polarization prevailing in sky light a correction of value 
might be discovered and applied in our daily measurements. Ac- 
cordingly three copies of a sky polarization device invented by the late 
Prof. E. C. Pickering have been prepared at our Washington instru- 
ment shop. One is already installed at Montezuma, Chile, and has 
been used regularly since March 1942. Such instruments will soon 
be in use at our other stations. 

Considerable special confidential work for military purposes has 
been done at our Washington instrument shop under the care of the 
Director. 

The Assistant Director, Mr. L. B. Aldrich, has devoted a good 
deal of time as a member of the Smithsonian War Committee. 


FIELD WORK 


Three solar radiation observing stations have been operated on 
all favorable days at Table Mountain, Calif., Burro Mountain, N. 
Mex. (called the Tyrone station), and at Montezuma, Chile. The 
meteorological conditions have been rather less favorable than usual 
at all three stations, but still solar-constant observations were made 
on a majority of days at all stations. 

New reinforced concrete dwelling quarters for the director’s fam- 
ily at Montezuma were completed under field director Freeman’s 
direction and finished shortly before he was relieved by A. F. Moore 
in July 1941, and in May 1942 the assistant’s quarters were rebuilt 
to a considerable extent. 

Improvements were also made at Table Mountain and Tyrone 
stations. A new water supply was installed at the former, and the 
drainage of the observing tunnel was perfected at the latter. 


82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 
PERSONNEL CHANGES 


A. Kramer, instrument maker, retired, was restored to the active 
Civil Service at Washington under war regulations on March 16, 
1942. A. F. Moore relieved H. B. Freeman, resigned, at Montezuma 
as field director in July 1941, and F. A. Greeley relieved James H. 
Baden as bolometric assistant there in April 1942. W. H. Hoover 
continued as field director at Tyrone station, relieving A. ¥. Moore. 
Thomas Hassard served from October 6, 1941, to April 16, 1942, as 
bolometric assistant at Table Mountain, relieving F. A. Greeley. 
On Hassard’s resignation to enter military service, he was followed 
by Kenneth G. Bower in May 1942. Miss N. M. McCandlish, special 
assistant to the Director, resigned March 1942. 

The following members of the staff of the Division of Radiation 
and Organisms were transferred to the staff of the Astrophysical 
Observatory on July 1, 1941, under authorization of the Civil Service 
Commission: Robert M. Clagett, Leland B. Clark, Earl S. Johnston, 
Edward D. McAlister, and Robert L. Weintraub, 

Respectfully submitted. 

C. G. Aspor, Director. 

THe SECRETARY, 

Smithsonian Institution. 


APP HNDIEXS9 


REPORT ON THE DIVISION OF RADIATION AND 
ORGANISMS 


Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activities 
of the Division of Radiation and Organisms during the year ended 
June 380, 1942: 

Many changes have taken place in both personnel and physical equip- 
ment of the Division of Radiation and Organisms during the past year. 
Members of the Division were given Civil Service status on July 1, 
1941, and the work is now carried on from appropriations allotted to 
the Astrophysical Observatory. The laboratory has been remodeled 
and most of the rooms repainted. The removal of the pipe shop to the 
United States National Museum made available much needed space 
and has relieved the crowded condition that existed. These changes 
brought about considerable temporary disruption in the regular work. 

Different members of the Division have contributed directly or indi- 
rectly to work pertaining to war activities. The regular research work 
may, for convenience, be placed under three group headings: Photo- 
synthesis, plant growth and radiation, and development of apparatus 
and methods. 

Dr. Jack E. Myers continued his work with algae on problems related 
to photosynthesis until the expiration of his National Research Fellow- 
ship grant in September. He devised a method for the contiuous cul- 
ture of algae with equipment built in the Division’s laboratory. This 
apparatus he took with him to continue the work at the University 
of Texas as a cooperative project with our Division. The bearing this 
work has on our general program is that of obtaining uniform biologi- 
cal material that will give reproducible results under similar experi- 
mental conditions. 

Mrs. Florence Meier Chase completed her study on the economic uses 
of algae and submitted a paper covering the subject for publication in 
the Smithsonian Annual Report for 1941. 

Dr. Weintraub has completed a comprehensive review of the litera- 
ture on plant respiration as affected by radiation. This was requested 
by Botanical Review, a journal which specializes in the publication of 
comprehensive technical reviews in the botanical field. This review 
is especially useful as a background in some of our investigations. 


83 
501591—43-——7 


84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Drs. Johnston and Weintraub have continued their experiments on 
the factors that influence the change in rates of respiration. This, of 
course, is basic work to our main project on photosynthesis. Our 
results lead one to speculate on the possibility of the existence of a 
carbon dioxide reservoir connected with the cell mechanism. It would 
seem that when the plants are conditioned in air of high carbon dioxide 
content a certain amount of excess carbon dicxide is stored in the tissue 
so that subsequent measurements of “apparent respiration” would con- 
sist of the carbon dioxide liberated by true respiration and that re- 
leased from a well-filled reservoir. If, however, the plants are condi- 
tioned in air with little or no carbon dioxide the hypothetical reservoir 
is in a partially depleted condition and the first few periods of “ap- 
parent respiration” show a gradual increase in rate. This would be 
caused by the trapping in the reservoir of less and less of the respired 
carbon dioxide, thereby liberating more and more carbon dioxide 
which could be detected in the atmosphere surrounding the plant. 

Such a reservoir hypothesis, however, is not sufficient to account for 
all the results obtained. There is evidence in much of our data that 
the humidity of the air plays an important role in this gaseous ex- 
change, perhaps in changing the size of stomatal openings. Just what 
mechanism is involved in these plant responses is not yet clear. The 
answer must await improvements of the humidity controls of the 
apparatus. Such improvements are now being undertaken. 

The relationship previously found by Dr. Weintraub between light 
intensity and inhibition of growth of the oats mesocotyl suggests 
that two growth proceses are influenced by light; one alone at low 
intensities and both together at higher intensities. It appears likely 
that these two processes are cell elongation and cell division, respec- 
tively. In order to determine the action spectra for the two processes, 
and so to obtain an insight into their mechanisms, information on the 
intensity relations in various spectral regions is required. Such 
information has previously been obtained for a number of wave bands 
at low intensities, using a double monochromator. In extending the 
study to higher intensities, this method is not feasible and use must 
be made of emission spectra furnishing lines of adequate intensity 
and purity. Such lines as are available are now being studied over 
a wide intensity range and the plant material is being preserved for 
future histological study. 

The action spectrum (maximum activity in the red) found for the 
mesocotyl inhibition at low intensities indicates the presence in the 
etiolated plant of a photoreceptive pigment possessing a similar 
absorption spectrum. An attempt to isolate such a pigment has been 
begun. The evidence thus far obtained points to the occurrence in 
the dark-grown oats seedling of traces of at least two pigments having 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 85 


absorption bands in the red region of the spectrum. Work on the 
isolation and separation of these pigments is now in progress, 

in view of the previous finding by Drs. Johnston and Weintraub, 
using the spectrographic method, that illumination increases the rate 
of carbon dioxide production by etiolated barley seedlings, it is of 
considerable interest to study the influence of radiation on the 
respiration of other types of plants. For this purpose the Warburg 
manometric technique seems well adapted, since both oxygen absorp- 
tion and carbon dioxide evolution can be measured simultaneously. 
The necessary apparatus is being assembled and preliminary experi- 
ments to find suitable types of plant material and appropriate cultural 
conditions are under way. The data in the literature as well as 
results already obtained in this laboratory indicate that the effects of 
radiation on respiration may be intimately related to the previous 
cultural history of the plant. 


PERSONNEL 


Dr. Jack E. Myers, whose National Research Fellowship grant 
terminated in September, has been appointed assistant professor in 
the department of zoology and physiology at the University of 'Texas. 

Mrs. Florence Meier Chase, who has been with the Division for 10 
years, resigned on September 9. 

On October 1 the services of Dr. E. D. McAlister were transferred 
to the Carnegie Institution of Washington for the purpose of carrying 
on war work. 

Leonard Price was appointed junior physical science aid on Feb- 
ruary 16, 1942. 

Mrs. Phyllis W. Prescott was appointed junior clerk-stenographer 
on March 24, 1942. 

PUBLICATIONS 


JoHNSTON, Hart S. Demonstration of the effect of radiation on organisms at 
the Smithsonian Institution. Scientifie Monthly, vol. 53 (July), pp. 92-96, 
1941. 

WEINTRAUB, Robert L., and McALisTErR, Edward D. Developmental physiology 
of the grass seedling. I. Inhibition of the mesocotyl of Avena sativa by 
continuous exposure to light of low intensity. Smithsonian Mise. Coll., vol. 
101, No. 17, pp. 1-10, 1942. 


Respectfully submitted. 
Earu S. Jounston, Assistant Director. 
Dr. C. G. Axport, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


APPENDIX 10 
REPORT ON THE LIBRARY 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- 
ties of the Smithsonian Library for the fiscal year ended June 30, 
1942: 

War’s initial impact upon the normal activities of a scientific 
library is disconcerting and disruptive. Publication of new material 
in the combatant countries declines, and such books and periodicals 
as are issued are obtainable with difficulty, if indeed they can be 
obtained at all. In the important scientific journals gaps appear and 
widen. As a consequence, service to readers becomes more limited. 
The whole immediate outlook for growth and accomplishment is dis- 
couraging. 

Since September 1939 the Smithsonian Library has suffered in 
common with all other libraries of international scope, and as long 
as the war lasts it must continue to suffer from this negative influence 
which progressively decreases the inflow of material important for 
the work of the Institution and its branches. After Pearl Harbor 
came the final cutting off of all importations from enemy and occu- 
pied countries. The disruptive effect upon the normal activity of the 
library is graphically illustrated by the fact that during the fiscal 
year just ended 425 packages were received from abroad through the 
International Exchange Service, whereas in a recent pre-war year 
the number was 2,194. 

Recovery from this serious crippling of the library’s facilities will 
be slow, and the work of repair and of rebuilding will constitute a 
challenge to diligence and ingenuity during post-war years. 

Fortunately, there is a positive, constructive, and much brighter 
side to the year’s activities. Especially is this true of the library’s 
relation to the war effort. The primary purpose of the library in 
normal times is service to the Institution’s many specialists engaged 
in a wide range of studies covering the natural and physical sciences. 
A basic requirement for progress in any line of science is constant 
access to the published results of research in all countries. The large 
body of scientific literature accumulated in the years since the foun- 
dation of the Institution for the special needs of its staff has been 
found to provide valuable material of great importance to the various 
war agencies. As a result of this there has been a large increase in 


86 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Si 


the reference use of the library, especially in the branch library in the 
National Museum, including both personal visits and requests by 
telephone for information. This has also increased the loan to out- 
side libraries, which were 218 more than last year. 

In addition to providing access to published material and recorded 
information, the library has been able to extend its war reference 
service by putting inquirers directly in touch with members of the 
staff of the Institution having special professional or personal know!- 
edge of various subjects. By knowing where, how, and from whom 
information not available in the Institution itself may be obtained, 
the library has also been enabled to arrange valuable introductions 
to outside sources. This kind of service, through which the library 
functions not only as a bibliographical center, but also as a general 
clearinghouse for information, is expanding and offers promising 
possibilities for more extensive future assistance in the war effort. 

Upon recommendation of the Smithsonian War Committee and 
as a part of the Institution’s program for directing its activities more 
definitely to the war effort, the library was instructed by the Secre- 
tary in April to prepare an index of the foreign geographical illustra- 
tions that have appeared in Smithsonian publications. Work was 
begun immediately, and before the end of the fiscal year the index- 
ing of the Smithsonian Explorations and Field-Work series had 
been completed and work begun on other publications. Records of 
some 2,000 illustrations have been made and filed both alphabetically 
and by regions. 

In spite of the time given to special war activities, routine duties 
of the library were well kept up. The acquisition of new material 
by purchase and exchange, the cataloging of books, the entering 
of periodicals, the preparation of volumes for binding, the keeping 
of loan-desk records, all are exact and time-consuming processes, 
upon which the smooth functioning of the library depends. Statistics 
of them, so far as they can be measured statistically, will be found 
at the end of this report. 

Routine reference work for the staff of the Institution, and the 
use of books within the various libraries, of which no numerical 
count is attempted, continued to be heavy. 

Although considerably handicapped by a temporarily curtailed 
staff, the decrease in the number of accessions from Europe and Asia 
has made it possible for the catalogers to devote some small part of 
their time to the recataloging of older material that has long needed 
attention. Full use of many of our most valuable series of publica- 
tions has always been difficult because analysis of them has never 
been made for the catalog. Accurate identification of references and 
prompt delivery of material wanted are basic to good library service, 
especially from the loan desk, and they are largely dependent upon 


88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


good cataloging. It is hoped, as one of the compensations for the 
decrease in foreign accessions, to be able to continue and extend this 
program for making our already acquired resources more fully and 
easily usable. 

In the matter of exchanges, a comparable program is in progress. 
With no immediate possibility of filling gaps in our files of foreign 
serials from sources abroad in direct exchange for our own publica- 
tions, we are using, and are studying how to make further use of, 
our large and valuable duplicate collection for strengthening and 
extending our domestic exchanges. Lists of desiderata exchanged 
with other institutions are bringing good results in finding parts 
needed to complete incomplete serial files in all the participating 
libraries. Many of our duplicates, too, are given directly to other 
Government libraries that need them. Notably, in response to a 
request from the Scientific Library of the Patent Office, we were able 
this year to supply 1,524 parts of periodicals lacking in their sets. 


GIFTS 


Friends and patrons made generous gifts to the library. The 
Secretary, the Assistant Secretary, and other members and collabo- 
rators of the Smithsonian staff contributed many publications. The 
American Museum of Natural History, the Boston Museum of Fine 
Arts, and other institutions with which we are regularly in ex- 
change made us special gifts in addition. From the American, 
Association for the Advancement of Science came 724 publications, 
and 68 were received from the American Association of Museums. 
A noteworthy gift, numbering some 2,000 items, was the library on 
Copepoda assembled by the late Dr. Charles Branch Wilson and 
presented by his son, Carroll A. Wilson, to the Division of Marine 
Invertebrates. A card index for use with the collection accompanied 
it. Of special interest was Mrs. Cyrus Adler’s gift of the post- 
humously published book, I Have Remembered the Days, the autobi- 
ography of the late Dr. Cyrus Adler, formerly librarian of the 
Institution. Other donors were, Percy S. Alden, Theodore Bolton, 
Willard C. Brinton, L. V. Coleman, Dr. P. T. Collinge, Miss Elsie 
G. Curry, Dr. Carl Epling, Mrs. Paul Garber, The Board of Directors 
of the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District, Dr. John M. 
Hiss, R. G. Ingersoll Waite, Prof. James R. Jack, Dr. Thomas H. 
Kearney, Dr. Riley D. Moore, Dr. W. L. McAtee, The National 
Society of Colonial Dames of America, Dr. T. L. Northup, Mrs. 
Foster Stearns, Prof. Theodore Sizer. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 89 
PERSONNEL 


Most important of the unusually large number of changes on the 
staff was the retirement of William L. Corbin as librarian on January 
31, 1942, after more than 17 years of service. Coming to the Insti- 
tution in the early years after the First World War, he was con- 
fronted with many difficult tasks of rehabilitation and administra- 
tion. He gave his best efforts to the completion of important files 
of scientific journals broken by the war, to the reestablishment and 
extension of exchange relationships and to the building up of an 
efficient library personnel for the service of the Institution. 

On February 2, 1942, Mrs. Leila F. Clark, who had been assistant 
librarian in charge of the National Museum library since 1929, was 
appointed librarian of the Institution. 

Miss Elisabeth P. Hobbs, head cataloger, was promoted on May 
21, 1942, to the position of associate librarian in charge of the Mu- 
seum library. Mrs. Lucile Torrey Barrett, who had given excep- 
tional service as librarian of the National Collection of Fine Arts, 
was transferred to a war agency on February 23, 1942. Other 
changes were the resignation of Miss Ruth Blanchard on October 31, 
1941, and the appointments of Miss Marjorie Kunze and Miss Marion 
Blair on January 5, 1942. The temporary appointments of Mrs. 
Georgeanna H. Morrill and Mrs. Clara Dick, made during the pre- 
ceding fiscal year, were terminated on December 31, 1941. Assistant 
messengers for short periods were Arthur Gambrell and John 
Barnes. Samuel Jones, who is now serving, was appointed May 5. 


STATISTICS 


The accessions to the libraries were as follows: 


Accessions 
ee oes ees . cee 
| : Appr 
| am- mate hold- 
| Volumes | phiets Total | ‘ings June 
| 30, 1942 
Astrophysical Observatory ..........-----------------------. | 172 71 243 10, 399 
reer Gal leryio feAt tes se ew ae eee eee eee 74 67 141 16, 366 
MvanvleyeSerom au tical sea sae ee 20 5 2 3, 575 
National Collection of Fine Arts! __--------=-=-__-----___--=: | 191 114 305 7, 994 
INationaliN use uml aoe eee eee ere Pee eee eee eee ea | 2, 508 1,024 3, 527 228, 287 
INationaleZoolopicalubank= sess) = saes sell eee eee Seal 12 13 25 3, 941 
RadistioniandiOrganismse. se enone woes ee ee 9 1 10 606 
Smithsonian Bienes, aie of PConeress: aoe eae eae 892 423 1,315 569, 977 
Smithsonian Office_- nose ocessecescccecs| 61 3 94 31, 055 
| SS eS 
Total Ce eee eee ene a a eee ne atongall Sql zETe Pom ese | 1 867, 200 


! This figure does not include incomplete volumes of periodicals or separates and reprints from periodicals. 


90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Eachanges 
New exchanges arranged: 
Hor the: Smithsonian Deposit = EEE EE aze 84 
Hor, the National Museum) library 22 ee = 127 
Hor .other branch) libraries==2- | 2.2 eee 18 
Total sche Se 28 a eee EES 229 
“Wants” received: 
Kor: thes Smithsonian: Deposit=22-2. 4. a ee eee aly 
Horithe: National Museumplibraryass seen ee ee eee 2, 286 
For other branch libraries——_—-—----_________-___________________ 622 
To tend vents aa et a ED eee 4, 040 
Wettersiy wail them a es a a oe ee eee 1, 581 
Cataloging 
Volumes= and) pamphlets) cataloged =. a eee 4, 775 
Cards, fledsinteatalozstand shelflists= EEE eee 29, 826 
Other Activities 
Periodicals@entere dss sas ce ee a et ee ae ee eee 12, 258 
Loans of sbo0oksandrsperiodical sa= as. — es a ee eee — 9,978 
Volumesisentuto: the) bindery 2 eee eee 1, 400 


Respectfully submitted. 
Lema F, Cuarn, Librarian. 


Dr. C. G. Assor, 


Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


APPENDIX 11 
REPORT ON PUBLICATIONS 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publi- 
cations of the Smithsonian Institution and the Government branches 
under its administrative charge during the year ended June 30, 1942: 

The Institution published during the year 18 papers in the Smith- 
sonian Miscellaneous Collections, and title page and table of con- 
tents of volumes 73 and 99 of this series; 2 papers in the War Back- 
ground Studies series; 1 Annual Report and pamphlet copies of 23 
articles in the Report appendix; and 3 special publications. Addi- 
tional copies of two volumes of the Smithsonian’s series of tables 
were also printed. 

The United States National Museum issued 1 Annual Report; 36 
- Proceedings papers; 3 Bulletins and 1 part each of 3 Bulletins; 1 
separate paper in the Bulletin series of Contributions from the 
United States National Herbarium. 

The Bureau of American Ethnology issued 1 Annual Report and 3 
Bulletins. 

The Astrophysical Observatory issued volume 6 of the Annals of the 
Astrophysical Observatory. 

Of the publications there were distributed 162,525 copies, which 
included 17 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Contributions 
to Knowledge, 37,650 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian 
Miscellaneous Collections, 22,052 volumes and separates of the Smith- 
sonian Annual Reports, 1,245 War Background Studies papers, 2,575 
Smithsonian special publications, 82,545 volumes and separates of 
National Museum publications, 11,631 publications of the Bureau of 
American Ethnology, 6 publications of the National Collection of 
Fine Arts, 3 publications of the Freer Gallery of Art, 14 reports on 
the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 1,362 Annals of the Astrophysical 
Observatory, and 383 reports of the American Historical Association. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


There were issued title page and table of contents of volumes 
73 and 99, 3 papers of volume 99, 15 papers of volume 101, and 
reprints of volumes 86 and 88, as follows: 
VOLUME 73 


Title page and table of contents. (Publ. 3648.) December 16, 1941. 
91 


92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


VOLUME 99 


No. 8. Check-list of the terrestrial and fresh-water Isopoda of Oceania, by 
H. Gordon Jackson. 35 pp. (Publ. 35938.) July 23, 1941. 

No. 22. The ice age problem, by Walter Knoche. 5 pp. (Publ. 3633.) July 
30, 1941. 

No. 23. Evidences of early occupation in Sandia Cave, New Mexico, and 
other sites in the Sandia-Manzano region, by Frank C. Hibben, with appendix 
on Correlation of the deposits of Sandia Cave, New Mexico, with the glacial 
chronology, by Kirk Bryan. vi-+64 pp., 15 pls., 9 figs. (Publ. 3636.) October 
15, 1941. 

Title page and table of contents. (Publ. 3644.) November 13, 1941. 


VOLUME 101 


No. 2. A new salamander of the genus Gyrinophilus from the southern Ap- 
palachians, by M. B. Mittleman and Harry G. M. Jopsen. 5 pp., 1 pl. (Publ. 
38638.) July 14, 1941. 

No. 3. Environment and native subsistence economies in the central Great 
Plains, by Waldo R. Wedel. 29 pp., 5 pls. 1 fig. (Publ. 3639.) August 20, 
1941. 

No. 4. Diseases of and artifacts on skulls and bones from Kodiak Island, by 
AleS Hrdlitka. 14 pp., 11 pls. (Publ. 3640.) September 23, 1941. 

No. 5. On solar-constant and atmospheric temperature changes, by Henryk 
Aretowski. vi+62 pp., 33 figs. (Publ. 3641.) November 7, 1941. 

No. 6 Beetles of the genus Hyperaspis inhabitating the United States, by Th. 
Dobzhansky. 94 pp., 6 pls. (Publ. 3642.) December 31, 1941. 

No. 7. Archeological remains in central Kansas and their possible bearing 
on the location of Quivira, by Waldo R. Wedel. 24 pp., 10 pls., 1 fig. (Publ. 
3647.) January 15, 1942. 

No. 8. Bees of the family Hylaeidae from the Ethiopian region, by T. D. A. 
Cockerell. 15 pp. (Publ. 3649.) February 19, 1942. 

No. 9. Notes on some American fresh-water amphipod crustaceans and de- 
scriptions of a new genus and two new species, by Clarence R. Shoemaker. 
31 pp., 12 figs. (Publ. 3675.) February 16, 1942. 

No. 10. Faunal content of the Maryville formation, by Charles E. Resser. 
8 pp. (Publ. 3676.) February 13, 1942. 

No. 11. Amphipod crustaceans collected on the Presidential Cruise of 1938, 
by Clarence R. Shoemaker. 52 pp., 17 figs. (Publ. 3677.) March 5, 1942. 

No. 12. The quantity of vaporous water in the atmosphere, by C. G. Abbot. 
7 pp. (Publ. 3678.) March 23, 1942. 

No. 18. A new titanothere from the Eocene of Mississippi, with notes on the 
correlation between the marine Eocene of the Gulf Coastal Plain and conti- 
nental Eocene of the Recky Mountain region, by C. L. Gazin and J. Magruder 
Sullivan. 13 pp., 3 pls. 1 fig. (Publ. 38679.) April 23, 1942. 

No. 14. Two new fossil birds from the Oligicence of South Dakota, by 
Alexander Wetmore. 6 pp., 18 figs. (Publ. 3680.) May 11, 1942. 

No. 15. Fifth contribution to nomenclature of Cambrian fossils, by Charles E. 
Resser. 58 pp. (Publ. 3682.) May 22, 1942. 

No. 17. Developmental physiology of the grass seedling. I. Inhibition of the 
mesocotyl of Avena sativa by continuous exposure to light of low intensities, by 
Robert L. Weintraub and Edward D. McAlister. 10 pp., 1 pl., 4 figs. (Publ. 3685.) 
June 24, 1942. 


Additional copies of the following two volumes were printed: 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 93 


VOLUME 86 


Smithsonian Meteorological Tables, Fifth Revised Edition, First Reprint. 
Ixxxvi+282 pp. (Publ. 3116.) 


VOLUME 885 


Smithsonian Physical Tables, Highth Revised Edition, First Reprint. liv+686 
pp. (Publ. 3171.) 
WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES 


In the new series of Smithsonian publications, War Background 
Studies, the following papers were issued: 
No. 1. Origin of the Far Eastern civilizations: a brief handbook, by Carl 
Whiting Bishop. 53 pp., 12 pls., 21 figs. (Publ. 3681.) June 10, 1942. 
No. 2. The evolution of nations, by John R. Swanton. 28 pp. (Publ. 3686.) 
June 24, 1942. 
SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS 


Report for 1940.—The complete volume of the Annual Report of 
the Board of Regents for 1940 was received from the Public Printer 
in October 1941. 


Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution 
showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the 
year ended June 30, 1940. xiii+512 pp., 107 pls., 28 figs. (Publ. 3606.) 


The appendix contained the following papers: 


Solar prominences in motion, by Robert R. McMath. 

The satellites of Jupiter, by Seth B. Nicholson. 

Cultural values of physics, by David Dietz. 

Nuclear fission, by Karl K. Darrow. 

The national standards of measurement, by Lyman J. Briggs. 

The rise of the organic chemical industry in the United States, by 
C. M. A. Stine. 

The rubber industry, 1839-1939, by W. A. Gibbons. 

The future of man as an inhabitant of the earth, by Kirtley F. Mather. 

The search for oil, by G. M. Lees. 

Perspectives in evolution, by James Ritchie, M. A., D. Sc. 

Animal behavior, by Ernest P. Walker. 

The national wildlife refuge program of the Fish and Wildlife Service, 
by Ira N. Gabrielson. 

A living fossil, by J. L. B. Smith. 

Insects and the spread of plant diseases, by Walter Carter. 

The Mexican bean beetle, by W. H. White. 

Plant-tissue cultures, by Robert L. Weintraub. 

The botany and history of Zizania aquatica L. (‘wild rice’), by Charles 
E. Chambliss. 

Prehistoric culture waves from Asia to America, by Diamond Jenness. 

Masked medicine societies of the Iroquois, by William N. Fenton. 

The beginnings of civilization in eastern Asia, by Carl Whiting Bishop. 

Stonehenge: Today and yesterday, by Frank Stevens, O. B. E., F. S. A. 

Sulfanilamide and related chemicals in the treatment of infectious dis- 
eases, by Wesley W. Spink, M. D. 


94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


The future of flying, by H. E. Wimperis, C. B., C. B. E., Hon. D. Eng, 
(Melb.), Past President Royal Aeronautical Society. 


Report for 1941.—The Report of the Secretary, which included the 
financial report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, 
and which will form part of the Annual Report of the Board of 
Regents to Congress, was issued in January 1942. 


Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and financial report 
of the executive committee of the Board of Regents for the year ended June 30, 
1940. ix+136 pp., 5 pls., 2 figs. (Publ. 3643.) 


The Report volume, containing the general appendix, was in press at 


the close of the year. 
SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS 


Handbook of the National Aircraft Collection, Fifth Edition, by Paul E. Garber. 
43 pp., 26 pls., 1 fig. (Publ. 3635.) July 23, 1941. 

Classified list of Smithsonian publications available for distribution December 
1, 1941, compiled by Helen Munroe. 42 pp. (Publ. 3645.) December 11, 1941. 

Brief guide to the Smithsonian Institution, Fifth Edition. 80 pp., 53 ills. 
(Publ. BL.) May 1942. 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM 


The editorial work of the National Museum has continued during 
the year under the immediate direction of the editor, Paul H. Oehser. 
There were issued 1 Annual Report, 36 Proceedings papers, 6 Bulletins, 
and 1 separate paper in the Bulletin series of Contributions from the 
United States National Herbarium, as follows: 


MUSEUM REPORT 


Report on the progress and condition of the United States National Museum 
for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1941. iii+118 pp. January 1942. 


PROCEEDINGS: VOLUME 87 


Title page, table of contents, and index. Pp. i-viii, 635-672. September 16, 
1941. 
VOLUME 90 


No. 3107. Revision of the North American moths of the family Oecophoridae, 
with descriptions of new genera and species, by J. F. Gates Clarke. Pp. 33-286, 
pls. 148. November 6, 1941. 

No. 3109. A history of the division of vertebrate paleontology in the United 
States National Museum, by ©. W. Gilmore. Pp. 305-377, pls. 49-53. August 5, 
1941. 

No. 3110. A new harpacticoid copepod from the gill chambers of a marsh crab, 
by Arthur G. Humes. Pp. 379-885, fig. 18. August 5, 1941. 

No. 3112. Cestode parasites of teleost fishes of the Woods Hole region, Massa- 
chusetts, by Edwin Linton. Pp. 417-442, pls. 60-62. July 15, 1941. 

No. 3113. Pamlico fossil echinoids, by Willard Berry. Pp. 443-445, pis. 63-65. 
July 5, 1941. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 95 


No. 3115. Notes on Mexican turtles of the genus Kinosternon, by Leonhard 
Stejneger. Pp. 457-459. July 25, 1941. 

No. 3116. A revision of the chalcid-flies of the genus Monodontomerus in the 
United States National Museum, by A. B. Gahan. Pp. 461-482. August 19, 1941. 

No. 3117. Notes on the birds of North Carolina, by Alexander Wetmore. Pp. 
488-530. October 31, 1941. 

No. 3118. Notes on some North and Middle American danaid butterflies, by 
Austin H. Clark. Pp. 531-542, pls. 71-74. November 4, 1941. 

No. 3119. A new genus of psammocharid wasp from China, by P. P. Babiy. 
Pp. 548-546, fig. 23. October 24, 1941. 

No. 3120. Two new species of Cecidomyiid flies from Phlox, by Charles 
T. Greene. Pp. 547-551, fig. 24. October 30, 1941. 


VOLUME 91 


No. 3121. The mammalian faunas of the Paleocene of central Utah, with notes 
on the geology, by C. Lewis Gazin. Pp. 1-53, figs. 1-29, pls. 1-3. October 2, 1941. 

No. 3122. A new fossil crocodilian from Colombia, by Charles C. Mook. 
Pp. 55-58, pls. 4-9. January 17, 1942. 

No. 3123. The North American moths of the genus Arachnis, with one new 
species, by J. F. Gates Clarke. Pp. 59-70, pls. 10-12. November 14, 1941. 

No. 3124. Some little-known fossil lizards from the Oligocene of Wyoming, 
by Charles W. Gilmore. Pp. 71-76, figs. 30-82. November 13, 1941. 

No. 3125. New species of hydroids, mostly from the Atlantic Ocean, in the 
United States National Museum, by C. McLean Fraser. Pp. 77-89, pls. 13-18. 
November 14, 1941. 

No. 3126. The Nevada early Ordovician (Pogonip) sponge fauna, by R. S. 
Bassler. Pp. 91-102, pls. 19-24. November 1, 1941. 

No. 3127. The Mexican subspecies of the snake Coniophanes fissidens, by 
Hobart M. Smith. Pp. 103-111, fig. 33. November 18, 1941. 

No. 3128. Report on the Smithsonian-Firestone expedition’s collection of 
reptiles and amphibians from Liberia, by Arthur Loveridge. Pp. 113-140, fig. 
34. November 14, 1941. 

No. 3129. Notes on some crayfishes from Alabama caves, with the description 
of a new species and a new subspecies, by Rendell Rhoades. Pp. 141-148, 
figs. 35, 36. November 6, 1941. 

No. 3180. Notes on the snake genus Trimorphodon, by Hobart M. Smith. 
Pp. 149-168, figs. 37, 38. November 10, 1941. 


VOLUME 92 


No. 3138. Notes on two genera of American flies of the family Trypetidae, by 
John R. Malloch. Pp. 1-20, fig. 1. January 7, 1942. 

No. 31384. The Freda, N. Dak., meteorite: A nickel-rich ataxite, by EH. P. 
Henderson and Stuart H. Perry. Pp. 21-23, pls. 1-4. March 23, 1942. 

No. 3135. Some cestodes from Florida sharks, by Asa C. Chandler. Pp. 25-31, 
figs. 2,3. February 9, 1942. 

No. 3136. A new species of phyllopod crustacean from the southwestern 
short-grass prairies, by J. G. Mackin. Pp. 33-39, figs. 4-6. April 15, 1942. 

No. 3137. Descriptions of five new species of Chalcidoidea, with notes on a 
few described species (Hymenoptera), by A. B. Gahan. Pp. 41-51. March 
4, 1942. 

No. 31388. A new stomatopod crustacean from the west coast of Mexico, by 
Steve A. Glassell. Pp. 53-56, fig. 7. March 26, 1942. 


96 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


No. 3189. The chrysomelid beetles Luperodes bivittatus (LeConte) and vari- 
cornis (LeConte) and some allied species, by Doris H. Blake. Pp. 57-74, pls. 
5,6. April 7, 1942. 

No. 3140. Notes on the classification of the staphylinid beetles of the groups 
Lispini and Osoriinae, by Richard EB. Blackwelder. Pp. 75-90. April 7, 1942. 

No. 3141. Scored bone artifacts of the central Great Plains, by W. R. 
Wedel and A. T. Hill. Pp. 91-100, pls. 7-18. April 28, 1942. 

No. 3142. The identity of some marine annelid worms in the United States 
National Museum, by Olga Hartman. Pp. 101-140, figs. 8-15. June 10, 1942. 

No. 3143. The Sardis (Georgia) meteorite, by E. P. Henderson and C. Wythe 
Cooke. Pp. 141-150, pls. 14, 15. April 30, 1942. 

No. 3144. Rhopocrinus, a new fossil inadunate crinoid genus, by Edwin 
Kirk. Pp. 151-155, pl. 16. April 24, 1942. 

No. 3145. Notes on beetles related to Phyllophaga UHarris, with descrip- 
tions of new genera and subgenera, by Lawrence W. Saylor. Pp. 157-165, pl. 17. 
June 11, 1942. 

No. 3146. Descriptions of the larvae of some West Indian melolonthine 
beetles and a key to the known larvae of the tribe, by Adam G. Boving. 
Pp. 167-176, pls. 18, 19. June 18, 1942. 


BULLETINS 


No. 50, part 9. The birds of North and Middle America. Families Gruidae, 
Rallidae, Heliornithidae, and Eurypygidae, by Robert Ridgway and Herbert 
Friedmann. ix-+254 pp., 16 figs. October 2, 1941. 

No. 82, volume 1, part 4a. A monograph of the existing crinoids. The super- 
family Mariametrida (except the family Colobometridae), by Austin H. Clark. 
vii+603 pp., 61 pls. August 5, 1941. 

No. 161, part 8. The Foraminifera of the tropical Pacific collections of the 
“Albatross,” 1899-1900. Heterohelicidae and Buliminidae, by Joseph Augustine 
Cushman. x-+67 pp., 15 pis. February 10, 1941. 

No. 177. The herpetology of Hispaniola, by Doris M. Cochran. vii+398 pp., 
12 pls. July 8, 1941. 

No. 178. Catalog of the type specimens of mammals in the United States 
National Museum, including the Biological Surveys collection, by Arthur J. 
Poole and Viola 8. Schantz. xiii+705 pp. April 8, 1942. 

No. 179. Life histories of North American flycatchers, larks, swallows, and 
their allies, by Arthur Cleveland Bent. xi+555 pp., 70 pls. May 8, 1942. 


CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE U. S. NATIONAL HERBARIUM : VOLUME 28 


Part 4. Plants collected by R. C. Ching in southern Mongolia and Kansu 
Province, China, by E. H. Walker. xiii++-675 pp., pls. 21-27. July 22, 1941. 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


The editorial work of the Bureau has continued under the immedi- 
ate direction of the editor, M. Helen Palmer. During the year there 
were issued 1 Annual Report and 3 Bulletins, as follows: 


REPORT 


Fifty-eighth annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1940-1941. 
18 pp. February 11, 1942. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 97 


BULLETINS 


129. An archeological survey of Pickwick Basin in the adjacent portions 
of the States of Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee, by William 8. Webb 
and David L. DeJarnette. With additions by Walter B. Jones, J. P. E. Mor- 
rison, Marshall T. Newman and Charles E. Snow, and William G. Haag. 538 
pp., 316 pls., 99 figs. March 23, 1942. 

1380. [Archeological investigations at Buena Vista Lake, Kern County, 
California, by Waldo R. Wedel. With appendix, Skeletal remains from the 
Buena Vista sites, California, by T. D. Stewart. 194 pp., 57 pls., 19 figs. 
July 14, 1941. 

131. Peachtree Mound and village site, Cherokee County, North Carolina, 
by Frank M. Setzler and Jesse D. Jennings. With appendix, Skeletal remains 
from the Peachtree Site, North Carolina, by T. D. Stewart. 103 pp., 50 pls., 
12 figs. October 9, 1941. 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY 


With funds supplied by John A. Roebling, the Astrophysical 
Observatory was able to publish volume 6 of the Annals. 
Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, Vol- 


ume 6, by ©. G. Abbot, L. B. Aldrich, and W. H. Hoover. viii+207 pp., 7 pls., 
18 figs. (Publ. 3650.) April 24, 1942. 


REPORT OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


The annual reports of the American Historical Association are 
transmitted by the Association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian 
Institution and are communicated by him to Congress, as provided 
by the act of incorporation of the Association. The report for 1939 
(Proceedings) was issued in October 1941. The following were in 
press at the close of the year: Report for 1936, volume 3 (“Instruc- 
tions of the British Foreign Secretaries to their envoys in the United 
States, 1791-1812”) ; report for 1937, volume 2 (Writings in American 
History, 1937, 1938) ; report for 1939, volume 1 (Proceedings) ; report 
for 1940; and report for 1941, volume 1, and volume 2 (Talleyrand 
in America as a financial promoter, 1794-96). 


REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, DAUGHTERS OF THE 
AMERICAN REVOLUTION 


The manuscript of the Forty-fourth Annual Report of the Na- 
tional Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, was trans- 
mitted to Congress, in accordance with law, November 26, 1941. 


ALLOTMENTS FOR PRINTING 


The congressional allotments for the printing of the Smithsonian 
Annual Reports to Congress and the various publications of the Gov- 
ernment bureaus under the administration of the Institution were 


98 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


virtually used up at the close of the year. The appropriation for 
the coming year ending June 30, 1943, totals $88,500, allotted as 
follows: 


Smithsonian Institutions. ae ee $16, 000 
National, Museum: 22 2 ees eee ee eee eee 43, 000 
Bureau or American dichno] Og ye = es eee ee 17, 480 
National: Collectionso£ Wine Artss2) = 500 
international Wxchanges 2922 2 awe 2 eee 200 
NationaleZoologiealt Park= ss. eee 200 
Astrophysical i @bservato Gy ee 500 
Americans Historical Associations ne eee 10, 620 

Ml 0521] ee ee ee eee ee eee 88, 500 


Respectfully submitted. 
W. P. Trot, Chief, Editorial Division. 
Dr. C. G. Axszor, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF 
THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- 
SONIAN INSTITUTION 


FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1942 


To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: 

Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report 
in relation to the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, together with 
a, statement of the appropriations by Congress for the Government 
bureaus in the administrative charge of the Institution. 


SMITHSONIAN ENDOWMENT FUND 


The original bequest of James Smithson was £104,960 8s. 6d.—$508,318.46. 
Refunds of money expended in prosecution of the claim, freights, insurance, 
ete., together with payment into the fund of the sum of £5,015, which had been 
withheld during the lifetime of Madame de la Batut, brought the fund to the 
amount of $550,000. 

Since the original bequest the Institution has received gifts from various 
sources chiefly in the years prior to 1893, the income from which may be used 
for the general work of the Institution. 

To these gifts has been added capital from savings on income, gain from Sale 
of securities, etc., and they now stand on the books of the Institution as follows: 


Avery, Robert S. and Lydia T., bequest fund_-____________ $51, 044. 98 
Endowment fund, from gifts, income, ete__________________ 263, 748. 57 
Habel DreeS.  Degueste rund a= 222 - Seber See ieee eer rene 500. 00 
Hachenberg, George P. and Caroline, bequest fund______-_ 4, 001. 06 
Hamilton sJamess bequest, tunds-a-- sae nn ee 2, 901. 61 
Henry. Caroline bequest fund 220282 aes Sees ee 1, 203. 20 
Hodgkins; Thomas’ Gs funds =a eee Beeb 20 ee beards 146, 067. 43 
SEES a rh 8 GY 8 laces, ean RO ee Ny Ry MN Bue Pe 728, 854. 50 
Rhees, William Jones, bequest fund___________________-___ 1, 060. 64 
Sanford, Georges Hey amemorial funds. 222 fase eee 1, 985. 61 
Witherspoon, Thomas A., memorial fund_—_________________ 128,385. 77 
SCC Lealeeh UT eats ee een er eons alee lea Ea 1, 400. 00 


Total endowment for general work of the Institution____ 1, 331, 153. 37 
The Institution holds also a number of endowment gifts, the income 


of each being restricted to specific use. These are invested and stand 
on the books of the Institution as follows: 


Abbott, William L., fund, bequest to the Institution______________ $103, 157. 88 
Arthur, James, fund, income for investigations and study of the 
SUNEANG 1eCLUre OMG tne rs UN eee ree ee ee 39, 787. 45 
99 


501591—_43——_8 


100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Bacon, Virginia Purdy, fund, for a traveling scholarship to investi- 


gate fauna of countries other than the United States____-_____ $49, 842. 89 
Baird, Lucy H., fund, for creating a memorial to Secretary Baird_- 17, 538. 76 
Barstow, Frederic D., fund, for purchase of animals for the 

AOOLOSICAS Parks 2 Se oe ee ee 756. 76 
Canfield Collection fund, for increase and care of the Canfield 

COLLECHTONOL sm Mera sos a a 38, 050. 18 
Casey, Thomas L., fund, for maintenance of the Casey collection 

and promotion of researches relating to Coleoptera__._________ 9, 124. 91 
Chamberlain, Francis Lea, fund, for increase and promotion of 

Isaac Lea collection of gems and mollusks___________-_____--- 28, 015. 52 
Hillyer, Virgil, fund, for increase and care of Virgil Hillyer collec- 

tion of Lighting toh ects 22s See Tee ee eee ee 6, 538. 40 
Hitchcock, Dr. Albert S., Library fund, for care of Hitchcock 

IASrostological bil Dra nya oe ee eee 1, 413. 20 


Hodgkins fund, specific, for increase and diffusion of more exact 
knowledge in regard to nature and properties of atmospheric 


Slay Ss Ss eek ee ese Be ee St eee ee 100, 000. 00 
Hughes, Bruce, fund, to found Hughes alcove____________________ 19, 042. 76 


Myer, Catherine Walden, fund, for purchase of first-class works of 
art for the use of, and benefit of, the National Collection of 


DAD TT Seer Wal pe a aR ct ey et a ens ary eR Ss Ee goa hs arte 18, 858. 45 
National Collection of Fine Arts, Strong Bequest____-_-_____-______ 9, 946. 50 
Pell, Cornelia Livingston, fund, for maintenance of Alfred Duane 

GTA CORTC CET IN 2a ar 7, 874. 38 
Poore, Lucy T. and George W., fund, for general use of the 

Institution when principal amounts to the sum of $250,000______ 84. 382. 57 
Reid, Addison T., fund, for founding chair in biology in memory 

ORAS PON UT Sa a ee 29, 977. 61 
Roebling fund, for care, improvement, and increase of Roebling 

collection: of -mineralS= 2-22 < 2. = a ee 120, 067. 00 
Rollins, Miriam and William, fund, for investigations in physics 

ands Chemisthye= =< 2 ee eee ae ee ee ae 89, 495. 28 
Smithsonian employees retirement fund__._____-________________ 20, 893. 67 
Springer, Frank, fund, for care, ete., of Springer collection and 

RUS TSI fo a ee 17, 840. 52 


Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, research fund, for develop- 
ment of geological and paleontological studies and publishing 


MESUIESAENCrCOL, 220 8= 5 ok ee eee 354, 214. 8S 
Younger, Helen Walcott, fund, held in trust==4-=—— 22252 50, 112. 50 
Zerbee, Frances Brincklé, fund, for endowment of aquaria____-__- t5T. 15 
Special research fund, gift, in the form of real estate_______--___ 20, 946. 00 


Total endowment for specific purposes other than Freer 
endowment2& 2207 ot 22-33 eee eee 1, 238, 135. 22 


_ The above funds amount to a total of $2,569,288.59, and are carried 
in the following investment accounts of the Institution : 


U. S. Treasury deposit account, drawing 6 percent interest________ $1, 000, 000. 00 
Consolidated investment fund (income in table below) —-~--_--___ 1, 270, 968. 45 
Realestate: mortzarces. etc 2 228 ee eee ee ee 246, S07. 64 
Special funds, miscellaneous investments_______---_-_-_________ 51, 512. 50 


2, 569, 288. 59 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 101 


CONSOLIDATED FUND 


Statement of principal and income for the last 10 years 


Fiscal year Capital Income Rerents Fiscal year Capital Income Peon: 
1O33eee— = ee $764, 077. 67 | $28, 185. 11 3.68 VOSS ier 2a $867, 528. 50 | $34, 679. 64 4.00 
iit)” Sas eee 754, 570. 84 26, 650. 32 3. 66 1939 o= ea 902, 801. 27 30, 710. 53 3.40 
1 LS 9 an eek 706, 765. 68 26, 808. 86 3.79 19402. ee 1, 081, 249. 25 38, 673. 29 3.47 
is eee 723, 795. 46 26, 836. 61 eH Al 1941 Pe See 1, 093, 301. 51 41, 167. 38 3.76 

3. 67 


RY ee ae 738, 858. 54 | 33, 819. 43 AE67))| 1942022 See e ee 1, 270, 968.45 | 46, 701. 98 


FREER GALLERY OF ART FUND 


Early in 1906, by deed of gift, Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, gave to 
the Institution his collection of Chinese and other Oriental objects 
of art, as well as paintings, etchings, and other works of art by 
Whistler, Thayer, Dewing, and other artists. Later he also gave 
funds for the construction of a building to house the collection, and 
finally in his will, probated November 6, 1919, he provided stock and 
securities to the estimated value of $1,958,591.42 as an endowment 
fund for the operation of the gallery. From the above date to the 
present time these funds have been increased by stock dividends, sav- 
ings of income, etc., to a total of $5,912,878.64. In view of the im- 
portance and special nature of the gift and the requirements of the 
testator in respect to it, all Freer funds are kept separate from the 
other funds of the Institution, and the accounting in respect to them 
is stated separately. 

The invested funds of the Freer bequest are classified as follows: 


Courteandseround shin 022s ee ee ea ee ee $662, 390. 04 

Court and grounds maintenance fund_______--_________________ 166, 361. 00 

CO ov ees Coy oles QED eV S Eee to A ape eee Te Oe Oa eee ee eee eee 674, O88. 94 

TERS ECU Ty aa] Sl Cy ee a eee eT SF ee 4, 410, 038. 66 

Hl Bo) if) Ee Se Se ee eae Eee ee ee ee eet eee eee 5, 912, 878. 64 

SUMMARY 

Invested endowment for general purposes_________________-_____ $1, 331, 153. 37 
Invested endowment for specific purposes other than Freer en- 

CLOW TD CY nee a a a res Ne ak Se IL, Pts) alts 9-2 

Total invested endowment other than Freer endowment____ 2, 569, 288. 59 

Freer invested endowment for specific purposes____------_---_- 5, 912, 878. 64 


Total invested endowment for all purposes______.--__~--- 8, 482, 167. 23 


102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS 


Deposited in the U. S. Treasury at 6 percent per annum, as au- 

thorized in the United States Revised Statutes, sec. 5591______ $1, 000, 000. 00 
Investments other than Freer endowment (cost or market value 

at date acquired) : 


Bonds i(24.ditterent groups) ee $474, 228. 77 
Stocks/(52 different; eroups)) 22 eee 906, 138. 35 
Real estate and first-mortgage notes___________ 182, 762. 64 
Wninyested ‘capital = ea eee eae Uae ae 6, 158. 83 
—————— 1, 569, 288. 59 
Total investments other than Freer endowment___________ 2, 569, 288. 59 


Investments of Freer endowment (cost or market 
value at date acquired) : 


Bonds | (43) different; groups) ——~_ = $2, 334. 095. 23 
Stocks (69 different groups) _---_-__________ — 8, 469, 025. 55 
Real estate first-mortgage noteg____________ 8, 000. 00 
Uninvested’capital=a st ve aha 28 101, 757. 86 
5, 912, 878. 64 
TOLAL INV CSUIN CI US es ee eer te a 8, 482, 167. 23 


CASH BALANCES, RECEIPTS, AND DISBURSEMENTS DURING THE 
FISCAL YEAR* 


Cash’ balance: on hand June /s0) 19412 ee $497, 141. 14 
Receipts: 
Cash income from various sources for general 
WOK VOL thes LnStitubl Ome se eee 2s $79, 215. 92 
Cash gifts and contributions expendable for 
special scientific objects (not to be in- 


VESCOG) eer eee an ee 38, 100. 00 
Cash gifts for special scientific work (to be 
AINVESted) a= a es 28, 073. 85 


Cash income from endowments for specific 
use other than Freer endowment and from 
miscellaneous sources (including refund 


OL teMmporanye: advan Ces) ae = ee 130, 995. 54 
Cash received as royalties from Smithsonian 
Sclentifie: Series. 2 fe es 18, 173. 47 
Cash capital from sale, call of securities, 
ete (to be reinvested) 2 =e 95, 795. 28 
Total receipts other than Freer endowment_______-______ 390, 354. 06 
Cash income from Freer endowment__________ $241, 557. 77 
Cash capital from sale, call of securities, 
etes (to! be reinvested) == eae 899, 670. 48 
Total receipts from Freer endowment__-_______________ 1, 141, 228. 25 
Totals ee Sa ee A Tne y ARE We IN Br 2, 028, 723. 45 


1This statement does not include Government appropriations under the administrative 
charge of the Institution. 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 103 


Disbursements: 
From funds for general work of the Institution: 


Buildings—care, repairs, and alterations_____ $3, 429.92 
Hurni¢neyand fixtunesse soe see eee 509. 63 
Generaladministration sa 2 22 80, 215. 61 
aa) Vata ff ta ee ee 1, 346. 62 
Publications (comprising preparation, print- 
Ine TandeGistribution))== a= eee 19, 607. 00 
Researches and explorations________________ 6, 444. 42 
Se $61, 553. 20 
From funds for specific use, other than Freer 
Hndowmeni : 
Investments made from gifts, from gain from 
sale, ete., of securities and from savings on 
Wa XO) OaYs) se ee 2 eee ee eae 65, 478. 47 
Other expenditures, consisting largely of re- 
search work, travel, increase and care of 
special collections, ete., from income of en- 
dowment funds, and from cash gifts for spe- 
cifie use (including temporary advances) 91, $31.25 
Reinvestment of cash capital from sale, call 
OLESECUTILICS Ct Ci ea ee ee eee es 89, 677. 17 
Cost of handling securities, fee of investment 
counsel, and accrued interest on bonds pur- 
CHOSCG yee See re EE ee Be 2, 394. 50 
249, 481. 39 
From Freer Endowment: 
Operating expenses of the gallery, salaries, 
fieldexpensesetc eee = eee es 45, 606. 72 
Purchase of ant obj ects222_ 22 aera ees 110, 880. 48 
Investments made from gain from sale, ete., 
OEMS OCU TT ETC eerie cata ee ee 11, 246. 70 
Reinvestment of cash capital from sale, call 
OLFBCCULities = CL Cs a= ae ae me es Bs 790, 392. 39 
Cost of handling securities, fee of investment 
counsel, and accrued interest on bonds pur- 
CHASC CH ALEURES FIRMA Y TOCSY USB eee an 18, 738. 89 
—— 976, 865. 13 
Cashibalancejune sO rd 9425 ese es Se eee eee 740, 823. 73 
RO Ea hanes wabinn eel ae esheets aes PA Ee eee oe 2, 028, 723. 45 


Included in the foregoing are expenditures for researches in pure 
science, publications, explorations, care, increase, and study of collec- 
tions, etc., as follows: 

Expenditures from general funds of the Institution: 


Publication S|] sana eee en ee ee eae $19, 607. 00 


Researches/andexploravions==2-—2-2——- eee 6, 444. 42 
$26, 051. 42 


2 This includes salary of the Secretary and certain others. 


104 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Expenditures from funds devoted to specific purposes : 


Researches anguexploravionss=——— == $42, 855. 38 
Care, increase, and study of special collections______ 3, 253. 26 
Publicationsj-2222 2 5- == Sse8 eee 4, 950. 98 
$51, 059. 62 
Totalos =. 22 See ee ee ee ee eee 77, 111. 04 


The practice of depositing on time in local trust companies and 
banks such revenues as may be spared temporarily has been continued 
during the past year, and interest on these deposits has amounted 
to $263.06. 

The Institution gratefully acknowledges gifts or bequests from the 
following : 


Research Corporation, further contributions for research in radiation. 

John A. Roebling, further contributions for research in radiation. 

Mary Vaux Walcott, bequest to augment the Charles D. and Mary Vaux 
Walcott research fund. 


All payments are made by check, signed by the Secretary of the 
Institution on the Treasurer of the United States, and all revenues 
are deposited to the credit of the same account. In many instances 
deposits are placed in bank for convenience of collection and later 
are withdrawn in round amounts and deposited in the Treasury. 

The foregoing report relates only to the private funds of the 
Institution. 

The following annual appropriations were made by Congress for 
the Government bureaus under the administrative charge of the 
Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year 1942: 

General Expenses (including supplemental appropriation under the 

Ua S peck Arch) esse eee ae ee cian ie Bie $390, 404 

(This combines under one heading the appropriations heretofore 
made for Salaries and Expenses, International Exchanges, 
American Ethnology, Astrophysical Observatory, and National 


Collection of Fine Arts of the Smithsonian Institution, and for 
Maintenance and Operation of the United States National 


Museum. ) 
Preservation of Collections (including supplemental appropriation 
under the*Ramspeck cAce) aso sa) te eae ce e ee e 636, 118 
Printing and:binding=. 222 Os ane A, ee 88, 500 
NationalZoologicaly Parks vesers Ge Srl iid ais Serer iey 239, 260 
Cooperation with the American Republics (transfer to the Smith- 
SOnIan InSti bell om) es eee ee ee eee eee ee a 56, 500 


Ee REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 105 


The report of the audit of the Smithsonian private funds is given 


below: 
SEPTEMBER 8, 1942, 
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, BOARD OF REGENTS, 
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 

Sirs: Pursuant to agreement we have audited the accounts of the Smith- 
sonian Institution for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1942, and certify the balance 
of cash on hand, including Petty Cash Fund, June 380, 1942, to be $742,723.73. 

We have verified the record of receipts and disbursements maintained by 
the Institution and the agreement of the book balances with the bank balances. 

We have examined all the securities in the custody of the Institution and in 
the custody of the banks and found them to agree with the book records. 

We have compared the stated income of such securities with the receipts of 
record and found them in agreement therewith. 

We have examined all vouchers covering disbursements for account of the 
Institution during the fiscal year ended June 380, 1942, together with the author- 
ity therefor, and have compared them with the Institution’s recerd of 
expenditures and found them to agree. 

We have examined and verified the accounts of the Institution with each 
trust fund. 

We found the books of account and records well and accurately kept and the 
securities conveniently filed and securely cared for. 

All information requested by your auditors was promptly and courteously 
furnished. 

We certify the Balance Sheet, in our opinion, correctly presents the financial 
condition of the Institution as at June 30, 1942. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Wir11amM L. YAEGER, 
Certified Public Accountant. 
Respectfully submitted. 


Frepertc A. DELANO, 

VANNEVAR BusH, 

CLARENCE CANNON, 
Heecutive Committee. 


; f 
j nit i oes 
ee aw 1 va WAT 
7 Un 7 4) vi 
D oS 
i vis) 


GENERAL APPENDIX 
TO THE 


SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1942 


107 


a et i as, ——. 2) See yt het eis es 


ADVERTISEMENT 


The object of the Grnrrat AprENpIx to the Annual Report of the 
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- 
covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by 
collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character 
or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous 
correspondents of the Institution. 

It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the 
Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual 
report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more 
remarkable and important developments in physical and biological 
discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations 
of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this 
purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers 
as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. 

In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum- 
mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by 
well-known private publishing firms, the secretary had a series of 
abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the 
prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, 
meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and 
anthropology. ‘This latter plan was continued, though not altogether 
satisfactorily, down to and including the year 18838. 

In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of 
presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) 
embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- 
sion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1942. 

109 


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ald To ebsoga to banoth ddd ito dostte dang & od oad Fe 
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: v 


THE 1914 TESTS OF THE LANGLEY “AERODROME” } 


By C. G. ABBor 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution 


Note.—This paper has been submitted to Dr. Orville Wright, and under date of 
October 8, 1942, he states that the paper as now prepared will be acceptable to him 
if given adequate publication. 

It is everywhere acknowledged that the Wright brothers were the 
first to make sustained flights in a heavier-than-air machine at Kitty 
Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17, 1903. 

Mainly because of acts and statements of former officers of the 
Smithsonian Institution, arising from tests made with the recondi- 
tioned Langley plane of 1903 at Hammondsport, New York, in 1914, 
Dr. Orville Wright feels that the Institution adopted an unfair and 
injurious attitude. He therefore sent the original Wright Kitty Hawk 
plane to England in 1928. The nature of the acts and statements 
referred to are as follows: 

In March 1914, Secretary Walcott contracted with Glenn H. Curtiss 
to attempt a flight with the Langley machine. This action seems ill 
considered and open to criticism. For in January 1914, the United 
States Court of Appeals, Second Circuit, had handed down a decision 
recognizing the Wrights as “pioneers in the practical art of flying with 
heavier-than-air machines” and pronouncing Glenn H. Curtiss an in- 
fringer of their patent. Hence, in view of probable further litigation, 
the Wrights stood to lose in fame and revenue and Curtiss stood to gain 
pecuniarily, should the experiments at Hammondsport indicate that 
Langley’s plane was capable of sustained flight in 1908, previous to the 
successful flights made December 17, 1903, by the Wrights at Kitty 
Hawk, N. C. 

The machine was shipped to Curtiss at Hammondsport, N. Y., in 
April. Dr. Zahm, the Recorder of the Langley Aerodynamical Lab- 
oratory and expert witness for Curtiss in the patent litigation, was at 
Hammondsport as official representative of the Smithsonian Institu- 


1 Reprinted from Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 103, No. 8, Oct. 24, 1942. 
For an account of early Langley and Wright aeronautical investigations, see Smithsonian 
Report for 1900 and The Century Magazine of September 1908. 


111 


112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


tion during the time the machine was being reconstructed and tested. 
In the reconstruction the machine was changed from what it was in 
1903 in a number of particulars as given in Dr. Wright’s list of dif- 
ferences which appears later in this paper. On the 28th of May and 
the 2d of June, 1914, attempts to fly were made. After acquiring speed 
by running on hydroplane floats on the surface of Lake Keuka the 
machine lifted into the air several different times. The longest time 
off the water with the Langley motor was approximately five seconds. 
Dr. Zahm stated that “it was apparent that owing to the great weight. 
which had been given to the structure by adding the floats it was nec- 
essary to increase the propeller thrust”. So no further attempts were 
made to fly with the Langley 52 HP engine. 

It is to be regretted that the Institution published statements re- 
peatedly ? to the effect that these experiments of 1914 demonstrated 
that Langley’s plane of 1903 without essential modification was the 
first heavier-than-air machine capable of maintaining sustained human 
flight. 

As first exhibited in the United States National Museum, January 
15, 1918, the restored Langley plane of 1903 bore the following label: 


THE ORIGINAL, FULL-SIZE 
LANGLEY FLYING MACHINE, 1903 


For this simple label others were later substituted containing the claim 
that Langley’s machine “was the first man-carrying aeroplane in the 
history of the world capable of sustained free flight.” 

Though the matter of the label is not now an issue, it seems only 
fair to the Institution to say that in September 1928, Secretary Abbot 
finally caused the label of the Langley machine to be changed to read 
simply as follows: 


LANGLEY AERODROME 


THE ORIGINAL SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY 
FLYING MACHINE OF 1903, RESTORED. 


Deposited by 
The Smithsonian Institution 
301,613 


This change has frequently been overlooked by writers on the 
controversy. 

In January 1942, Mr. Fred C. Kelly, of Peninsula, Ohio, communi- 
cated to me a list of differences between the Langley plane as tested 
in 1914 and as tested in 1903, which he had received from Dr. Wright. 


2 Smithsonian Reports: 1914, pp. 9, 219, 221, 222; 1915, pp. 14, 121; 1917, p. 4; 1918, pp. 
3, 28, 114, 166. Report of U. 8S. National Museum, 1914, pp. 46 and 47. 


1914 TESTS OF THE LANGLEY “AERODROME”—-ABBOT 113 


This list is given verbatim below. The Institution accepts Dr. 
Wright’s statement as correct in point of facts. Inferences from the 
comparisons are primarily the province of interested experts and are 
not discussed here. 


COMPARISON OF THE LANGLEY MACHINE OF 1903 WITH THE 
HAMMONDSPORT MACHINE OF MAY-JUNE, 1914 


LANGLEY, 1903 HAMMONDSPORT, 1914 


WINGS 


1 Size: 11'6’’ x 22’6’’ (L. M. p. 206) 
2 AREA: 1040 sq. ft. (L. M. p. 206) 
ASPECT RATIO: 1.96 

4 CAMBER: 1/12 (L. M. p. 205) 


LEADING Epcr: Wire 1/16’ di- 
ameter (L. M. Pl. 66) 


(uy) 


or 


6 CoverRING: Cotton fabric, not var- 
nished, 


7 CENTER Spak: Cylindrical wood- 
en spar, measuring 114’ dia. for 
half its length and tapering to 1’’ 
atits tip. (L. M. p. 204). Located 
on upper side of wing. 


8 Riss: Hollow box construction. 
(L. M. Plates 66, 67) 


Syze: 10/1134,’ x 22’6” 
AREA: 988 sq. ft. 
ASPECT RATIO: 2.05 
CAMBER: 1/18 


Leapine Epce: Cylindrical spar 114’’ 
dia. at inner end, tapering to 1’’ dia. 
at outer end. 


COVERING: Cotton fabric, varnished. 


CENTER Spak: Cylindrical spar about 
114”’ dia. at inner end, tapering to 
about 1’’ dia. at outer end. Located 
on upper side of wing. This center 
spar was reinforced (1) by an extra 
wooden member on the under side of 
the wing, which measured 1’’ x 114”" 
and extended to the 7th rib from the 
center of the machine; and (2) by 
another wooden reinforcement on 
the under side extending out about 
one-fourth of the length of the wing. 


Riss: Most of the original Langley 
box ribs were replaced with others 
made at Hammondsport. (Manly 
letter, 1914). The Hammondsport 
ribs were of solid construction and 
made of laminated wood. That part 
of the rib in front of the forward 
spar was entirely omitted. 


114 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


© s 


10 Fock 


9 Lower Guy-Posts: A single round 
wooden post for each pair of wings 
(see Fig. 3), 114’’ in dia. 614’ long. 
(L. M. Plate 62, p. 184). 


10 The front wing guy-post was located 
281%4’’ in front of the main center 
spar. (L. M. Plate 53). 


11 The rear wing guy-post was located 
311%4’’ in front of the main center 
spar. (L. M. Plate 53). 


Upper Guy-Posts: For each pair 
of wings a single steel tube 34’’ dia., 
43’’ long. (lL. M. p. 184, pl. 62). 


12 


13 Front wing upper guy-post located 
2814’ in front of the main center 
spar. (L. M. pl. 53). 


The rear wing upper guy-post was 
located 3144’’ in front of the main 
center spar. (L. M. pl. 53). 


15 Trussinea: The wing trussing wires 
were attached to the spars at the 
5th, 7th and 9th ribs out from the 
center (L. M. pl. 54). The angles 
between these wires and the spars to 
which they were attached are shown 
in Fig. 3. 


14 


HAMMONDSPORT Wine TRUSSING 19/4. 


Lower Guy-Posts: Four for each pair 
of wings (see Fig. 4), two of which 
were of streamline form measuring 
1144”"’ x 3%”’ x 54”’ long; and two meas- 
uring 2’’ x 2’’ with rounded corners, 
3'9’’ long. 


The front wing guy-posts were located 
directly underneath the main center 
spar, 2814’ further rearward than in 
1903. 


The rear wing guy-posts were located 
directly under the main center spar, 
8114’’ further rearward than in 1908. 


Upper Guy-Posts: For each pair of 
wings, two streamline wooden posts 
each 1144’ x 314”’, 76’ long, forming an 
inverted V. (See Fig. 4). 


Front wing upper guy-posts located 
directly over main spar, 281%4’’ further 
rearward than in 1908. 


The rear wing guy-posts were located 
directly over the main center spar, 3114’ 
further rearward than in 1908. 


Trussine: A different system of wing 
trussing was used, and the wing trus- 
sing wires were attached to the spars 
at the 38rd, 6th and 9th ribs from the 
center. The angles between these wires 
and the spars to which they were at- 
tached were all different from those in 
the original Langley machine. (See 
Fig. 4). 


16 


1 


“I 


18 


ly 


1914 TESTS OF THE LANGLEY “AERODROME”—-ABBOT 115 


CONTROL SURFACES 


VANE RuppER: A split vane com- 
posed of two surfaces united at their 
leading edges and separated 15’’ at 
their trailing edges, thus forming a 
wedge. Each surface measured 2’3’’ 
x 4’6’’, with aspect ratio .5. (L. M. 
Dp 214 piss 53, 54). 


Operated by means of a wheel located 
slightly in front of the pilot at his 
right side and at the height of his 
shoulder (L. M. p. 216, pls. 53, 54). 


Used for steerIng only (L. M. p. 214). 


Penaup Tatu: This was a dart- 
shaped tail having a vertical and a 
horizontal surface (Penaud tail), 
each measuring 95 sq. ft. It was 
located in the rear of the main frame. 


Attached to a bracket extending be- 
low the main frame. 


“Normally inactive’, (lL. M. p. 216) 
but adjustable about a transverse 
horizontal axis by means of a self- 
locking wheel located at the right 
side of the pilot, even with his back, 
and at the height of his shoulder. 
{L. M. pls. 51, 53). 


Immovable about a vertical axis. 
(is Me ps 214) pl; 56; Hig: 2.) No 
means were provided for adjusting 
this rudder about a vertical axis in 
flight. “Although it was necessary 
that the large aerodrome should be 
capable of being steered in a hori- 
zoutal direction, it was felt to be 
unwise to give the Penaud tail and 
rudder motion in the horizontal plane 
in order to attain this end.” (lL. M. 
p. 214). 


Kre.t: A fixed vertical surface un- 


derneath the main frame measuring » 


3/2’’ in height by 6’ average length. 
Area .19 sq. ft. (L. M. pl. 53). 


501591—43——_9 


VERTICAL RupperR: The Langley vane 
rudder was replaced by a single plane 
vertical rudder which measured 3’6’’ x 
5’, with aspect ratio of .7. 


Operated at Hammondsport through the 
Curtiss steering wheel in some tests, 
(Zahm affidavit pp. 5, 6), through the 
Curtiss shoulder yoke in some others 
(Manly letter, 1914), and fixed so as 
not to be operable at all in still others, 
(Zahm affidavit p. 7). 


Used “as a vertical aileron to control 
the lateral poise of the machine”, 
(Zahm affidavit p. 6) as well as for 
steering, (Zahm affidavit p. 7). 


Tam, RuppEr: Same size and construc- 
tion as in 1903. 


Attached to same bracket at 2 
about 8’’ higher than in 1903. 


point 


Operable about a transverse horizontal 
axis and connected to a regular Curtiss 
elevator control post directly in front 
of the pilot (Zahm affidavit p. 5). 


immovable about a vertical axis on 
May 28, 1914, only. Thereafter it was 
made movable about a vertical axis 
and was connected through cables to 
a Curtiss steering wheel mounted on a 
Curtiss control post directly in front 
of the pilot. 


Keer: Entirely omitted. 


116 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


1942 


SYSTEM OF CONTROL 


24 LATERAL STABILITY: The dihedral 
only was used for maintaining lat- 
eral balance. (L. M. p. 45). 


25 LONGITUDINAL STABILITY: Langley 
relied upon the Penaud system of 
inherent stability for maintaining 
the longitudinal equilibrium. “For 
the preservation of the equilibrium 
[longitudinal] of the aerodrome, 
though the aviator might assist by 
such slight movements as he was 
able to make in the limited space of 
the aviator’s car, the main reliance 
was upon the Penaud tail.” (lL. M. 
p. 215). 


24 STEERING: Steering in the horizontal 
plane was done entirely by the split- 
vane steering rudder located under- 
neath the main frame. (L. M. p. 
214). 


LATERAL STABILITY: Three means were 
used for securing lateral balance at 
Hammondsport: The dihedral angle as 
used by Langley, a rudder which “serves 
as a vertical aileron’ (Zahm affidavit 
p. 6), and the Penaud tail rudder. The 
last two constituted a system “identical 
in principle with that of Complainant’s 
[Wright] combined warping of the 
wings and the use of the vertical rud- 
der”. (Zahm affidavit p. 6). 


LONGITUDINAL STABILiTty: At Ham- 
mondsport the Penaud inherent longi- 
tudinal stability was supplemented with 
an elevator system of control. 


STEERING: On one day, May 28, 1914, 
steering in the horizontal plane was 
done with the vertical rudder which 
had been substituted for the original 
Langley split-vane steering rudder. 
After May 28th the steering was done 
by the vertical surface of the tail rud- 
der (Zahm affidavit p. 7), which in 1903 
was immovable about a vertical axis, 
(lL. M. p. 214). 


POWER PLANT 


27 
28 


Motor: Langley 5 cylinder radial. 
I@NITION: Jump spark with dry cell 
batteries. (L. M. p. 262). 

CARBURETOR: Balzer carburetor con- 
sisting of a chamber filled with 
lumps of porous cellular wood sat- 
urated with gasoline. The air was 


29 


drawn through this wood. There 
was no float feed. (LL. M. p. 225). 
30 Raptator: Tubes with radiating 


fins. 
31 PROPELLERS: Langley propellers (1. 
M. pl. 53, pp. 178-182). 


Motor: Langley motor modified. 
IGNITION: Jump Spark with magneto. 
type with 


CARBURETOR: Automobile 


float feed. 


RapiatTor: Automobile radiator of 
honeycomb type. 

PROPELLERS: Langley propellers modi- 
fied “after fashion of early Wright 
blades”. 


1914 TESTS OF THE LANGLEY “AERODROME”—ABBOT Riz 


LAUNCHING AND FLOATS 


32 LAUNCHING: Catapult mounted on LauncHine: Hydroplanes, developed 
a houseboat. 1909-1914, attached to the machine. 

33 FLoats: Five cylindrical tin floats, Froars: Two wooden hydroplane floats, 
with conical ends, attached to under- mounted beneath and about 6 feet to 
side of main frame at appropriate either side of the center of the machine 
points, and about six feet above low- at the lateral extremities of the Pratt 
est part of machine. system of trussing used for bracing the 

wing spars of the forward wings; and 
one (part of the time two) tin cylin- 
dvrical floats with conical ends, similar 
to but larger than the Langley floats, 
mounted at the center of the Pratt 
system of trussing used for bracing the 
rear wings. All of the floats were 
mounted from four to five feet lower 
than the floats of the original Langley, 
thus keeping the entire machine above 
the water. 


WEIGHT 


384 TotaL WEIGHT: With pilot, 850 Toran Weicut: With pilot, 1170 


pounds (L, M. p. 256). pounds. 
85 CENTER Gravity: 3/8’’ above line of CrenTER GRAVITY: About one foot below 
thrust. line of thrust. 


Since I became Secretary, in 1928, I have made many efforts to com- 
pose the Smithsonian-Wright controversy, which I inherited. I will 
now, speaking for the Smithsonian Institution, make the following 
statement in an attempt to correct as far as now possible acts and 
assertions of former Smithsonian officials that may have been mis- 
leading or are held to be detrimental to the Wrights. 

1. I sincerely regret that the Institution employed to make the 
tests of 1914 an agent who had been an unsuccessful defendant in 
patent litigation brought against him by the Wrights. 

2. I sincerely regret that statements were repeatedly made by officers 
of the Institution that the Langley machine was flown in 1914 “with 
certain changes of the machine necessary to use pontoons,” without 
mentioning the other changes included in Dr. Wright’s list. 

3. L point out that Assistant Secretary Rathbun was misinformed 
when he stated that the Langley machine “without modification” made 
“successful flights.” 

4. I sincerely regret the public statement by officers of the Institu- 
tion that “The tests” [of 1914] showed “that the late Secretary Langley 


had succeeded in building the first aeroplane capable of sustained free 
flight with a man.” 


118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


5. Leaving to experts to formulate the conclusions arising from the 
1914 tests as a whole, in view of all the facts, I repeat in substance, but 
with amendments, what I have already published in Smithsonian Sci- 
entific Series, Vol. 12, 1932, page 227: 


The flights of the Langley aerodrome at Hammondsport in 
1914, having been made long after flying had become a common 
art, and with changes of the machine indicated by Dr. Wright’s 
comparison as given above, did not warrant the statements pub- 
lished by the Smithsonian Institution that these tests proved 
that the large Langley machine of 1903 was capable of sustained 
flight carrying a man. 


6. If the publication of this paper should clear the way for Dr. 
Wright to bring back to America the Kitty Hawk machine to which 
all the world awards first place, it will be a source of profound and 
enduring gratification to his countrymen everywhere. Should he 
decide to deposit the plane in the United States National Museum, 
it would be given the highest place of honor, which is its due. 


THE PROBLEM OF THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE? 


By EpwIn HUBBLE 
Mount Wilson Observatory 


I propose to discuss the problem of the expanding universe trom the 
observational point of view. The fact that such a venture is permis- 
sible is emphatic evidence that empirical research has definitely en- 
tered the field of cosmology. ‘The exploration of space has swept out- 
ward in successive waves, first, through the system of the planets, 
then, through the stellar system, and, finally, into the realm of the 
nebulae. Today we study a region of space so vast and so homo- 
geneous that it may well be a fair sample of the universe. At any 
rate, we are justified in adopting the assumption as a working hypothe- 
sis and attempting to infer the nature of the universe from the ob- 
served characteristics of the sample. One phase of this ambitious 
project is the observational test of the current theory of the expanding 
universes of general relativity. 

I shall briefly describe the observable region of space as revealed 
by preliminary reconnaissance with large telescopes, then sketch the 
theory in outline, and, finally, discuss the recent more accurate ob- 
servations that were designed to clarify and to test the theory. 


THE OBSERVABLE REGION 


The sun, as you know, is a star, one of several thousand million stars 
which together form the stellar system. This system is a great swarm 
of stars isolated in space. It drifts through the universe as a swarm 
of bees moves through the summer air. From our position near the 
sun we look out through the swarm of stars, past the borders, and 
into the universe beyond. 

Until recently those outer regions lay in the realm of speculation. 
Today we explore them with confidence. They are empty for the 
most part, vast stretches of empty space. But here and there, sep- 
arated by immense intervals, other stellar systems are found, com- 
parable with our own. We find them thinly scattered through space 


1 Reprinted by permission from the Sigma Xi quarterly, vol. 30, No. 2, April 1942. In- 
cluded in Science in Progress, Series III, fall, 19-42. 


119 


120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


out as far as telescopes can reach. They are so distant that, in gen- 
eral, they appear as small faint clouds mingled among the stars, and 
many of them have long been known by the name “nebulae.” Their 
identification as great stellar systems, the true inhabitants of the uni- 
verse, was a recent achievement of great telescopes. 

On photographs made with such instruments, these nebulae, these 
stellar systems, appear in many forms. Nevertheless they fall nat- 
urally into an ordered sequence ranging from compact globular masses 
through flattening ellipsoids into a line of unwinding spirals. The 
array exhibits the progressive development of a single basic pattern, 
and is known as the sequence of classification. It may represent the 
life history of stellar systems. At any rate, it emphasizes the common 
features of bodies that belong to a single family. 

Consistent with this interpretation is the fact that these stellar 
systems, regardless of their structural forms, are all of the same gen- 
eral order of intrinsic luminosity; that 1s, of candlepower. They 
average about 100 million suns and most of them fall within the 
narrow range from one-half to twice this average value. Giants and 
dwarfs are known, 10 to 20 times brighter or fainter than the average, 
but their numbers appear to be relatively small. ‘This conclusion is 
definitely established in the case of giants, which can be readily ob- 
served throughout an immense volume of space, but is still speculative 
in the case of dwarfs which can be studied only in our immediate 
vicinity. 

The limited range in luminosity is important because it offers a 
convenient measure of distance. As a first approximation, we may 
assume that the nebulae are all equally luminous, and, consequently, 
that their apparent faintness indicates their distances. The procedure 
is not reliable in the case of a single object because the particular 
nebula might happen to be a giant or a dwarf rather than a normal 
stellar system. But for statistical purposes, where large numbers of 
nebulae are involved, the relatively few giants and dwarfs should 
average out, and the mean distances of large groups may be accurately 
determined. It is by this method that the more remote regions of 
space, near the limits of the telescope, may be explored with confidence. 

Throughout the observable region the nebulae are found scattered 
singly, in pairs, and in groups up to great compact clusters or even 
clouds. The small-scale distribution is irregular, and is dominated 
by a tendency toward clustering. Yet when larger and larger vol- 
umes of space are compared, the minor irregularities tend to average 
out, and the samples grow more and more uniform. If the observable 
region were divided into a hundred or even a thousand equal parts, 
the contents would probably be nearly identical. Therefore, the large- 
scale distribution of nebulae is said to be uniform; the observable re- 


THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE—HUBBLE 121 


gion is homogeneous, very much the same everywhere and in all 
directions. 

We may now present a rough sketch of our sample of the universe. 
The faintest nebulae that can be detected with the largest telescope in 
operation (the 100-inch reflector on Mount Wilson) are about 2 mil- 
lion times fainter than the faintest star that can be seen with the naked 
eye. Since we know the average candlepower of these nebulae, we 
can estimate their average distance—500 million light-years. A 
sphere with this radius defines the observable region of space. 
Throughout the sphere are scattered about 100 million nebulae, at vari- 
ous stages of their evolutional development. These nebulae average 
about 100 million times brighter than the sun and several thousand 
million times more massive. Our own stellar system is a giant nebula, 
and is presumably a well-developed, open spiral. The nebulae are 
found, as has been said, singly, in groups and in clusters but, on the 
grand scale, these local irregularities average out and the observable 
region as a whole is approximately homogeneous. The average in- 
terval between neighboring nebulae is about 2 million light-years, and 
the internebular space is sensibly transparent. 


THE LAW OF RED SHIFTS 


Another general characteristic of the observable region has been 
found in the law of red shifts, sometimes called the velocity-distance 
relation. This feature introduces the subject of spectrum analysis. 
It is well known that, in general, ight from any source is a composite 
of many individual colors or wave lengths. When the composite beam 
passes through a glass prism or other suitable device, the individual 
colors are separated out in an ordered rainbow sequence, known as ¢ 
spectrum. The prism bends the hght waves according to the wave 
length. The deflections are least for the long waves of the red and 
are greatest for the short waves of the violet. Hence position in the 
spectrum indicates the wave length of the light falling at any par- 
ticular place in the sequence. 

Incandescent solids, and certain other sources, radiate light of all 
possible wave lengths, and their spectra are continuous. Incandes- 
cent gases, however, radiate only certain particular wave lengths, and 
their spectra, called emission spectra, consist of various isolated colors 
separated by blank spaces. The patterns are well known, hence gases 
in a distant light source can be identified by their spectra. 

The sun presents a third kind of spectrum, known as an absorption 
spectrum. The main body of the sun furnishes a continuous spec- 
trum. The heavy atmosphere surrounding the main body is gaseous 
and would normally exhibit an emission spectrum. Actually, the at- 
mosphere, because it is cooler than the main body, absorbs from the 


122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


continuous background those colors it would otherwise emit. There- 
fore the solar spectrum is a continuous spectrum on which is super- 
posed a pattern of dark gaps or lines. These dark lines identify the 
gases in the solar atmosphere and indicate the physical conditions 
under which they exist. 

The nebulae are stellar systems, and their spectra resemble that of 
the sun. Dark lines due to calcium, hydrogen, iron, and other ele- 
ments in the atmospheres of the component stars are identified with 
complete confidence. In the case of the nearer nebulae, these lines are 
close to their normal positions as determined in the laboratory or in 
the sun. In general, however, accurate measures disclose slight dis- 
placements, either to the red or to the violet side of the exact normal 
positions. 

Such small displacements are familiar features in the spectra of 
stars and are known to be introduced by rapid motion in the line of 
sight. Ifa star is rapidly approaching the observer, the light waves 
are crowded together and shortened, and all the spectral lines appear 
slightly to the violet side of the normal positions. Conversely, rapid 
recession of a star drags out and lengthens the light waves, and the 
spectral lines are seen to the red of their normal positions. 

The amounts of these displacements (they are called Doppler 
shifts) indicate the velocities of the stars in the line of sight. If the 
wave lengths are altered by a certain fraction of the normal wave 
lengths, the star is moving at a velocity which is that same fraction 
of the velocity of light. In this way it has been found that the stars 
are drifting about at average speeds of 10 to 30 miles per second, 
and, indeed, that the stellar system, our own nebula, is rotating about 
its center at the majestic rate of one revolution in perhaps 200 mil- 
lion years. 

Similarly, the nebulae are found to be drifting about in space at 
average speeds of the order of 150 miles per second. Such speeds, 
of course, are minute fractions of the velocity of light, and the cor- 
responding Doppler shifts, which may be either to the violet or to 
the red, are barely perceptible. 

But the spectra of distant nebulae show another effect as con- 
spicuous as it is remarkable. The dark absorption lines are found 
far to the red of their normal positions. Superposed on the small 
red or violet shifts representing individual motions, is a systematic 
shift to the red which increases directly with the distances of the 
nebulae observed. If one nebula is twice as far away as another, 
the red shift will be twice as large; if v times as far away, the red 
shift will be n times as large. This relation is known as the law of 
red shifts; it appears to be quite a general feature of the observable 
region of space. 


THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE—HUBBLE 123 


If these systematic red shifts are interpreted as the familiar Dopp- 
ler shifts, it follows that the nebulae are receding from us in all 
directions at velocities that increase directly with the momentary 
distances. The rate of increase is about 100 miles per second per 
million light-years of distance, and the observations have been car- 
ried out to nearly 250 million light-years where the red shifts cor- 
respond to velocities of recession of nearly 25,000 miles per second 
or 4 the velocity of light. 

On this interpretation the present distribution of nebulae could 
be accounted for by the assumption that all the nebulae were once 
jammed together in a very small volume of space. Then, at a certain 
instant, some 1,800 million years ago, the jam exploded, the nebulae 
rushed outward in all directions with all possible velocities, and they 
have maintained these velocities to the present day. ‘Thus the nebu- 
lae have now receded to various distances, depending upon their 
initial velocities, and our observations necessarily uncover the law 
of red shifts. 

This pattern of history seems so remarkable that some observers 
view it with pardonable reserve, and try to imagine alternative ex- 
planations for the law of red shifts. Up to the present, they have 
failed. Other ways are known by which red shifts might be pro- 
duced, but all of them introduce additional effects that should be 
conspicuous and actually are not found. Red shifts represent Doppler 
effects, physical recession of the nebulae, or the action of some 
hitherto unrecognized principle in nature. 


COSMOLOGICAL THEORY 


The preliminary sketch of the observable region was completed 
about 10 years ago. It was not necessarily a finished picture, but it 
furnished a rough framework within which precise, detailed investi- 
gations could be planned with a proper understanding of their relation 
to the general scheme. Such new investigations, of course, were 
guided when practical by current theory. Let me explain the sig- 
nificance of this procedure. 

Mathematicians deal with possible worlds, with an infinite number 
of logically consistent systems. Observers explore the one particular 
world we inhabit. Between the two stands the theorist. He studies 
possible worlds but only those which are compatible with the infor- 
mation furnished by observers. In other words, theory attempts to 
segregate the minimum number of possible worlds which must include 
the actual world we inhabit. Then the observer, with new factual 
information, attempts to reduce the list still further. And so it goes, 
observation and theory advancing together toward the common goal 
of science, knowledge of the structure and behavior of the physical 
universe, 


124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


The relation is evident in the history of cosmology. The study at 
first was pure speculation. But the exploration of space moved 
outward until finally a vast region, possibly a fair sample of the 
universe, was opened for inspection. Then theory was revitalized; 
it now had a sure base from which to venture forth. 

Current theory starts with two fundamental principles: general 
relativity and the cosmological principle. General relativity states 
that the geometry of space is determined by the contents of space, and 
formulates the nature of the relation. Crudely put, the principle 
states that space is curved in the vicinity of matter, and that the 
amount of curvature depends upon the amount of matter. Because 
of the irregular distribution of matter in our world, the small-scale 
structure of space is highly complex. However, if the universe is 
sufficiently homogeneous on the large scale, we may adopt a general 
curvature for the universe, or for the observable region as a whole, 
just as we speak of the general curvature of the earth’s surface, 
disregarding the mountains and ocean basins. The nature of the 
spatial curvature, whether it is positive or negative, and the numeri- 
cal value, is a subject for empirical investigation. 

The second, or cosmological principle is a pure assumption—the 
very simple postulate that, on the grand scale, the universe will 
appear much the same from whatever position it may be explored. 
In other words, there is no favored position in the universe, no 
center, no boundaries. If we, on the earth, see the universe expand- 
ing in all directions, then any other observer, no matter where he is 
located, will also see the universe expanding in the same manner. 
The postulate, it may be added, implies that, on the grand scale, the 
universe is homogeneous and isotropic—very much the same every- 
where and in all directions. 

Modern cosmological theory attempts to describe the types of 
universes that are compatible with the two principles, general rela- 
tivity and the cosmological principle. Profound analysis of the 
problem leads to the following conclusions. Such universes are 
unstable. They might be momentarily in equilibrium, but the 
slightest internal disturbance would destroy the balance, and disturb- 
ances must occur. Therefore, these possible worlds are not stationary. 
They are, in general, either contracting or expanding, although 
theory in its present form does not indicate either the direction of 
change or the rate of change. At this point, the theorist turned to 
the reports of the observers. The empirical law of red shifts was 
accepted as visible evidence that the universe is expanding in a 
particular manner and at a known rate. Thus arose the conception 
of homogeneous expanding universe of general relativity. 

In such universes, the spatial curvature is steadily diminishing as 
the expansion progresses. Furthermore, the nature of the expansion 


THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE—HUBBLE 125 


is such that gravitational assemblages maintain their identities. In 
other words, material bodies or groups and clusters of nebulae do not 
themselves expand but maintain their permanent dimensions as their 
neighbors recede from them in all directions. 

Several types of expanding universes are possible, and some of 
them can be further specified by the nature of the curvature, whether 
it is positive or negative. In fact, the particular universe we inhabit 
could be identified if we had sufficiently precise information on three 
measurable quantities, namely, the rate of expansion, the mean 
density of matter in space, and the spatial curvature at the present 
epoch. Recent empirical investigations have been directed toward 
these problems, and the results will be briefly described in the remain- 
ing section of this discussion. 


COMPARISON OF THEORY AND OBSERVATIONS 


We may begin with two results which are thoroughly consistent 
with the theory. The first result concerns the assumption of homo- 
geneity ; the second, the conclusion that groups maintain their dimen- 
sions as the universe expands. 

The distribution of nebulae has been studied in two ways. ‘The first 
information came from sampling surveys at Mount Wilson and at the 
Lick Observatory. Small areas, systematically scattered over the sky, 
were studied with large telescopes. Thus the nebulae that were 
counted lay in narrow cones penetrating to vast distances. These 
surveys established large-scale homogeneity over the three-quarters of 
the sky that could be studied from the northern latitudes of the ob- 
servatories involved. 

Later, the Harvard College Observatory, with the help of its south- 
ern station, has furnished counts of the nebulae extending over large 
areas but made with moderate-size telescopes. In other words, these 
nebulae are scattered through wide cones penetrating to moderate dis- 
tances. Shapley, in his reports, has stressed or perhaps overstressed, 
the familiar, small-scale irregularities of distribution, but analysis of 
such published data as are adequately calibrated agrees with the earlier 
conclusion. In fact, the mean results from the two quite different 
methods of study are sensibly the same. This fact reemphasizes the 
large-scale homogeneity of the observable region. 

The second result is derived from a study of the Local Group. Our 
own stellar system is one of a dozen nebulae that form a loose group, 
more or less isolated in the general field. These neighboring systems 
furnished the first clues to the nature of the nebulae and the scale of 
internebular distances. They are so near that their brightest stars 
could be recognized and compared with similar stars in our own sys- 
tem. Radial velocities of the members of the Local Group, listed in 


126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


table 1, suggest that the law of red shifts probably does not operate 
within the group. This conclusion is positive evidence supporting the 
validity of the theory. If the universe is expanding, the group main- 
tains its dimensions as the theory requires. 

The remainder of the recently accumulated information is not favor- 
able to the theory. It is so damaging, in fact, that the theory, in 
its present form, can be saved only by assuming that the observational 
results include hidden systematic errors. The latter possibility will 
naturally persist until the investigations can be repeated and improved. 
Nevertheless, a careful reexamination of the data now available sug- 
gests no adequate explanation of the discrepancies. 


TABLE 2.—Radial velocities in the Local Group 


The observed velocities (second column) represent a more reasonable distri- 
bution than the velocities corrected for red shifts (fifth column). The latter 
are all large and negative with the exception of the first two, for which the red 
shifts are insignificant. This fact suggests that the law of red shifts does not 
operate within the Local Group. 


LOCAL GROUP 


Distance in Velocity 
} million with 

Observed light- Expected red shift 

Known members velocity years red shift removed 
Dies Cee oy ee ee BE ee ee Dk ee + 45 0. O85 + 13 + 32 
SNe (aie at) te erage 9 oe eka 2 EMIS) ON005 stalin 
Mi Sei Se Bee son Be ee ee 1180) 0.7 +110 —240 
1 fi 5 seen ie ere a eee enmeiin a tee, eal a ee er —ill50) 0.7 +-110 —260 
INGO POS22 4s ies Se eh SN Es hee + 20 0.5 + 85 — 60 
WC AGB 2-2 jet eh tbe as Sea eee a Baise i168} +210 ae 
ORNs es fon a ee a = ait) 0.6 +100 —140 

Probable members 

IN GG COAG a oa 8 a rae + 90 1.6 +265 Sale 
ING GIAO GOs sexe ns aes Sa + 6C Pe, 8} +370 —310 
MOS 2 ye Sie ERS SE a eo ae ee + 30 2B, 33 +370 —340 


*A spectrum of an object in IC 1613, obtained by Baade, shows a definitely negative 
velocity. The numerical value of the velocity is rather uncertain, and, for this reason is 
not included in the table. However, the negative sign indicates that IC 1613 is consistent 
with the other members of the Local Group. 


THE INTERPRETATION OF RED SHIFTS 


The investigations were designed to determine whether or not red 
shifts represent actual recession. In principle, the problem can be 
solved; a rapidly receding light source appears fainter than a simi- 
lar but stationary source at the same momentary distance. The ex- 
planation of this well-known effect is quite simple when the beam 
of light is pictured as a stream of discrete quanta. Rapid recession 
thins out the stream of quanta, hence fewer quanta reach the eye 
per second, and the intensity, or rate of impact, is necessarily re- 


THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE—HUBBLE 127 


duced. Quantitatively, the normal brightness is reduced by a frac- 
tion that is merely the velocity of recession divided by the velocity 
of light—in other words, the red shift expressed as a fraction of 
the normal wave lengths of the light in question. Recession at one- 
tenth the velocity of light reduces the apparent brightness by 10 
percent; at one-quarter the velocity of light, by 25 percent. 

For velocities of a few miles or a few hundred miles per second, 
the dimming factor is negligible. But for the extremely distant 
nebulae, where the apparent recessions reach tens of thousands of 
miles per second, the effects are large enough to be readily observed 
and measured. Hence, if the distances of nebulae were known quite 
accurately we could measure their apparent faintness and tell at 
once whether or not they are receding at the rates indicated by the 
red shifts. 

Unfortunately, the problem is not so simple. The only general 
criterion of great distance is the very apparent faintness of the 
nebulae which we wish to test. Therefore, the proposed test in- 
volves a vicious circle, and the dimming factor merely leads to an 
error in distance. However, a possible escape from the vicious circle 
is found in the following procedure. Since the intrinsic luminosi- 
ties of nebulae are known, their apparent faintness furnishes two 
scales of distances, depending upon whether we assume the nebulae 
to be stationary or receding. If, then, we analyze our data, if we 
map the observable region, using first one scale and then the other, 
we may find that the wrong scale leads to contradictions or at least 
to grave difficulties. Such attempts have been made and one scale 
does lead to trouble. It is the scale which includes the dimming 
factors of recession, which assumes that the universe is expanding. 


ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF THE LAW OF RED SHIFTS 


The project was carried out by the precise formulation of (a) the 
law of red shifts, and (b) the large-scale distribution of nebulae. 
The form of the law of red shifts is most readily derived from the 
study of the brightest nebulae in the great clusters. These nebulae, 
as a class, are the most luminous bodies in the universe, and their 
spectra can be recorded out to the maximum distances. Further- 
more, the clusters are so similar that the apparent faintness of the 
5 or 10 brightest members furnish reliable relative distances. The 
observations now extend out to about 240 million light-years where 
the red shift is about 13 percent of the normal wave lengths of the 
incoming light. Since the corresponding velocity of recession is the 
same fraction of the velocity of light, the nebulae in the most distant 
cluster observed, if they are actually receding, will appear 13 percent 
fainter than they would appear if they were stationary. The dif- 


128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


ference is small but, fortunately, the measures can be made with fair 
accuracy. 

The results may be stated simply. If the nebulae are stationary, 
the law of red shifts is sensibly linear; red shifts are a constant 
multiple of distances. In other words, each unit of light path con- 
tributes the same amount of red shift. 


RESIDUALS 


(Mc 5) 12 14 16 18 


igure I.—The law of red shifis. The law of red shifts at very great distances 
is derived as a relation between apparent magnitudes of the fifth brightest 
members of clusters and the mean red shifts observed in the clusters. The 
relation, log d\/A = 0.2 ms + constant, shown as a full line in the diagram, 
indicates a linear law of red shifts (d\/A=constant X distance). 

In the diagram, large disks represent clusters of high weight; dots, clusters 
of low weight; crosses, weighted means. Observed magnitudes have been 
corrected for all known effects (including the “energy effects,” 3d\/\), except 
recession factors. Thus, for a stationary universe, the law of red shifts is 
sensibly linear. 

For an expanding universe, the recession factors would be applied, and the 
law would depart from the linear form. Such departures, shown by the 
broken curve, imply that the rate of expansion has been slowing down, and 
that the “age of the universe,” the time since the expansion started, is less 
than 1,000 million years. 

The diagram includes minor revisions of the observational data in accord- 
ance with recent investigations. 


THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE—HUBBLE 129 


DENSITY 
(m,.-10/6 logNm) 


15.1 Be STATIONARY 


@) RED SHIFT 0.1 0.2 dr/A 


Figure 2.—Large-scale distribution of nebulae. If N,, is the number of nebulae 
per square degree brighter than apparent magnitude m, then the average den- 
sity (number of nebulae divided by volume of space), in arbitrary units, is 
represented by (log N,—0.6m). Each point in the diagram represents a survey 
in which the observed m have been corrected for all known effects (including 
the “energy effects,’ 3 d\/A) but omitting the “recession factors,” dd\/vA. The 
diagram indicates that for a stationary universe, the density is independent of 
distance (or red shift). 

If the universe were expanding, ‘recession factors’ should be applied, and the 
points would fall along the broken line, indicating that the density increases 
steadily with distance. In order to escape this conclusion, it is necessary to 
introduce still another effect such as spatial curvature which exactly com- 
pensates the recession factors. 

The dots represent surveys mace at Mount Wilson and Mount Hamilton; the 
first cross, the Shapley-Ames survey to m=13+; the second cross, Harvard 
counts to m=17.5, extracted from Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 24, p. 148, 1938, 
and vol. 26, pp. 166 and 554, 1940, and reduced according to the procedure 
used in reducing the deeper surveys. 


On the other hand, if the nebulae are receding, and the dimming 
factors are applied, the scale of distances is altered, and the law 
of red shifts is no longer linear. The rate of expansion increases more 
and more rapidly with distance. The significance of this result 
becomes clear when the picture is reversed. Light that reaches us 
today left the distant nebulae far back in the dim past—hundreds of 
millions of years ago. When we say that the rate of expansion 
increases with distance, we are saying that long ago, the universe was 
expanding much faster than it is today; that, for the last several 
hundred million years at least, the rate of expansion has been slowing 
down. Therefore, the so-called “age of the universe,” the time inter- 


130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


val since the expansion began, is much shorter than the 1,800 million 
years suggested by a linear law of red shifts. If the measures are 
reliable, the interval would be less than 1,000 million years—a fraction 
of the age of the earth and comparable with the history of life on 
the earth. The nature of the expansion is permissible and, in fact, 
specifies certain types of possible worlds. But the time scale is 
probably not acceptable. Either the measures are unreliable or red 
shifts do not represent expansion of the universe. 


THE LARGE-SCALE DISTRIBUTION OF NEBULAE 


If the new formulation of the law of red shifts were unsupported 
by other evidence, the implications would probably be disregarded. 
But similar discrepancies are met in quite independent studies of 
large-scale distribution. Five sampling surveys (four at Mount Wil- 
son and one at Mount Hamilton) made with large reflectors, furnish 
the numbers of nebulae per unit area in the sky, to successive limits 
of apparent faintness. The results furnish the numbers of nebulae 
per unit volume in five spheres whose radii range from about 155 to 
420 million light-years on the stationary distance scale, or about 145 
to 365 million light-years for the expanding distance scale. 

On the assumption that red shifts do not represent actual recession, 
the large-scale distribution is sensibly homogeneous—the average 
number of nebulae per unit volume of space is much the same for each 
of the spheres. Further confirmation is found in some of the recent 
Harvard counts of nebulae which fall within the area of the sky cov- 
ered by the deep surveys, and which are based on the same scale of 
apparent faintness. Sufficient data can be extracted from the reports 
to determine a mean density over large areas extending out to perhaps 
100 million light-years, and the result is in substantial agreement 
with those of the earlier investigations. All of these data lead to the 
very simple conception of a sensibly infinite, homogeneous universe of 
which the observable region is an insignificant sample. 

The inclusion of dimming corrections for recession, because they 
alter the scale of distance in a nonlinear way, necessarily destroys the 
homogeneity. The number of nebulae per unit volume now appears 
to increase systematically with distance in all directions. The result 
violates the cosmological principle of no favored position and, con- 
sequently, is referred to some neglected factor in the calculations. If 
the density appeared to diminish outward, we would at once suspect 
the presence of internebular obscuration, or, perhaps, the existence of 
a supersystem of nebulae. But an apparently increasing density offers 
a much more serious problem. About the only known, permissible 
interpretation is found in positive spatial curvature, which, by a sort 
of optical foreshortening, would crowd the observed nebulae into 


THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE—HUBBLE 131 


apparently smaller and smaller volumes of space as the distance 
increased. 

Spatial curvature is an expected feature of an expanding universe, 
and, together with the precise form of the law of red shifts, further 
specifies a particular type of possible world. Thus, if the measures 
were reliable, we might conclude that the initial cosmological problem 
had been solved; that now we knew the nature of the universe we 
inhabit. But the situation is not so simple. Just as the departures 
from linearity in the law of red shifts indicate a universe that is 
strangely young, so the apparent departures from homogeneity indi- 
cate a universe that is strangely small and dense. 

The sign of the curvature required to restore homogeneity is posi- 
tive, hence the universe is “closed”; it has a finite volume although, 
of course, there are no boundaries. The amount of curvature indicates 
the volume of the universe: about four times the volume of the observ- 
able region. Such a universe would contain perhaps 400 million 
nebulae. The total mass, however, would be far greater than that 
which can be attributed to the nebulae alone. 


CONCLUSION 


Thus the use of dimming corrections leads to a particular kind of 
universe, but one which most students are likely to reject as highly 
improbable. Furthermore, the strange features of this universe are 
merely the dimming corrections expressed in different terms. Omit 
the dimming factors, and the oddities vanish. We are left with the 
simple, even familiar, concept of a sensibly infinite universe. AI] the 
difficulties are transferred to the interpretation of red shifts which 
cannot then be the familiar velocity shifts. 

Two further points may be mentioned. In the first place, the 
reference of red shifts to some hitherto unknown principle does not 
in any way destroy the validity of the theory of expanding universes. 
It merely removes the theory from immediate contact with observa- 
tions. We may still suppose that the universe is either expanding or 
contracting, but at a rate so slow that it cannot now be disentangled 
from the gross effects of the superposed red shifts. 

Secondly, the conclusions drawn from the empirical investigations 
involve the assumptions that the measures are reliable and the data 
are representative. These questions have been carefully reexamined 
during the past few years. Various minor revisions have been made, 
but the end results remain substantially unchanged. By the usual 
criteria of probable errors, the data seem to be sufficiently consistent 
for their purpose. Nevertheless, the operations are delicate, and the 
most significant data are found near the limits of the greatest tele- 


5015914810 


132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


scopes. Under such conditions, it is always possible that the re- 
sults may be affected by hidden systematic errors. Although no 
suggestion of such errors has been found, the possibility will persist 
until the investigations can be repeated with improved techniques and 
more powerful telescopes. Ultimately, the problem should be settled 
beyond question by the 200-inch reflector destined for Palomar. The 
range of that telescope, and the corresponding ranges of the dimming 
corrections, should be about twice those examined in the present in- 
vestigations. Factors of 25 percent in the apparent brightness of 
nebulae at the limits of the spectrograph, and 40 to 50 percent at the 
limits of direct photography should be unmistakable if they really 
exist. 

Meanwhile, on the basis of the evidence now available, apparent 
discrepancies between theory and observation must be recognized. 
A choice is presented, as once before in the days of Copernicus, be- 
tween a strangely small, finite universe and a sensibly infinite uni- 
verse plus a new principle of nature. 


REFERENCES 


No extensive bibliography is furnished because the list would be largely a 
repetition of the carefully selected bibliography compiled by H. P. Robertson 
as an appendix to his discussion of “The Expanding Universe,” published in 
Science in Progress, Second Series, 1940. Robertson’s contribution to the series 
is the clearest nontechnical presentation of the fundamental problem of cos- 
mology that has yet appeared. 

A few papers, subsequent to Robertson’s bibliography, are listed below. 
EDDINGTON, Sir ARTHUR. 

1940. The speed of recession of the extragalactic nebulae. Festschr. fiir 
Elis Strémgren, Copenhagen. Derives the rate of expansion as 
an apriori datum, and finds a numerical value agreeing with the 
observed value within the uncertainties of the data. 

HuBBLE, EDWIN. 

1939. The motion of the galactic system among the nebulae. Journ. 
Franklin Inst., vol. 228, p. 131. Cites evidence suggesting that the 
law of red shifts does not operate within the local group. 

SHAPLEY, HARLOW. 
1938-1941. Various discussions of counts of nebulae, and their bearing on 
the problem of the general distribution. Proc. Nat. Acad. 
Sci., vols. 23-26. Emphasis is placed on small-scale irregu- 
larities of distribution and the role played by the great cloud 
of nebulae in Centaurus. 


GALAXIES! 


By Hartow SHAPLEY 


Harvard University 


[With 2 plates] 


Like the galaxies themselves, the field of inquiry concerning 
galaxies is large and not easily surveyed in a brief article. It will 
be well to restrict the assignment and write only concerning a few 
selected topics. 

Let us first try a bird’s-eye view of our own galaxy. The bird 
whose eye we would use needs to be a remarkable creature to reach 
the remoteness necessary for an outside look. We cannot use 
Cygnus the Swan, that heads in full flight along the northern Milky 
Way, nor Aquila the Eagle, nor the big-billed Toucan, the Flamingo, 
the Phoenix, the Goose, the Bird of Paradise, nor Corvus the Crow. 
All these constellation birds are composed of stars that are bright 
neighbors of the sun and distinctly localized far inside our own 
galaxy. 

What we need is an observation point something like a million 
light-years distant, well outside the bounds of the enormous Milky 
Way system. It would be pretty satisfactory to settle our bird com- 
fortably in the outer haze of stars of the Andromeda nebula. If the 
observer be a contemporary of ours, he will be looking at our system 
in terms of 8,000 centuries ago. It has been that long since the radia- 
tion left the sun and its neighboring stars on its way to the retina 
of the all-comprehending but quite imaginary bird now surveying 
us from the Andromeda galaxy. 

Such a temporal disparity, 8X10° years, is of no particular 
moment in our considerations of the galaxies; and short-term enter- 
prises like the current western civilization, or even the whole history 
of mankind, can be neglected in the cosmic panorama as too momen- 
tary, too fleeting, for a clear recording. 

It is well known that the Milky Way star system is a much 
flattened organization and that the sun and planets are well inside. 


1Reprinted by permission from the Sigma Xi Quarterly, vol. 30, No. 1, January 1942. 
Included in Science in Progress, Series ITI, fall, 1942. 


133 


134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


This interpretation of the Milky Way was pointed out 190 years ago 
by Thomas Wright, a pioneer “bird’s-eye viewer” of Durham, 
England. He saw that the hypothesis of a flattened stellar system 
with the earth near the central plane would satisfactorily explain 
the Milky Way band as a phenomenon of projection in such a 
system.2 Our hypothetical observer in Andromeda would see this 
flattened wheel-shaped system not from the direction of its rim, nor 
from the direction of its axis, but from an intermediate position, 
galactic latitude —21°. It would appear in projection, therefore, as 
an elongated object, perhaps with the axes of the rough ellipse in 
the ratio of about three to one. There would be a conspicuous 
globular nucleus of naked-eye brightness. 

We are almost certain now that our galaxy is a great openwork 
spiral system of stars, perhaps not much unlike the system Messier 83, 
shown in plate 1. But in linear measure it may be much larger than 
Messier 88. It has taken a long time to get conclusive evidence on the 
structure of our own system. We are badly located. There are ob- 
vious difficulties with residing inside. The meadow violet, no matter 
how bold and sensitive, is at a disadvantage in meadow topography 
compared with the bird hovering above. 

For more than a hundred years astronomers have struggled with 
the problems of the structure of the galaxy. There have been many 
speculators, but also some hard and systematic observers. Sir William 
Herschel dominated this field throughout the early part of the nine- 
teenth century. His surveys of star clusters and nebulae, his measures 
of brightness and positions of various celestial objects, his interpreta- 
tions of the accumulating material were so important that he is 
appropriately considered the founder of sidereal astronomy. Before 
him the emphasis was on comets and planets and the positions and 
motions of nearby stars and the laws governing these motions. It was 
essentially solar-system astronomy that attracted the telescopes and 
the wisdom of scientists until this German-Anglican organist of Bath 
devised some instruments; then astronomy turned outward to inter- 
stellar spaces. 

Sir William Herschel was considerably bafiled by the problem of 
the structure of the galaxy and by the relation of clusters and nebulae 
to the Milky Way. His successors made many notable contributions, 
photometric and spectroscopic, to knowledge of the nature of stars 
and nebulae, but still the large cosmic problems remained baffling. 
Increasing telescopic strength, however, and the accumulation of many 
kinds and types of observations, eventaully led to less puzzlement about 


For an account of the early cosmic interpretations by Thomas Wright and Immanuel 
Kant, see the highly interesting report by F. A. Paneth, The Observatory, pp. 71ff., June 
1941; also H. Shapley, Immanuel Kant, 1724-1924, chap. 5, Yale Univ. Press, 1925, H. C. 
Wilm, ed. 


GALAXIES-——SHAPLEY 135 


the stellar neighbors of the sun and the nearer parts of the Milky Way. 
The old but unproved concept that the spiral nebulae and their rela- 
tives were external galaxies, coordinate with our own Milkey Way 
system, gradually became established. The dimensions of the galaxy 
and of the universe approached clarification, chiefly through the power 
of the telescopes of American observatories and the vision of European 
and American theoreticians. 

In clarifying some of the earlier puzzles, however, the astronomers 
only succeeded in opening vaster vistas for exploration, interpretation, 
and wonderment. The net gain has been considerable. It is no longer 
believed that the severe difficulties of certain astronomical enterprises 
have definitely blocked the progress of inquiry. A hundred years ago 
a distinguished scientist (not an astronomer) gloated a bit over the 
pronouncement that one thing would certainly forever remain un- 
known, namely, the chemical nature of the stars! It was not many 
years before the spectroscope began to betray him. And at the time 
of her death in 1941 Dr. Annie Cannon had classified more than half 
a million stars on the basis of the chemistry of their surfaces. A 
great deal is now known of the chemical constitution of a galaxy of 
a billion stars at a distance of 10 million light-years. An elementary 
astronomical student can quickly learn, with the use of modern equip- 
ment, about the hydrogen, calcium, iron, magnesium, helium, carbon, 
and the like in stars that have never actually been seen except through 
use of the photographic plate. 

The moral of that bad ancient pronouncement about stellar chem- 
istry is that it is not wise to be discouraged with the difficulties arising 
from our awkward location in the galaxy. Eventually all the answers 
to all the questions you could now ask about Milky Way structure may 
be known. And, of course, we would then be wise enough to ask other 
questions that you could not answer, nor could we. Here are some of 
the current questions, and, for some of them, preliminary answers. 

1. Are the sun and its planets in the middle of our discoidal galaxy? 
They certainly are not. There are many lines of evidence which indi- 
cate that the center is far away in the direction of the region where the 
constellations of Sagittarius, Ophiuchus, and Scorpio come together, 
30 degrees or a little more south of the celestial equator in the thick of 
the bright star clouds along the Milky Way. My early study of the 
globular star clusters (a reproduction of an important one, 47 Tucanae, 
is shown in pl. 2) was instrumental in showing the observer that he 
is well out toward the rim of the wheel-shaped galaxy. There may be 
some “subcenters” in other parts of the Milky Way, in far south Carina, 
for instance, and in Cygnus. But those conglomerations of stars ap- 
pear to be important local structures within the great galaxy that has 
its massive nucleus in the Sagittarius direction. 


136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


2. Is this galaxy in motion asa unit? How it moves with respect to 
nearby galaxies is not yet very clear, but certainly it rotates around 
the Sagittarius nucleus. It does not rotate as a solid wheel, at least 
at our distance from the nucleus. It rotates more as the planetary sys- 
tem rotates; the planets nearer the sun go more rapidly and complete 
their “years” in shorter times than the remoter planets. We think we 
can very definitely measure the differential speed of stars around the 
nucleus. The average speed in the sun’s neighborhood is about 200 
miles a second, and the direction of motion is toward the northern con- 
stellation of Cygnus. 

3. How far are the sun and the neighboring stars from the axis of 
rotation? Ten kiloparsecs is the approximate answer and, since a 
parsec is 3.26 light-years or about 20 trillion miles, the distance is 
something like 2X10 miles, or 30-odd thousand light-years. For 
various reasons, that value of 10 kiloparsecs is not too certain, but it is 
well established that the center of gravity of our system is between 
8 and 12 kiloparsecs distant. The direction to the center is fixed with 
an uncertainty of only 2 or 3 degrees; this angular parameter is much 
easier to handle than the distance. 

4, How large is the Milky Way system and how populous? Enorm- 
ous in size and population, if nonquantitative terms may be used. 
There is good evidence that the total population in stars is of the order 
of 200,000 million, but the evidence on over-all dimensions is as yet 
inconclusive. Indeed it is somewhat involved with definitions. For 
instance, how define the boundary of a galaxy? Is it at the distance 
of the farthermost discoverable member of the system? Or is it the 
distance to the place where the number of stars per cubic hght-year has 
decreased to a specified small quantity? Or is it, for a spiral galaxy, 
the distance to which a spiral arm can be traced? Or is it the distance 
to which an escaping star can go before the’ gravitational holdback is 
exceeded by the pull from some other galaxy ? f 

The diameter of the system in its plane is not less than 100,000 
light-years if all its recognizable stars are included. There is now 
good evidence that the wheel-shaped system is surrounded by a more 
or less spherical haze of stars, and some of the stars in the haze are 
50,000 light-years above the plane of the Milky Way. Probably this 
haze extends more distantly in the plane of the system and, therefore, 
the diameter of discoid plus haze considerably exceeds 100,000 light- 
years. 

On the other hand, the diameter of our system in its plane might be 
measured as only 50,000 light-years, or even less, if we had to depend 
on photographic research equipment which, although comparable 
with our own, was located in the Virgo supergalaxy, several million 
light-years away. Our outer stars might not register. When our tele- 
scopes are turned on the members of that group in Virgo we can trace 


GALAXIES —SHAPLEY 137 


on the best of our long-exposure plates the largest individual galaxies 
only to a distance of 10 or 15 thousand light-years from their centers. 
Either those systems are very much smaller than ours, or we are unable 
to explore the faint regions that are as remote from the nuclei as we 
are from our nucleus in Sagittarius. 

It might turn out, therefore, that the bird’s-eye observer from the 
Andromeda nebula would report that our galactic system is no larger 
than the Andromeda nebula; or, if the research were rather casual, the 
view might include only the nuclear portions of our galactic system, 
which might even be cataloged as a spheroidal galaxy. When we, in 
our turn, take a quick bird’s-eye view of the Andromeda galaxy, and 
measure its distance and dimensions, we immediately conclude that it 
is much smaller than we are, even though it is a giant compared with 
the average galaxy of our catalogs. But when the over-all extent of 
the Andromeda galaxy is studied with precise measuring apparatus, 
we double the dimensions as first seen and conclude that it is not very 
much smaller than the Milky Way system. 

5. Why is it that we seem to be so baffled about the structure and 
dimensions of our own system, although we bravely go out to dis- 
tances of 100 million light-years in our explorations of other galaxies? 
What is so troublesome about measuring something that completely 
surrounds us and is near at hand ? 

That question finally brings out one feature of Milky Way structure 
which must be clearly seen at first glance by the observer in Andro- 
meda, but which has taken us many years and much labor to discover 
and partially evaluate. This basic feature (and difficulty) is the pres- 
ence throughout the Milky Way, especially near the Milky Way plane, 
of interstellar absorbing material—dust and gas, scattered and in 
clouds, around the stars and in the spaces between them. Our vision 
is not clear; simple geometric relations between light and distance are 
incorrect because our observing station is in a fog that unevenly dims 
the light of the surrounding stars. 

Gradually we are learning through studies of colors, and otherwise, 
how to make corrections for the interstellar absorption. It would not 
be difficult at all if the absorbing material were uniform. But the 
clouds of absorption are irregular. It is supposed that some of the 
greatest irregularities would be apparent to the Andromedan observer. 
At any rate, our own bird’s-eye views of hundreds of external galaxies 
show immediately the dark lanes between spiral arms, or across them, 
which indicate the interstellar absorption clouds that irregularly dim 
the star fields of those distant stellar systems. 

In summary, our imaginary bird’s-eye view has revealed our system 
as discoidal in its main body of stars, probably surrounded by a thinly 
populated spheroidal shell and dominated by a massive globular nu- 


138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


cleus, which is some 30,000 light-years from the sun in an accurately 
measurable direction. Less certainly the view discloses that the Milky 
Way system is a spiral, perhaps more open in structure than the An- 
dromeda galaxy; it is rotating at high speed, but, even so, 2 million 
centuries or possibly more will be required for the sun and its neigh- 
bors to complete one circuit, to click off one cosmic year. Uncertainty 
remains as to over-all dimensions of the discoidal galaxy and of its 
stellar haze, and this uncertainty arises in part from the existence of 
light-absorbing, mostly nonluminous, interstellar material and from 
its irregular distribution and its dissimilar effectiveness on light at 
various wave lengths. 

If, for a more distant view of this part of the universe we go off into 
space several million light-years in a special direction, the Andromeda 
nebula and our galactic system would look like a pair of galaxies, sepa- 
rated by only a few diameters. And in the same field, apparently also 
a part of our local group of galaxies, would be the great spiral, Mes- 
sier 38. A closer inspection from this distant point, and a careful 
measurement of distances, would show several fainter galaxies associ- 
ated with these three large systems. Two of them would be the faint 
companions of the Andromeda nebula—Messier 32 and NGC 205; two 
of them would be our own satellite-companions, the Large and Small 
Clouds of Magellan. And there would be at least four other dwarf 
galaxies, two of them irregular in form, and two or more spheroidal. 

The existence of this local cloud of galaxies, in which our system 
appears to be the big dominating member, seems to be now beyond 
question, but the census of its membership is not complete. All the 
known members are within a sphere of a million light-years diameter. 
Those unknown, or of uncertain membership, include systems wholly 
or partly concealed by the clouds of absorption near the Milky Way 
plane. The rating of the great globular clusters is also not yet clear. 
A hundred globular clusters surround our galaxy, apparently subordi- 
nate members of the system, but the larger ones, like Omega Centauri 
and 47 Tucanae, should perhaps be ranked with the dwarf galaxies. 
In total luminosity and in mass they are comparable to NGC 205, the 
faint spheroidal galaxy in the Andromeda group. Our hypothetical 
Andromedan observer would probably record at least these two giant 
clusters as dwarf galaxies, if our own procedure with regard to classi- 
fying NGC 205 were followed. 

Groups like the local “supergalaxy” occur elsewhere in metagalactic 
space. A dozen rich clusters are known, some of them with hundreds 
of members, and a score or two of small groups, similar to our own, 
are already on record. One such is a group of objects in Fornax, in 
which the brightest are spheroidal; in our group the brightest galaxies 
are spiral or irregular in form. 


GALAXIES—SHAPLEY 139 


Probably there are dwarf galaxies in the Fornax group, but as yet 
we have not identified them, nor have we found the Magellanic type. 
Because of the general tendency of the universe to expand and the 
galaxies and groups of galaxies to recede from one another, it may be 
that eventually we shall be able to say which faint objects in Fornax 
are members of the supersystem simply by determining their velocities 
in the line of sight. If the suspected galaxy is really much more dis- 
tant than the average of the Fornax group, it will show a bigger “red 
shift” in the spectrum, a greater velocity of recession, and thus indicate 
the larger distance and the nonmembership. 

On every expedition into remote corners of extragalactic space, it 
is necessary to equip ourselves with information on giant and super- 
giant stars. The reason is, obviously, that ordinary stars in far-off 
places are not recorded on our photographs; they are too dim. We 
must work with the giants. It may be of interest to consider the fol- 
lowing highly luminous stars and types of stars and see how they 
contribute to knowledge of the metagalaxy: 


1. Supernovae 

2. S Doradus 

3. Novae 

4, P-Cygni stars and others 


1. Supernovae— <The most energetic catastrophe in the history of 
the world, unless it be creation itself,” is how I would describe the 
great violence of radiation and motion that accompanies the career of 
the supernova. Simply defined, a supernova results when a star blows 
up. Whether the disaster is caused or encouraged by head-on collision 
with another star or another something, or by the collapse of the star’s 
structure, with the consequent atomic transformation of mass into 
radiation, or “just happens,” we cannot yet say. More observational 
data are needed and are being obtained. The result of a supernova 
outburst is the outpouring of light in unparalleled fashion—a spurt 
of radiation the equivalent at times of 50 million suns and more. ‘The 
burst of radiation lasts sometimes several days or weeks, quieting down 
slowly as the months go by. What remains after the flare-up? Per- 
haps a dense subdwarf star (the collapsed core of the original star) ; 
perhaps a hurriedly expanding nebula; perhaps just dust and ashes, and 
the universe filling up with the dying glow of a radiant moment. 

Dr. Fritz Zwicky of the California Institute of Technology has 
been the leader in recent years in the discovery of supernovae and in 
speculations concerning them. He thinks that neutrons and neutrinos 
play an important part in the supernova phenomenon. Certainly su- 
pernovae play a significant part in the history of the universe. They 
are not too uncommon. About 40 are on record, most of them dis- 
covered in the past 10 years. Three of them appeared long ago in our 


140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


own galactic system. One hypothesis of the origin of the cosmic rays 
ties them up with the violence of the supernova. 

The most distant individual stars yet photographed are some of the 
supernovae that are in galaxies tens of millions of light-years distant. 
When more complete records are obtained we shall be able to see if, 
at maximum brightness, they are sufficiently alike so that their appar- 
ent magnitudes at maximum can be used as a practical criterion of 
distance. At present there seems to be too large a dispersion in the 
intrinsic luminosities to make supernovae useful criteria in distance 
measurement in the metagalaxy. 

Long before supernovae were recognized, and long before there was 
the faintest notion of their enormous size as celestial phenomena, they 
played a very important part in astronomical development and in 
knowledge of the universe. For it happens that new stars suddenly 
appearing in 1572 and 1604 were important in the inspiration of two 
of the great astronomers of that time and of all time—Tycho Brahe, 
the Dane, and Johannes Kepler. Now we know that these stellar out- 
bursts in Cassiopeia (Tycho’s star) and in Ophiuchus (Kepler’s stella 
nova) were most probably supernovae. Both stars rose to a brightness 
comparable with that of the brightest planet; both stars changed ex- 
plosively 15 magnitudes or more, an increase of brightness of more 
than a million times. 

A third supernova of our galactic system was recorded by the Japa- 
hese and Chinese astronomers in 1054. The phenomenon was the 
parent of the present well-known Crab nebula which is still rapidly 
expanding as a result of the eleventh-century disaster—eleventh cen- 
tury in our records, but 5,000 years earlier on the cosmic clock. 

2. The supergiant S Doradus——The distinction of holding top place 
as a luminous star has been the lot of an object at the edge of one 
of the open clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud. It is a variable 
star with average luminosity half a million times that of the sun. 
It is somewhat exceeded in radiation output by supernovae, but they 
do not last, whereas S Doradus has been continuously radiating for 
the past half century, pouring out more than 100 trillion tons of light 
per minute. It must have enormous resources to persist at such high 
luminosity. Is it perhaps some very slow type of supernova? The 
variations we now observe are irregular in character, but of no great 
moment in alleviating the expenditure of radiant energy. The spec- 
trum of the star is of the rare P-Cygni type, which is indicative of 
unusually hot surface conditions. The Harvard photographic records 
of this star do not extend much before 1890, but of course there is 
little reason to suspect that S Doradus has been the supreme super- 
giant for only the past brief 50 years. Recent photographs with the 
large southern reflector have shown that stars nearly as bright as 


GALAXIES—SHAPLEY 141 


S Doradus are clustered around it, but unfortunately all of them 
are difficult to study because, notwithstanding their great intrinsic 
luminosities, the intervening distance of 75,000 light-years dims the 
light so that even large telescopes can with difficulty make detailed 
analyses. None of the stars in the solar neighborhood is one-tenth 
as bright as S Doradus. 

3. Ordinary novae.—Several times a year, if we pay close attention, 
we find new stars in our own galactic system, especially in the direc- 
tion toward the galactic center in Sagittarius. But daylight, clouds, 
moonlight, and astronomical inactivity contribute to our failure to 
record more than a few percent of those that we know, from sampling, 
must be occurring. These new stars, or ordinary novae, behave much 
like the supernovae described above. But the nova phenomenon is 
much less violent, and a star is not sacrificed by each outburst. It is 
likely that the ordinary nova represents the explosive instability of 
the outer surfaces of a star. There is some indication that before 
explosion the ordinary novae are slightly subnormal stars of ordinary 
type. Perhaps this subnormality is at the bottom of the trigger action 
that sets them off. 

But whatever the cause of the novae, it must be recorded as an 
interesting phenomenon, and one that probably is important in the 
general history of stars. In our own galaxy, and in the neighboring 
Andromeda galaxy, these novaé appear so frequently that when one 
thinks back over the past billion years that the earth’s crust has 
existed, one concludes that very many stars have blown up—a large 
proportion of them. Frequently we have remarked that novation is 
so common and time has been so long that every star might have 
blown up once, or will explode during the next billion years—in other 
words, that evolution, or development, by way of the nova outburst 
is a major and not a negligible phenomenon in this world. 

Evidence is accruing, however, that novation is a recurrent phenom- 
enon. Four or five stars have been novae more than once, and two of 
them three times since 1860. If this be the true situation—that is, 
only stars of peculiar character become novae—we may remain even 
more at ease with respect to the immediate future of our sun. Its 
character is good and normal. We like to believe that the sun is 
and always will be only slightly variable (in the sunspot period), and 
will remain quite dependable, undisturbed by interstellar clouds, 
unsusceptible to nova-inciting disturbance—at least for the next 
thousand years while the astronomers are finding out about the uni- 
verse. A nova-like change in the sun would promptly wipe biology 
off the earth, if it did not erase the planet altogether. 

At maximum the ordinary novae are supergiant stars, more than 
10,000 times the luminosity of the sun, but scarcely 1 percent as radiant 
as the average supernova. When novae appear in external galaxies 


142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


they can be used as distance indicators because at maximum brightness 
the ordinary nova comes to about the same candlepower every time. 
Comparing the apparent brightness with the real brightness, the dis- 
tance in light-years can readily be computed. Next to the Cepheid 
variables, novae are the best criteria for measuring distances of gal- 
axies, providing there are enough found in any given system to stabil- 
ize the statistics. 

4. Some other supergiants—Two or three magnitudes fainter than 
the notable S Doradus in the Large Magellanic Cloud are a number 
of others of the same peculiar spectrum, which are termed the P-Cygni 
type. There is evidence, not quite conclusive, that these stars are re- 
lated to the novae, differing most conspicuously, of course, in the 
property of remaining at high luminosities and not fading away aiter 
the impulsive outburst. But in addition to these bluish hot stars we 
find in the Magellanic Clouds supergiant red stars, almost as bright. 
Some of them are variable, and some are, indeed, long-period Cepheid 
variables, 10,000 times as bright as the sun. Many resemble the 
famous red giants of our neighborhood, Antares and Betelgeuse. A 
few greatly exceed the local red supergiants in volume as well as in 
radiation output. Diameters of the order of the radius of Jupiter’s 
orbit, volumes 10 million times that of the sun, are indicated. These 
preposterous dimensions are derived by knowing the distance of the 
Magellanic Cloud, the total candlepowers of these supergiant stars, 
and the spectra which indicate low efficiency as radiators. In order 
to give out so much radiation, the emitting surfaces must be exceed- 
ingly large. The star S Doradus, on the other hand, which is a more 
efficient radiator, is much smaller and denser than the Antares-like 
supergiants. 

Adjacent to the Small Magellanic Cloud is the great globular clus- 
ter, 47 Tucanae, already mentioned as an intermediate between normal 
galaxies and normal star clusters. Its three brightest stars appear to 
be typical long-period variable stars, but they are not typical in one 
respect. Their luminosities at maximum are three or four magnitudes 
brighter than most long-period variable stars, which are typified by 
Mira (The Wonderful) Ceti, the first of known variables. It is pecu- 
liar, too, that the three supergiant variables in the cluster rise to 
almost exactly the same magnitude at maximum, and all have periods 
of about 200 days. This is one of the coincidences that the laws of 
chance do not easily condone; there must be some deep significance for 
stars or star clusters in the unusual performance of these supergiants. 

Both blue and red supergiants appear sporadically in our own ga- 
lactic system; probably the occasionally detectable highly luminous 
stars in external galaxies also belong to various spectral classes. Dr. 
Hubble has effectively used the luminosities of these invariable stars, 


GALAXIES—-SHAPLEY 143 


along with the available information on Cepheid variables and ordi- 
nary novae, to get the distances of galaxies that are not more than a 
few million light-years away. If a galaxy is as much as 20 million 
light-years distant, even these supergiants cannot be individually 
photographed with present telescopic and photographic equipment, 
and resort must be made to other photometric means of estimating dis- 
tances. Ordinary giant stars, like Vega and Arcturus, are not yet 
photographed in any but the very nearest galaxies, and stars of aver- 
age mass and luminosity, ike the sun, have so far not been photo- 
graphed outside our own galactic system. 

The future of research on galaxies probably depends not so much 
on the size of telescopes as on the speed and resolution of photographic 
plates and on other radiation-registering devices. But even without 
better facilities than those at present available, astronomers have 
plenty to do in galactic research, for within reach are 1,000 million in- 
dividual stars in our own galaxy, and at least 10 million other galaxies. 


cat 


a Ps - i ye 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Shapley 


THE SOUTHERN SPIRAL MESSIER 83. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Shapley PLATE 2 


THE SOUTHERN GLOBULAR STAR CLUSTER 47 TUCANAE. 


IS THE LIFE ON THE OTHER WORLDS?’ 


By Sir JAMES JEANS, O. M., D. Se., LL. D., F. R. S., M. R. 1. 
Professor of Astronomy 
Royal Institution of Great Britain 


So long as the earth was believed to be the center of the universe 
the question of life on other worlds could hardly arise; there were no 
other worlds in the astronomical sense, although a heaven above and 
a hell beneath might form adjuncts to this world. The cosmology of 
the “Divina Commedia” is typical of its period. In 1440 we find 
Nicholas of Cusa comparing our earth, as Pythagoras had done before 
him, to the other stars, although without expressing any opinion as 
to whether these other stars were inhabited or not. At the end of the 
next century Giordano Bruno wrote that “there are endless particular 
worlds similar to this of the earth.” He plainly supposed these other 
worlds—“the moon, planets and other stars, which are infinite in 
number’—to be inhabited, since he regarded their creation as evidence 
of the Divine goodness. He was burned at the stake in 1600; had 
he lived only 10 years longer, his convictions would have been 
strengthened by Galileo’s discovery of mountains and supposed seas 
on the moon. 

The arguments of Kepler and Newton led to a general recognition 
that the stars were not other worlds like our earth but other suns 
like our sun. When once this was accepted it became natural to 
imagine that they also were surrounded by planets and to picture each 
sun as showering life-sustaining light and heat on inhabitants more or 
less like ourselves. In 1829 a New York newspaper scored a great 
journalistic hit by giving a vivid, but wholly fictitious, account of 
the activities of the inhabitants of the moon as seen through the 
telescope recently erected by His Majesty’s Government at the Cape. 

It will be a long time before we could see what the New York paper 
claimed to see on the moon—batlike men flying through the air and 
inhabiting houses in trees—even if it were there to see. To see an 
object of human size on the moon in detail we should need a tele- 
scope of from 10,000 to a 100,000 inches aperture, and even then we 
should have to wait years, or more probably centuries, before the air 
was still and clear enough for us to see details of human size. 


1 Afternoon lecture, Thursday, November 20, 1941. Reprinted by permission from the 
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1941. 


145 


146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


To detect general evidence of life on even the nearest of the planets 
would demand far larger telescopes than anything at present in ex- 
istence, unless this evidence occupied an appreciable fraction of the 
planet’s surface. The French astronomer Flammarion once sug- 
gested that if chains of light were placed on the Sahara on a sufficiently 
generous scale, they might be visible to Martian astronomers if any 
such there be. If this light were placed so as to form a mathematical 
pattern, intelligent Martians might conjecture that there was intel- 
ligent life on earth. Flammarion thought that the lights might suit- 
ably be arranged to illustrate the theorem of Pythagoras (Euclid, I. 
47). Possibly a better scheme would be a group of searchlights which 
could emit successive flashes to represent a series of numbers. If, for 
instance, the numbers 3, 5, 7, 11, 18, 17, 19, 28 ... (the sequence 
of primes) were transmitted, the Martians might surely infer the 
existence of intelligent Tellurians. But any visual communication 
between planets would need a combination of high telescopic power 
at one end and of engineering works on a colossal, although not im- 
possible, scale at the other. 

Some astronomers—mainly in the past—have thought that the so- 
called canals on Mars provide evidence of just this kind, although of 
course unintentionally on the part of the Martians. Two white 
patches which surround the two poles of Mars are observed to increase 
and decrease with the seasons, like our terrestrial polar ice. Over the 
surface of Mars some astronomers have claimed to see a geometrical 
network of straight lines, which they have interpreted as a system of 
irrigation canals, designed to bring melted ice from these polar caps 
to parched equatorial regions. Percival Lowell calculated that this 
could be done by a pumping system of 4,000 times the power of 
Niagara. It is fairly certain now that the polar caps are not of ice, 
but even if they were, the radiation of the summer sun on Mars is 
so feeble that it could not melt more than a very thin layer of ice before 
the winter cold came to freeze it solid again. Actually the caps are 
observed to change very rapidly and are most probably clouds consist- 
ing of some kind of solid particles. 

The alleged canals cannot be seen at all in the largest telescopes nor 
can they be photographed, but there are technical reasons why neither 
of these considerations is conclusive against the existence of the canals. 
A variety of evidence suggests, however, that the canals are mere 
subjective illusions—the result of overstraining the eyes in trying to 
see every detail of a never very brightly illuminated surface. Experi- 
ments with school children have shown that under such circumstances 
the strained eye tends to connect patches of color by straight lines. 
This will at least explain why various astronomers have claimed to 
see straight lines not only on Mars, where it is just conceivable that 
there might be canals, but also on Mecury and the largest satellite 


LIFE ON OTHER WORLDS—JEANS 147 


of Jupiter, where it seems beyond the bounds of possibility that canals 
could have been constructed, as well as on Venus, on which real canals 
could not possibly be seen since its solid surface is entirely hidden 
under clouds. It may be significant that E. E. Barnard, perhaps the 
most skilled observer that astronomy has ever known, was never 
able to see the canals at all, although he studied Mars for years through 
the largest telescopes. 

A more promising line of approach to our problem is to examine 
which, if any, of the planets is physically suitable for life. But we 
are at once confronted with the difficulty that we do not know what 
precise conditions are necessary for life. A human being transferred 
to the surface of any one of the planets or of their satellites, would 
die at once, and this for several different reasons on each. On Jupiter 
he would be simultaneously frozen, asphyxiated, and poisoned, as 
well as doubly pressed to death by his own weight and by an atmos- 
pheric pressure of about a million terrestrial atmospheres. On Mer- 
cury he would be burned to death by the sun’s heat, killed by its ultra- 
violet radiation, asphyxiated from want of oxygen, and desiccated 
from want of water. But this does not touch the question of whether 
other planets may not have developed species of life suited to their 
own physical conditions. When we think of the vast variety of con- 
ditions under which terrestrial life exists on earth—plankton, soil 
bacteria, stone bacteria, and the great variety of bacteria which are 
parasitic on the higher forms of ife—it would seem rash to suggest 
that there are any physical conditions whatever to which life cannot 
adapt itself. Yet as the physical states of other planets are so dif- 
ferent from that of our own, it seems safe to say that any life there 
may be on any of them must be very different from the life on earth. 

The visible surface of Jupiter has a temperature of about —138° C., 
which represents about 248 degrees of frost on the Fahrenheit scale. 
The planet probably comprises an inner core of rock, with a surround- 
ing layer of ice some 16,000 miles in thickness, and an atmosphere 
which again is several thousands of miles thick and exerts the pressure 
of a million terrestrial atmospheres which we have already mentioned. 
The only known constituents of this atmosphere are the poisonous 
gases methane and ammonia. It is certainly hard to imagine such 
a planet providing a home for life of any kind whatever. The planets 
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto, being farther from the sun, 
are almost certainly even colder than Jupiter and in all probability 
suffer from at least equal disabilities as abodes of life. 

Turning sunward from these dismal planets, we come first to Mars, 
where we find conditions much more like those of our own planet. 
The average temperature is about —40° C., which is also —40° on the 
Fahrenheit scale, but the temperature rises above the freezing point 

501591—493__11 


148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


on summer afternoons in the equatorial regions. The atmosphere 
contains at most only small amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide, 
perhaps none at all, so that there can be no vegetation comparable 
with that of the earth. The surface, in so far as it can be tested by 
a study of its powers of reflection and polarization, appears to con- 
sist of lava and volcanic ash. To us it may not seem a promising 
or comfortable home for life, but life of some kind or other may be 
there nevertheless. 

Being at the same average distance from the sun as the earth, the 
moon has about the same average temperature, but the variations 
around this average temperature are enormous, the equatorial tem- 
perature varying roughly from 120° C. to —80° C. The telescope 
shows high ranges of mountains, apparently volcanic, interspersed 
with flat plains of volcanic ash. The moon has no atmosphere and 
consequently no water; it shows no signs of life or change of any 
kind, unless perhaps for rare falls of rock such as might result from 
the impact of meteors falling in from outer space. A small town 
on the moon, perhaps even a large building, ought to be visible in 
our largest telescopes, but, needless to say, we see nothing of the 
kind. 

Venus, the planet next to the earth, presents an interesting prob- 
lem. It is similar to the earth in size but being nearer the sun is 
somewhat warmer. As it is blanketed in cloud we can only guess as 
to the nature of its surface. But its atmosphere can be studied and 
is found to contain little or no oxygen, so that the planet’s surface 
can hardly be covered with vegetation as the surface of the earth is. 
Indeed, its surface is probably so hot that water would boil away. 
Yet no trace of water vapor is found in the atmosphere, so that the 
planet may well be devoid of water. There are reasons for thinking 
that its shroud of clouds may consist of solid particles, possibly 
hydrates of formaldehyde. Clearly any life that this planet may 
harbor must be very different from that of the earth. 

The only planet that remains is Mercury. This always turns the 
same face to the sun and its temperature ranges from about 420° C. 
at the center of this face to unimaginable depths of cold in the eternal 
night of the face which never sees the sun. The planet is too feeble 
gravitationally to retain much of an atmosphere and its surface, in 
so far as this can be tested, appears to consist mainly of volcanic ash 
like the moon and Mars. Once again we have a planet which does 
not appear promising as an abode of life and any life that there may 
be must be very different from our own. 

Thus our survey of the solar system forces us to the conclusion 
that it contains no place other than our earth which is at all suitable 
for life at all resembling that existing on earth. The other planets 


LIFE ON CTHER WORLDS—JEANS 149 


are ruled out largely by unsuitable temperatures. It used to be 
thought that Mars might have had a temperature more suited to life 
in some past epoch when the sun’s radiation was more energetic than 
it now is, and that similarly Venus can perhaps look forward to a 
more temperate climate in some future age. But these possibilities 
hardly accord with modern views of stellar evolution. The sun is 
now thought to be a comparatively unchanging structure, which has 
radiated much as now through the greater part of its past life and 
will continue to do the same until it changes cataclysmically into a 
minute “white dwarf” star. When this happens there will be a fall 
of temperature too rapid for life to survive anywhere in the solar 
system and too great for new life ever to get a foothold. As regards 
suitability for life, the earth seems permanently to hold a unique 
position among the bodies surrounding our sun. 

Our sun is, however, only one of myriads of stars in space. Our 
own galaxy alone contains about 100,000 million stars, and there are 
perhaps 10,000 million similar galaxies in space. Stars are about 
as numerous in space as grains of sand in the Sahara. What can we 
say about the possibilities of life on planets surrounding these other 
suns? 

We want first to know whether these planets exist. Observational 
astronomy can tell us nothing; if every star in the sky were surrounded 
by a planetary system like that of our sun, no telescope on earth could 
reveal a single one of these planets. Theory can tell us a little more. 
While there is some doubt as to the exact manner in which the sun 
acquired its family of planets, all modern theories are at one in sup- 
posing that it was the result of the close approach of another star. 
Other stars in the sky must also experience similar approaches, al- 
though calculation shows that such events must be excessively rare. 
Under conditions like those which now prevail in the neighborhood 
of the sun, a star will experience an approach close enough to generate 
planets only about once in every million million million years. If we 
suppose the star to have lived under these conditions for about 
2,000 million years, only one star in 500 million will have experienced 
the necessary close encounter, so that at most one star in 500 million 
will be surrounded by planets. This looks an absurdly minute fraction 
of the whole, yet when the whole consists of a thousand million million 
million stars, this minute fraction represents two million million stars. 
On this caculation, then, two million million stars must already be sur- 
rounded by planets and a new solar system is born every few hours. 
The calculation probably needs many adjustments; for instance, con- 
ditions near our sun are not necessarily typical of conditions through- 
cut space and the conditions of today are probably not typical of con- 
ditions in past ages. Indeed, on any reasonable view of stellar evolu- 


150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


tion, each star must have begun its life as a vast mass of nebulous 
gas, in which state it would present a far more vulnerable target than 
now for disruptive attacks by other stars. Detailed calculation shows 
that the chance of a star’s producing planets in this early stage, 
although not large, would be quite considerable, and suggests, with a 
large margin to spare, that although planetary systems may be rare in 
space, their total number is far from insignificant. Out of the thou- 
sands or millions of millions of planets that there must surely be in 
space, a very great number must have physical conditions very similar 
to those prevailing on earth. 

We cannot even guess whether these are inhabited by life like our 
own or by life of any kind whatever. The same chemical atoms exist 
there as exist here and must have the same properties, so that it 1s 
likely that the same inorganic compounds have formed there as have 
formed here. If so, we would like to know how far the chain of life 
has progressed, but present-day science can give no help. We can only 
wonder whether any life there may be elsewhere in the universe has 
succeeded in managing its affairs better than we have done in recent 
years. 


SOLAR RADIATION AND THE STATE OF THE 
ATMOSPHERE? 


By HARLAN TRUE STETSON 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology 


[With 4 plates] 


For a week before the great aurora of September 18, 1941, with the 
attendant wide-spread disturbances to radio communication, the sun 
had been heralding the event. Although the sunspot cycle has been 
definitely on the wane since 1937, the week preceding the 18th pre- 
sented one of the largest groups of spots seen in recent years, so con- 
spicuous, in fact, that it was visible to the naked eye through suitable 
dark glasses. The forecasting of interruptions to radio communication 
is of increasing significance in these days of national defense, but the 
ability to foresee communication interruptions has been a recent result 
of intersified interest in the stduy of relationships between solar dis- 
turbances and terrestrial atmospheric conditions. 

The sun is a typical star of rather ordinary proportions, but because 
of our proximity to it, the sun is the one star upon whose radiations 
activities on the earth are unalterably dependent. Military campaigns 
as well as agriculture since the dawn of civilization must be governed 
by the seasons for which the changing declination of the sun is the 
major astromonical factor. With the conquest of the upper air for 
transportation and the use of atmospheric electric waves for world- 
wide radio communication, the study of the sun’s radiations in relation 
to our atmosphere has become an astronomical problem of far more 
than academic interest. 

Not a day passes but that our United States Naval Observatory in 
cooperation with other observatories has a complete photographic 
record of the conditions of the sun’s surface. When a huge solar storm 
is in the making, communication agencies are forewarned days in 
advance of probable periods of interrupted radio reception. The ques- 
tion of the relation of sunspots to the forecasting of weather is still 
in a controversial stage, but meteorologists are beginning to realize the 
increasing significance of conditions in the high atmosphere to the 


‘Reprinted by permission from The Scientific Monthly, vol. 54, June 1942. 


152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


lower regions in which our weather appears to arise. All weather is 
fundamentally traceable to solar radiation. The amount and the char- 
acter of this radiation, particularly in its relationship to atmospheric 
phenomena, merits more detailed consideration. 

From observations at the Smithsonian Institution, the amount of 
energy that the sun emits has been measured with such precision that 
we know not only the quantity of heat and light emitted, but that this 
quantity varies from time to time by some 2 or 3 percent. The aver- 
age energy received by the earth from the sun is about 450 million 
million horsepower. Because of the relatively insignificant size of the 
earth, and also the great distance that separates us from the sun— 
a distance of 93 million miles—our planet can intercept but about 
one two-billionth of the total solar output. Even so, if we stop to 
consider what the cost to us would be were we charged for a year’s 
service of heat and light from the Solar Utilities Power and Light 
Company, we would find our indebtedness mounting to staggering pro- 
portions. At a price of 134 cents per kilowatt hour, the annual budget 
that would have to be allowed for sunshine for the continental United 
States alone would represent an expenditure of 327 quadrillion dollars. 
Such figures are indeed difficult to imagine. If we change our picture 
toa more restricted one, we can say that the cost of sunshine for Greater 
New York at the above figure would amount to approximately 100 
million dollars for the average day. Fortunately for us, millions of 
years ago this same sunshine provided the energy for growing the 
vast tropical forests of the carboniferous era. The carbon in those 
fallen tree trunks that we are mining today in the form of coal together 
with the water power provided by the vast irrigating systems main- 
tained by the sun’s radiation is the source for the maintenance of our 
public utilities and industries today. It is an interesting question as 
to how long the sun can maintain its present output of radiation and 
how far into the future we may rely upon its ability to furnish us with 
this all-essential source of energy. It appears probable that within 
the hot interior of the sun, which may be estimated in terms of millions 
of degrees, an atomic transmutation is taking place that has been going 
on for millions of years and is lkely to continue for a long time to 
come. Through an ingenious carbon cycle recently worked out by 
Professor Bethe, of Cornell University, we picture the ultimate trans- 
formation of hydrogen into helium with the continual release of 
energy in the form of radiation that represents a loss of mass to the sun 
of some 4,200,000 tons every second. We scarcely need worry, how- 
ever, about the deterioration of the fuel supply while the sun has about 
2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons of matter still left in it. 

If we analyze the radiation from the sun we discover that it covers 
a wide range of wave lengths. Certain of these wave lengths or fre- 


SOLAR RADIATION AND ATMOSPHERE—STETSON 153 


quencies produce their own special effects upon the earth and its 
atmosphere. 

We are all familiar with the fact that if sunlight is split into 
its component colors by means of a spectroscope we can see a large 
variety of the radiations represented by the various parts or colors of 
the solar spectrum. The visible range to which the eye responds 
represents frequencies extending from 400 million million cycles per 
second to a frequency just about double this, or 800 million million 
cycles per second. The sensation of the higher of these two frequen- 
cies is that of violet light, and the sensation produced by the 400 mil- 
lion million cycle frequency is that of deep red light. In between these 
two extremes of the spectrum fall the intervening colors. But outside 
this so-called visible range to which the eye responds there is a vast 
scale of radiations both beyond the red end of the spectrum, which 
we call the infrared, and far down below the violet, which we call 
the ultraviolet. 

By means of the photographic plate, we can extend the map of 
the spectrum in either direction. Far out beyond the red end are 
heat radiations from the sun that may be measured with the thermo- 
pile or the bolometer. Today much research is being done in measur- 
ing the extremely short waves, or high-frequency radiations out beyond 
the violet, for the ultraviolet is coming to have increasing importance 
not only from the point of view of health but from the point of view 
of the radio engineer. 

The sunlight which we measure or analyze at the earth’s surface 
is, however, seriously modified by the absorption introduced by the 
constituents of our own atmosphere. As we all know, the earth’s 
atmosphere consists of nearly 14 oxygen and 34 nitrogen. There is a 
sprinkling of carbon dioxide with a bit of argon, neon, crypton, xenon, 
and a trace of helium. Here at the earth’s surface we can count on a 
little more than 1 percent of water vapor. For a thorough mixing 
of the elements of this atmosphere and the maintenance of its tempera- 
ture as well as the variation in its temperature, we rely upon the sun. 
Occasionally we have vividly impressed upon us the relationship of 
our atmosphere to disturbances on the sun, by displays of aurorae or 
the Polar Lights, often flaming gorgeously red and stretching 100 
miles above the earth. These glowing electric discharges advertise 
the lofty air swarming with the traffic of electrons, ions, and particles, 
jostling one another as they are excited by radiations from the sun 
peculiar to the occurrences of sunspot activity. 

Observations with the spectroscope indicate that there 1s much 
radiation at the extreme ultraviolet end of the spectrum to which 
the earth’s atmosphere is completely opaque. A great deal of the 
absorption of this region of the solar spectrum of very short wave 
lengths is caused by a layer of ozone which exists at an average height 


154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


of about 22 kilometers, but which probably occupies a region extend- 
ing from 15 to 35 kilometers. If all the ozone in this region were 
to be brought to the standard conditions of temperature and pressure 
of our atmosphere at the earth’s surface, it would represent a layer 
of only 2 to 3 millimeters in thickness. Yet this small amount of 
ozone is the defense between us and extremely dangerous radiations 
in the ultraviolet region of the sun’s light. Were the absorption, 
however, of this region of the solar spectrum even a little greater 
than it is, we should be deprived of that small amount of ultraviolet 
light filtering through our atmosphere that is so essential for health 
and the production of our sunshine vitamin D. Whether or not 
variations in the sun’s radiation are sufficiently great or changes in 
the absorption of the earth’s atmosphere sufficiently large to bring 
about dangerous variations in the production of vitamin D in living 
organisms at the earth’s surface is an interesting question for specula- 
tion and for investigation. 

We can be confident, however, that it is a fortunate combination 
of the sun and our atmosphere that makes life on the earth possible. 
The sun not only radiates its health-giving sunshine, but it also emits 
literally death-dealing rays. Were it not for the protecting shield of 
the earth’s atmosphere, the sun would be the annihilator of us all. 
The atmosphere provides on the one hand oxygen for maintaining 
life, and on the other hand protects us from the highly penetrating 
rays. It is a sort of a buffer state, the very top of which receives a 
violent bombardment of high-frequency radiations from the sun, and 
the lower layers of which form a blanket that enables the earth to 
retain during the night much of the warmth generated by the sun- 
shine that has penetrated through it, thus mitigating the extremes of 
temperature between night and day to which the earth would other- 
wise be subjected. 

If we look at a cross section of the earth’s atmosphere, it may for 
convenience be divided into three zones or layers in which the strato- 
sphere occupies the middle ground. The region below the strato- 
sphere is that which contacts our immediate surroundings and 
provides the winds and atmospheric currents, giving rise to all our 
weather. We call this lower region comprising perhaps the first 5 
or 6 miles the troposphere. The region above the stratosphere is 
the ionosphere. If we send a recording thermometer aloft, we find 
that while passing through the troposphere the temperature steadily 
falls until a height of 10 or 12 kilometers is reached, when the 
temperature reaches the extremely low value of —55° C., or some 
68° below zero Fahrenheit. Strangely enough, for the next 30 miles 
or so there appears to be little change in temperature. This is the 
region of the stratosphere. The weather forecaster for the strato- 
sphere would have a relatively simple task, for day after day, year 


SOLAR RADIATION AND ATMOSPHERE—STETSON 155 


in and year out, his prognostications would be “clear and cool,” and 
his forecasts would be 100 percent correct. At a height of 60 kilome- 
ters or some 40 miles, the temperature would begin to rise again. 
Recent investigations give some evidence that at extreme heights, 
up where the auroral fires play, temperatures of 1,000° C. have 
to be postulated to account for the presence of the ionized oxygen 
that is there. The extremely rarefied condition of this upper at- 
mosphere, however, calls for perhaps a quite different interpretation 
of temperature than that to which we are ordinarily accustomed 
when determining temperatures by the thermometer at the earth’s 
surface. 

Ascending through the cross sections of the atmosphere, we find 
there is a rapid decrease in the amount of atmospheric pressure. 
Within the first 3 miles from the earth’s surface, half the total 


° 


on 


RELATIVE FREQUENCY 


6 FAOOLSS MOEA On GUA GM NBINI gs WE AULT ge UNG 
SUNSPOT 
YEARS BEFORE eee YEARS AFTER 


Figure 1.—Relative frequency of occurrences of aurorae at the Blue Hill Observa- 

tory before and after years of sunspot maxima. 
amount of oxygen and nitrogen, the principal atmospheric ingredi- 
ents, are included. The limiting height to which the thinning 
atmosphere extends is somewhat difficult to fix. Perhaps we should 
place it at 200 to 300 miles, although recently Dr. Carl Stormer has 
observed auroral streamers reaching to heights of 600 kilometers 
or more. Where auroral streamers go, some of the thin atmosphere 
must extend. 

If we make a chart of the numbers and occurrences of aurorae we 
find there seems to be a curious connection between the frequency 
and brightness of auroral displays and the state of the sun as marked 
by the appearance of sunspots. Professor Brooks, director of the 
Blue Hill Observatory, has kindly allowed me access to the records 
made of aurorae at that station for the last 30 years. Utilizing 
the observations of the brighter aurorae, we may make a graph 
showing the variations in the auroral frequencies occurring in years 


156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


distributed with respect to the maximum occurrences of sunspots. 
The fewest number of aurorae appear to occur from 4 to 6 years 
before or after the years marking sunspot maxima. The time when 
aurorae appear most frequently would seem to be about 2 years after 
the passing of the maximum of sunspots. These results corroborate 
rather well those of a longer series of observations tabulated by Dr. 
Chree extending for over 100 years, or from 1750 to 1877. 

The fact that aurorae occur with far greater frequency during 
years when sunspots are more numerous than during the years when 
there is a scarcity of sunspots suggests that the electrical effect in 
the upper atmosphere is something for which a disturbed solar 
surface is responsible. There is, I believe, a good reason for the 
fact that the maximum in the auroral displays occurs a year or two 
after the year of most sunspots. As sunspots begin to wane in 
numbers, they are nevertheless occurring in regions progressively 
nearer the solar equator, and as the sun’s equator is inclined but 
slightly to the plane of the earth’s orbit, we may draw the inference 
that sunspots are most effectively associated with the occurrence of 
aurorae when, other things being equal, they are most nearly in the 
geometrical plane that the earth travels in its journey around the 
sun. 

Much of our present knowledge of aurorae is due to the exhaustive 
studies and mathematical calculations of Dr. St6rmer, of Blindern, 
Norway. By careful analysis of the motion of charged particles 
in the magnetic field of the earth, he has been able to deduce tracks 
of ionization so simulating auroral forms as to indicate very signifi- 
cantly that such discharges in the upper atmosphere are indeed the 
result of bombardments of electrons coming in from outside, warped 
by the magnetic field of the earth. In endeavoring to express such 
phenomena on an electronic hypothesis we may well look at the sun, 
therefore, for a consideration of the character of sunspots and so 
trace any possible mechanism by which corpuscular charges might 
be ejected in the region of the sunspots themselves. 

When we look at an enlarged view of a sunspot and analyze the 
light from it, we find that the dark interior center is surrounded 
by a turbulent area. Photographs taken in the light emitted by 
hydrogen at a particular frequency reveal that there are whirling 
masses of gas, arranging themselves in veritable vortices. ‘There is 
every indication, then, that a sunspot is in reality a terriffic solar 
hurricane. It was in 1908 that the late Dr. George Ellery Hale, 
the founder and director of the Mount Wilson Observatory, first 
observed that sunspots were giant cyclones in the sun’s atmosphere. 
They are indeed very similar in their formation to the tropical 
hurricanes that originate in the West Indies and sweep northward. 

With photographic emulsions made especially sensitive to the red 


SOLAR RADIATION AND ATMOSPHERE—STETSON 157 


light emitted by hydrogen, there may be photographed on a moving 
film the entire solar surface so far as it is covered by bright luminous 
hydrogen clouds. The resulting representations of the sun appear 
very different from photographs make in ordinary light. Not only 
are large clouds of hydrogen gas discernible all over the sun, but 
in the neighborhood of sunspots they often seem to be swept into 
the heart of the spot as if they were caught in the center of a whirl- 
pool. Such an appearance might be presented by the top of a ter- 
restrial cyclone or tornado if photographed from a stratospheric 
balloon. The dark center of the spot forms the center of the vor- 
tex; the outlying shaded region that characterizes the so-called 
penumbra of the sunspot would represent the turbulence bordering 
upon the central funnel about which the atmospheric particles are 
rapidly rotating. Thus we see there is a close analogy between the 
meteorology of tropical cyclones and that of sunspots. To carry 
the analogy still further, spots north of the sun’s equator are in 
general whirling in one direction while corresponding spots south 
of the equator whirl in the opposite direction. If the rotation of 
the one is clockwise, that of the other is counterclockwise. This 
again is characteristic of the differences of rotation of tropical hurri- 
canes on the earth originating in the northern and southern hemi- 
spheres, respectively. 

Had it not been for the trick of splitting up sunlight into isolated 
frequencies by means of the spectroscope, we should never have had 
pictures showing the existence of solar vortices such as we have 
today. In the ordinary photograph of the sun, the light emitted by 
every chemical element in the sun’s atmosphere is clamoring to tell 
its story. The result is revealed in a rather jumbled picture of 
what is happening on the sun. The spots show up as dark regions 
only when the light-emitting power of every element of the sun is 
damaged in the vicinity of these violently disturbed regions. 

The spectroscope is very much like a highly selective radio re- 
ceiving set. The sun is a high-powered station sending out light, 
broadcast in all the wave lengths and frequencies. When we look at 
the sun or photograph it with a telescope alone, we are using all the 
light and are, so to speak, operating a radio receiver which admits all 
frequencies at once. Thus we get a composite but very jumbled picture 
of what is happening on the sun’s surface as far as details are con- 
cerned. By means of the spectroscope, however, the photographic 
apparatus, to continue our analogy, must be tuned to a single frequency 
such as the 470 million megacycle frequency that the red line of 
hydrogen emits. Tuned to this frequency the spectroscope stills the 
tumult of all other elements and lets hydrogen tell its own story. It is 
then that we obtain the clear photographs conveying so beautifully the 
detailed information about the vortical whirls around the solar storm 


158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


centers that would otherwise be lost in the jumble of too many story 
tellers. 

It has long been known that the frequencies of light waves are 
distorted if there is a powerful magnetic field surrounding the light 
source. This had been demonstrated in the laboratory shortly after 
the reason for such a phenomenon had been given by Zeeman in 
1894. When the Mount Wilson observers first examined and 
actually measured the frequency of light coming from the centers 
of sunspots, it was found to have changed frequency in exactly the 
way that light waves are distorted in the laboratory when a power- 
ful electromagnet is placed around the source of light being ex- 
amined. If additional proof were needed for the explanation of the 


NUMBERS 


ls 
ia sbi gh Bel oe 


tl 9 


SUNSPOT 
} 


ee ani aah 


1933 1934 1935 1936 193/ 1938 1939 1s40 1941 1942 


Figure 2.—The trend of sunspot activity has been definitely downward since 1937, 
Curve of sunspot numbers smoothed by three months moving averages. 
changed frequencies, it may be stated that the double and triple 
lines found in the spectrum of sunspots indicated that the light 
was polarized just as in the case of the polarized light waves coming 
from the laboratory source upon which the magnetic field is im- 
pressed. Thus came the startling revelation that sunspots were 
not only terrific hurricanes but every center was in itself a powerful 
magnet. Since a magnetic field may exert a repulsing effect upon 
swiftly moving electrons, we see some reason that charged electric 
particles can be actually hurled from sunspot centers at velocities 
which may carry them through space into the earth’s atmosphere, 
thus ionizing the upper regions of the air in a way that would 
produce auroral displays. In the light of such a mechanism, there- 
fore, we see a possible reason why aurorae occur in greater numbers 
and at greater brilliance at times when these solar storms occur 

most frequently. 
With the new unsurpassed equipment installed at the McMath-Hul- 
bert Observatory of the University of Michigan, motion pictures of the 


SOLAR RADIATION AND ATMOSPHERE—STETSON 159 


sun’s surface have been made on many different frequencies of the 
sun’sradiation. These cinematographic records promise more material 
for the intense study of the behavior of the solar surface than has ever 
before been available. Some of the movements in the high solar at- 
mosphere over the regions of sunspots revealed by this new process of 
recording continuous motion at present defy explanation and may yet 
completely revolutionize our ideas of the sun’s behavior pattern. 

Perhaps the terrestrial effect that has most nearly paralleled the sun- 
spot cycle is the variation in the state of the earth’s magnetic field. For 
over 100 years, it has been definitely known that the direction of the 
compass needle and the intensity of the earth’s magnetic field show 
definite relationships. In the years when sunspots are most numerous 
magnetic disturbances are most frequent and appear with marked in- 
tensity. The years when sunspots are most numerous follow with 
more or less regularity an interval of somewhat over a decade between 
the times of maximum sunspot activity. This solar cycle, or sunspot 
period as we sometimes call it, is usually conceded to be on the average 
of about 11.8 years duration. An examination of a graph wiil show 
that sometimes the interval between maxima may be as short as 9 
years and on occasion as long as 17 years. 

The last maximum of sunspots was passed in 1937 and we are well on 
our way on the down side of the cycle. It was not until the more 
recent discovery of an ionized region in the upper atmosphere of the 
earth that any real explanation appeared as to why sunspots and 
changes in the earth’s magnetic field should show so close a parallelism. 

Everyone knows in a general way that the earth is a magnetic sphere. 
That the compass needle does not point true north except in various 
restricted parts of the globe is also a fact which is generally recog- 
nized. Perhaps comparatively few who are not geomagneticians 
realize that the compass needle is constantly wandering back and forth 
every day by aslight amount. When the sun rises in the east, the north 
end of the compass needle turns slightly toward that direction. By 
noon when the sun is south, it is pointed in its normal position. Then 
in the afternoon as the sun wanders and sets in the west, the compass 
needle wanders likewise to the west, coming back again to its normal 
position about midnight when the sun is below the northern horizon. 
This goes on day after day, month after month—but during the years 
when sunspots are most numerous these daily excursions of the com- 
pass needle will on the average be twice as great as during the years 
when sunspots are lacking. These diurnal wanderings of the compass 
needle can now be roughly explained as due to the effects of ionization 
of the upper atmosphere by sunlight. As the electric charges become 
separated in the process of ionization f the omlecules of nitrogen and 
oxygen under the bombardment of ultraviolet light from the sun, 
the movements of these ions create a perceptible current, deflecting 


160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


the compass needle from its normal magnetic position. We may infer, 
therefore, that at times of sunspot maxima the number of these ions in 
the upper air is materially increased, producing a more marked mag- 
netic effect. The strength of the magnetic field of the earth, therefore, 
may be considered as increasing and decreasing with the variation in 
the intensity of the ionization of the upper air that changes with sun- 
spot occurrences. Most of our knowledge of the ionized region has 
come about through the invention of the radio. 

In the early days of wireless, it was thought that electric waves 
which carried telegraph messages without wires traveled in straight 
lines over the earth, just as hght waves do. With this conception 
one could never hope to communicate over very great distances, since 
the curvature of the earth would prevent the passage of the waves as 
the earth’s huge bulk bulged into the communication path. The earlier 
wireless engineers thought that only by building higher and higher 
antenna towers could one ultimately hope to communicate over the 
thousands of miles that would make transoceanic wireless possible. 

Of course, these early crude notions about the way in which electric 
waves travel were erroneous. Such, nevertheless, is the way in which 
science has groped into the unknown. Somebody experimenting with 
wireless and listening in found himself quite unconsciously eaves- 
dropping on Marconi waves from the other side of the Atlantic. 
Instantly the thought about how wireless waves travel had to be 
changed. Evidently the electromagnetic waves followed the curvature 
of the earth and did not travel in straight lines after all. This led 
Professor Kennelly of Harvard to postulate that there must exist high 
above the earth’s surface, perhaps 100 miles or so up, an electrified con- 
ducting layer from which the electromagnetic waves emitted from the 
powerful antennae were reflected back to earth. The earth’s upper 
atmosphere, therefore, in his mind formed a conducting layer and 
imprisoned the radio waves between the earth’s surface and space 
cutside. A few months after Professor Kennelly published his 
hypothesis, the English scientist, Oliver Heaviside, announced a simi- 
lar conclusion quite independently. In honor of these two distin- 
guished men this upper region of the earth’s atmosphere that is 
electrically ionized is commonly referred to as the Kennelly-Heaviside 
layer, also designated as the E layer. 

If we look at a diagram (pl. 2) which presents a vertical section of 
the earth and its atmosphere, we see that this Kennelly-Heaviside layer 
exists at an altitude of from 100 to 130 kilometers. Radio waves 
emitted from a sending station in all directions arriving in this ionized 
region have their velocity and direction changed as they penetrate 
farther and farther into the region, until at length they are bent 
back to earth again, reaching receiving stations hundreds and some- 
times thousands of miles from the source whence they were broadcast. 


SOLAR RADIATION AND ATMOSPHERE—STETSON 161 


This region lies far above the stratosphere and generally above the 
region that is usually regarded as that where ozone is manufactured. 
This E layer is particularly favorable for reflecting or turning back 
radio waves of the frequencies which are most generally used for 
commercial broadcasting in connection with our entertainment pro- 
grams. Radio waves of much shorter wave lengths or of higher fre- 
quencies penetrate and actually traverse through this region until they 
reach what appears to be another ionized region called the F layer, 
originally postulated by Professor Appleton in England. This F 
layer lies some 200 kilometers high or in the territory where auroral 
streamers stage their gorgeous displays. Ii the ionization of these 
upper regions is more intense as we near the period of maximum sun- 
spot activity, one might well expect that some change might be 
observed in connection with radio transmission. 

Anticipating a new field of research, a Boston radio engineer, G. W. 
Pickard, and myself became interested in the making of quantitative 
measurements of radio reception during the sunspot maximum of 1928 
in an endeavor to discover if such anticipated effects on radio com- 
munication could be measured. After a few years’ observations, it 
appeared to be evident that when solar activity increased the field 
strength of a Chicago broadcasting station observed in Boston notably 
weakened, whereas as sunspots became less numerous there was a 
marked increase in the intensity of the radio waves from Chicago. 
A similar investigation carried on during the decline of sunspots from 
1930 to 1982 between Chicago and the Perkins Observatory of Dela- 
ware, Ohio, yielded data to indicate that with a decrease of sunspots 
from a monthly average of 60 at the beginning of 1930 to a monthly 
average of about 10 in 1932, radio reception increased sixfold in its 
intensity. 

Continued observations of the Chicago-Boston field strengths in 
recent years have continued to substantiate the general effect earlier 
observed. While there may be a 600 percent change in the field 
strengths between a sunspot maximum and a sunspot minimum, this 
does not mean that the degree of ionization in the Kennelly-Heaviside 
layer has been altered by this amount. The field strength of a radio 
wave at a given distance for a given frequency depends upon the angle 
of reflection or refraction which in turn is dependent upon the degree 
of ionization. Field strength also depends upon the absorption of the 
waves, which is a function of the conductivity. Appleton has esti- 
mated from his observations that the ionization and the electrical con- 
ductivity of the E and F regions in passing from sunspot maximum 
to sunspot minimum have shown variations of 50 to 60 percent imply- 
ing that the solar ionizing agent (ultraviolet light) responsible for the 
formation of these regions in the ionosphere varies from 120 to 150 
percent during the sunspot cycle, 


162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


We thus see that radio becomes a sensitive and extremely useful 
tool in recording changes of degree of ionization of the upper atmos- 
phere. When we observe radio field strengths at long distances we 
are in a way tracing an integrated effect throughout the whole trans- 
mission path for a given frequency. 


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RADIO FIELDS } 


(a) 


SCALE 


1939 
Mht J S N 
reer e 


1940 
J MOM OS N 


Figure 3.—Trend oi radio field strengths of WBBM received at Boston compared 
with sunspot activity 1986-1940. Top curve (b) represents sunspot numbers 
over entire disk of sun; middle curve (c) represents variation in areas of sun- 
spots of zones of solar latitude 0° to +15° either side of the sun’s equator; low- 
est curve (@) represents variation in radio field strengths corrected for sea- 
sonal and diurnal variations. The fact that the lowest curve parallels closely 
sunspot activity in the 0° to +15° zones suggests effect of solar disturbances 
is greatest when spots are near solar equator. 


Another way in which we gain important information as to the 
sun’s effect upon the upper atmosphere is by making radio soundings 
from day to day. This method, which has been in use for some 
years at the National Bureau of Standards, at the Department of 
Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution in Washington and 
elsewhere, consists in sending up a radio pulse of known frequency 
and recording its return from the reflecting layer. The time elapsed 
while the wave was traveling this path to the ionosphere and back 
is measured with high precision on an oscillograph. Assuming that 
the radio wave travels with the velocity of light, one can calculate 


SOLAR RADIATION AND ATMOSPHERE—STETSON 163 


from the elapsed time the height to which the pulse ascended before 
it was turned back by the ionosphere. 

Soundings made of the ionosphere reveal different conditions at 
various times, displaying marked changes in the ionic density that 
are dependent upon the hour of the day and the season of the year. 
Routine radio soundings include changing the frequency at which the 
radio pulse is emitted. If the frequency is sufficiently increased, the 
shorter and more penetrating waves may pass completely through the 
ionized layer and not return. When such a frequency is attained, it 
is known as the critical frequency. 


Figure 4.—Critical frequencies follow sunspots. Curve smoothed by 12-month 
moving averages. 

The close relation between the observed critical frequencies and the 
rise and fall in solar activity marked by sunspot numbers has been 
so apparent during the last 10 years that the National Bureau of 
Standards now undertakes to predict 3 months in advance the best 
usable frequencies for radio communication based upon the sun- 
spot cycle. | 


501591—43 12 


164 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


During the last few years of sunspot activity, there have been 
occasions when remarkable fade-outs have occurred in radio com- 
munication. In several of these instances extraordinary explosions 
have occurred on the sun simultaneously with the interruption of all 
radio communication in general. It would appear that the intense 
ionizing radiation from the region of the sun where these eruptions 
occur reaches the earth with the velocity of light and of sufficient 
intensity to disturb immediately the ionized layer, confusing the 
reflection of radio waves, and thereby resulting in these fade-outs 
which sometimes last for an hour or more. Records at magnetic 
observatories show that during such instances characteristics of the 
earth’s magnetic field are likewise suddenly altered. 

Could we visualize the ethereal substance of the ionosphere as we 
visualize the surface of the ocean, we should find times when terrific 
storms were raging in this ionosphere. Here ions and electrons are 
being hurled hither and yon as through some great electrical wind 
played upon its surface, creating waves literally miles high. Fre- 
quently the turbulence attains such proportions that no reflecting 
surface for radio communication seems possible at all. When dis- 
turbances on the sun subside, the undulations in the ionosphere may 
quiet down and there is a return to more normal conditions for com- 
munication traffic through this ocean of the upper air. 

While knowledge of the sun has helped us to understand the 
vagaries of radio, we are coming to see that radio is one of the most 
important tools for learning about what happens on the sun and how 
disturbances there affect the ions in this upper air. Perhaps some 
day, even though the sky is cloudy, we shall have a sufficient number 
of reports of radio conditions over the globe so that we can form a 
very good idea as to what is happening on the surface of the sun 
by the way in which world-wide radio communication behaves. 
Unlike the telescope, radio apparatus does not go out of commission 
when the sky is overcast, for electric waves, of course, pass through 
the clouds as easily as ordinary daylight comes through window glass. 

Concerning the exact method or methods by means of which the 
sun produces all these electric disturbances of the upper air with 
the concomitant magnetic variations in the earth, we still lack a 
great deal of knowledge. The fact that the ultraviolet radiation 
from the sun is the major factor in producing this ionization appears 
a reasonable assumption. Whether or not, in addition to the effect 
of the ultraviolet light, streams of charged particles also emanate 
from the sun in the regions of sunspots is perhaps still debatable, 
yet there is accumulating evidence that in addition to the wave radia- 
tion from the sun there is also a particle radiation that is primarily 
responsible for the violent magnetic disturbances such as accompanied 
the marked solar activity of Easter week in 1940, The elaborate 


SOLAR RADIATION AND ATMOSPHERE—STETSON 165 


mathematical work of Dr. Stérmer, in calculating the movements 
of hypothetical charged particles from the sun striking the upper 
atmosphere of the earth and thereby producing aurorae, would cer- 
{tainly seem to favor the idea that corpuscular radiation of some sort 
is responsible for this phenomenon. 


ame 
tt 
T 
i 
Sta tetafeh stat 
cH 


Ficure 5.—Curve showing correspondence between sunspot activity, terrestrial 
magnetic changes, disturbances in the F layer and field strengths in the broad- 
cast band (E layer). All are plotted with respect to days before and after 
bright aurorae. 

We have recently made a study of our last 10 years of recordings of 
field strengths from WBBM Chicago as received in the vicinity of 
Boston for days immediately preceding and following conspicuous 
auroral displays. Comparisons have also been made of the index of 
sunspottedness for the same intervals. It was immediately apparent 
from our statistical analysis that on the average auroral displays 


166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


followed by 1 day the highest value of sunspottedness, and that on the 
average 1 to 2 days aiter the auroral displays occurred, the weakest 
field strengths on the 770 ke. frequency were recorded. Since waves 
in the broadcast band are returned from the E layer of the ionosphere, 
it would appear that there is a definite lag of from 24 to 48 hours be- 
tween the disturbances in the auroral zone and the greatest deteriora- 
tion (ionization) in the E layer. Had we similar measurements of 
field strengths at higher frequencies representing waves returning from 
the F layer, we might expect a similar effect to occur at an interval 
intermediate between the time of maximum auroral display and the 
time of minimum field strengths from the E layer. Such field-strength 
measurements are not available, but fortunately through the courtesy 
of the Bell Telephone Laboratories we had available a record of their 


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Figure 6.—Seasonal trend of radio field strengths (night) of WBBM (770 ke.) 
as received at Boston. Values here represented are not corrected for twilight 
effect, which depends upon angle of depression of the sun below the horizon 
during periods of observation. 

transmission disturbances over oceanic paths. ‘Taking the reciprocal 

of these transmission-disturbance numbers, we have an index of trans- 

mission conditions comparable to the field-strength measurements in 
the broadcast band. A plot of these transmission disturbances for re- 
ception from the F layer indicated a lag of roughly 12 hours after the 
auroral displays for the minimum transmission conditions. This pro- 
vides perhaps as clear a confirmation as could have been anticipated for 
ionization disturbances occurring more promptly in the F layer than 


SOLAR RADIATION AND ATMOSPHERE—STETSON 167 


in the E layer. The curve of magnetic disturbance in the earth’s field 
parallels very closely that of transmission disturbances in the F layer. 

In utilizing field-strength measurements for comparison with cosmic 
phenomena it has been necessary to apply corrections for the well- 
known diurnal and seasonal variations which depend upon the extent 
to which the ionosphere has been illuminated by sunlight during the 
preceding day. If such correction is not applied, we have of course 2 


700 


400 


IOO 


FIELO iN MICROVOLTS 


200 


100 


= } 


ay Ki ANGLE OF SUN'S REPRESSION BELOW THE HORIZON 
-10 -20° -39 -40° - 


ade 0 £0 DI 60 


Figure 7.—Curve showing gain of nightly field strengths with the increasing 
depression of the sun below the horizon based on upward of 8,000 hours of 
observation. The smoothed curve is used as a correction curve for eliminating 
seasonal trend before comparing radio field strengths with other cosmic 
phenomena. 

marked seasonal trend with a minimum of reception conditions in sum- 

mer and a maximum in winter. The appropriate correction curve has 

been derived from over 8,000 half-hourly periods of observations, 
covering a range of 5° to —70° in the angular depression of the sun 
below the horizon during the observational periods utilized. 

The possibility that an annual or seasonal change exists that is not 
allowed for by the changing declination of the sun led to the reexami- 
nation of all our data of the last few years with the result that a resi- 
dual annual change apparently exists with a maximum in April and 


168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


May and a minimum in September and October. The curve of this 
residual annual variation strikingly parallels the annual change in the 
distribution of ozone in northern latitudes as derived by Dobson. The 
parallelism of these two curves suggests that possibly the cause of the 
change in the ozone distribution is intimately associated with that of 
the changes in the ionosphere resulting in this variation in field 
strengths. 


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Ficure 8.—Residual seasonal variation in field strengths of WBBM after correc- 
tions for twilight effect or angle of depression of the sun below the horizon. 
The form of the curve is similar to that of the seasonal variation of ozone con- 
tent of the upper air. 


For the pursuit of these studies in cosmic terrestrial relationships 
a new laboratory for cosmic terrestrial research has been located in 
the outskirts of the town of Needham, Mass., where conditions are 
favorable for radio propagation studies with a minimum of inter- 
ference, and for observations of atmospheric electric phenomena away 
from the contamination due to manufacturing in a metropolitan area. 
The building provides approximately 2,500 square feet of floor space 
for offices and laboratories. The observational program includes the 
continuous recording of solar radiation, ultraviolet light, atmospheric 
potential gradient, ionic content of the lower air and atmospheric 
electric discharges, as well as the continuation of the measurements of 
field intensities of radio waves both in the broadcast band and at. high 
frequencies. The relationship of solar observations, ionization phe- 
nomena at high altitudes, and radio-wave phenomena to the meteor- 
ology of the lower air affords possibilities for extensive investigations 
which may become of increasing importance. 


SOLAR RADIATION AND ATMOSPHERE—STETSON 169 


Attempts to correlate weather changes with solar phenomena have 
thus far met with varying success. In spite of many conflicting re- 
sults, it appears that in general the temperature of the world at large 
is somewhat higher at sunspot minima than at sunspot maxima. This 
seems at first paradoxical, since we might well expect that at sunspot 
maxima the sun would send us more heat and radiation than at sun- 
spot minima. Many of Dr. Abbot’s observations, especially during 
the earlier years, seem to corroborate this. Yet the surface tempera- 
ture of the globe could be actually cooler in years when the earth is 
receiving more heat from the sun, for increased heat produces in- 
creased evaporation which in turn generally results in increased rain- 
fall. Increased rainfall actually lowers the temperature of the earth’s 
surface and again, by evaporation, continues to cool the air imme- 
diately above. Furthermore, with the warming of the earth, a vast 
convectional system of atmospheric currents results. As air warmed 
near the surface of the earth rises, cold air flows in from the polar 
regions with its chilling effects. It appears entirely possible that 
even with an increase in the heat received by the earth from the sun, 
as far as surface conditions are concerned, actually lower tempera- 
tures would occur at selected regions. 

As far as changes in the sun’s radiation affecting the general circu- 
lation of the atmosphere are concerned, it is to be expected that such 
changes would ultimately give rise to the formation of storms and the 
storm tracks resulting. One of the difficulties in establishing any in- 
timate connection between weather and sunspots is that our observa- 
tions of weather tend to be very local. 

If progress is to be made, it will come through a consciousness of the 
distribution of weather as a whole over the entire globe. From a 
more accurate picture of world weather, indications for weather in a 
given locality at a given time may be more easily estimated. 

Looking at the weather on a world-wide scale, Henry Helm Clay- 
ton, of Canton, Mass., has found that pressures oscillate from one 
region to another in some way which appears to depend upon the in- 
tensity of solar activity. He finds there is an opposite trend over the 
continents and oceans in summer as compared with winter, and that 
the trend is different in the equatorial regions from that in the extra- 
tropical belts. In the equatorial regions temperatures are distinctly 
lower at sunspot maximum and higher at sunspot minimum. The 
same is true in the North and South Temperate Zones, but in the 
arid regions bordering the Tropics, the temperature actually aver- 
ages a little higher around sunspot maximum than at sunspot mini- 
mum. From his studies he concludes that while the North Atlantic 
shows 10 to 20 percent more precipitation, the eastern half of the 
United States is in the region where rainfall is actually less during 
maximum activity on the sun. He concludes that our weather is the 


170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


result of certain progressive wavelike movements of certain disturbed 
areas, orginating in different parts of the world. With each cycle of 
change in solar activity, the centers of high barometric pressure move 
from high latitudes to low latitudes and back again. The amplitude 
of their oscillations and the speed with which these waves progress 
appears to be inversely proportional to the length of the period of 
oscillation. 

In years of unusually high sunspot maxima, as was the case in 19387, 
areas of high pressure appear to be pushed farther northward. The 
return of these highs to low latitudes with accompanying colder and 
clearer weather may, he believes, be so retarded under such instances 
as to invert the phase of a cycle that may have persisted for some 
time while the amplitudes of the oscillations were of less magnitude. 
Thus there will occur severa! years when the differences in barometric 
pressure between the equatorial region and North Temperate Zone 
become greater than normal, to be followed by several years when the 
pressure differences become less than normal. The shifting of these 
centers of action, Clayton believes, is definitely associated with sun- 
spots. 

Various attempts have been made to attribute climatic cycles to 
changes in solar activity. Perhaps the most outstanding scientific 
contribution in this direction has come from Prof. A. E. Douglass, of 
the University of Arizona, who has spent a lifetime measuring varia- 
tions in tree growth, especially in the forests of the Southwest and 
in California. Douglass noted that sequences in periods of rapid 
growth of trees, as measured by the widths of their rings, follow very 
closely the sequences in the sunspot cycle. Since variations in tree 
growth suggest variations in precipitation, he has accumulated a vast 
amount of evidence for alternations of wet and dry periods variable 
with the sunspot cycle, carrying records backward for some 3,000 
years. His studies appear to indicate that at least for selected regions, 
trees have shown most growth when sunspots were most numerous. It 
does not appear improbable, however, that the growth of trees inte- 
grates all favorable conditions and that temperature, the quality of 
sunlight, and the amount of ultraviolet radiation all enter into the 
growth rate of trees as well as does rainfall. 

Sunspot periods have also been traced with minor discrepancies in 
the flow of rivers and the level of lakes, some regions responding much 
more clearly than others to the sunspot cycle. 

Altogether we see there are many indications that the earth re- 
sponds to the changing state of the sun over an interval of a little 
over 11 years and often by double this period or approximately 23 
years. Whether all the effects produced in the earth and its atmos- 
phere that are noticed at sunspot maxima are the result of the sun- 
spots themselves or whether the state of the sun and its whole sur- 


SOLAR RADIATION AND ATMOSPHERE—STETSON ivf 


roundings are so activated as to change materially the cosmic environ- 
ment of the earth is a question still unanswered. 

In summary, we have reviewed a few of the important ways in 
which the sun and the atmosphere are closely associated. The solar 
cycle marked by the coming and going of sunspots appears definitely 
to be reflected in geomagnetic phenomena of the earth, in the ioniza- 
tion of the upper atmosphere affecting all radio communication, in 
climatic cycles of the past and in a somewhat complex manner with 
weather variations today. Perhaps some day terrestrial effects yet 
to be discovered may in turn become predictable through cycles that 
follow law and order. Difficult as the pursuit of such investigations 
may be, results already attained are a stimulus to sustained effort, and 
we are becoming increasingly conscious withal of a more intimate re- 
lationship between the earth and its cosmic environment than could 
have been suspected a decade or two ago. In this cosmic environment 
we may be assured the sun will play a major role. 


REFERENCES 
ABsoT, C. G. 
1932. Periodicity in solar variation. Smithsonian Mise. Coll., vol. 87, No. 9. 
APPLETON, H. V. 
1939. The variation of solar ultra-violet radiation during the sunspot cycle. 
Philos. Mag., ser. 7, vol. 27, pp. 144-148. 
BARTELS, J. 
1940. Solar radiation and geomagnetism. Terr. Magn. and Atmosph. 
Electr., vol. 45, No. 3, pp. 339-348. 
CHAPMAN, S. 
1926. Ionization in the upper atmosphere. Quart. Journ. Meteorol. Soc., 
vol. 52, No. 219, July. 
CLAYTON, H. H. 
1938. The sunspot period in atmospheric pressure. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. 
Soc., vol. 19, p. 218, May. 
Doue.ass, A. E. 
1986. Climatic cycles and tree growth. Carnegie Institution of Wash- 
ington. 
FLEMING, J. A. 
1939. Terrestrial magnetism and electricity. McGraw-Hill Co., New York. 
MiImMno, H. R. 
1937. The physics of the ionosphere. Rey. Mod. Phys., vol. 9, January. 
PRESTON, W. M. 
1940. The origin of radio fade-outs and the absorption coefficient of gases 
for light of wave-length 1215.7 A. Phys. Rey., vol. 57, pp. 887-894. 
STETSON, H. T. 
1934. Earth, radio and the stars. McGraw-Hill Co., New York. 
1937. Sunspots and their effects. McGraw-Hill Co., New York. 
1940. Auroras, radio field strengths and recent solar activity. Journ. Terr. 
Magn., March. 
1942. Solar terrestrial relationships. Pop. Astron., vol. 50, No. 4, p. 182, 
April. 


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THE SUN, JULY 9, 1937, DURING PERIOD OF MAXIMUM SUNSPOT ACTIVITY 


Photograph by Wm. Kearons, 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Stetson PitAghe ee 


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PLATE 3 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Stetson 


, 


APPARATUS USED IN RECORDING CONTINUOUS NIGHTLY FIELDS FROM WBBM 


AT NEEDHAM LABORATORY. 


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THE SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD ' 


By J. A. FLEMING 
Director, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of 
Washington 


{With 19 plates] 


INTRODUCTION 


The Smithsonian Institution has been interested since its founda- 
tion in 1846 in researches involving the sun. Its first Secretary, 
Joseph Henry, was also interested in the earth’s magnetism and in 
1830-81 made a series of observations at Albany, N. Y., to determine 
its intensity, and observed and reported upon a magnetic disturbance 
in connection with the appearance of an aurora. He nurtured the 
idea that solar investigations might be advanced by the application 
of laboratory technique. By the use of thermoelectric apparatus in 
connection with the solar disk projected by a telescope on a screen 
in a dark room, he concluded that a sunspot emitted less heat than the 
surrounding parts of the luminous disk. As a member of the faculty 
of Yale College, he accompanied his friend A. D. Bache—American 
pioneer in the study of the earth’s magnetic field—who went to Europe 
in 1837-88 to purchase instruments for the first magnetic observatory 
(Girard College, Philadelphia) and survey in the United States. In 
one of his memoirs he says, “It must now be admitted that magnetism 
is not confined to our earth, but is common to other and probably all 
bodies of our system.” Through these researches, coupled with others 
pertaining to various aspects of solar radiation, Henry foreshadowed 
the productive researches in solar physics so ably conducted and en- 
couraged for many years by the present Secretary. 

We are all acquainted with certain familiar aspects of the sun. We 
all know that it gives us light and warmth. We have all seen it set 
in the evening and—since the introduction of war time—many of us 
have seen it rise in the morning. Biologists have interpreted the 
physiological effects of the sun’s radiation on plants and animals and 
have shown how the chlorophyll and other substances in vegetable 


1The eleventh Arthur lecture given under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, 
February 26, 1942. 


173 


174 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


tissue convert this solar energy into chemical energy and how the sun’s 
rays falling on living animals create vitamins so essential to healthy 
development. Paleontologists and geologists have shown how the 
sun’s energy has been captured in the past and preserved for us through 
the ages, even though we are now forced to waste much of that pre- 
cious energy in the prosecution of the war. There are, in addition, 
certain effects of the sun’s radiation not directly perceptible to our 
senses but nevertheless of considerable importance to our modern lives. 
I refer to the great physiochemical action of the sun’s radiation on 
our outer atmosphere. Through this intervening medium the sun 
affects the earth’s magnetism, produces polar lights, and makes pos- 
sible transmission of radio messages over great distances. Through 
study of these effects we are able in turn to obtain a better understand- 
ing of solar phenomena. In particular, we have learned that the sun 
not only sends out wave radiation but particle radiation as well, and 
that the intensity of ultraviolet radiation from the sun far exceeds 
what should be expected from observations of its visible radiation 
alone. Our subject is this aspect of the sun and its manifold conse- 
quences on the earth. 
SOLAR PHENOMENA * 


The sun is an ever-changing, seething sphere 864,300 miles in dia- 
meter. When viewed through a telescope, its surface appears gran- 
ular; this is because of small variations in temperature over rela- 
tively small areas (a few hundred square miles). Most obvious of 
solar surface disturbances are the very large dark areas—in reality 
luminous, but dark by contrast—known as sunspots, which frequently 
appear. These vary greatly in size and on rare occasions may be al- 
most 20 earth-diameters across. A spot about 30,000 miles or 2 earth- 
diameters across can be seen with the eye through a piece of smoked 
glass. Its day-to-day motion shows that the sun rotates in the same 
direction as the earth. Sunspots tend also to occur in pairs, though 
having smaller companions, with the larger or more stable spot in the 
direction of the sun’s rotation from left to right as seen from the earth. 
They are solar tornadoes in which the whirling gases show features 
resembling the field of an electromagnet. The great flames called 
prominences, seen more readily near the edge of the sun, may remain 
relatively steady for several days, occasionally in form of arches. 
Eruptive prominences, attaining heights of hundreds of thousands of 
miles, may appear in rapid succession, in arched form, above an area 
subsequently occupied by sunspots. The following motion of the gas 


* The author is indebted to members of the staff of the Mount Wilson Observatory, espe- 
cially to Director W. 8S. Adams and to Drs. Seth B. Nicholson and R. S. Richardson, from 
whose articles much of the matter in this section on solar phenomena is taken, and for 
permission to reproduce some of the Observatory’s beautiful solar photographs. 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—-FLEMING 17s) 


clouds escaping into surrounding space is not readily traced because 
of the rarefaction and decreased luminosity of the gas. 

The areas involved in these rapidly changing granulations, sun- 
spots, and the long bright streaks or faculae, usually branched, and 
other phenomena accompanying sunspots are so small as contrasted 
with the whole area of the sun that the direct effect of their variations 
is rarely more than a fraction of 1 percent of the total solar radiation. 
Thus these phenomena must be indices of some more fundamental solar 
change rather than direct factors causing any large measurable changes 
in the amount of solar radiation—as will appear later in the discus- 
sion of their effects on the magnetic field of the earth. 

The unsettled and troubled conditions on the sun extend outward 
for vast distances into adjacent space. The brightly illuminated 
gaseous material forms the beautiful solar corona, formerly observable 
only during eclipses but now photographed at times other than eclipses 
by means of special optical instruments designed some years ago by 
the French scientist Lyot at Pic du Midi. The coronal envelope varies 
in a marked way with variation in frequency of sunspots. The stream- 
ers and plumes near the poles of the sun suggest in shape the lines 
of force of a spherical magnet, and near the equator sometimes extend 
outward many solar diameters. 

In 1908 Hale, at the Mount Wilson Observatory, showed that sun- 
spots have intense magnetic fields, which for large sunspots may be 
of intensity 3,000 to 4,000 gausses or more—comparable to those be- 
tween the pole pieces of large dynamos. Small spots 200 to 300 miles 
in diameter have field strengths about one-thirtieth as great. In gen- 
eral, the field strength at the center of a spot is roughly proportional 
to the logarithm of the radius of the dark and cooler central part or 
umbra and diminishes toward zero at the outer and lighter part or 
penumbra. The discovery of these magnetic fields was made through 
study of characteristic features of spectra of sunspots utilizing the 
Zeeman effect which reveals that when light is passed through a strong 
magnetic field each single spectral line is turned into a doublet or trip- 
jet—the doublet when the light is viewed in the direction of the lines 
of magnetic force and the triplet when viewed in the perpendicular di- 
rection. The strength of the magnetic field is determined from the 
differences in the wave lengths of the separate components. These 
observations show that the lines of force are normal to the surface at 
the umbra of a spot but that toward the penumbra they spread out- 
ward. 

Many sunspots are surrounded by hydrogen vortices as shown by 
photographs of the sun’s surface by the light of hot hydrogen or cal- 
cium. From these photographs, estimates are made of the great 
rapidity of vortical motion. The direction of rotation of these vor- 
tices is generally counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and 


176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


clockwise in the southern. The direction of the vortical rotation is 
associated with the direction of the magnetic field of a spot; two spots 
for which vortical motion is opposite have oppositely directed mag- 
netic fields. 

For routine observation of magnetic fields and sunspots a special 
analyzer is used by which one determines the magnetic polarity of a 
sunspot, observing merely whether the positive (red) or the negative 
(violet) component of a line is transmitted. 

Sunspots usually appear in elongated groups, and spots at opposite 
ends of these groups have opposite polarities. Although it was soon 
realized that the number of sunspots varied with time, it was not 
until 1843 that Schwabe showed that they occurred in cycles. From 
the results since then of many years of observation by devoted observers 
in all parts of the world, the spottedness of the sun has been found 
to vary in a somewhat irregular fashion with an average period of 
about 11 years. This 11-year cycle does not progress smoothly but 
in short-period pulsations which vary in length from about 15 months 
to periods as short as 5 or 6 months. The polarities of spots in a new 
cycle are opposite to those after the minimum of the preceding cycle. 
The spots at the first of a new cycle are in zones about 30° from the 
equator; they gradually approach the solar equator at the end of the 
cycle. Thus solar activity apparently has a fundamental cycle double 
that of the 11-year cycle. The fact that spots have been more 
numerous in alternate 11-year cycles also indicates this. From the 
viewpoint of effects on the earth, the 11-year period is probably more 
important. All spots appear to move across the sun’s disk from east 
to west. Many single spots and groups of spots, which have passed 
from sight around the sun’s western edge, have been recognized on 
their reappearance, after about 2 weeks’ time, at the eastern edge. 

It has been concluded from the recurrences of such groups that the 
period of the sun’s rotation is about 27 days. To be more precise, 
the interval elapsing between two successive passages of a spot across 
the sun’s central line is a little less than 27 days for spots on the sun’s 
equator and this interval increases to more than 28 days for those 
midway between the equator and the poles. Spots are rarely observed 
any nearer to the sun’s poles. The outlines of sunspots are variable; 
some do not reappear at all and others exist through several rotations, 
but rarely persist for longer than half a year. They do not endure 
as do the surface irregularities on the earth and moon. 

Observations by the spectroscopic method have shown that the sun 
also has a general magnetic field somewhat like that of the earth with 
opposite poles of unchanging polarity in the northern and southern 
hemispheres. However, the field intensity is small and unusual care 
is required to detect it. The measurements made at the Mount Wil- 
son Observatory indicate that the north magnetic pole of the sun is 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—FLEMING 177 


about 4° from its pole and thus much nearer than is the case for the 
earth whose magnetic axis makes an angle of 11.°5 with the axis of 
rotation. From variation in the inclination of the magnetic axis 
of the sun as the sun rotates, it appears that the magnetic pole rotates 
about the geographical pole cnce in about 3114 days. The sun’s mag- 
netic field is about 50 gausses or 100 times greater at its surface than 
the maximum value of the magnetic field of the earth and its intensity 
decreases rapidly with height. 

Exceedingly brilliant clouds occasionally burst forth suddenly on 
the sun and reach maximum brightness in a few minutes and then 
slowly subside. These spectacular bright eruptions usually last from 
10 to 30 minutes, depending upon their brightness, although some of 
the most brilliant have remained as long as a few hours. They 
usually occur in the neighborhood of magnetically complex—usually 
also abnormally active—sunspots, which change rapidly in form and 
size. They flare up into the solar atmosphere far above the level of 
the sunspots like sheets or tongues of flame extending outward; 
often, brilliant fountainlike prominences are observed over such active 
spot groups. The upper region of the solar atmosphere where these 
clouds appear is called the chromosphere, and in it are also the many 
other fainter and more stable prominences. Although the latter are 
much fainter, they usually extend higher above the solar surface than 
the very bright clouds that appear so suddenly. Because of their 
brightness and almost explosive nature, these active prominences are 
called chromospheric eruptions to distinguish them from less intense 
eruptions. Spectroscopic analysis of the light from the chromospheric 
eruptions shows that they are composed mainly of hydrogen and 
helium. 

It has been found that chromospheric eruptions produce terrestrial 
effects throughout the daylight hemisphere on the earth. The visible 
radiations of these bright eruptions cannot account for the observed 
results on the earth, indicating that an immense increase in the in- 
visible or ultraviolet light must accompany them. These eruptions, 
with their direct almost simultaneous effects on the earth furnish the 
first and only evidence which has so far been obtained of positive 
terrestrial changes produced by specific solar phenomena and have 
opened the way to the solution of many problems of influences of 
solar activity on the earth’s magnetism. 


THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD 


The complex nature of geomagnetism—the general magnetic field 
of the earth—and of its varied phenomena is still a riddle. Despite 
several centuries of speculation and research, there is as yet no ade- 
quate explanation of how the earth became magnetic or why it 
remains so. Associated with this problem is the “perpetual vari- 


178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


ability” of geomagnetism at any one place—changes, on the one hand, 
slow when compared with the life span of the mdividual, as in its 
long-time or secular change, and, on the other hand, rapid, as in its 
short-time or more ephemeral changes; it is largely in the latter that 
we find interrelations with cosmical phenomena in space about us. 
The compass appears simple though mysterious in its directive 
ability which demonstrates that magnetic forces are present every- 
where about us. This is evidenced also by the inductive magnetic 
action of the earth’s field upon a material highly susceptible to such - 
action, for example, an alloy such as permalloy with unusually great 
capacity for transient induced magnetization in weak magnetic 
fields like that of our planet. When a thin‘long rod of permalloy 


igure 1.—Sunspot numbers ‘and eycles of plus and minus polarities, 1900-1940. 

(After S. B. Nicholson.) 
is directed toward the north magnetic pole of the earth, the mag- 
netization induced in the bar by the geomagnetic field is quite suffi- 
cient to lift small pieces of permalloy. But as the rod is turned with 
its length at right angles to the field and thus in the direction least 
favorable to induction, it loses the magnetism induced by the earth 
and will no longer support such metal strips, which fall. But that 
which is apparently simple is often the most baffling as in this case, 
perhaps not in the physical principles concerned, yet certainly in the 
origin and observed periodic and aperiodic fluctuations of the forces 
involved. 

The first perception of the natural phenomena of geomagnetism 
through the directive property of a lodestone or magnet freely sus- 
vended in the earth’s field is veiled by the myths and legends of 
south-pointing chariots in China some 4,500 years ago and of its ap- 
plications by the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the 
Latins. However, there is definite and well-authenticated evidence 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—FLEMING 179 


of the use of this property in navigation by the end of the twelfth 
century A. D. 

Magnetic dip or inclination was unknown until 1581, when Rob- 
ert Norman of London, a practical seaman and instrument maker, 
published “The newe Attractive, containyng a short discourse of the 
Magnes or Lodestone, and amongest other his vertues, of a newe dis- 
couered secret and subtill propertie, concernyng the Declinyng of 
the Needle, touched therewith under the plaine of the Horizon.” * 
Norman mounted his needle on a horizontal axle so that it was free to 
move in the vertical plane and observed the actual dipping below 
the horizon. This gave the first hint that the source of the mag- 
netic field of the earth might be within the globe and not in the 
stars as previously supposed. 

Thence onward there was gradual transition from the field of spec- 
ulation to that of scientific investigation, and in 1600 Gilbert pub- 
lished his famous book on the magnet, the first treatise picturing the 
earth’s action as a great magnet, a conclusion which preceded New- 
ton’s announcement of universal gravitation. A century later Hal- 
ley’s world charts showing “variations”—that is, declination—of the 
compass appeared. Wilcke’s chart of magnetic dip or inclination 
was published in 1768. Charts delineating magnetic directive force 
resulted from Humboldt’s observations on his American journeys 
during 1799 to 1803. 

The period including the end of the eighteenth century and the 
first half of the nineteenth century was an era of unequaled con- 
structive work in geomagnetism by many eminent scholars. Among 
these may be mentioned Humboldt, Gauss, and Lamont of Germany, 
Sabine and Airy of Great Britain, Poisson and Duperrey of France, 
Quetelet of Belgium, Hansteen of Norway, Kupffer of Russia, and 
Nicollet, Locke, Loomis, Bache, and Henry of America. 

That thoughts on this subject were then not limited to scientific 
men is evidenced by a discourse of John Quincy Adams in our House 
of Representatives during preliminary steps bearing on the establish- 
ment of the Smithsonian Institution in which he said: 


What an unknown world of mind is yet... to be revealed in tracing the 
causes of the sympathy between the magnet and the pole—that unseen, imma- 
terial spirit, which walks with us through the most entangled forests, over 
the most interminable wilderness, and across every region of the pathless 
deep, by day, by night ... Who can witness the movements of that trem- 
ulous needle, poised upon its center, still tending to the polar star, without 
feeling a thrill of amazement approaching to superstition? 


3In 1544 Georg Hartmann of Nuremburg stated he had noticed that a magnet not only 
declines from the north and turns toward the east but also points downward. Hartmann, 


however, did not mount his needle in such a manner as to show the precise amount of dip, 
as did Norman. 


501591—43——_138 


180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


The picture of magnetic phenomena is incomplete if viewed only 
in a man-made laboratory, even though we can now produce 
there an artificial magnetic field within a space of a cubic inch which 
is 100,000 and more times as intense as that of the earth. For- 
tunately, Nature provides not only the earth and its atmosphere as a 
great magnetic laboratory but also continuously performs experi- 
ments, utilizing as apparatus the sun, the moon, and the radiations 
from space. The interpretation of observable data in so vast a 
laboratory requires special types of research and, in unique degree, 
world-wide coordination of data and experiment. No single well- 
planned experiment or observation can solve the problems presented. 
Observations must be made in all parts of the world and must be 
continued over a long period. Techniques for the organization and 
interpretation of these data must be developed and experimental 
researches must be conducted along lines which will supply informa- 
tion on basic properties related to the subject. Thus it is only 
through mutual assistance and cooperation of investigators in 
geophysics, in geology, in astronomy, in physics, and in mathema- 
tics that we may hope to forward interpretation of natural phenom- 
ena. Progress in the earth sciences is not the result of individual 
research; it proceeds not from the isolated work of the few, but 
from the coordinated efforts of the many. Truly, some individuals 
may contribute more than others to this evolution of understanding, 
but their power to contribute is to a large extent determined by the 
works of their predecessors and of their colleagues. 

The geomagnetic field extends far out into the atmosphere and be- 
yond it. Even 4,000 miles above us it is still one-eighth as great as 
at the earth’s surface. Our globe may be regarded as approximately 
a uniformly magnetized sphere with its axis making an angle of 
11.°5 with the axis of rotation. Although but feebly magnetized as 
compared with the magnetization attainable in high-grade magnet 
steels, the average intensity of magnetization is many orders of 
magnitude greater than that observed in ordinary crustal rocks. Ap- 
preciable irregularities in the field exist, but they do not cause 
great departures from the field which would be produced by the 
hypothetical uniform magnetization. The moments of the uniform 
portion of the earth’s magnetism, the axial, and the equatorial com- 
ponents in centimeter-gram-second units, as determined by Bauer’s 
analysis of available data in 1923, are M=8.04X 10°, M/,=7.88 x 10°, 
and M,=1.60 X10”, respectively. If the magnetism were distributed 
uniformly throughout the earth’s volume, the average intensity of 
magnetization would be 0.074 centimeter-gram-second unit. A 
general idea of the field may be obtained by the distribution of iron 
filings over a disk magnet, but in reality the earth’s field is much more 


complicated. 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—FLEMING 181 


The principal magnetic poles are distant 1,200 miles or more from 
the geographic poles. The north magnetic pole, visited in 1831 by 
Ross and in 1903 by Amundsen, is in Boothia Peninsula in north 
Canada (latitude 70.°5 north, longitude 95.°5 west). The south 
magnetic pole, reached in 1909 by E. David, Douglas Mawson, and A. 
Mackay, of Shackleton’s British Antarctic Expedition of 1907-09, is 
in South Victoria Land of the Antarctic Continent (latitude 72.°4 
south, longitude 155.°3 east). Thus the line joining the magnetic 
poles is not a diameter of the earth but passes at a distance of some 
750 miles from its center. It is to be noted that the equivalent axis 
of the uniform magnetization intercepts the northern hemisphere in 
latitude 78.°5 north and longitude 69.°1 west. Thus these so-called 
“seomagnetic” poles are considerably removed from the actual mag- 
netic poles as observed. 

Measurements to determine the earth’s magnetic field at any point 
and time must include observations of three magnetic elements, 
namely: (1) Magnetic declination or direction, the angle between the 
true astronomical north-south meridional plane and the vertical 
plane through the magnetic north-south direction as defined by the 
compass; (2) magnetic inclination or dip, the angle through which a 
magnet entirely free to move would dip below the horizon in the 
magnetic north-south meridional plane; and (3) the total magnetic 
force, acting in the magnetic meridional plane or its horizontal com- 
ponent or its vertical component. 

Painstaking and patient recording and analyses of the complex 
geomagnetic variations through days, years, and decades at observa- 
tories and on magnetic surveys on land and sea have disclosed cer- 
tain systematic features and irregular variations of these, all of 
which may be designated as time changes of the geomagnetic field. 
The more pronounced systematic and periodic features are the secu- 
lar, daily or solar diurnal, lunar-day, and annual variations. 


Secular variation is a progressive change, that is, a slow age-long 
variation; it was first noted in compass direction—the so-called varia- 
tion of the mariner—by Gellibrand in 1634 who announced quaintly 
that “variation is accompanied with a variation.” It takes important 
part in navigation at sea by magnetic direction as indicated by the 
compass—a use which stimulated and maintained interest in deter- 
mining its value from the time of Columbus. Before the invention 
of chronometers it was thought that geographic position might be 
derived from knowledge of changes from place to place in magnetic 
declination and inclination. This led to the first systematic oceanic 
survey by the astronomer Edmund Halley in the Atlantic Ocean 
during 1698-1700 on the pink* Paramour. Halley’s was the first 


‘A pink is an old-style, narrow-sterned sailing vessel. 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


182 


Poe eee 
FS Bee : 
: Slee ret TT 


ERAS 


I 


TEEN, 


LEGEND 


Pi a el et 


io) 


+] em EPOCH 1700 (HANS 
im 


we 
| SES €P OCH 1857 (U.S. MYOROGRAPHIC OSFICE ANO CL) 
160° ° . - ° 


compass 
of zero magnetie declina- 


geomagnetism. Upper, 
agonie on which declinations are easterly ; 


direction or declination at six stations; center, lines 


Figure 2.—Charts showing secular change of 
tion or agonics with dots on side of 


linics. 


gnetice inclination or isoc 


lines of zero ma 


, 


lower 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—FLEMING 183 


chart to show lines along which the compass direction differed from 
the true north by the same angle, that is, lines of equal magnetic 
declination or isogonics. Corresponding isoclinic and isodynamic 
charts show lines of equal dipping or inclination and of equal hori- 
zontal, vertical, or total magnetic force acting on the compass. World 
charts of these magnetic contours for different epochs show marked 
changes in their trends—changes caused by secular variation. Secu- 
lar variations show apparent small-order dependence in their progress 
on the sunspot cycle. 


S 
Ss 


I INNS 
RPA 


8, 


AN 
iS 


4 


INNS 
VERS 


Figure 3.—Isomagnetie chart of lines of equal declination or isogonics, epoch 
1930. (After U. S. Hydrographie Office. ) 


The second important time change is the 24-hour daily or solar 
variation. This variation takes place chiefly during daylight and 
changes in a more or less regular manner in magnitude and character 
with geographic position, with the seasons of the year, and with solar 
cycles; it was first observed ® and defined in 1722. It is repeated 
from day to day and is most clearly seen on records obtained on 
magnetically quiet days. As dawn approaches each day the north 
end of every compass needle in the Northern Hemisphere shifts 
slightly toward the east, attainmg a maximum eastward elongation 


° Experiments in the presence of the King at Louveau, Thailand, in 1682 showed the 
compass direction to be different on seven different days; probably these were made at 
different times of day and thus were really the first observed indications of diurnal 
variation. 


184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


from its average about 7 to 8 o’clock, then shifts westwardly passing 
its average daily direction shortly before noon, reaches an extreme 
eastward position about 1 or 2 o’clock, and during the late after- 
noon hours begins to shift eastwardly back to the average direction 
which it maintains practically during the night hours. In the 
Southern Hemisphere the motion is reversed, the south end of the 
compass needle exhibiting the same tendency to follow the sun’s 
apparent motion. ‘Toward the North and the South Poles the di- 
urna] variation is greatest, while near the Equator it is practically 
zero. Somewhat similar behavior during the day and night is shown 
also by the other magnetic elements. 


LOCAL HOURS LOCAL HOURS 
12 18 6 /2 


HONOLULU 


Fieurr 4.—Diurnal variation of (A) magnetic declination, and (B) inclination. 
(After U. S. Coast and Geodetie Survey.) 


Thus it is apparent that in its main features the solar diurnal 
variation progresses according to local mean time. Therefore, this 
variation is connected with the earth’s rotation and, as its major 
tendency follows the apparent motion of the sun, it may be pre- 
sumed that the sun is an important factor in this daily phenomenon. 
This is an indication that the earth’s magnetism responds to outside 
influences which find their origin in solar activity and act upon the 
upper regions of the atmosphere. 

The lunar-day variation, while averaging less than one-tenth that 
of the solar day, is quite systematic. Instead of considering the 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD——-FLEMING 185 


changes hour to hour from midnight to midnight, that is, from one 
lower transit of the sun to the next, the data are studied for 24 
lunar hours, that is, for the lunar day from one lower transit of the 
moon to the next—an average of 23 hours 10 minutes for 24 lunar 
hours. While this variation is too small to have practical interest 
in navigation, it is very important for the investigation of the high 
layers of the atmosphere. The double wave of the lunar variation 
indicates its tidal origin. It is likely that the lunar variations 
originate in even higher layers of the atmosphere than the solar 
variations, because they are so extremely sensitive to changes in 
magnetic activity. These geomagnetic tides provide a new approach 
to the study of resonance phenomena in atmospheric oscillations. 

The minute annual variation is revealed when monthly values of 
the magnetic elements are corrected for progressive secular change. 
It should not be confused with the annual change which is the change 
in one year due to secular variation. 

There are other magnetic time changes of quasi-regular and of 
irregular type. The more important of these in relation to the sun are 
short-period, long-period, and sudden-commencement disturbances 
superimposed on the systematic variations and designated as magnetic 
storms and perturbations. 

These are associated with what we call the earth’s magnetic activity 
or, let us say, its general state of magnetic rest or magnetic unrest, 
and herein we find spectacular features emphasizing apparent rela- 
tions to the observed solar phenomena. The magnetic activity at a 
given station, during any interval, may be defined as a measure for 
the frequency and intensity of marked irregular departures from the 
normal diurnal variation in that interval. There are several ways 
of applying such a definition. The simplest is that in which every 
observatory, from inspection of its photcgraphic records, assigns to 
each 24 hours between successive Greenwich midnights a “character 
figure,” designated as (, on a scale of 0-1-2. The character “0” 
applies to quiet, “1” to moderately disturbed, and “2” to greatly dis- 
turbed days. From these the International Association of Terrestrial 
Magnetism and Electricity also determines the five least disturbed 
and the five most disturbed days in each month and selects certain 
days for reproduction in the annual publication of magnetic results 
from each observatory. This measure, maintained by international 
agreement since 1906, gives adopted average daily values for all 
collaborating observatories—now numbering nearly 60. 

A more detailed measure is that depending upon the day-to-day 
changes in the mean values of the horizontal component of the mag- 
netic force since magnetic disturbances have a systematic effect on 
that component. This effect is an initial rise, followed by a larger 
decrease accompanied by more or less violent perturbations, and a 


186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


slow recovery. The activity is smallest at the earth’s magnetic 
equator and increases in a regular manner to its greatest value in the 
auroral zone. This daily figure of activity, known as the w measure, 
is roughly defined as the average change from day to day, regardless 


SOLAR HOURS LUNAR HOURS 


ce) 6 le 18 24 te) 2 i 24 


SCALE 


0 


jae 1] 
a 
i 


jaeee eansaueaes 
qc 
H WNT. 


4+ i 


| ‘19| 
Hl oo} i 


. ! 
finite Lip 
|| Tas@ OF 75 DEGREES WEST OF GREENWICH 


Figure 5.—(A) solar and lunar diurnal variation in summer at Greenwich; 
(B) magnetic records on quiet day, August 8 and 9, 1929, Huancayo Magnetic 
Observatory, Peru. 


of sign, of the magnetic force near the equator. It is not useful as 
a measure for a single day, but its monthly and annual values express 
quite definitely the average amount of magnetic disturbance. 

A certain lag of w behind the sunspots supports the theory that 
when sunspots are nearer the sun’s equator there is greater probability 
that the corpuscles, emitted more or less radially from the sun, are 
more likely to sweep across the earth. 

Developments in the science of geomagnetism and correlative ef- 
fects with other geophysical phenomena, especially those concerned 
with radio communication, have made desirable a quantitative and 
more detailed measure of geomagnetic activity. This measure is 
the 38-hour range index, XH, which evaluates geomagnetic activity 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—-FLEMING 187 


for each of the eight 3-hour periods of the Greenwich day. The 
activity in excess of the regular daily variation is measured for each 
3-hour period and an index from 0 to 9 is assigned in accordance 
with the activity “0” for very quiet and “9” for extremely disturbed. 
Thus, by means of eight indices, the geomagnetic activity for a day 
is abstracted from the continuous magnetic records at each observa- 
tory. The progress of a magnetic storm is readily followed and the 
geomagnetic activity at one observatory may be compared with that 
at another observatory in a different geomagnetic latitude; for ex- 
ample, the K indices for the period 09" to 12", February 5, 1942, at 
observatories arranged in order of increasing north geomagnetic 
latitude were 3, 3, 5, 5,6, and 7 at Honolulu (# = 21°), San Juan 
(@=30°), Tucson (#=40°), Cheltenham (#=50°), Sitka (#=60°), 
and College (6=64°). For the same period the index at Watheroo 
at 42° south geomagnetic latitude was 4, 

Violent magnetic storms with 3-hour-range index of 9 occur only 
a few times near a sunspot maximum, but it is equally rare that any 
full 3-hour interval is perfectly free from disturbance. This means 
that the earth is almost constantly, even near sunspot minimum, 
under the influence of particles (presumably solar), weak as this 
influence may be at times. 

The intensity of the ionizing solar wave radiation absorbed in the 
ionosphere on the daylight hemisphere can likewise be measured 
geomagnetically in the amplitudes of the solar daily magnetic varia- 
tion. Analysis of 18 years’ records (1922-39) of horizontal inten- 
sity at the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, in which the magnitude 
of the solar daily magnetic variation is exceptional, gave a measure 
for the ionizing solar wave radiation comparable with the relative 
sunspot numbers as the only available complete series of daily meas- 
ures of solar activity. The correlation coefficient between them is 
+0.92 for monthly means and +0.984 for annual means. These are 
the closest relations so far established between phenomena on the 
sun and the earth. 

From the indices supplied by individual observatories, a mean 
index may be derived which will represent world-wide conditions. 
The mean indices computed from the data suppled by seven Amer- 
ican-operated observatories during the year 1941 show three out- 
standing storms in 1941 on March 1, July 5, and September 18 and 
19. A remarkable recurrence of quiet conditions also occurred dur- 
ing the year. January 5 was the first quiet day of this series fol- 
lowed by 18 quiet-day recurrences at exactly 27-day intervals. 

Magnetic disturbances may be classified as (1) world-wide mag- 
netic storms, simultaneous over the earth and primarily due to 
changes in the electric conditions outside the earth, and (2) smaller 
disturbances restricted to parts of the globe and with center of field 


188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


of action at times stationary but generally moving from place to 
place. Storms of the first type may follow comparatively quiet or 
normal conditions and are often initiated by a sudden sharp shift—a 
“sudden commencement”—simultaneous, within a minute of time, 
at all observatories. A tendency to oscillation and continued unrest 
during intervals varying from 10 hours to several days is one of the 
outstanding features of such storms. 

The second, more local, type of transient magnetic disturbances 
is usually represented by a rather slowly developing “bay” on the 
record extending over half an hour or somewhat more. 


| | 
ZI-KA-WEl 
/ 
i | ae ~- TUCSON 
ip ye! 
| aye iM 
A WATHEROO 
ail a cE 


HONOLULU 
chal [ 


2007 


SCALE 


Fieure 6.—World-wide sudden commencement of geomagnetic storm at 13°09", 
Greenwich mean time, May 18, 1921, showing changes in horizontal-intensity 
component, 


Thus disturbed or quiet magnetic conditions nearly always affect 
the whole earth simultaneously. The possibility of any connection 
between the disturbances of the earth’s magnetic field and the weather 
is excluded since weather is so distinctly local and so different all 
over the world. But polar lights—the auroras—are always seen in 
polar regions when magnetic storms occur. In 1741 Celsius and 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—-FLEMING 189 


Hidrter at Upsala confirmed, by a long series of observations, the 
connection between auroral displays and disturbances in the normal 
fluctuations of the needle. To explain these spectacular displays, 
which appear as curtains, arches, bands, and rays, with many varia- 
tions, extensive mathematical and experimental investigations have 
been made, especially by our Norwegian colleagues. Birkeland, by 
means of a cathode sphere in a vacuum chamber, demonstrated the 
accumulation of electrons in the plane of the magnetic equator. 
Since that time his distinguished successors, Stérmer and Vegard, 
have done much to advance the study of auroral phenomena. 
Elaborate calculations of the paths of electrified corpuscles which 
are entrapped between outermost lines of magnetic force of the 
earth’s field have been beautifully demonstrated in the laboratory 
by Briiche. 

Minute particles in varying numbers are coming continually from 
the sun. Once within the earth’s magnetic field, these electrified 
corpuscles are entrapped by the outermost lines of magnetic force. 
When the particles pass through the atmosphere, they cause the 
air to glow by their impact, and produce brilliant polar-light dis- 
plays. From simultaneous photographs of aurora, taken at two 
stations a known distance apart, it has been found that polar-light 
beams generally do not come closer to the earth’s surface than about 
50 miles; some come no closer than 300 miles or more. Since the 
height of polar lights is in no case less than 50 miles above the 
ground, the conclusion is drawn that the magnetic variations and 
disturbances also have their origin in electrical phenomena taking 
place at least at greater heights in the atmosphere. This has been 
confirmed in every respect and the study of the magnetic variations 
is one of our main sources of information about the constitution 
of, and the phenomena in, these outermost and inaccessible regions 
of the atmosphere. 

Thus, inspection of data indicates an apparent interrelation of 
the earth’s field with the sun. The sun’s magnetic field, even though 
it is 100 times that of the earth, is far too weak to make its mag- 
netic influence felt at the earth, 93,000,000 miles distant. It is much 
more probable that solar influences on the earth’s magnetism are 
connected with enormous streams or clouds of particles, atoms, ions, 
and electrons ejected from the active regions of the sun, which 
travel through space and from time to time reach the earth after 
1 or 2 days, and impinge upon its atmosphere, causing magnetic storms, 
which often disturb electrical communications by cable, telegraph, 
and radio. 

The regular daily magnetic variation apparently is the effect of 
other radiations from the sun, which travel with the velocity of light 
and are absorbed in the highest levels of the air, and which make 


190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


these layers electrically conducting. These conclusions drawn many 
years ago from magnetic observations became more important after 
the invention of wireless telegraphy, because by them we may explain 
why wireless waves are bent around the earth along these same con- 
ducting layers. 


STORMER 


‘ 


. 
-. 
7s 

. 


I e0seKoP ON 


Fiqure 7.—Total distribution of auroral forms and of lower limits for auroral 
heights. 


The range of diurnal variation varies with magnetic character. 
Statistical studies, which tend to smooth the violent irregular fluctua- 
tions, have led to the identification of three main features of a mag- 
netic storm. These are: (1) An everywhere similar but unequally 
large general source according to universal time; (2) a superposed 
diurnal movement according to local time, differing characteristically 
from the ordinary diurnal variation on quiet days; and (3) an after- 
effect, which gradually subsides in the recovery during the days after 
a storm. 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—FLEMING 191 


Magnetic activity provides one of the means of determining another 
time change, namely, that of an 11-year cycle apparently agreeing 
with the well-known cycle in sunspot frequency. Latest investigations 
have shown, however, that solar activity as indicated in its reflected 
effect in the magnetic field is not completely or always represented 
by sunspottedness or other phenomena which astrophysicists observe 
on the sun’s surface; magnetic observations apparently reveal distinct 
solar influences of another kind and add in this way to our knowledge 
of solar physics. 


MAGNETIC ACTIVITY (ud 
4 + 


1940 


GEOMAGNETIC ACTIV/ 


my 
& 
ry 
= 
> 
= 
Lend 
9 
a 
9 
= 
5 
a 


a 
3>r 


a 
iS} 


SUNSPOT-NUMBERS 


Ficure 8.—Geomagnetie activity and relative sunspot numbers. Upper, for 
annual means, 1835-1941; and lower, for monthly means, 1872-1941. 

As the earth revolves about the sun during the year there are 
corresponding fluctuations in magnetic activity, the maximum or crest 
occurring during the equinoctial months of March and September, 
and the minimum or trough in the solstitial months of June and 
December. This is revealed in the annual variation of magnetic ac- 
tivity deduced from examination of many years’ observations ob- 
tained at several observatories. Graphs of sunspot areas for years 
with many and years with few sunspots plotted against days before 
magnetic storms give further evidence of relations between solar 
activity and magnetic activity. 


192 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


As has been stated, the recurrence of sunspots with the sun’s rota- 
tion varies for different solar latitudes from 27 to 28 days. There- 
fore, if solar activity has an effect on the earth’s magnetic field, we 
may expect some like recurrence in geomagnetic activity. 

The simplest method of establishing the existence of a recurrence 
tendency and of determining any average of its interval is the super- 
posed epoch method due to Chree. This proof depends only on mag- 
netic data without any reference to the sun. The average character 
figures for epochs of 5 days per month that have the highest character 


& 
a) 
w 
g 
& 
1 
Os 
) 
= 
$ 
= 


DAYS OF CHARACTER 2 


NUMBER OF DAYS OF CHARACTER 2 
ox 
/ 

20n 52° 


fo} 
eee <07 


FIauRE 9.—Superposed-epoch method to show solar period in geomagnetism. 
(After Chree.) 
figure of magnetic activity and for each of the 5 preceding and 80 or 
more days following are compiled. When plotted, these averages 
show first marked peaks corresponding to the selected epochs followed 
by repetitions of the peaks after 27 days, thus indicating the tendency 
for magnetic disturbance to recur in about 27, 54, and 81 days. The 
same method applied to selected epochs of the 5 quietest days per 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—-FLEMING 193 


month shows the recurrence tendency equally well, with the initial 
and repeated peaks after 27 days inverted because their character 
figures are below the average. 

A modification of this method consists in charting character figures 
for all days for a number of years. On such a chart, in order to com- 
pare the magnetic character with conditions on the sun, which rotates 
once in about 27 days, appropriate symbols indicating the magnetic 
character of each day are placed in rows, the date of the first day in 
each row being indicated at the left, and each successive row beginning 
97 days later. In order to emphasize the continuity of the series, the 
symbols showing magnetic character for the first 9 days of the next 
row are repeated. Charts of this kind show vertically elongated 
clusters covering one or more rotation periods. Similar time patterns 
for the sunspot cycle indicate this cycle to be more strongly manifested 
on the sun than in geomagnetic disturbance. In this method, devel- 
oped by Bartels, one may concentrate graphically information 
obtained during many years by the world net of magnetic and astro- 
nomic observatories. The magnetic clusters are at times found to be 
more pronounced for periods when the sun is free or almost free 
from spots. Even for periods when both are disturbed the respective 
time patterns are often very different. Therefore, it is clear that 
sunspot numbers are not always a good index of any solar agencies 
that cause magnetic disturbance on the earth. Thus, further research 
on this interrelation calls for a more all-inclusive measure of solar 
activity than that of the sunspottedness, a matter for the solution 
of which we must look to the astrophysicist. 

Whatever theory of magnetic disturbances may finally be evolved, 
it is clear that geomagnetism provides us with information regarding 
fairly persistent solar phenomena, restricted to varying but always 
well-defined regions on the sun’s surface. These are not only of inter- 
est for study of the sun, because direct astrophysical observations do 
not reveal them as yet, but are of even greater interest from the 
terrestrial standpoint because magnetism records these solar influences 
only in so far as they actually affect our globe. 


IONOSPHERIC AND SOLAR RELATIONS 


The conclusion drawn from magnetic variations and disturbances 
and from polar lights that they have their origin in electrical phe- 
nomena at great heights in the atmosphere makes it of interest to 
study the electrical conditions there. Since we are unable to visit 
these great altitudes, we have to study the electrification of the upper 
atmosphere, or ionosphere, from our position on the earth. 

More than 60 years ago Balfour Stewart inferred from geomag- 
netic data the existence of regions in the outer atmosphere of great 


194 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


electrical conductivity as a source of magnetic and auroral effects 
observed on the earth. Even over 100 years ago Gauss, the outstand- 
ing pioneer in advancing scientific consideration of the earth’s 
magnetic field, referred to this possibility in his earlier writings. 
Subsequently, such scholars as Schuster, Kennelly, Heaviside, Lo- 
rentz, Eccles, and Lamor took part in the development of the concept. 

The highly electrified regions outside the earth were again sug- 
gested in 1901 in order to explain Marconi’s success in sending radio 
signals across the Atlantic Ocean from England to Newfoundland. 
Prior to Marconi’s proof of the usefulness of radio signals for long- 
distance communication, the public, including the scientists, were 
inclined to ridicule his invention as a new gadget that would be limited 
to communication without wires over line-of-sight distances only. 
Was it not true that these Hertzian waves traveled in straight lines 
like light? They would go over the horizon and be lost in space. 
Hence, it would not be possible to communicate from one point to 
another over the curved surface of the earth. Both Kennelly and 
Heaviside independently suggested that a conducting region in the 
outer atmosphere would be capable of bending radio waves around 
and returning them back to earth. Radio waves travel with the 
speed of light, 300,000 kilometers per second. If the frequency or 
number per second is low, the distance between crests, or the wave 
length, is long; for example, the wave length for 1,000 kilocycles or 
one megacycle per second is 300 meters. If the frequency is high, the 
wave length is short; for example, the wave length for 15,000 kilocycles 
or 15 megacycles per second is 20 meters. The short waves vibrate 
more rapidly and have greater penetrating power. 

It was not until 1925 that Appleton in England and Breit and Tuve 
in America, using radio waves by somewhat different methods, suc- 
ceeded in directly “seeing” the radio-reflecting region of the outer 
atmosphere. The echo-method technique developed by Breit and Tuve 
for this purpose has now been adopted almost universally. By this 
method a short pulse of radio waves is sent upward and the time meas- 
ured for the echo to return. An equivalent height to which the wave 
would travel can be computed, assuming it to have traveled at the 
velocity of light. The density of ionization which reflects the wave 
at this level is measured by the wave frequency transmitted. Corre- 
sponding to each wave frequency is a particular density of ions which 
will reflect the wave. 

There has been developed by the Department of Terrestrial Mag- 
netism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and the National 
Bureau of Standards from the earlier experimental equipment a so- 
called ionospheric apparatus which produces records automatically by 
photographing echoes of vertically directed variable-frequency radio 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—-FLEMING 195 


waves. Study of these records soon confirmed the fact that, instead 
of only one “Kennelly-Heaviside” layer, there are several layers or 
stratifications of ionization. 

Present convention has adopted the term “ionosphere” to include all 
these regions. Low-frequency radio waves penetrate to relatively low 
heights (possibly 60 miles above the earth). These low frequencies— 
or the long waves—include the radio spectrum used by our local 
broadcasting stations. The high frequencies—or the short waves— 
are used for international broadcasting over great distances. Higher 
frequency radio waves are more penetrating and seek greater densities 
of electrical charges before being reflected. These may penetrate to 
200 or 300 miles above the earth. Radio waves of still higher fre- 
quencies do not encounter enough concentration of electrical charges 
in the ionosphere and they may penetrate completely through and be 
lost in space. 

These penetration frequencies measure the apparent height from 
which echoes are received. There are three important ionized layers 
in the outer atmosphere under direct influence of the sun. One is at a 
level of about 100 kilometers, another at about 225 kilometers, and the 
third at some 350 kilometers. The two upper layers do not exist 
separately everywhere, but merge when the sun is low and form a 
single layer in the night. At noon the highest layer reaches maximum 
height directly under the sun. The heights of the layers are not con- 
stant but change with time of day and season, with latitude, and even 
with time along the sunspot cycle. 

Radio exploration of the ionosphere is accomplished by automati- 
eally shifting the wave frequency over a range about 500 to 16,000 kilo- 
cycles per second. An automatically recorded reference line for the 
surface of the earth provides the base from which to measure heights 
of radio echoes. At wave frequencies up to 4,000 kilocycles per second, 
radio echoes are returned from heights at about 100 kilometers. Fre- 
quencies above 4,000 kilocycles show a sudden jump to a higher re- 
flecting region. At greater frequencies the waves penetrate, in gen- 
eral, farther into the rarefied atmosphere until at 12,000 kilocycles per 
second there are no reflections from the ionosphere and the waves pass 
out into space. 

Continuous operation of ionospheric apparatus reveals that there 
are striking differences between normal day and night conditions. 
In general, the number of electrical charges in the ionosphere builds up 
during the day under the influence of the sun’s rays. During the 
night, when the sun’s rays are cut off, the ionization decreases. There 
are also extensive changes in the ionosphere, from one season to an- 
other. Complete knowledge of the variations and characteristics of 


501591—43——_14 


196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


the ionosphere permits interpretations of variations in the earth’s mag- 
netism and of radio communications. 

The programs of ionospheric research, which are incorporated 
with the other scientific investigations at the observatories of the 
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of 
Washington near Huancayo (Peru), Watheroo (Western Australia), 
and College (Alaska), and of the National Bureau of Standards near 
Washington, supplement our understanding of normal as well as 
abnormal relationships between the sun and the earth. Among the 
more normal relationships is the effect of sunspots upon the iono- 
sphere. This is illustrated by the average relationship that large 


s 


SUNSPOT-NUMBER Ts 


7 


-NUMBER 


FIG. —COMPAR/SON OF ANNUAL AVERAGE SUNSPOT-NUMBER 
WITH ANNUAL AVERAGE ELECTRON-OENSITY OF Fa-REGION 
MEASURED AT NOON AT HUANCAYO MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY, 


§ 

2 
See 

XN 


Figure 10.—Comparison of annual average sunspot numbers with annual average 
electron density of F.-region as measured at local noon, Huancayo Magnetic 
Observatory, Peru. 


numbers of sunspots are in general associated with large numbers of 
electrical charges in the earth’s outer atmosphere. The average an- 
nual maximum density of electrons at noon as measured in the region 
of the highest layer at the equatorial station of Huancayo follows 
the annual averages of sunspot numbers—from minimum to maxi- 
mum of sunspots the change of average annual ion density is about 
one to three. The two lower regions show changes, similar in form, 
but of smaller magnitude, with an increase in density only by some 
50 percent. The geomagnetic diurnal variation changes in value by 
some 50 percent from minimum to maximum of sunspot activity. 
This corresponds under like conditions to observed changes in ion 
density of the two lower regions, but is greatly different from the 
change of some 300 percent in ion density of the third region. Evi- 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—FLEMING 197 


dently the last is an important factor in the geomagnetic diurnal 
variation, 

Of the abnormal ties between sun and earth, the radio fade-out is 
the one outstanding example of a direct relationship, namely, the 
observed association of the bright chromospheric eruption on the 
sun’s surface, the simultaneous disappearance of radio echoes, and 
characteristic pulse in the earth’s magnetism. McNish has shown 
that the unique geomagnetic change associated with the fade-out is 
an augmentation of the normal diurnal variation at all places where 
it is observed. Because the atmospheric region below 100 kilometers 
appears almost solely affected during the fade-out, it seems probable 
that not only the unique geomagnetic pulse but also the whole diurnal 
variation, of which the pulse is but an augmentation, arises from 
electric current flow at about these levels. 

Thanks to the extensive network of stations distributed over the 
earth keeping constant watch for these chromospheric eruptions, a 
similar and older network of magnetic observatories, and the chan- 
nels of radio communication, data on these associated phenomena 
accumulate rapidly. Dellinger’s compilation of such data soon 
showed that chromospheric eruptions always accompany fade-outs 
and the concomitant magneticchanges. The first actual simul- 
taneous observations of a fade-out, a bright eruption in the solar 
chromosphere, and a unique baylike kind of geomagnetic pulse were 
obtained on August 28, 1937, at the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory 
in Peru. Characteristically the echoes disappeared rather suddenly 
at a level between 70 and 90 kilometers. This is probably because of 
absorption produced by the intense ionization of this region by the 
ultraviolet ight emanating from the solar eruption. 

Another powerful influence upon terrestrial conditions is the result 
of bombardment of the earth by minute particles which are shot out 
in streams from the sun. This is as though streams of small parti- 
cles were sprayed toward the earth as from a moving nozzle. The 
development of such streams is generally associated with large or 
active sunspot groups. These streams travel relatively slowly and 
normally require about 1 to 4 days to cover the distance between 
sun and earth. When they reach the earth’s upper atmosphere, 
their effect is felt and observed as magnetic and ionospheric storms 
as well as auroral displays. 

The magnetic storm of March 1, 1941, associated with the passage 
of a large active sunspot group across the sun’s central meridian about 
2 days before, gave a typical example of the behavior of the iono- 
sphere caused by corpuscular radiation during a magnetic disturb- 
ance. The ionospheric effect was produced in this case as a result 
of the earth’s bombardment by these solar particles. We may com- 
pare the normal records on the undisturbed day, February 28, 1941, 


198 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


KEY, EUROPEAN OBSERVATORIES 


imistsche @ wk soka) oe CS RS OS Bochum  10—Castellacio 
) a. y: ja \e _ ~ = Sees 
4 (Duteawa aN Sy IRS RES SSN lI —Kénigsberg 
ider @ ea 5 eS Ss SS} SSE 12—Regensberg 
edevits SH \ a = 
\ _Necthwesh, ak con.) Ns SIG) 
“Chi re x . NS oN 


LEGEND 
@ = Observatories functioning in 1940 
@ =Locations of recommended additions 


ee ae 
eer OREN 
ES 


Nae SHEER 
nes ae 

Heres ea 
WT 


@ = Observatories functioning mise posal 
B= Locations of rec: 


FicurE 11.—Kstablished magnetic and electric observatories in Eastern and 
Western Hemispheres, 1940, and additions recommended by International 
Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—FLEMING 199 


with the abnormal records during the same time on the next day, 
March 1. It immediately appears that the disturbances blew the 
ionosphere out into space—an effect especially pronounced during 
the beginning of such disturbance. For this case the average density 
of electrical charges during the magnetic storm was reduced to ap- 
proximately one-third of the normal value observed on the previous 
day. 

The nature of the relation between ionospheric and magnetic dis- 
turbances is not yet fully evident. Ionospheric changes apparently 
arise in part because of wave radiation and in part because of partial 
(corpuscular) radiation from the sun. This part of the investigation 
of geomagnetism has only begun. 


EARTH CURRENTS 


Electric currents produced by some natural agency circulate in the 
earth at all times as was discovered after the introduction of the 
telegraph 100 years ago. These earth currents are closely related 
to changes in the earth’s magnetism and bear some relationship to 
polar lights and to certain conditions which affect radio transmission. 
When polar lights appear, earth currents surge to and fro in an 
unusual manner. These surgings often occur even when polar lights 
are not sufficiently intense or extensive to be seen. They occur also 
in equatorial regions where polar lights are never seen. 

They produce effects, resembling static in radio, which interfere 
with the sending of messages. A study of these interferences as first 
observed by Barlow on telegraph lines in England in 1847 shows 
that they are due to electric currents which come from the earth 
and which to some extent are present at all times. 

Most earth-current storms which are observed in the middle lati- 
tudes occur simultaneously everywhere on the earth, and hence 
these must be due to an influence which acts directly upon a large 
part of the earth. From a statistical study, a definite tendency is 
found for an earth-current storm to recur every 27 days—once more 
giving evidence of solar and terrestrial interrelationships. 


RECENT GEOMAGNETIC AND AURORAL DISTURBANCES 


The present cycle of solar and geomagnetic activity has been 
noteworthy because of two of the greatest magnetic storms ever 
recorded since the introduction of photographic recording in 1859. 
These, as will be seen from table 1 of great magnetic storms during 
1859 to 1941, indicate the current cycle as the most active in the 
recorded annals of geomagnetism. 


200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


TABLE 1.—Great magnetic storms ! 


Ranges 2 
Date Station Remarks 
Decli- Ege a Vertical 
nation intensity intensity 
: Y Y 
1859, Aug. 28-Sept. 7_- 140 700 (?) 400 (?)| Greenwich, England_-_- 
TS72 SHED 4eee ene eee > 9606 "ose ae Bombay, India_________- Aurora seen at Bombay. 
1882, Nov. 17-21__----- 115 |>1,090 >1,060 Greenwich, England__-.| Largest sunspot group of 
that cycle on sun, 
1903, Oct. 31-Nov. 1_-- 186 | >950 >950 Potsdam, Germany--.-- 
1909, Sept. 25........-- 210 |>1,500 |>1,100 Potsdam, Germany__-_-_- io only about 10 
ours. 
68 800 235 San Juan, Puerto Rico_- 
1921, May 13-16__.-._-- 199 | 1,060 1,100 Potsdam, Germany _---_- Aurora seen at Samoa. 
>120 | >800 >1,000 Cheltenham, Maryland_ 
96 |>1,100 453 Watheroo, Western 
Australia. 
1938 vA pri Gs=-= 328 | 1,900 600 Potsdam, Germany--_-_- Tasted only about 10 
ours. 
25 | 1,320 118 Huancayo, Peru--_-_-_---- 
291 | 1,120 1, 020 Cheltenham, Maryland_ 
1940, Mar. 24-25. __._.. 135 | 2,300 900 Potsdam, Germany___-_- Severe disturbance of 
137 850 1, 100 Cheltenham, Maryland_ power circuits in North 
21 | 1,390 122 Huancayo, Peru__._.._._| | America. 
1941, Sept. 18-19_______ 264 | 2,544 1, 390 Cheltenham, Maryland_| Remarkable auroral dis- 
71 (GEE GA [a Se ge Watheroo, Western play in eastern and 
Australia. mideentral parts of 


United States. 


1 Table 1 is an extension of one appearing in Geomagnetism, by S. Chapman and J. Bartels. 
2 Expressed in minutes of are for declination and in y (1y=0.00001 gauss) for horizontal and vertical 


components. 

The first of the nine great storms listed is the classic storm of 
August 28 to September 7, 1859. Carrington and Young over 80 
years ago interpreted certain features of that storm as indicating the 
simultaneity of solar eruptions and magnetic disturbances, but this 
opinion was abandoned by other investigators because they looked 
for it in vain in later great magnetic storms. If the radio fade-outs 
had not given such strong evidence of ionospheric disturbances simul- 
taneous with solar eruptions, it is not impossible that the compara- 
tively small, though distinct, terrestrial magnetic effects would still 
have escaped detection. Because of the rarity mentioned, and not 
only for historical reasons, it may be of interest to recall here the 
original records of the classical case which started the controversy. 

The records for 3 days show comparatively quiet conditions on 
August 30 and 31, 1859, the brief baylike disturbance beginning at 
115 18", September 1, and the outbreak of the second great storm at 
4" 50™, September 2. General Sabine stated that “this great mag- 
netic storm, for excessive violence of character and length of dura- 
tion, had never been surpassed by any similar phenomenon which 
has occurred in my long and varied experience.” 

R. C. Carrington’s report included a drawing showing the large 
spot in heliographic latitude 20° north and near the central meridian 
on September 1, 1859. He noted in particular two patches of in- 
tensely bright and white light of brilliancy fully equal to that of 
direct sunlight. The instant of the first outburst was within 15 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—FLEMING 201 


oo 
AUGUST 30 
, 
SEPTEMBE P20 5 
= x ~ 
N 
1%o' x 
& 
w 
S 
“WMIOMIGHT 130" = 
SOLAR-FLARE 17°15" ¥ 
2%o 
AUGUST 30 AUGUST 31 EES ae 
3 
- 2007 * 
AUGUST 31 SEPTEMBER | = 
~\e = aS 
2007 & 
N 
5 
SEPTEMBER | SEPTEMBER 2 ‘oor = 


AUGUST 30 


AUGUST 3/ 


20 ~ EARTH TO SAME SCALE 


FicurE 12—(A) magnetograms, 10°13", August 30, to 10°09", September 2, 1859 
Kew Magnetic Observatory, England, showing short bay disturbance caused 
by ultraviolet light and beginning simultaneously with solar flare at 11°15", 
September 1, and beginning, 18 hours later, of great magnetic storm caused by 
solar corpuscles. (B) solar sketch, September 1, 1859, by R. C. Carrington. 
(After Balfour Stewart.) 


202 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


seconds of 11" 18" Greenwich mean time, and 11 23™ was taken for 
the time of disappearance. In this lapse of 5 minutes, the two patches 
of light traversed a space of about 35,000 miles. The magnetic mo- 
tion was in itself slight and of a character and magnitude frequently 
recorded. Young expressed the prophetic opinion that these solar 
disturbances are “propagated to our terrestrial magnetism with the 
speed of light” and that the casual relationship is “only in the sense 
that the pulling of a trigger ‘causes’ the flight of a rifle-ball.” 

Thus, these classical observations could be properly interpreted 
only after the recent discovery of radio fade-out and solar relations. 
They are the first recorded instance of a large solar eruption and a 
simultaneous large magnetic effect lasting less than an hour, pre- 
sumably caused primarily by a transitory increase of ionization in 
the ionosphere due to excessive ultraviolet light, followed after an 
interval of about 18 hours by the outbreak of one of the nine most 
violent magnetic storms observed from 1859 to 1941. 


Ficure 13.—Wide-range magnetogram, March 24-25, 1940, Potsdam-Niemegk, 
Germany. (After G. Fanselau.) 

The magnetic storm of March 24, 1940, one of the greatest ever 
recorded, was an event of unusual geophysical interest. This storm 
was accompanied by auroral displays which, however, were not un- 
precedented. The accompanying disruption of wire communication 
by electric currents induced in the earth produced senseless jumbles 
of letters in teletype equipment. These earth currents were of such 
magnitude that electric power systems were severely affected—the 
first time such effects have ever been reported. The reports of inter- 
ference with power transmission, especially at stations in the eastern 
United States and Canada, were at first doubted by electrical engi- 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—FLEMING 203 


neers and magneticians. However, the accumulated reports indi- 
cating connection between the storm and the power-line disturbances 
proved convincing. The evidence shows that the storm produced 
earth-current gradients amounting to about 10 volts per mile. Thus 
an increased practical importance of cosmical research in geomag- 
netism has been shown, for the lengthy observations extending over 
a century supply definite information on the probability of occurrence 
of such storms and therefore on the extent to which it is advisable to 
improve electrical installations to avert their effects. Because of the 
theoretical and practical importance of obtaining complete records 
of the infrequent great magnetic storms, a number of observatories 
have added less sensitive equipment to the more sensitive types here- 
tofore exclusively used. Thanks to these insensitive magnetographs, 
we have complete photographic records of the very great disturbances 
of April 1938, March 1940, and September 1941. 

The great storm of September 18-19, 1941, while not producing any 
great power-line interference, was most remarkable in auroral dis- 
plays over a great part of the United States. This storm is also of 
interest in that H. W. Wells, of the Department of Terrestrial Mag- 
netism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, several days be- 
fore its inception, had formally warned radio-transmission engineers 
that disturbed geomagnetic and ionospheric conditions might be ex- 
pected September 18. He was able to make this prediction through 
close study of daily reports of areas, numbers, and locations of sun- 
spots supplied by the United States Naval Observatory. Following 
several days of slight disturbance, violent fluctuations in the direction 
and intensity of the earth’s magnetic field began about 11 p. m., east- 
ern standard time, September 17. Maximum activity was between 
1 and 3 p. m. September 18. The usual difficulties with long-distance, 
radio, telegraphic, and telephonic communications were experienced. 

The storm was accompanied by extensive auroral display—an oc- 
currence which one living in our latitude has seldom the privilege of 
seeing. A. G. McNish, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, who observed the display 
carefully, gives the following account: 

But nature had scheduled her choice act for the evening hours. Those who 
watched the evening Sun go down were aware of a strangely persistent glow in 
the northwestern sky. As the sky darkened, distinct rays were visible in the 
northern sky, brightening, fading, and continually changing. By 8 p. m. the en- 
tire sky was filled with rays apparently converging to a point near the zenith 
to produce a vivid coronal formation. Various forms of auroral activity, rays, 
curtains, extensive ares, and flickering rays resembling searchlight or air- 
beacon beams continued until almost dawn September 19. Some auroral activity 


was noted during the preceding and following nights, neither being comparable 
with the display of September 18-19. 


204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


; #0 
SEPTEMBER 17, /941 


8 
75° WEST MERIDIAN HOURS 


! 
SEPTEMBER 19,194! 


(HORIZONTAL INTENSITY (H) 
————— — 


VERTICAL INTENSITY Oe 


RANGE OF STORM 
0=264' 
H=25447 
Z=/3907 


FicurE 14.—Records of magnetic storm (A) September 17-18, 1941, and (B) 
September 18-19, 1941, Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory, Maryland. (Cour- 
tesy of U. 8S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.) 


The coronal display was visible simultaneously in widely separated parts of 
the country. To all observers everywhere the rays seemed to converge toward a 
point slightly south of the zenith. Actually, of course, there was no con- 
vergence. The particles shot off from the Sun, being electrically charged, can 
not freely cross the Earth’s magnetic field and must travel in the direction of 
the magnetic lines of force. At Washington, the lines of force are tilted about 
20° southward from the vertical while farther north the tilt is less. Thus all 
observers were viewing a bundle of closely parallel rays, extending tens or 
hundreds of miles upward in the rarefied atmosphere, and appearing to con- 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—-FLEMING 205 


verge toward what is called the magnetic zenith just as railroad tracks appear 
to converge toward a point on the horizon. 

Photographers in Long Island and New York State obtained 
negatives, and through their courtesy I am happy to exhibit copies 
which fully justify Mr. McNish’s account as regards brilliancy and 
variety of the auroral activity. 

The bright chromospheric eruptions in sunspots photographed in 
the light of luminous hydrogen vapor show the bright eruption start- 
ing on September 17 at 6:26 a. m. Pacific standard time, and the 
greatly increased brightness of the eruption 10 minutes later. 


COSMIC-RAY RELATIONS 


A connection between geomagnetic and cosmic phenomena has 
recently been discovered—the world-wide decrease in the intensity of 
cosmic radiation during great magnetic storms. Although such an 
effect was predicted over 6 years ago, observational verification was 
not achieved until the occurrence of the great magnetic storms of 
our present sunspot cycle. The effect was noted by Forbush during 
the great storms of April 1937, March 1940, and September 1941. 
Since the magnetic moment of the earth increases during the main 
phase of a magnetic storm, a decrease of cosmic radiation during that 
time is to be expected on the basis of the well-established variation 
of cosmic-ray intensity with geomagnetic latitude. 

The superposed-epoch method is useful also to show correlation 
between cosmic radiation and the geomagnetic field. Time variations 
of cosmic-ray intensities, whose origin probably is deep in space, are 
now measured to within a fraction of 1 percent. 'This made possible 
a real comparison with geomagnetic changes by Broxon in 1941. He 
showed the simultaneous average variations of cosmic-ray intensities 
and of international daily magnetic character figures by superposed 
epochs of supernormal and subnormal cosmic-ray intensities. The 
cosmic-ray intensity is practically always lower for the five interna- 
tional magnetically disturbed days than for the five international 
magnetically quiet days of each month. ‘These results confirm the 
inverse correlation between cosmic rays and magnetic disturbances 
as previously shown by Forbush. 

The 1314-day and 27-day waves in cosmic-ray intensity are closely 
associated with those for character figure and magnetic horizontal 
intensity. This directs attention to a possible means by which cosmic- 
ray data might serve to establish the existence of a general solar 
magnetic field. 

LABORATORY APPROACH 

Most recent of promising attacks on the many problems indicated 
above is in the laboratory through investigation of the laws govern- 
ing the interaction of the magnetic particles composing all matter. 


206 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


All the actions and reactions in the world of physical things may be 
expressions of three fundamental forces—gravitational, electromag- 
netic, and nuclear. All three may ultimately be reduced to different 
aspects of the same all-pervading, all-inclusive type. Perhaps some 


SS 
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Fiaure 15.—Daily means of cosmic-ray intensity and geomagnetic horizontal- 
force component, showing effect of geomagnetic storm of April 25-30, 1937, 
on cosmic-ray intensity. 

obscure atomic effect of the extremely high pressures of the centers 

of such bodies as the earth and the sun may be the cause of their mag- 

netization. Therefore, experimental studies of nuclear physics 


SUN AND THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD—-FLEMING 207 


through the use of high voltages with the electrostatic generator and 
the cyclotron and at high pressures may give better understanding 
of relations between the constant generation of subatomic forces in 
the sun and their terrestrial effects. 


CONCLUSION 


In conclusion, may I hope to have left with you some impression of 
the interrelationships between the ever changing but quiet variations 
of the earth’s magnetic field and the swirling, tumultuous events on the 
sun. These interrelationships have made possible the electrical ex- 
ploration of the high atmosphere far above the limits accessible to air- 
craft. Less than a decade ago this was thought to be beyond human 
attainment, and hopes of such exploration forecast by Balfour 
Stewart, Kennelly, and Heaviside existed only in the speculations of 
intrepid, persistent scientific investigators. Another great step has 
thus been taken toward definite knowledge of the intimate relations 
between the earth and the sun which play so material a part in our 
lives. Upon that step even now plans are rapidly developing for ac- 
curate magnetic exploration at equally great heights to supply the 
third dimension of the geomagnetic field so long sought to aid in the 
explanation of the origin of that field. 

Today geomagnetism maintains its key position as a_ thriving 
branch of geophysics, not only because of its own intrinsic interest, 
but mainly because geomagnetic conditions give a complete, a faithful, 
and an intelligible record of those mighty solar and cosmical influences 
to which the earth and its inhabitants are subjected. We may well 
agree with the recent statement of an eminent scholar of earth physics 
that “as in all branches of science where growth is active, we are only 
partly satisfied with the new knowledge gained; long vistas of unex- 
plored territory invite us onward to ‘fresh fields and pastures new.’ ” 


RECENT LITERATURE PERTAINING TO THE SUN AND 
THE EARTH’S MAGNETISM 


BERKNER, L. V., and McNtsuH, A. G. 
1938. The ephemeral variations of the earth’s magnetism. Cooperation in 
Research, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. No. 501, pp. 223-247. 
CHAPMAN, §S. 
1941a. The sun and the ionosphere. Journ. Inst. Electr. Eng., vol. 88, 
pt. 1, No. 11, pp. 400-413. 
1941b. Charles Chree and his work on geomagnetism. Proc. Phys. Soc., 
vol. 53, pp. 629-657. London. 
CHAPMAN, S., and Barrets, J. 
1940. Geomagnetism. 2 vols. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 


208 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


FLEMING, J. A. 
1938. The general magnetic field of the earth and its secular variation. 
Cooperation in Research, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. No. 501, 
pp. 205-221. 
1941. Geomagnetism: World-wide and cosmic aspects with especial refer- 
ence to early research in America. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soe., vol. 
84, No. 2, pp. 263-298. 
FLEMING, J. A. (Editor). 
1989. Terrestrial magnetism and electricity. Vol. 8, Physics of the Earth. 
Monogr., prepared under the direction of the National Research 
Council. ix-+794 pp., illus. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 
McNisH, A. G. 
1941. The great geomagnetic storm of September 18-19, 1941. Sci. 
Monthly, vol. 53, No. 5, pp. 478-481. 
MENZEL, D. H. 
1940. The nature of solar energy. Sigma Xi Quart., vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 
157-164. 
NEwTon, H. W. 
1941. The great spot group and magnetic storm of September 1941. Ob- 
servatory, vol. 64, No. 805, pp. 161-165. 
NIcHoLson, S. B. 
1941. Sunspots and magnetism. Publ. Astron. Soe. Pacific, vol. 58, pp. 
305-314. 
STETSON, H. T. 
1942. The sun and the atmosphere. Sigma Xi Quart., vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 
16-35. 
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 

International quarterly journal founded in 1896 and now (1942) in its 
forty-seventh annual volume. Published by the Johns Hopkins Press, 
Baltimore, Md. Contains original contributions to all aspects of geo- 
magnetism and geoelectricity together with current reports on solar and 
geomagnetic activities. 


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Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Fleming PAGE we 


SOLAR CORONA AND PROMINENCES. 


(A) Total solar eclipse of May 28, 1900. (Photograph by H. C. Wilson at Southern Pines, N. C.; exposure 
30 seconds.) (B) Prominences over an active sunspot group. (Photograph by Mount Wilson Observa- 
tory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.) 


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Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Fleming PLATE 5 


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OCEAN, SHOWING ALSO COURSE OF HIS PINK PARAMOUR, 1697-1701. 


This was the first isomagnetic chart ever published and appeared probably in 1701. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Fleming PLATE 6 


Seen MAGNETIC CHARACTER 


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INTERVAL 13 6 ) I2 [2 46 ‘al CA CT 3 6 9 


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CHARACTER. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Fleming PLATE 7 


PATH OF HIGH FREQUENCY ~600 
(MOST PENETRATING) 


-500 


HEIGHT IN MILE 


PATHS OF INTERMEDIATE 
FREQUENCIES 


PATH OF LOW FREQUENCY me 
(LEAST PENETRATING) 7-0 
NN TRANSMITTER RECEIVER — 


UPPER, EARLY EVIDENCE FOR ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTING REGION: LOWER, 
PATHS OF RADIO WAVES OF DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES IN THE UPPER ATMOS- 
PHERE OR IONOSPHERE. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Fleming PLATE 8 


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SCALE OF VIRTUAL HEIGHT IN KM 


10 ft! fa 13 14 15 16 
SCALE OF WAVE-FREQUENCY IN MC/SEC 


BAND CHANGE 


TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF MULTIFREQUENCY SUMMER-TIME RECORD OF REFLECTIONS 
FROM IONOSPHERIC REGIONS, 13515™—13b30™, 120° EAST MERIDIAN MEAN 
TIME, NOVEMBER 20, 1939. WATHEROO MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY, WESTERN 
AUSTRALIA, 


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Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Fleming PLATE 12 


VIEWS FROM THE AIR OF (A) HUANCAYO MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY, PERU, AND 
(B) COLLEGE MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY, ALASKA. 


The Huanecayo Magnetic Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington is on the geomagnetic 
equator at an altitude of 11,000 feet above sea level and was established in 1922; the College Magnetic 
Observatory of the University of Alaska and the Carnegie Institution of Washington was established 
in 1941. (Photographs by W. Runcie and Marier Bros.) 


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Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Fleming PAE it 


HIGH-LEVEL HYDROGEN FLOCCULI OVER SUNSPOTS ON SEPTEMBER N6saO Ati 


Detailed structure is evidence of extensive fields of force around sunspots. (Photograph by Mount Wilson 
Observatory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Fleming PLATE 16 


PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE AURORA BOREALIS WHICH ACCOMPANIED THE GEOMAGNETIC STORM 
OF SEPTEMBER 18, 1941. 


(All times are mean 75° west meridian.) 

(A) 19529m, Ithaca, N. Y.; aimed at Pegasus, nearly due east; shows that the rays make the dip angle with respect to the 
horizon; corona appears to have been located about 17° south of the zenith; exposure 10 seconds. (Photograph by C. W. 
Gartlein and courtesy of National Geographic Society.) (8) Looking due west from top of Building D, Harvard 
College Observatory, Cambridge, Mass., this intense red patch appeared behind a church steeple at 19550™. (Photo- 
graph by R. Newton Mayall.) (C) 20525m, Patchoque, N. Y.; exposure 16 to 20 seconds. (Photograph by E. Dayton 
Thorne.) (D) 20550™, Patchoque, N. Y.; exposure 10 to 20 seconds, f/3.5. (Photograph by E. Dayton Thorne.) 
(FE) 20540™, Patchoque, N. Y.; exposure 10 to 20 seconds, f/3.5. (Photograph by E. Dayton Thorne.) (F) Made at 
Saranac Inn, N. Y.; direction northwest by north; exposure 20 seconds or more. St. Regis Mountain, 10 miles away, 


attests the intensity of general illumination when this shot was made about midnight. (Photograph by Ernest T. 
Pearson.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Fleming PEATE 17 


PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE AURORA BOREALIS WHICH ACCOMPANIED THE GEOMAGNETIC STORM 
OF SEPTEMBER 18, 1941. 


(All times are mean 75° west meridian.) 
(A) 20510™, Riverhead, Long Island, N. Y.; looking west. (B) 20515m, Riverhead, Long Island, N. Y.; looking south 
overhead; exposure 30 seconds, f/2. (C@) 20520m, Riverhead, Long Island, N. Y.; looking northwest by north; note 
Big Dipper stars, including Alcor; exposure 30 seconds, f/2. (D) Riverhead, Long Island, N. Y.; looking south over- 
head; exposure 30 seconds, f/2. (All photographs by Kurt W. Opperman.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Fleming PLATE 18 


PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE AURORA BOREALIS WHICH ACCOMPANIED THE GEOMAG- 
NETIC STORM OF SEPTEMBER 18, 1941. 


(All times are mean 75° west meridian.) 

(A) 20510™, with camera pointed overhead, Patchoque, N. Y.; gorgeous corona, a feature of the display 
unusual so far soutb, and auroral light filled southern half of the sky, while the north was ouite dark; 
note Altair in lower center and Delphinus in left center. (Photograph by E. Dayton Thorne.) (B) 
Caldwell, N. J.; camera pointed about 5°-10° south-southeast of zenith toward coronal center; exposure 
5 seconds, f/3.5. (Photograph by R. W. Olsen.) (C) Caldwell, N. J.; same as (B); exposure 10 seconds. 
{/3.5. (Photograph by R. W. Olsen.) (D) Caldwell, N. J.; same as (C); exposure 10 seconds, [/3.5. 

Photograph by R. W. Olsen.) (2) Caldwell, N. J.; same as (D); exposure 10 seconds, f/3.5. (Photo- 
eraph by R. W. Olsen.) (F) Saranac Inn, N. Y.; curtain toward northwest; color of main body was green 
with edges red, gold, and purple; exposure about 4-6 seconds. (Photograph by Ernest T. Pearson.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Fleming PLATE 19 


PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE AURORA BOREALIS WHICH ACCOMPANIED THE GEOMAG- 
NETIC STORM OF SEPTEMBER 18, 1941. 


(All times are mean 75° west meridian.) 

(A) 1910™; corona, just south of Vega, was formed by the rayed band shown in (C) of this plate and (4) 
of plate 18; exposure 10 seconds. (2) 22550™; very beautiful rayed band in the northwest; shows very 
narrow ray-structure which seems to be characteristic of a peak of a display; lower border of rays was red 
and they were in rather rapid motion; this is a fine drapery; exposure 3 seconds. (C) 19518™; fine rayed 
band north of west shows convergence of rays; exposure 5 seconds. (D) 01551™; are and horseshoe curves 
in northwest; bright star at left is Vega; shows the beginning of the main phase of aurora on night before 
great display, actually the beginning of great display; exposure 30 seconds. (Photographs at Ithaca, 
N. Y., by C. W. Gartlein and courtesy of National Geographic Society.) 


ei a Fal ae 


ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT AS A SANITARY AID? 


By Louis GERSHENFELD, B. Sc., P. D., Ph. M., D. Se. 


Professor of Bacteriology and Hygiene, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy 
and Science 


Man always has been interested in keeping healthy. When germs 
were found to be responsible for the causation of many diseases, vari- 
ous methods were attempted to eliminate these agents detrimental to 
our health. Of the natural agencies associated with health and clean- 
liness, sunlight has been regarded by the majority of persons as the 
most beneficial. The heretic Pharaoh Ikhnaton more than 3,000 
years ago insisted that the sun is God and it is the only source of life 
and goodness. Herodotus, the prominent Egyptian physician, some 
500 years later stated that sunlight is required especially for people 
who need restoration of muscular energy. The use of sunlight as a 
weapon in the treatment of disease is to be noted and can be traced 
throughout the ages. After our knowledge concerning bacteria and 
other microorganisms increased and their relationship with disease 
was proved, physicians advocated the use of sunlight in many diseases 
and for the destruction of all organisms. 

It was about 65 years ago, in 1877, that Downes and Blunt first 
showed that sunlight killed bacteria. They demonstrated that expo- 
sure of putrescible fluids to direct sunlight in the presence of air would 
stop all growth. Ten years later, Roux confirmed these findings and 
showed that anthrax spores were destroyed by exposure to the direct 
rays of the sun. In 1892, Ward, using natural sunlight, demonstrated 
by actual tests that the actinic rays were responsible for the destruc- 
tion of anthrax spores. About the same time and since then various 
workers reported that ultraviolet light possessed a germicidal effect. 
In 1903, Barnard and Morgan noted that the germicidal action of 
sunlight is limited to certain of the sun’s rays. Later these same 
workers, using the spectra of carbon and other artificial sources of 
light for obtaining ultraviolet rays, were able to kill anthrax spores. 


1 One of the Popular Science Lectures, delivered at the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy 
and Science during the 1940 Series. Reprinted by permission from The American Journal 
of Pharmacy, vol. 114, No. 1, January 1942. 


209 


210 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Within the past decade the susceptibility of microorganisms to ultra- 
violet radiation has received renewed attention. 


FORMS OF RADIANT ENERGY 


What is ultraviolet radiation and what has this to do with sun- 
light? The visible spectrum was discovered in 1665. This visible 
spectrum which was thought to be one band of light, colored white, 
was found to be in reality a combination of many different colors of 
light. You know what happens when a beam of clear bright sun- 
light strikes a suitable prism or if you gaze at the rainbow in the sky 
where Nature performs the experiment, you observe tiny drops of 
moisture present in the air acting as prisms breaking the white ray 
of sunlight into many visible colored rays, red, orange, yellow, green, 
blue, and violet. In addition to these bands of visible radiation there 
are other rays emanating from the sun which are invisible to the 
human eye. Some known as infrared rays are invisible, but this ra- 
diation is detected by the heat produced. Others spoken of as ultra- 
violet rays, also are invisible; this form of radiant energy is not de- 
tected by any of our senses, although some of the effects produced 
subsequently may become apparent. ‘These three forms of radiation, 
one visible and the other two invisible, all emanating from the sun, 
differ in the lengths of their waves. The ultraviolet rays are the 
shortest; the visible light rays are longer; and the infrared waves are 
the longest. 

The unit of measurement in microscopy is the micron which is 
equivalent to 1/25,000th of an inch. Wave lengths of light rays are 
measured in terms of Angstrom units. An Angstrom unit is 
1/10,000th of a micron; in 1 inch there are 250 million Angstrom 
units. The visible light is subdivided into colors of the spectrum 
by the energy of different wave lengths of an approximate range 
from the red, 8000 Angstrom units, to the violet, 4000 Angstrom 
units. To be exact, the longest visible rays, the red, have a length 
of 7610 Angstrom units; and the shortest visible rays, the violet, 
have a length of 3970 Angstrom units or approximately 1/63,000th 
of an inch. The infrared rays, which are heat rays, are longer than 
the red and the ultraviolet rays are shorter than the violet. 


ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT 


The ultraviolet portion of the spectrum consists of wave lengths 
which extend from a range of 3970 Angstrom units to about 1000 
Angstrom units. By passing a beam of ultraviolet light through a 
quartz prism, this can be subdivided approximately into three divi- 
sions, the far ultraviolet rays (1000 to 2000 Angstrom units), middle 
ultraviolet (2000 to 3000 Angstrom units), and near ultraviolet (3000 


ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT—-GERSHENFELD 211 


to 4000 Angstrom units). In another more convenient breakdown, the 
ultraviolet spectrum is divided into four parts, the divisions or classes 
being based upon the use of these specific radiations or so divided 
based upon their principal effects. From 1000 to 2000 Angstrom 
units are radiations which form a toxic gas, ozone, the so-called ozone- 
forming ultraviolet radiations. In the range from 2000 to 2950 
Angstrom units are to be found radiations which are effective in 
destroying g eerms. In the range from 2800 to 3300 Angstrom units 

e to be found the “biologically effective” radiations, those produc- 
a sunburn; and because they also are useful in activation of vitamin 
D, they sometimes are called the antirachitic ultraviolet radiations. 
i the range from 3300 to 4000 Angstrom units or the region closest 
to the visible spectrum are to be found radiations useful for their 
fluorescent display and of value in some types of photography. These 
divisions are not very sharply defined; they frequently merge and 
often actually overlap considerably. However it is important to note 
that the chemical and physiological actions of these rays depend 
upon the length of the waves making up these different radiations. 


TRANSMISSION OF ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT 


Before considering the value of ultraviolet light as a sanitary tool, 
there are other considerations which should be directed to your 
attention. All rays of the sun pass through the atmosphere before 
they reach the earth. The ordinary atmosphere will allow the pas- 
sage of infrared rays and the rays of the visible spectrum. Most 
ultraviolet rays from the sun, however, fail to reach the earth. Ac- 
tually the air acts as a differential filtering medium holding back 
many rays. In most places radiations shorter than 2900 Angstrom 
units never penetrate to the ground; in fact the shortest to reach 
us is usually from 2950 to 3100 Angstrom units in length. Less 
than 0.1 percent of the total radiations from the sun is in the form 
of ultraviolet rays and almost all of the latter are longer than 2900 
Angstrom units. Furthermore only the long nitcariolet rays will 
pass through ordinary window glass. While the latter is trans- 
parent to the visible light rays, it is opaque to light of wave lengths 
shorter than 3100 Angstrom units. You will note from these observa- 
tions that sunlight ae us therefore is most frequently devoid 
of an active germicidal effect and that is especially the case of sun- 
light that has passed through an ordinary pane of window glass. 
On the other hand, a special type of commercial glass, and in par- 
ticular quartz, snes the passage of ultraviolet light possessing wave 
lengths shorter than 2900 Angstrom units. This is of paramount 
importance in sanatoria and nurseries, where it becomes necessary 
to use glass of special composition instead of the ordinary window- 

5015914315 


212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


al 


pane glass so as to transmit into the interior biologically active rays, 
and in the manufacture of equipment to be used for an artificial 
source of ultraviolet light. Furthermore most ultraviolet light is 
absorbed by thin layers of fluids containing proteins or turbid mate- 
rial, by layers of oil and grease, and also by tissue cells. Tissue is 
not penetrated more than 1 millimeter (0.039 of an inch) in depth. 
Very short wave-length radiations are absorbed by air in the produc- 
tion of ozone. These facts must be considered in the practical use 
of ultraviolet light as a bactericidal agent. 


GENERATING ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT 


Artificially generated light is just as effective as the corresponding 
rays of sunlight that possess the same wave lengths or the same in- 
tensity. The source of ultraviolet light has very little influence 
upon the result, providing the wave lengths or intensity are identical. 
The sun, the natural generator of ultraviolet light, is not always 
available. Even when available the natural germicidal ultraviolet 
rays cannot be harnessed conveniently to be supplied to environ- 
ments not reached by sunlight. It therefore became necessary to 
provide some means of artificially generating ultraviolet light so as 
to make it available whenever and wherever needed. When investi- 
gators, especially during the past two decades, reported marked de- 
structive effects of different microorganisms by controlled laboratory 
tests using special artificially generated short wave lengths of ultra- 
violet light, the latter was hailed as the ideal sterilizing agent and 
its use was advocated far and wide. As in other similar cases, not 
recognizing that its application is bounded by distinct limitations, the 
use of ultraviolet light was soon discarded owing to its abuses, and 
also to the fact that many of the ultraviolet generators available 
were not only expensive but produced radiations which were un- 
suitable as germicidal agents. 


RENTSCHLERIZING PROCESS 


After several years of careful research and extensive experimental 
work, Dr. Harvey C. Rentschler, engineer and research director, 
Dr. Robert F. James, bacteriologist, and other workers associated 
with Westinghouse Lamp Division succeeded in designing equip- 
ment for ultraviolet radiation which is inexpensive and overcomes 
most of the objections made against other previously introduced 
ultraviolet generators. The radiations produced by the latter were 
found to cover broad rather than selective bands of wave lengths, 
which were found to be most effective as germicidal agents. In 
many of the generators used previously, an appreciable amount of 
infrared rays was generated, resulting in the production of high 
temperatures during operation. Such operation in refrigerated com- 


ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT—GERSHENFELD 213 


partments was costly and not practical. To keep the heat directly 
from the material being treated, the generators had to be placed at 
relatively long distances from them, resulting in a marked decrease 
in the effectiveness of the shorter and highly germicidal radiations. 
In other types of generators, there was a large output of high con- 
centrations of ozone and nitrous oxide, which were objectionable, as 
they affected humans and inanimate objects being treated. The 
newly introduced equipment or so-called ultraviolet lamps have 
evolved from a careful segregation of different wave lengths and 
the elimination of other short-wave radiations that are valueless as 
bactericidal agents and even undesirable. 

By a simple and rapid method for measuring ultraviolet radia- 
tion, a better understanding of the action of short waves on germs 
has become possible. In fact it was found that radiations or short 
waves generated at the 2537 Angstrom unit region of the spectrum 
possessed the greatest sterilizing or germicidal power. The intro- 
duction of this new equipment with an effective ultraviolet lamp and 
the practical application of selective bactericidal ultraviolet waves 
or radiations developed into a process known by many as the rent- 
schlerizing process or rentschlerization. These terms are taking their 
place today with the term “pasteurization” named after Pasteur, a 
process in which moist heat is used to render disease-producing bac- 
teria innocuous. 

ULTRAVIOLET LAMPS 


Many of you are familiar with or have seen sun lamps or so- 
called health lamps. These sun lamps generate waves or radiations 
which vary in length from 2800 to 3200 Angstrom units. Accordingly 
they supply only long ultraviolet waves and practically of the same 
intensity as we get from sunlight under ordinary conditions. In fact 
the glass used in sun-lamp bulbs will not allow the passage of radia- 
tions of wave length shorter than 2800 Angstrom units. Sun lamps 
therefore do not transmit ultraviolet radiations which are germicidal. 

The effective ultraviolet lamps used today to generate radiations 
of value for the destruction of bacteria depend upon a carefully 
planned type of vapor source, emitting controlled and selective bac- 
tericidal ultraviolet radiations. They consume a minimum amount 
of power and radiate a minimum amount of heat energy. They are 
almost identical in operation with the fluorescent lamp, except that 
fluorescent powder is absent. As the current flows from electrode to 
electrode through mercury vapor (to which other gases are frequently 
added), very little visible light is produced, but most of the output of 
its energy is concentrated at the 2537 Angstrom region of the spec- 
trum. At least 80 percent of the radiant energy is crowded into ultra- 
violet radiation at this region which provides the most effective germi- 


214 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


cidal effect (2537 Angstrom units). In the case of a fluorescent 
lamp, the powder present on the inside is activated and fluorescence 
is produced. In the case of the ultraviolet lamp, the ultraviolet 
radiations generated pass through a special type glass used in making 
the lamps. This glass is purposely chosen as it will allow the passage 
of the selected waves of ultraviolet radiation of greatest germicidal 
power and at the same time absorb most of the objectionable ultra- 
violet wave lengths in the ozone-producing region. The low vapor 
pressure and low current density in the lamp also reduce to a min- 
imum the radiations emitted in the visible spectrum. Ultraviolet 
lamps radiate energy of wave length ranging from 2000 to 2800 
Angstrom units and, as mentioned previously, most of the radiations 
are 2537 Angstrom units in length. Inasmuch as most of the radia- 
tions are not visible, individuals are prone to forget that ultraviolet 
lamps when operated should not be viewed by unprotected eyes for 
long periods of time or especially at close range, as a conjunctivitis 
may develop. 

Equipment provided with suitable ultraviolet lamps has been 
designed to fill practically all needs. These lamps are marketed 
under different trade names, among the latter being the Sterilamp, 
Germicidal Lamp, Safe-T-Aire Lamp, and the Saniray. The 
lamps are designed usually to operate on alternating current through 
a low-capacity transformer. If only direct current is available, a 
converter unit is necessary. Several lamps, wired in series, never 
in parallel, can be operated from one transformer. The lamps are 
lighted on the turn of the switch. Other than keeping them clean, 
there is no more attention required than is necessary for an electric 
bulb. These lamps are available in different sizes for use in all kinds 
of fixtures, a fixture and ultraviolet lamp being a complete unit in 
itself. After long use and even at low temperatures, the lamp may 
show some discoloration, the latter in turn absorbing some of the 
ultraviolet rays. Ultraviolet lamps have a more effective life when 
operated at temperatures above 40 degrees F. Under average con- 
ditions of use, they will operate for many thousands of hours, giving 
a continued service for at least 6 months (4,500 hours) before re- 
placement becomes necessary. 


SANITIZATION 


You are familiar with the term “sterilization” which, speaking 
broadly, refers to the destruction of every form of life, visible or 
invisible, harmful or innocuous. The term “germicide,” referring to 
agents which kill germs, is used synonymously with the term “bac- 
tericide” signifying only those agents which destroy bacteria. The 
term “pasteurization,” previously mentioned, refers to a process which 
subjects products affected by heat to temperatures sufficient to destroy 


ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT—-GERSHENFELD 215 


certain germs, especially those producing disease, and to reduce the 
total numbers of all forms of life present, without damaging the 
product under treatment. Pasteurization does not kill all germs and 
accordingly does not effect a complete sterilization. 

Ultraviolet light as commonly used does not render materials sterile. 
The term “sterilization” is used incorrectly when applied to the use of 
ultraviolet light, since the complete destruction of all forms of life is 
rarely attained by its application in practice. Furthermore this is 
never sought, and in fact from a sanitary viewpoint is not necessary. 
Ultraviolet radiation, when used, is employed to reduce the total germ 
content and especially for the destruction of those organisms causing 
disease or capable of decomposing materials. It is not practical to 
effect complete sterilization. It is on this account that for want of 
more suitable terms the words “sanitize” and “sanitization” have been 
advocated in place of sterilization and disinfection. Sanitization is 
that process which renders materials free of organisms that produce 
clisease, or are capable of decomposing substances, or which are indica- 
tive of insanitary conditions. ‘The term describes more satisfactorily 
the action of ultraviolet radiation and has come into use especially 
when the latter is employed asa sanitary aid. 


FACTORS CONCERNED IN HFFECTIVE RADIATION 


There is a variation in the apparent sensitivity to ultraviolet radia- 
tion not only by different species of organisms but this variation is 
found in the same species at different stages of its life cycle. The thick- 
ness of a layer of organisms to be radiated and the fact that individuals 
in a clump may shield others from radiation are to be considered. 

The amount of water vapor present has an influence on the effective- 
ness of ultraviolet radiation. At ordinary room temperatures, much 
more radiation is required to destroy germs at a high humidity than 
at a low humidity. 

The action of ultraviolet light is practically a surface action. It 
possesses only very slight penetrative powers. Radiation therefore 
must reach all surfaces to be effective. In order to maintain proper 
intensity, lamps should be cleaned, and regular and thorough cleaning 
of materials and environments wherever practical will be most helpful. 

The intensity is influenced by the distance that the surface to be 
treated may be from the ultraviolet radiations. The distance and the 
time of exposure are important factors to be considered at all times 
when using ultraviolet light for the destruction of germs. An indica- 
tion of what this means is to note that a 30-inch lamp generating 
mainly 2537 Angstrom unit wave lengths will kill almost all of the 
commonly observed non-spore-forming bacteria within 1 minute, when 
at a distance of 1 foot, but it will require 4 minutes if at a distance of 


216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


3 feet. In like manner, radiation of 3000 Angstrom units will require 
six times as much energy to be as effective as radiation of 2537 Ang- 
strom units. 

Radiations travel in straight lines. It may therefore be necessary 
to add refiectors to equipment, but it is important that the reflectors 
are made of material which will absorb but a minimum amount of 
the rays. In other instances, especially on exposed foodstuffs, the 
proper ratio of wave lengths between 1000 to 2000 Angstrom units 
present in the lamp will convert the oxygen of the air into ozone. 
The latter, a germicidal agent, will diffuse and reach areas inaccessible 
to the radiations. In the concentrations present we do not encounter 
the objectionable features noted when ozone as the sole effective dis- 
infecting agent must be present in the high concentrations usually re- 
quired. 

In general it can be said that properly designed ultraviolet lamps 
from which 2537 Angstrom unit wave lengths radiate are available 
to be used under conditions as advised by engineers. These lights 
have been found satisfactory in practice after thousands of experi- 
ments. Where special occasions arise it may be advisable to deter- 
mine beforehand the necessary electrical characteristics and materials 
of construction required. 

The use of properly constructed ultraviolet equipment will supply 
a tool which will be a valuable sanitary aid. One may work freely 
within the radiated spaces and experience no ill effects. It is ad- 
visable to wear eye shades or shaded glasses when work is to be 
carried on at close range or for long periods of time. Imperfect con- 
trol or overdoses will not produce any poisonous byproduct and will 
not impart toxicity to the substance or material under treatment. 


APPLICATION 


The use of ultraviolet light of proper intensity, another great scien- 
tific achievement, is now available as a practical sanitary aid with 
widespread applications. Equipment, designed and installed at low 
cost, can be adapted for a great diversity of uses. It will be impossible 
to consider in detail the wide opportunities for its many applications 
and the conditions under which it can be and is used. Important facts, 
however, will be presented revealing its efficiency in certain fields; and 
in other instances, attention will be directed merely to many other 
uses to which this process can be and is being applied. 


SCIENTIST’S AERIAL WARFARE 


Bacteria and other microorganisms are present in the air and at- 
mosphere. ‘The latter serve as transporting agents to enable the organ- 
isms to gain access to a more favorable environment. The kinds and 


ULTRAVIOLE1 LIGHT—-GERSHENFELD Diz 


numbers of microorganisms in the air vary in different environments 
and in the same environment at different periods, but certain forms are 
generally present. Molds, yeasts, and spore-bearing bacteria, all of 
which may be non-disease-producing, are rather common. Air laden 
with excessive amounts of these organisms may be responsible for the 
contamination and spoilage of foodstuffs and different products. Most 
disease-producing bacteria are not found in the air under ordinary 
conditions as in the home, or in the average working plant. How- 
ever, under appropriate conditions, especially indoors or in enclosed 
spaces, disease-producing bacteria may be found in the air of such 
environments. They may remain viable for considerable periods 
of time, even drift around in the air currents, and thus constitute 
a hygienic or sanitary hazard. The elimination of such hazards 
especially in hospitals and other institutions has been of great con- 
cern to everyone. 

Workers in all branches of science have been constantly at war 
with another kind of enemy—small invisible foes that are lurking 
constantly in the atmosphere. The control of the sanitary quality of 
the air in environments where foodstuffs and other products are proc- 
essed or stored, by means of ultraviolet light, which are death rays to 
these invisible foes, has reduced markedly spoilage losses. This same 
weapon, made available easily and at all times, has supplied another 
invaluable tool for the continued battle against those small invisible 
and undesirable organisms which cause all kinds of scourges and are 
ever ready to attack us from impenetrable ambuscades. 


PRACTICAL AIR SANITATION 


Hospitals—Anyone who is familiar with the history of the be- 
ginning of modern aseptic surgical methods will tell you about Lis- 
ter’s technique in which he attacked the problem of bacteria in the 
air by using a carbolic acid spray before and during operations as a 
means of killing all, or at least decreasing the content of, the disease- 
producing bacteria in the atmosphere and thus reducing the number 
of cases of postoperative infection. Sprays, because of the difficulty 
of providing practical means of application, however, were not 
found to be very effective. The introduction of air-filtration processes 
and modern air-conditioning systems has not proved to be adequate in 
all instances. These measures, however, aided by ultraviolet light 
or the latter by itself, applied continuously in operating rooms have 
resulted in an almost complete elimination of wound contamination 
from air-borne bacteria. This changed condition has brought about 
an improvement in clinical results that is agreeably surprising. 
Wound healing has been more rapid and with less reactions. The 
general postoperative condition of patients has shown marked im- 
provement. The fatality rate has been cut in half through the elim- 


218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


ination of cases of severe wound infection which was frequently fatal. 
In operating rooms where ultraviolet light is properly installed, the 
greatest amount of air in such rooms comes under the continuous 
direct action of the rays. Sterilized instruments and other equip- 
ment, dressings, bandages, and other materials can be kept sterile 
by continuous ultraviolet irradiation of the air in contact with such 
materials. This method is used in hospitals, in the private offices of 
physicians and dentists, by barbers and beauticians, and others. 

In nurseries, in cubicles, in children’s wards, better air sanitation 
and reduced risk of cross infections have resulted from the use of 
ultraviolet light. In many instances, the ultraviolet rays have been 
properly placed across the entrance to each cubicle or small room. 
Such a barrier or curtain of ultraviolet light has aided in preventing 
the spread of air-borne bacteria. Properly engineered installations 
will mean normal and comfortable air currents free of disease-pro- 
ducing bacteria, which will pass through doorways or corridors or 
from ward to ward, and will eliminate the danger of cross infection 
or of transporting infectious organisms from one patient to another. 

Not so many years ago, fumigation was a commonly practiced 
procedure. Rooms and other quarters which had been occupied by 
patients with contagious diseases were treated with formaldehyde 
and other suitable gases, but this method as a sanitary aid was dis- 
continued because of its inefficacy. Other techniques for the dis- 
infection of such environments have been used, but all of them are 
costly or time consuming, or there are other reasons for seeking a 
more satisfactory procedure. Ultraviolet irradiation is being used in 
various contagious-disease hospitals as a valuable aid in the prepara- 
tion of hospital rooms, not only to reduce the length of time of prep- 
aration and thereby increase the length of time of occupancy, but 
also to prepare rooms with an atmosphere low in the content of bac- 
teria and certainly lower than was previously possible. 

Hospitals are experimenting with ultraviolet irradiation in 
quarters other than mentioned above, as in kitchens, on conveyors 
holding food trays, in corridors, waiting rooms, clinic rooms, dis- 
pensaries, examining rooms, incubator rooms, nurseries, isolation 
wards, etc. The experience of the management in the foregoing 
will make available in the near future more data concerning this 
valuable sanitary safeguard. There are some physicians and dentists 
who are using ultraviolet irradiation in the waiting rooms of their 
private offices. Solaria, children’s homes, and other institutions also 
are utilizing this new tool. 

Air-conditioning systems——Modern air-conditioning systems pro- 
vide air which is at the proper humidity and desired temperature, is 
practically free of dust and dirt, and is low in its bacterial content. 
In these systems there usually is a recirculation of the air in the 


ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT—GERSHENFELD 219 


quarters supplied. Most of this recirculated air before treatment is 
contaminated with bacteria. The proper installation of ultraviolet 
radiation in air-conditioning ducts is practiced commercially for the 
destruction of bacteria. By this method nothing is added to the air 
nor is anything which is desirable removed. Not only office, apart- 
ment, and other buildings, but many railroads are now using ultra- 
violet irradiation in combination with air-conditioning units so as to 
control better the sanitary quality of the air supplied. This supple- 
ment perfects air conditioning, for air sanitation joins the physical 
comforts offered by the latter. We can expect more and more stores, 
theaters, restaurants, other public places, and private homes to have 
this new type of installation added to their quarters. 

Manufacturing plants and testing laboratories—In pharmaceu- 
tical, chemical, and biological laboratories where in the manufacture 
of various preparations, especially serums, vaccines, and other sterile 
medicaments, it is important to obtain a sterile end product for 
marketable purposes, ultraviolet rays employed during all or many 
of the stages of processing such preparations, by eliminating air 
borne bacteria, have proved to be a valuable aid in avoiding possible 
contamination. In the preparation of ointments, cosmetics, and 
other pharmaceuticals, the keeping qualities of these preparations 
are reduced and losses result because of spoilage due to the develop- 
ment of fermentations by yeasts and other bacteria or by growths 
of molds and fungi. The use of ultraviolet irradiation to maintain 
bacteria- and mold-free conditions in the air during the processing 
and at the same time wherever possible to sterilize the surfaces of 
jars and other containers subject to contamination has resulted in 
prolonging the life of these preparations. 

In testing laboratories, where all kinds of materials are examined 
to determine whether they are sterile or to note the bacterial content, 
it is most important that all precautions be taken to eliminate con- 
tamination during the period when the materials are removed for 
the tests to be made and subsequently when examinations are con- 
ducted. Aseptic conditions throughout are absolutely essential. Air- 
borne contamination is the dread of all workers who do culturing 
and conduct other bacteriological examinations. The use of selected 
ultraviolet radiations is a valuable addition in combating possible con- 
tamination during such testing. Suitable equipment has been de- 
signed for a portable ultraviolet unit which can be moved easily at 


will to any quarter and irradiate effectively areas of definite cubic 
contents. 


220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


SANITATION IN THE FOOD AND BEVERAGE INDUSTRIES 


A large number of installations of suitable equipment radiating 
the selective bands of ultraviolet rays have been in operation in all 
kinds of food establishments and bottling plants and have demon- 
strated their effectiveness and value. Important considerations are 
presented. 

Meat industry—Fresh meat composed of nutritive substances and 
approximately 80 percent water, an ideal environment for bacterial 
and mold growths, will spoil unless it is kept properly. The com- 
monly practiced method of preservation is to place such meats under 
suitable refrigeration or to keep them in properly operated cold- 
storage plants. But even under the most ideal conditions, physical 
and chemical changes occur. Evaporation occurs and there is a ma- 
terial shrinkage, resulting in a reduction in weight which frequently 
is an appreciable percentage loss. Certain types of bacteria and 
molds develop even at the low temperatures used. They produce 
slime and coatings which affect the odor and flavor and cause a change 
of the natural color. It therefore becomes necessary to trim the meat 
and to wash and clean the surfaces to remove the growths and avoid 
an impairment in flavor, color, and odor. The resultant financial 
losses are self-evident. The presence in walk-in refrigerators, cold- 
storage rooms, display boxes and cabinets of properly installed equip- 
ment radiating the selective bactericidal ultraviolet light and 
containing low concentrations of ozone (not more than 0.1 percent) 
has provided a means of reducing the losses and making available 
more satisfactory and more salable meats for human consumption. 
Irradiation is said to produce a very slight surface coagulation which 
does not affect the color, taste, or odor, but it does cause a reduction in 
the evaporation and subsequent shrinkage. Some workers claim that 
ultraviolet light as commonly used does not coagulate the surface of 
the meat, but admit that owing to the sterilizing effect, an additional 
saving results. The humidity can be increased in the cold environ- 
ment to 85 or 90 percent, whereas in the cold-storage systems in pres- 
ent-day service without irradiation, it ranges from 60 to 75 percent. 
The properly engineered installations provide for the destruction of 
bacteria and molds not only on the surface of the meats but in all 
parts of the cooler including the air, ceiling, walls, etc. The reduction 
of bacterial and mold growths reduces to a minimum the necessity of 
trimming, and especially deep trimming, with its resultant waste, 
and the production of bad odors, flavors, and objectionable appear- 
ances. Ultraviolet light properly used for meat, whether in the large 
walk-in refrigerator, the refrigerated freight car, the smail cooler, 
or the refrigerated display case or cabinet, will produce an all-round 
better and more sanitary product, and obviously at a reduced cost. 


ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT—GERSHENFELD 221 


The Tenderay Process, developed by workers at The Mellon Institute, 
which has for its purpose the tenderizing of meat, utilizes ultraviolet 
light for inhibiting mold and bacterial growth as an essential part of 
its operation. 

Baking and dairy industries—The bugaboo in the baking plant 
is mold growth. Throughout the entire processing conditions are 
ideal for the development and proliferation of molds of all kinds and 
objectionable yeasts. In the marketing of the finished product, 
whether bread or cakes, you have in most instances fresh moist nutri- 
tive materials which also lend themselves for the development of 
objectionable yeasts and molds from yeast and mold spores in the air 
and from other sources which may find their way in or on the bread 
or cakes. Many of the large baking establishments were among the 
first to introduce ultraviolet radiation in their plants. Their products 
are kept under the protecting rays coming from suitably installed 
equipment throughout the entire processing and especially from the 
moment they leave the oven until they are packaged. Conveying, 
cooling, slicing, and wrapping are conducted under proper irradiation, 
which even renders wrapping material free of contamination by unde- 
sirable yeasts, molds, and bacteria. Not only are the air and the plant 
equipment that comes in contact with the product continuously irradi- 
ated, but the destruction of undesirable yeasts and molds on nuts, 
raisins, and other ingredients added to bread and cakes is effected by 
treatment with ultraviolet light. This important sanitary aid has 
improved the keeping qualities of these products so that they can be 
kept in a safe and usable condition for longer periods of time in the 
usual channels of distribution and after they reach the consumer. 

Many uses of ultraviolet irradiation have evolved and are evolving 
in the dairy industry. Its use in dairy barns for keeping sterile dairy 
equipment during storage, and in plants proper in the storage and 
cooling rooms, in vats and coolers, in storage and tank trucks, and 
over milk-bottle conveyors to insure freedom from contamination after 
the bottles leave the washing and sterilizing machines until they are 
filled with the milk has resulted in a marked reduction in contamina- 
tion. Similar reduction and resultant financial savings have been 
effected in the processing and packaging of butter, cheese, and other 
dairy products. 

Other foods and beverages.—Ultraviolet light is being used as a 
sanitary aid on the farm in poultry houses and in incubator rooms. 
In the marketing of preserves, when glasses and other containers of 
jellies and jams are allowed to cool before they are capped, contami- 
nation and subsequent spoilage may occur. The use of irradiation 
during the cooling operation eliminates contamination to a large 
extent. Similar application is made in food plants marketing salad 
dressings, in the frozen-food industry where fruits, vegetables, fish, 


222 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


and other products are treated with ultraviolet light before they are 
frozen, and in the packing and storage of fruits and vegetables, the 
latter being passed under a bank of effective rays and then wrapped 
or packed or stored in an environment where the rays are present. 
The beverage industry also is utilizing this new sanitary aid. Bac- 
teria and molds may affect the flavor, odor, and appearance of bottled 
drinks. To eliminate such contamination or at least to keep these 
objectionable invaders at a minimum content, ultraviolet light is being 
used in the syrup vats and other tanks, over the bottle conveyors, for 
treatment of bottle caps and stoppers, and throughout the plant in 
general. A possible future application of this process is in the brew- 
ing and fermentation industries. In the manufacture of beer, wine, 
and other alcoholic beverages, there are many opportunities for possi- 
ble contamination by bacteria, undesirable yeasts and molds, resulting 
in the production of objectionable products. The use of this sanitary 
tool will undoubtedly be helpful here in reducing spoilage losses. 


SANITATION OF DRINKING AND EATING UTENSILS 


Proper sanitation is necessary in establishments serving foods and 
drinks to the public. One of the great dangers in such places is the 
possibility of becoming infected with disease-producing organisms 
from a common drinking vessel or from utensils not cleansed and 
sterilized properly. 

The first law passed in the United States against the common eat- 
ing and drinking utensil was in 1909 when in Kansas legislation was 
adopted prohibiting the use of the common drinking cup. The use 
of the common drinking and eating utensil is dangerous and undoubt- 
edly is a source of the spread of infectious diseases as it serves as a 
vehicle for the transfer of saliva. Unfortunately the common drink- 
ing glass still survives in some offices, factories, public and semipublic 
places and in other establishments where people are working or are 
found and where water is consumed. The use of either a common eat- 
ing utensil or, what is as dangerous, improperly cleansed drinking and 
eating utensils, adds greatly to the opportunity for the transfer of 
saliva with all the health hazards that such exchange implies. Par- 
ticularly during the last few decades has the danger become even 
greater owing to frequency of travel and the tremendous increase in the 
number of cafeterias, restaurants, taverns, roadside stands, diners, 
lunch rooms, bars, luncheonettes, and soda fountains. Improved 
methods of washing dishes and drinking and eating utensils and the 
use, wherever possible, of individual sanitary paper service will be 
necessary to keep down to a minimum the exchange of mouth secretions 
which is entirely too frequent. Many laws and numerous regulatory 
measures which have the force of law have been passed in the form of 


ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT—GERSHENFELD 223 


municipal or township ordinances, county or State laws or acts, or 
other legislative statutes. Usually the health departments and oc- 
casionally other executive branches are responsible for the enforce- 
ment of these regulations. In many instances such regulations are 
nonexistent. In others, the existing laws are inadequate to meet mod- 
ern conditions or are impractical of enforcement. Frequently we find 
that there is no attempt made to enforce adequate legislation. What 
is even as important is the fact that there is comparatively little uni- 
formity in the methods advocated for cleansing and sterilizing drink- 
ing and eating utensils. There is a great diversity of recommended 
practices which should be corrected. In the use of hot water and 
chemicals for the sterilization of glassware and other eating utensils 
many problems are encountered especially when operating on a small 
scale. The maintenance of the proper and effective sterilizing tem- 
peratures, the use of chemical solutions which can be kept at adequate 
strength, the elimination of discomfort to operators in working with 
chemicals or with hot solutions, the elimination of odors and steam, 
and the reduction of breakage are some of the features to be considered 
in any practical process. The use of ultraviolet light may help to solve 
this problem and the introduction of suitable equipment low in cost will 
undoubtedly provide a satisfactory means of seeing that all eating 
utensils will be kept up to proper sanitary requirements. 

As a direct development of the scientifically proved value of 
selected rays of ultraviolet light, eating and drinking utensils after 
proper cleansing and drying are being sanitized with this outstand- 
ing scientific discovery. The effectiveness of the rays for this pur- 
pose is dependent on their proper application. Glasses, knives, forks, 
spoons, and other equipment to be sanitized must be treated in such a 
manner that all surfaces (inside and outside) are exposed, directly 
or by direct reflection, to 2537 Angstrom unit rays for a sufficient 
period of time and at as short a distance from the source of the rays 
as physical limitations will allow. Properly applied, the time re- 
quired is but a few minutes to be assured that all disease-producing 
bacteria have been killed. In this period of time, practically all 
disease-producing bacteria and more than 99 percent of the total 
number of bacteria present, are destroyed. An additional valuable 
feature is that irradiation can be and is employed to maintain the 
sanitary condition of the utensils until required for use. You have 
seen glasses, dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other eating utensils, 
after cleansing, being stored on shelves or in compartments or cab- 
inets. During such ordinary storage the equipment is not protected 
generally from air-borne infection. or from contact with dust, flies, 
and other possible means of contamination, especially after being 
handled by waiters and others who in picking up one or more uten- 
sils, frequently touch others. Ultraviolet light, an efficient dry 


224 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


sanitizing process, also makes possible an effective dry sanitary 
storage at all times. 

Various manually operated equipment and, of greater convenience, 
mechanically operated equipment is available for sanitizing eating 
and drinking utensils and keeping them sanitized until ready for 
use. Cabinets easy to install and operate are marketed in many 
attractive designs of different capacities, shapes, sizes, and colors, 
and they are equipped with direct and properly reflected selected 
ultraviolet rays. They operate automatically, so that each utensil 
receives radiation for a definite period and on removal the current 
is automatically disconnected. These units are very effective and 
perform their function of sanitization more rapidly than other 
methods. They are adapted for use not only for large-scale but 
especially for small-scale operation at soda fountains, bars, and all 
places where beverages are served; and here the cabinets provide an 
attractive appearance as well as visual evidence of a safe and effective 
sanitization procedure. 


OTHER APPLICATIONS 


Ultraviolet lamps have been installed and ultraviolet radiation 
is being employed for the sanitization of many different materials 
and environments. In hotels and in public and semipublic places, 
this treatment is being applied to the sanitization of toilet seats. 
The unit is so constructed that after each use the seat is auto- 
matically raised into a cabinet containing ultraviolet equipment and 
it is subjected to ultraviolet radiation. Properly constructed cab- 
inets are in use for the sanitization of hair and shaving brushes, 
combs, tooth brushes, and instruments and equipment used by phy- 
sicians, dentists, chiropodists, barbers, and beauticians. 

Though previously mentioned, it is of sufficient importance to 
direct your attention again to the fact that ultraviolet light does not 
possess deep penetrating powers, and furthermore, a direct hit on the 
germs by the proper ray is necessary to kill them. All equipment 
therefore must be built and installed in a manner that will permit 
the proper sanitizing ultraviolet rays to reach all surfaces of the ma- 
terials and objects being treated. Unless this is accomplished, ultra- 
violet irradiation will be uncertain and its value ineffective. 


AN ENLIGHTENED PUBLIC OPINION 


Your attention has been directed to the foregoing data because it 
is important that each individual understand something concerning 
the elements of disease control and understand better the problems 
facing health workers. The scope of preventive medicine is ever 


ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT—-GERSHENFELD 220 


widening. New sanitary aids and more effective methods are being 
developed continuously for the prevention of many diseases and to 
rid materials of infective agents and environments of insanitary 
conditions. Your familiarity with the data presented will help to 
form an enlightened public opinion. An enlightened public con- 
sciousness in all that concerns the well-being of the everyday citizen, 
fortified by a familiarity with important measures that can be used 
to promote public health, will necessarily result in a greater utiliz- 
ation of these sanitary aids and a more widespread introduction of 
proper sanitary practice. 


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TRENDS IN PETROLEUM GEOLOGY ? 


By A. I. LEvoRSEN 
Tulsa, Okla. 


The oil industry, like other great American industries, has made 
effective use of the most advanced thinking in many scientific fields. 
This is particularly true of its applications of physics, chemistry, 
engineering, and geology. As a matter of fact, the steep upward 
curve of the expansion of the industry during the past quarter cen- 
tury merely reflects the increasing use of the sciences in the discovery, 
drilling, producing, refining, and transporting operations. And, of 
the sciences that have been employed, none has had a more spectacular 
rise in usefulness than geology and its close relative, geophysics. 

The oil industry differs from most other industries that use the 
mineral deposits of the earth in one important respect, however, 
in that its supplies must continue to be replaced by new discoveries. 
Whereas in the field of coal the supply for generations to come has 
been discovered, is proved, and is known, the situation in oil is quite 
the reverse. The oil that our children will use is not yet discovered— 
and being undiscovered, its location, quantity, and nature are not 
known. This situation is largely the result of the economic cycle 
of supply and demand—as the supply increases, the price goes down, 
and the incentive to discover new supplies wanes. Equilibrium seems 
to be reached, on the average, when the known reserves are kept at 
approximately 15 times the current yearly demand—a demand that 
completely consumes the supply and leaves no residue with which 
to cushion an emergency. The gas tank of this modern engine of 
progress must, therefore, be continually replenished and as long as 
this condition prevails there will be a need for methods and 
techniques of discovery. 

There is now an estimated known reserve of 18 to 20 billion barrels 
of oil underground—oil which has been discovered, is blocked out, 
and is available for use. This quantity is adequate only if new dis- 
coveries can be made to replace it as it is produced and consumed. 
The past ability of the industry to maintain discovery has been 


1ixtead at the Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration of the University of Chicago, September 
1941. Reprinted by permission from Economie Geology, vol. 36, November 1941. 


501591—43, 16 227 


228 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


essential to its growth, and if it should fail to find new supplies, it 
would quickly relapse into a stifling routine operation and gradually 
stagnate. 

The primary work of the petroleum geologist is in the field of oil 
discovery. His work is, therefore, fundamental and of vital im- 
portance, not only to the economy of the industry, but of the nation 
as well, for oil has certainly become one of the necessities of well- 
being for this age. He does many other kinds of work within the 
industry, particularly in the scouting, leasing, and production depart- 
ments, but failing of discovery, they would all be of little value, 
for everything he does is subordinate to his function in the main- 
tenance of supplies of crude oil. 

Probably as good a measure as any of the role of science in the 
discovery process is to be found in the most recent of the annual 
surveys made by Lahee? of the basis upon which wildcat well loca- 
tions were made in 1940. During this year he finds that of the 3,038 
wildcat wells drilled, 2,051, or approximately two-thirds, were drilled 
because of geological and geophysical reasons, and of the remain- 
ing one-third, most were drilled for various nontechnical reasons and 
part for unknown reasons. Moreover, he finds that of the wells 
drilled on technical advice, 15.6 percent were producers as against 
only 4.2 percent successful in the case of wells drilled for non- 
technical reasons. It was, therefore, nearly four times as advan- 
tageous to use technical reasons for making wildcat locations as to 
use nontechnical reasons. 

One of the curious situations in petroleum geology is that in spite 
of our theories, and of all the workers who have given thought 
to the problem, little is known of the origin of oil, how it migrates, 
or how it accumulates. About all that is known is that it is now 
found in traps of various kinds, and as a consequence, almost the 
entire geological effort toward discovery consists in the search for 
such traps. The most obvious trap is an up-fold or deformation of 
the earth’s strata which will keep the oil within the affected area. 
In the idiom of the profession, these are called “structures” and a 
pool which produces from such an anomaly is called a “structural 
pool.” 

Less obvious and much more difficult to find are those traps that 
result from a variation in the porosity or in the stratigraphy of the 
reservoir rock. Pools producing from such situations are called 
“stratigraphic” pools. Random drilling has been particularly 
adapted to the discovery of “stratigraphic” pools, for in them we 
find no guiding surface or shallow indications. Most of the oil 
fields of the great producing areas of Ohio, Pennsylvania, West 


7Lahee, F. H., Wildeat drilling in 1940. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., vol. 25, pp. 
997-1003, June 1941, 


PETROLEUM GEOLOGY—LEVORSEN 229 


Virginia, and Indiana, together with those within the Pennsylvanian 
sediments of the mid-continent region, are of the stratigraphic type 
and were discovered largely by the early “wildcatter” who followed 
whatever hunch seemed best to fit the occasion. Such drilling was 
totally unscientific but because there were so many shallow strati- 
graphic pools to discover, it was effective, and many fortunes were 
built and large quantities of oil were found. 

The approach of the petroleum geologist to the problem of finding 
traps that might contain oil has been chiefly through his ability to 
locate favorable structural areas, either by surface or subsurface 
geology, or by geophysical methods. However, as he is forced to 
search deeper and deeper for his data, and as it is becoming more 
difficult to find untested “structures,” the expense keeps mounting, 
and he is gradually turning his attention to the possibilities of finding 
stratigraphic type pools. The ammunition he brings into use for such 
work includes the microscope, the electric log, paleogeology, paleo- 
geography, imagination, and speculative reasoning based on sound 
fundamental geological concepts. The tide of exploratory thinking 
is running strongly in this direction at present, and the possibilities 
for success are almost unbelievably great. 

Probably the most important development of the past decade, 
and an approach that is still in its infancy, is the continually widen- 
ing use being made of well cuttings, cores, electrical logs, and all sorts 
of detailed stratigraphic data. It calls fora technique which, in part, 
was forced upon the petroleum geologist when drilling methods 
changed from the use of cable tools to the use of rotary equipment. 
At that time the driller was unable to make a satisfactory log of the 
well he was drilling and the geologist was called on to do it for him. 
This he did through the use of the microscope, and the resulting ad- 
ditions to our knowledge of the stratigraphy, sedimentation, geologic 
history, paleontology, and structure in much of the sedimentary area 
of the United States is so vast as to make almost all previous data 
obsolete and insignificant. 

Not only do detailed stratigraphic and sedimentation studies fur- 
nish the background for modern subsurface work, but they are also 
the basis for any scientific search for pools of the stratigraphic type. 
The operator attempting to find such a pool with a minimum of drill- 
ing is indeed sorely in need of geologic assistance. In a way it is 
like the children’s game of Hide the Button, the difference being 
that the operator now expects the skilled sedimentationist and micro- 
paleontologist to tell him when he is getting “hot” or when he is 
getting “cold.” 

In discussing this question of the trend of petroleum geology with 
one of the geologists of the Gulf coast region, I could not help but 
agree with him when he stated that, in his opinion, the trend could 


230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


be expressed in one word and that word was “downward.” He went 
on to explain that he did not mean that we were going into a decline, 
but that the thought and the effort of the petroleum geologist were 
more and more being concentrated below the surface and in the realms 
of subsurface sedimentation, subsurface stratigraphy, and subsurface 
paleontology. This entire subsurface development stems directly 
from the place microscopic methods have taken as a technique of pe- 
troleum geology. A person working with subsurface geology began 
with the terms of the well drillers—“hard rock,” “soft rock,” “mud,” 
“slate,” and the like. Gradually he was able to change those to terms 
with a more geological sound—limestone, sandstone, and shale, and, 
as a further refinement, added such general textural and qualifying 
terms as crystalline, dense, lithographic, porous, sandy, dolomitic, 
calcareous, and argillaceous. Now, we find him beginning to examine 
microscopically the individual mineral grains and to reduce their 
primary characteristics to the simplest possible terms; we find him 
concerned deeply with slight changes in facies; and we find he is be- 
ginning to look into the possibilities of distinguishing the variations 
of single minerals as a guide to the sedimentary environments of dep- 
osition. Some think it is deplorable, but it is nevertheless true in 
petroleum geology, that the microscope has pretty well supplanted 
the plane table and stadia rod as the leading method of obtaining 
geologic data. 

Geophysical methods have become so well established in the oil- 
finding technique as to have long since passed beyond the trend stage. 
Moreover, it is not the purpose of this discussion to go into other than’ 
the strictly geological aspects of petroleum exploration, leaving to 
others the telling of the brilliant contribution geophysics is making 
to the oil industry. 

The chief function of geophysics in petroleum exploration is to 
obtain structural data in advance of drilling. Geophysical data, in 
order to be effective, require geological interpretation and so far this 
has been successful only in the search for structural accumulations. 
The time will certainly come, however, when the geologist will be 
able to interpret geophysical data in terms of sedimentation and stra- 
tigraphy and then the entire field of stratigraphic type oil pools will 
be opened to geophysical methods. Since geophysical data are all be- 
low the surface of the ground, when they are added to the steady 
stream of subsurface well data, they further tend to push our 
thinking deeper and deeper. Even now the commercially accurate 
mapping of geologic conditions 5, 10, or even more thousands of feet 
underground is a daily routine in many areas. 

As the exploratory effort becomes deeper, it becomes more complex, 
and it also increases rapidly in cost. There is a tendency, therefore, 
in some quarters to go back to a reinterpretation of surface and sub- 


PETROLEUM GEOLOGY—LEVORSEN Dok 


surface information for the reason that many of the discoveries of 
the past, which have been attributed altogether to geophysical meth- 
ods, would or could have been made by ordinary geological tech- 
niques at a much lesser cost. 

Obviously, there is much yet to be learned from surface mapping. 
One important factor is the availability of aerial photographs in 
nearly al] regions, which force into the discard the methods and 
standards of accuracy that prevailed even a decade ago. Another 
factor, which has been the cause of many failures of interpretation, 
is the almost universal presence of unconformities. When a surface 
fold is projected through two or three unconformities, one or more 
of which is associated with diverging thickness of sediments, the 
expression of the fold at the surface has but a faint resemblance to 
what is found at 5 or 10 thousand feet below it. A third factor that 
applies to surface geology is that most of the early work was solely 
concerned with a search for anticlines and other types of favorable 
deformation. Many regions are therefore being reworked and the 
detailed stratigraphic information, which was neglected in the first 
surveys, is now being added. In my own experience, I well know 
that the year I spent in mapping “ structures ” in the San Juan Basin 
of New Mexico could be repeated to better advantage by mapping the 
stratigraphy and its relation to possible oil accumulation. 

This brings us to another trend which is apparent, and that is a 
growing awareness of the importance of geologic history in the search 
for new oil fields and new oil provinces. It is expressed in the deep 
interest of geologists in unconformities, overlaps, wedge belts of 
porosity, paleogeology, lateral and vertical gradation of porosity and 
permeability, facies changes, and in all of the varied phenomena of 
sedimentation. We may think of the rocks between each regional 
unconformity as being in layers of geology—each layer having its 
own peculiarities of sedimentation, structure, stratigraphy, and value 
as a potential oil-producing unit. In some regions, notably west 
Texas and northern Louisiana, as many as four such layers are being 
explored and each found productive. Many other developed areas 
have shown two or three such separate and distinct layers of geology, 
and we may, therefore, conclude that much of the unexplored terri- 
tory of the United States, undeveloped because it was thought to be 
uninteresting and monotonously uniform from a shallow structural 
viewpoint, now takes on value, because it likewise may be underlain 
by two or more additional layers of geology. Thus, the first clues 
to the possibilities of a new region may not appear until one starts 
exploring 5, 6, or 8 thousand feet below the surface, and thinking 
through one, two, or three regional unconformities. The almost 
infinite number of combinations of structure and stratigraphy that 
have in the past been found to produce oil, if projected into the 


232 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


future and considered as possibilities of accumulation in each or any 
of these unexplored layers of geology, reveals a correspondingly large 
undiscovered future oil reserve and the enormous geologic effort 
necessary to find it. 

Most petroleum geologists began working in two dimensions— 
length and breadth at the surface. Later, as more wells were drilled, 
a third dimension, depth, was added. They now find themselves 
thinking and applying a fourth dimension to their work—geologic 
time—and as with the other dimensions, its addition to their kit 
gives the horizon yet another push outward. 

The only really new approach to the problem of oil discovery that 
has developed in many years is the recent use of earth-chemistry or 
geochemistry. Its approach differs from geological and geophysical 
systems because it is a direct method, dependent only on the presence 
of oil regardless of the kind of trap, whereas the older methods are 
all concerned solely with the search for favorable structure, in which 
it is hoped oil may be found. 

Many claims have been made for geochemica] methods and if they 
were all realized it would be but a short time until all of the oil fields 
in the world were found. However, there are many geological objec- 
tions to its philosophy, and so far there have been very few or no oil 
fields found as the sole result of its application. Until it proves 
itself to be successful, it will probably continue to be regarded with 
a considerable amount of restraint as an instrument of discovery. 
We should not forget, however, that much highly intelligent experi- 
mentation and research is going on continually in this field, and that 
we may well see the day when it, or some modification of the present 
method, is a generally accepted tool of oil exploration. 

A development in petroleum geology, which I believe is significant, 
is of a different nature since it deals with the geologist rather than 
with his thinking. It is the trend in the oil industry to place geo- 
logically trained and experienced men in executive and managerial 
positions. It is coming on at an ever-accelerating pace and in nearly 
every month that passes we hear reports of promotions and changes 
in which geologists are advanced into positions of authority outside 
their normal field of activity. As Pratt*® has so well put it, the 
geologist now “ permeates the industry,” and he has come in “ like a 
metasomatic phenomenon in ore deposits in which the invading solu- 
tion completely changes the internal character without changing the 
outward appearance.” 

This trend has far-reaching consequences. Although in the early 
days the petroleum geologist was practically limited in his application 
of geology to discovery by his ability to make the nontechnical execu- 


8 Pratt, Wallace, Geology in the petroleum industry. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petroh Geol., 
vol. 24, pp. 1209-12138, July 1940. 


PETROLEUM GEOLOGY—LEVORSEN Doo 


tive understand what he was trying to do, now he finds a more tolerant 
and understanding attitude in the executive departments, which leaves 
him more freedom to concentrate on his geology without the necessity 
of promoting it or selling it to someone with no conception of its 
philosophy or method. Nothing cools the enthusiasm of a scientist 
as quickly as an unsympathetic superior, and this handicap, which has 
prevailed in too many instances, is rapidly being lifted to the ultimate 
good of both the industry and the science. 

Not only is the geologist going into executive positions within the 
larger units of the industry, but he is also going into the oil business 
for himself in continually increasing numbers. He may call him- 
self a consulting geologist, but more often than not he is buying and 
selling oil and gas leases, drilling wildcat wells, and has oil or gas 
production of his own. ‘The study of geology and its method of 
thinking is good training for anyone entering the oil industry in 
a similar manner to the study of law, which has long been considered 
2 good background for entry into business in general. 

DeGolyer * has pointed out another significant change in the work 
of the petroleum geologist in that he is becoming more and more a 
coordinator of a variety of geologic data, all of which are obtained 
by experts and turned over to him for interpretation. This con- 
trasts strongly with the older methods, where the geologist went into 
the field himself to get the data, and returning to his office, made his 
interpretation. Then, one geologist did all of the geological work 
incident to the drilling of a wildcat well; now there may be a dozen 
or more specialists, each securing data of various kinds, which are 
put together by the office geologist into a coherent and related whole. 
Thus today the exploration preblem is complex and the high costs 
prior to drilling a wildcat well may even approach the cost of the 
well itself. If one is to succeed at this kind of interpretive geology, 
the need for the best possible training is obvious. 

One of the healthy signs in petroleum geology, therefore, is the 
interest that is being shown in the college curricula of geology depart- 
ments. This was aptly put by a petroleum geologist the other day 
when he said, in discussing one of his college professors, “I worship 
the very ground he walks on, but he is teaching 10 years behind the 
times. Something ought to be done about it.” 

Well, something is being done about it. After studying all of the 
college catalogs of geology curricula and after sending out many 
questionnaires, a committee of interested geologists appointed by 
Henry Ley, President of the American Association of Petroleum 


“DeGolyer, E., Future position of petroleum geology in the oil industry. Bull. Amer. 
Assoc. Petrol. Geol., vol. 24, pp. 1389-1599, August 1940. 


234 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Geologists, have made a preliminary report.’ In it they concluded, 
in part, that more attention in college training should be given to 
English composition, mathematics, chemistry, physics, descriptive 
geometry, logic or the ability to reason accurately, foreign language, 
sedimentation, geophysics, and field work. Biology might well be 
added to such a list also. Apparently the teaching of the strictly 
geological subjects meets their approval but they feel there should 
be more training in the fundamentals of science in what might be 
called “background” studies. They also favored more problem courses 
and fewer memory studies in the preparation for a career as a petro- 
leum geologist. In order to do all this and still have time to do the 
essential work in geology, they believe the standard course of study 
should be for a term of 5 years, instead of 4, as at present. 

I rather think this interest in college curricula is traceable to the 
general broadening of the viewpoint of the petroleum geologist. As 
he takes a more active and responsible part in the oil industry; as 
he goes into the oil business for himself; and as his strictly geological 
duties require greater imagination, more sound reasoning, and a 
broader basic understanding of the interrelation of the various sciences, 
so he comes to realize his own shortcomings and the need for better 
preparatory training for those now in the colleges. In effect, this 
means that the specialized field of petroleum geology is coming of 
age and is commencing to think about building its own standards 
of training and achievement. 

Thus we see that geology and geologists are exercising a constantly 
expanding influence on the whole business of finding and producing 
oil and gas. There is no sign of a slowing down of this trend of 
usefulness, but, on the contrary, it is accelerating steadily, year by 
year. The petroleum geologist is becoming an “oil man” in every 
sense of the word, which, after all, is the best proof that he is keeping 
pace with the other applied sciences in the forward-moving front of 
scientific progress. 


5 Report of Special Committee on College Curricula, F. H. Lahee, Chairman. Bull. Amer. 
Assoc. Petrol. Geol., vol. 25, pp. 969-972, May 1941. A later report of this commrittee 
may be found in vol. 26, pp. 942-946, May 1942. 


METEORITES AND THEIR METALLIC CONSTITUENTS 


By 
E. P. HENDERSON 
Associate Curator, Division of Mineralogy and Petrology, U. 8S. National Museum 
and 
Stuart H. PrRRy 


Associate in Mineralogy, U. S. National Museum 


[With 6 plates] 


HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 


Meteorites are those portions of meteors which survive a passage 
through space and through our atmosphere and actually reach the sur- 
face of the earth. Of the countless number of meteors that enter the 
atmosphere only a very few of any size make a successful landing upon 
ourearth. In this short review it will be shown that the air we breathe 
serves also as a shelter from meteoritic bombing. 

Historically speaking, only comparatively recently has the mind 
of man accepted the fact that pieces of stone or metal could fall from 
the sky. This is all the more interesting when we observe how fre- 
quently references to the fall of a meteorite appear in old legends and 
records. In general the early descriptions are about as accurate as the 
ones reported to us today. An all-inclusive review of these old records 
will not be attempted, but a few will be cited to show not only their 
antiquity, but also the importance people have attached to these celes- 
tial objects. Man has been emotionally stimulated by seeing them 
fall and by reflecting on their origin, as well as being physically served 
by making practical use of them. 

Many a meteorite has been reverently treasured by primitive peoples. 
We read of them being buried as sacred objects, worshiped as idols, 
even hammered into weapons and useful tools. Early explorers re- 
ported the use of objects made of iron by people who had no commerce 
with the outside world, as well as by people who were unfamiliar with 
methods of reducing iron from any of its ores. Many of these objects 
have been studied and found to be made of meteoritic iron. 

Mythology has numerous old heroes who claimed to have had swords 
that had fallen from heaven. A dagger found at the site of Troy 
(Hissarlik) was reported by Dr. Schliemann to be a fragment of a 


235 


236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


meteorite. The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah may have been 
due to the impact of a falling meteorite; other explanations have been 
offered, but the meteoritic impact theory is as logical as any suggested. 
In Joshua X:11 we read of great stones that fell from heaven on the 
Amorites in the battle at Gibeon. Again, in the 18th Psalm, we read: 
“The Lord also thundered in the heavens, and the Highest gave his 
voice; hail-stones and coals of fire.” 

In Acts XIX:24, there are accounts of “a certain man named 
Demetrius, a silversmith, which made silver shrines for Diana, brought 
no small gain unto the craftsmen.” Farther along in the same chapter, 
35th verse, “Ye men of Esphesus, what man is there that knoweth not 
how that the city of the Esphesians is a worshipper of the great god- 
dess Diana, and of the image which fell down from Jupiter?” 

When the Casas Grandes meteorite was found in Mexico, it was 
wrapped in mummy cloth, indicating probably that the people treated 
this object with the same respect that would be paid to one of their 
rulers. Prof. F. W. Putnam described some meteorites from south- 
western Ohio that were found buried in an altar in association with the 
most precious objects of the mound builders. 

At the time of Cortez’? conquest of Mexico, it was noted that only 
the most distinguished Aztecs had daggers and knives made of iron, 
a metal more highly prized than gold. The invading Spaniards re- 
ported no smelting furnaces for the reduction of iron, and when 
inquiry was made of a native as to the source of this iron, he would 
invariably point to the sky. Cortez and his followers certainly never 
guessed that the iron used by the Aztecs was of meteoritic origin. 

The Descubridora meteorite from San Luis Potosi, Mexico, an 
iron mass of over 1,000 pounds, contained a copper chisel embedded 
in one of the fractures, indicating that Neolithic man was attempting 
to obtain and use this iron. 

The famous “black stone” forming part of the wall of the Kaaba at 
Mecca, ancient religious center of the Arabs, is doubtless a meteorite. 
Only such an object, appearing miraculously from the sky, could 
have made such a profound impression as to become sacred. 

Important events in the lives of the people are recorded on their 
coins. Many of the early Greek and Roman coins bear representa- 
tions of meteorites. It has been reported that the metal from meteor- 
ites has even been used as a medium of exchange. 

In 1812, when Napoleon was engaged in the battle of Borodino 
against the Russians, a stony meteorite was seen to fall not far from 
the Russian general. Napoleon won this battle, but lost the cam- 
paign against Russia. By a very narrow margin this meteorite 
missed being a celebrated historic specimen, for had the Russian 


1 Hensoldt, H., Meteorites and what they teach us. Amer. Geologist (Minnesota), vol. 
4, 1889. 


METEORITES—HENDERSON AND PERRY 235. 


armies rallied in this battle and defeated Napoleon, the meteorite 
would doubtless have been taken as a divine symbol that inspired 
them to victory. 

Not only have meteorites stimulated man’s imagination in the 
more or less remote past, but their scientific study has led to useful 
discoveries. According to the following quotation from a paper pre- 
sented at the Second Empire Mining and Metallurgical Congress, 
Toronto, Canada, in 1927, by Robert C. Stanley, president of the 
International Nickel Company of Canada, the first use of iron and 
nickel alloys was suggested by a study of the Smithsonian collection 
of meteorites by Samuel J. Ritchie and John Gamgee: 

While Colonel Thompson was wrestling with the problem of the separation 
of the nickel and copper, which was subsequently solved by the Orford, and 
later by the Mond process, Mr. Ritchie had to face the problem of creating a 
market for his nickel. The World’s annual consumption of nickel, in 1889, was 
four thousand tons, whereas the rich ores of his Canadian mines were ready 
to turn out twice that amount. The price, which had been $1 a pound or more 
when the Canadian deposits were first opened up only a few years before, had 
shrunk to 65¢ by 1889. The market was heavily over-stocked. German-silver, 
electroplating and coinage were practically the only uses for the metal. The 
future of the Canadian industry depended upon the extension of the market by 
finding new uses for nickel. 

At this juncture Mr. Ritchie recalled an experience some years before in 
Washington. He had met there John Gamgee, an Englishman, who had inter- 
ested the Government in the building of a refrigerated hospital ship for treat- 
ment of yellow-fever patients in the Gulf ports. Gamgee investigated ammonia 
refrigerating machines but soon found that cast iron would not hold com- 
pressed ammonia gas. He tried all kinds of alloys. Then, going one day 
through the Smithsonian Institution with Mr. Ritchie, he saw some nickel- 
iron meteorites and decided to try such an alloy. Mr. Wharton furnished some 
nickel with which Gamgee produced a very superior nickel-iron alloy which 
held the gas. Gamgee’s ship was never built but he had demonstrated the 
possibilities of nickel-iron alloys. 


NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF METEORITES 


The total number of known falls of meteorites for the entire world 
is about 1,400, which number includes only specimens now preserved 
in various collections. Not all of these have been studied, and as 
some of the discoveries lie comparatively close to each other, many 
of them may when studied be found to be individuals of the same 
fall. The United States alone has contributed more than 35 percent 
of the known falls or discoveries. This indicates a keen interest in 
the subject in this country, because the land area of the United States 
is a much smaller percentage of that of the entire world. 

The distribution of meteorite localities is far from uniform over 
our 48 States. The fact that so many meteorites have been found in 
some States and so few in others may be due to several causes. ‘There 
are areas where it is difficult to find a meteorite on the ground because 


238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


of the thick vegetation or the numerous rocks strewn over the surface. 
In other areas conditions are ideal for easy recognition of a meteorite 
on the ground. One reason why so many falls have been reported 
from certain districts is that the inhabitants have been encouraged 
to search for meteorites by being advised that these objects are easily 
salable. Once the residents of a district know what a meteorite looks 
like, and realize that there is a chance of monetary reward, it is likely 
that new finds will be made. 

There have been so many meteorites reported from certain districts 
that it has become necessary to exercise caution before announcing 
a discovery as a new one. It is increasingly important that the exact 
locality of the place of discovery be recorded; the old practice of 
stating general localities such as counties no longer suffices to estab- 
lish new falls. 

Tt is not only necessary to have a portion of any newly discovered 
specimen examined in the laboratory, but it is also important to have 
it examined where complete records of all falls are available, and 
preferably where there is a large collection of meteoritic material 
available for comparative study. Sections should be cut from the 
mass to be compared with the other meteorites previously reported 
from that area. Many meteorites are so similar in structure and 
composition that even after these precautions are taken, it is difficult 
to state definitely whether a particular specimen is a new discovery or 
is merely a part of a fall previously recorded from that area. 

The United States National Museum has specimens of over 75 
percent of all the reported meteorites from this country and nearly 
55 percent of the total reported for the entire world. Thus excellent 
reference material is available for the investigation of a newly dis- 
covered fall. Individually all the specimens are not of equal impor- 
tance, but collectively they are most important for the study of varia- 
tions in the structure and composition of the different groups. Some 
of the specimens weigh more than a ton, others but a few grams. It is 
necessary, however, to have sizable samples in studying objects as 
complex and varied as meteorites. 


FLIGHT OF A METEORITE 


At the time a meteor enters the outer atmosphere perhaps 40 miles 
or more above the earth, its speed is known to be very great. The 
slowing down of the rapidly moving object causes the mechanical 
energy to be converted into heat with the result that the air com- 
pressed in front of it becomes very hot. As the density of the air 
increases, the velocity of the meteor is more retarded, and at the 
same time the amount of heat thus generated rapidly increases. 
When the falling body is within 6 to 9 miles of the earth’s surface, its 
velocity usually is so reduced that the generation of heat practically 


METEORITES—HENDERSON AND PERRY 239 


ceases and it therefore is no longer luminous. During the fall heat 
diffuses slowly into the mass, so that the outside rapidly increases in 
temperature. Soon the surface is softened and removed by the 
scouring action of the air. This type of erosion progresses with the 
penetration of heat. As the falling mass is constantly entering a 
denser atmosphere, the frictional resistance increases; consequently, 
the stripping away of the outside goes on at an accelerated rate. 
The size of the falling body is reduced rapidly. 

It has been demonstrated that the symmetrical etch pattern of a 
cross section of an iron meteorite is easily and rather completely dis- 
rupted by heating to a bright red heat. So if heat has penetrated 
deeply into these irons their interiors would be found without this 
formal structure. Examinations of scores of cross sections of irons 
have been made, and no evidence exists to show that the interior was 
heated during the flight. The heated zone detected by study of sec- 
tions is seldom more than 1 or 2 cm. thick. 

The surfaces of many stony meteorites show well-defined markings 
that indicate the orientation of the body through a portion of its 
flight. Since only a few iron meteorites have been seen to fall, most 
of those now known are old ones on which the flight markings have 
been removed by alteration. The finding of such a perfectly pre- 
served set of flight markings as the Freda, N. Dak., iron is unusual. 

The outer surface of this specimen tells the story of its struggle 
through our atmosphere. The Freda iron is small, weighing only 268 
grams, but its shape and internal structure make it of great interest, 
and its flight markings are beautifully preserved. The nose of this 
specimen is turned over just as though it had been hammered. There 
is no reason to suppose that this resulted from its impact with the 
ground since it was found in soft sod; hence it appears that this rolled 
edge is due to the resistance offered by our atmosphere. The turned- 
over nose must have developed during the last portion of the iron’s 
flight, because had it developed very high above the earth, it would 
have been stripped off before the meteorite landed. This mass must 
have attained a very high velocity to produce air pressure capable 
of turning or battering the metal in such a fashion. A determi- 
nation of the composition of this meteorite showed that it contained 
23.49 percent nickel and 75.86 percent iron. Material of such a compo- 
sition would not change from the solid to the liquid phase until it 
reached a temperature of about 1470° C. It would not be necessary, 
however, to attain that temperature to soften the metal to a point 
where it could rather easily be washed off by the airstream. The tem- 
perature required to accomplish this would probably be several hun- 
dred degrees lower than the melting point. 

In addition to the more delicate lines on the surface of meteorites, 
a number of depressions are usually present; some are shallow and 


240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


wide, others narrow and deep, and examples are known in which a 
hole pierces the entire mass. It is sometimes possible to determine 
the direction of the air flow by rubbing one’s hand over the surface of 
the meteorite. The surface feels smoothest when the motion of the 
hand is in the same direction as the air flow, a decided difference be- 
ing sometimes felt on rubbing the surface in the opposite direction. 

When the Reed City iron was sectioned in our laboratories, a number 
of slices exhibited areas on the edge where heat had locally disrupted 
the internal structural pattern. <A thin film of black solidified liquid 
oxide lies between the granular area and the normal octahedrite 
structure. ‘This oxide film (pl. 4) must mean that there was a small 
invasion of melted oxide and iron, the latter developing a granular 
structure in cooling. If the mass had remained in a fixed position 
a little longer, perhaps this granular portion would have been swept 
out, deepening the depression and also making possible the forma- 
tion of whirlpools of air which would further abrade the meteorite, 
forming the pits common on so many irons. Unfortunately these 
structural features were not observed until the individual specimen 
had been cut into sections so it is impossible to relate this structure 
to any flight markings that may have been on the surface of the 
specimen. 

The air does an effective piece of work in rubbing out these celestial 
bombs. Their size when they first enter our atmosphere is not known 
with any accuracy, but there is reason to believe they are sometimes 
very large. Records of different falls show that very few large ones 
get through to the earth, and we should indeed be thankful that the 
air is such an effective screen against meteoritic bombs. The total 
weight of material in any shower may be large but it is unusual to 
find individual specimens weighing as much as 500 pounds. Good 
observations on the Chicora, Pa., fall indicate that a large mass did 
survive the passage through the atmosphere until it reached a level 
of about 12 miles above the earth. At this point something happened 
—probably the mass was crushed by the pressure of the resisting air. 
Calculations based upon direct observations indicate that at the 
12-mile level the mass must have weighed in the neighborhood of 
500 tons. Only 303 grams of this meteorite are known to have reached 
the earth, which is indeed a very small fraction of what existed 12 
miles up. 

In a few widely scattered localities on this earth, large holes bear 
witness to the crash of super-meteorites. All but one of these occurred 
before the dawn of recorded history; consequently we know nothing 
regarding the frequency of such events. One of these super-meteorites 
that did fall in our time—the Tunguska meteorite which crashed 
down on Siberia on June 30, 1908—really gave our world a good rap. 
European seismographs recorded a strong ground wave, and baro- 


METEORITES—HENDERSON AND PERRY 241 


graphic instruments in England recorded pressure waves. An engi- 
neer on the Trans-Siberian railway had to stop his train the night 
of the fall to prevent its being derailed by earth waves—and this was 
more than 400 miles from the place where the meteorite hit. Fortu- 
nately the region of the fall was very sparsely inhabited, and for 
that reason it was a long time before the world knew what happened 
that night. When the scene was reached by outsiders, it was found 
that all the trees within a radius of 60 miles of the center of impact 
were blown flat. They were not strewn over the ground in a confused 
manner, but were arranged radially from the center of impact. For 
much of the distance that the trees were blown over, the wood was 
charred by the heat waves. It is doubtful whether any man or animal 
could have survived within many miles of the spot where the mass 
hit. It would be difficult to pick a spot on the globe where such an 
event would involve less danger to man. However, it would have 
been a different story had this meteorite arrived on earth 4 hours and 
47 minutes later, because it would then have made a perfect hit on a 
large city—Leningrad. 

Canyon Diablo crater in Arizona is the largest of these meteoritic 
holes, and from the area surrounding its rim several tons of iron 
meteorites have been collected. None of the individual specimens thus 
far located is very large, the maximum weight being about 1,000 
pounds, but some of these large specimens have been found several 
miles from the crater rim. No meteoritic material has as yet been 
found around the Siberian fall, but collecting in that area is most dif- 
ficult. The quantity of meteoritic material buried at either place is 
problematical, and also the size and weight of the mass that struck the 
earth. It is certain, however, that a most violent explosion resulted 
when such a vast quantity of energy was abruptly checked and turned 
into heat and wave energy. 


TYPES OF IRON METEORITES 


A few years ago the National Museum received several irons from 
northern portions of Chile where towns and named geographic land- 
marks are not abundant. The reported localities were given in miles 
from railroad stations or mining camps. When these irons were sec- 
tioned all were found to have similar structures belonging to the 
hexahedrite group. It was then hoped that chemical investigations 
would establish certain differences, but as the work progressed and the 
results were tabulated, it was found that they were all practically iden- 
tical. The distribution of these nine Chilean meteorites is confined 
to a narrow strip extending 8°54’ of latitude north and south and 
1°56’ of longitude east and west. It is hardly logical to consider all 
of them as being a part of the same fall, and yet it is equally difficult 


242 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


to believe that nine different meteorites of identical type would strike 
the earth within such a limited area. 

It is well known that there is a definite relationship between the 
structure and the composition of iron meteorites. Since the analytical 
work on irons is not as simple as many chemists once believed, few of 
the old analyses can be used in interpreting this relationship. Hence 
it is very likely that the variation in nickel now reported in the litera- 
ture may in large part be due to faulty methods or to improper sam- 
pling. 

Search of the literature revealed a number of analyses which agree 
perfectly with the results on the Chilean material. The finding of 
so many identical analyses from all parts of the world suggests either 
that (1) all meteorites of similar composition and structure have a 
common origin and their distribution over the earth is due to their 
having fallen at different times, or (2) meteorites should be considered 
as forming from melts of iron and nickel, ete., and the resulting struc- 
ture of the alloy will depend upon the composition of the original melt 
as well as on the speed with which it cooled. Evidence definitely indi- 
cates that the second supposition is the more logical one and that the 
differences in meteorites are due not only to differences in the com- 
position of the original melt, but also to temperatures and rates of 
cooling. 

In other words, whenever the proportion of nickel and cobalt in 
metallic meteorites is less than about 6 percent, only structures of one 
class—hexahedrites—will form. When the nickel and cobalt content 
in the original melt is higher than 6 percent, a second alloy will begin 
to appear. When the large areas of simple structure are broken up by 
inclusions of this second alloy arranged in a definite pattern, we have 
a structure known as an octahedrite. The rate of cooling determines 
the ease with which the different components migrate and increase in 
size. When the percentage of nickel and cobalt is only slightly higher 
than 6 percent, only a little of the second alloy, known as taenite, will 
form, so that there are rather wide bands of one alloy (kamacite) 
separated by specks or thin films of taenite. This combination pro- 
duces what we call coarse octahedrites. As the nickel content in- 
creases, finer and more delicate structures appear. It is not easy to say 
whether composition or rate of cooling is the more important factor in 
the production of a certain structure. 

The three classes of iron meteorites are hexahedrites, octahedrites, 
and ataxites, each having distinctive general features that are most 
noticeable after a polished surface is etched. Certain chemical dif- 
ferences also exist, but there is no sharp boundary between the dif- 
ferent groups and they intergrade with one another. 


METEORITES—HENDERSON AND PERRY 243 


Hexahedrites—Analyses of different meteorites of the hexahedrite 
type show there is little variation between any two of them (table 1). 
Hence the chemical evidence indicates that a rather definite alloy 
is formed which produces rather simple etch patterns consisting of 
one or more sets of parallel lines. The name kamacite is given to 
this composition and pattern, and the delicate structural lines are 
called Neumann lines. A meteorite containing only this relationship 
of iron and nickel is called a hexahedrite. 

The compositions of hexahedrites are not absolutely definite. The 
variations from the average can be seen by comparing the individual 
index ratios, obtained by dividing the molecular ratio for iron by the 
sum of the molecular ratios of nickel and cobalt. The average index 
ratio of analyses given in columns 1 to 15 of table 1 is 16.7, and 
the average ratio for 6 north Chilean hexahedrites given in column 
17 is 16.9. Bearing in mind that all these meteorites probably did 
not form under identical conditions, we see that the amount of 
variation is relatively small. 


Table 1.—Composition of hexahedrites 


Me@s223- 3 93. 36/94. 14/93. 75/93. 30/93. 93/94. 02/93. 39/94. 03/93. 39] 93. 47/93. 59193. 62/93. 06/93. 75/93. 59194. 05193. 56 
Nip-2 223 5.78] 5.30) 5.51) 5.79) 5. 52) 5.48} 5.62) 5.33) 5.69] 5.55] 5.68] 5.21] 5.35] 5.43] 5.59] 5.48] 5.60 
Coz==3 75) .63) 51] .29) 61) .22) .58) .95) .78) .52) .66] .92/ 1.00] .58] .78 

04 


rao 15.1] 16.8] 16.2} 16.3) 16.1) 17.5) 16.0) 15.8] 15.4! 16.0} 15.6} 16.2] 15.5] 16.6] 15.4]_____ 16.9 
Co+Ni 


T=trace. 
Column 1. Uwet, Africa. Min. Mag., vol. 17, p. 127, 1914. 
2. Walker County, Alabama. Meteoritenkunde, vol. 3, p. 173, 1905. 
3. Iredell, Texas. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 8, p. 415, 1899, 
4, Bruno, Sask., Canada. Amer. Journ. Sei., ser. iy vol. ’31, p . 209, 1936, 
5. Murphy, North Carolina. Meteoritenkunde, vol. 3, D. 307 1905, 
6. Cedartown, Georgia. To be described by S. H. Perry. 
7. Summit, Alabama. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 3, vol. 40, p. 322, 1890. 
8. Scottsville, Kentucky. Meteoritenkunde, vol. 3, D S18, 1905. 
9. Warialda, Australia, Rec. Geol. Surv., New South Wales, vol. 10, p. 75, 1921. 
10. Barraba, Australia. Ree. Geol. Surv., ‘New South Wales, vol. 10, p. 75, 1921, 
11. Hex River, Africa. Meteoritenkunde, vol. 3, p. 225, 1905. 
12, Braunau, Bohemia. Meteoritenkunde, vol. oy p. 207, 1905. 
IB}, Holland’s Store, Georgia. Meteoritenkunde, vol. 3, p. 240, 1905. 
14, Cerros del Buei Muerto, Chile. Chemie der. Erde, vol. tp No. 3, p. 499, 1932, 
15. Coahuila, Mexico. Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 239, pp. 407-411, 1941. 
16. Boguslavia, Siberia, U.S.S.R. Amer. Mineral., vol. 26, pp. 546-550, 1941. 
17. Average of 6 Chilean hexahedrites. Amer. Mineral. Le vol. 26, pp. 546-550, 1941, 


Octahedrites—More abundant in nature than hexahedrites and 
with a wide range of structural and chemical composition are the 
iron meteorites known as octahedrites. If etched sections of this 
group are carefully observed there will be noticed areas which have 
etching lines similar to those displayed in the hexahedrite group. 

50159148317 


244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


It will be further noted that these areas form rather long but narrow 
bands and are separated from each other by delicate lines of an 
alloy with a totally different appearance. Kamacite is the name 
given to the metal in these wide lath-shaped areas and the metal in 
the delicate lines bordering the kamacite is taenite. The chemical 
analysis (table 2) shows that this group of meteorites always has a 
higher percentage of nickel than hexahedrites. At this point the 
explanation of structures begins to become apparent. The single 
alloy, kamacite, of which hexahedrites are made up, is composed of 
iron that is about saturated with respect to cobalt and nickel. Any 
excess of these metals over that needed to make kamacite combines 
with iron to make a second alloy, taenite, and the distribution 
arrangement of these two alloys forms an octahedral pattern. 
Taenite is slightly different in its acid-resisting properties, and on 
the etched face of a meteorite it stands out in relief against the 
kamacite. 

When a series of etched faces of octahedrites is spread before the 
observer, a difference in width is noted between these kamacite bands 
in different specimens. Some are very narrow and surrounded with 
a continuous thin, but well-developed, line of taenite; others have a 
very wide, sometimes irregular-shaped, area of kamacite with only a 
mere suggestion of taenite around it. In fact these octahedrite and 
hexahedrite groups reach a point where there is little difference be- 
tween them. 

The relationship between composition and structure is rather sim- 
ple to this point, but as structures of more and more octahedrites are 
examined it is noticeable that increasing narrowness or fineness of 
the kamacite bands does not always guarantee progressively higher 
nickel content. It is true that medium or narrow widths of the 
kamacite bands will always imply definitely higher nickel content 
than is found in the very coarse octahedrite structures, but occa- 
sionally it is impossible to predict definitely which of two rather 
similar octahedrite structures will have the higher percentage of 
nickel. Consequently there is good reason to believe that another 
factor should be considered besides the rate at which a melt cools 
down, and that is the length of time it was held at a fixed tempera- 
ture, because this may have something to do with the fineness or 
coarseness of octahedrite structures. In the laboratory it is difficult 
to retain for a long time a prepared nickel-iron mix at a temperature 
where the metal is a solid but still at a temperature sufficiently high 
for the molecules of these two alloys, kamacite and taenite, to migrate 
and segregate from each other. 

Quick freezing can create a structure of thin areas of kamacite 
separated by taenite. When the meteorite freezes before the taenite 
can collect together—or, to express it differently, before the kamacite 


METEORITES—-HENDERSON AND PERRY 245 


can expel the taenite—thin lath areas of kamacite should be produced. 
Such a pattern is known as a fine octahedrite. The rate of cooling is 
important and may. be responsible for many structures in iron 
meteorites. 


TABLE 2.—Comiposition of octahedrites 


(EB. P. HENDERSON, analyst) 


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 

Mt Sandia El -. | Nelson Grand | Glori- 

Joy Mts Burro Sardis County Grant Rapids| eta 
Gree Ne BH SAS RES RES EE 92. 93 92. 46 93. 10 92. 08 91.90 88. 63 89. 80 87. 06 
Lf ee ee eS a eee, ev oe Se 5.79 5. 92 6. 02 6. 69 6. 78 9. 35 9. 38 11. 79 
LOL i ies at Le Saber cos One LS es UES Ve . 61 53 . 34 47 34 63 53 42 
pa Ua bee eee Ae ke . 20 68 + 3o2 . 24 21 57 14 37 
SESS ERE ike See SAAN. SIR ea Trace | Trace | None |.------- (0539) BSA S| ee 
TS eee eee ee en aa .01 0 ARO IE (ERS COG Vivre UY (ial eae 03 01 
Mol. ratio 

Fe | 2 See Wee Sees 15.4) 16.1 | 15.5 | 18.5 | -13,7 9.4 9.5 7.6 
Co+Ni 


NotE.—Nos. 1-5 are coarse octahedrites, Nos. 6-8 are medium to fine octahedrites. 


Although it is impossible to define exactly the boundary between 
hexahedrites and octahedrites, it is obvious that the two tables indicate 
the approximate position of this boundary. The accuracy with which 
nickel and especially cobalt can be determined is limited by certain 
sources of error; hence it is increasingly difficult to fix boundaries for 
the chemical composition of either of these groups. The behavior of 
cobalt and nickel is practically identical in these alloys, and in discuss- 
ing the compositions of these groups, therefore, the cobalt and nickel 
together are considered as a unit. 

There are octahedrites that have large areas of kamacite separated 
from adjoining areas of the same alloy by only a fine line. Careful 
search along these boundaries usually will detect some taenite; but as 
the compositions approach the limits of solubility for cobalt and nickel 
in iron at the different temperatures, a time comes when there will be 
formed only a trace of taenite, which can be very easily overlooked. 
Thin, discontinuous plates of taenite were found in the El Burro 
specimen, and none at all in the Mount Joy and Sandia Mountains 
specimen. Hence the composition of these three meteorites is near 
the border line between the octahedrite and hexahedrite groups. 

A simplified equilibrium diagram of the iron-nickel system given 
by E. A. Owen and A. H. Sully? traces the composition and tem- 
perature range for the boundary of kamacite (hexahedrite) and kama- 
cite-taenite (octahedrite) structures. It shows (fig. 1) that at 400° C. 
kamacite contains its maximum nickel content, or slightly over 6 
percent; at 300° C. the solubility had decreased to 5 percent nickel. 


2 Phil. Mag. and Journ. Sci., vol. 27, No. 184, p. 614, 1939. 


246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


In figure 1, the location of the line AB, separating the « phase, 
kamacite, and the a+y phase, kamacite and taenite, rather clearly 
defines the chemical compositions for the two groups given in tables 
1 and 2. Since the conditions of heating and rate of cooling of me- 
teorites are not understood, they cannot be used to modify the nickel- 
iron diagram prepared under a controlled environment. However, 
their compositions and structures should be consistent with the com- 
positions of their respective fields on the phase diagram. 


SO 


FIGURE sean, ium ene. of iron-nickel system below 1000° C. faa 
tion expressed on horizontal line is the percentage of nickel in iron. 


Ataxites—Ataxites lack the precise structural patterns of either 
hexahedrites or octahedrites. Perhaps some day this group, which 
varies widely in its nickel content, will be simplified; however, at the 
present time into this class fall all the irons that cannot readily be 
classified as belonging to either of the other classes. It is significant 
that the cobalt-nickel content for some ataxites closely parallels that 
of hexahedrites. In certain other ataxites there is a vestige of octa- 
hedrite pattern and also a chemical composition that lies within the 
range for octahedrites. In addition to the above there are several 


METEORITES—HENDERSON AND PERRY 247 


nickel-rich ataxites in which the nickel content is much higher than 
that of any octahedrite (see tables 2 and 3). 

The same general compounds of iron, nickel, etc., that occur in the 
other groups are present in ataxites. The taenite is more abundant 
in ataxites, and there is reason to believe that the nickel content of 
the taenite is higher than in that found in octahedrites. Following 
the line AC on figure 1 from higher temperatures to lower, we note 
that as the melt cools the position of the line is shifted toward an 
increasing nickel content. Investigation may show that taenite in 
the same meteorite varies in composition. 

Studies of ataxites have not as yet progressed to the point where 
all the structures can be accounted for. The logical approach to an 
understanding of ataxites is through more complete investigation of 
the features of both hexahedrites and octahedrites. 

Only those ataxites rich in nickel were included in table 3. Nickel- 
poor varieties, with a composition similar to that of hexahedrites or 
coarse octahedrites, exist, but the majority of published analyses of 
ataxites indicate that their cobalt and nickel content falls within the 
higher limits of composition of the finest octahedrites and extends even 
beyond this range. 


TABLE 3.—Composition of high-nickel atawites 


Meteorite (name of analyst in parentheses) 


Iqui- 
Mona- Nord- Tlaco- Hoba Hoba Freda 
hans heim a {non | ,tepec Bel (anal West | West | (Hend- 
(Hawley)| (Gonyer) y (Hawley) erson) (Hey) | (Gordon)} erson) 
1G ea Saas 88. 30 87.79 82. 52 82. 44 82. 29 83. 47 83. 44 82. 40 75. 86 
IN eo ss ee 10. 88 11. 69 16. 32 16. 23 16. 90 15. 99 16, 24 16. 76 23. 49 
Cou seat ee m5 1 . 67 68 1.09 32 76 74 . 66 
CoO i ae 69 Trace . 03 001 | eee | mane ee ae 03/22 2-2 Sees N.D 
Crea 21s) | See eee . 019 DY Ee cers | ae | eres eee ae N.D 
| eI See ee eS .09 . 04 -40 .06 | None OSM Tracer|=2222-— = 15 
Stl ee . 04 Trace .10 NOs None, |Sesee ote Trace 20212 eee 
Mol. ratio 
Fe }. oe 7.9 7.6 5.17 5.2 4.8 83 (yal 4.9 3.4 
Co+Ni 


Because most of the analyses on nickel-rich ataxites are very old 
and the cobalt and nickel contents may not be very accurately deter- 
mined, a more complete table of this class was not attempted. Three 
of the eight meteorites listed in this group, namely, Nordheim, Tawal- 
lah, and Freda, have a slightly developed octahedral structure. In 
both the Tawallah and Freda descriptions, mention is made of a fine- 
grained acicular ground mass through which occur inclusions of 
kamacite. In each case kamacite is surrounded by areas which are 
largely taenite and which appear bright in the published photomicro- 
graphs because taenite is resistant to the etching reagents used. This 
arrangement is explained by assuming that the kamacite separated 


248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


out from the ground mass surrounding the area, leaving the taenite 
segregated ; hence, localized areas of kamacite and taenite occur. 


STONY METEORITES 


The metallic inclusions in stony meteorites will be only briefly dis- 
cussed. The principal point to be brought out is the similarity in 
range of chemical composition of the iron in stony meteorites and in 
iron meteorites. The composition of the metal in stony meteorites of 
the chondritic group seems to change as the proportion of the metal 
to the silicates varies. When there is an abundance of metal, its 
cobalt-nickel content is usually relatively small; likewise when only a 
few metallic inclusions occur they are usually very rich in cobalt and 
nickel. 


TABLE 4.—Comparison of the molecular ratio index minr of iron in meteorites 


Tron meteorites Stony meteorites 
Hecahsartt 4 F encentace 
exahedrites an of metal in 
octahedrites Ataxites stony 
meteorites 
Ratio Ratio Ratio 
Hexahedrite group (Ay- 
erage) 2 = Set et ee 16.3 
1O}) Tehbiam = A eS 15. 5 
Mita Oyster 15.4 
Sandia Mountains_ ____ 15.1 Kimplet ass ee 15.1 11.3 
Osseoteee te eee ey 14.9 Bencupbine sess aa 14.5 68.8 
Suwahibseelese 13.9 15:1 
Nelson County__--__-- Bs 7/ 
Ballinger ts ss 13.6 
Sardisi: 2 Geter 13.5 
Santayosan eee 12.9 Guero. 22 = ee 11.5 21.7 
Hedjazs eee Se 11.5 11.1 
Kerby ann 8 oe eee 110.3 18.6 
Grand Rapids________-- 9.5 
Grant= == See 9.4 
Guffey. 23 wae 8.4 Plantersvillese) = 8.9 19. 
Monahanssa=eeseaa—= 7.9 IMOnVeN esse oes oe 8.7 13.2 
Nordheim 7.6 
Perpetiaoas- 6.3 8. 24 
Mundsgardasssesssssne= 16.2 7 
Tenham= 222502 ae 5.6 7.1 
Fquiques. 2 = eee 5.3 
auntonea see 5.2 8.4 
Pinon’ ae eee 5.17 
TODA NWiGSt= ee eee §.1 
Tawallah= 2 --s-oss=- = 4.8 
redger- = see eee 3.4 
nsisheim= = ae 3.4 3.2 
Soko Banja=ee eee 2.9 4.3 
Chicora®=— == 2. 06 2.6 


1 The analyst failed to determine the percentage of Co. 


Several authors have called attention to this fact and other tables 
have been published.? An independent check was made of this point 
by selecting at random a limited number of well-studied chondritic 
meteorites and arranging them in a series starting with the specimen 
having the highest index ratio to determine whether some correlation 


$ Prior, G. T., Min. Mag., vol. 18, p. 26, 1916. 


METEORITES—HENDERSON AND PERRY 249 


would be found. It so happened that the highest index ratio in the 
group selected corresponded to the index value of the octahedrite 
group. 

The manner in which the iron occurs in these stony meteorites 
must be carried in mind by the reader in order to appreciate the prob- 
lem presented. The iron is generally localized into small, irregular- 


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Ficurr 2.—A graphic representation of the composition and percentage of metal 
in the stony meteorites listed in table 4. 
shaped inclusions. It is usually located between the silicate minerals 
and not included within them. How the iron formed and the se- 
quence of its formation with relationship to the other minerals are 
important problems awaiting solution. 

The cobalt-nickel to iron ratio shows that in solid iron meteorites 
a rather continuous series exists. This index ratio ranges from 16.+ 
in the case of hexahedrites down to 3.+ in the ataxites, and there is 
little question but that the ataxite ratios could be extended even 
lower. 

The last column in table 4 gives the percentage of metal present in 
the specimens, and an examination of the last two columns indicates 
that some sort of correlation does exist. Just why there should be any 
relationship between the composition of the iron and its abundance 
in a meteorite of this type is very difficult to explain. 

The true relationship between the last two columns in table 4 is 
best seen when these values are plotted. In figure 2 the vertical 
component corresponds to the index ratio and the horizontal com- 


250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


ponent to the percentage of iron in the meteorite. The points on the 
graph represent the specific meteorites listed in table 4. There is a 
grouping of points in the lower left-hand portion of the graph. 
Points Ch,* So, and En are rather well grouped, as are also points 
La, Te, Lu, and Pe; the other seven are so widely dispersed that it is 
useless to attempt a serious discussion of a curve based on these data. 
A straight-line relationship would not necessarily be expected in 
plotting values on this graph, and a curve drawn at some later time 
when more data are available would probably be found to flatten 
out toward the right-hand side of the figure. 

It is evident that this series of stony meteorites offers little proof 
of any progressive increase in the percentage of nickel in the iron 
as the quantity of iron decreases in the meteorite. Table 4, however, 
shows some of the ranges of indices of the different types of irons 
and indicates that in the metal of stony meteorites an even greater 
range in the cobalt-nickel to iron ratio exists. 

Before leaving the idea of the correlation between abundance of 
metal in a stony meteorite and its cobalt-nickel content, mention 
should be made of a further suggestion, namely, that as the cobalt- 
nickel to iron ratio gets lower there is a related progressive change 
in the ratios of FeO: MgO in the silicates. The Soko Banja and 
Chicora meteorites contain a very small percentage of metal, but 
what is present is exceedingly rich in cobalt and nickel—hence the 
ratio index is rather low. The bulk of the silicates in each of these 
meteorites is olivine and pyroxene, and both of these silicates are 
rich in FeO. Again many meteorites have been found to contain con- 
siderable percentages of metallic inclusions in contact with the 
magnesium silicate enstatite, which has been found to be about the 
purest enstatite known—almost without a trace of iron. 

From what can be observed by examining sections of stony meteor- 
ites, it is difficult to see how there could be any relationship between 
the composition of the metallic portions and the composition of 
the silicate minerals. Judging from the physical relationship of 
the iron to the other minerals present, it would appear that the metal 
solidified later than the silicate minerals. A chondrule is shown in 
plate 6 completely surrounded by a ring of metal, and such features 
as these are not uncommon. Merrill ® called attention to the thread- 
like forms of iron penetrating silicates, and it is difficult to see how 
these delicate threads could enter a silicate mineral unless the iron 
solidified in the fractures of previously formed minerals. 

A convincing array of evidence can be offered to show that chon- 
dritic meteorites are tuffs—that is, they represent a type of rock 


‘The first two letters of the meteorite names are used to designate the position on the 
graph. 
5 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 73, art. 21, 1928. 


METEORITES—HENDERSON AND PERRY PATI 


mechanically brought together; hence, the various components of 
such stones are associated purely by chance. Thin sections of chon- 
dritic meteorites show some complete chondrules, but usually there 
are a great number of fragments of chondrules present. The frag- 
mental nature of this class of meteorites is a conspicuous feature. 
Foshag® stated: “The agglomeratic nature of chondritic meteorites 
leaves little doubt that they are volcanic tuffs.” Since in many stones 
the iron occurs enclosing chondrules or penetrating the minute 
fractures of silicate minerals it is logical to assume that it was 
deposited after the fragmental silicate material was partially con- 
solidated. With such good and abundant evidence suggesting that 
the silicate materials were mechanically brought together, and that 
iron was introduced after the silicates had formed, it is impossible 
to understand why any relationship should exist between the com- 
position of the iron and its abundance in a meteorite. 

A few studies have been made upon the etch patterns of the iron in 
stony meteorites, and these studies indicate that all the features found 
in the iron of iron meteorites are also present in the iron of stony 
meteorites. There is no question but that some of the metallic in- 
clusions in these stones are exceptionally rich in nickel—above the 
range found in the iron meteorites—hence it is to be expected that a few 
unusual etch patterns may be found. 


CONCLUSION 


The purpose of this discussion has been to show that some progress 
is being made in relating the various phenomena observed in the study 
of meteorites, although some of the most conspicuous features are still 
but imperfectly understood. The description of stony meteorites is 
very difficult, and often a published account is so general that it is im- 
possible properly to classify the specimen or to correlate it with other 
meteorites. The study of meteorites is only just beginning, and the 
system of classification is still in the formative stage. It is unfor- 
tunate that the interest of many persons in these objects is merely that 
of the collector in possessing something extremely rare, when so many 
interesting problems await the attention of ambitious students. 


® Amer. Mineral., vol. 26, p. 137, 1941. 


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Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Henderson and Perry PLATE 1 


FLIGHT MARKINGS. 


The flight markings on the surface indicate that the meteorite held a fixed position through a portion of its 
: fall. They also show how the size of a meteorite is reduced by air friction. 4 
a and b, two views of the surface of an iron meteorite, Freda, N. Dak.; c, the surface of a stony meteorite 
Tulia, Tex. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Henderson and Perry PLATE 


r 


b 


HEXAHEDRITE STRUCTURES. 


Meteorites of this class are made up of a single alley kamacite; the parallel rulings are known as Neumann 

ines. 

a, Bennett County, S. Dak. In addition to the two prominent sets of Neumann lines there is a third set 
making an angle of 85° with the nearly vertical lines. The dark elongated inclusion is troilite (sulphide of 
iron). b, the Negrillos mass of the North Chilean hexahedrite. The lower right-hand corner shows how 
these Neumann lines often control the weathering or disintegration of the mass, as the iron separates along 
these lines. Rounded inclusion of troilite interrupts some of the Neumann lines. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Henderson and Perry PLATE 3 


COARSE OCTAHEDRITE STRUCTURES. 


Each area enclosed within the dark borders has the Neumann lines, and in this respect the specimens are 
identical with hexahedrites. Some taenite may be present in these border zones, but it is often difficult 
to detect taenite in such specimens. 

a, E] Burro, Mexico (for composition see table 2); b, Sandia Mountains, N. Mex. (for composition see table 2). 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Henderson and Perry 


FINER OCTAHEDRITE STRUCTURES. 


Narrow bands of kamacite separated from each other by thin lines of taenite. Structures such as these 
indicate nickel content higher than that of the coarse octanedrite. 

a, Grand Rapids, Mich. (for composition see table 2); b, Reed City, Mich. Centered at the bottom is an 

area where the orderly octahedrite structure has been broken up. ‘This is assumed to be the result of local- 


ized heating during its flight. The rodlike inclusions of troilite at the upper left cut through the 
octahedral structure. 


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Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Henderson and Perry 


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This group of nickel-rich ataxites presents a varied and radically different structural pattern from that of 
the other types. At the high magnifications shown, the appearance is quite different from that of speci- 
mens seen by the unaided eye. These patterns consist of closely spaced taenite areas in a ground mass 
of kamacite. ‘The taenite in the plate is somewhat darker than the kamacite. 

a, Nordheim, Tex. (X 500); 6, Hoba, Southwest Africa (X 1,000); c, Iquique, Chile (x 1,000); d, Tlacotepec, 

Mexico (X 100). 

The white inclusions in Tlacotepec are kamacite; such areas occur sparingly in nickel-rich ataxites. At 
higher magnification this structure would be almost identical with that of Iquique. Chemical composi- 
tions are shown in table 3. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Henderson and Perry PLATE 6 


METAL IN STONY METEORITES. 


a, Tennasilm, Esthonia. Metallic constituents (lighter areas) form irregular rounded masses, also a halo 
around one chondrule. Obviously this iron formed much later than the chondrule and probably was 
introduced after the aggregate had formed. 6, Sharps, Va. Complete chondrules and fragments of 
others are cemented together in a dark ground mass. Such structure resembles consolidated detrital 
material. c, Shallowater, Tex. The metal has a pearlitic texture which is apparently not interrupted 
by the Neumann lines. The dark embayment in from the bottom is filled with taenite, the upper dark 
area IS a Silicate, enstatite, containing 0.38 percent FeO. a and b, photographs by L. B. Henbest. 


PHILIPPINE TEKTITES AND THE TEKTITE PROBLEM IN 
GENERAL? 


By H. OTLEY BEYER 


Department of Anthropology 
University of the Philippines, Manila 


One of several things for which the Philippines are remarkable is 
the presence in the Islands of the world’s largest known deposit of 
tektites. The term “tektite” was adopted in 1900 by Prof. Franz E. 
Suess, of Vienna, as a general name for a curious group of natural 
glasses which have come to be widely regarded as of cosmic or extra- 
earthly origin. In recent times it has become apparent that these 
bodies did not fall singly or sporadically, but that great showers of 
them fell upon certain parts of the earth at widely separated geologic 
periods. A small deposit has been found in the Ivory Coast region of 
West Africa that is believed to date as far back as Mesozoic times; the 
Moldavites, or European tektites, date from the Helvetian strata of 
the mid-Miocene; the whole group of Far Eastern tektites, or Indo- 
Malaysianites, are undoubtedly mid-Pleistocene; while the Austra- 
lites, or tektites of Australia and Tasmania, are believed to be post- 
Pleistocene or recent. These four major geologic groups of tektites 
all differ from one another to some extent in physical appearance, 
chemical composition, and specific gravity, but all possess certain com- 
mon differences from other earthly rocks which have led them to be 
classed together as genuine tektites, of unknown but probably cosmic 
origin. 

Most if not all true tektites appear to have been originally of the 
natural shapes that would be assumed by molten glass revolving in the 
atmosphere or any similar gaseous medium, 1. e., spheroids, disks, or 
oval, cylindrical, dumbbell-shaped, and pointed, drop-shaped bodies, 
some later broken or exploded into fragments of various sizes. This 
fact, together with their anomalous chemical composition, and the 
further fact of their being found frequently in wholly nonvolcanic re- 
gions, have been the chief reasons for adopting the cosmic hypothesis 


1Paper read at the seventh annual meeting of the Society for Research on Meteorites, 
Columbus, Ohio, December 1939. Reprinted by permission from Contributions of the 
Society for Research on Meteorites, Popular Astronomy, vol. 48, No. 1, January 1940. 


253 


254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


in seeking a reasonable explanation of their origin. The Australite 
group of tektites adds still further probability to the cosmic theory by 
showing a partial re-fusing of the original glass sphere, a part of 
which has flowed backward and solidified into a more or less flat- 
tened ring or band, giving to the whole specimen a peculiar buttonlike 
appearance, in the typical forms. In many other cases, the re-fused 
material has been completely swept away in flight, leaving only a 
small sharp-edged or lens-shaped remnant of the original tektite 
sphere. 

The Philippine tektites all belong to the general Indo-Malaysianite 
group, of mid-Pleistocene origin; this group contains also the tektites 
found in Indo-China, Borneo, and the Island of Java. While present- 
ing great uniformity in composition, and in color, specific gravity, and 
other properties of the glass itself, the Indo-Malaysianites of dif- 
ferent geographic areas present certain characteristic differences in 
shape, surface markings, flow-lines, and the degree of viscosity of the 
original material, which have led to their being divided into four 
major and several minor subgroups of more or less distinctive and 
well-defined character. The four major subgroups are: 

1. Indochinites (originally most viscous, with stretched-bubble sections, and 
with both straight and curved pointed drops, and irregular fragments 
as the most characteristic forms, spheroids being rare). 

2. Rizalites (pitted spheroids, ovals, and cylindrical forms being most char- 
acteristic, showing intermediate viscosity). 

3. Billitonites and Malaysianites (with deeply etched spheroids, cylinders, 
and irregular pieces, showing worm-track grooves and navels as the 
characteristic forms; medium viscosity). 

4. Juva tektites (least viscous?, with highly complicated flow-lines mildly 
but clearly etched out on relatively smooth surfaces and with spheroidal 
and irregular or fragmentary forms as the most characteristic). 

The most typical Indochinite specimens occur in South China and 
northern and central Indo-China, although they are found also, 
sparsely, in Luzon (particularly in the Rizal-Bulakan area, where they 
are mixed with much larger numbers of Rizalites and a few Billitonite 
and Malaysianite types). 

The most typical Rizalites occur only in Luzon, although a few 
similar, pitted specimens are known from Borneo and Java. 

The Billitonite and Malaysianite types, although least in number, 
cover the greatest area, being found in parts of southwestern Luzon, 
the Island of Busuanga in the west-central Philippines, Borneo, the 
Natuna Archipelago, southern Indo-China (especially Cambodia), the 
Malay Peninsula, and the Island of Billiton. The original Billitonites 
(first found in the tin mines of Billiton Island) show characteristic 
worm-track grooves and navels, with relatively smooth surfaces be- 
tween such markings, while the true Malaysianites tend to show ir- 
regular and heavily etched surfaces with the irregular pits and other 
markings often running together more or less continuously, as seen 
most typically in many Cambodian and Busuanga tektites. 


TEKTITES—BEYER 255 


The most typical Java tektites are found only in central Java, but 
a few very similar specimens occur in the Philippines (particularly in 
the Santa Mesa district of Rizal Province). 

The largest known whole tektites occur in southeastern Luzon, in 
the Paracale district of the Bikol Peninsula, while those of Indo- 
China rank next, and the Malaysianites probably third. The great 
Bikol tektites may be truly called “super-sized,” since most of them 
are large, and small specimens comparatively scarce. The largest 
found so far weighs 1,070 g., and is an almost perfect sphere a little 
over 4 inches in diameter, but more than a hundred Bikol specimens 
running from 200 to 700 g. each have so far been found. The largest 
recorded whole Indo-China specimen is from Cambodia, and weighs 
630 g., while the largest known Malaysianite is believed to have come 
from Pahang and weighs 464 g. Only a few other specimens weigh- 
ing 300 g. or more are known, all of them having come from the Indo- 
Malaysianite region, most of them being from Indo-China and the 
Philippines, with one each from Java and the Malay Peninsula. 
The average for this region, however, is between only 15 and 20g. 
The largest Australite has the exceptional weight of 218 g., since the 
Australites are the smallest of all tektites, averaging only about 1 g. 
each or less. Tektites from other regions are intermediate, but no 
recorded specimen reaches 150 g. in weight. 

However, what was originally probably the most gigantic of all 
tektites is again recorded from Indo-China. This is the famous 
specimen of Lower Laos, of which several thousand irregular frag- 
ments have so far been gathered within a relatively small area. The 
largest piece weighs more than 3 kg., while many of the smaller ones 
weigh only a few grams each. The evidence to date seems to indicate 
that all of these pieces are parts of a single huge tektite, perhaps half 
a meter in diameter, and weighing nearly 100kg. One of the most 
interesting things about these finds is that no other small whole 
tektites have been found anywhere near the same region; this fact 
lends force to the cosmic theory, since any shower of smaller bodies 
accompanying this great cosmic bomb would have tended to fall far 
behind in the course of its flight through the earth’s atmosphere. 

This brings us back again to the various theories accounting for 
the origin of the tektite glass itself. Many such theories have been 
propounded in the past, but most of them have been demolished by 
the extensive and often bitter criticism to which they have been sub- 
jected. A few theories, however, have withstood much critical dis- 
cussion and are still worthy of serious consideration, although no 
single theory has yet received universal or wide acceptance among a 
majority of those interested in the major tektite problem and its 
solution. I shall conclude this paper by summarizing, first, the 
essential features of three views that are still being seriously con- 


256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


sidered and shall then present a new hypothesis that has recently 
been worked out on the basis of Philippine material and that seems to 
present certain features which will doubtless provoke much interest- 
ing discussion and may even add a new chapter to tektite history. 

First, although no one has yet ever been able to present acceptable 
proof of the volcanic or other earthly origin of the tektite glasses, 
there is still an appreciable number of students of this question who 
believe that such an earthly origin will some day be demonstrated ; 
therefore, this possibility should not be disregarded, although major- 
ity opinion is today decidedly against it. 

Second, the view known as “the burning light-metal meteorite 
theory” (a theory developed in its various stages by Goldschmidt, 
Michel, Lacroix, and Suess) is still regarded by many capable in- 
vestigators as the most acceptable explanation of tektite origin yet 
presented. In brief, this view is based on the generally accepted idea 
that the great seasonal meteoric showers which so frequently visit the 
earth’s atmosphere, and are mostly wholly consumed in the upper air, 
consist in the main of the light metallic elements which oxidize at 
normal or relatively low temperatures. It is generally believed that 
a considerable amount of finely divided silica or siliceous matter is 
shed from such showers, probably reaching the earth usually as a fine 
powder or dust. This tektite theory presupposes that the earth has 
occasionally passed through abnormally thick clouds of such matter— 
such as, e. g., those which are commonly believed to form the tails 
of some comets, ete.—and that at such times the quantity of siliceous 
matter shed would be sufficient to form sizable globules of liquid 
glass, falling to the earth in solidified form as a tektite shower. 
(The principal objection to this view, in the mind of the present 
writer, is the difficulty of explaining the secondary re-fusing of the 
Australites and the absence of such secondary forms in the Indo- 
Malaysianites, since the glass of both types is of practically identical 
composition, color, and specific gravity. Van der Veen, however, 
has suggested that this difference was due to the more fluid nature 
of the Australite glass, while the Indo-Malaysianites were more 
viscous. The increasing viscosity of the Indo-Malaysianite glass, 
from Java northwestward to South China, seems to support Van der 
Veen’s view.) 

Third, Spencer’s “meteorite explosion-crater” theory, while re- 
garded as unacceptable by a majority of tektite students, is, in my 
opinion, still to be considered as a possible clue to the origin of many 
important varieties of pseudo tektites, etc., such as the silica glasses, 
Darwin glass, the Americanites, the Philippine pseudo Americanites 
of Santa Mesa and vicinity, the Claveria pseudo tektites, and pos- 
sibly even the European Moldavites. The essentials of this view are, 
briefly: Quantities of silica glass of several types have been found 


TEKTITES—BEYER 2574 


around such great known meteorite craters as those of Arizona, 
Wabar, Henbury, etc., and are believed to have been produced by the 
fusing of earthly rocks and sands by the terrific heat resulting from 
the explosive impact of the huge meteorites which produced such 
craters. An explosion great énough to produce a crater a mile or 
more in diameter would doubtless throw molten silica and other fused 
material a vast distance into the air, and such material would tend 
to assume the geometric forms common to glass drops, hardening as 
it fell back toward the earth. At the time of first propounding this 
view, in 1933, Spencer felt that the origin of tektites might be thus 
explained, but in his more recent writing he admits the difficulty of 
explaining the widespread Australites and Indo-Malaysianites on 
such grounds. The chief argument in favor of this view of tektite 
origin is that the composition of tektites approaches that of some 
earthly clays, but one would need to presuppose temperatures much 
higher and craters much vaster than any yet known on the earth. 
(However, we must await more detailed study of the great lunar 
craters, now coming to be regarded as mainly meteoritic in origin, 
and consider also the possibility that such great craters may have been 
destroyed or largely covered by erosion and vegetational growth 
on the earth.) 

The present writer has expressed no personal opinion in favor of 
any of these theories of tektite origin, but has attempted merely to 
point out from time to time some of the arguments against or in 
favor of each of the views. The same attitude will be preserved as 
regards the new Rufus hypothesis presented herewith. 


AN ASTRONOMICAL THEORY OF TEKTITES 


Under this title Prof. W. Carl Rufus, of the Observatory and 
Astronomical Department of the University of Michigan, has pre- 
sented to the writer a new explanation for the origin of tektites which 
was published in another paper.* For the present, I wish only, 
then, briefly to summarize the essentials of his theory here, and to 
advance a few short arguments for and against it. The essentials 
of the theory follow: 

The small natural-glass bodies known as tektites were originally de- 
rived in major part from the glassy basalt, or tachylyte, which forms 
the deeper crustal layer of the earth, exposed chiefly on the floor of the 
Pacific basin, at the time of the fissional separation of the moon. 
Furthermore, the earthly tektites represent only a small section of the 
vast swarms of tiny satellites which remained revolving about the 
earth within the Roche limit and particularly that section of the 
satellites having a revolutional period closely coinciding with the 


2? Pop. Astron., vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 49-51, January 1940. 


258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


period of the earth’s rotation. Such swarms would have remained 
approximately above the Pacific basin, but would have gradually 
fallen behind and tended to be drawn to the earth on account of per- 
turbations resulting from the gradual retardation of the moon. 
Cumulative perturbations and other related factors have caused 
swarms of these bodies to come down to the earth at widely separated 
geologic periods in the earth’s history, such falls having been par- 
ticularly extensive along a great-circle route crossing the western 
edge of the Pacific basin. This condition would account for the 
great quantity and wide distribution of the Indo-Malaysian tektites 
especially, which are of almost identical chemical composition, while 
other showers of tektites came at different geologic periods and varied 
somewhat in composition and physical appearance. 

While final critical appraisal of the theory must come from others 
better grounded in astronomical and geophysical knowledge than the 
present writer, there are certain implications of this new hypothesis 
that may well be pointed out. First, negatively, the well-known 
chemical differences between the true tektites and known earthly 
rocks have not yet been satisfactorily accounted for. It is true, per- 
haps that there are very few analyses of deep-seated glassy basalts 
available in our literature, and that this fact might account for the 
principal difference observed between the tektite chemical pattern and 
that of the more widely known surface rocks (either plutonic or vol- 
canic). In particular the dominance of potash over soda in the tektites 
is outstanding, and is accompanied usually by a predominance of 
terrous oxide. This condition is just the opposite of that of most 
known earthly rocks and glasses, and it is obvious that further evidence 
is needed here. 

It should be noted, however, that the foreging objection applies with 
equal force to all other proposed tektite theories, except the generalized 
cosmic hypothesis. On the other hand, the Rufus theory explains or 
Jends important support to a number of other views hitherto regarded 
as not altogether acceptable in their entirety; e. g., Fenner’s views as 
to the origin of the secondary forms of the Australites fit in very well 
with the Rufus theory; in fact the Australites furnish probably the 
best support for the new theory, although they almost certainly repre- 
sent a different shower from that which gave us the Indo-Malaysian 
tektites. The larger and heavier Indo-Malaysian tektites would have 
been drawn down at an earlier period than the smaller and lighter 
Australites, although the glassy substance of which both are formed 
is of almost identical chemical composition. 

Past experience has shown that it is easier to demolish tektite theories 
than to find substantial support for any one of them. Professor 
Rufus has thus been rightly cautious in presenting his new explana- 
tion, and in welcoming expected criticism and discussion. It is 


TEKTITES—BEYER 259 


hoped that constructive criticism by qualified contemporaries may 
soon demonstrate whether or not this latest explanation of tektite 
origin can stand the test and take its place among the few most ac- 
ceptable theories accounting for these strange bodies. 


POSITION OF THE PHILIPPINES IN RELATION TO TEKTITE STUDIES 


Up to last year, the present writer and Dr. Siguel Selga, S.J., of 
the Weather Bureau, were the only local students to take a serious in- 
terest in tektite studies, but, since the middle of 1938, Mr. J. Van 
Keck, of the Marsman staff in Paracale, has been making some very 
interesting observations on the physical history and characteristics 
of the Bikol tektites. A monograph by the writer, covering the re- 
sults of some 12 years’ active study and collecting of Philippine 
tektites, since the first specimen was found in 1926 in a Rizal Province 
archeological site, will be ready shortly for publication. However, 
in view of the unique opportunity that the Philippines present for 
the study of the richest known deposits of tektites in their natural 
environment, it is to be hoped that other local scientists may soon take 
a greater interest in this subject; and it is with the hope of stimu- 
lating such interest that I am presenting the present outline of the 
subject at this meeting and to the Phiilppine National Research 
Council. 

REFERENCES 


Lists of the most important tektite literature, containing the full citations of 
the principal papers by Suess, Verbeek, Van der Veen, Summers, Michel, Lacroix, 
Spencer, Fenner, von Koenigswald, and the writer, together with important 
chronological items by Streich, Walcott, Twelvetrees, Krause, Dunn, Grant, 
Goldschmidt, Easton, Escher, Paneth, David, deBoer, Selga, Martin, Janoschek, 
Koomans, Opik, La Paz, KaSpar, Heide, and others, as referred to in the Beyer 
and Rufus papers, will be found under the following titles: 

1. SUESS, FRANz EH. 

1900. Die Herkunft der Moldavite und verwandter Gliser. Jahrb. Geol. 
Reichsanst., vol. 50, pp. 198-382, 8 pls., 60 text figs., and bibl. 
of 55 titles. 

. SUESS, FRANZ E. 

1901-1914. Riickschau und Neueres tiber die Tektitfrage. Mitt. Geol. 

Ges. Wien, vol. 7, pp. 51-121, 3 pls., and new bibl. 


i) 


3. LACROIx, A. 
19382. Les tectites de I’Indochine. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat., ser. 6, vol. 8, 
pp. 193-236, 43 text figs., and bibl. of 32 titles. Paris. 
4, KENNER, CHARLES. 
1934, 1935, 1988. Australites. Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia, pt. 1, 
vol. 58; pt. 2, vol. 59; pt. 3, vol. 62; 8 pls., many text figs., and 
bibl. of 125 titles in pt. 3. 
. BEYER, H. OTLEY. 
1989. <A bibliography of tektites. Manila. Lists 450 titles, with brief 
abstracts and critical notes. 


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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES? 


By W. M. STANLEY 


Department of Animal and Plant Pathology 
The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, Princeton, N. J. 


[With 6 plates] 


Six years ago over a hundred viruses were recognized, yet it would 
have been virtually impossible to write then on the present subject, 
for at that time practically nothing was known about the chemical 
properties of viruses. These agents, which are responsible for untold 
millions of illnesses and deaths amongst people, animals, and plants, 
were recognized only by means of the diseases which they caused, 
diseases such as smallpox, parrot fever, yellow fever, St. Louis en- 
cephalitis, poliomyelitis, horse encephalomyelitis, foot-and-mouth 
disease of cattle, louping ill of sheep, hog cholera, rabies, dog distem- 
per, fowl pox, certain types of tumorous growths in fowls and other 
animals, jaundice of silkworms, and various yellows and mosaic dis- 
eases of plants. The general nature of the agents responsible for 
such diseases was a matter of much conjecture. When placed in 
certain living cells, these agents could multiply, mutate or undergo 
variation to form new strains, and induce immunity. They seemed 
to have many of the properties of very small living organisms such 
as the bacteria; yet, unlike most bacteria, they were too small to be 
seen by means of the ordinary microscope and could not be induced 
to multiply in the absence of living cells. They were mysterious, 
invisible somethings which, in the absence of living cells, appeared 
as harmless and as lifeless as pebbles on the beach, but which, even 
after years of inactivity, were ready to spring into action and cause 
disease and death when introduced by chance or by design into cer- 
tain living cells. By virtue of their ability to mutate or form variants, 
they were able to change and adapt themselves to new surroundings 
and conditions and thus not only to retain but to enlarge their place 
in a changing world. The fact that the viruses were recognized only 
by means of the diseases which they caused and the fact that these 
diseases were becoming of increasing importance only served to add 


1 Reprinted by permission from The Scientific Monthly, vol. 58, September 1941. 
261 


262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


to the mantle of mystery which surrounded them and to intensify the 
challenge which they presented. 

In 1985 a tangible characteristic material possessing virus activity 
was isolated from Turkish tobacco plants diseased with tobacco mosaic 
virus and made available for chemical study. The material, which 
appeared to be a nucleoprotein of enormous size possessing quite dis- 
tinective properties, was obtained from every lot of diseased Turkish 
tobacco plants examined. ‘The same material was obtained from vari- 
ous, In some instances unrelated, species, of mosaic-diseased plants. 
Slightly different, although closely related, nucleoproteins were iso- 
lated from plants diseased with strains of tobacco mosaic virus. The 
purified preparations possessed properties which were characteristic, 
not of the hosts in which they were produced, but of the virus or virus 
strain. An unexpected finding was that mosaic-diseased Turkish 
tobacco plants may contain as much as 1 part per 500 of the high 
molecular weight nucleoprotein. The amount of material isolable 
varied in other cases and appeared to depend upon the host and the 
strain of the virus, and in some instances was only a small fraction 
of the amount obtainable from mosaic-diseased Turkish tobacco 
plants. To date all attempts to separate tobacco mosaic virus activity 
from the nucleoprotein have failed and the material, which can be 
obtained in the form of long thin paracrystalline needles (pl. 1, fig. 1), 
has come to be regarded as crystalline tobacco mosaic virus. The 
material provided the first information regarding the general nature 
and chemical makeup of this virus and, although its exact nature was 
and remains a debatable matter, its isolation removed some of the 
mystery surrounding the general nature of viruses and served as an 
incentive for the search for similar materials in the case of other virus 
diseases. 

The isolation of crystalline tobacco mosaic virus was followed by 
the preparation from various virus-diseased tissues of over 20 crys- 
talline or amorphous materials possessing some of the properties of 
the respective viruses or virus strains. In not every case has it been 
proved that the material is essentially pure and consists of virus. 
However, in several cases it has been proved beyond a reasonable 
doubt that the materials consist of the respective viruses in an essen- 
tially pure state, and in no instance has virus activity been obtained 
in the absence of the characteristic material. Owing chiefly to our 
older ideas of the nature of viruses, the crystallinity of some of the 
purified preparations may appear at first as a rather spectacular 
property ; yet, if these materials are considered as proteins, crystallin- 
ity becomes an expected rather than an unexpected property, for 
many proteins are known to be crystallizable. Careful and mature 
consideration will reveal that crystallinity or the lack of crystallinity 
is of no special importance in connection with the purity or general 


VIRUSES—STANLEY 263 


nature of a material, but is important chiefly because it makes it 
possible to obtain certain solubility and X-ray data which would 
otherwise be unobtainable. 

There is not sufficient space for a detailed discussion of the 
chemical properties of all the preparations of purified viruses and, 
in order to provide you with an idea of their general chemical 
properties, I shall devote most of the text to the two viruses which 
have been extensively investigated from this standpoint, namely, 
tobacco mosaic and tomato bushy stunt viruses. These are typical 
viruses with respect to the essential and recognized characteristics of 
a virus; yet it must be admitted that each has certain special prop- 
erties which make it an unusually favorable material for experi- 
mental work. Thus, tobacco mosaic virus is among the most stable of 
all viruses and reaches a concentration in Turkish tobacco plants 
which is far greater than that reached by most viruses in their re- 
spective hosts even under the most favorable conditions, and bushy 
stunt is the only virus that has been obtained in the form of large 
rhombic dodecahedric crystals (pl. 1, fig. 2). However, there is no 
more reason for regarding these viruses as atypical because of such 
special properties than for regarding vaccine virus as atypical be- 
cause of its unusually large size, or foot-and-mouth disease virus as 
atypical because it is the smallest of all viruses. Tobacco mosaic and 
bushy stunt are plant diseases, and it has been argued that the viruses 
of plants differ fundamentally from those of animals and, hence, that 
information gleaned from studies on plant viruses has but little sig- 
nificance in connection with animal viruses. This argument was 
based chiefly on the failure of plant viruses to grow in animals and 
of animal viruses to grow in plants. However, because there is no 
difference in the fundamental virus properties, I have always con- 
sidered this to be an erroneous viewpoint. Within the past few 
years, Fukushi secured strong evidence that rice dwarf disease virus 
multiplies in its insect vector, and Kunkel and more recently Black 
have obtained experimental evidence which demonstrates beyond a 
reasonable doubt that aster yellows virus can multiply in its insect 
vector. The growth of a plant virus in an animal provides further 
evidence in support of the conclusion that there is no fundamental 
difference between the viruses of plants and those of animals. Dif- 
ferent viruses must of necessity differ in certain of their properties, 
and a composite picture of viruses as a group will not be obtained 
until many viruses have been studied. 

Tobacco mosaic virus appears to be a conjugated protein contain- 
ing about 95 percent protein and 5 percent nucleic acid. The latter 
has been found to contain uridylic acid, guanine, cytosine, and ade- 
nine, and to give a test for a pentose but not for a desoxypentose and, 
hence, appears to be of the yeast rather than of the thymus nucleic 


264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


acid type. Bushy stunt virus appears to contain about 83 percent 
protein and 17 percent of a nucleic acid of the same kind as that 
found in tobacco mosaic virus. Tobacco ring spot virus contains 40 
percent nucleic acid, the highest percentage yet found ina virus. This 
is also of the yeast nucleic acid type, but the elementary bodies of 
vaccinia and of psittacosis have been found to give a test character- 
istic of thymus nucleic acid. With the exception of a bacteriophage 
preparation obtained by Kalmanson and Bronfenbrenner and con- 
sidered to be a simple protein, all the purified virus preparations so 
far obtained have been at least as complex as a nucleoprotein. This 
fact may eventually prove of prime importance, for it may be re- 
called that chromosomes appear to consist almost exclusively of 
nucleoprotein. Some viruses appear to contain in addition some car- 
bohydrate, others lipoid, and still others appear to be so complex 
that they may be indistinguishable from bacteria in composition. The 
distribution of amino acids in the protein component of tobacco mo- 
saic virus has been studied, and at present only the apparent absence 
of histidine and the lack of a preponderance of arginine and of 
other known basic amino acids are noteworthy. The complete amino 
acid distribution in strains of this virus and in other viruses has not 
been determined as yet, although such studies are in progress and 
may provide a clue to the reason for the specificity of viruses and 
possibly a means for distinguishing not only between viruses but 
also between the strains of a virus. For example, with Dr. Knight 
it has already been found that the amounts of certain aromatic 
amino acids vary with the strain of the virus. Analysis of 12 prep- 
arations of tobacco mosaic virus indicated the presence of 3.8, 4.5, and 
6.0 percent of tyrosine, tryptophane, and phenylalanine, respectively, 
with maximum deviations of +0.1 percent for the tyrosine and +0.2 
percent for the tryptophane and phenylalanine values. The corre- 
sponding values in the case of the Holmes ribgrass strain of tobacco 
mosaic virus were 6.4, 3.5, and 4.3 percent and 3.8, 1.4, and 10.2 per- 
cent in the case of the closely related cucumber mosaic virus 4. These 
results are of considerable importance, since they show that the 
mutation of tobacco mosaic virus with the formation of a new 
strain which in turn causes a new disease may be accompanied by 
changes in the amino acid composition of the virus. The fact that the 
phosphorus content of the different strains was approximately the 
same may be taken as an indication of the absence of significant 
quantitative differences in the nucleic acid component of the strains. 
Because of the close similarity between the properties of viruses and 
those of the bearers of heredity, it is obvious that an extension of 
this work should provide information of a fundamental nature 
regarding the structural changes involved in the mutation within 
chromosomes. The nature of the structural alterations which must 


VIRUSES—STANLEY 265 


be responsible for changes in the virulence of a virus may also be 
elucidated. 

Tobacco mosaic virus contains 50 percent carbon, 7 percent hy- 
drogen, 16 percent nitrogen, 0.6 percent phosphorus, and 0.2 percent 
cysteine sulfur. It has an isoelectric point at pH 3.5, a density of 
1.37, and at a concentration of about 2 mg. per cc. a sedimentation 
constant of 174X107 cm. in unit centrifugal field and a diffusion 
constant of 3 10-* sq. cm. per sec. It has been estimated by indirect 
methods that the particles of the virus are remarkably anisometrical 
and are about 400 my in length and about 12 mp in diameter. Re- 
cently, by direct observation by means of the electron microscope, Dr. 
Anderson and I found that most of the particles in a dilute solution 
of the virus are about 280 mp in length and about 15 mp in diameter 
(pl. 1, fig. 3). Several kinds of evidence indicate that the molecular 
weight of tobacco mosaic virus is about 50 millions. The value of 
17 millions, which was estimated several years ago when the asym- 
metry was unknown and which was based on an assumed asymmetry 
constant of 1.3, is incorrect. However, it is possible that different 
strains of tobacco mosaic virus may have different molecular weights, 
for the sedimentation constant of the aucuba mosaic strain is meas- 
urably larger than that of tobacco mosaic virus and the X-ray data 
indicate that the molecules of the former have the same diameter 
as that of the molecules of tobacco mosaic virus. Furthermore, Melch- 
ers and coworkers, in a study by means of the electron microscope, 
found the molecules of the two strains of tobacco mosaic virus with 
which they worked to have particle lengths of about 190 mp and 
140 mp. 

Tobacco mosaic virus gives a sharp boundary and migrates at a 
uniform rate in the Tiselius electrophoresis apparatus (pl. 2, fig. 1). 
When carefully prepared, the virus gives a sharp boundary in the 
ultracentrifuge, but on treatment with salt at room temperature 
some of the particles appear to aggregate end-to-end to give a prep- 
aration which shows two boundaries in the ultracentrifuge. The 
second more rapidly sedimenting boundary is due apparently to a 
component formed by the end-to-end aggregation of pairs of mole- 
cules (pl. 2, fig. 2). Further aggregation yields a very inhomoge- 
neous product which shows a very broad boundary in the ultracen- 
trifuge. The sedimentation constant of tobacco mosaic virus has 
been found to vary with the concentration, owing apparently to inter- 
particle forces which become of considerable magnitude in concen- 
trated solutions. Solutions of tobacco mosaic virus exhibit strong 
double refraction of flow and electrical double refraction, the former 
being due to the rodlike shape of the particle and the latter to the 
particle being asymmetrically charged, either permanently or as a 
result of the electrical field (pl. 2, fig. 3). The fact that tobacco mosaic 


266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


virus shows strong double refraction of flow may prove of consider- 
able importance in apparently unrelated fields, for if necessary the 
virus could be prepared in pound lots or in larger amounts and used 
to study the flow currents in apparatus such as pumps and hydraulic 
rams or the nature of the flow when boats or projectiles move 
through a liquid (pl. 3, figs. 1 and 2). Moderately concentrated so- 
lutions of the virus, when allowed to stand, separate out into two 
distinct layers, the lower of which is spontaneously doubly refracting 
and the upper of which shows double refraction only when caused to 
flow. Pellets of the virus obtained by ultracentrifugation are doubly 
refracting. The strains of tobacco mosaic virus and cucumber mosaic 
3 and 4 viruses have properties somewhat similar to those just de- 
scribed. Latent mosaic virus of potato has a rodlike shape and ap- 
pears to be even more asymmetrical than tobacco mosaic virus. The 
layering phenomenon, the change in sedimentation constant with con- 
centration, and certain of Bernal’s X-ray studies, of Lauffer’s ob- 
servations on the electro-optical effect, and of Frampton’s studies on 
the thixotropic character of tobacco mosaic virus indicate that in 
concentrated or moderately concentrated solutions there are inter- 
particle forces which are effective over large distances. Although 
in the past the existence of such long-range forces has been denied 
for theoretical reasons, Langmuir and Levine independently have 
recently shown that there are in fact good theoretical grounds for 
their existence. The demonstration of the existence of forces acting 
between molecules hundreds of A. units apart, and their acceptance 
from the standpoint of theory alone, may prove of great importance 
in connection with our theories of virus reproduction and other intra- 
cellular events such as the duplication of chromosomes. 

The carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen contents of bushy stunt virus 
are about the same as those of tobacco mosaic virus. However, the 
phosphorus and sulfur contents of 1.5 and 0.4 to 0.8 percent, respec- 
tively, are considerably larger than those of tobacco mosaic virus. 
Bushy stunt virus has a density of 1.35, a sedimentation constant of 
132 X 1074, and a diffusion constant of 1.1510. A molecular weight 
of about 8 million and a particle diameter of about 26 mp may be cal- 
culated from these constants. Solutions of bushy stunt virus do not 
show double refraction of flow and the pellets obtained on ultracen- 
trifugation are isotropic. The particles of the virus appear to be 
essentially spherical in shape. The purified preparations are homo- 
geneous when examined in the ultracentrifuge or the Tiselius electro- 
phoresis apparatus (pl. 3, fig. 3). Bushy stunt virus does not appear to 
be susceptible to the peculiar aggregation which seems to be a charac- 
teristic of the rod-shaped viruses and, unlike the latter, the sedimenta- 
tion constant is almost independent of the concentration. Several 
other viruses have been found to be essentially spherical in shape. 


VIRUSES—-STANLEY 267 


Among these are alfalfa mosaic virus, which has a molecular weight of 
about 2 million and a diameter of about 16 mp, and the Shope rabbit 
papilloma virus, with a molecular weight of about 25 million and a 
diameter of about 40 mp. The elementary bodies of vaccinia have a 
diameter of about 225 mp. There is, therefore, a group of rod-shaped 
viruses and a group of viruses which are essentially spherical in shape, 
although with the development of more precise techniques some of the 
latter may be found to be definitely ellipsoidal in shape. It should be 
emphasized that each virus has a shape and a size which appear to be 
quite definite and characteristic, regardless of the conditions or the 
host in which the virus is produced. However, neither this statement 
nor the statements relative to the homogeneity of virus preparations 
in the ultracentrifuge or electrophoresis apparatus are meant to imply 
that all the particles in a given virus preparation are exact replicas. 
The fact that variants continually arise during the production of virus 
would always insure the presence in purified preparations of a small 
amount of closely related although slightly different particles. There 
is other evidence, such as that obtained by Loring in solubility studies 
on tobacco mosaic virus, which indicates that the purified virus prepa- 
rations are not absolutely homogeneous chemically but consist of a 
family of very closely related structures. The general situation may 
not be far different from that which is now known to exist in the case 
of even very simple structures, such as sulfur, nitrogen, and hydro- 
gen, where families of isotopes are the rule rather than the exception. 
In this connection, it may be stated that the problems and relation- 
ships which obtain with the tremendous virus structures are not well 
clarified at present. However, from a practical standpoint, there has 
been little difficulty as yet, for there are several instances in which, 
according to present techniques, there is a very high degree of chemical 
homogeneity. 

Tobacco mosaic, bushy stunt, and other viruses which have been ob- 
tained in purified form are good antigens. It is necessary, however, 
to inject animals with the viruses, for antibodies do not appear to be 
produced in plants. This may be due to the nature of plants for, 
despite much effort, no conclusive proof of the existence of antibodies 
in plants has been obtained, although Wallace secured some suggestive 
results with curly top virus. The serum of a rabbit injected with 
tobacco mosaic virus gives a specific precipitate with tobacco mosaic 
virus and specifically neutralizes tobacco mosaic virus activity. This 
reaction has been studied with Dr. Anderson by means of the electron 
microscope and the ultracentrifuge. Electron micrographs of a mix- 
ture of virus and normal rabbit serum show virus particles of normal 
size, indicating little or no adsorption of particles from normal serum 
on the virus molecules (pl. 4, fig. 1). The sedimentation constant of 
tobacco mosaic virus is essentially unchanged in mixtures containing 


268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


normal rabbit serum or antisera to bushy stunt, ring spot, or latent 
mosaic viruses. However, electron micrographs of a mixture of to- 
bacco mosaic virus and tobacco mosaic virus antiserum from rabbits 
show particles about 60 my wide, about 300 mp long and having fuzzy 
profiles (pl. 4, fig. 2). The increase in particle width and the fuzzy 
appearance are regarded as indicating that the ends of asymmetrically 
shaped molecules from the serum react specifically with the virus 
molecules. No reaction between anti-tobacco mosaic virus serum and 
bushy stunt virus was demonstrable either by means of the electron 
microscope or the ultracentrifuge (pl. 5, fig. 1). Bushy stunt virus is, 
however, specifically precipitated by its own antiserum (pl. 5, fig. 2). 
In general, a serological relationship may be demonstrated between 
different strains of the same virus, but not between different viruses. 
However, Bawden and Pirie have found that a serological relationship 
exists between tobacco mosaic and cucumber mosaic 3 and 4 viruses. 
This fact and the fact that other properties of these viruses are very 
similar may indicate a common origin for these viruses. Bawden and 
Pirie also noted that the precipitates of rod-shaped viruses with their 
antisera resembled those obtained with bacterial flagellar antigens, 
whereas those of the symmetrically shaped bushy stunt virus resembled 
those with somatic antigens. Tobacco mosaic virus has been found not 
anaphylactogenic by the Schultz-Dale technique and only weakly ana- 
phylactogenic when tested in vivo. 

Viruses are inactivated when subjected to excessive amounts of 
acid, alkali, oxidizing agents, formaldehyde, urea, ultraviolet light 
or heat. In general, the rate and the amount of the inactivation 
vary with the virus and with the severity of the treatment. Tobacco 
mosiac virus is stable between about pH 2 and pH 8. At more 
acid or more alkaline reactions the nucleoprotein is denatured and 
broken up into material of low molecular weight, and the virus 
activity appears to be irreversibly lost. There is some evidence that 
the virus first breaks into fairly large pieces and these then continue 
to break up into progressively smaller pieces, but more data will be 
required before an exact picture of the process may be obtained. 
The disintegration of virus in urea provides another interesting 
process for study. In 6 M urea and 0.1 M phosphate buffer at pH 7, 
tobacco mosaic virus is rapidly disrupted, with appearance of free 
sulfhydryl groups, into low molecular weight protein components 
which contain no nucleic acid, exhibit no double refraction of flow, 
are insoluble in dilute buffers, and possess no virus activity. The rate 
of the disintegration varies widely with the concentration of urea, the 
concentration of electrolyte, the type of electrolyte, the hydrogen-ion 
concentration and the temperature. The bonds which hold the com- 
ponent parts of the virus together appear to be released and satis- 
fied by those of the urea, for the virus structure literally flies apart. 


VIRUSES—STANLEY 269 


It is obvious that studies on these split products should reveal in- 
formation concerning the nature of the components making up the 
virus and perhaps furnish a clue as to the mode of synthesis of the 
virus. Materials similar in structure to urea, such as guanidine, as 
well as apparently unrelated substances, such as sodium dodecyl 
sulfate, also cause disintegration of the virus. Enzymes have been 
found to cause the break-up of certain viruses. Neither tobacco mo- 
saic nor bushy stunt virus is split by trypsin, but this enzyme causes 
the rapid hydrolysis of alfalfa mosaic virus. Tobacco mosaic virus 
appears to be digested slowly by pepsin, although the rate of hydroly- 
sis is much slower than might have been anticipated. All viruses 
appear to be denatured by heat, and the temperature at which de- 
naturation occurs depends upon the virus and to some extent upon 
conditions such as the hydrogen-ion concentration and the kind of 
salts present. 

In the heat and other types of denaturation reactions that have 
just been described, there is a more or less complete disintegration of 
the virus structure and the products which are formed do not have 
the properties which characterized the intact virus. They are of 
low molecular weight, do not react serologically with antiserum to 
virus, and do not induce the formation of antibodies which neutral- 
ize virus. It has been found possible, however, to inactivate viruses 
without such a complete disintegration of structure. When tobacco 
mosaic virus is treated with mild oxidizing agents, formaldehyde, 
nitrous acid, or ultraviolet light, the properties of the resulting ma- 
terials are, with the exception of virus activity, very similar to those 
of the intact virus. For example, the size and shape are not meas- 
urably affected, the materials give a precipitin reaction with anti- 
serum to active virus, and, perhaps most important, the injection of 
the inactive materials gives rise to the production of antibodies 
which will specifically neutralize tobacco mosaic virus activity. It 
appears that these treatments cause no great change in the general 
topography of the virus structure, but bring about changes that are 
very small with respect to the structure as a whole but which are 
nevertheless sufficiently definite to cause the loss of virus activity. 
This fact may be quite important in connection with efforts to pro- 
tect ourselves against the devastating effects of virus diseases. As 
you may know, in the three general methods of protection which 
are now employed, active virus plus immune serum, active virus 
usually of a strain that will cause a less severe disease, or inactivated 
virus is used to secure immunization. The second method is used 
extensively and successfully in the protection against smallpox, 
yellow fever, and certain other virus diseases, and the third method, 
which has proved less satisfactory, has been used with claims for 
success for many viruses such as hog cholera, rinderpest, dog dis- 


270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


temper, influenza, and others. It is now being widely employed in 
the case of equine encephalomyelitis virus. In the second method, 
the production of a strain which will cause an innocuous disease 
but which will immunize against virulent strains is most important. 
In the third method, the production of an inactivated virus which 
will, upon injection, immunize against active virus is most important. 
It seems likely that many of the failures to achieve the latter result 
have been due to the use of methods of inactivation which cause too 
great a change in the structure of the virus. In our studies of the 
viruses which we have purified, we have found that the same pro- 
cedure which will inactivate a given virus without causing wide- 
spread loss of structure and loss of characteristic antigenic proper- 
ties will cause the complete disintegration and loss of characteristic 
antigenic properties in another virus. It is obvious, therefore, that 
it is of extreme importance that viruses be obtained in purified form 
and studied so that for each virus a method may be evolved for in- 
activating the virus without destroying its immunizing potency. The 
change in structure that results in inactivation need not necessarily 
be very great, and it may even be reversible. For example, we have 
found that the inactivation resulting from the addition of formalde- 
hyde to tobacco mosaic virus may be reversed and active virus once 
again prepared from the inactive material. The fact that this 
reaction may be reversed is some indication that a major change in 
structure is not involved. 

Closely related to the general problem of inactivating viruses with 
the least possible change in structure are the studies on ways and means 
of producing the less virulent strains of a virus which are so important 
in connection with the second general method of immunization. So 
far, the production of less virulent strains which have proved of great 
practical importance has been achieved by the simple expedient of 
passing the virus through another host. Thus, a strain of virus which 
will protect against smallpox may be obtained by infecting a calf with 
smallpox virus and reisolating the virus produced after several pas- ~ 
sages in calves. A useful strain of yellow fever virus was secured in 
a similar manner by Theiler by passage through mouse brains. The 
change in environment during the production of virus in the second 
host apparently results in the production or selection of a strain of 
virus which is much less virulent in the first host. Practically nothing 
is known as to why a less virulent strain is prepared or of the change 
in structure which must be involved. However, it does not appear un- 
reasonable to expect that definite chemical reactions which result in a 
change in the structure of a given virus without causing inactivation 
will achieve the same result and yield strains of the virus, some of 
which may cause a less virulent disease and be useful for immuniza- 
tion against virulent strains. Leaves diseased with different strains 


VIRUSES—STANLEY PA 


of tobacco mosaic virus are shown in plate 6. Some progress has been 
made in studies on methods for changing the chemical structure of 
tobacco mosaic virus without causing a loss of virus activity. Dr. 
Anson and I found that the sulfhydryl groups of the virus can be 
abolished by reaction with iodine and the altered virus still retains its 
normal biological activity as shown by the number of lesions it causes 
on Nicotiana glutinosa plants and by the characteristic disease pro- 
duced in Turkish tobacco plants. Since the virus isolated from the 
latter plants had the normal number of sulfhydryl groups, the struc- 
tural change caused by iodine treatment was not perpetuated in sub- 
sequent generations of the virus. Because of the possibility that the 
iodine-altered virus might be reduced to normal virus within the 
plant cells, other reactions of a less readily reversible nature were 
sought. With Dr. Miller it was demonstrated that most of the amino 
groups of tobacco mosaic virus may be acetylated by means of ketene 
without causing a measurable change in the specific virus activity or 
in the nature of the disease produced in Turkish tobacco plants. Since 
it seems unlikely that the acetyl groups are removed on inoculation of 
the modified virus to plants, the fact that the virus produced in such 
plants contains the normal amount of amino nitrogen may be regarded 
as evidence that the modified virus actually brings about the production 
of normal or unmodified virus. Similar results have been obtained 
with virus modified by the introduction of about 3,000 phenylureido 
groups per molecule of virus by means of reaction with phenyliso- 
cyanate. These results demonstrate that a large portion of the surface 
structure of the virus may be changed without interfering with the 
basic reaction of virus reproduction. Other reactions are being 
studied in an effort to secure modifications that will be perpetuated 
in subsequent generations of the virus. The purposeful production 
of new and useful strains by chemical means is one of the major prob- 
lems in the virus field and its solution will be of tremendous im- 
portance not only from a practical standpoint but also in connection 
with the larger and fundamental problem of the nature of virus ac- 
tivity. The latter problem, the inactivation problem and the problem 
of induced mutation are all so closely related that it is impossible to 
attack one without attacking the others and simultaneously funda- 
mental problems in other fields, such as the origin of a cancerous cell, 
the duplication of a chromosome, the mutation of a gene, and even 
perhaps the nature of that ill-defined something called life. 

Although we do not know how viruses originate, reproduce, or 
mutate, we have learned much about their chemical properties during 
the past 5 years. We know that for every reasonably stable virus 
which has been investigated there is a definite, characteristic, high 
molecular weight material which is at least as complex as a nucleo- 


272 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


protein. The properties of these materials may differ widely, al- 
though in each instance the size, shape, and chemical and other prop- 
erties are the same regardless of the source of the virus. The proper- 
ties of materials from strains of the same virus are similar although 
slightly different. The amounts of the materials that may be ob- 
tained differ tremendously and appear to depend upon the host and 
the virus or virus strain. The materials appear to be reasonably homo- 
geneous when carefully prepared. Many different types of experi- 
ments have demonstrated a direct correlation between the integrity 
of structure of a given material and its virus activity. Because of this 
and because it has not been found possible to separate virus activity 
from these materials, there is reason to believe that they are the 
viruses. They appear to have the properties of molecules and in 
addition the property of virus activity, a kind of property usually 
assigned to organisms and one which has not heretofore been ascribed 
to molecules. Some may wish to consider that there is a sharp line of 
division between molecules and organisms and that viruses belong 
wholly in one or the other of these two groups. Others may wish to 
retain the sharp line of division but place some viruses in one group 
and other viruses in the second group. However, to a chemist it ap- 
pears preferable to consider that virus activity may be a property of 
molecules, that there may be no sharp line of division between mole- 
cules and organisms, and that the viruses may provide the transition 
between the two. One virus has been inactivated and reactivated, and 
some idea gained of the accompanying change in structure. Studies 
on the elementary composition, the amino acid distribution, the amount 
and kind of nucleic acid, the immunological reactions, the effect of dif- 
ferent enzymes, the pH and thermal stability ranges, and the effect of 
many different kinds of chemicals have been completed on some of the 
viruses. Extensive studies of the physical properties have also been 
made and the existence of long-range forces between molecules has 
been demonstrated. There is every reason to believe that the ex- 
tension of these studies will eventually result in the solution of the 
more fundamental problems related to the viruses, such as the nature 
of their origin, reproduction, and mutation. 


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Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Stanley PLATE 2 


& 


eee 


1. ELECTROPHORETIC PATTERN. 


Shown by a 0.1 percent solution of tobacco mosaic virus. a and d represent the ascending and descending 
boundaries at the start of the experiment. a’ and d’ represent the same boundaries at theend. (By G. A. 
Miller.) 


2. ABSORPTION PICTURES OF TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS SHOWING TWO SHARP 
SEDIMENTING BOUNDARIES. 


3. DOUBLY REFRACTING STREAM OF TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS FLOWING FROM 
A PIPETTE 


Left, photographed between crossed polaroid plates arranged so that each vibration direction of the polaroid 
plates makes an angle of 45° with direction of flow. Right, same system photographed between parallel 
polaroid plates. (From Journal of Biological Chemistry.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Stanley PLATE 3 


1. FISH IN VIRUS SOLUTION 


Fish swimming through a 0.7 percent solution of tobacco mosaic virus. Photographed between crossed 
polaroid plates. Light areas show double refraction due to orientation of rodlike molecules of virus caused 
by current set up by movement of fish. (By J. A. Carlile.) 


2. OBJECT IN VIRUS SOLUTION 


Object moving from left to right through a 0.7 percent solution of tobaeco mosaic virus. Photographed 
between crossed polaroid plates. Light, doubly refracting areas show nature of currents caused by moving 
object. (By J. A. Carlile.) 


3. SEDIMENTING BOUNDARY. 


Absorption pictures showing sedimenting boundary of tomato bushy stunt virus 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Stanley PLATE 4 


1. MIXTURE OF TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS WITH NORMAL RABBIT SERUM, 


The contaminating bacterium serves to give a good idea of the relative size of the molecules of virus. Elec- 
tron micrograph with magnification X ca. 25,000. (From Journal of Biological Chemistry.) 


2. TOBACCO VIRUS WITH ANTITOBACCO VIRUS RABBIT SERUM. 
Anelectron micrograph with magnification ca. 30,000. (From Journal of Biological Chemistry.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Stanley PLATE 5 


1. Sedimentation diagram of'a mixture of tomato bushy stunt virus with antitobacco mosaic virus rabbit 
serum. At the centrifugal force used, the right-hand peak, which is due to the serum protein boundary, 
is practically stationary, whereas the other peak, which is due to the bushy stunt virus boundary, gradu- 
ally moves to the left. The sedimentation constant of the bushy stunt virus is essentially unchanged, 
indicating lack of reaction with the antiserum. 


ee 
2. MIXTURE OF VIRUSES. 
Electron micrograph of a mixture of tobacco mosaic and bushy stunt viruses with antibushy stunt virus 


rabbit serum. ‘The molecules of tobacco mosaic virus are unaffected; those of the bushy stunt virus are 
clumped together. Magnification ea. 14,000. (By T. F. Anderson and W. M. Stanley.) 


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INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT OF SYNTHETIC 
VITAMINS? 


By RANDOLPH T. MAJor 
Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, N. J. 


[With 1 plate] 


Much is written, both scientific and unscientific, in the papers and 
magazines of this country today about vitamins. In spite of this it 
might be well to define the word “vitamin” first. In the large un- 
abridged dictionary in the writer’s home, on the page where the word 
“vitamin” should be, may be found such words as “visitatorial,” 
“vitaceae,” “vitellarian,” “vitelin,” and “vitex”—but no word “vita- 
min.” Later it was found listed in a separate place among new 
words. The front page of the dictionary shows that 1t was published 
in 1930. This observation gives some concept of the speed with 
which vitamins have become common knowledge. 

As recently as 2 years ago, some people did not know the nature of 
vitamins. The purchasing agent of a large company which has a fine 
scientific laboratory visited us at that time. The discussion turned 
to vitamins. He said, “I am interested in vitamins, but I suppose no 
one has ever actually seen and handled a vitamin. Vitamins are 
something like electricity, aren’t they?” He was taken into one of 
the laboratories and shown a bottle full of crystalline vitamin B,. 
He was amazed. 

For the purpose of this discussion vitamins might be defined as 
organic substances normally present in minute quantities in certain 
foodstuffs, the absence of which in the diet leads to well-defined mor- 
bid states. 

The older so-called natural vitamins, vitamins A and D, will be 
mentioned very briefly. As you know, vitamins A and D, found in 
fish liver oils, are used in the treatment of rickets, especially in chil- 
dren and particularly during the winter, for the development of 
proper teeth, for the treatment of night-blindness, and for building 
up resistance to infection. Tablets and capsules of concentrates of 


1 Presented at a meeting of the American Section of the Society of Chemical Industry, 


March 27, 1942. Reprinted by permission from Chemical and Engineering News, vol. 20, 
April 25, 1942. 


273 


274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


these vitamins in irradiated foods are available today. These vita- 
mins have not been synthesized as yet, at least on a commercial scale. 
Certain individuals have claimed that they have synthesized concen- 
trates of these vitamins, but they are not available generally. 

Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, was the first synthetic vitamin to be 
introduced commercially. It is used in the treatment and prevention 
of scurvy, some types of dental caries, and other disorders. It is 
available on the market in various pharmaceutical forms, and is put 
into beverages, confectionery, and certain special foods. 

When interest was aroused in vitamin C a number of years ago, 
a little synthetic vitamin C was shown to a leading biochemist in an 
eastern university and he was asked, “What good do you think this 
will have?” His remarks, based upon his work in biochemistry over 
a good many years, were as follows: 

I think that it will find a place on the museum shelves of a number of 
universities, particularly of the biochemical departments. I think a few bio- 
chemists and a few pharmacologists will be interested in examining it. I do 
not think there will be any business in it. There is plenty of vitamin C 
available naturally in fruits, particularly in citrus fruits. 

In contrast to this the United States Tariff Commission reports 
that in 1940 17 tons of vitamin C were produced synthetically in this 
country. From a reliable source comes the information that very 
shortly there will be 80 to 100 tons of vitamin C synthesized in this 
country annually. 

In figure 1 is shown what happened to the price of vitamin C from 
the time natural ascorbic acid became commercially available in 1934 
at something like $213 per ounce to the present when synthetic 
ascorbic acid may be had for $1.65 an ounce. Figure 1 also shows the 
tremendous drop in price when synthetic vitamin C first became 
available in 1937. Vitamin B, or thiamine is used in the prevention 
and treatment of beriberi, of lack of appetite in children, and of 
neuritis of various types. It is available in the various pharma- 
ceutical forms, as well as in medicinal foods. Moreover, a new use 
for vitamin B, has developed which was not anticipated until re- 
cently. It is used in the enrichment of flour of which it is reliably 
stated that 40 percent of the flour used in our homes and 35 percent 
of the bakery flour used in this country is being enriched with vitamin 
B, today. Each pound of that flour must contain not less than 1.66 
mg. of vitamin B,. 

Vitamin B, was not introduced into flour without encountering 
difficulties. One such difficulty is illustrated by the case of one of our 
good Jewish friends. When he heard that synthetic vitamin B, was 
being put in bread, he was greatly worried and inquired whether 
Jewish people might eat this bread. In other words, was it “kosher.” 


SYNTHETIC VITAMINS—MAJOR 275 


Fortunately for the enrichment program and also for our Jewish 
friends, it was determined to be kosher. 

Some may wonder why an effort is being made to enrich white 
flour rather than to encourage more widespread use of whole wheat 
flour. That is too long a story to discuss here, but the following 
quotation from Oscar Wilde’s “De Profundis” may prove interesting. 
In describing a man who had been in jail for some time, he wrote: 


Some six weeks ago I was allowed by the doctor to have white bread to eat 
instead of the coarse black or brown bread of ordinary prison fare. It is a 
great delicacy. It will sound strange that dry bread could possibly be a delicacy 
to anyone. To me it is so much so that at the close of each meal I carefully 
eat whatever crumbs may be left on my tin plate. 


40 


i) 
o) 


ra 


BULK PRICE IN COLLARS PER OUNCE 
os 
oO 


1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 


Fiacurg 1.—Vitamin C. 


iS34 1935 

The Army and Navy have specified that the bread baked for the 
soldiers and sailors must all be enriched. South Carolina has re- 
cently passed a law that requires the enrichment of all white flour 
used in the state. 

Vitamin B, became available only in very recent years. Figure 2 
illustrates the remarkable decrease in price that has occurred as the 
use of vitamin B, has grown. In 1935 when natural vitamin B, be- 
came available, it cost about $300 per gram. In 1937 when the syn- 
thetic vitamin was first sold, the price dropped to $7.50. The drop 
has continued until it is now being sold for $0.53 per gram. It is 
reliably stated vitamin B, will soon be made in this country at the 
rate of 25 to 30 tons annually. 


501591—43—_19 


276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


BULK PRICE IN DOLLARS PER GRAM 
mw & aon @ 


1.75 
| 1.00 0.%8 090 
JUNE] 065 063 


1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 


FiaurE 2.—Vitamin Bi. 


i935 1936 


Another commercially important vitamin is nicotinic acid, or 
niacin, as it is called for the benefit of those who object to consuming 
nicotinic acid because they associate the name with nicotine. It is 
used in the cure and prevention of pellagra and is available on the 
market in various pharmaceutical forms, sometimes in combination 


BULK PRICE IN DOLLARS PER POUND 


1939. 1940 1941 1942 


FieureE 3.—Nicotinic acid. 


i937 


SYNTHETIC VITAMINS—MAJOR Qi 


with other vitamins and sometimes alone. It is available in medi- 
cinal foods and is added to all the enriched flour previously men- 
tioned, in connection with vitamin B,. Each pound of enriched 
flour must contain not less than 6 mg. of niacin. 

The trend of the price of nicotinic acid since 1987 is shown in 
figure 3. The price of nicotinic acid in bulk has dropped from $35 
per pound in 1937 to $6.50 per pound in February 1942. The de- 
crease in price has not been so marked as in the case of some of the 
other vitamins, since nicotinic acid is an old, well-known compound. 
It is interesting, however, that increasing volume of production along 
with chemical and engineering studies has made it possible to de- 
crease the price to the figure indicated, especially in times of gen- 
erally rising prices. 


M 
rr) 


BULK PRICE IN DOLLARS PER GRA 
© 


1939 "1940 1941 1942 


FIGurE 4.—Riboflavin. 


Riboflavin (vitamin B,) is used in the treatment of certain fissures 
of the lips and keratitis, a certain type of inflammation of the eyes, 
and also in the poultry industry to stimulate egg production. It is 
available in pharmaceutical preparations and in medicinal foods. 
Beginning July 1, 1942, it will be required in enriched flour if suf- 
ficient riboflavin is available then to enrich the enormous quantity 
of flour needed in this country. This requirement may have to be 
deferred for a few months because of a shortage of riboflavin owing 
to the difficulties that have been encountered in obtaining equipment 
necessary for its manufacture in sufficient quantity. For the enrich- 
ment of flour 1.2 mg. of riboflavin are required per pound of flour. 
The interest in riboflavin has also grown rapidly. In figure 4 is 


278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


presented the history of the bulk price of riboflavin, beginning in 
1938 when synthetic riboflavin in bulk first became available at $17.50 
per gram to the present time when it may be had for $1.25 per gram. 
This picture is not so striking as in the cases of vitamin C and vita- 
min B, since riboflavin has not yet been produced in as large quan- 
tities. Undoubtedly, however, the price of riboflavin will be lowered 
as production increases. 

All the vitamins discussed in the preceding paragraphs have very 
definite, well-defined uses. The value of the next two vitamins to be 
discussed is not so well known. There are indications that the first 
of these, vitamin By, may be of value in the treatment of certain 


no 


3 


@ 


o 


£ 


Lye) 


BULK PRICE IN DOLLARS PER GRAM 


1939 1940 194] 
Figure 5.—Vitamin Be. 


muscular rigidities, in paralysis agitans, and perhaps for other condi- 
tions. In spite of this, however, there is considerable interest in this 
vitamin, the synthesis of which was first reported in 1939. Figure 5 
presents the effect of increased production on its price since 1939. 

As is the case with vitamin Bg, the biological and medical value of 
the next vitamin, calcium pantothenate, is poorly defined. However, 
everywhere one goes the value of pantothenic acid in the cure and 
prevention of white or gray hair is discussed. 

In plate 1, figure 1, is shown a black rat whose fur has turned gray 
owing to a deficiency of pantothenic acid in its diet. Administration 
of pantothenic acid would change this fur back to its natural color. 
The Good Housekeeping Institute has published a statement that it 
is possible to change a human being’s gray hair back to normal by the 
use of pantothenic acid. On the west coast calcium pantothenate is 
being added to a large proportion of the milk sold. Pantothenic acid 
in the form of its calcium salt is available in various pharmaceutical 
forms. In figure 6 is presented the change in price of calcium pan- 


SYNTHETIC VITAMINS—MAJOR 279 


tothenate that has occurred with increasing use. Note that it was 
first made available just two years ago—in 1940. 

There are a number of other vitamins that may be termed parts of 
the vitamin B complex. Among them are inositol which Dr. Woolley, 
of the Rockefeller Institute, observed has certain effects on the hair of 
mice, p-aminobenzoic acid which was proposed as a vitamin by another 
New Yorker, choline, and biotin. There are others, but they appear 
to be of still less importance, at least at this time. 


Ol 


Nm 


BULK PRICE IN DOLLARS PER GRAM 


1940. 1941 1942 


FigurE 6.—Calcium pantothenate. 


Two fat-soluble vitamins have been synthesized. One of these, 
vitamin K, is generally used in two forms—first as vitamin K,, and 
second as 2-methylnaphthoquinone. Both of these compounds de- 
crease the clotting time of the blood and are used in patients before 
operations, particularly in people suffering from jaundice, and also at 
childbirth. 

The other synthetic fat-soluble vitamin, vitamin E, or a-tocophe- 
rol, is essential for proper reproduction in rats, but its value in human 
beings is quite uncertain. It may be of value in the correction of 
human sterility; and it may be important in the treatment of certain 
neuromuscular disorders. 


DEVELOPMENT OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SYNTHETIC VITAMINS 


Scurvy, a disease caused by lack of vitamin C, has been recognized 
for many, many years. It was a scourge to those who traveled long 
distances by boat until quite modern times. Many sailors and pas- 
sengers on long voyages before the nineteenth century died of this 
disease before they reached their journey’s end. But in 1804 the regu- 
lar issue of a ration of lemon juice was made compulsory in the British 
Navy and thereafter scurvy was a comparatively rare disease among 


280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


British sailors. However, before vitamin C was isolated, the whole 
concept of some diseases being due to the lack of certain so-called 
accessory factors had to be recognized by scientists and much experi- 
mental work on animals performed. It was found that the guinea pig 
suffered from scurvy and was a suitable experimental animal for these 
studies. Using this animal as an indicator of activity it was possi- 
ble by various methods of fractionation and separation to isolate 
crystalline vitamin C. 

Vitamin C was isolated and first recognized as a vitamin by two 
American biochemists, Waugh and King, in 1932. After they had 
isolated vitamin C, using the guinea pig as an indicator of the activity 
of their fractions, it was found that the same material had been iso- 
lated from adrenal glands previously by a Hungarian, Szent-Gyorgyi, 
in 1928. However, Szent-Gyérgyi had not recognized that he had had 
vitamin C in his hands. Subsequent to the successful isolation of 
vitamin C, chemists became interested in its structure and synthesis. 
In 1933 chemists in various parts of the world had synthesized vitamin 
C after the structure had first been determined. One of these early 
syntheses is due to Reichstein, in which xylosone is converted to a 
nitril, hydrolyzed to the 2-keto sugar acid, and finally converted to 
ascorbic acid. This did not prove a very satisfactory commercial 
synthesis, because it started with xylose or lyxose, both of which are 
not readily available. A more successful synthesis, also due to Reich- 
stein, used the readily available sugar, glucose, as raw material. 
Glucose was hydrogenated to sorbitol, converted to sorbose, then to 
diacetone sorbose, and then oxidized to 2-keto-J-gulonic acid which was 
converted into vitamin C. Among the other scientists who did con- 
siderable work on the synthesis of this vitamin are Karrer, Haworth, 
von Kuler, and Micheel. 

The first manufacture of natural vitamin C in this country took 
place in 19384. It was made from gladiolus leaves, which had been 
found to contain a relatively high percent of vitamin C. Fields of 
gladioli were planted in the vicinity of the author’s company’s factory. 
Many difficulties were encountered in collecting and extracting the 
plants on the day that they were cut. 

Synthetic ascorbic acid was first made available in the United 
States in 1937. 

Beriberi, the disease caused by the lack of vitamin B,, was also recog- 
nized many years ago. Because so many people in the Orient have 
suffered from this disease, the attention of medical scientists was 
attracted to it at an early date. Most of the early work was carried 
on in the Orient. Takaki, the director-general of the Japanese Navy 
Medical Service, was able to banish beriberi from the Japanese Navy 
in 1882 by increasing the allowance of vegetables, fish, and meat in 
the navy diet and by using barley instead of polished rice. He recog- 


SYNTHETIC VITAMINS—-MAJOR 281 


nized that beriberi was caused by a badly balanced diet, but that is as 
far as his studies carried him. 

In 1897, a Dutchman named Eijkman, working in Batavia, Java, 
found that beriberi resulted from continuous consumption of decorti- 
cated rice. He used the pigeon (pl. 1, fig. 2) as his test animal. In 
1928, Jansen and Donath, working in the same laboratory as Kijkman, 
first isolated vitamin B, in minute quantities from rice polish. R. R. 
Williams, who started work some 30 years ago on the same problem 
in the Philippines, developed a practical method of isolating larger 
quantities of vitamin B, a few years later. However, it was soon 
obvious that large-scale equipment and chemical engineering skill 
would be required to produce the quantities of vitamin B, that were 
required to settle the structure of this vitamin. Dr. Williams turned 
to the author’s laboratories for help on his problem. Larger quan- 
tities of vitamin B, were isolated and the structure of the vitamin was 
definitely established. Dr. Williams had previously carried out a 
crucial experiment, in which he had found that with sodium sulfite 
the vitamin could be split into two parts, a nitrogen-containing sul- 
fonic acid and a sulfur-containing alcohol. In collaboration with 
Hans Clarke of Columbia University the latter was shown to be a 
thiazole derivative. After considerable additional work, the struc- 
ture of the remaining fragment was determined by Dr. Williams and 
by Dr. Cline of our laboratory, and the synthesis was accomplished 
following an earlier synthesis of the thiazole moiety by Buchman 
and by Clarke and his associates. Independently the vitamin was 
synthesized by others, among them being Grewe, Andersag, and 
Westphal, and Todd and his associates. Two of these syntheses are 
graphically shown in figures 7 and 8. 

A good many strictly technical difficulties have been encountered 
in the manufacture of vitamin B,. The synthesis of the vitamin 
involves a good many reactions, some of which are very complex. 

Other troubles were also encountered in its manufacture. One 
particular step, in days gone by, was especially affected by its accom- 
panying odor. One man was finally moved to quit. When asked the 
reason, he claimed that his girl left him in the middle of the dance 
floor! His odor had overcome his charm! Many people leaving 
work would have a slight but definite odor of burnt rubber. One 
supervisor, on going to a movie, was somewhat embarrassed when 
the lady next to him rose and informed the manager that there was a 
short circuit or something burning near her. The manager, ushers, 
the lady, and others gave the area a careful inspection to find what 
was burning. However, the man was resourceful—he got down on 
his hands and knees and joined the search. 

In 1915 Goldberger, a United States Public Health official, recog- 
nized that dietary deficiencies might play an important role in the 


282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


development of pellagra, a disease that was common in our southern 
States. It is reported that 400,000 to 500,000 people suffered from 
this disease every year. Investigations by Elvehjem led to his demon- 
stration in 1937 that nicotinic acid would cure black tongue in dogs, a 
condition analogous to pellagra in man. Previous to 1937 nicotinic 
acid had been isolated from rice polish, liver, etc., but no one had 
recognized the significance of these findings. In 1938 Spies and his 
coworkers reported that nicotinic acid (niacin) was effective in the 
treatment of human pellagra, and its use naturally has spread rapidly. 


+ HCOOE + H,N.C(CH,):NH 

pa eat eae 

Ethyl formate Acetamidine 

EtOOC.CH,CH,OF POSE CBCHCE N=C—OH 
| 
ethy! B-ethoxy- ; = 
propionate 7 a i CH;08 
Ethyl formyl- 


N—CH 


2-methy1-5-ethoxymethy!- 
6-hydroxy pyrimidine 


B-ethoxy propionate 


POCI; Alc. NH; 
Phosphorus Alcoholi i 
wmemon ete nec Aleman we, 
N—CH N—CH N— CH 
2-methy!-5-ethoxymethyl- 2-methy1-5-ethoxymethyI- 2-methy!-5-ethoxymethyl- 
6-hydroxypyrimidine 6-chloropyrimidine G-aminopyrimidine 
HBr + 4-Methyl-5-B. 
———Pe es 
Hydrobremic {hydroxyethyl} 
acid thiazole 
Poe NH, N=C— NH,.HBr ns 
e 
SES NaS oh C— CH,8r Nae NH,.HBr (C= Crane 
Il 
N—CH N—CH Sake Cae aN ee 
2-methy!-5-ethoxymethyl- 2-methy!-5-bromomethyI- 4 —CH tN CH—S OH 
6-aminopyrimidine 6-aminopyrimidine Ce. i 
bydrobromide Vitamin B, bromide 
bydrobromide 
Alc. AgCl 
CH; Alcoholic silver chloride CH, 
| 
N= C—NH..HBr uae deal N=C—NH;.HCI aT Wik 
| 
CH;C C—CH,—N CH; CH;¢ C-——CH7——N CH; 
ntl IX l “yo IN ] 
N-—CH Br “CH—S OH N—CH cl CH—S OH 
Vitamin B, bromide Vitamin B, chloride 
hydrobromide hydrochloride 


Ficute 7.—Williams and associates synthesis of vitamin B:. 


Nicotinic acid was first prepared in 1867 by Huber by the oxidation 
of nicotine with potassium chromate and sulfuric acid. Later it was 
found that nitric acid could be used as the oxidizing agent. Nicotinic 
acid may be made also by other methods, such as the oxidation of 
quinoline or £-picoline or by the bromination of pyridine, followed 
by its conversion to the nitril of nicotinic acid and then by hydrolysis. 
Nicotinic acid is made in large quantities by processes such as these. 


SYNTHETIC VITAMINS—MAJOR 283 


Early in the work on the vitamins, it was recognized that there 
were at least two water-soluble so-called B vitamins, one stable to 
heat and the other unstable. The latter was designated vitamin B,, 
and the other, the heat-stable factor, was termed vitamin B,. Later 
is was found there were several heat-stable factors, all essential for 
the growth of the rat. Using this animal in his tests, Kuhn and 
others showed in 1933 that one of the heat-stable factors, later termed 
riboflavin, was the same as a widely distributed and previously 
described yellow pigment in milk, liver, etc. He isolated the pigment 
from egg white and determined its structure. Both Kuhn and Karrer 
synthesized riboflavin in 1935. Karrer’s synthesis is shown in figure 
9. Other methods have been developed in this country for the synthe- 
sis of riboflavin. 


NH CoHs0.CO N =C.0H N =C.OH He ore OCRNe 
il eal | 
H3C.C + Coen > HsC.G oom Hsce G-c00GpHs <— Hoes + oe 
| ent 
NHp Col50.CH N— CH N— CH NHp CgHs0.CH 
Acetami- a-ethory- Acetami- ethyl ethoxy- 
dine methylene= Chlorination dine metiiylene 
a-cyano- Amination malonate 
acetate (Dehydration) 
Reduction 
~“ v 


N —C.NHo 
1 
Seer ca newe 
| 
N — CH 


6-amino~-5-amino=- 
methyl-2-methyl- 


pyrimidine 
f-cSSK = 
<jqr potassium aithto 

N —C.NH i Somers = 

: oe 2 Nie canniceHes ype OH 
H3C-C C.CHgNH.CSH © CHSCOCHCLER:CHO , H3C.C = ¢ — CHo — NC | cHe 

Hig ail 1 ~¢ == C.CHe 

N— CH N — CH C1 CH 
6-amino-S5-thioform- Vitamin B, chloride 
amidomethyl-2-= hydrochloride 


methylpyrimidine 


Figure 8.—Todd and Bergel synthesis of vitamin B,; (Todd and Bergel, Journ. 
Chem. Soc. 1937, p. 364.) 


Medical interest in this vitamin dates from the work of Sebrell and 
Butler in 1938 who found that it prevented and cured certain fissures 
in the corners of the mouths of human beings. Two years ago Syden- 
stricker found that it prevented and cured a certain type of keratitis. 
Recent examinations with the so-called slit lamp indicate that there 
may be a very widespread deficiency of riboflavin in the diet in this 
country. 

Tn the manufacture of riboflavin the principal difficulty encountered 
has been the production of the ribose part of the molecule. Of course 
ribose is a very rare sugar. It has involved much work by night and 
by day, including Saturdays and Sundays, to find a good manufactur- 


284 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


ing process for riboflavin. It is one thing to make such a compound 
in the laboratory when one is interested in making perhaps a gram 
or two of it, but quite another thing to do it on a large scale with rea- 
sonably good yields. The manufacture of these vitamins is carried 
out in typical manufacturing equipment, although it is not made on 
anywhere near the scale to which our friends in the heavy chemical 
industry are accustomed. 

During the course of Goldberger’s work on the pellagra-preventing 
factor, he was able to produce a syndrome in rats which was called rat 
pellagra when the rats were fed on diets deficient in this pellagra- 


He (CHOH) 3CHoO0H 
no He + ribose He 5 ee . 
H3c 
Ni or Pd H3C 
crtwacerano2(P)} 
CH2(CHOH) sCH20H CH2(CHOH) 3CH20H NH 
H3C NH He H3C NH oc (ore) 
i = + 
H3C\_/AN=N.Cel4noe (p) H3c \ Mi2 oc' V7 NH 
co 
Alloxan 
eg eS 
CH2(CHOH) 3CH20H 
N N 
H3zC\,, , ~ NH 
N Co 
Riboflavin 


Ficure 9.—Karrer and Meerwein synthesis of riboflavin, (Karrer and Meerwein, 
Helv. Chim. Acta, vol. 18, p. 1180, 1935.) 

preventing factor. However, in 1985 Gyérgy showed that rat pellagra 
was not caused by a deficiency of the pellagra-preventing factor but 
by a deficiency of a separate factor which he termed vitamin By, now 
known as pyridoxine. This compound was isolated by Drs. Keresztesy 
and Stevens in the Merck Laboratories and at about the same time in 
other laboratories by Lepkovsky, Kuhn, and Ichiba and Michi. Its 
synthesis was accomplished in the Merck Laboratories in 1939 by Drs. 
Harris and Folkers. As may be seen from figure 10, the synthesis is 
not simple, but in spite of this a number of good classical organic 
reactions have been used in its preparation. 


SYNTHETIC VITAMINS—MAJOR 285 


In 1933 R. J. Williams discovered an acidic substance which occurred 
in many natural products that would stimulate the growth of yeast. 
In the meantime other workers had found that chicks bred under cer- 
tain special dietary conditions developed a dermatitis which was attrib- 
uted to the lack of a so-called filtrate factor. In 1939 Elvehjem and 
Lepkovsky and Jukes found that highly active concentrates of panto- 
thenic acid would cure this chick dermatitis (pl. 1, fig. 3). Previously 
Williams had isolated a somewhat crude preparation of pantothenic 
acid from natural sources. He had shown that pantothenic acid was 
formed by the combination of £-alanine with a hydroxy acid. After 


CH20C aus CH20CoHs, ees 
mae a CHRCh CoHcOH | HNO OoN | CN 
chs pe Piperidine cH 0 ~Ac20” cH3\ £0 
si = N 
CH3C=0 iti H H 
Nay Rae CH20C2H5 CHp0CoHs 
i HN Han S\eH2NH CIH3NG S\cH 
Pcls ae 2 H2 2 | 2NH2 3Nf) ‘\CHaNH3C! 
ay ae 1 re / er yo ac CH3 “Her Gal 
Pd(C) 
isolated as 
di-picrate 
CH20CaHs HoBr HoOH Ho-0 
S 4 
te Hajee ch2oe ats tee j|eteee as Hl | |cneon nets: iy CH 
——— CHING 7 7 cHy 7 Agcl > CHAU CHAU y 
Pe N 
OT er= H te\- 
m.p. 206-208 


mixed m.p. with 
vitewin B6 hydrochloride 
wes 206-208 
{008 single dose 
complete cure. 


Figure 10.—Harris and Folkers synthesis of vitamin Bi. (Harris and Folkers, 
Journ. Amer. Chem. Soe., vol. 61, p. 1245, 1939.) 


the announcement of the probable identity of pantothenic acid with 
the so-called filtrate factor for chicks the collaboration of our labora- 
tory was enlisted in the investigation of the structure of this acid. 
First the hydroxy acid was isolated from natural sources in the form 
of its lactone. This was shown to be the levo form of a-hydroxy-B,8- 
dimethyl-y-butyrolactone. It was soon synthesized. Pantothenic 
acid was obtained by combining this lactone with salts of B-alanine 
or its ester followed by hydrolysis. Synthesis of pantothenic acid 
made it possible to establish without further question the identity of 
the chick “filtrate factor” with pantothenic acid. 

As was mentioned previously, there has been a growing demand for 
calcium pantothenate and it is being manufactured in relatively large 
quantities. 


286 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


In a study extending from 1929 to 1934 Dam and his associates de- 
scribed a deficiency disease of chicks which was characterized by a 
marked tendency to bleed. It was shown that the clotting time of 
the blood of chicks suffering from this disease was greatly prolonged. 
Dam found that hog liver contained a fat-soluble factor which would 
correct this condition. He termed it vitamin K. Subsequently Alm- 
quist obtained highly potent concentrates from alfalfa. Later Doisy 
and his associates succeeded in isolating what they termed vitamin 
K, in alfalfa and K, in fish meal. ‘The structure of the more important 
of these, vitamin K,, was found to be 2-methyl-3-phytylnaphthoqui 
none. Doisy, Fieser, and Almquist synthesized it in 1939. Subse- 
quently it was announced by Fernholz and Ansbacher that 2-methyl- 
naphthoquinone was as active as, or possibly more active than, vitamin 
K, or vitamin K,. The manufacture of vitamin K, for use in medicine 
is not great. Larger amounts of the cheaper 2-methylnaphthoquinone 
are used. 

In a study dating back to 1922 Evans and his collaborators have 
found that a dietary constituent is necessary for normal reproduction 
of rats. It was found that wheat germ oil was a rich source of this 
factor which has been termed vitamin E or tocopherol. It was pres- 
ent in other natural oils also. Concentrates of these oils were made 
and crystalline derivatives of vitamin EK, or «a-tocopherol as it has 
become known, were prepared. Subsequently other tocopherols— 
namely, B- and y-tocopherols—were found which differ from a-toco- 
pherol in the number of methyl groups contained about the chromane 
nucleus of the molecule. The structure of a-tocopherol was deter- 
mined by Fernholz in our laboratory and the synthesis was accom- 
plished by Karrer in Switzerland, Todd in England, and Lee I. Smith 
of the University of Minnesota in this country. 

The importance of cooperation among academic laboratories, re- 
search institutes, and industry, and the need for a friendly under- 
standing by each of the needs, goals, and problems of the others 
cannot be emphasized too much. The growth of modern industry is 
almost entirely dependent upon the great advances in pure science. 
Industry too has contributed much. It has made the findings of the 
pure scientist available to society. Discoveries in pure science are 
apt to become and remain sterile from the point of view of society 
unless industry makes use of them in some way. Examples of the 
great developments in industry based upon pure science are found in 
the great electrical industry which is so largely based upon the work 
of Faraday and other great pure scientists, or in the development of 
the dye industry which is based upon the work of the organic chem- 
ists of this country and abroad. This list could be increased almost 
ad infinitum. 


SYNTHETIC VITAMINS—MAJOR 287 


Industry contributes to pure science by financially supporting 
research in universities and research institutes. It has made special 
chemicals, facilities for large-scale work, bioassays, and other expen- 
sive analyses and assays available to academic workers. It is very 
important that this work be continued, and it is very important too 
that it be continued to the mutual satisfaction of both the parties con- 
cerned. To attain this it is essential that the two groups understand 
what each is trying to achieve. The primary purposes of the aca- 
demic institutions, of course, are the training of youth and the expan- 
sion and extension of man’s mental horizons. These purposes are 
significant and important. The purpose and reason for the existence 
of the manufacturing industries are, of course, to manufacture and 
sell something that people want and need—in other words, to satisfy 
demands for some article or material. In doing this patents play an 
extremely important role. Patent protection on a new process or 
product is often necessary to obtain the money necessary for the 
equipment and facilities required to begin manufacture. Many writ- 
ers state that the American patent system is responsible in no small 
measure for the remarkable development of American industry. 
However, the subject of patents is one on which the views of many 
acadamic investigators and industrial research investigators and busi- 
ness men differ widely. To achieve any real cooperation it is most 
important that both academic and industrial scientists achieve as thor- 
ough an understanding as possible of the purposes, benefits, and 
limitations of our American patent system. 

In conclusion some general comments on the significance and social 
value of this food accessory business, the manufacture of synthetic 
vitamins, may be of interest. Through Claude R. Wickard, Secretary 
of the United States Department of Agriculture, the Government has 
issued a little pamphiet entitled “Food Will Win the War and Write 
the Peace.” It states: 

Food is a whole arsenal of weapons in this struggle for human freedom. It 
is the driving force behind high production by munition workers, and top-notch 
performances and strong morale among Soldiers and sailors. 

Somewhat in the same vein, Russell M. Wilder of the Mayo Clinic 
and former chairman of the committee on food and nutrition of the 
National Research Council has written: 

Famine has always contributed to defeat of armies and subjugation of nations. 
This has long been recognized, but in the past it was mistakenly thought that 
famine could be prevented if only the supply of food sufficed. The newer 
knowledge teaches that the nutritive quality of the foods supplied is of the utmost 
importance. ... Caloric energy is needed, but no more than much else in 
food. ... The new knowledge of nutrition has emphasized particularly the 
importance of what once were called accessory factors, namely salts and vita- 


mins. ... Vitamin deficiencies constitute the principal “hidden hungers,” sub- 
clinical abnormalities which until lately, for the most part, were unrecognized. 


288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


This new industry in synthetic vitamins is making it possible to 
satisfy many of these “hidden hungers” and to improve the nutrition 
and well-being of our people. 

In comparing the contributions of the nutrition workers of the 
twentieth century with those of earlier workers in the nineteenth 
century, such as Pasteur and Lister, from whose work came a recog- 
nition of the bacterial origin of disease, we may conclude that the 
social value of the present work in nutrition would appear to be as 
significant as that of the nineteenth-century investigators to whom 
mankind owes so much. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Mayjor PLATE 1 


1. GRAY HAIR OF BLACK RAT DUE TO PANTOTHENIC ACID DEFICIENT DIET. 


2. POLYNEURITIS OF PIGEON DUE TO A VITAMIN Bi DEFICIENT DIET. 


3. DERMATITIS OF CHICK DUE TO PANTOTHENIC ACID DEFICIENT DIET 


THE NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF MAN? 


By C. A. ELVEHJEM 
Department of Biochemistry 
University of Wisconsin 


At the present time the nutritional requirements of man can be 
expressed in chemical terms to a greater extent than ever before. 
However, we as chemists must recognize that there is more to adequate 
nutrition than the mere combining of the known compounds into a 
diet and the calculation of the cost of these dietary constituents. 
Owing to the fact that some of the vitamins that were formerly the 
costly part of our diet may now be purchased at prices so low that they 
are difficult for us to comprehend, certain erroneous suggestions have 
been made concerning the cost of an average diet. Itis true that one’s 
yearly requirement of thiamin may now be purchased for about 50 
cents and the nicotinic acid supply for about 12 cents at wholesale 
prices. But we must not forget that the yearly supply of calories is 
still a significant item in our diet. Most of us ignore calories until 
times of stress. Even in the last war one of the greatest problems in 
many countries was an adequate supply of total food. If my calcula- 
tions are correct I find that it would be difficult to supply one’s yearly 
requirement for energy for much less than $15, and the cost of ade- 
quate protein would certainly exceed this value. Thus if we add up 
the cost of the individual components we get values considerably higher 
than some of the figures which have recently been suggested by certain 
workers. It is impossible even to estimate the cost of the unknown 
factors. 

I believe the safest program at this time is to rely upon the com- 
mon foods which we have been accustomed to eating rather than at- 
tempting the production of cheap, synthetic substitutes. However, 
we should make every effort to improve the quality of the foods 
that are now making up the American dietary. In other words, we 


1 Given before Symposium on Nutritional Restoration and Fortification of Foods, Division 
of Agricultural and Food Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, American Chemical Society 
Meeting, St. Louis, Mo., April 8, 1941. Reprinted by permission from Industrial and 
Engineering Chemistry, vol. 33, June 1941. 


289 


290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


must realize that plant and animal products as produced on the 
surface of this earth do not necessarily contain the individual 
nutrients in optimum concentration for the human being. We must 
use some ingenuity in compounding natural food materials into a 
complete diet. Improvement in the quality of certain food supplies 
will not only conserve total quantity of food but will tend toward 
more optimum nutrition of all indviduals. 

Our problem today centers around the restoration and fortifica- 
tion of foods. I should like to mention in passing that the interest 
in this problem is undoubtedly stimulated by our national defense 
program, but we should also recognize that we have reached a stage 
in our knowledge of nutrition which makes it possible Yor us to 
consider this problem. At first nutrition workers recognized that 
certain foods were excellent sources of specific nutrients. These 
foods became known as protective foods and we relied on these spe- 
cific foods to a considerable extent for our supply of essential factors. 
When we recognized that inorganic salts were utilized as readily by 
the body as the mineral elements found in our natural foods and that 
synthetic vitamins could be produced at a fairly low cost, consider- 
able interest was shown in the use of concentrates or capsules to sup- 
ply some of the more important nutrients. The value of these prep- 
arations in the clinical treatment of deficiency diseases cannot be 
denied, but we must recognize that the administration of such con- 
centrated forms of nutrients should be only temporary in nature. 
If large groups of people are living on combinations of natural foods 
which do not supply the total requirement, the food supply should 
be modified or fortified. 

As the chemists showed greater interest in these problems, meth- 
ods of assay have improved so that we can analyze our staple foods 
for their vitamin content. These foods are not devoid of vitamins, 
as many would have us believe, but show a low content on the per- 
centage basis. If we multiply the amount present by the total 
weight of the food consumed daily we find that the result may be 
an appreciable part of the entire requirement. I am sure that in 
the future we will look back upon this work as one of the most im- 
portant periods in nutritional research. 

It is obvious that values for the distribution of nutrients in foods 
are not of much use until we know the requirement for each of these 
nutrients. If we had all these values available it would not be very 
difficult for the dietitian to handle the food supply so as to give us 
adequate nutrition through the use of pleasing foods. 

The establishment of nutritional requirements has also had a 
rather interesting history. In a few cases the actual requirement has 
been studied on human beings. Thus we have a considerable number 
of data for the energy requirement of human beings of different ages. 


NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS—ELVEHJEM 291 


The data on the protein requirement are somewhat limited, although 
there is today fairly general agreement among many workers as to 
this constituent of our diet. There have also been a few studies on 
the requirements for calcium, phosphorus, and iron. In the case of 
many of the vitamins, the data have been obtained through animal 
experiments and generally from work that was not initiated to an- 
swer this particular question. I am afraid that many of us have 
been guilty of concluding from our animal experiments that a vita- 
min is needed at a certain level and then for good measure we sug- 
gest that the daily human requirement would be 50 percent greater 
than the value found. 

This method may be quite satisfactory in order to establish a cer- 
tain degree of safety. However, if we were to do this in all our 
calculations, I am afraid we would soon pile up a considerable excess. 
For example, if we were making an automobile trip of 200 miles 
each day and our car required one gallon of gas for 20 miles, the 
first day we would then need 10 gallons, but for safety’s sake we 
would put in 15. If we did that each day we would soon find that 
our gasoline tank was overflowing. 

The following figures may be used as a guide for the daily re- 
quirement of the better-known nutrients. These values will, of 
course, vary depending upon the age of the individual and whether 
there are certain increased requirements superimposed upon the or- 
dinary requirements. These problems are largely physiological and 
I will not go into them here. The figures given in table 1 are those 
recognized for the average male adult. I should like to discuss very 
briefly how these values have been obtained, their limitations, and 
how the chemist can aid in establishing more satisfactory values. 


TABLE 1.—A guide for the daily requirement of the better-known nutrients 


IPTOLEIN ees spe see ate ee Sa St ace eee eee Pe et 70 grams. 
Calcium. fees cee I a es 0.7 grams. 

POmahe: ya Paes eer tts 6 ee An Seg. 12 mg. 
WitaminkA% sagas Soe OES ple On ed 4,000-5,000 I. U. 
Vataminus eto so. eee ee yaar, Cs ee 1.5—2.0 mg. 

Wit arming @ mes ier tr Ue lla: Rare ees ae ae 50-75 mg. 
FEST} © fl et yal Nees ee ee a ig eee ie eee ts 2-3 mg. 
INICOtINIclacid se se] ee ee Sad EAS pen) 10-15 mg. 
WMitaminy are seer: Bike Pwr bos arene oe 400 I. U 


It is, perhaps, unnecessary to say much about the energy or the 
protein requirements. In spite of the extensive values for the 
caloric requirements of human beings under different conditions, 
little attention has been given to the effect of the external environ- 
ment on the caloric intake. Mills and Calvin (1) have recently 
shown that excessive external temperatures may reduce the intake 

501591—43——20 


292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


of calories to the point that sufficient food is not consumed to sup- 
ply the normal vitamin requirement. We still speak of the protein 
requirement in total grams of protein in the diet, while actually it 
is not the protein requirement that we are interested in, but the 
amino acid requirement. Some day we may be able to state the 
actual amino acid requirements and obtain values for the amino acid 
content of all our food supplies. At present this may seem very 
difficult, but the analysis of food materials for vitamins A, B,, and 
C also appeared very difficult a few years ago. The value of 70 
grams of protein per day for an adult man is probably a safe figure 
provided we specify that the protein should be derived from a va- 
riety of sources and a good part of it from animal tissues. 

No definite figures have been established for the fat content of 
human dietaries. It is generally concluded that fat must be a con- 
stituent of the normal diet and that it is well to use liberal amounts 
to supply the fat-soluble vitamins. The latter suggestion is not 
absolutely essential since we can now get concentrates of these vita- 
mins; however, the importance of fat as a source of linoleic acid 
must be considered. There is no question about the production of 
linoleic acid deficiency in rats on fat-low diets but few studies have 
been made with other species. There is some difference of opinion 
concerning the importance of linoleic acid in the human dietary. A 
high intake of linoleic acid containing fats has been used in the 
treatment of eczema; and Brown, Hansen, Burr, and McQuarrie (2) 
found a decrease in the amount of linoleic acid and arachidonic acid 
in the serum of an adult man subsisting for 6 months on a diet ex- 
tremely low in fat. The individual exhibited no other evidence of 
disease. We have found in our laboratory that rats maintained on 
mineralized skim milk fortified with minerals and the fat-soluble 
vitamins grow better when the skim milk is supplemented with butter 
fat than when vegetable oils are used. ‘The active substance is pres- 
ent in the fatty acid fraction of the butter fat. 

It is also well known that fat has a sparing effect on vitamin B,. 
The general decrease in the fat content of American dietaries has 
thus tended to aggravate the vitamin B, deficiency brought about by 
the use of refined foods. 

Calcium logically heads the list of mineral elements of significance 
in nutrition since there is more calcium in the human body than any 
other mineral element. The value generally accepted today as an 
adequate level is 0.7 to 0.8 gm. per day. We must first recognize 
that this calcium requirement holds only when the diet contains 
an adequate supply of vitamin D. The Ca:P ratio is also a factor 
that needs definite consideration. We still find in certain textbooks 
that the optimum Ca:P ratio is 2:1. This is obviously incorrect 
since in all of our work we have found the ratio to approach 1.2:1. 


NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS—ELVEHJEM 293 


Experiments with dogs indicate that when the Ca:P ratio is 2:1, 
it is impossible to get normal calcification even with tremendous 
doses of vitamin D. Sherman and coworkers (38) have recently re- 
ported some improvement in the nutritional well-being of rats by 
increasing the calcium intake from 0.2 percent to 0.85 percent or 
even to 0.8 percent of the diet. The phosphorus requirement 1s 
generally assumed to be a little higher than the calcium figures. 
This may appear contradictory in the light of a calcium phosphorus 
ratio of 1.2 to 1; however, the higher value may be advantageous 
because some of the organic phosphorus may not be completely avail- 
able. The phosphorus in phytic acid is now known (4) to be avail- 
able, but it is less efficient for bone production than other sources 
of phosphorus. 

The daily iron requirement is rather well established although 
the exact figure has varied between 12 and 15 mg. per day. First 
we must recognize that the iron is of no value in the body unless it 
is accompanied by copper which functions in the conversion of iron 
into hemoglobin. In addition the iron must be in an available form. 
Extensive studies have been made on the available iron content of 
foods, and the values obtained by chemical methods check fairly well 
with those obtained through the feeding experiments with rats. 
However, we still do not know whether the availability as measured 
in rats is similar to that which we may find in the human being. 
Much has been said about the relative value of ferric and ferrous 
iron. This problem has recently been thoroughly studied by Tomp- 
sett (5). Ferrous iron appears to be the only form to be absorbed 
from the alimentary tract. The ferric iron consumed is reduced in 
the stomach and this reduction is brought about by substances which 
are common constituents of the diet. The diet may also contain 
substances which tend to oxidize the ferrous iron to the ferric state. 
The phosphatides of egg yolk appear to be one group of substances 
which inhibit the absorption of iron through the autoxidation of the 
ferrous iron. Tompsett states that it is difficult to give a definite 
value for iron because the degree of iron absorption is dependent on 
so many factors. The value of 12-15 mg. per day is probably liberal 
enough to compensate for the iron present in the food in forms that 
cannot be utilized. The daily copper requirement is probably about 
2 mg. per day and practically all forms of copper show equal 
availability. 

No requirements have been set up for the remaining so-called 
trace elements and perhaps rightly so, since we have no specific 
values available. But we must recognize that elements such as 
manganese, zinc, and cobalt are important in the diet, and perhaps 
values for these additional minerals may soon be available. 


294 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Most of the work on iodine requirements has been done directly 
on human beings. One reason for this is undoubtedly due to the 
fact that it is difficult to produce an iodine deficiency in experimental 
animals although many farm animals in the goiter region suffer from 
iodine deficiency. Balance studies (6) show that 50 to 100 micro- 
grams of iodine per day may be sufficient. The value generally given 
is 2 micrograms per kilogram of body weight. There is ample evi- 
dence that these small requirements may not be met by foods and 
drinking water. In order to meet this difficulty the fortification 
of salt was started in this country over 15 years ago. This was the 
first fortification program in this country. Sufficient NaI or KI 
is added to maintain the iodine content of salt at 0.015 percent. 

Turning then to a discussion of the vitamins we find even more 
conflicting data. The main difficulty encountered is that there are 
several different chemical compounds which may have similar phys- 
iological effects. Yet the quantitative activity of these different 
compounds varies to a considerable extent. In the case of vitamin 
A our foods contain both the classical vitamin A and carotene, as well 
as other related carotenoids. A value of 5,000 I. U. has been sug- 
gested on the basis that the average diet supplies one-third of the 
total activity in the form of vitamin A and two-thirds in the form 
of carotene. Two thousand I. U. of vitamin A as such will un- 
doubtedly meet the daily needs. Some day it may be advisable to set 
specific standards for the carotene requirement and the vitamin A re- 
quirement and to express the distribution of both these compounds 
in our food materials. The absorption of vitamin A from the in- 
testinal tract is definitely related to the fat content of our diet and the 
actual requirement may differ drastically depending upon the presence 
of other materials in the diet. 

The vitamin D requirement, as I have mentioned, is dependent 
upon the total calcium and phosphorus intake as well as the calcium 
and phosphorus ratio and may differ considerably depending upon 
whether the diet contains ample quantities of milk or whether the 
diet is low in this food. Apparently the different forms of vitamin 
D do not vary sufficiently to make this a problem in human studies. 
I believe we are safe in accepting a value of 400 I. U. per day. 

No requirements have been stated for vitamins K or E because so 
little information is available. Under normal conditions there is 
sufficient synthesis of vitamin K in the intestinal tract to meet the 
requirement. However, any change in the intestinal flora might bring 
about a definite increase in the need for preformed vitamin K in the 
diet. 

The vitamin C requirement is rather definitely established because 
the chemist has been able to determine this factor rather simply not 
only in foods but also in the blood stream. Several groups of workers 


NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS—ELVEHJEM 295 


have shown that 70 mg. per day will maintain the vitamin C content 
of the blood at high levels. The important question in this case is 
whether we should supply sufficient vitamin C to produce complete 
saturation of the blood stream, or whether optimum health can be 
maintained at lower levels of saturation. 

At the present time there appears to be greater interest in the vita- 
min B, requirement than any of the other vitamins. This is per- 
haps due to the fact that it is practically impossible to study the 
vitamin B, content of the blood and we must resort largely to balance 
studies. Many of the balance studies have been conducted for short 
periods of time, and such studies may give results considerably higher 
than those obtained over a long period of time. Another factor which 
perhaps enters into this problem is the fact that the vitamin B, re- 
quirement is definitely reduced by a high fat diet. Recent studies 
at the Banting Institute have suggested that high-fat diets may 
eliminate all symptoms of B, deficiency except those changes taking 
place in the heart. If this is true, we should perhaps recommend 
the high level of B, intake regardless of what the fat content of the 
diet is. A level of 1.5 to 2 mg. per day should supply an adequate 
intake for most individuals. In studies conducted by Williams, Ma- 
son, Wilder and Smith (7) it was found that about 1 mg. prevented 
symptoms but higher levels gave a high degree of well-being. 

The very recent work on human beings (8) seems to establish rather 
definitely that the riboflavin content is 3 mg. per day. These studies 
were conducted on human beings receiving average diets, but again, 
changing the fat and carbohydrate ratio may alter the riboflavin re- 
quirement. We have recently shown in our laboratory that when the 
fat content of the diet is increased we find a considerable increase in 
the riboflavin requirement. This we interpret in a preliminary way 
as being caused by a change in the bacterial flora. That is, under nor- 
mal conditions there may be a certain degree of riboflavin synthesis 
in the intestinal tract and we are merely measuring the riboflavin re- 
quired above this synthesis. If there are sudden changes in the in- 
testinal flora, the entire riboflavin requirement may have to be supplied 
through the diet. 

It would appear that the nicotinic acid requirement might be es- 
tablished very easily since nicotinic acid is such a simple chemical 
compound. ‘Tremendous difficulties have been encountered in at- 
tempting to determine the nicotinic acid content of foods or to meas- 
ure the nicotinic acid excreted in the urine. Two recent develop- 
ments, I believe, will be of considerable value in establishing the 
nicotinic acid requirement. One is that we are now able to feed 
dogs on a highly synthetic diet containing no nicotinic acid and from 
these studies it would appear that the daily requirement for main- 
tenance is about 0.25 mg. per kilo and the requirement for growth 


296 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


is about 0.5 mg. per kilo. Using these values then, it would appear 
that the nicotinic acid requirement of a human being is at least 
15 mg. per day. Bacteriological methods have also recently been 
developed for nicotinic acid determination and these procedures give 
accurate results. By calculating the nicotinic acid content of an 
average diet it would appear that it contains 15 to 20 mg. per daily 
portion. As far as we know, there are no factors in the average diet 
which tend to alter the nicotinic acid requirement, although in- 
creased exercise may have a definite effect on the requirement of 
this factor. 

The greatest limitation in the above figures is the lack of recogni- 
tion of the less-known vitamins. Certainly the vitamin B, require- 
ment of a human being may be as important as any of the other 
B vitamins. Yet we have no way of setting a specific figure at the 
present time. We can only make a rough assumption that the vita- 
min B, requirement is in the same order of magnitude as vitamin Bj. 

Pantothenic acid is undoubtedly required by the human being, but 
at the present time we cannot even give quantitative figures for the 
requirement of pantothenic acid in animals. Again the pantothenic 
acid apparently affects the requirement of some of the unknown 
members of the B complex in the animal; whether pantothenic acid 
has a similar effect in human beings needs further study. 

Another factor which has received a great deal of attention in 
animal work during the past year or two is choline. The serious 
difficulties that an animal encounters when diets low in choline are 
used certainly suggest that studies on the importance of choline in 
the human dietary should be made. Here again we have an example 
of how the variation in the amino acid content of our diet may 
affect the choline requirement since a high methionine intake tends 
to decrease the choline requirement and a high cystine intake tends 
to increase the choline requirement. 

We must, of course, recognize that much of our information re- 
garding the human requirements has come from animal experiments. 
In fact if we had not relied upon animal work we would not have 
much information at the present time. But if we use the results 
from animals we must realize that there is great variation in the 
requirements of different species. This was first recognized, of 
course, in the case of vitamin C when rats failed to require vita- 
min C while the human being, monkey, and guinea pig did. We 
are finding more and more such discrepancies. The most interest- 
ing perhaps is the variation in the nicotinic acid requirement in dif- 
ferent species. The rat and chicken apparently do not need this 
factor preformed, while the dog is very sensitive to a lack of this 
factor. Apparently the human being and the dog are very similar 
in their requirements for nicotinic acid. We are now finding that 


NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS—ELVEHJEM 297 


the ruminant can get along on diets practically devoid of the vita- 
min B complex because all these factors are synthesized by the bac- 
teria in the rumen. Recent work indicates that the rat can syn- 
thesize some of the unknown members of the B complex and that 
high levels of pantothenic acid apparently favor this synthesis. 

If we turn to the guinea pig we find quite different results than 
those obtained with other animals. A young guinea pig fails to grow 
normally and dies in a few weeks when fed purified diets upon which 
rats and dogs may grow very well. We have found that these animals 
will grow if we supplement the purified diet with dried grass, yeast, 
and fresh milk. Chicks also require additional amino acids and cer- 
tain factors from yeast before they will develop normally on synthetic 
diets. How these facts relate to human nutrition is not known, but 
these results do suggest the importance of additional work. These 
problems require all the ingenuity that chemists can contribute. 

In conclusion then, we may agree that the nutritional requirements 
of man can be expressed in quantitative terms to a very extensive de- 
gree. These values are of great importance in constructing adequate 
diets provided we still obtain a considerable proportion of the nutrient 
from natural foods. The safest program for the future involves the 
improvement of natural and processed foods through restoration and 
fortification. Thus recent criticisms leveled at the fortification pro- 
gram are invalid because we are not adding enriched foods to synthetic 
diets but to diets that are already fairly adequate. The fortification 
of foods like bread merely brings the diet from a borderline state of 
adequacy to an optimum and efficient state. We may not have all the 
knowledge for optimum fortification but as long as the use of natural 
foods is continued, the danger of imbalance is greatly reduced. 


REFERENCES 


1. Mitts, A. A., and CALvIN, J. W. 
1940. Vitamin B;. Science, vol. 92, No, 2394, Suppl., p. 9, Nov. 15. 
2. Brown, R. B., HANSEN, A. E., Burr, G. O., and McQuarnrig, I. 
1938. Effects of prolonged use of extremely low-fat diet on an adult 
human subject. Journ. Nutr., vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 511-524. 
3. VAN DuyYNE, F. O., LAN¥ForD, ©. S., Torprer, E. W., and SHERMAN, H. C. 
1941. Life-time experiments upon the problem of optimal calcium intake. 
Journ. Nutr., vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 221-224. 
4. Kriecer, C. H., BUNKFELDT, R., THOMPSON, C. R., and STEENBOCK, H. 
1941. Cereals and rickets. XIII. Phytie acid, yeast nucleie acid, soy- 
bean phosphatides and ignorganie salts as sources of phosphorus 
for bone calcification. Journ. Nutr., vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 213-220. 
. TOMPSETT, S. L. 
1940. The iron of the plasma. Biochem. Journ., vol. 34, No. 6, pp. 
959-960. 


oO 


298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


6. SHOHL, A. T. 
1939. Mineral metabolism. Reinhold Publ. Co., New York. 
7. WILLIAMS, R. D., Mason, H. L., Witper, R. M., and SmirH, B. F. 
1940. Observations on induced thiamine (vitamin B:) deficiency in man. 
Arch. Int. Med., vol, 66, No. 4, pp. 785-799. 
8. Srrona, F. M., Feeney, R. E., Moors, B., and Parsons, H. T. 
1941. The riboflavin content of blood and urine. Journ. Biol. Chem., 
vol. 137, No. 1, pp. 863-372. 


PAST AND PRESENT STATUS OF THE MARINE MAMMALS 
OF SOUTH AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES* 


By REMINGTON KELLOGG 
Curator, Division of Mammais, U. S. National Museum 


Changes in the shore lines of the South American continent, re- 
sulting from the submergence and subsequent elevation of areas 
of varying extent at different times during that portion of the geo- 
logic past known as the Tertiary period, provide a succession of sedi- 
mentary formations from which have come an essential part of the 
factual evidence employed by paleontologists in reconstructing the 
history of the mammals during this period of the earth’s history. 
Some of these sedimentary strata, when examined critically, are 
found to be ancient beaches, estuaries, and river deltas, and, what is 
more important, to contain bones belonging to extinct types of 
marine mammals. By means of these fossil remains the genealogical 
history of some of these marine mammals can be traced with some 
degree of accuracy from the time they make their appearance down 
to the present. 

The history of the sea cows or sirenians in the Western Hemisphere 
begins with a sirenian (Prorastomus sirenoides) of uncertain rela- 
tionships, probably as old geologically as any of the known Middle 
Kocene sirenians of Africa and Europe, which was found prior to 
1855 in a calcareous sandstone nodule in the bed of a Jamaican 
River. During the succeeding interval of geologic time, the Oligo- 
cene, a later type of sea cow (Halitherium) frequented the Carib- 
bean Sea, the remains of one individual having been found in Puerto 
Rico. 

No cetaceans of Oligocene age are known to occur either in the 
West Indies or in South America. A rather varied assemblage does 
make its appearance, however, in the Lower Miocene Patagonian 
marine formation of Argentina. This formation has yielded two 
distinct kinds of shark-toothed porpoises, a ziphioid beaked whale, 
a rather dubious relative of the iniid river porpoises, a long-snouted 


1 Reprinted by permission, with change of title and extensive revisions, from Proceedings 
of the Eighth American Scientific Congress, vol. 3, 1942. 


299 


300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


porpoise unlike any living member of this group, two different 
kinds of sperm whales, and three kinds of whalebone whales. One 
of these whalebone whales (Morenocetus parvus) is the oldest geo- 
logically of all known members of the family of right whales (Balae- 
nidae). The other two represent cetotheres, the precursors of the 
living furrow-throated whalebone whales. 

Members of the family of river porpoises (Iniidae) ranged north- 
ward in the Atlantic Ocean to Chesapeake Bay and in the Pacific 
Ocean to San Francisco Bay during the Miocene. ‘The late Miocene 
or early Pliocene Piso Entreriano exposed along the river banks in 
the vicinity of Parana, Argentina, has furnished at least five kinds 
of extinct iniid river porpoises. From these were derived a number 
of succeeding types. In the course of geologic time most of these 
types of ancient iniid porpoises disappeared, leaving only two sur- 
vivors, the white flag porpoise in Tung Ting Lake, Hunan Province, 
China, and the bouto in the Amazon and its tributaries. 

Evidence is still lacking in regard to the main details of the devel- 
opmental history of the pinnipeds. Nevertheless, it is now certain 
that at least one relative of the Recent hair seals (Prionodelphis 
rovereti) was included in this late Miocene or early Pliocene fauna. 

Remains of whalebone whales have been found in rocks of Pliocene 
age near Coquimbo, Chile, and also on the plains east of the port of 
Lomas, Peru. 

Ear bones and other miscellaneous skeletal elements representing 
one or more kinds of extinct whalebone whales have been found in 
the Pleistocene Pampean formation of Argentina. In contemporary 
deposits at Olivos in the Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina, a 
relative of the southern sea lion was obtained. In the more recent 
deposits of Argentina, bones representing a close relative of this 
sea lion seem to occur more frequently. 


SEALING IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 


We now come to the period when man by his interference radically 
changed the original aspect of the existing marine fauna. We are 
so overwhelmed today with problems associated with the marketing 
of ever-increasing surpluses of cereals and livestock products that 
few of us appreciate the situation confronting early colonists in 
the New World. Fats and oils were in constant demand and the 
colonists were obliged to utilize all available resources. Consequently, 
bison were slaughtered for tallow, while oil suitable for burning in 
lamps was readily obtained from seals, porpoises, and whales. Un- 
productive soil, the absence of remunerative employment in the vicin- 
ity of the settlements, and the increasing demand for oils and fats 
made sealing and whaling an attractive occupation for residents of 


MARINE MAMMALS—KELLOGG 301 


many coast villages. The reckless manner in which these marine 
resources were exploited, however, can hardly be witnessed again 
since these animals no longer exist in considerable numbers in most of 
the oceanic areas where they were slaughtered during the past three 
centuries. 

WEST INDIAN SEAL 


One of the first animals in the New World to bear the brunt of 
man’s destructive proclivities was the West Indian seal (Monachus 
tropicalis). It is recorded that Columbus (Kerr, 1811, vol. 3, pp. 
124, 327) toward the end of August 1494, while cruising among the 
West Indian islands in search of a passage to the mythical province of 
Cipango, lost sight of the other vessels of his flotilla, and anchored 
off the south coast of Haiti. Sailors were sent to climb the rocky 
islet of Alta Vela and to scan the horizon for the missing vessels. 
On descending from these rocks the sailors came on a number of 
seals asleep on the sands and killed eight of them. In such a manner, 
the seals of the New World became acquainted with the civilized 
white race. 

Spaniards from Yucatan and Englishmen from Jamaica before 
1675 (Dampier, 1705, vol. 2, pt. 2, pp. 26-27) sailed to the Scorpion 
Islands north of Yucatan for the express purpose of killing these 
seals for their oil. Sir Hans Sloane, who visited the Bahamas in 
1687-88, was told that West Indian seals were so numerous on those 
islands that fishermen took as many as a hundred in one night. By 
1843, however, this seal seems to have been restricted to the Pedro 
Keys off the south coast of Jamaica (Lucas, 1891, p. 616), to the 
Anina Islands lying between the Isle of Pines and Yucatan (J. A. 
Allen, 1880, p. 721), and off the northern coast of Yucatan to the low 
sand spits surrounded by coral reefs known as the Triangle Keys. 
Large numbers of these seals were killed on Triangle Keys before 
1856 (Lucas, 1891, p. 616). As late as 1900, however, a small colony 
of not over 75 was found by E. A. Goldman to exist on these keys. 
The present status of the West Indian seal is unknown. 


SOUTHERN SEA LION 


Seals in the Southern Hemisphere, however, were not accounted 
an article of commerce until the leading seafaring nations of the 
world began the active exploration of the coasts of South America. It 
was not until these early navigators had sailed southward along the 
coast beyond the present boundaries of Brazil that the southern sea 
lions (Otaria flavescens) were discovered. These animals congregate 
during the southern summer on their breeding grounds which are lo- 
cated along the coasts of South America mostly south of the La Plata 
River on the Atlantic side and as far north as northern Peru on the 
Pacific side, as well as on the Falkland and Galapagos Islands. 


302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Magellan in October 1520 recorded their presence in the Magellan 
Straits. Subsequent navigators were accustomed to provision their 
vessels with sea lion meat and to replenish their oil supply from the 
blubber of this large seal. The expedition led by Sim6én de Alcazaba, 
for instance, in 1535 took two or three hundred sea lons on an 
island off the coast of Chubut, Patagonia. Similarly, Sir Francis 
Drake in 1577 provisioned his vessels with some 200 sea lions killed 
at Port Desire, Patagonia. 

Although sailors on subsequent voyages frequently salted hogsheads 
of sea lion meat for provisions, it was not until late in the eighteenth 
century that the traffic in sea lion skins assumed any marked propor- 
tions. Accurate figures of the catch during these years are, however, 
not available. Nevertheless, some idea of the extent of the trade in 
these skins may be gained from the fact that at least 52,000 sea 
lion skins were taken in 1821-22 by the shore crews of the American 
brigs Alabama and Frederick on the islands of Mocha and St. Marys 
off the coast of Chile (Balch, 1909, p. 484). 

Not even the colonies on the Galapagos Islands escaped from the 
general slaughter. In 1815-16, the crew of the ship Volunteer of 
New York loaded the skins of 2,000 sea lions and 8,000 fur seals that 
had been killed on these islands by the ship’s shore crew (Fanning, 
1924, pp. 287-288). 'The hides of sea lions were used by the harness 
and trunk makers of New England. The demand for these hides, 
however, was not so great as to cause the near extermination of the 
southern sea lion. 

Sealers are still taking sea lions on the South Falkland Islands, but 
in accordance with regulations provided by a license system. The 
take on these islands in 1980 amounted to 4,563 sea lions (Hamilton, 
1934, p. 818). Two companies licensed by the Peruvian Government 
are reported to take from 75,000 to 80,000 sea lion skins annually from 
the rookeries located along the coast of Peru. 


SOUTHERN ELEPHANT SEAL 


At the end of the eighteenth century, elephant seals were present 
in countless thousands on many of the islands off the southern ex- 
tremity of South America, particularly along the Patagonian coast, 
Tierra del Fuego and southern Chile, as well as on Juan Fernandez, 
the Falkland Islands, the Southern Shetland and South Orkney Is- 
lands, and South Georgia. 

The records show that as early as 1774 vessels from New York 
and Nantucket were outfitted not only for whaling but also for sealing 
on the South Falklands. The abundance of elephant seals and the 
current demand for oil led almost at once to the indiscriminate 
slaughter of these huge seals. By 1800, the southern elephant seal 
fishery had reached considerable proportions. Gangs of men with 


MARINE MAMMALS—KELLOGG 303 
limited provisions and huge 250-gallon trying pots were put ashore 
in shallops at accessible beaches from sealing vessels anchored in safe 
harbors. Partial and sometimes full cargoes of elephant seal oil 
were shipped to ports in the Old and the New Worlds. 

From 1799 to 1818, sealing vessels from Nantucket and New Bed- 
ford were bringing back elephant seal oil from Patagonia and Staten 
Island. Similarly, many vessels sailed from New London, Conn., 
for the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. 

The absence of accurate records of the catch made by vessels engaged 
in this business makes it impossible to estimate the number of elephant 
seals killed on southern rookeries. Some sealers held that an average 
of 8 barrels (94.5 gallons) of oil was obtained from an adult elephant 
seal, but both young and adults were killed. The cargo of 1,500 barrels 
of oil brought back to Stonington, Conn., by the schooner Free Gift 
in April 1822 represented a kill of at least 500 elephant seals, assuming 
that all were adults. Weddell in 1823 recorded that 20,000 tons of 
elephant seal oil, representing the death of at least 62,000 animals, 
had been shipped to London alone from South Georgia. 

So oblivious were these elephant seals to the killing that was going 
on around them and so indiscriminately were the young and old 
slaughtered, that in a comparatively few years they were exterminated 
or reduced to a mere remnant along all the coasts and on the islands 
that had once been their refuge. Elephant seals disappeared suc- 
cessively from the Falklands, Juan Fernandez, South Shetlands, South 
Orkneys, South Georgia and the coast of South America. 

During the first quarter of the nineteenth century, elephant seal 
hunting was carried on chiefly by those engaged in fur sealing, but 
after the fur seals had been killed off some sealers continued their occu- 
pation of killing the elephant seal and boiling out the oil. The dis- 
covery of the Pennsylvania oil fields in 1859 brought a cheap illumi- 
nant on the market and gave the southern elephant seal some respite 
from the hunter. Nevertheless, at South Georgia, particularly, so 
many elephant seals were killed that they were practically extinct 
there by 1885. 

Discouraged by the general scarcity of elephant seals and by in- 
ability to compete with the low production costs of petroleum products, 
southern sealing was largely abandoned before the close of the nine- 
teenth century. With the revival of whaling in Antarctic seas, the 
Government of the Falkland Island Dependencies began in 1910 to 
issue licenses for the taking of elephant seals. These regulations 
seem to have obtained the desired result since Matthews in 1927 (1929, 
p- 246) estimated that there were at least 100,000 elephant seals on 
the South Georgia beaches. 


304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


SOUTHERN FUR SEAL 


The first cargo of seal skins and whale oil exported from the Falk- 
land Islands was carried by Bougainville’s ship, the Azgle, in 1766 
(Boyson, 1924, p. 219). Although the history of southern sealing 
during the ensuing decade is not very well known, there are indications 
that some whalers took seals as well as whales at the Falkland Islands. 

When Port Egmont was evacuated by the British garrison in May 
1774, 10 American sealing and whaling vessels were anchored in the 
Falkland Islands (Boyson, 1924, p. 235). Fur seals were present in 
such numbers on one of the smaller Falkland Islands that eight or 
nine hundred of them were killed on one day (Dalrymple, 1775, pre- 
face p. 9). The beaches of Saunders Island were reported by a 
French sealer in 1778 to have been lined with fur seals and elephant 
seals (Boyson, 1924, p. 235). 

British sealers did not begin taking fur seals on these southern rook- 
eries until the beginning of the American Revolutionary War, but were 
actively engaged in this fishery for at least 50 years thereafter. Shortly 
after the signing of the general peace treaty between Great Britain 
and the United States on September 38, 1783, the ship States sailed 
from Boston for the Falkland Islands and on arrival there anchored 
in States Harbor. For two years shore crews from this ship were 
engaged in taking skins of fur seals and sea lions, and in boiling 
out elephant seal oil. Thirteen thousand of the fur seal skins taken 
on this cruise were landed in New York and then shipped to China 
(Clark, 1887, p. 400). Subsequently, a number of vessels were out- 
fitted in New England ports for this commercial enterprise. Among 
these were vessels from New York and Boston, one of which, the brig 
Betsey, returned to New York from the Falkland Islands in June 1793 
with a full cargo of fur seal skins (Fanning, 1924, p. 13). Fanning 
in 1797 (1924, p. 261) found the rocks at the northeast head of Beau- 
chene Island literally covered with fur seals. By 1812, however, fur 
seals had become scarce on all the larger Falkland Islands, but were 
still present in considerable numbers on Steeple Jason Island (Boy- 
son, 1924, pp. 83, 236). 

These adventurers sailed boldly in their small vessels to South 
Georgia, some 1,200 miles east of Cape Horn, where fur sealing was 
conducted with the same total disregard of the biological factors 
involved in the perpetuation of the stocks of seals. In the fall of 
1800, 17 vessels arrived at South Georgia, and during the ensuing sum- 
mer the shore crews landed by these vessels killed 112,000 fur seals 
(Fanning, 1924, p. 218). The corvette Aspasia of New York alone 
brought back 57,000 fur seal skins. James Weddell in 18238 (1825, 
pp. 538-54) calculated that no less than 1,200,000 fur seals had been 
taken at South Georgia since 1775. The records for South Georgia 


MARINE MAMMALS—KELLOGG 305 


show that 1,450 fur seals were taken in 1874, “great numbers” in 1877 
(H. T. Allen, 1920, p. 108), and 170 in 1906 (Matthews, 1929, p. 255). 
These catches seem to have resulted in the final destruction of the 
South Georgia fur seal herd, although two were seen on Willis Island 
in 1927 (Matthews, 1929, p. 255). 

So merciless was the slaughter of fur seals on the Falkland Island 
rookeries by a constantly increasing number of vessels and so keen was 
the race to reach unexploited beaches that British and American 
sealers were continually searching for new sealing grounds. 

Sealers naturally were reticent regarding their findings, and in some 
instances several years elapsed before the news of their discoveries 
leaked out. Such seems to be the case with the South Shetland 
rookeries, located about 400 miles southeast of Cape Horn. Uncon- 
firmed reports have circulated for nearly a century that American 
sealers had reached the South Shetland rookeries by 1812 (Calman, 
1937, p. 176). Existing records do show that American and British 
sealers were slaughtering fur seals on these islands at least as early 
as 1819 (Ragged Island, Fanning, 1924, p. 304; Balch, 1909, pp. 474, 
477; Bruce, 1920, p. 38). 

To Col. Lawrence Martin, whose critical analysis of documentary 
data has contributed so much to the knowledge of the areas south of 
Cape Horn, I am indebted for the following information on the 
southern fur seal fishery in the vicinity of the South Shetland Islands. 
Shore crews from something like 50 sealing vessels, about equally 
divided between American and English registry, were killing fur seals 
on these rookeries during the Antarctic seasons 1820-21 and 1821-29. 
Sixteen of the American sealing vessels are known to have transported 
160,000 fur seal skins to New York and New England in 1821. Nine 
English sealing vessels are reported to have shipped 165,000 fur seal 
skins to England. Thus the total catch for the Antarctic season 
1820-21 could hardly have been less than half a million fur seals. 

So ruthless was the exploitation of these fur seal rookeries, that by 
1829 most of the financial backers of this sealing business considered 
the risks too hazardous to warrant voyages to the South Shetlands. 
At that time fur seals had been almost exterminated on all the acces- 
sible rookeries and the sealers were searching for new sealing grounds. 
Nevertheless, sealing continued with indifferent success for many years. 

Forty years later (1871-72) sealers again came to the South Shet- 
land Islands and in the ensuing 10 years killed off more than 90,000 fur 
seals there and on the rookeries east of Cape Horn (Clark, 1887, 
p. 402). The few remaining survivors of the Shetland Island rookeries 
seem to have been exterminated by a Vancouver sealer in 1905-06 
(Anonymous, in Pacific Fisherman, vol. 4, No. 5, p. 20; No. 7, jopoe Ay) 
1906). 


306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


About 1790, British and American vessels engaged in sperm whaling 
along the coast of Chile, as well as others that had embarked in the 
maritime fur trade along the northwest coast of North America, 
observed large fur seal rookeries on some of the South American 
coastal and offshore islands. The American brigantine Hancock sailed 
from Boston, November 1790, for Staten Island. Many fur seals were 
killed by the crew on Staten Island before the brigantine rounded 
Cape Horn en route to Masafuera Island. Subsequently, this vessel 
stopped at the Hawaiian Islands and afterward sailed for the north- 
west coast of North America. After arrival there on July 14, 1791, 
the Hancock was engaged in trading with the natives for sea otter 
skins until she sailed for China in the autumn of 1791 (Howay, 1930, 
p. 122). 

Masafuera, a small island lying 100 miles west of Juan Fernandez, 
was one of the most important of these fur seal rookeries. On this 
island, a shore crew landed by the ship Hliza of New York in 1792 
killed 37,000 fur seals, the skins of which were carried to Canton, 
China, and sold in March 1793 (Delano, 1817, pp. 196-197; Clark, 1887, 
p. 407). 

A shore crew landed from the American ship Jefferson of Boston 
obtained 18,000 fur seal pelts on St. Ambrose Island during August 
and September, 1792 (Howay, 1930, p. 130). During 1793, the British 
sloop Rattler put into the Galapagos Islands for salt which was to be 
used in salting fur seal skins at St. Felix and St. Ambrose Islands, 
located off the coast of Chile some 500 miles north of Juan Fernandez 
(Jenkins, 1921, p. 214). 

From then on to 1807, the business of killing fur seals along the 
Chilean coast was prosecuted with unremitting vigor and at times 
shore crews from as many as 12 to 15 vessels had camps at Masafuera 
Island. Gangs of men put ashore in 1798 on Masafuera by three 
American vessels (ship Barclay of New Bedford, brig Betsey of Ston- 
ington, Conn., and ship Vepiune of New York) killed some 60,000 fur 
seals. By 1801, the sealing fleet on the coast of Chile numbered 
upward of 30 vessels (Fanning, 1924, p. 223). A few of these ships 
carried 60,000, and one at least 100,000, fur seal skins to the market at 
Canton, China (Clark, 1887, p. 402), where they were exchanged for 
merchandise to be sold in the United States. 

The rookeries on these islands had been so thoroughly ransacked in 
a period of 15 years that sealers could no longer expect to make a 
profit by going there, and by 1824 fur seals were practically extermi- 
nated on both Juan Fernandez and Masafuera (Morrell, 1832, p. 180). 
Estimates of the number of fur seals killed on Masafuera and Juan 
Fernandez Islands during this period range from a million (Fanning, 
1924, p. 80) to more than 38 million (Delano, 1817, p. 306). Although 
the virtual destruction of this portion of the southern fur seal herd 


MARINE MAMMALS—KELLOGG 307 


was accomplished at the beginning of the nineteenth century, a few 
persisted for many years on inaccessible rocky ledges. As late as 1898, 
50 fur seal pelts taken on Juan Fernandez were sold in London 
(Cabrera and Yepes, 1940, p. 181). 

Although the English sealer George Powell and the American sealer 
Nathaniel B. Palmer failed to locate any fur seals in December 1821 on 
the South Orkneys, this does not necessarily indicate that fur seals 
avoided these islands. There are no available records of fur seals 
having been taken on the South Orkneys during the period of un- 
restricted exploitation. Dallman, however, during the first 2 months 
of 1874 took 145 fur seal skins in the Sandefjord Bay district at the 
southwestern end of Coronation Island (Marr, 1935, p. 371). 

Spanish sealers were taking a relatively small number of fur seals 
on the rocky islands along the Patagonian coast during the last decade 
of the eighteenth century. Yankee sealers, however, were constantly 
raiding these islands in defiance of prohibitions, but often in conniv- 
ance with local officials. One such example was the ship Veptune of 
New Haven, which from January 1 to February 16, 1798, took some 
©,000 fur seal skins from the rookery on a small island off Port Desire, 
Patagonia (Clark, 1887, p. 462-464). 

Sealers rounding Cape Horn occasionally landed shore crews on 
Diego Ramirez, Staten Island, and other nearby small islands for 
the purpose of taking fur seals. It is evident that as late as 1828 fur 
seals were fairly numerous at the southern extremity of South America, 
since the schooner Penguin of Stonington, Conn., took 4,000 fur seals on 
Staten Island that year (Balch, 1909, p. 485). The schooner Montz- 
cello of Baltimore in 1838 and the schooner Benjamin D’ Wolf of New- 
port in 1839 returned from islands around Cape Horn with cargoes of 
2,500 and 2,000 fur seals respectively (Clark, 1887, pp. 451, 4538). 
Intermittent slaughter of fur seals on these islands continued during 
the remainder of the nineteenth century. During the summer of 
1882-88, the shore crew of the American bark Zhomas Hunt salted 
down the pelts of 1,800 fur seals that had been killed on Diego 
Ramirez. No information of a later date on the condition of the 
rookery on this island seems to be available. Between 1882 and 1892, 
the crew of the ship Vassau was reported to have killed annually an 
average of 3,500 fur seals at Tierra del Fuego and neighboring islands 
(Cabrera and Yepes, 1940, p. 181). The last reported catch from 
rookeries near Cape Horn, and that only 936 fur seal skins, was 
carried to Nova Scotia in 1906 by the Vancouver schconer Edith B. 
Balcom (Anonymous, in Pacific Fisherman, vol. 4, No. 5, p. 20; No. 7, 
p. 19, 1906). 

Aside from the rather ineffectual attempts of Spanish and Argen- 
tine governors to restrict the killing of the fur seals on the Falkland 


21 


501591—43 


308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Islands, fur sealing was never directly supervised by the governments 
in the Southern Hemisphere during the eighteenth and nineteenth 
centuries. 

The rookeries on the Uruguayan coast, located for the most part on 
the Coronilla, the Castillos, the Torres, and the Lobos groups of 
islands, were leased to commercial sealers beginning in 1823. But 
here again, reckless commercial exploitation of these rookeries all but 
exterminated the animals. For the 35 years ending in 1907, the aver- 
age kill of fur seals was nearly 15,000. In 1910, however, the 
Uruguayan Government commenced sealing on its own account and 
at the time of Dr. Hugh M. Smith’s visit in December 1922, the rookery 
in the Lobos Island group was doubtfully estimated to harbor some 
20,000 fur seals (Smith, 1927, p. 281). 

Today only a few scattered individuals exist in the entire British 
Falkland Island Dependency Claim, a relatively | small number of 
individuals have found refuge on the rookeries along the Uruguayan 
coast, and another small remnant maintains a precarious existence on 
inde along the coast of Peru. 

No chapter in the story of wanton destruction of wild life contains 
so many obvious lessons as that of the southern fur seal fishery. It is 
now apparent that the values destroyed in the avaricious hunt for fur 
seals were many times greater than the moneys received from the pelts 
marketed, since the breeding stock that should have been maintained 
for the future harvesting of the annual surplus was destroyed on every 
accessible rookery. During the period of ruthless exploitation of the 
southern fur seal rookeries, the principles of wild life management 
were totally disregarded by the governments concerned, even though 
certain officials, notably Capt. James Weddell (1827, pp. 141-142), did 
not hesitate to call attention to the inevitable destruction of this eco- 
nomic asset if the practices then in vogue were continued. Conserva- 
tion was either deemed impossible or not worth the effort. 

Had scientific management of the southern fur seal herd been prac- 
ticed at the inception of exploitation or at least before the rookeries 
had been seriously depleted, an adequate annual profit would have 
accrued to all the governments having jurisdiction over such rookeries. 
The devastating effects of this excessive slaughter have not passed 
unnoticed, but no serious effort has been made to remedy the existing 
situation. Nevertheless, it is not too late even today or impractical 
to attempt the restocking of fur seals on those rookeries, long since 
abandoned, where adequate patrol and protection can be maintained. 


WHALING IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 


It may appear surprising that whaling in the Southern Hemisphere 
did not commence until stocks of whales in Arctic waters were mark- 
edly depleted. One contributing cause was the presence of pirates in 


MARINE MAMMALS—KELLOGG 309 


the West Indies. Another factor was the slow development of the 
practice of erecting try-works for rendering the oil on decks of whaling 
vessels. 

Nevertheless, sperm-whaling sloops from New Bedford and other 
New England ports were cruising southward toward Bermuda as early 
as 1756 (Ashley, 1938, p. 37). Humpbacks and sperm whales, however, 
were taken by local residents of Bermuda, according to colonial records 
(True, 1904, pp. 27-29), during the years 1665, 1667, and 1668, and this 
fishery continued in a desultory fashion until 1749 or later. 

These New England whaling ships while searching for sperm whales 
apparently did not cruise among the West Indian islands until after 
1760, but sometime before 1770 one or more vessels crossed the Equator 
in the West Atlantic. 

During the period between 1771 and 1775, there were from 121 to 182 
American vessels engaged in the southern whale fishery (Jefferson, 
1876, p. 6) on both sides of the South Atlantic. Sperm and right 
whales were hunted along the coast of Brazil from the Equator to off 
the mouth of La Plata River and thence southward to Le Maire Strait 
between Staten Island and Tierra del Fuego. Three of these Yankee 
whaling vessels, the brig Montague of Boston, the ship Thomas of Cape 
Cod, and the ship Hing George of Rhode Island, anchored at Port 
Egmont in 1774 (Penrose, 1775, pp. 67-70) and seven others not specifi- 
cally mentioned by name were known to be elsewhere in the Falkland 
Islands that year (Jenkins, 1921, p. 235). 

British whaling ships sailed for the coast of Brazil and the Falkland 
Islands in 1775. Before 1784, British vessels had made 76 voyages to 
these whaling grounds (Jenkins, 1921, p. 209). Six whaling ships with 
harpooners and crews from Nantucket were fitted out for the southern 
whale fishery in 1784 at Dunkirk, France (McCulloch, 1832, p. 1116). 

British vessels, likewise with crews from Nantucket, rounded Cape 
Horn about 1788 (Starbuck, 1878, p. 90) and commenced sperm whaling 
on the coast of Chile. They were followed by American whaling ships 
which actively participated in the exploration of the Pacific and the 
exploitation of sperm whale stocks in those waters. 

Hazards of capture during foreign and domestic wars, adverse con- 
ditions at home, variable insurance rates, restricted markets, and violent 
fluctuations in the market prices for sperm and whale oils kept the 
whaling business in a continual state of uncertainty. 

Nevertheless, in the first half of the nineteenth century as many as 
five or six hundred vessels were employed in hunting sperm and south- 
ern right whales in the South Atlantic and Antarctic Oceans (Boyson, 
1924, p. 220). 

Shortly afterward the general scarcity of sperm whales became rather 
noticeable and the industry began its decline. Statistics for the year 
1858 indicate that 68 ships were expected to return to Nantucket, Mass., 


310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


with a total loss of a million dollars to the owners. A few of these 
whaling ships continued whaling after 1900, but the great days of the 
southern right whale and sperm whale fishery have long since passed 
into memory. 

The rise, climax, and decline of the whaling industry has been reen- 
acted time and again as the result of ae Panne for particular kinds 
of whales, not only in the Southern Hemisphere but in all the waters 
of the world. 

The modern period of whaling, however, began some 72 years ago 
with the invention of a swivel harpoon gun by a Norwegian named 
Svend Foyn. It was not the swivel gun alone, but the explosive head 
which was fitted to the harpoon that enabled the whaler to master the 
huge furrow-throated whales. The rope attached to the harpoon was 
strong enough to raise the carcass to the surface where it was inflated 
with air, so that it would float. 

At the beginning of the twentieth century it became apparent that 
new methods of operating were necessary, if the industry was to avail 
itself of opportunities in more distant fields. Hence in 1904 an enter- 
prising Norwegian operator converted the steamer Admiralen into a 
floating factory and began whaling around Spitzbergen. Having 
found that a floating factory was free to move as conditions required, 
the Admiralen began whaling operations in the Antarctic near the 
Falkland Islands in 1905. The whaling tackle used in this fishery 
during the first few years was not suited for taking such powerful 
whales as the blue whale, which reaches a length of 100 feet. Soon, 
however, whale-catcher boats with adequate equipment were built. 

A modern whale catcher is a steamship somewhat similar to a trawler, 
but equipped with more powerful engines. It carries a crew of 13 to 19 
men, including the master and gunner, and at least 1 cook, 2 firemen, 
3 engineers, 6 sailors and a wireless operator, all of whom live in the 
most crowded quarters imaginable. Mounted in the bow of one of these 
boats is a maneuverable cannon that fires a harpoon weighing more 
than 100 pounds, and is fitted with strong hinged barbs that open after 
it has entered the body of the whale. The head of the harpoon also 
contains an explosive grenade that is fired by contact with the whale. 
The gunner, assisted by the lookouts in the crow’s nest, scans the ice- 
filled waters of the Antarctic, the richest of all whaling grounds, for 
his quarry. When a whale is sighted the pursuit continues relentlessly 
until the victim is harpooned. 

Once the harpoon has reached its mark, the whale is doomed, and 
although it may dive to some depth in its death throes, it is slowly but 
surely drawn to the surface by the steam winches of the whale-catcher 
boat. Usually the next step is to haul the dead whale alongside the 
whale-catcher boat where a hollow lance attached to a compressed-air 
hose is trust into the body in order to inflate the carcass so that it will 


MARINE MAMMALS—KELLOGG Sie 


float. Then a flag is stuck into the carcass before it is cut adrift to be 
picked up later and towed to the factory ship. When two or three of 
these whales have been captured in this manner, they are towed to the 
factory ship or shore station, where their carcasses are dealt with 
promptly and efficiently. 

During the first few years the floating factory ships were steam- 
ers of 2,300 to 6,000 tons. During this period also, the whales were 
cut up alongside the factory ships, and the blubber and the head 
were hoisted on board. For more rational use of the carcass these 
factory ships have been constantly improved. The large ships now 
in use are provided with a slipway, usually located at the stern 
above the propellers, on which the whale carcasses are drawn to 
the main deck by steam winches. Within 1 or 2 hours, the mam- 
moth corpse is processed down to the last scrap of flesh. 

The dead-weight tonnage of about half of the factory ships now 
in operation is around 20,000 tons. The Zerje Viken, the largest 
of them all, is 633 feet long and is rated at 30,000 dead-weight tons. 
Ten whale-catcher boats are needed to kill sufficient whales to keep 
this factory ship operating 24 hours a day. Something like 418 men 
comprise the crew. 

The perfecting of the kerosene lamp, of the gas mantle, of the 
electric light, and the deflating of women’s garments gave the whales 
a respite for some years, but a sudden demand for the glycerine 
needed for the making of ammunition for the destruction of men 
gave the final impetus to these animals’ fast approaching doom. 
Prior to World War I glycerine was a mere byproduct of the soap 
makers. Then came the enormous demand for this substance to be 
used in the manufacture of munitions. As whaling operations were 
necessarily suspended in the North Atlantic on account of the war, 
the active modern exploitation of the Antarctic field began. 

Whale oil is now used principally for soap, with glycerine as a 
byproduct, for the manufacture of edible fats such as margarine 
in Europe, and to a lesser extent for leather currying, fiber dressing, 
face creams, unguents and ointments. In addition to this oil, a 
furrow-throated whale of average size will yield about 4 tons of 
meat, bone, and fertilizer. As a result of improved methods of 
pursuit and handling, as well as the discovery of new uses for 
whale oil in such things as margarine and cosmetics, the search for 
whales is now more active than ever. 

The present century has witnessed large-scale killing of whales by 
relatively few ships. When World War I ended, it was expected 
that the demand for whale oil would drop off, but instead the total 
world production rose from 362,000 barrels in 1919 to 1,040,408 bar- 
rels in 1925. Since then the total Antarctic production of whale oil 
has increased year by year, the amount obtained in 1937-38 being 


312 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


3,340,330 barrels. The bulk of this oil came from finback and blue 
whales. During 1937-88 alone, 54,664 whales were slaughtered, the 
largest number ever killed in one year. Of these, 46,039 were taken 
in Antarctic waters during the 97-day season extending from De- 
cember 8 to March 15 by 256 whale-catcher boats operating with 31 
floating factories and 2 land stations. 

In the interval between 1904 and 1939, nearly 200,000 whales have 
been killed in the vicinity of the British Falkland Island De- 
pendency Claim, which comprises South Georgia, South Shetlands, 
South Orkneys, and the Palmer Peninsula. Of these there were 
about 387,000 humpbacks, more than 75,000 finbacks, nearly 60,000 
blue whales, about 4,000 sei whales, 590 right whales, and less than 
1,000 sperm whales. 

More than half of the 15,000 or more whales captured by shore 
stations and floating factories operating along the coasts of Chile, 
Peru, and Ecuador have been sperm whales. 

The first clear indication that the stocks of whales in Antarctic 
waters were being decimated came during the season of 1936-87. 
For several years prior to that season, blue whales outnumbered fin- 
backs two to one in the annual catches. ‘The returns for the 1936-87 
season revealed that for the first time more finbacks (14,381) than 
blue whales (14,304) were taken. The next year, 1937-88, 14,923 
blue whales and 28,009 finbacks were caught. The same condition 
prevailed in 1938-389 when 14,081 blue whales and 20,784 finbacks 
were killed. 

The blue whale has been the mainstay of the Antarctic whale 
fishery. This whale occasionally reaches a length of 100 feet and is 
the largest animal known to have lived on this planet. It has been 
calculated that the oil, fertilizer, and other products obtained from 
a 75-foot blue whale will equal that obtained from either two fin- 
backs or two sperm whales totaling 110 linear feet, or from three 
humpbacks totaling 120 linear feet, or from four sei whales totaling 
200 linear feet. 

Much has been written regarding the enormous expansion of the 
whaling industry in recent years. Warnings have been given re- 
peatedly that the scale of operations and the methods employed 
constituted a menace to the maintenance of the stock of whales. 
Whalers contended for some time, however, that the Antarctic cir- 
cumpolar waters constituted a vast reservoir of whales and that 
those killed were replaced naturally by migration from inaccessible 
areas. 

Nevertheless, some of the large whaling companies began to ex- 
press openly some misgivings about the future of the industry if 
the promiscuous killing of whales continued unchecked. Shortly 
afterward, some of the governments, whose nationals were engaged 


MARINE MAMMALS—KELLOGG ake 


in whaling, expressed their serious concern at the increasing magni- 
tude of whaling operations in the Antarctic, which had now reached 
such proportions that restrictive measures were urgently required 
if the future of the industry was not to be gravely endangered. 

Although there were many difficulties in the way of adoption of such 
measures, it was recognized that, in the interests of conserving the 
stocks of whales, this could be accomplished only by international 
action. On April 8, 1930, a committee of experts met in Berlin at the 
request of the Economic Committee of the League of Nations to con- 
sider the feasibility of international regulation of the whaling in- 
dustry. The draft convention prepared at this conference, after hav- 
ing been modified in certain minor respects, was ratified by 17 countries 
and acceded to by 8 others. This convention, however, did not come 
into force until January 16, 1935. By its provisions, full protection 
was given to all kinds of right whales; the taking or killing of calves, 
and females accompanied by calves, was prohibited; and the fullest 
possible use of the carcasses of all whales taken was required. 

The first restriction in pelagic whaling operations, however, came 
in 1932, purely as the result of economic necessity. The whale oil 
market was glutted and the Norwegian fleet remained in port. The 
following season, influenced in part by the world financial crisis, all 
the companies, with one exception, agreed to restrict production to 
2,000,000 barrels of whale oil. 

Faced with the prospect that there would be no voluntary limitation 
of production during the 1934-35 season, the Norwegian Government 
found it necessary to consider amendments to the Norwegian Whaling 
Act to regulate the industry. It was recognized that the high standard 
of efficiency attained by the factory ships threatened the perpetuation 
of whale stocks. Consequently the Norwegian Whaling Act of 1934 
conferred on the Crown the authority to restrict the whaling season 
to certain periods of the year, to enforce total utilization of the whale 
carcass, and to prohibit the killing of undersized whales. 

In 1936, the Governments of Great Britain and Norway pledged 
themselves to curtail the season everywhere south of 40° south latitude 
to the 90 days between December 8 and March 7, and to limit the 
number of whale-catcher boats operating with each floating factory. 
Repeated conferences between officials of these two Governments led 
to the calling of the International Conference for the Regulation of 
Whaling held at London during June 1937. Stringent regulations, 
or “game laws,” covering the minimum legal size for whales of each 
species, and prohibiting the killing of females accompanied by calves, 
as well as all right and gray whales, were drafted for approval by 
the Governments of South Africa, Argentina, Australia, Germany, 
Great Britain, Eire, New Zealand, and the United States. This agree- 
ment came into force as regards the United States on May 18, 1988. 


314 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Under the terms of this agreement, factory ships are barred from 
operation on the calving grounds of whales, and are obliged to make 
the fullest possible use of the whale carcass. Some minor modifica- 
tions were written into the Protocol of June 1938, including the pro- 
tection of the decimated stocks of humpbacks in Antarctic waters and 
the establishment of an Antarctic whale sanctuary between the Ross 
Sea and Cape Horn. 

Weare now witnessing what, without much doubt, is the last phase in 
the history of whaling, for after the culmination of the present ex- 
ploitation of the Antarctic seas, where in the past 40 years more than 
750,000 whales have been killed, no unexplored seas are left to be 
harvested. 

If the exploitation of the whale stocks continues on the present scale, 
the time must soon arrive when the last remaining stocks of whales 
will be so depleted that it will be economically impossible to operate 
the great floating factories. One more of nature’s bounties will have 
been sacrificed to man’s greed. 


LITERATURE CITED 


ALLEN, H. T. 

1920. Memorandum relative to sealing in the Dependencies of the Falkland 
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ALLEN, J. A. 

1880. History of North American pinnipeds. A moncgraph of the walruses, 
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ANONYMOUB. 

1906a. Has a big catch. Pacific Fisherman, vol. 4, No. 5, p. 20, May. 

1906b. Makes a record catch. Pacific Fisherman, vol. 4, No. 7, p. 19, July. 
ASHLEY, CLIFFORD W. 

1938. The Yankee whaler. Pp. xxviii-++-156, illustr. Houghton Mifflin Co., 

Boston. 
BaLcH, EDWIN SwIrt. 

1909. Stonington Antaretie explorers. Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., vol. 41, No. 

8, pp. 478-482, August. 
Boyson, V. F. 

1924. The Falkland Islands. Pp. xii+414, illustr., maps. Clarendon Press, 

Oxford. 
Bruce, W. S. 

1920. Note of Dr. Bruce’s remarks at the discussion of his letter of the 14th 
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search and Development in the Dependencies of the Falkland 
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Caprera, ANGEL, and YEPES, José. 

1940. Historia Natural Ediar. Mamiferos Sud-Americanos (vida, costum- 
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tores, Buenos Aires. 


MARINE MAMMALS—KELLOGG 315 


CALMAN, W. T. 

1937. James Hights, a pioneer Antarctic naturalist. Proc. Linnean Soc. Lon- 

don, 149th Sess. (1936-37), pt. 4, pp. 171-184, November 8. 
CLARK, A. HOWARD. 

1887. The Antarctic fur-seal and sea-elephant industry. The Fisheries and 
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operation of the Commissioner of Fisheries and the Superintendent 
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DALRYMPLE, ALEXANDER. 

1775. A coliection of voyages chiefly in the southern Atlantick Ocean. Pub- 
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1-18, 3 folding maps, London. 

DAMPIER, WILLIAM. 

1705. Mr. Dampier’s voyages to the Bay of Campeachy. Voyages and De- 

seriptiens, 3d ed., vol. 2, pp. 1-132, London. 
DARWIN, CHARLES. 

1839. Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty’s ships Adventure 
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DELANO, AMASA. 

1817. <A narrative of voyages and travels, in the northern and southern 
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FANNING, EDMUND. 

1924, Voyages and discoveries in the South Seas 1792-1832. Pp, xvi-+-355, 

illustr. Marine Research Soc., Salem, Mass. 
HaAMILtTon, J. H. 

1934. The southern sea lion, Otaria byronia (De Blainville). Discovery 

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1980. <A list of trading vessels in maritime fur trade, 1785-1794. Trans. 

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1876. Cod and whale fisheries. Report of Hon. Thomas Jefferson, Secre- 
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JENKINS, J. T. 

1921. <A history of the whale fisheries. From the Basque fisheries of the 
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336 pp., illustr. H. F. and G. Witherby, London. 

KERR, ROBERT. 

1811. A general history and collection of voyages and travels, arranged 
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316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Lucas, Frepveric A. 
1891. Animals recently extinct or threatened with extermination, as repre- 
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1825. A voyage towards the South Pole, performed in the years 1822-24. 
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pls. London. 


THE RETURN OF THE MUSK OX}! 


By STANLEY P, Youna 
Senior Biologist, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Department of the Interior 


[With 6 plates] 


The musk ox, one of the most interesting mammals of the bleak 
Arctic, has returned to Alaska, and while little is known of its disap- 
pearance from that region more than a century ago, its return is boldly 
written in what is perhaps the most dramatic chapter in the annals of 
big-game conservation. Indeed, this remarkable undertaking of rein- 
troducing a game animal into its ancient habitat has few parallels in 
conservation history. 

To reestablish their kind in our northern territory, the musk oxen 
were transported by boat and by railway a distance of approximately 
14,000 miles, the longest and most hazardous journey in the history of 
transplanting any mammal for restocking purposes. Captured in 
Greenland, the animals were shipped by boat to Bergen, Norway, and 
then to New York City. There they were crated and sent to Seattle, 
Wash., on express railway cars, to be loaded again aboard a boat for 
Alaska. More than 2 months were required to move the animals from 
Greenland to Fairbanks. Despite this record-breaking journey, the 
herd, consisting of 84 animals—15 males and 19 females—arrived at 
its destination in splendid condition. 

This was in 19380. Nine years later, in 19389, when the herd was last 
counted on Nunivak Island, where it was released, it numbered 60. 
Biologists have full faith that the animals will continue to increase 
and in time be of sufficient number to permit restocking of other areas 
in Alaska. 

But before reviewing this amazing undertaking, it may be well to 
consider the musk ox and its bleak habitat. The term “Arctic,” to a 
great many people, suggests a desolate, ice-bound land—or water— 
where little life is supported. However true this may at first appear, 
there is error in such thinking. In our so-called Arctic wastes may be 
found a profusion of bird and mammal life in season, such as many 


1 Reprinted by permission from American Forests, August 1941. 
317 


318 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


species of migratory waterfowl, fur bearers, Arctic hares, lemmings, 
caribou, wolves, and musk oxen. 

The greatest concentration of wildlife in the so-called Arctic wastes 
is to be found during the late spring and summer months, following 
which nearly all the mammals either hibernate or, along with the birds, 
migrate to a more suitable winter habitat. Of the mammals which 
neither hibernate nor to any great extent migrate from this chosen 
Arctic home, the musk ox is capable of contending with some of the 
bleakest habitats found anywhere. 

This picturesque mammal was first discovered in North America by 
intrepid northern explorers and traders near the close of the seven- 
teenth century. Although, as may be conjectured, the musk ox is 
related to wild and domestic cattle, it is generally smaller than most 
breeds, though some of the old animals have weighed 900 pounds. From 
the tip of its nose to the end of its short ratlike tail, the musk ox is 
nearly 8 feet long. As with most mammals of the cattle type, the 
adult bull is larger than the female. The young, one baby calf, is gen- 
erally born in April or in early May, and this calf is reared in the 
valleys of the Arctic hills, mountains, and tundra flats. Here a pro- 
fusion of sedges, grasses, and shrubs blossom in the fast-growing short 
spring and summer, and from these the herds with the young take their 
subsistence. These herds are generally small, averaging from 5 to 12 
animals. 

Arctic summers usually disappear with great suddenness, leaving 
little semblance of an autumn, and early snows cover much of the 
musk ox’s food. With this quick disappearance of fresh grasses the 
mammal turns to dwarf willows, saxifrage, and other herbaceous 
plants and grasses which it obtains by pawing through the snow with 
its broad hoof. 

Two of the natural enemies of the musk ox have been the Arctic wolf 
and the isolated tribes of primitive man, such as the Eskimo and the 
Indian. Against these enemies this interesting and formidable appear- 
ing Arctic creature held its own in fair numbers. The modern firearm, 
however, coupled with predation and the take by the northernmost 
tribes, spelled its doom. 

Originally, musk oxen occurred from Alaska eastward to and in- 
cluding Ellesmere Island. Crossing Baffin Bay, and still eastward, 
it Was again encountered in the coastal fringes of Greenland. Adol- 
phus W. Greely, leader of the famous Greely Arctic Expedition in 
the early eighties, found the animal near old Fort Conger, approxi- 
mately 1,100 miles north of the Arctic Circle, on Ellesmere Island, 
and points westward. Greely’s men captured calves and attempted 
to tame them, with the result that some became docile and tractable 
even to the extent of hauling in teams. The chief difficulty was to 
keep the sledge dogs of the expedition from killing them. 


THE MUSK OX-—YOUNG 319 


Today the musk ox has disappeared from much of its original 
Arctic domain. The use of modern firearms against the musk ox, 
which began 40 years prior to the advent of the present century, 
has been the greatest contributing factor. For a time its skin was 
utilized in the fur trade; northern whaling crews killed many ani- 
mals for food; then the formidable heads with sharp, curved horns 
became highly prized as trophies. Canada, taking cognizance of this 
condition, some years ago set up a musk ox sanctuary of approxi- 
mately 15,000 square miles along the Thelon River east of Great 
Slave Lake in the Northwest Territory. 

Research has failed to find any authenticated occurence of the musk 
ox in Alaska since it was first explored by Europeans. The various 
tribes of natives in the Territory, however, state that the animal did 
occur there about 100 years ago. Also, remains of the mammal have 
been found in Alaska; and it is known that portions of the Territory 
are suitable for musk oxen. 

So, in 1927, resident Alaskans presented a memorial through their 
Territorial legislature addressed to the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives of the United States requesting funds to purchase a small 
herd of musk oxen. This plea came to the attention of the late 
Senator Peter Norbeck of South Dakota, that grand old man of 
conservation, and Representative C. C. Dickinson of Iowa, later a 
Senator from that State. Together with Irving McK. Reed, then a 
member of the Alaska Game Commission, they obtained favorable 
action by Congress for an appropriation of $40,000 to be used in ob- 
taining a herd of musk oxen and transporting the animals to Alaska 
for restocking purposes. This action was approved by the Presi- 
dent on May 27, 1930. The agency of the Federal Government to 
which this undertaking was entrusted was the Bureau of Biological 
Survey of the Department of Agriculture, later transferred to the 
Department of the Interior, and during the past year combined with 
the Bureau of Fisheries into an organization known as the Fish and 
Wildlife Service. 

By the time the appropriation became available musk oxen in 
North America had become so reduced in numbers that it was im- 
possible to obtain surplus animals. Finally, contact was made with 
Johs. Lund of Aalesund, Norway, who was familiar with the tech- 
nique of capturing musk oxen alive in Greenland. To him, therefore. 
was given the contract and task of rounding up a herd of 34 animals. 
The Greenland musk oxen differ somewhat from those that formerly 
occurred on the continent of North America, foremost in that they 
are slightly smaller. However, from a practical game-management 
standpoint, the differences are negligible. 

The majority of these Greenland musk oxen were roped by Mr. 
Lund and transferred from the mainland in whaling boats to a ship 


320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


which carried them to Bergen, Norway. They were placed in spe- 
cially constructed crates which permitted the animals to stand or to lie 
down in comfort. Grasses and hay taken in the locality of their 
capture provided suitable food. 

On September 6, 1930, the herd of 34 animals, half of them calves, 
the remainder yearlings and 2-year-olds, was shipped from Bergen 
and 10 days later arrived in the port of New York. From there 
they were removed to Athenia, N. J., where for 33 days, in accord- 
ance with Federal regulations, they were held in quarantine. This 
procedure was necessary to be assured that such diseases as foot-and- 
mouth disease and rinderpest were not present in the herd. During 
this interval two experts from the Biological Survey were placed 
in charge of the animals, and American-grown alfalfa hay became 
their main food. About 5 pounds of hay an animal were consumed 
daily along with considerable water, the latter probably caused by ex- 
cessive heat on the Atlantic seaboard and, in addition, to thirst 
caused by the great environmental change. 

At the end of the quarantine period, the animals, still in their 
individual crates, and well supplied with hay and water, were loaded 
into steel express cars for their 5-day trip to Seattle. At this point 
they were again placed aboard a boat for the week’s journey to 
Seward, Alaska; then in freight box cars, they made the rail trip 
northward to College, near Fairbanks. They arrived at this desti- 
nation on November 4, and on the following day, near the campus of 
our most northerly institution of higher learning, the University of 
Alaska, were released into a 7,500-acre pasture—part of the Biolog- 
ical Survey’s cooperative reindeer experiment station. This was to be 
their home for the following 6 years—years of care, study, and ex- 
periment. All the musk oxen reached College in splendid condition. 

Accidental injuries reduced the herd to 32 animals shortly after it 
was placed in the pasture. These, however, soon responded to han- 
dling and could be driven easier than reindeer when it was desired to 
corral them. While under observation at this point, it was found 
that in spring and fall the animals fed chiefly on grasses and sedges, 
in summer on shrubs, and in winter on cured grasses, sedges, and, to 
some extent, on lichens. By 1932, the herd was further reduced, 2 of 
the animals falling victims to bears. 

In April 1934, the first of the calves were born, and in May and June 
additional calving took place. There were nine 5-year-old cows at 
this time and seven of them gave birth to calves. Four cows that were 
4 years old did not breed. Of the original 34 animals brought to 
Alaska, 10 had died by 1934, leaving 24 of the original herd and 5 new 
calves, a total of 29. Additional calving during the spring of 1935 
brought the herd to 382. 


THE MUSK OX—YOUNG oot 


It was ascertained up to this time that apparently the musk ox does 
not breed until 4 years of age, and calves at 5 years. It was also found 
that the gestation period is 8 months rather than 9 months, as pre- 
viously believed. 

In the summer of 1935 the first of these musk oxen, two adult bulls 
and two adult cows, were liberated on Nunivak Island in the Bering 
Sea. Unfortunately, a third cow was killed en route. This island 
lies approximately 25 miles from the mainland and south of the mouth 
of the Yukon River. It is about 40 miles wide and 70 miles long, 
containing nearly a million acres of superb grazing land. Also, the 
island is completely free of all predators, such as bears and wolves. 

In 1936, when checks indicated the four animals were doing well, it 
was determined to liberate the remainder of the herd there. The ani- 
mals were accordingly rounded up and crated—27 in all. By this time 
the youngsters trapped in Greenland had matured into real animals, 
and it was with difficulty that they were captured. They were hauled 
by trucks and freight cars to Nenana, from which point they were 
transferred to the engine deck of the 8S. S. Nenana for the long trip 
down the Yukon River. Arriving at Marshall 4 days later, the animals 
were reloaded to a covered barge and, towed by motorship, resumed 
their journey down the Yukon to its mouth, at Kotlik, thence across 
Pastol Bay in the Bering Sea to St. Michael. Here they were placed 
on an open barge, the crates covered with tarpaulins, being lashed 
with cables to prevent shifting of the load. On July 14 the barge, in 
tow of a motorship, headed for the open sea and Nunivak Island. 

At this time of year northern Alaska may be visited by sudden and 
severe storms, so there was great anxiety on the part of those of us 
directly concerned with the movement and management of the ani- 
mals. Three men were assigned to the barge, one to look after the 
barge itself, the others to care for the comfort of the musk oxen. 
From the words of one of these men, some idea may be had of the 
hazards involved in this dramatic trip: 


In letting out the towline, it fouled on an object in the bottom of the bay, per- 
haps an old 1,000-pound anchor, which was dragged out to Stuart Island, a 
distance of about 15 miles, before being dislodged. Heavy seas were encountered 
outside of St. Michael Bay, and until we reached the shelter of Stuart Island 
the going was rough. The weight on the towline pulled down the bow of the 
barge and prevented it riding over the waves, so it plowed through them. The 
barge was put to considerable strain these 3 hours. After freeing the towline 
the barge rode more smoothly. 

When we reached the open sea the barge began to reveal its age. The drift 
bolts in the bow parted, opening a seam its full width, through which the water 
poured each time it hit a wave. Other seams began to open, and by 9 a. m., the 
water stood 3 feet deep in the well of the hold. 


322 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Hand pumps were resorted to and the speed of the towing ship was 
reduced until a stop was made in the lee of Sand Islands. Here the 
barge was repaired, and on July 16, the journey resumed to Nunivak. 
By early in the evening of that day, anchor was made on the east 
side of the island, a few miles south of Cape Etolin. 

A number of Eskimos live on Nunivak Island, and through the 
active interest of Carl Lomen, the well-known conservationist, of 
Nome, Alaska, their cooperation was obtained, and the unloading of 
the animals was completed on July 17. The head man on Nunivak 
Island, well known as trustworthy by Mr. Lomen, had a radio receiv- 
ing set. In order to insure additional manpower that might be vital 
to success in unloading the musk oxen under adverse conditions, Mr. 
Lomen broadcast a message to the island three times a week over a 
lengthy period prior to the anticipated date of arrival. The weather 
fortunately held good, which enabled the men to place the barge 
well inshore. From this position gang planks were placed onto 
dry land, and down these planks the crated musk oxen, one by 
one, were shoved. Released from their crates, the animals soon took 
to their new and permanent home. A reconnaissance of the island 
proved that the four musk oxen released in 1985 were definitely estab- 
lished. A check of the island in 1939 revealed that the initial stock of 
34 animals received at College from Greenland in 1930 had multiplied 
to more than 60. 

Thus Alaska has her musk ox once again, after probably the long- 
est and most hazardous journey in the history of transplanting any 
mammal for restocking purposes. The total distance these animals 
traveled was approximately 14,000 miles. But a sudden storm might 
have wrecked all the fine work that was so vigorously and effectively 
sponsored by Senator Norbeck and Representative Dickinson 6 years 
previously—in fact, wrecked the whole venture and caused the loss of 
human life. But such is the risk many enthusiasts in wildlife con- 
servation are willing to assume. 

It is hoped that as the Nunivak herd continues to increase a surplus 
will be produced. This will permit the restocking of other Alaskan 
areas containing suitable habitat where this interesting mammal of 
the bleak Arctic may live and breed and thus perpetuate its kind again 
over much of its old range in that romantic territory. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Young PLATE 1 


1. METHOD OF CAPTURING THE YOUNG MUSK OXEN IN GREENLAND. 


Some were calves, others were yearlings. 


moe oo 


2. A MUSK OX ABOUT TO BE CRATED IN GREENLAND PREPARATORY TO ITS LONG 
TRIP TO ALASKA VIA THE UNITED STATES. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Young PLATE 2 


1. UNLOADING LIVE CRATED MUSK OXEN ON ARRIVAL AT ALASKAN DESTINATION, 
ISSrile 


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2. HEAD VIEW OF 4-YEAR-OLD MUSK OX BULL, ALASKA, MAy 6, 1934. 


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1 o10R-00G'L B UI pooed SBM PIOY 94} pUB[UVeIH UOJ BYSeLY Ul [VATIIe Id uod 


“MOTIBAIASGO IO} IsoT[OD) BI BINJSBC 
‘4107 GSaS4 NO NAXO MSNW 


‘satuaua Joy}0 pus ‘sivaq ‘sadTom Aq SHOVE 4 


aIBIJSUOMap STRUAIUB 9 ‘101e] SIBOA Z ‘OOH 


matt igi 


suno}— 76] *yaoday upruosy yg 


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Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Young PLATE 4 


1. ANIMALS ARE LIBERATED AFTER THEIR 14.000-MILE JOURNEY. 


This cow was reluctant to leave her crate even after it was flooded by the incoming tide. 


2. IN 1934, WITH THE HERD STILL IN THE COLLEGE PASTURE, THE FIRST CALVES 
WERE BORN. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Young PEATE. 5 


1. IN 1936 THE MUSK OXEN WERE CRATED AND PLACED ABOARD A LARGE BARGE 
FOR THEIR LAST VOYAGE 


ee 


2. CLIMAXING ONE OF THE MOST DRAMATIC CHAPTERS IN THE ANNALS OF BIG 
GAME CONSERVATION, THE BARGE AND ITS CARGO OF MUSK OXEN APPROACH 
NUNIVAK ISLAND IN THE BERING SEA. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Young PLATE 6 


& | ae FS ., 


1. A 6-YEAR-OLD BULL, ONE OF 34 ANIMALS THAT MADE THE LONG TRIP TO 
ALASKA. 


2. AFTER 100 YEARS THE MUSK OXEN HAVE RETURNED TO ALASKA, WARDS OF THE 
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. 
On Nunivak Island in the Bering Sea the small herd trapped in Greenland 11 years ago has now grown to 
, More than 100 animals, and biologists believe that in time their number will be sufficient to}permit restock- 
ing of other areas. 


INSECT ENEMIES OF OUR CEREAL CROPS 


By C. M. PACKARD 


Principal Entomologist, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Agricul- 
tural Research Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture 


[With 19 plates] 


To the casual observer the growing of cereal crops such as corn, 
wheat, and oats seems to be a very simple procedure. We accept our 
daily bread—as well as our meat, milk, and eggs—with little thought 
of the labor involved and the difficulties surmounted in placing these 
essential foods on our tables. In these days of urban industrial life 
two-thirds of the population have forgotten, if they ever heard, the 
old rule for planting corn: “One for the squirrel, one of the crow, one 
for the cutworm, and one to grow.” Nevertheless, with all our 
modern improvements in farming, the crop losses recognized in this 
old adage still occur, even though ways of reducing these losses are 
gradually being found. 


LOSSES AND SAVINGS 


The 25 percent loss of crops implied by this old saying as being due 
to insects is much too high for a general average, although almost 
total losses are caused annually by one insect pest or another in 
occasional fields. An annual reduction due to insects of about 10 
percent in crop yields is, however, considered a conservative estimate. 
Even this much reduction may mean the difference between profit and 
loss from a whole year of labor by an individual farmer. Moreover, 
in these days when so many men are fighting instead of producing and 
when they, as well as our allies, must be fed if the war is to be won 
and starvation is to be prevented, the toll taken by the insects as well 
as our other enemies increases in importance. The 10 percent of our 
normal production of staple crops taken annually by insects would 
far more than feed all our fighting forces and would go far toward 
supplying the food needed by our allies. 


323 
501591—43——_22 


324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


The following figures are carefully considered estimates of average 
annual losses due to the most injurious species of a long list of insects 
that attack cereal crops: 


Insect Crops affected Annual losses 
Cornsearwormes = AS COT 2 2282 Fae eae ee $79, 200, 000 
lessian ofl yo es Se SAWING BIE tees Stage 2 2 eee 138, 018, 000 
Chinchy bug ee == Corn whealts byesoatseee = — 15,000, 000 
Grasshopperssae= = =e eee Cereal and forage crops_______-_ 25, 701, 000 
European corn borer__________ COT se SS es i ae ee 5, 000, 000 
Sorghumemid gees Org MUMS ss yee ee ee ee 6, 401, 000 
Riceystinks pug! ==. eae =] 'Growing rice! 2 ke eka eae ee 500, 000 
Rice weevil! 2 2 _e2 ss eae Stored corn, wheat, and rice____ _ 65, 042, 000 
Other stored-grain insects______ PUM feait eh hols S AOE Tee 300, 000, 000 

WN 0) 1 AS ene Re SR tn aN eg I ee ne PEL De $509, 862, 000 


Very few satisfactory estimates of the value of crops saved through 
the application of control measures have been made. Definite figures 
on this subject are extremely difficult to obtain. They are available, 
however, for a few Federally supported and organized programs to 
protect crops from certain insect pests. For instance, in 1934 it was 
estimated that through a combined Federal and State expenditure of 
$1,212,776 in a cooperative effort to contro] the chinch bug, at least 
$25,500,000 worth of corn was saved from destruction. Thus, for each 
dollar expended approximately $21 worth of corn was saved. 

Publicly supported grasshopper-control campaigns also afford ex- 
amples of the crop savings realized from insect control, as shown by the 
following figures on recent operations. 


1939 1940 1941 
PB alti ised 2 sea a ee es tons, dry weight__ 153, 811 66, 765 21, 041 
Estimated totalexpenditures by all cooperating 
Agen cles se Lees ee a ek ee Te dollars__ 5, 609, 322 2,079, 790 801, 020 
Estimated value of crops lost__....._.__..-.__________- dollars_- 48, 803, 370 22, 897, 786 23, 822, 713 
Estimated value of crops saved__...___-._.---_--_---- dollars__| 128, 438, 725 42, 639, 513 35, 583, 136 
Value of crops saved per dollar spent__._.__...__-_---_-_-____- $22. 90 $20. 05 $44, 42 


These savings have been largely due to Federal and State research 
work on the development, improvement, and application of grass- 
hopper-control measures and serve to illustrate the value of such 
research. An average of $2,229,714 has been expended annually by 
the Department of Agriculture during the fiscal years 1938 to 1942, 
inclusive, in research directed toward the control of the insects af- 
fecting man and his food crops. At this rate it thus becomes evident 
that the value of crops saved in the single year 1939 from grass- 
hoppers alone has repaid for more than 57 years of research work 
conducted by the Department on all the great variety of noxious in- 
sects that beset us. Moreover, with the application of insect-control 


INSECT ENEMIES—PACKARD B25 


measures discovered by research, not only for one year but for many 
years, the returns become continuous and enormous as compared 
with the original cost of finding and perfecting them. 


MODES OF INSECT ATTACK 


Like human armies, insects attack in a variety of ways. There are 
the aviators, the ground troops, the subs (though subterranean rather 
than submarine), and the borers from within, all in most efficient 
combination. What they lack in size is more than made up in num- 
bers. They attack our cereal crop plants underground, bore within 
them or eat the leaves or grain during part of their lives, and then 
become aviators for purposes of infiltration and advance. White 
grubs, wireworms, and rootworms gnaw the roots of grain crops, 
change to actively flying beetles in their adult stages, efficiently select 
favorable locations for the next attack by their underground progeny, 
and plant time bombs in the form of eggs which hatch into most 
effective sapper battalions. The adult moths of corn earworms, corn 
borers, and armyworms; the adults of the hessian fly, jointworm, 
and sawflies; and the winged adults of chinch bugs, and grasshoppers, 
fly from field to field—some of them for much longer distances—and 
locate their ground troops of borers and scorched-earth specialists in 
the most advantageous positions for crop destruction. 

In their ability to change from one form to another, and to live off 
the country, the insect enemies of our cereal crops are in some ways 
more efficient than we or our human enemies. This ability greatly 
complicates the problem of fighting them, since only in certain 
stages of their insidious, versatile, and persistent attack can they be 
fought successfully. Furthermore, the methods of defense usable 
against them are limited by the low value per acre of these crops. 
Even though in the aggregate the cereal crops are by far the most 
essential and valuable of our farm products the returns per acre to 
the individual grower are in general comparatively small and he 
cannot afford expensive measures for control of the insects attacking 
them. 

METHODS OF REPELLING INSECT ATTACKS 


Painful experience and painstaking study have, however, shown 
many ways of overcoming these pests. Fortunately for us, each 
species always follows about the same tactics and usually there are one 
or more vulnerable points in the course of their activities at which 
they can be attacked successfully. In some instances no highly ef- 
fective and practical means of overcoming them have yet been found, 
and in others a combination of several control measures is necessary 
in order to subdue them. Obviously, the first essential in the control 
of an insect is a thorough knowledge of its life history and habits in 


326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


relation to the cultural methods required for the crop or crops on 
which it feeds. With this knowledge as a basis we are in a position 
to determine what measures can be utilized in its suppression, such as 
changes in time of planting the crop; changes in the succession of 
crops in the rotation; best tillage methods and best time to apply 
them; timely destruction of crop residues; use of mechanical devices, 
barriers, and insecticides; and the discovery or development of re- 
sistant varieties of the crops attacked. 


CULTURAL CONTROL MEASURES 


Variations in the cultural procedures ordinarily followed in growing 
the particular kind of grain attacked may often be utilized in pre- 
venting injury to that crop by certain insects. Control measures of 
this type are especially desirable because they add little or nothing to 
the expense of growing the crop. One of the most effective means of 
preventing the hessian fly (pls. 1-3) from attacking winter wheat, for 
instance, is to delay the sowing of the crop in the fall just long enough 
so that it does not come up until the fall flight of the insect is past. 
Moderately late plantings of corn are less seriously damaged than early 
plantings by the rootworm or “budworm” (pl. 4) in the southeastern 
States, and by the European corn borer in the northeastern States. 
Again, midseason (May) plantings of corn in southeastern Texas are 
better able to survive the attack of the sugarcane borer, a serious pest 
of corn in that area, than early or late plantings, because they escape 
the first brood and attain enough growth before the advent of the 
second and later broods to withstand them more successfully than late 
plantings do. 

The proper disposal of crop residues is often helpful in the control 
of certain insects, and highly important in the control of others. The 
European corn borer survives the winter in the full-grown caterpillar 
stage, chiefly in the stalks of corn and coarse-stemmed weeds. In late 
spring or early summer the caterpillars change to moths which fly 
to the new corn for egg laying. Complete disposal of the plant resi- 
dues in which the borers overwinter, by plowing them under (pl. 5), 
feeding them to stock, or burning them before the spring emergence 
of the moth, is one of the most important control measures for this 
insect. The sugarcane borer has similar habits in sugarcane, sorghum, 
and corn, except that the warmer climate along the Gulf coast where 
it occurs causes the adult moths to emerge earlier in the spring; hence 
fall or winter disposal of the residues of these crops is helpful in the 
control of this insect also. In the case of several wheat-infesting 
insects, e. g., the hessian fly, jontworm (pl. 4), strawworm, and saw- 
fly, the plowing under of the wheat stubble during the summer or 
early fall prevents their emergence to infest the new crop, or to breed 


INSECT ENEMIES—PACKARD 327 


and multiply in the volunteer wheat that would otherwise grow in the 
stubble fields. 

Certain tillage practices may sometimes be utilized in breaking the 
annual cycle in the development of certain species. Plowing, for in- 
stance, may be extensively and profitably applied in the control of 
grasshoppers. These insects are not as improvident as Aesop’s fable 
about the grasshopper and the ant would imply. During late summer 
and early fall most species deposit their egg pods in the ground (pl. 8), 
sometimes in enormous numbers, and thus having provided for the 
succeeding generation, die naturally of old age. The eggs normally 
remain well protected in the soil until the following spring without 
need of any food supply. In fact, the common injurious species spend 
6 to 8 months of the year as eggs in the top 3 inches or so of soil. If, 
sometime during this long period, preferably in the fall, the soil is 
turned over by plowing to a depth of at least 5 inches and the surface 
layer well compacted by subsequent cultivation, the little hoppers 
hatching from the eggs can be effectually prevented from emerging. 

The pale western cutworm, a serious pest of small grains in the 
Great Plains, provides another example of how knowledge of an in- 
sect’s habits may lead to inexpensive and practical cultural control 
methods. It is known that most cutworms hide in the soil during the 
day but come out to crawl around on the surface at night. They can 
be cheaply and easily controlled, therefore, by spreading poison-bran 
bait in the infested fields, the worms eating it during the time they 
spend above ground. But the pale western cutworm cannot be con- 
trolled by this method because it stays underground both day and 
night, and progresses from plant to plant by burrowing along just 
underneath the surface. A Canadian investigator discovered, how- 
ever, that these worms quickly die after they hatch out in the early 
spring if the newly sprouted vegetation is all killed by thorough cul- 
tivation as soon as the worms have had a little time to feed. Strangely 
enough, they can survive for some time if they have had no food, but 
die quickly if they have once fed and are then deprived of food. The 
infested fields may therefore be cleanly fallowed for about 3 weeks 
soon after the worms have hatched, and then sown to spring grains 
with little subsequent injury to the crop, which otherwise would have 
been ruined by this cutworm. 

A different strategy has also been used successfully against the pale 
western cutworm in the southern Great Plains where fall-sown wheat 
is the principal grain crop. In studying the insect’s habits it was 
discovered that the adult moths, which emerge in the fall, tend to fly 
to, and lay their eggs in, fields or portions of fields that had been 
allowed to produce a growth of vegetation during the summer.: Win- 
ter wheat sown in such fields was severely injured by this cutworm 


328 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


the following spring, while fields that had been cleanly fallowed prior 
to seeding escaped injury. 

Rotation with other crops is often used to great advantage in pre- 
venting injury to cereal crops, especially by certain species with re- 
stricted food habits. The larvae of June beetles, commonly called 
white grubs (pl. 14), are partial to crops belonging to the grass family 
and, by gnawing their roots, cause serious injury to pastures and grain 
crops planted on land that has been in sod. Leguminous crops, on the 
other hand, are unfavorable to their development, and the proper use 
of legumes in the rotation, or in combination with grasses in pastures, 
serves to reduce their depredations to negligible proportions. 

The corn rootworm (pl. 4), a serious pest in the Corn Belt, and the 
grape colaspis, another enemy of both corn and soybeans in that region, 
often become extremely abundant in fields that are planted to corn 
or soybeans for 2 or 3 years in succession. These insects are very 
restricted as to food plants, however, and can be readily eliminated 
as serious factors by crop rotations that are not only effective for this 
purpose but also are good general farm practices. 

Suitable crop rotations are also very useful as auxiliary preventive 
measures against several insects such as the hessian fly, strawworm, 
jointworm, and sawfly, which frequently cause serious injury to 
wheat. | 

Crop rotations and intensive farming, on the other hand, may be 
favorable to some insects, such as the chinch bug (pl. 12). This is a 
native American insect which probably fed on certain wild prairie 
grasses and was of no consequence before the native sod was plowed 
and planted to crops. The settlement of the prairies and the almost 
complete utilization of large areas for the production of grains pro- 
vided the chinch bug with crops much to its liking. An abundance 
of wheat and other small grains for the early summer brood to feed 
upon, and great acreages of corn in close proximity on which to finish 
its growth and produce one or more additional broods during the 
season, were ideal for its multiplication, with the result that it imme- 
diately became and has since remained one of our worst grain pests. 
Much can be done toward its control, however, by modifying the 
farming system so as to break the continuous rotation and the prox- 
imity of corn and small grains so favorable to the chinch bug, through 
the use of leguminous crops and pastures. 

Other cultural measures inherent in good farm practices, such as 
the use of fertilizers and soil-building crops, the planting of the new 
crop as far away as possible from the fields that bore the same crop 
the previous year, and the use of the best adapted and most vigorously 
growing varieties are all helpful as auxiliary measures for the control 
of cereal crop pests. Since most of these are, in themselves, profitable 


INSECT ENEMIES—PACKARD 329 


procedures, no added expense to the farmer is involved in obtaining 
the added protection from insects which they afford. 


MECHANICAL CONTROL MEASURES 


The mechanical devices used for the control of insects attacking 
cereal crops are confined mostly to the ordinary farm tools, which, 
however, rather than having any direct effect on the insects themselves, 
are chiefly effective indirectly through their use in cultural procedures 
and cropping systems. Plowing and disking do, of course, kill a 
considerable proportion of certain soft-bodied insects, such as the 
white grubs, cutworms, earworms, and rootworms, particularly if done 
at a time when they are changing from the worm to the adult beetle 
or moth stage in their underground pupal cells. The indirect effect 
of plowing under corn residues containing corn borers and soil con- 
taining grasshopper eggs to prevent their emergence has already been 
mentioned. In these cases, however, the benefits are derived mainly 
from the burial of the insects rather than from the mechanical action 
of the plowing. In general, the direct mechanical effect of the ordi- 
nary soil-working tools is of minor importance in the control of the 
insects injuring cereal crops. 

The rotary plow should perhaps be mentioned as an exception to 
this statement. This machine has a power-driven horizontal cylinder 
bearing a series of blades somewhat like a lawn mower. It not only 
turns over the soil but chops it finely, together with any insects, such 
as white grubs, it may contain and has been reported to be very effec- 
tive against soil-infesting insects. Because of the high cost of opera- 
tion and the impracticability of using it in stony ground, however, it 
has not come into general use. 

With the exception of equipment for the application of insecticides, 
the development of special mechanical devices for the direct control 
of insects has been very limited. In this field the development of ma- 
chinery for the destruction of European corn borers has been most 
thoroughly investigated. As a result of intensive cooperative work 
by agricultural engineers and entomologists several useful forms of 
equipment have been devised or adapted for corn-borer control. These 
include low-cutting attachments for corn binders and _ harvesters, 
hand cutting hoes and stalk shavers (pl. 7) for use in low-cutting of 
corn to be shocked by hand or corn stalks to be plowed under, shred- 
ding and chopping attachments for mechanical corn pickers, sta- 
tionary husker-shredders, silage cutters and field silage harvesters, 
and stationary fodder cutters and grinders. Although little of this 
machinery has yet come into general use, with the increase of the borer 
in the main Corn Belt it may be used extensively after the war, when 
materials essential in its manufacture are available. 


300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


In the field of development of mechanical insect-control devices 
attempts to produce a practical grasshopper catcher or “hopper- 
dozer” have been many and varied, and have been more or less con- 
tinuous since the great outbreaks of the Rocky Mountain locust soon 
after the Civil War. Certain of these machines are fairly practical 
for the control of some species on some crops and under certain con- 
ditions, especially since the advent of motor trucks and tractors to 
which they can be attached and by which they can be run rapidly over 
the infested fields. Even the best of them are not very efficient, how- 
ever, and the use of “hopperdozers” has been almost entirely super- 
seded by the cheaper and more efficient poison-baiting method of 
control. 

INSECTICIDES AND REPELLENTS 


By far the most extensive uses of insecticides for cereal insects are in 
the form of baits for grasshoppers, armyworms, and cutworms attack- 
ing these crops in the field; and of fumigants for moths, weevils and 
related insects attacking grain or cereal products during storage or 
milling. 

Before the advent of poison-bran bait the farmers were at as great 
a disadvantage against several of these insects as were the Indians 
with their bows and arrows against the American pioneers equipped 
with rifles. Cultural methods of one kind or another, most of which 
are preventive rather than remedial, and which, to be effective, must 
be applied before the crop is actually planted, were practically the 
only recourse of the farmer. Even the best informed and most fore- 
sighted farmers were more or less helpless in the face of the periodical 
outbreaks of one or another of these insects that occur when con- 
ditions favor their increase for a season or two. Many less well in- 
formed farmers devoutly believed that a visitation of armyworms or 
grasshoppers to their fields was divine punishment for some trans- 
gression of which they might not even be aware. 


POISON BAITS 


The first recorded use of poison bait against grasshoppers was in 
the 1880’s by farmers in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Doubt- 
less the first farmer to try it was considered by his neighbors to be 
rather weak-minded if not crazy to expect the hoppers to pay any 
attention to a thin sprinkling or a few little heaps of poisoned bran 
in competition with their natural food plants. Nevertheless, the 
scheme worked surprisingly well. It was improved by the substitution 
of wheat bran for middlings and called to the attention of farmers 
and entomologists in other parts of the country by D. W. Coquillet, 
a noted investigator of that day in the field of insect control, who first 
observed its use in California. 


INSECT ENEMIES—PACKARD 331 


With recurrent grasshopper outbreaks in many other States the 
method gradually came into much wider use (pl. 10) and its effective- 
ness against armyworms and cutworms as well as grasshoppers became 
more generally known. Many attempts were made to increase the 
efficiency of the bait by the addition of flavorings of one kind or 
another, such as cane molasses, ground citrus fruit, or banana oil, to 
make it more attractive to the grasshoppers. Up to the present time, 
however, the wheat bran itself, and products closely related to it, have 
proved to be about the most attractive, most widely available and 
cheapest material suitable for large-scale use. The effectiveness of 
bran baits has not been increased enough by any other attractants yet 
found to warrant the trouble and cost of adding them. On the other 
hand, it has been found possible to dilute the bran greatly with cheaper 
inert flaky substances, particularly wood sawdust or cottonseed hulls, 
without materially reducing the efficiency of the bait. As a result of 
this discovery the cost of bait per acre has been much reduced and 
the funds available for control operations have been made to go much 
farther in recent years than formerly. The quantities of bait used 
during the years 1939, 1940, and 1941 for the control of grasshoppers, 
and the crop savings realized thereby are given in the table on page 324. 

Large quantities of bait have also been used during the past several 
years in the control of armyworms and Mormon crickets. It is only 
within the last 3 or 4 years that bait has been used successfully against 
the latter. Although the Mormon cricket (pl. 11) is really a big 
wingless grasshopper and likes the same crops, it will have little to do 
with the standard bait in which an arsenical is used as the poisonous 
ingredient. For many years this was thought to be due to all sorts of 
reasons except the right one. Finally Cowan and Shipman learned 
from their experiments that the crickets refuse to eat baits containing 
an arsenical even in extremely small quantities but that they will take 
them readily when sodium fluosilicate is substituted as the poisonous 
ingredient. ‘This discovery has resulted in much cheaper and more 
effective control by baiting than was possible by any of the methods 
previously used, which included dusting the crickets with sodium 
arsenite and the installation of barriers and traps of one kind or 
another (pl. 11) to dispose of the migrating bands. 

Sodium fluosilicate bait is also just as effective against grasshoppers 
as the arsenical bait and, owing to the scarcity of arsenicals as a result 
of war conditions, is supplanting it in grasshopper-control operations. 
Fortunately, no scarcity of sodium fluosilicate has yet developed. 
Another very valuable feature of the fluosilicate is its distastefulness 
to livestock and the probable elimination through its use of the 
accidental poisoning of stock which sometimes occurs as the result of 
carelessness in the handling of arsenical bait or sodium arsenite dust. 

In the large-scale publicly supported campaigns of recent years, the 


302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


control of grasshoppers, Mormon crickets, and armyworms has been 
greatly increased in scope and efficiency by the invention and wide 
use of motorized equipment (pl. 10). The invention and use of power 
bait-mixing machines, traction and power bait spreaders, the use of 
motor trucks for hauling bait, and the adaptation of airplanes for its 
rapid application, especially on terrain not readily treated by ground 
equipment, have all contributed wonderfully to the practicability and 
effectiveness of large-scale control operations against these insects. 


CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL BARRIERS 


The habits of certain of the insects attacking cereal crops are such 
that chemical or mechanical barriers, or a combination of both, may 
be used to good advantage in their control. The chinch bug is a good 
example. This insect is one of the worst pests of corn in the main 
Corn Belt. When weather conditions are favorable it develops in 
enormous numbers in the small grains during the spring and early 
summer, sometimes seriously injuring considerable acreages of them. 
The small grains usually ripen before the spring brood of bugs attains 
the winged or adult stage and the immature bugs then migrate on 
foot from the small-grain fields into the nearby fields of young corn. 
If this migration is not stopped immediately the complete destruction 
of the corn may be only a matter of days. Fortunately for the farm- 
ers, however, the bugs must migrate by crawling instead of flying; 
hence, it is possible to stop them effectively by means of a barrier of 
some kind (pl. 12). One of the best barriers is a line of coal-tar 
creosote placed across their line of advance, applied directly on a 
smooth, hard-packed low ridge of earth or on a fence about 2 inches 
high made of heavy paper. The latter method is the more efficient. 
Post holes to serve as traps are then dug about every 20 feet along the 
side of the barrier toward which the bugs are migrating. Creosote is 
very repellent to chinch bugs, and they will not cross the barrier line as 
long as it is kept in good condition. Instead, they travel in streams 
along it until they fall into the post holes where they are killed. With 
the prompt installation and proper maintenance of these barriers the 
corn can be completely protected. 

But here again we encounter another instance of the far-reaching 
effect of the present war. It has created a scarcity of coal-tar creosote 
that may make this material difficult, if not impossible, to obtain for 
chinch-bug control. Anticipating this situation, however, both State 
and Federal entomologists have been experimenting with possible 
substitutes and have succeeded in finding several very promising ones. 
Some of these may prove to be even better than creosote and applicable 
to the corn itself, in case of need, as well as to barriers. 

Before repellent chemicals came into use for chinch-bug barriers 
a simple mechanical type of barrier was widely used, consisting of 


INSECT ENEMIES—PACKARD 333 


furrows or strips across the line of march of the bugs, in which a deep, 
dusty mulch was produced by continuous dragging of a log back and 
forth in the furrows, or by harrowing the strips. The dust and the 
dragging or harrowing together effectually prevent the bugs from 
getting across such barriers in injurious numbers. This type of bar- 
rier, however, has two serious disadvantages : The continuous attention 
it requires, and the impossibility of maintaining it in wet weather. 

The barrier idea has been utilized in a much different way in the 
control of the corn earworm (pl. 17). As many people know who 
have raised sweet corn or have husked ears preparatory to cooking, 
these greenish or brownish worms eat their way down through the 
tip of the ear and the kernels, making very messy burrows and giv- 
ing the ears an extremely unattractive appearance. After much 
study of the insect’s habits and experiments with various methods 
of control, Dr. George W. Barber finally developed a barrier method 
which prevents the worms from entering the ears. He found that 
the injection of about 14 teaspoonful of refined mineral oil into the 
silk mass at the tip of the ear creates an effective barrier against 
the entrance of the little newly-hatched worms, emerging from the 
minute eggs laid by the parent moths on the silks, and their subsequent 
injury to the silk mass and the kernels. Barber also discovered, 
however, that the oil interferes with the pollination and filling out 
of the kernels if injected too soon after the appearance of the silks; 
hence it is necessary to wait 3 or 4 days until the wilting of the silks 
indicates that pollination is complete. He observed that during this 
interval some worms succeeded in penetrating well down into the 
ear tip, and realized the need of some improvement of the method. 
Further work revealed the fact that a very small percentage of py- 
rethrum extract or dichloroethyl ether added to the oil killed most of 
the worms that had entered the ears before treatment as well as 
those that entered them afterwards. In the course of his studies 
Barber also devised simple adaptations of common equipment to the 
application of the oil easily and economically (pl. 17). This method 
has also been used with some success for the prevention of earworm 
injury to the highly valuable plantings of pedigreed lines of corn now 
grown for the production of the high-yielding hybrid field and sweet 
corns that have almost entirely supplanted the open-pollinated va- 
rieties. 

Before a successful poison bait for the Mormon cricket was dis- 
covered galvanized sheet-iron barriers were widely used in the con- 
trol of this insect (pl. 11). Long strips 10 inches wide were fastened 
upright and end-to-end by means of small stakes, across the path 
of the migrating bands of crickets. Trap pits, or enclosures made 
of the galvanized-iron strips, were located at frequent intervals 
along the barrier. In these the crickets gathered and died. Many 


304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


miles of this barrier were installed to good effect during cricket out- 
breaks, but this method has now been almost entirely superseded by 
the much cheaper and less laborious poison-baiting method of control. 

Metal barriers of the type just described have been and are still 
very extensively used in Argentina against the great hordes of grass- 
hoppers prevalent in some parts of that country. 

Another expedient frequently used against Mormon crickets where 
circumstances permit is the oil-on-water barrier. The crickets do 
not hesitate to plunge in and swim across streams or irrigation 
ditches that they may encounter in their migrations. Advantage is 
taken of this fact to turn strategically located watercourses into 
barriers by coating the surface of the water with oil. Barrels of 
cheap, light oil are placed at intervals of about 14 mile along the 
streams and canals and their contents allowed to drip or dribble 
slowly so as to form a thin film on the water. This coats the swimming 
crickets and kills them. 


SPRAYS AND DUSTS 


Often the first question asked when an insect infestation is discovered 
on any crop is “What can I spray it with?” Unfortunately, the acre 
value of cereal crops is ordinarily too low to permit the direct use of 
insecticides on them. As has already been mentioned, control measures 
for the insects attacking these crops must be largely cultural or, if 
insecticidal, must be of extremely low cost as in the case of poison 
bait, which costs only about 20 to 50 cents per acre. It is true that 
insecticides are recommended for the direct control of the European 
corn borer in market sweet corn, but this is a specialized crop which 
cannot properly be considered a cereal. Because of the rapid growth 
of the corn and the fact that the egg-laying and hatching period of the 
borers extends over a month or more, several applications of a spray 
or dust are required for effective control. This method is too expensive 
for practical use on field corn, or even on sweet corn grown for the 
cannery. It is possible, however, that future developments may reduce 
costs to the point where insecticides may be used profitably against 
the borer, at least on canning corn. 


FUMIGATION 


Insects continue to take their toll of our cereal crops even after they 
have been safely harvested and stored. As has already been noted, 
they destroy annually some 300 million dollars worth or more of stored 
grains and cereal products. With the wartime need of conserving our 
supplies of these most essential foods, the prevention or reduction of 
such enormous losses becomes extremely important, and at the same 
time more difficult owing to the interference with normal distribution 


INSECT ENEMIES—PACKARD 395 


and consumption. During the first World War and during the present 
one special efforts have been made to find ways and means of meeting 
the situation. 

Of several hundred species of insects found associated with stored 
grains or grain products some 50 or more kinds of moths, weevils, and 
beetles are seriously injurious when conditions are favorable to their 
activity. The larvae of some species bore into and mature inside of 
the kernels, while both the larvae and adults of others are free-living 
among the kernels or in milled cereal or flour (pl. 19). The larvae of 
some of the moths not only eat these products but spin silk as they move 
about, sometimes forming a thick webbing on the surface or within the 
outer layer. High temperatures and ample moisture are favorable to 
the development of all these insects. Hence they are a constant source 
of annoyance and loss in warm-temperate and tropical regions. They 
are cosmopolitan in distribution, however, and in warm, moist seasons 
or under suitable conditions such as prevail in flour or cereal mills, 
they become serious pests in the more northern latitudes as well. When 
an infestation is once started in stored grain, enough heat and moisture 
are often generated by the insects themselves to provide for their con- 
tinued activity and to cause injury to the grain. Some species begin 
their attack on the grain in the field before it is stored and are carried 
with it into the bins, warehouses, elevators, and mills. Others live 
and breed chiefly within these storage places. Most of the species are 
active fliers in the adult beetle or moth stage and spread locally by 
flight, but the principal means of dispersion is the commercial ship- 
ment of grains and cereal products. They have been carried all over 
the world in this way. 

The first essentials for the protection of stored grains and cereal 
products are good storage facilities and sanitation. Tightly con- 
structed bins, warehouses, and mills that can readily be kept clean and 
that will prevent the escape of fumigants when it becomes necessary to 
use them are basic to satisfactory application of insect-control meas- 
ures. These insects breed in undisturbed accumulations of grain or 
floury residues wherever they are allowed to occur, such as in floor 
cracks, behind lining boards, in supplies of stock or chicken feeds, in 
used feed or flour sacks, in conveyor machinery, and in household cup- 
boards. Such accumulations serve as sources from which infestations 
spread to stored grain, cereals, or flour, and obviously should be 
eliminated. 

Owing to the more or less frequent or constant introduction of new 
infestations in one way or another, however, the periodical application 
of more drastic measures becomes necessary. The most generally use- 
ful treatment is fumigation. Several different fumigants are in com- 
mon use and the best one to select depends on the circumstances. The 
so-called heavier-than-air gases, especially ethylene dichloride or 


306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


carbon disulphide mixed with carbon tetrachloride to make them 
noninflammable, are most generally used on stored grains (pl. 18). 
These are liquids at ordinary temperature and when sprayed on the 
surface of the grain immediately evaporate to form heavy gases which 
quickly sink down through it. Another material often used for grain 
fumigation is calcium cyanide in granular or powder form (pl. 18). 
This is run into the grain stream as it enters the bin where it quickly 
reacts with atmospheric moisture to form deadly hydrocyanic acid gas. 

The fumigants most commonly used in mill and warehouse fumiga- 
tion are liquid hydrocyanic acid, methyl bromide, chloropicrin, and 
a mixture of ethylene oxide and carbon dioxide. These must be lib- 
erated by suitable means and in sufficient quantity to obtain an insect- 
killing concentration throughout the entire building. Chloropicrin, 
by the way, is the tear gas introduced during the first World War. All 
these gases are extremely poisonous to humans as well as insects and 
should be handled only by experienced persons equipped with gas 
masks adapted to the particular fumigant to be applied. 

The ready susceptibility of most stored-product insects to heat and 
cold is often utilized instead of fumigation for their control. Some 
cereal products are run through steam or electrical heating appliances 
to kill any insects they may contain and fair control is sometimes ob- 
tained by heating entire buildings to 125° F. or more in hot weather 
when these temperatures can be produced without too great expense. 
In the more northern latitudes advantage is often taken of zero and sub- 
zero temperatures to eradicate insect infestations in mills and ware- 
houses by turning off all heat and opening the buildings to the outside 
air. The low winter temperatures and short cool summers of northern 
climates ordinarily serve to hold insect infestations in grains or cereals 
in unheated storage to such a low level as to make fumigation unneces- 
sary. 

The preemption of carbon disulphide and fumigants containing 
chlorine for use in various war industries has made them unavailable 
at times for the treatment of stored grains, and has increased the need 
of finding available substitutes. Efforts are now being made in this 
direction. 


INSECT-RESISTANT VARIETIES OF CROPS 


Although it has been known for many years that some varieties of 
the different cereal crops are less susceptible than others to their 
respective insect enemies, deliberate efforts to find and breed this 
character into improved varieties are comparatively recent develop- 
ments. As in the case of other ventures into new fields, these efforts 
were considered by some investigators to be very unlikely to yield 
results of practical value. Nevertheless, they have been continued and 
have become extremely promising. Wheats highly resistant to the 


INSECT ENEMIES—PACKARD 337 


hessian fly (pl. 2); varieties of corn resistant to the European corn 
borer, earworm, chinch bug (pl. 12), or corn leaf aphid; sorghums 
resistant to the chinch bug; and barleys, oats, and wheats resistant to 
the chinch bug or to the green bug, have all been discovered through 
systematic tests conducted in recent years. Breeding operations have 
also shown that by controlled crossing and selection many of these 
insect-resistant qualities can be bred into other varieties more suitable 
for commercial production, and that these qualities are not linked with 
undesirable characters or incompatible with other desirable ones such 
as high yield, quality, and disease resistance. Commercially satisfac- 
tory varieties or lines of wheat, oats, barley, and corn resistant to one 
or more of the insects just mentioned have already been produced or, 
through the application of modern methods of plant breeding, are well 
advanced toward commercial availability. 

Insect control through the use of resistant varieties would have 
several advantages over other methods of control. Once the seed of 
such varieties becomes available in quantity and comes into general 
use the farmers will be automatically relieved of the expense and 
trouble of applying other control methods. More latitude in cultural 
procedures, time of planting, and crop rotations would be gained. 
The frequent, severe, and general outbreaks of certain species that 
confine their attack to only one or two kinds of grain crops might 
even be prevented. ‘The development of cereal crop varieties resistant 
to insects has now progressed far enough to warrant the definite ex- 
pectation of extremely valuable results in this field. 


BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 


Several writers have called attention to the incessant contest between 
the insects and man for supremacy. The insects probably would 
have won long ago if it were not for the natural agencies that hold 
them in check and for the fact that most of the noxious species are 
much less readily adaptable than man to variations in environment. 
Many of those that attack cereal crops, such as the corn rootworm, 
corn leaf aphid, and wheat jointworm, can breed successfully only 
on one or a very few species of host plants. Others, such as the grass- 
hoppers, chinch bug, hessian fly, and green bug, although extremely 
prolific, are highly susceptible to unfavorable weather conditions at 
certain times in their life history and often suffer violent reductions 
in numbers as a result. Still others, armyworms and cutworms for 
example, have many parasitic and predaceous insect enemies that at 
times almost completely exterminate them in localities where they 
occur in outbreak numbers. Some cereal insect pests, armyworms, 
chinch bugs, and grasshoppers for instance, are also subject to bacterial 
and fungous diseases that occasionally become epidemic under favor- 


338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


able conditions. The interactions among these pests, their insect 
enemies, their diseases, and the weather, are extremely complex. 

Since we have not yet learned to control the weather, which is the 
dominant element in this combination, we are not able to manipulate 
these factors to any material extent in the prevention of insect out- 
breaks. In fact, some of our grain-production practices have been 
more favorable then detrimental to such outbreaks. For example, the 
planting of large acreages of both corn and small grains in the same 
neighborhood encourages the multiplication of the chinch bug, as al- 
ready cited. Another example is the favorable condition for grass- 
hoppers brought about, partially at least, by the extensive growing of 
wheat during the first World War. With the urgent demand for that 
grain, great areas of virgin sod on the western plains were plowed and 
sown to wheat. Although much of this land was gradually abandoned 
us the demand for wheat subsided, both the wheat stubble and the aban- 
doned land have provided extremely favorable food and egg-laying 
conditions for the migratory grasshopper, and have been important 
factors in the persistence and severity of the widespread and almost 
continuous grasshopper outbreaks in the Great Plains during the past 
decade. Fortunately, it has been possible to prevent a large portion of 
the potential crop damage through the application, at great expense, of 
the baiting method already described, but the problem of working out 
and applying methods of preventing the outbreaks themselves still 
remains. This problem can undoubtedly be solved, possibly through 
the use of some of the slower airplanes for spreading poison bait, when 
they become available for other than war purposes. 

Many of the insect pests of cereal crops, like most of the crops them- 
selves, are not native to this country. Others have adopted these crops 
as food when they have become widely grown in this country. Notable 
examples of foreign invaders are the hessian fly, European corn borer, 
and most of the insects that attack our stored grains and cereal prod- 
ucts. The armyworm, chinch bug, and green bug might be mentioned 
as conspicuous among native insects that have taken readily to im- 
ported crops. In cases where the parasite enemies of the invaders did 
not come along with them efforts have been made to import and estab- 
lish these parasites. Some of these have become well established while 
others apparently have not found conditions in this country at all to 
their liking. In general, it may be said that although the parasites 
of insects attacking cereal crops are highly beneficial, in no case can 
they be depended on to keep these pests under permanent control. 
Other means must therefore be found and applied when necessary if 
the cereal crops are to be successfully and profitably grown, stored, 
milled, and supplied to the human rather than the insect population 
for consumption. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packard PLATE 1 


HESSIAN FLY DAMAGE TO FALL-SOWN WHEAT. 


Upper, injury to stand by fall brood; center, broken-over stems due to spring brood; lower, plowing infested 
stubble to prevent emergence of flies. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packard PLATE 2 


HESSIAN FLY CONTROL MEASURES. 


Upper, wheat sown after safe date (center) escaped fall infestations; that sown earlier (right and left) severely 
injured; lower, variety test, showing difference between resistant and susceptible varieties in_stand and 
growth. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packard PLATE 


THE HESSIAN FLY. 


Left: Upper, adult female, 4; lower, leaf sheaths stripped away from stems of young wheat plants to show 
larvae and puparia, natural size. Right, eggs on wheat leaf, * 4! 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.— Packard 


DAMAGE BY JOINTWORM AND ROOTWORM. 


Upper, galls on wheat stems caused by jointworm; center, this corn fell down because rootworm gnawed 


off roots; lower, wilted bud of young corn caused by rootworm. 


PLATE 4 


= 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.— Packard PLATE 5 


a] 


\ 


ves oe Pip ee ¥ 


EUROPEAN CORN BORER. 


Upper, ruined corn plants, stems sectioned to show borings; lower, plowing under infested stalks. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packard . PLATE 6 


EUROPEAN CORN BORER. 


Upper, 341 borers from one hill of corn; lower, cornfield ruined by borers. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packar PLATE 7 


SLED HARVESTER FOR LOW CUTTING OF CORN INFESTED WITH EUROPEAN CORN 
BORER. 


Upper, close-up to show construction; lower, harvester in use. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packard PLATE 8 


CROP DAMAGE CAUSED BY GRASSHOPPERS. 


Upper: Left, grasshoppers resting among stripped wheat stems; right, adult laying eggs in soil. Lower, corn 
ruined by grasshoppers (left), kafir corn-not attacked (right). 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packard 


q 
: 
Fd 
= 


MIXING GRASSHOPPER BAIT. 


pper, with power equipment; lower, by hand. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packard PLATE 10 


SPREADING GRASSHOPPER BAIT. 
Upper, loading trailer-spreader. Lower: Left, trailer-spreaders in operation; rizht, airplane spreading bait. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packard PEARE 11 


MORMON CRICKET. 


Upper: Left, sheet-iron barrier and trap; right, adult female, about natural size. Lower, crickets killed 
by sodium arsenite dust. 


“OZIS [RANJBU JNoe ‘y¥[BIS W100 UO pateysnyo ssnq “YystyY *(4ys1 pue 4jo]) U10D YURYSISAI * (193080) T1090 
arqudaosns ‘1aMO] {pBOI 9y} SSOLOB POU VoYM WO. SULMLOD ssnq Aq pee} 39] 09 Wso0d ‘1otAaeq Joded-940so0eJ0 ‘todd () :4Ja"] 


“9NG HONIHD 


cL 3aLV 1d paexoeg—7p6 “qaoday URIUOSY {WIG 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packard PLATE 13 


ARMYWORM. 


Upper: Left, larvae, about natural size; right, moths, about natural size. Lower: Left, oats stripped by 
armyworms (right), oats uninjured (left); right, larvae killed by wilt disease. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packard PLATE 14 


WHITE GRUBS. 


Upper: Left, injury to stand of corn; right, adult (May beetle), about natural size (upper), larva or grub, 
about natural size (lower). Lower, hickory foliage stripped by adults. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packard PEATE LS 


WIREWORMS. 


Upper, a, adult (click beetle); 6, larva; c, caudal end of larva, side view: d, pupa, all somewhat. enlarged. 
Lower, larvae boring into bases of wheat plants, natural size. 


16 


PLATE 


Packard 


1942. 


Smithsonian Report, 


CORN EARWORM. 


Left, larvae burrowing in young corn tassels; right, larv 


ding on kernels. 


yae tee 


Smithsonian Report. 1942.—Packard PLATE 17 


CORN EARWORM. 


Upper: Left, eggs on corn silks, greatly enlarged; right, adult moth, about natural size. Lower, apparatus 
for injecting oil-pyrethrin insecticide into silk mass at tip of ear. 


“UI [0048 Ul poetOjs UTeIS Jo ovjINS UO YURBIUINY SurAerds “ysis furq oFe104s Jo doy ZUl10}Ua W1vAYS UBS 0JUI eplueAD UAMO[eo SuruuNs 10J snywsedde ‘yoy 
“SINVSINNA NIVYD ONIATddY 


81 ALV1d preyoeq—7p6| ‘Woday uetuosyyiucg 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Packard PLATE 19 


PE ys 9 Mt 
+ a. oe, Fe 
STORED GRAIN AND CEREAL INSECTS. 


Upper, wheat damaged by rice weevil. Lower: Left, Indian meal moth larvae and adults in corn meal; 
right, Mediterranean flour moth larvae and adults in flour. 


44 Ve Nes 
i i } , 7 ll / ee i Wane 
bs 
7 5 
wa a ae f , ca eA hs 4 a. 
i 
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at 
n 


THE GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS OF MALARIA}? 


By Sir Matcorm Watson 
Director, Ross Institute of Tropical Hygiene 
London 


Had you asked me 50 years ago to address you on the “Geographical 
Aspects of Malaria,” I should have begun by quoting from Hirsch’s 
monumental work on “Geographical and Historical Pathology” (1883) 
as follows: 


Covering a broad zone on both sides of the Equator the malarial diseases 
reach their maximum of frequency in tropical and subtropical regions. They 
continue to be endemic for Some distance into the temperate zone, with diminish- 
ing severity and frequency towards the higher latitudes; in epidemic form they 
not infrequently appear yet in other regions; and, in still wider diffusion with the 
character of a pandemic, also beyond these indigenous latitudes. 


Hirsch follows this with pages describing the various countries 
throughout the world in which the disease occurs, and an equally 
extensive discussion of the conditions which influence the appearance 
of the disease, and of its possible cause. But the discussions lead to 
no final conclusions; and in the words of Duncan, writing in 1888: 
“As Crudeli points out, malaria exists on soils of every conceivable 
variety, of every age in geological time, and it is impossible to point 
to any mineralogical or chemical conditions which can be said to 
be essential.” 

By his discovery in 1880 that malaria is caused by a living parasite, 
visible under the microscope, Laveran, a French Army surgeon work- 
ing in Algiers, made an important addition to our knowledge. Ma- 
laria then ceased to be “a miasma,” a word indicating some sort of 
emanation from the soil; the word was not exactly defined; and, as 
we have read, any sort of soil appeared capable of giving out the 
emanation. Then came the problem. How does this parasite circu- 
lating freely in man’s blood pass from one victim to another? The 
genius of Sir Patrick Manson, who had carried out original work in 
China on another parasite circulating in the blood, provided a hy- 
pothesis, which if not wholly correct provided Sir Ronald Ross with a 
valuable starting point for his researches in India. Manson also 
gave Ross the most generous and selfless help in other ways. 


1 Address delivered at meeting of The Royal Geographical Society, London, February 9, 
1942. Reprinted by permission from The Geographical Journal, vol. 99, No. 4, April 1942. 


501591—43——23 339 


340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


In a letter dated July 5, 1897, to Sir Charles Crosthwaite, asking 
him to influence the Government of India to put Ross on special 
malaria research, Sir Patrick Manson wrote: 


Money can build institutes, but a thousand institutes are useless if they are 
not manned by the right men. A good man is worth them all. I have no hesita- 
tion in saying that at the present moment Ross is the best man in India to carry 
on malaria investigation. To lose him therefore as I say, would be a public 
calamity. . .. It would be a vast pity if the chance which now presents of 
making a substantial addition to the pathological science should once again be 
lost to Englishmen. We are cutting a sorry figure alongside other nations at 
present. To.our national shame, be it said that few, very few, of the wonderful 
advances in the science of the healing art which have signalized recent years, have 
been made by our countrymen. This is particularly apparent in the matter of 
tropical diseases, in which we should in virtue of our exceptional opportunities 
be facile princeps. ... But in this matter of malaria here is a chance for an 
Englishman to rehabilitate our national character and to point out to the rest 
of the world how to deal with the most important disease in the world— 
malaria. (Manson-Bahr and Alcock, 1927.) 

Infinite patience and the burning energy of his genius enabled 
Ross to overcome innumerable difficulties, and prove to the world 
something that neither he nor Manson quite expected: the malaria 
parasite was not just sucked up by the mosquito from a man suffering 
from the disease, or transferred mechanically. The parasite actually 
bred in the wall of the mosquito’s stomach; the offspring of the 
original parasites when mature were injected into another man; so 
the disease spread. Ross discovered what the parasite looked like in 
all its various stages in the mosquito and where these stages were to 
be found; the prolonged researches also proved that not every mos- 
quito could be infected; only some with spots on their wings, later 
identified by entomologists as Anopheles mosquitoes. The mosquitoes 
which could not be infected are those popularly called Culex. This 
was a huge step forward: indeed it constituted one of the major dis- 
coveries of medicine. For malaria probably kills more people than 
any single disease in the world. The stage was now set for the pre- 
vention of malaria by striking at the mosquito. 

The medical profession in this connection divided into two camps: 
in one Ronald Ross; in the other the rest of the profession. Ross 
realized more fully than did his colleagues at that time the line that 
would have to be taken if malaria was to be prevented. In an ex- 
ceedingly able report to the Government of India he wrote that while 
it was not possible to kill mosquitoes everywhere, it would be wise to 
make a beginning by ascertaining which of the mosquitoes carried 
malaria and which did not. Neither Ross nor anyone else working 
at the problem realized that before this could be successful on a large 
scale and especially in rural areas, many more years of research 
would be required with Ross’s discovery as its starting point. Nor 
did anyone realize at first that the very technique which Ross invented 


MALARIA—WATSON 341 


was to mislead rather than guide. For the truth is that only a few 
anopheles carry malaria in nature, although all anopheles can be in- 
fected in a laboratory; which made the prevention of malaria appear 
to be much more difficult than it eventually proved to be. 

This paper must describe just what mosquitoes carry malaria in the 
main geographical areas, something of the very different conditions 
in which they live, and the strange ways we have invented to control 
or destroy them. The story begins in Malaya. After seeing Malaya 
in 1926, Ross told the Committee of the Ross Institute that the anti- 
malarial work done there was the greatest sanitary achievement 
ever accomplished in the British Empire, as it was also the first suc- 
cessful antimalarial work carried out in the British Empire, if not 
in the world. (Ann. Rep. Ross Inst., 1927.) 

The Malay Peninsula consists mainly of ranges of granite moun- 
tains, and coastal plains with fresh-water swamps fringed by man- 
grove with salt and brackish water; all three are covered by great 
forests. Man lives there always at war with the jungle. 

It was my privilege to live in the Peninsula from 1900 to 1928, to 
take an active part in research, and initiate the practical work for 
the control of malaria (Watson, 1903). In the part of the mangrove 
forest zone covered by every tide, no dangerous anopheles live and 
there is no malaria; but in the inner part, covered only by spring 
tides, Anopheles umbrosus breeds and carries malaria. If the man- 
grove forest be felled, another anopheles appears and this new- 
comer also carries malaria; today it is called A. swndaicus. Both 
mosquitoes disappear when the swamp is embanked and drained. In 
1901 Port Swettenham was saved from closure by embanking, drain- 
ing, and oiling of pools, and a very complete organization for the 
medical care of the people. The order to close it had actually been 
given by the Governor, Sir Frank Swettenham, 214 months after it 
was opened, but was not carried into effect when all the facts were 
put before him by me. 

The coastal plains—great swamps deeper and wider than any- 
thing in Italy—harbor A. wmbrosus and are intensely malarial. 
Here drainage, and selection of sites of houses half a mile from the 
undrained jungle, gives 100 percent protection against malaria. 

Attention was next turned to the hills where it was not possible to 
get rid of the mosquito by the simple method of drainage. The 
coastal hills are, when under forest, intensely malarial, because A. 
umbrosus lives in the valleys, while the inland hills are healthy 
under forest, because A. wmbrosus does not live there. Both kinds 
of hill land are intensely malarial when the forest is felled, because 
yet a third mosquito appears in the picture: A. maculatus. It lives 
in sunshine, and in even the steepest mountain streams, but not 
where the streams are covered by jungle. This insect causes intense 


342 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


malaria although there may not be a swamp within miles. In Malaya 
yearly death rates of 300 per 1,000 were not uncommon among labor 
forces on estates or on engineering works before effective means to 
control mosquitoes were devised. 

Among the important discoveries in Malaya were the following: 

Only 3 out of some 30 species of anopheles in Malaya carry 
malaria. We had to kill only the dangerous species to stamp out 
the disease; the others could be ignored. This is called “species 
sanitation” (Watson, 1911). 

Many dangerous-looking swamps, including rice fields on the 
coastal plains, were not malarial (Watson, 1911). 

In 1914 I prepared a mixture of mineral oils which rapidly killed 
all anopheles in even fast-running streams, but was not poisonous 
to men or animals. This solved a difficult problem, the intense 
inalaria produced by stream-breeding anopheles. By means of this 
mixture malaria was rapidly brought under control over large areas, 
including rubber estates, at practically no capital cost. 

In 1909 I realized that Nature controlled species of anopheles in 
several ways, and that by imitating her we could control malaria 
at little or no expense in many places (Strickland, 1915; Williamson, 
1933). This was sometimes unconsciously achieved by the planters 
when they opened up the estates. Four years’ research on estates 
showed that the change of species that occurred from time to time 
was due to changes in the conditions in the valleys. When under 
jungle there was one species (A. wmbrosus) that carried malaria; 
when the jungle was felled and the streams freed from grass, a new 
species appeared (A. maculatus) which also carried malaria; in 
intermediate conditions of the stream there were half a dozen species 
that did not carry malaria. The knowledge of how to change species 
was a notable advance and is today the foundation of a great deal of 
antimalarial precautions taken in so many parts of the world. Our 
researches also enabled us to know where to house the people, and 
thus deaths were reduced to 4.9 per 1,000. 

Another method devised as a result of later researches was inter- 
mittent sluicing which has a devastating effect even on mosquitoes 
that live in running water. Devised in Malaya, and capable of being 
operated by the Malay peasant, this method spread to southern India. 
Today in some of the bigger streams in the Himalayas there are bat- 
teries of sluices. (Williamson, 1933.) 

The researches and many inventions for the control of malaria in 
Malaya carried out by the Government and the rubber planters have 
thrown a flood of light on the disease in other geographical regions. 
So I have spoken of it in some detail. Of the work done in Malaya, 
Professor Swellengrebel wrote in 1935: “The principle forming the 
base of malaria control in Malaya ought to be the principle under- 


MALARIA—WATSON 343 


lying malaria control in any country in the world. That principle 
of malaria control is Malaya’s great gift to the world.” And in 1938 
he wrote: “Without species sanitation one feels helpless.” 

In 1911 I was invited to organize the contre] of malaria in Singa- 
pore. The disease was present not only throughout the year, but it 
caused a great annual wave with its peak in the month of May. 
Between 2,000 and 3,000 people died each year as a result of malaria, 
out of a population of 250,000. Today the population is treble that 
figure. Yet in 1939 the President of the Municipality could say: 
“Malaria has been absolutely stamped out. It would be a very 
unfortunate resident who contracted malaria now.” It has been 
calculated that all health measures, of which the most important 
by far has been the prevention of malaria, have saved over 100,000 
lives in Singapore in the last 30 years. 

Of the value of the combination of research and practical work to 
the community, I may quote from an address by Eric Macfadyen 
(1988) : 

Had it not been for malaria control, British Malaya ... could never have 


been realized. Its populous towns, its railways and roads which have unlocked 
its natural resources, the monster dredging plants, representing an outlay of 


millions sterling, which excavate its tin, its 300,000 acres of rubber .. . not 
a tithe of these developments could have been achieved had malaria remained 
uncontrolled. . . . The most recent and most sensational triumph of the applica- 


tion of these principles has been the construction of the Singapore Naval Base. 
Without malaria control this great work must have cost countless lives, if indeed 
it could have been completed at all. To the great credit of the military authorities 
the health problem has been handled with such success that the lay world has 
not known there was one, and those great works have been carried out virtually 
without affecting the vital statistics of Singapore. 

In 1913 I crossed the Straits of Malacca to Sumatra, to meet Profes- 
sor Swellengrebel, who was to play a most important part in the con- 
quest of malaria. In Sumatra, less than 100 miles from Singapore, 
I found to my astonishment a totally different malarial picture; for 
the disease was confined almost entirely to the mangrove forest zone, 
with A. sundaicus as the enemy. Hill streams, which would have been 
so dangerous in the Malay Peninsula, were harmless in Sumatra. In 
Java the picture is practically the same, although in both there are 
occasional outbreaks of disease away from the coast, the cause of which 
although interesting would take too long to explain. 

Sumatra is much less populated or cultivated than Java. Indeed 
Java is an almost continuous sheet of wet rice, of which it would prob- 
ably be true to say that over 95 percent is free from malaria. Sumatra 
and Java both differ in yet another way from Malaya. They are vol- 
canic islands, belonging to the great volcanic chain fringing South 
and East Asia, including also the Celebes, the Philippines, Formosa, 
and Japan. 


344 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


In British North Borneo, researches, not yet completed and not yet 
published, by Dr. John McArthur, whom I am proud to claim as a 
pupil, indicate that the dangerous anopheles of Malaya may not be 
carrying the disease. A. leucosphyrus, a mosquito that lives at the 
headwaters of streams in dense jungle, has been proved to be the im- 
portant carrier in an intensely malarial area. It may be that merely 
clearing the undergrowth, and allowing cattle to keep the undergrowth 
down, will eliminate the disease, at little cost to the poor and half- 
starved inhabitants. 


Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 


Ficure i.—Mean monthly death rate in Singapore from all causes. 


In the Philippine Islands the picture changes again. Here, as in the 
coastal plains of the Malay Peninsula, Java and Borneo, Siam and 
Burma, the rice fields are healthy. In the Philippine Islands the man- 
grove zone is also healthy, unlike Java and Sumatra. But along the 
foothills A. minimus breeds among grass in slowly moving clear water 
and produces intense malaria. This mosquito is one of the great car- 
riers of malaria, for it carries the disease not merely in the Philippine 
Islands, but extensively in the continent of Asia: in French Indo- 
China, in Siam, on the Burma Road, and not least in the great Assam 
Valley of northern India. To it is due the deadly Terai malaria and 
blackwater fever in the area along the foothills of the eastern half of 
the Himalayas in India. The brilliant researches of G. C. Ramsay, 
Deputy Director of the Ross Institute (1936), have proved this. His 
equally brilliant prevention of the disease is not sufficiently known. 
It is sheer white magic to wipe deadly malaria from a valley by grow- 
ing a hedge of wild rhododendron or wild privet over a little stream, 
without interfering with the growth of the rice in the more stagnant 


MALARIA—WATSON 345 


waters of the valley. ‘Today there are some 5,000 miles of these hedges 
in India. 

There are in India some 40 species of anopheles, only a few of which 
carry malaria. A. philippinensis causes devastating malaria in Bengal 
in areas protected from river floods by embankments, but is impotent 
where the land is submerged each year by floods. The devastation and 
depopulation resulting from man’s efforts to control the rivers must 
be seen to be believed: hundreds of thousands of acres in jungle and 
a million lives lost. In the Punjab A. culicifacies produces great epi- 
demics. Fortunately the last bad one was in 1908. 


Figure 2.—Area where A. minimus is harmful in the foothills. 


Of the great work in improving the health of their laborers and 
European staffs carried out on tea, rubber, jute, and the mining indus- 
tries in India a brief but interesting account will be found in the last 
Annual Report of Committee of Control of the India Branch of the 
Ross Institute (Calcutta, July 1941). Extensive work in the preven- 
tion of malaria is now being carried out by the Imperial and Provin- 
cial Governments in India, both in towns and villages; I know of no 
country which in the last decade has done more brilliant scientific 
and practical work in preventing malaria than India. 

Before leaving Asia for Africa we might just glance at malaria in 
Ceylon. There was once a great civilization in Ceylon, which was 
destroyed by war some 800 years ago. The Indians came to the island 


346 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


and drove the inhabitants, not for the first time, away from their 
culture, their ricefields, their lovely architecture, and their carving. 
Anopheles killed the people whenever they returned and tried to recol- 
onize those areas. In Ceylon there are many monuments, but the 
greatest is the ancient irrigation system. In every river there are a 
large number of dams holding up the water; that is necessary because 
it is not unusual for there to be less than 20 inches of rain a year over 
two-thirds of Ceylon. In 1934-35 an epidemic of malaria killed over 
80,000 people in a few months. The cause was a drought; absence of 
the flushing of the rivers allowed A. culicifacies to breed in profusion. 
It is a potent carrier of malaria in Ceylon. Today an organization 
created and operated by the Government and the estates working in 
close cooperation would prevent such a disaster occurring again; 
indeed a recent drought even more severe than that of 1934-35 has 
failed to produce an epidemic: very encouraging, but not unexpected. 

In West, Central, and East Africa there are two great carriers of 
malaria. One, A. gambiae, lives in sunlit pools of still water; a water 
current is fatal to it. The other, A. funestus, prefers slight shade, 
slightly moving water. Dense shade blots out both species, as it blots 
out A. maculatus in Malaya, and A. minimus in India. On the open- 
ing of the great copper mines of northern Rhodesia, the population 
suffered from malaria, blackwater fever, dysentery, typhoid, and other 
diseases. The personal interest of Chester Beatty and his colleagues 
and the exertions of the local staff have, however, been so successful 
that the health of both whites and African employees compares fa- 
vorably with that of the Panama Canal employees, and that is not a 
low standard. 

Livingstone wrote in his missionary travels that the Lower Zambezi 
was the most malarial area he had visited in Africa, and that even the 
Portuguese suffered from the disease very severely. A few years ago 
the great Lower Zambezi bridge was built across the river. Thanks to 
the advice given by the Ross Institute through C. R. Harrison, a mem- 
ber of the staff of the Ross Institute, the work was carried out with a 
minimum of sickness. Actually only one European out of seven went 
down with malaria. (The Times, October 31, 1934; Dixon, 1935.) 

There is some reason to hope that researches carried out by the Ross 
Institute on mines in West Africa will open a new chapter in that 
area. Unfortunately malaria is widely spread through Africa, reach- 
ing south to Durban, and north into the oases of Egypt, Libya, Algiers, 
and Morocco. In the equatorial belt it is intense; it rises even into the 
highlands of Kenya. Nairobi itself at 6,000 feet above sea level is not 
free from the disease. 

Of Panama, you all know the great triumph of the United States 
Government, guided by the genius of Surgeon General Gorgas. The 
French failed because they had not discovered how to control malaria 


MALARIA—WATSON 347 


or yellow fever. Success in Panama and Malaya came because Ross 
did not throw in his hand in the early days and because Sir Patrick 
Manson, so to speak, sustained Ross’s hand at a critical period. In 
1915 the Panama Canal represented the greatest engineering and 
medical triumph the world had seen. Like so many other great things 
it was so misunderstood and misrepresented, that it almost became a 
stumbling block, and the honor of starting antimalarial work in the 
United States fell to two nonmedical men: Professor Herms and H. 
F, Gray working in California. They began in 1911. In 1916 the 
Rockefeller Foundation, after sending two distinguished scientists to 
study Malayan methods, took up the prevention of malaria in the 
United States and has given a great lead to that country. In passing 
I would mention that research and practical work carried out on the 
reservoirs of the Tennessee Valley Authority have developed a new 
method of controlling mosquitoes. By raising and lowering the level 
of the reservoirs a potent method of controlling anopheles has been 
demonstrated. It acts by stunting vegetation on the edges of the 
reservoirs. A. guadrimaculatus is the main carrier of malaria in the 
southeastern States of the United States. 

Although A. maculipennis is to be found throughout Europe from 
the Baltic to Cape Matapan and from Spain to the Caspian Sea, 
malaria is to be found mainly in the Mediterranean region. For over 
2,000 years malaria defied all man’s efforts to reclaim and cultivate the 
Pontine Marshes. But within the past decade, Mussolini, by destroy- 
ing the anopheles, has colonized this area; perhaps this will be his 
greatest, or only, abiding claim to fame. I remind you though that 
25 years earlier we had in Malaya managed to accomplish bigger 
things in bigger swamps. 

The Dutch quickly grasped the significance of the researches in 
Malaya on malaria, and when he returned to Holland from the East 
Indies, Professor Swellengrebel, with the aid of his colleagues, carried 
out some brilliant researches. ‘They showed that there were two races 
(or species) of A. maculipennis, one of which bred in brackish water 
and carried malaria, the other which bred in fresh water and was 
harmless. This was the prelude to researches in other parts of 
Europe, which split A. maculipennis into six races (or species) only 
some of which carried malaria. This explained many anomalies. 

A couple of hundred years ago malaria was not uncommon in Eng- 
land, in low-lying areas like the Fens or the Thames Estuary. Indeed, 
London itself was not free. But drainage and reclamation of land 
have wrought so many changes that when malaria was implanted in 
England in 1917-18 by the soldiers returning from foreign lands, it 
died out within 4 years. 

During a visit to some of Chester Beatty’s mines in Serbia, I took 
an opportunity of visiting Salonika to see an area in which according 


348 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


to the official history “malaria dominated the medical and military 
situation.” This medical disaster had come from two anopheles, A. 
maculipemnis in the swamps, and A. superpictus in the hills, and a 
failure to control them. A. swperpictus I had already seen in Albania 
and south Serbia. It breeds among stones in slowly moving hill 
streams. Its distribution is extensive. It has been mentioned in 
Spain and north Italy. But it is the great carrier in Sicily, Dalmatia, 
Yugoslavia, Albania, Macedonia, Greece, Bulgaria, Thrace, Anatolia, 
Cyprus, Caucasus, Transcaucasus, Cilicia, Syria, Palestine, Sinai, 
Upper Mesopotamia, Turkoman Republic (Transcaspia), Cossack 
Republic (Tashkent), Bokhara, Persia, and northwest India. As we 
read the names, which I have taken from a book on the anopheles of 
India (Christophers, 1933), we are reminded of the victorious march 
of Alexander the Great against the Persian King and on to India. 
You will remember how, when his army refused to go farther, he 
sailed down the Indus and up the Persian Gulf, and how he died at 
Babylon. 

The exploration of the waterways round about the empire was Alexander’s 
immediate concern, the discovery of the presumed connection of the Caspian 
with the Northern Ocean, the opening of a maritime route from Babylon to 
Egypt round Arabia. The latter enterprise Alexander designed to conduct in 
person; under his supervision was prepared in Babylon an immense fleet, a great 
basin dug out to contain one thousand ships, and the water communications of 
Babylon taken in hand. (Encyl. Brit., 14th ed., p. 570.) 

The excavation of earth and the aggregation of laborers are notori- 
ous antecedents of an outbreak of malaria; for the excavations create 
mosquito-breeding places and the laborers supply the malaria para- 
sites. By then it was the month of June, when malaria, as we found 
in the last war (Christophers, 1921) is in full blast. So we are not 
surprised to read: 

At last all was ready ; the 20th of the month Daesius (? June 5) was fixed for 
the king’s setting forth. On the 15th and 16th Alexander caroused deep into the 
night at the house of the favourite Medius. On the 17th he developed fever; for 
a time he treated it as a momentary impediment to the expedition; on the 27th 
his speech was gone, and the Macedonian army was suffered to pass, man by man, 
through his chamber to bid him farewell. On the 28th (June 13) Alexander 
died. (Encycl. Brit., 14th ed., p. 570.) 

The fever may have been typhoid; but it all suggests malaria. 
Quinine was unknown to the Greeks. If it were malaria, the species 
that infected and killed the victor of so many fights would probably 
be, not A. swperpictus, which is confined to the submontane regions of 
Mesopotamia, but A. stephenst. This is the mosquito which Ross 
thinks was the one he first infected with malaria in his little labora- 
tory at Secunderabad in India. 


MALARIA—WATSON 349 


Historians are divided about the character of Alexander, and 
whether this intrusion of Greek arms and philosophy into the culture 
and religion of the East was all for the best. That I am not compe- 
tent to discuss. Nor need I speculate on what difference it would have 
made had fever not cut short the life of this conqueror, and whether 
he would have become an equally great administrator. 

But there is no difference of opinion about the debt mankind owes 
te Ronald Ross. I have told you something of how our nation has 
employed Ross’s discovery. Much still remains to be done to prevent 
tropical diseases. There is still much to be discovered about malaria 
and its prevention. But in scientific research and practical preven- 
tion of malaria from 1901 to the present day, the British have given a 
clear lead to the world. 

Though they have not done all, they have done something of what 
Sir Patrick Manson urged. I think we can justly claim that the 
British have not been unfaithful to their trust. And if we turn to an 
impartial witness such as Professor Swellengrebel we have his assur- 
ance that the work done in Malaya has been of great benefit to the 
world; without what has come to be known as “species sanitation” the 
fight would have been hopeless. So that Malaya, in this time of trial, 
can feel that she has achieved something of lasting benefit. 


REFERENCES 


CHRISTOPHERS, S. R. 
1920-1921. Malaria in Mesopotamia. Indian Journ. Med. Res., vol. 8, pp. 
508-552. 
19533. The fauna of British India. Diptera, vol. 4. London. 
Drxon, J. R. 
1935. Building the lower Zambesi Bridge. Journ. Roy. African Soc., April. 
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. 
1929. Article on Alexander the Great. 14th ed., pp. 566-571. 
MAcFADYEN, E. 
1938. Address at the Manson-Ross Luncheon. Ann. Rep. London School 
Hyg. and Trop. Med., 19387-1938, p. 98. 
MANSon-BaAnr, P. H., and ALcockK, A. 
1927. The life and work of Sir Patrick Manson, p. 154. London. 
RAMSAY, G. C., and MACDONALD, G. 
1936. The species control of anophelines in India. Indian Med. Gaz., vol. 71, 
No. 12, pp. 699-710. 
STRICKLAND, C. 
1915. Certain observations on the epidemiology of malarial fever in the 
Malay Peninsula, in Federated Malay States Gov. Gaz., Suppl. 
Medical Report for 1914, pp. 21-30. 
SWELLENGREBEL, N. H. 
1935. Address, League of Nations Malaria Course, Singapore. 
SWELLENGREBEL, N. H., and pe Buck, A. 
1938. Malaria in the Netherlands. Amsterdam. 
THE TIMES. 
1934. The Zambesi Bridge. London, Oct. 31. 


350 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


WATSON, MALCOLM. 
1903. The effect of drainage and other measures on the malaria of Klang. 
Federated Malay States. Journ. Trop. Med., vol. 6, pp. 349-353, 
368-371. London. 
1911. The prevention of malaria in the Federated Malay States. 1st ed., 
Liverpool ; 2d ed., London, 1921. 
WILLIAMSON, K. B. 
1933. Investigations at Cameron Highlands. Federated Malay States, Ann. 
Rep. Malaria Advisory Board for 1932, pp. 12-14. 
1936. The control of rural malaria by natural methods. League of Nations 
Eastern Bureau, Singapore. 


THE BROMELIADS OF BRAZIL 


By Mutrorp B. FOSTER 
Orlando, Fla. 


[With 10 plates] 


The plant family Bromeliaceae—the pineapple family—comprises 
some 50 genera with more than 1,600 known species, 400 of them native 
to the Americas from Panama north, and at least a dozen native to 
the United States, most of these in Florida. Although these brome- 
liads, as they are called, are as yet little known in the States, neverthe- 
less until recently it was thought to be the “largest family of plants 
to be wholly confined in origin to the New World.”? Now, however, 
one species of a Pitcairnia has been found in Africa. This is the only 
report of Bromeliaceae native outside the Western Hemisphere. 

The most complete and outstanding botanical contribution to the 
knowledge of this family was the monograph by Mez published in 
Germany in 1934-35. In this country, work on the Bromeliaceae con- 
tinues in the able hands of Dr. Lyman B. Smith, of the Gray Herbarium 
at Harvard, who is now recognized as the foremost authority. 


WHERE THE BROMELIADS GROW 


The range of the widespread Spanish moss (7'tllandsia usneoides) 
marks the outer boundaries of this interesting family, which extends 
over all the tropical and subtropical areas of the Americas. From 
southeastern Virginia through Central and South America across the 
Argentine and from Chile up as far as Baja California, this cosmo- 
politan group of plants has spread itself. 

The wide range of bromeliads gives them versatile growth habits, 
for they are happy in the desert, by the side of the ocean, in the wet- 
test jungles, in full or part sun, and in complete or partial shade, and 
they grow on almost anything, including the smooth or rough bark 
of trees, on rocks, in sand, on cacti, on palms, and even clinging on 


1Smith, L. B., Geographical evidence on the lines of evolution in the Bromeliaceae, 
Sonderdr. Bot. Jahrb., Bd. 66, Heft 4, p. 447, 1934. 


351 


302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


telephone wires as does Tillandsia usneoides and Tillandsia recurvata. 

Having collected bromeliads in Mexico and Cuba, Mrs. Foster and 
I found irresistible the opportunity to collect them in the jungles of 
Brazil, home of the greatest number of bromeliad species. Accord- 
ingly we sailed from New York in the spring of 1939, but when we 
landed 2 weeks later in Brazil, it was fall below the Equator. 

While waiting for our permit, we took several short collecting trips 
near Rio with Dr. Bertha Lutz, botanist, who is making an intensive 
study of the flora in the Distrito Federal. However, her work is not 
confined to botany, for she is an eager student of zoology with partic- 
ular interest in frogs and, with her father, the late Dr. Adolpho Lutz, 
has made outstanding contributions to the knowledge of frogs in 
Brazil. While collecting with her, we developed a new interest in 
bromeliads—that of the fauna, particularly the frogs, that live deep in 
the centers of the water-filled bromeliads. From that time on we 
found the study of frogs to be an interesting accompaniment to the 
collecting of bromeliads. 

Our first collecting trip in Brazil was prophetic in that we found 
our first new species of bromeliads, for we later realized that this set 
the pattern for our whole Brazilian trip—we were always turning up 
new species. Our total of over 60 (with more yet to be described) 
was as much of a surprise to us as to the botanists, especially Dr. 
Smith, the bromeliad specialist. In the thousands of herbarium sheets 
from Brazil which he had examined in the past 10 years, only 9 new 
bromeliads had shown up from that country. While I had hopes of 
finding a few new species, I did not expect to find very many because 
this family has been well collected in Brazil, nearly one-third of the 
known species having been found within its confines. 

Our “safari” numbered two. Our equipment was meager: two suit- 
cases, two cameras, a herbarium press, and a gasoline stove. The most 
important factor, however, in our equipment was our limitless enthusi- 
asm for the fascinating family of Bromeliaceae. 

Searching for bromeliads has taught us many lessons in topography, 
for Brazil is a land of contrasts. It includes extremes of weather and 
terrain. During two winters of some 12,000 miles of trekking by 
water, rail, auto, and on foot, the bromeliads took us into almost every 
kind of condition that that great country has to offer. One day we 
were in the rainiest jungle of Brazil, at Alto da Serra south of Rio, 
which is over 1,500 miles south of the Amazon; and next we traveled 
nearly a thousand miles by coastwise steamer, by narrow-gauge rail- 
way, by ox cart, and on foot, through Bahia, where it had not rained 
in 2 years. 

One does not have to travel far after reaching Rio to do a bit of 
plant collecting. Even within the city limits there are still vast jungles 
covering the mountainsides high above the inhabited area. These rain 


BROMELIADS—FOSTER 353 


forests of the Serra do Mar, mountains along the sea, stretch for 
miles both north and south, and there is a wealth of material for the 
botanist within a comparatively short distance of the coast. It is 
probably for this reason that the greatest number of bromeliads have 
been taken from this area within the past half century. 

Strangely enough, one of our most pleasant experiences in Brazil 
was the visit to Alto da Serra, where we could not collect any plants. 
It is a sanctuary where the balance of life is to be sacredly maintained. 
Man is not to disturb the plant, animal, or insect life in any way. He 
may come there and see it unfold before his eyes, but no collecting 
or molesting is allowed. This is the great plan of the able Dr. F. C. 
Hoehne, of the Instituto de Botanica at Sao Paulo, whose sincere de- 
sire it is to preserve for posterity a complete rain forest in one of the 
most unusual situations in the world. Here is Brazil’s greatest rain- 
fall. It is at the high edge of the Serra do Mar mountains, which 
rise abruptly from sea level. The warm rain clouds from over the 
sea striking this cold mountain barrier produce almost continuous 
precipitation in the form of either rain or fog. This makes a perfect 
home for innumerable moisture-loving epiphytes. 

A very comfortable guest house had recently been built here for 
the accommodation of observing scientists, and we were complimented 
by being the first guests to use it. This was one of our favorite “col- 
lecting” spots, where we collected only photographs and many an 
impression on the mind’s eye of the luxuriant fantasies in myriad 
forms of plant life. Everything was doing its individual bit toward 
making this one of the natural beauty spots of Brazil. 

We were also invited to be the first guests to use Dr. Hoehne’s 
unique creation, a botanical truck. It was a giant Chevrolet, rebuilt 
so as to have sleeping quarters for six, with ample storage space for 
supplies, and, best of all, it had a heating “oven” where a huge press 
of fresh botanical material could be “cooked” until thoroughly dry. 
In this truck we experienced a truly delightful trip in the land of 
the decorative Pinheiro do Parana (Araucaria brasiliensis). 

Villa Velha should be as well known in Brazil as the Painted Desert 
or the Bad Lands in North America, but so far few others than natu- 
ralists are aware of it. “Old City” it is called, because from a distance 
it resembles the skyline of an ancient abandoned city. It is a “rock 
continent in a sea” of vast rolling plains. Mother Nature has for 
centuries been slowly revealing this marvelous work in sandstone which 
stands now tranquil, dominant, in a turbulent sea of shifting sands. 
For miles we had rolled over treeless land to reach this “rock of ages.” 
Only the time-carved monoliths had vegetation. They were covered 
with Arecastrum palms (Cocos plumosa) and Araucarias (the Parana 
“pine”), cacti, ferns, orchids, and bromeliads living in every crevice, 


3504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


hanging on with grim determination as though they would not give up 
until the rocks themselves disintegrate. Kvery narrow canyon, dark 
and damp, harbored bromeliads of the more delicate type, while above, 
braving wind, sun, cold, and heat, were the xerophytic ones. Villa 
Velha is a botanist’s and geologist’s paradise. 


THE BROMELIAD CHARACTERISTICS 


When you enjoy the sweet, juicy fruit of a pineapple, you are eating 
a bromeliad, Ananas comosus (sativus). When you sink into a soft, 
well-cushioned automobile seat, the filling responsible for your com- 
fort may be a bromeliad, 7ilandsia usneoides, or Spanish moss. In 
manner of growth these two represent the two extremes: the pineapple 
is strictly terrestrial, while the Spanish moss is wholly epiphytic, even 
going so far as to dispense with roots. Between these two extremes, 
bromeliads exhibit a great variety of plant characteristics. 

It would not be difficult to surmise that these two forms might be 
the latest development, each in its own type of fruiting method—the 
appendaged-seed type (represented by the Spanish moss) and the 
berry-seed type (represented by the pineapple). The pineapple has 
had all its fruits fused into one big “berry.” No other fruit-bearing 
type in this family has the individual berries that hold the seed more 
completely welded than in the pineapple fruit. On the other hand, 
the Spanish moss, with its appendaged seeds in a pod, grows with such 
a fusion of leaves in one continuous growth that there is no evidence 
of roots (which, I believe, have been absorbed) or of the usual maturing 
of individual plants, characteristics which probably make it the latest 
development in the appendaged-seed division. We might say that this 
“freak” of a plant is certainly the most modern, for it travels entirely 
by air. 

The bromeliad flower pattern is formed in multiples of three. Its 
flowers generally are formed in spikes or racemes with brightly colored 
bracts. In the botanical descriptions of this family every flower has 
been said to be monoecious or perfect, even though in some of the Hech- 
tias (of Mexico), the flowers of which have both stamens and pistils, 
only one of them functions. 

An exception appeared during January 1942, when I observed that 
in several of the species of Cryptanthus the flowers were not monoe- 
cious, but dioecious, for there were separate male and female flowers in 
the same plant. (One of our Crypthanthus species, not yet determined, 
however, does have all perfect flowers.) This condition of separate 
sex flowers has apparently not been noted before, as there seems to be 
no record of it in the literature. 

Flowers throughout the family range in size from tiny, almost micro- 
scopic blossoms as in the giant Hohenbergia augusta, in which the 


BROMELIADS—FOSTER 355 


minute stamens even hide the petals, to the large, lovely blue-violet 
flowers 2 inches in diameter of the Z'%llandsia Lindenii of Ecuador. 
Flowers that stay open for several days are the exception, but a stranger 
exception is the flower of a new and as yet unnamed Aechmea I found 
in Brazil that opens after midnight; 3 hours later the petals close and 
begin to dissolve into the sweet nectar already formed at the perianth. 
While each species has its more or less regular blooming period, I have 
by careful and persistent search found a great number of species 
blooming out of their “time” for some unknown reason. 

Along with the variance in flower sizes goes a peculiar range of 
odors: the white flower of one of our new species (Vriesia hamata) 
smells like an onion, another (Vriesia vulpinoides), like a fox. Some 
have an exquisitely sweet perfume as in 7%llandsia decomposita, or the 
fresh fragrance of a ripening apple as in the unopened buds of the 
new Vriesia Racinae. When this flower opens, the fragrance disap- 
pears. The majority of bromeliad flowers, however, have little fra- 
grance. While the flowers, it is agreed, generally produce the odor, in 
the case of Aechmea purpurco-rosca I have found that the entire 
inflorescence independent of the flowers has a “toilet soap” fragrance 
for weeks before and after the flowers are open, as well as during the 
blooming period. 

The color of the flowers covers the entire range of the spectrum, but 
the predominant hue seems to be in the lavender to blue range, although 
white, yellow, green, and red are frequent. Most of the bromeliads 
are colorful during the blooming period but not always because of the 
flowers. Many species have small and inconspicuous flowers, but the 
colorful red bracts or leaves surrounding them will give the inflores- 
cence the brilliant and dashing display so much admired. In some 
species as, for example, Cryptanthopsis navioides, the entire plant 
turns scarlet at blooming time, but as soon as the flowers have finished 
their mission the color of the leaves fades away and it becomes just 
another green plant. 

One of the new Neoregelias that we found holds its blaze of color 
in the wide cup bracts for months, until after the seeds have matured. 
But some of the Nidulariums that so colorfully surround their lavender 
flowers with a rosette of bright red bracts give up that color after the 
last flower is gone. 

The fundamental motif of plant form in this family is a whorl of 
leaves forming a rosette. In most of the terrestrial bromeliads the 
rosette form is obvious and resembles to a certain extent the familiar 
pineapple plant. In many of the epiphytes, of both the rosette and 
tubular form, the leaves are held so securely above the base that they 
become most efficient reservoirs and hold rain water constantly. In 
many of the Tillandsias the rosette form is close and the leaves are 

501591—43-—24 


356 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


constricted and generally covered with tiny peltate scales which serve 
as “cups.” 

In the “style” of leaves there is great diversity in color and form, 
which makes so many of the bromeliads highly decorative plants even 
when not in bloom. Spots, horizontal and longitudinal stripes, 
zigzag mottling and plain green, spiny and perfectly smooth surfaces, 
are leaf characteristics which, together with a wide range of color from 
many shades of green and yellow to grays, reds, and maroons, combine 
to produce the bromeliads’ bizarre beauty. Some leaves are coarse and 
stiff, others are delicately drooping and grasslike. Some leaves are so 
curled and dried up that they give little appearance of life. The half- 
inch leaves of 7illandsia tricholepis are indeed dwarfs in comparison 
to the 9-foot leaves of Streptocalyax floribunda. 

Wide variation in the size of the bromeliad plants is well illustrated 
even within the genus 7'Jlandsia by the tiny 1-inch 7illandsia loliacea 
and the huge Z'llandsia grandis of Mexico which shoots a branched 
inflorescence 11 feet high. 

Most of the bromeliads have roots, but in many species these no 
longer function as feeders. The ability to feed through the leaves is 
particularly emphasized in the epiphytic types. Tillandsia usneoides 
(Spanish moss) and 7'landsia decomposita thrive, although entirely 
lacking in so fundamental a part as roots. T7landsia usneoides seems 
to have merged the roots with the leaves, both in function and in ap- 
pearance. Zvllandsia decomposita of Matto Grosso develops a few 
roots in infancy and then dispenses with them and matures with the 
leaves tenaciously curled around the twigs within its octopuslike grasp. 

However, most epiphytic types retain enough roots to serve as a 
brace to hold the plant either in an upright position so as to catch the 
rainfall or in a downward position (as we found them in high, cold 
Mexican climates), so as not to hold the water which might freeze 
between the leaves. This method of clinging to trees has been the cause 
of the mistaken viewpoint that these epiphytes are parasitic. They 
actually take no substance from the trees to which they cling. They 
need only a position where they will get adequate aeration and where 
they will be able to catch the rainfall as well as the falling leaves from 
trees above, which decompose into a vegetable “tea” in the “cup” of 
water. This is the food taken in by the leaves, a process that eliminates 
the age-old plant habit of feeding through the roots. It may be con- 
jectured that at the remote period when the first terrestrial bromeliads 
were developing, they encountered the choking, dark, overcrowded 
jungles. For survival they took to the trees, where they lost most of 
the feeder function of their roots. 

Yet it is interesting to see how quickly the hold-fast roots of the 
epiphytes can be converted to function more as feeder roots. In a 
greenhouse the roots of a potted bromeliad function as feeders and 


BROMELIADS—FOSTER 350 


become succulent, but when the plant is attached to a tree in the jungle 
the food comes from above, and the hard and wiry roots are used only 
for holding fast. Many of the bromeliads are undoubtedly versatile 
enough to get their food the easiest way, but the more highly epiphytic 
types have specialized to such an extent and gone so long without root 
feeders that they simply cannot stand “wet feet” or roots smothered 
ina heavy soil, for they promptly rot at the base. 

Those epiphytic bromeliads which out in the jungle accumulate de- 
cayed vegetable matter in the center cups must have rain water to make 
the food soluble, and those bromeliads which have neither center cups 
nor feeder roots, such as many Tillandsias, also need rain to help 
assimilate their food from the dust particles of the air. But in the 
absence of rain, the dew collected daily in the peltate scales that cover 
their leaves enables them to live for months without rain, attached 
to a limb or the perpendicular side of a rock in full sun; thus they are 
true xerophytes. 

Although Tillandsias such as 7’. usneoides and 7, decomposita will 
certainly grow profusely without the aid of roots or any visible supply 
of food, the experiments that I have carried out and seen conducted 
have convinced me beyond any doubt that most of the bromeliads must 
have a source of food other than just air and rain. The plants will live 
for some time without proper nourishment if not exposed to too much 
sun, but they certainly will not thrive, especially if they are suspended 
from wires as was done in an experiment in Brazil to prove the theory 
that they need no food other than air and water. I have seen these 
plants there. They hang on wires and hooks, hundreds of them, and, 
yes, they were living—some of them—but they were gasping pitifully 
for existence and were dying one by one. The only happy ones were 
the exceptionally few types of Tillandsias that really can “do the im- 
possible.” Even pineapple plants were hung on wire, but I assure you 
that they would never bear fruit. Each plant had literally to live on 
itself, gradually getting smaller and finally drying up. It was a terrific 
endurance test and, except for some of the orchids, I know of no other 
plants that could have held on so long. 

In the field I have found isolated examples of “natural misplace- 
ment”: pineapple plants and plants of Bromelia serra, both terrestrial, 
whose seeds undoubtedly were dropped by birds in the boots of a palm 
high off the ground. However, these plants were not happy, nor were 
they bearing fruit, but were gradually growing smaller. 

That terrestrial bromeliads also tend to feed through the leaves has 
been shown by the commercial pineapple growers, who have found that 
fertilizer thrown into the base of the lower leaves is more readily taken 
up as nourishment and produces faster growth than when it is dis- 
tributed only in the soil surrounding the plant. This is an illustra- 
tion of the tendency of practically the entire family to be able to feed 


308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


through the base of their leaves. However, I believe that the more 
primitive forms such as Puyas, Dyckias, and Encholiriums still feed 
mostly through their roots. 

In trying to grow these interesting plants I have not learned of all 
the “food” they like, but I have learned certain things they do not 
like. They cannot tolerate the dripping of water from lime, copper, 
or galvanized iron. The drip from these will burn the leaves, and 
any such burn often kills the plant in a short time. Even a small 
copper wire piercing a leaf will usually kill that leaf. While they 
have an amazing capability for going without apparent food and 
withstanding adverse conditions, in other respects they are much more 
fastidious. Any food given bromeliads must be acid, as alkalinity 
derived from water or from foreign substances is disastrous to them. 


THE EPIPHYTIC RELATIVES 


Before going to Brazil our interest in bromeliads was focused on the 
epiphytic types. From a decorative standpoint and because of their 
interesting way of life, we found them completely fascinating. The 
epiphytic types were found in the rain forests all along the coastal 
areas where it is high and cool at night yet warm during the day, 
where frequent rains or heavy dew supplied their water. The trees 
were laden with a dazzling profusion of bromeliads and other epiphytes 
making unique pattern and design everywhere in the lush jungle. 

We expected to find the epiphytes wherever there were moist areas. 
A ravine, a stream, or a swamp seemed to be the very choicest spot 
for them. But one of the greatest surprises and disappointments 
came when we collected in the huge swamp areas of Matto Grosso. 
We had come by train from eastern Brazil to the far west, where the 
Rio Paraguay cuts through South America’s largest swamp. Up the 
river we had traveled for miles and had seen countless thousands of 
trees, but they were barren of bromeliads. Only where there is an ele- 
vation will be found trees and rocks that may harbor a few epiphytes. 
If a similar swamp area occurred near the great jungles on the coast 
it would be a paradise for the epiphytes, as well as for the collectors 
who enjoy finding them. 

The high plains between the vast swamp area and the jungles of 
the coast section have been the “Green Heli” barrier that these moisture- 
loving plants could not cross. A few Tillandsias that disperse by 
means of wind-blown plumose seeds have flown over those dry areas, 
and a few drought-resisting tubular types of Billbergias and Aech- 
meas have also come most of the way. It would be interesting to go 
back there a few thousand years hence to see what descendants will 
be developed from some of these pioneers, for certainly the migration 


BROMELIADS—FOSTER 359 


to this, geologically speaking, young territory will produce interesting 
new species. 

In the great primeval forest at the Cacio Experiment Station in 
Agua Preta, Bahia, we found a lush jungle garden, a plant paradise 
for eager collectors. Great masses of climbing begonias startled 
us, Philodendrons of fantastic shapes and design blended in an 
ornate pattern with Calatheas and Tradescantias of fancy foliage, 
and ferns crowded every available opening on trees, rocks, and 
ground. Many areas were almost impossible to walk through. If 
we were not being tripped by stout cords of lianas, thorny leaves 
and treacherous small palms were always reminding us of the things 
on the ground and interfering with our more ethereal aspirations 
of looking for the epiphytic beauties above us. 

There in the “upper strata” we found two huge epiphytes, both 
new species. These plants, Aechmea conifera and Aechmea de- 
pressa, were giants among epiphytes. The flower head alone of 
Aechmea conifera weighed nearly 12 pounds and measured 18 inches 
in length, resembling a huge pine cone. This plant was reposing 
serenely and securely in the crotch of a limb over 80 feet from 
the ground. Secure it was until, with the assistance of three human 
“monkeys,” we succeeded in loosening it from its aerial home and 
with ropes lowered it to earth. This epiphyte, including its several 
side shoots, weighed considerably over 125 pounds. From the 
ground this Aechmea did not greatly differ in appearance from 
Aechmea depressa, but the field glasses helped to convince me that it 
was another species. That meant another tough climb. 

To climb these huge trees one must resort to monkey tactics and 
not try to tackle first the tree he wishes to conquer. A small tree 
possibly 50 feet away may be the first one to climb, for its upper 
branches will intermesh with those of the larger tree. And so with 
the assistance of ropes and vines the climber finally reaches the 
lower branches of the giant tree and then all he has to do is to finish 
the climb and get the plant, which may be accomplished in another 
hour or two. 

But we forgot all about the difficulties of getting it when our 
thoughts turned to the perseverance and determination that a plant 
must have to be able to live perched at such a precarious height. 
With its huge reservoir to catch rain and vegetable matter it builds 
a body heavier than almost any of its terrestrial cousins, with the 
exception of some of the great Puyas of the high Andes. These 
great Aechmeas often hold from 1 to 3 gallons of water, which not 
only serves the plants themselves but also becomes a breeding place 
for animal life and even aquatic plants. Utricularias and aquatic 
mosses and algae are often found living in some species. In various 
specimens we found lizards, frogs, scorpions, small snakes, centi- 


360 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


pedes, various insect larvae, roaches, ants, and bees, some preferring 
a particular type of bromeliad. The frogs that find a permanent 
residence in the deep, dark cylinders and cups of the bromeliads 
interested us most, and we made a small collection of them for Dr. 
Lutz. She has stated that “bromeliads make frogs independent of 
climate and environment, by creating a special environment.” 

In dry areas of Matto Grosso I found one of the biggest and 
most curious of the tree frogs, known as Hyla venulosa because of 
prominent veins in the eye. I had a hard time dislodging this 
one. It seemed to be stuck to the inside of the Billbergia zebrina 
where it was hibernating through a dry season. I shook and shook 
the plant but finally had to cut it open, and when I pulled the frog 
out of the little “canoe” of the bromeliad leaf, my fingers were all 
glued together. The frog had immediately thrown out his smoke 
screen, or rather, his rubber screen. When I touched him, a pure 
white latex oozed out of every pore of his body. 

I am very sorry now that we did not bring back a good supply 
of these frogs. In the later rubber famine we might have helped 
solve a national problem! 

The bromeliads apparently depend more on color to attract the 
fauna that act as an aid to pollinization than on perfume which in 
most flowers attracts the insects. Nectar gatherers that seem to have 
a special accord with bromeliads are the darting hummingbirds whose 
small, nimble bodies can get between the most complicated parts of a 
bromeliad flower and whose long, thin bills are especially adapted for 
efficient use in the tubular or deep-set flowers. Judging by the fre- 
quency of seeing hummingbirds at a brilliant bromeliad flower and 
also by the fact that hummingbirds would frequently hover around 
the red rain coat Mrs. Foster sometimes wore, I would say that they 
are attracted to the long tubes of bromeliad nectar more by color than 
by perfume. In Brazil they call these dainty little birds most 
appropriately “beija-flor,” the flower kisser. 


THE TERRESTRIAL RELATIVES 


The most familiar bromeliad is the terrestrial pineapple. Because 
of its delicious fruit, much desired by mankind, it has become a great 
globetrotter and now seems even to be most at home in the Hawaiian 
Islands far from its birthplace in Central and South America. Since 
the form of the pineapple plant is typical of that of other terrestrial 
bromeliads, the Bromeliaceae have become known as the “pineapple 
family.” 

The pineapple type of foliage is common to many of the terrestrial 
genera. The more compact spiny types such as Deuterocohnia, Dyckia, 
and Encholirium resemble each other so much in foliage that unless 


BROMELIADS—FOSTER 361 


flowers are present it is almost impossible to identify them correctly. 
Being semisucculent and very efficient xerophytes, these plants with- 
stand almost incredible conditions. In certain sections these formid- 
able terrestrial bromeliads grow in such profusion that it is almost 
impossible to climb the rocky slopes, for the plants are as well armed 
with spines as any cactus I know—in fact, they are often mistakenly 
ealled cacti. 

Many of these extreme drought-resisting species, like most of the 
cacti and other succulents, have endured adverse conditions for so 
many centuries that such conditions have become normal for them— 
adverse only from our point of view. They are conditions under 
which they thrive, and should the plant fall from a ledge or a tree 
to a moist, cool, shady spot, it would probably die. If it did not, its 
growth would be weak and abnormally fast. They have developed 
hardy qualities and are seldom found in the soft, shady places where 
the more tender ones such as Vriesias, Nidulariums, Neoregelias, or 
Billbergias seek cloister. 

Dr. Smith believes that Puya is the most primitive bromeliad, and 
he is convincing in his argument against Mez’s contention that the 
most primitive bromeliad is Vavia. He suggests that probably Puyas 
came into being in the high Andes and that their offspring, meeting 
new situations, produced the various other genera. I, too, surmise 
that Puyas originated in the territory that is now the Andes, but I 
suggest that they came into being before the Andes rose to their pres- 
ent height, and that as the environment is presumably responsible for 
creating the various genera, they developed from ancestors that have 
since become extinct. 

But what about the genera, morphologically very close to Puya, that 
are now on the eastern edge of South America, such as Cottendorfia, 
Encholirium, or Prionophyllum now isolated on the Atlantic coast of 
Brazil? Finding primitive types of bromeliads so far from their 
“parents,” the Puyas, seems to indicate that in early ages many of 
these genera perhaps did not evolve from the Puyas but developed 
simultaneously as a result of their environment. ncholirium, Lind- 
mania, Deuterocohnia, and C'ottendorfia are similar in construction to 
Puya, but that does not necessarily mean that they descended from 
Puya; they could have evolved from other ancestors now extinct. 

During the period of our two extensive trips into Brazil we collected 
in three extremes of country which produced the terrestrial species 
morphologically nearest to the primitive species of Puya. In the 
Matto Grosso on the Bolivian border we were as close to the “source” 
as our trip permitted. 

Rising out of the vast marshes in southern Matto Grosso was the 
strange mountain Urucum, 2,000 feet high and 75 percent manganese 
ore. Dry areas were always presenting themselves in unexpected 


362 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


places in Brazil, and this was one of them. Instead of the usual moist, 
humid forest on the mountainsides, we found a dry, dusty jungle of 
bamboos and dwarf trees through which for hours we hacked our way 
with sharp facao. It was here that we found Deuterocohnia Meziana, 
that unique bromeliad whose 5- to 7-foot flower stem continues to 
bloom for years from the same stalk. It grew as well on limestone 
rocks overhanging the Paraguay River as on the manganese rocks. 
Unlike most of the bromeliads, this plant is caulescent. I have seen 
overhanging the high rocky ledges specimens probably 50 years old, 
with large, ridged trunks that gave them the appearance of prostrate 
yuccas. 

In evolutionary development Deuterocohnia is so close to Puya that 
it seems to be but an advanced form of that genus “distinguished by 
the advanced characters of appendaged petals and woody habit.” ? 

In central Brazil, on the edge of the high plateau in the state of 
Minas Geraes, we found other terrestrials that were relatives of the 
pineapple and close to the primitive form of Puya. ‘This is a section 
of mines—gold, iron, and diamond. In every direction we could see 
the effect of the vast deposits of ores in the soil, and at evening the 
purple haze, mingled with red and yellow glints from the sun, made a 
glowing spectacle radiating earth colors seldom seen outside of a 
mining district. 

It was in this section that Glaziou, the French botanist who spent 
the latter part of his life in Brazil, did considerable collecting. He 
was a bromeliad enthusiast, and in his years of collecting he discovered 
some 65 new species in this family, a greater number than any other 
collector had ever found. It was interesting to find many of his 
species, and in a number of cases our specimens were the first found 
since the type was named. It was a keen satisfaction to be able to 
collect two new Dyckias and three new Vriestas in the rather arid 
rocky areas of Minas Geraes (with promise of still other undescribed 
species in the material obtained). 

In most of these rocky areas one would expect to find cacti, as in 
Mexico, but in parts of Brazil most of the soil is acid, whereas the 
regions of Mexico in which cacti thrive are alkaline. So in Minas 
Geraes cacti were the exception rather than the rule. We seldom found 
bromeliads and cacti together. 

In southern Brazil our collecting was confined to Parana, where 
Dyckia encholirioides was typical of the primitive terrestrials near 
Puya. Unlike other Dyckias, it grew on bare granite rocks on the 
Atlantic coast at as low an altitude as 6 feet above sea level. Its 
species name indicates how close are the Dyckias and Encholiriums. 
Dyckia encholirioides is one of the few Dyckias that have developed 


*Smith, L. B., Geographical evidence on the lines of evolution in the Bromeliaceae. 
Sonderdr. Bot. Jahrb., Bd. 66, Heft 4, p. 460, 1934. 


BROMELIADS—FOSTER 363 


a trunk 7 or 8 feet long. Most of the Dyckias increase by stolons or 
side shoots and form bed masses of plants. 

Clinging to the granite rocks in a similar position on the Atlantic 
coast, but much farther north in the state of Espirito Santo, we found 
a new Lncholirium. This, too, had developed a prostrate trunk, and 
it might well have been named E'ncholirium dyckioides, but my descrip- 
tion convinced Dr. Smith that the best name for the plant was 
Encholirium horridum, for my flesh was badly scratched and torn 
when I cut my way over a huge colony of these plants with their 
formidable, stiff masses of barbed leaves. This was the first species 
of Encholirium to show a branched inflorescence. It was the second 
new species in the genus for us, as we had discovered our first new one 
in Bahia and named it H/ncholirium Hoehneanum in honor of Dr. 
F. C. Hoehne of Sao Paulo. 

One of our trips took us into both dry and humid territory in 
Bahia, northern Brazil. Here was a wide range of conditions, varying 
from the hot sands of the sea coast, where we found our new Hohen- 
bergia littoralis, to the dry caatinga similar to the mesquite lands of 
Mexico. In this dry, shadowless desert covered with thorny, harsh 
vegetation punctuated with a few tall cacti we found the new Cryp- 
tanthus bahianus. During our month there we added nine new 
species to the total from that state, including Cryptanthopsis na- 
vioides. Of this latter genus only one species had ever been collected, 
and that by Ule some 30 years ago. This interesting whorl of 
delicately spined, stiff, grasslike leaves grew in a moist ravine in ex- 
tremely dry country, a habitat similar to that preferred by most 
species of Cryptanthus. 

Under the open, thorny vegetation we found another individualistic 
bromeliad, Neoglaziovia variegata. The dull, brown-green leaves 
of this plant with their vivid whitish bands look at first glance lke 
snakes. In Brazil it is one of the most useful bromeliads, having 
been used by the Indians for centuries—and now on a commercial 
scale—as a source of excellent fiber which is stronger than sisal 
and makes a cloth that is softer than linen. The natives call the 
plant caroa or caraguata, names that are also used for several other 
kinds of terrestrial plants that yield fibers. 

I am convinced that the type of country tends to produce the 
change in plants that creates varieties and species, and certainly it is 
the adaptability of the bromeliads that has made the family so pro- 
lific. Plants with this quality, like people, go places and do things 
and make the best of a situation even if they have to change their 
color, habits, food, or methods of travel. Every hundred feet of 
elevation, and sometimes even every mile from the sea, one sees a 
change in the bromeliads. When soil conditions, rocks, precipitation, 


364 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


and air currents differ, the bromeliads which have adapted themselves 
to these changes will be different. 

It was especially interesting to observe the continually changing 
parade of species during the ascent of Mount Itatiaya, which is 
nearly 10,000 feet high. At every rise of a few hundred feet, new 
bromeliads would appear, and then gradually disappear as we reached 
higher plant strata. And yet one Vriesia and one Aechmea started 
with us near the bottom and stayed with us until we had almost 
reached the top. But as we passed the tree line, they were 
left behind, although they attempted to stick it out on the sides of 
some of the large boulders. At the top, the exposure to wind and 
cold was too great for them, and they relinquished the territory to 
the Fernseea itatiaiae, the range of which is restricted to this moun- 
tain top. It is the sole member of its genus and seems completely 
satisfied with its isolation. It withstands frost, sun, wind, and 
drought and requires only the modicum of food that can be obtained 
from small crevices or cracks in the boulders. 

Aechmea nudicaulis, on the other hand, has not been satisfied and 
has wandered all over the American Tropics. We found it in Mexico, 
Cuba, Trinidad, and Brazil; it is profuse in Central and South 
America. It lives in trees or on rocks in the coastal area and gen- 
erally enjoys either sun or shade. With its range extending for 
thousands of miles, its plant form and its flower do not show as much 
variation as one would expect. 

On the shadowless sand dunes of the Atlantic coast in the state 
of Espirito Santo we found another Aechmea as yet not definitely 
determined but undoubtedly close to A. nudicaulis. It isa stiff, gray- 
brown, tubular plant, almost metallic in texture. It grew right up 
to within a few yards of the sandy beach. Almost by its side we 
found a new Portea with short, stiff 18-inch leaves. This same 
Portea we found again growing on mangrove trees in a swamp, 
just a few feet above the water. There its leaves were narrow, limp, 
and 6 feet long. The stiff Aechmea, however, refuses to grow rapidly 
no matter where you place it, and while it does change to a more 
greenish cast in color in certain locations, its growth still remains 
slow, stiff, and rough. 

An example of what happens to certain plants if the conditions 
are changed is found in Billbergia Meyeri, which I found in palm 
boots in harsh, dry country on the western border of Sao Paulo, 
where it was exposed to both extreme drought and torrential rains. 
We brought some of these plants back with us. Those that I kept 
in full light and gave no water retained their original shape; the plants 
kept in the shade made rapid growth and produced leaves three 
times their original length. When seeds of this species were planted, 


BROMELIADS—FOSTER 365 


they germinated in 2 days; at the end of 4 weeks they were 6 inches 
high and ready to be placed in pots. At 3 months of age they were 
glabrous, succulent, green as grass, and showed no trace of resem- 
blance (as most bromeliads do even at an earlier age) to the parent 
plant, which is a gray-brown, blotched plant with a texture like 
emery paper. 

Some of the species that have a wide range will vary so much in 
plant form, and at the same time have flowers so much alike, that 
they would exasperate almost any botanist. Again, there are many 
species, especially in the genus Vriesia, in which the plant forms 
appear to be almost identical, but which have entirely different 
flowers. I suspect that many botanists have passed by some of these 
more closely similar plants without realizing that there might be a 
new species among them. 

I have had one advantage over the botanist who collects only 
blooming or fruiting material. I take the living specimens as well as 
the herbarium material, and the plants coming to bloom at a later 
date in my greenhouse have given me fresh material to be studied 
before the process of drying destroys certain characteristics. They 
have also given me flower material which I would otherwise not 
have procured unless I had made another trip in some other season. 

From the hundreds of visitors who come to our Orchidario in 
Florida to see the plants we have gathered comes an almost universal 
exclamation: “It must be thrilling to go into the jungles and get 
all these wonderful plants!” They see the romance only; we, too, 
see that romance as we look at the interesting flowers and plants. 
But we recall also other things that intensify the memories of 
tropical exploration—the bites of mosquitoes, carapatos, bichous, and 
giant ants, the stings of huge swarms of bees and wasps, the pene- 
trating of areas where malaria, yellow fever, or Chagas’ disease is 
prevalent, the difficulties of transportation, food, water, and shelter. 
And invariably the most beautiful flower is safely perched just 
beyond the point that is possible to reach. 

And not the least of these memories is the preparation of thou- 
sands of herbarium specimens. These specimens may have to be 
made from a 14-pound juicy flower head or from stiff, spiny leaves 9 
feet long. They must be preserved regardless of the weather—in 
tropical rains and heat, or on cold, humid mountain tops. It is the 
surmounting of all these difficulties and conditions that produces 
the romance for our memory. But it is this part of the affair that 
would take most of the romance out of a jungle experience for many 
people, so they collect their jungle flowers from the florist. 


(e's MS? ie 8 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Foster PLATE 1 


1. TILLANDSIA RECURVATA. 


A pineapple relative that thrives on telephone wire. 


2. A PRESSING ENGAGEMENT. 


Mrs. Foster prepares herbarium specimens from collected plants while breakfast cooks. The specially 
designed and well-equipped botanical truck of the state of S40 Paulo provided sleeping quarters as well 
as a complete stock of food, fuel, and necessary scientific apparatus so that long collecting trips could be 
made with great efficiency. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Foster PLATE 2 


1. A CONTINUAL TOBOGGAN SLIDE. 


Tillandsias rushing down the steep slopes of a mountain at the breakneck speed of half to three-quarters of 
an inch a year. Tillandsra puchella var. saricola. 


2. TILLANDSIA DECOMPOSITA. 


The epiphyte of Matto Grosso which in maturity dispenses with roots and allows its leaves to curl tena- 
ciously around small twigs within its octopuslike grasp. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Foster PAE: 


He ie 


1. AGES OF WIND 


This is but a corner of Villa Vehla where stand great sandstone monoliths, each one a lonely continent, shaned 
by the winds of countless centuries. As the earth tide ebbs, high and dry, these fantastic forms are left 
inhabited only by invincible plants. trees, and palms; and the last ones who win this race of time will 
finally die of starvation. 


2. STREPTOCALYX FLORIBUNDA. 


A giant epiphyte with leaves 9 feet long. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Foster eanains 2 


1. NIDULARIUM INNOCENTII VAR. 


A striking bromeliad whose white flowers bloom in its water-filled leaf reservoirs. 


2. THE DIOECIOUS CRYPTANTHUS. 


This condition of separate sex flowers, unique in the Bromeliaceae, was observed in January 1942. 


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Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Foster} PLATEz6 


1. EPIPHYTIC REFUGE. 


Many bromeliads are a perfect retreat for fauna that like dark. moist places. One bromeliad when cut open 
revealed grubs, worms, and a large colony of ants. 


2. AECHMEA MACROCHLAMYS. 


A new epiphyte which was the winter home of four poisonous snakes. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Foster’ | PAE ay: 


1. HYLA VENULOSA. 


From every pore there exuded latex, pure rubber. 


2. ON MOUNT. ITATIAYA. 


Collecting the epiphytic relatives of the pineapple on Itatiaya, one of the high mountains of Brazil. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Foster PLATE 8 


1. AN ARISTOCRATIC PINEAPPLE. 


A feast for the eyes as well as the stomach. 


2. DYCKIA ENCHOLIRIOIDES. 


This is one of the few Dyckias which has developed a trunk 7 feet long. Found growing on granite rocks as 
low as 6 feet above the high-water line on the Atlantic Ocean. 


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uBy} JoyJos puB’ (RSIS UBY} JesUOTIS “IoqYy 109] 


jO dd1NOS PRI[IUIOIG 


“VLVSORIYVA VIAOIZVISOAN ‘2 


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‘Q0UBJSIP IY) UI SI TINONIA UleJUNOM yf, “SHO ssouBSURUI SB [OM SB 
snooieo[ed uo Addey Sl 4] “YIeIS VUIBS VY} WO] sIBaA IOJ WIOOTY 0} sonuly 
-U09 M191S JOMOP 1OOJ-2 09 -G 9SOYM PBI[PUIOIG [eNpIAIpul Afenbrun yey, 


YNVIZAW VINHODOYALNAG (1 


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Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Foster PLATE 10 


sa 
. 


1. VRIESIA ERYTHRODACTYLON. 


This epiphyte_blooms a transparent cock’s-comblike flower head. It is singularly beautiful. 


2. VRIESIA HIEROGLYPHICA. 


One of the bizarre beauties of the coastal rain forests has decided protective coloration in its zigzag mottling. 


CANADA’S INDIAN PROBLEMS? 


By DIAMOND JENNESS 
Chief, Division of Anthropology, National Museum of Canada 


[With 4 plates] 


If you study a physiographic map of Canada, or, better still, if you 
travel over the Dominion in an airplane, you will find yourself irre- 
sistibly compelled to block off the country into four regions, viz, Can- 
ada east of the Great Lakes, the prairies, the Pacific slope, and the far 
north. Even then you will not be satisfied, but will begin to subdivide 
these four regions, to distinguish in eastern Canada, for example, be- 
tween the fertile lowlands in southern Ontario along with the valley 
of the St. Lawrence, and the rocky uplands, splattered with innumer- 
able lakes and rivers, that comprise the largest part of the two prov- 
inces, Quebec and Ontario. Each region, each subdivision of a region, 
differs from the rest in climate, in vegetation and in fauna; and since 
the less civilized man is, the more deeply he is influenced by his physical 
environment, so our Canadian Indians, when they first came into con- 
tact. with Europeans, were likewise separable into a number of divi- 
sions—divisions that corresponded more or less with the geographical 
ones, but derived from differences in the mode of life, social organiza- 
tion and religious beliefs. It was due to these differences, in no small 
measure, that our Indians responded so variously to European contact, 
and that they vary so greatly today in their adaptation to European 
civilization. 

Europeans first established a foothold in the eastern part of Canada, 
where they encountered two types of Indians, nonagricultural, migra- 
tory Algonkian tribes of the Maritime Provinces and of the upland 
areas of Quebec and Ontario, and corn-raising, semisedentary Iro- 
quoian tribes of southern Ontario and along the banks of the St. 
Lawrence. These Iroquoians were themselves comparatively recent 
immigrants into Canada. A few centuries before they had lived to the 
south, either in Pennsylvania or within the basin of the Ohio River, 
where from neighbors still farther south they had learned to cultivate 
corn, beans, squash, and tobacco. But during the 300 or 400 years 
that had elapsed between their irruption into Ontario and Jacques 


1 Reprinted by permission from the America Indigena, vol. 2, No. 1, 1942. 
367 


368 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


Cartier’s voyage up the St. Lawrence River in 1535, they had struck 
an adjustment, as it were, with the nonagricultural Algonkians who 
bordered them west, north, and east, an adjustment not unlike that 
between the nomadic desert dwellers of Arabia and the settled vil- 
lagers on the fringe of the deserts. The Algonkians, that is to say, 
hunted and trapped along the lakes and rivers, transporting their 
birchbark wigwams on toboggans during the winter months and in 
birchbark canoes during the summer, roasting their meat and fish or 
cooking it in portable birchbark kettles, but, generally speaking, keep- 
ing to themselves and avoiding the Iroquoians of the lowlands, though 
they did occasionally exchange a few furs with them for such luxuries 
as tobacco and corn. The Iroquoians, for their part, peacefully cul- 
tivated the fields near their clusters of shedlike huts, and their men 
hunted and fished in the vicinity while the women harvested the crops, 
manufactured clay cooking vessels, and performed numerous other 
tasks incidental to a settled village life. 

Even in the sixteenth century, long before any European had pene- 
trated inland as far as Ontario, Breton, Basque, and Portuguese 
fishermen and fur traders had disturbed this adjustment. They had 
upset the native economy by introducing iron tools and weapons, and 
by creating an unlimited market for furs, particularly for beaver, 
which led to the denudation of the game in certain districts and to 
widespread movements of the native population for trade and hunt- 
ing. Trade rivalries and encroachments on the hunting grounds of 
others then engendered intertribal warfare that was aggravated by 
the introduction of firearms; and the Iroquoians of the St. Lawrence 
Valley and southward became bitter foes of the Algonkians who sur- 
rounded them on three sides, and of their own brethren in Ontario. 
Differences in the social and political organization immediately as- 
serted their influence. The well-integrated Iroquois tribes federated 
for mutual protection (creating the well-known Five, later Six, Na- 
tions), submitted to the rule of an elected council and to the discipline 
of military chiefs, and through their military valor and skillful diplo- 
macy during the colonial wars won for themselves ample farming 
lands and a semiautonomous status when those wars ended. On 
the other hand, the nomadic Algonkians, who lacked any close tribal 
organization but wandered from one hunting and trapping ground 
to another in small, semileaderless bands, proved incapable of uniting 
or of exercising great influence in the conflict between the French 
and English for supremacy on this continent; and, being a negligible 
factor, they were pushed more and more to one side by the ever-in- 
creasing flood of whites. 

Nevertheless, even these Algonkians encountered alleviating condi- 
tions such as were lacking to the Indians over the greater part of 
western Canada, who did not come into close contact with Europeans 


CANADA’S INDIAN PROBLEMS—-JENNESS 369 


until two centuries later. The earliest French settlers in eastern 
Canada were few in numbers, primitive in their manner of life, and 
cut off entirely from the Old World except for the visits of one or two 
ships each summer. Furthermore, the vast majority were men who 
combined their simple farming with fishing and hunting, or neglected 
farming altogether for a life in the woods similar to that of the 
Indians. Yet Canada was their permanent home, not merely a place 
of work and residence for a few years, after which they would return 
to Europe, as did so many employees of the great fur-trading com- 
panies who operated in the west and northwest a century or so later. 
Nothing was more natural, therefore, than that many of these early 
French settlers should marry Indian girls, especially girls who had 
been educated in the mission schools; and that the free traders who 
roamed the woods should take wives from the Indians who supplied 
them with furs. We must remember that in the seventeenth century, 
the period that witnessed the laying of the foundations of New France, 
Indians and whites were on a more nearly equal footing economically 
than they were a century later, when numerous industries such as 
milling, weaving, and iron-working established themselves in the 
Maritime Provinces and along the banks of the St. Lawrence. Hence 
intermarriage occurred quite freely, half-breeds experienced no dis- 
abilities of any kind, and both half-breeds and Indians received every 
encouragement to participate with the white settlers in building up a 
prosperous colony. How many actually merged with the whites we 
shall never know, but the proportion was not inconsiderable. Many, 
of course, found the drudgery of farm life too difficult and preferred 
to maintain their old hunting and trapping existence, which was in- 
deed the only existence possible north of the St. Lawrence watershed; 
and it is they, or rather their descendants, who occupy most of the 
present-day Indian reserves in eastern Canada or roam over northern 
Ontario and northern Quebec. Yet even they were witnesses, and 
to a limited degree, participants in the slow rise of eastern Canada 
from a few settlements of primitive colonists to a great agricultural, 
industrial, and commercial area, and they were given ample time to 
adjust themselves to the changing conditions that unfolded themselves 
century after century. 

It was otherwise on the great plains, whose inhabitants had to with- 
stand the shock of two sudden revolutions, both brought about by 
whites directly or indirectly. We actually know very little about 
the life of these Indians prior to the first revolution, because the only 
explorer who visited them before that time was the youth Kelsey, 
and his account of his journey is extremely meager. In his day (1690), 
apparently the only true plains’ dwellers were the Blackfoot and the 
Gros Ventres; for the other tribes that later disputed the area with 
them, the Sarcee, Assiniboine, Cree, and certain bands of Ojibwa, 


370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


clung to the forests at this time and made only brief incursions onto 
the treeless prairies. Kelsey found the Blackfoot wandering on foot 
in small bands that ceaselessly pursued the numberless herds of buf- 
falo. He met them, however, in summer only, and whether or not 
they too retreated to the edge of the forests at the onset of winter is 
uncertain. Less than 50 years later they had obtained horses from a 
United States tribe to the southwest and a few guns from Hudson 
Bay. At the same time the neighboring Sarcee, Cree, and Assiniboine 
Indians had begun to press into their territory, and to demand a 
greater share of the buffalo hunting now that the mobility given by 
the horse and the effectiveness of the firearms had made hunting easier 
and more profitable. Rivalry in war and the chase then brought about 
internal reorganizations in all the tribes. Some of them graded their 
young men into semimilitary societies and adopted a circular form of 
encampment with the tent of the highest chief in the center. All alike 
elevated warfare to the level of a national sport, and instituted a 
regular system of rewards for the taking of scalps and the capture 
of guns or horses. 

So it came about that the plains became one vast guerrilla zone in 
which men hunted and were hunted without cease. The dress, the 
customs, even the religion of the Indians reflected the change that 
had taken place, and under uniform geographic and economic condi- 
tions tended to become uniform also. Every tribe, for example, 
adopted the institution of the sun dance, and possessed its quota of 
precious medicine bundles, each with its individual ritual. 

All this time, however, Europeans were slowly filtering into the 
prairies from the north, south, and east, and the indiscriminate mas- 
sacre of the buffalo herds by both races was rapidly destroying the 
foundation of the Indians’ economic life. By 1879 the great herds 
had ceased to exist and the old free hunting life suddenly collapsed. 
With almost no warning the starving Indians were confronted with 
their second revolution. Henceforth they had to confine their move- 
ments within narrow tracts of land set apart for them by disdainful 
white overlords, and to divert their energies from the exciting buffalo 
hunt, with its intervals of pleasant idleness, to the monotonous drudg- 
ery of farming and ranching, tasks which their forefathers would 
have regarded with contempt. We cannot wonder that most of the 
ex-warriors of the first generation lost heart at the abrupt transforma- 
tion, and that for a period the population of the plains’ Indians 
registered a decline. 

Similar declines of population are not rare. On the contrary they 
have occurred in British Columbia, in parts of Africa, and through- 
out almost the whole of the South Seas; so commonly, in fact, during 
the last 200 years as to be almost the rule wherever uncivilized peoples 
have been suddenly confronted with European civilization. Not one 


CANADA’S INDIAN PROBLEMS—JENNESS Sal 


cause only is responsible for it, but a number of related causes. 
Changes in the economic activities and in diet have played their part; 
for example, our Mackenzie River Indians are now more or less per- 
manently undernourished, as are many natives in other parts of the 
British Empire. Then, again, epidemics of previously unknown dis- 
eases have ravaged the native population in all parts of the world 
(measles, for instance, wiped out 40,000 Fijians in one year). Per- 
haps the most important factor, however, has been the failure of the 
natives to reorient their lives under European hegemony and to estab- 
lish themselves on a secure economic basis that preserved both their 
dignity and their feeling of independence. The loss of their economic 
security and the degradation of their social status has destroyed their 
self-respect, robbed them of all aim and ambition in life, and lowered 
their morale to such an extent that they consent more or less con- 
sciously to the signing of their own death warrants. Very often the 
fault has lain not with the natives themselves, but with their European 
overlords; for only too commonly white governments have failed to 
realize their responsibilities toward their native subjects, and have 
allowed individual whites either to exploit them, as they exploited 
the Kanakas on the Queensland plantations, or to push them to one 
side as encumbrances, as happened to the Australian blacks. 

One prairie tribe, the Blackfoot, suffered less from the economic 
shock and the ravages of diseases than the rest, for a reason we shall 
see presently; and, within the last 20 years, all the plains’ peoples 
have shown signs of recovery and of a slow increase in population, 
even though the economic conditions on some reserves are still far 
from satisfactory. A recovery of this kind is not uncommon either; 
it is occurring today, for example, among the Eskimo, and among the 
Maoris of New Zealand. And just as many causes operated, often in 
conjunction, to produce the previous decline, so there seem to be many 
causes for the recovery. In the Tropics, climate undoubtedly exerts 
an important influence, because Europeans cannot develop the Tropics 
without native labor, and a growing realization of their indispensa- 
bility increases the natives’ economic security and social independence. 
Both within and without the Tropics, again, natives whose economy 
was already based on agriculture have generally fared better than 
those who, like the Australian blacks and most of our Canadian Indians, 
supported themselves entirely by hunting and fishing; for the new 
regime, while greatly modifying their daily life, has not demanded 
a complete transformation. It is partly for this reason that in eastern 
Canada our agricultural Iroquoian tribes have prospered more than 
the previously nonagricultural Algonkian, even where the latter have 
been placed on reserves with equally fertile soil. 

We can discern still another reason, however, for the greater pros- 

501591—43 25 


372 ANNUAL REPORT. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


perity of the Iroquoians, and particularly of the Five Nations. At 
the time of their greatest crisis, i. e., at the close of the colonial wars, 
they were organized into a more compact unit than the Algonkians, 
and they were led by men of courage and vision like Joseph Brant. 
The same factors account for the resilience of the Blackfoot. It was 
the able leadership and far-seeing wisdom of their chiefs, especially 
of Crowfoot, that braced them against the shock of confinement, en- 
couraged them to direct their energies to the growing of wheat and 
the raising of cattle and horses, and maintained their morale at a 
high level while that of the other plains’ tribes languished. ‘These 
two examples from our Canadian Indians—examples that could be 
multiplied the world over, among civilized and uncivilized peoples 
alike—illustrate a truth that we often overlook, viz, that the strongest 
forces for the regeneration or upbuilding of peoples come from within 
their own ranks, not from without. Always the driving force is some 
seemingly high and noble ideal, but this ideal may lie dormant for years 
and even centuries (as did the longing for liberty in Finland and 
Poland) unless some great leader arises to give it voice and to carry 
the people with him. Every administration that deais with a native 
race, therefore, should aim, first of all, to inspire or foster in that 
race some desirable goal, and then to promote the evolution of native 
leaders who will command the confidence of their people and guide 
them toward that goal. 

The steadfastness of the Blackfoot when they were first confined to 
reserves, and the progress they have made since in readjusting their 
lives, scarcely affected the other plains tribes, whose partial recovery 
in recent years must be attributed to their own vitality. As the older 
generation passes away and the traditions of war and buffalo hunting 
fade more and more from memory, the younger Indians in these tribes 
are gazing out on a new world. Occasional travel by rail, but espe- 
cially by automobile, is helping to enlarge their outlook, and the hope- 
lessness that gripped them when they were first banded on reserves is 
slowly passing away. They have noticed the economic distress of 
the white farmers on the prairies during the last decade, and they are 
realizing more and more each year that, however benevolent the gov- 
ernment may be, however it may protect and safeguard them, in the 
last analysis their future and that of their children depends principally 
on their own personal efforts. 

Our picture changes completely when we pass to the Pacific coast. 
There the climate is milder, the vegetation and fauna very different 
from those in other parts of Canada. Any inland tribes that pushed 
their way thither through the barrier of the Rocky Mcuntains found 
conditions so favorable that they never returned. Actually the main 
population drifts seem to have been from Alaska southward down the 
interior plateau or along the coast. The region was largely a cul-de- 


CANADA’S INDIAN PROBLEMS—JENNESS 305 


sac whose inhabitants, though ignorant of agriculture, evolved an 
amazingly rich culture on the foundation of their local resources. 
These resources were themselves unusually rich. The sea and rivers 
yielded fish in astonishing abundance, wild fruits were plentiful, and 
the forests supplied magnificent timber that was easily worked with 
stone or bone tools. 

At numerous places along the coast line, then, there stood in pre- 
European days villages of plank houses such as existed nowhere else 
in America. Some of these houses were of extraordinary size, and 
adorned with those enormous carved pillars that we now commonly 
call totem poles. The villagers themselves roughly separated into 
three grades, nobles, common people, and slaves, the latter either 
prisoners taken in raids on neighboring communities or the descendants 
of such prisoners. With abundance of food, particularly of salmon, 
life was rather easy, and the months of autumn and winter were de- 
voted largely to entertainments, both secular and religious. The 
nobles, who acquired their status by inheritance, vied with each other in 
giving elaborate feasts or potlatches, and the ceremonies and rituals 
that accompanied these feasts stimulated the arts of weaving, painting, 
and wood carving, as well as music and the drama. In art and drama, 
indeed, the Pacific coast natives far surpassed all others in Canada; 
their unique wood carvings have attained a world-wide reputation. 

A number of European vessels visited this British Columbia coast 
in the closing years of the eighteenth century, but colonization began 
only in the first quarter of the nineteenth, and then it was confined to 
a small district around Victoria. By the middle of the century, how- 
ever, the tide of immigration was flowing in great strength, and already 
disrupting the economic and social life of the natives throughout the 
entire province. European disregard of all distinctions of rank, the 
abolition of slavery, and the introduction of new standards of wealth 
which the ex-slave could acquire more easily perhaps than his ex- 
master, destroyed every vestige of local authority in the villages, while 
at the same time the establishment of fishing canneries seriously inter- 
fered with their principal food supply. The mechanical age had just 
opened. Steamers were plying up and down the coast; lumber com- 
panies with snorting donkey engines and high-rigging tackle were 
invading the forests. With almost no preparation or warning Indians 
who had not yet fully emerged from the stone age found themselves 
caught in the maelstrom of modern industry and commerce. 

The first result was a frenzied acceleration of native life. By hiring 
out their labor to Europeans, Indians who could never have hoped for 
social advancement in their communities were able to amass enough 
food, blankets, and other goods to hold great feasts or potlatches, to 
assume the rank and titles of nobility, and to extend their fame among 
all the neighboring villages. At the same time the introduction of 


ov4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


metal tools facilitated woodworking, and not only chiefs, but ex-com- 
moners and even ex-slaves began to build enormous houses, to set up 
lofty totem poles, and to wear at ceremonies elaborately carved wooden 
masks. Rivalry among the more prosperous Indians increased the 
frequency and magnificence of the potlatches; men toiled and saved for 
years merely for the glory of entertaining 3,000 or 4,000 guests for 
7 or 8 days. Finally, in some districts, the old custom of giving away 
presents at these potlatches—which was really a primitive banking 
system, since the presents were redeemable—degenerated into reckless 
squandering and even the wanton destruction of property. Naturally, 
this only increased still further the jealousy and strife, besides threat- 
ening widespread destitution. Accordingly, the government inter- 
vened and strictly prohibited all potlatches, including under that term 
every ceremony, religious or secular, at which the giving of presents 
had been customary. The turmoil in the villages then died down; 
but the measure was purely negative and had an unfortunate psycho- 
logical effect. It destroyed the ambition of the natives by depriving 
them of their traditional means of social advancement without helping 
them to improve their economic and social position vis-a-vis the white 
population. Very few of them had successfully taken up farming. 
The majority worked for the fishing canneries, where the men had 
now to compete with well-organized Japanese fishermen; or they 
gathered fruit and hops, worked as dock hands in places hke Vancou- 
ver, Victoria, and Nanaimo, or found employment in lumbering and 
similar occupations, for the most part seasonal, that provided only the 
barest subsistence. Civilization had burst upon them so suddenly that 
they were bewildered and unable either to avoid its evils or to see and 
grasp its opportunities. European diseases decimated their ranks and 
the population dropped at an appalling rate. Some of the girls mar- 
ried white men, or, in rare cases, Chinese; here and there a man broke 
away from his fellows and merged with the whites; but the greater 
number clung to their old settlements (which the government finally 
converted into reserves), and watched with hopeless, uncomprehending 
eyes the growth of industry and commerce around them. Scattered 
in tiny communities without any semblance of union, they could de- 
velop no leaders to guide them out of the morass. Their regenera- 
tion seems possible only from outside stimulus and leadership, such as 
is now meeting with success in Bella Bella and a few other villages. 

It is interesting to notice that Japan, on the opposite side of the 
Pacific, was caught in the same maelstrom as our Pacific coast Indians, 
and at precisely the same time. Japan, however, was a densely popu- 
lated nation with an ancient civilization grounded on the intensive 
cultivation of the soil. She possessed the tradition at least of unity, 
her political freedom was unimpaired, and her ruling nobles were able 
to pool their efforts and work out their country’s salvation on a definite 


CANADA’S INDIAN PROBLEMS—JENNESS a0) 


plan. Our Indians, on the contrary, numbered only two or three score 
thousand individuals scattered through dozens of politically indepen- 
dent hamlets, and speaking half a dozen mutually unintelligible lan- 
guages. Politically, they were incapable of uniting and presenting a 
common front, even if they could have found a leader. Moreover, they 
were fishermen and hunters who had never tilled the soil until the 
early Europeans taught them to grow a few potatoes. Hence when 
the fishing companies monopolized the runs of salmon, which had been 
their staff of life, each little community had to make its own adjust- 
ment and either change its mode of existence entirely or disappear. 

If the Pacific coast with its abundance of fish was an extremely fa- 
vorable area for human habitation, and indeed, before the coming of 
Europeans, the most populous region in Canada outside of southern 
Ontario, where the cultivation of corn permitted a greater concentra- 
tion of population, the basins of the Mackenzie and Yukon Rivers, like 
northern Ontario and northern Quebec, were very unfavorable. The 
rigorous climate prohibited agriculture, even had it been known. Fish, 
while comparatively plentiful in the lakes and rivers, did not run in 
large shoals, like the salmon of the Pacific coast, and their capture 
involved extreme hardship during 6 months of the year. The real 
mainstay of the Indians was the caribou, which supplied not only food, 
but clothing and coverings for the tent; but in the forested areas the 
caribou roamed singly, not in great herds like the species on the barren 
lands, so that the Indians had to wander about in groups of two or 
three families, that feasted when the chase and fishing were successful 
and starved when they failed. Life thus alternated between plenty 
and starvation. The weaklings perished on the trail, since there was 
no fixed home where they could find shelter, or stable food supply 
that could tide them over a critical period. Few social amenities 
lightened the unending drudgery and hardships. It was a region of 
poverty, material and spiritual. Nevertheless, it enjoyed one blessing. 
It was a fairly peaceful region, because one area was scarcely prefer- 
able to another and the tribes had no inducement to encroach on each 
other’s territories. 

The advent of the fur traders in the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries destroyed this peace without relieving the prevailing poverty. 
The two tribes that bordered the fur posts on Hudson Bay, the Cree 
and the Chipewyan, tried to monopolize for themselves all the benefits 
of this trade. Equipped with guns, the Chipewyan reduced their 
neighbors, the Yellowknives and the Dogribs, to a state of serfdom, 
while the Cree pushed westward, drove out the Indians who inhabited 
the upper waters of the Mackenzie River and took over the territory for 
themselves. Turmoil and strife prevailed through the entire region 
until a terrible epidemic of smallpox toward the end of the eighteenth 
century carried off nearly half its inhabitants. Even then the tribal 


376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


enmities that had been engendered persisted, and occasioned more 
than one massacre in the first half of the nineteenth century. Peace 
has now prevailed for 100 years, missionary and tradings posts are 
scattered over the whole area, water and air transport are opening 
it up as a tourist playground, and the mineral wealth in its rocks 
is being exploited more and more with each passing year. Yet the 
Indians have failed to make any appreciable progress. Hunting (in- 
cluding trapping) and fishing still remain almost their sole means of 
subsistence, and the returns from these occupations are decreasing 
rather than increasing. It is true that the murderous blood feud has 
long been suppressed, that infanticide and the abandonment of the aged 
and infirm have ceased, and that there are now very few deaths from 
outright starvation. Nevertheless their standard of living is so low 
that the majority are permanently undernourished. This makes them 
ready victims of every sickness, particularly of tuberculosis, and, com- 
bined with the hardships of a hunting life, produces a very high 
mortality. 

Now it is quite probable that these northern Indians have always 
been undernourished to some extent, and that it was partly under- 
nourishment that made them less virile than other Indians, as their 
early history seems to indicate. It would explain also why, generally 
speaking, they have shown no resourcefulness in meeting the changed 
economic conditions of the last 100 years, or any desire to adapt them- 
selves to their new environment. They are good canoemen and 
packers, tasks that they have performed for centuries; but in all 
occupations connected with industry and commerce they have shown 
themselves hitherto inefficient and unreliable. Their numbers are de- 
clining; both their economic condition and their morale are at a low 
ebb. Their regeneration is an exceedingly difficult task, hinging very 
largely on the economic resources of the territory (which are still 
imperfectly known), and on the development of these resources by 
the white man. The Indians are themselves one of the resources, for 
they are a fixture in the territory; they cannot, like white men 
who enter it, pull up their stakes and return south if the living becomes 
unprofitable. The chief problem therefore is to restore their morale, 
and to raise their standard of living by providing remunerative em- 
ployment for which they will show some aptitude. And this will tax 
the wisdom of the most far-sighted government. 

The Arctic coast of Canada was a realm, of its own, and its inhabi- 
tants, the Eskimo, differed from all the other aborigines of America in 
language, appearance, mode of life, and—what is less often stressed, 
though it has tremendous influence on a _ people’s survival—in 
temperament. 

There is no need to describe Eskimo life—how it rested solely on 
fishing and hunting, particularly the hunting of sea mammals, and 


CANADA’S INDIAN PROBLEMS—JENNESS BUT 


how it varied in different parts of the Arctic, and at different seasons 
of the year. Inevitably it involved great hardships, and the mortality 
everywhere was very high. In the Canadian Arctic especially the 
population density was extremely low owing to the comparative scar- 
city of sea mammals; long stretches of coast line carried no inhabitants 
at all. The total number of Eskimo-speaking people today, from the 
shores of eastern Siberia to Greenland, is only about 38,000; and there 
is no evidence that it ever exceeded that figure. 

It was in Greenland that Europeans first discovered the Eskimo, 
at the end of the sixteenth century, if we leave out of account the 
early Norsemen, whose colonies were spurlos versenkt. During the 
next few decades these Greenland Eskimo, like those of Canada and 
Alaska later, were demoralized by the crews of whaling ships and deci- 
mated by European-brought diseases. In the eighteenth century, how- 
ever, Denmark insulated the country by making all trade a government 
monopoly and began to administer it on the principle of “Greenland 
for the Greenlanders.” Eskimo became the official language through- 
out the island, and its inhabitants were granted in time a considerable 
measure of self-government. During the last hundred years the popu- 
lation has steadily increased until now it exceeds 17,000. Intermar- 
riage with whites takes place quite freely, and most of the present- 
day Greenlanders carry in their veins a greater or less percentage 
of Danish blood. 

Whaling ships did not frequent Hudson Bay and North Alaska in 
any numbers until the second half of the nineteenth century. There 
too they left a diminished population, one that had become equipped 
with rifles and metal tools. Nevertheless, they did not greatly disturb 
the daily routine of Eskimo life as it had existed for centuries. 
The fur traders who succeeded them, however, exerted a more perma- 
nent influence. Instead of hunting seals on the ice close to shore dur- 
ing the months of winter the Eskimo now trap foxes, and their diet at 
that season has changed in some regions from 100 percent meat and 
meat broth to 60 percent and even 70 percent flour and tea. Their 
clothing, too, has altered. Originally made entirely from caribou 
fur except the outer footgear, which was of sealskin, it now consists 
partly of woolen and cotton garments; and under the conditions that 
prevail in the Arctic these garments are seldom washed, and some- 
times not even removed until they rot. Inadequate diet and unhy- 
gienic clothing are thus impairing the physique of the Eskimo in many 
places, even though there are fewer deaths from, outright famine. 
Whether their numbers are still declining along the more northern 
coasts is unknown, since there has never been even an approximately 
accurate census until the last 10 years. 

In Canada, as in Alaska, the authorities have made no attempt to 
isolate the Eskimo. Subject to certain regulations, Arctic Canada is 


378 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


open to all and trade is free, though the Hudson’s Bay Company enjoys 
a virtual monopoly over a large area. No educational facilities exist 
apart from the rudimentary teaching of English in a few missions. 
In Alaska there are regular day schools in all the larger Eskimo centers; 
they too employ English as the medium of instruction. In the Green- 
land educational system both day and high schools employ the Eskimo 
language, though the teaching of Danish is now compulsory. 

In dealing with her Eskimo population, therefore, Canada, like the 
United States, has followed an open-door policy that implicitly aims 
at rapid assimilation, whereas Denmark has adopted a policy of segre- 
gation and tutelage similar in many respects to Canada’s policy with 
her Indians. The merits of the two systems have been widely disputed, 
not in reference to the Eskimo only, but in reference to many native 
populations the world over, even the colored population of the United 
States. In the South Seas, where Europeans have definitely rejected 
segregation, the Maoris are increasing in numbers and merging tran- 
quilly with the whites, whereas in Tahiti and other islands their 
Polynesian brethren are rapidly declining. The Japanese have segre- 
gated the Ainu, Britain has insulated the Nagas of Assam, Belgium its 
pygmies in the Congo, South Africa its Bushmen and some of its 
Bantus; and Australia is considering the segregation of its blacks. 

Now it is clear that segregation does not in all cases carry the same 
aim. No one expects, under the tutelage which segregation permits, 
that the pygmies of Central Africa, the Bushmen of South Africa, or 
the Australian blacks, will advance to such an extent that they can 
some day stand on their own feet in competition with other peoples. 
Segregation in their cases is dictated by considerations of humanity 
only, the same considerations that lead us to build old men’s homes for 
the indigent poor. These natives are comparatively few in numbers, 
they are incapable, we believe, of making any important contribution 
to the progress of man upon this earth, and if they should become 
extinct within a few generations or centuries the world will presum- 
ably be none the poorer. Whether they are doomed to disappear 
quickly or to remain in tutelage for as long as we can foresee, our 
moral sense compels us to make their lives no less comfortable and 
happy than our own. 

Not humane considerations only, but economic ones also inspire the 
segregation of certain Bantu tribes and of the Nagas of Assam. The 
numbers of these peoples run into millions, and they inhabit large 
areas of fertile tropical land that the white man, even if he tries to 
colonize, cannot develop without native labor. Hence he must either 
protect the local inhabitants and train them to develop their territories 
themselves (in the beginning, at least, under his hegemony), or he 
must permit their dispossession by Hindu, Chinese, and other peoples 
who are also adapted physiologically for a tropical life. 


CANADA’S INDIAN PROBLEMS——JENNESS 379 


In the cases of segregation just noted there is no intention, explicit 
or implicit, to encourage any merging of the protected races with their 
protectors, because white people, particularly those of Anglo-Saxon 
and Teutonic stocks, have strong prejudices against intermarriage 
with colored peoples. (Japan, we may notice in passing, likewise 
discourages the intermarriage of her nationals with the Ainu). But 
when Denmark insulated the Eskimo of Greenland, and the United 
States and Canada placed their Indians on reserves, not only did they 
aim to raise the Greenlanders and the Indians up to the white man’s 
cultural level, but they looked forward quite frankly to ultimate 
amalgamation. There was no color bar to prevent this amalgamation, 
no prejudices other than the economic and cultural. The natives were 
expected to mingle with the whites on equal terms as soon as they 
reached maturity and gradually to merge their blood. Hence the 
insulation or segregation of these peoples is merely a temporary expe- 
dient equivalent to the placing of orphan children in training institu- 
tions; it isa very different measure from the segregation of the Bantu 
and Bushmen tribes in Africa, or of the blacks in Australia. 

It would be wrong to suppose that this segregation or insulation of 
the Indians and Eskimo aimed at eliminating every trace of their old 
cultures and blotting out their languages. Both peoples have already 
enriched our civilization in many ways, and may conceivably enrich 
it still further. In educating them to play a part in the economic and 
cultural activities of the modern world we desire to eliminate only 
such features of their former life as definitely hinder their progress 
and render them less adaptable. Accordingly, in Greenland, Denmark 
has promoted the use of the Eskimo language and the hunting of 
seals in kayaks; but she has also enforced the study of the Danish lan- 
guage and culture, has developed fishing into a large-scale industry, 
and, wherever possible, fostered new activities such as the breeding 
of sheep and goats to raise the economic level. 

Canada’s administration of her Eskimo has the same ultimate aim 
as the Danish, even though from geographical reasons it necessarily 
follows a different course. Greenland is an island that until recently 
was accessible only by sea during a few months of the year, and it 
lacks any large deposits of minerals except some relatively unimportant 
eryolite beds. Only its sealing had any attraction for foreigners, and 
that was located largely off the uninhabited northeast coast. In closing 
the country to foreign traffic, therefore, Denmark ran no risk of inter- 
national complications, and in closing it to her own people she aroused 
no internal dissension, because it was not a field for colonization or for 
any enterprise that looked for profits.. Whether it has been closed long 
enough, and whether the Greenlanders, now admittedly more Euro- 
pean than Eskimo, can successfully administer their own affairs, is a 


380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


question that is being keenly disputed in Denmark. We may leave it 
to that country’s decision and contrast the Canadian Arctic. 

The Eskimo population of Canada has always been much smaller 
than that of Greenland (it numbers today, including Labrador, only 
about 6,500); and it is distributed over many times the length of 
coast line, so that the settlements are farther apart and more isolated. 
Moreover this coast line (even Baffin Island) is an integral part of 
the mainland of America, accessible both by land and by sea. The 
highly mineralized pre-Cambrian zone touches it in several places, 
and each year air transport brings the most remote areas into closer 
touch with the centers of civilization farther south. Today the region 
between Great Slave and Great Bear Lakes is experiencing a mining 
boom; next year it may be the hunting grounds of the Eskimo between 
Great Bear Lake and the Arctic Ocean. No administration, therefore, 
could possibly insulate the Canadian Eskimo from the outside world 
unless it concentrated them into one area, e.g., the northern archipelago 
or the region round the Magnetic Pole; and in that narrow space most 
of them would perish from starvation, so limited are the food resources. 
Moreover, no one can foresee the future of aviation. It is quite possible 
that within the next 20 years airplanes will be flying on regular sched- 
ules between Europe and America over the Canadian Arctic, and that 
the region will be dotted with emergency landing stations. 

Insulation or segregation of the Canadian Eskimo is therefore im- 
possible. They must sink or swim in civilization’s tide, with no period 
of tutelage to equip them for the struggle, and with only such protec- 
tion as an open-door policy will permit. Even their '  ruage will 
disappear before many generations, because their settlemen:s have little 
or no contact with one another, but trade almost exclusively with white 
men who only rarely understand their tongue. To preserve its identity 
and its language in the face of outside pressure a people requires the 
cohesion given by population mass, and this the Canadian Eskimo 
definitely lack. 

Nevertheless, the temperament of the Eskimo is the strongest guar- 
antee of their survival, though not as a separate people. Whether 
because or in spite of their difficult environment, they have developed 
through the ages a most unusual cheerfulness and resourcefulness that 
have already withstood the shock of European impact and will carry 
them through the adjustment period. Their temperament will facili- 
tate their intermarriage with Europeans and leave its mark on their 
descendants, so that in years to come the American Arctic, no less than 
Greenland, will be inhabited by hardy frontiersmen carrying in their 
veins a strain of Eskimo blood, but speaking a European language. 


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Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Jenness PLATE 3 


1. VILLAGE OF MASSETT, QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS, BRITISH COLUMBIA, IN 
1879. 


Photograph by G. M. Dawson. 


2. VILLAGE OF MASSETT, QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS, BRITISH COLUMBIA, IN 
199) 


Photograph by Harlan I. Smith. 


Smithsonian Report, 1942.—Jenness PLATE 4 


1. A DANISH TRAPPER WITH HIS ESKIMO WIFE AND FAMILY. 


2. CROWFOOT, CHIEF OF THE BLACKFOOT INDIANS WHEN THEY WERE CONFINED 
TO RESERVES, AND HIS FAMILY. 


DAKAR AND THE OTHER CAPE VERDE SETTLEMENTS? 


By DERWENT WHITTLESEY 
Harvard University 


[With 4 plates] 


Dakar is the only city, in the European (or Occidental) sense, in 
the whole of West Africa. No other center shows the clear-cut areal 
differentiation of functions that characterizes the wrbs occidentalis. 
Its urban—in a small way even metropolitan—character cannot be 
attributed to its creation by Europeans less than a century ago, 
because this differentiation of functions has evolved only during the 
past three decades. The absence of any significant settlement on or 
near its site until the late nineteenth century heightens the paradox 
of its present ranking position among rivals, whether newly founded 
or centuries old. 

The enigma of Dakar promises solution if the city is considered 
in association with its intimate neighbors. Together they form a 
design in historical geography close to the typical for tropical Africa. 
Kuropeans, upon their advent in the period of the discoveries, traded 
imtermittently with indigenous farming and fishing villages of the 
Cape Verde Peninsula. Subsequently they established a stronghold 
on an island close to shore as headquarters for trade and administra- 
tion of affairs. In time a lighterage landing place on the continent 
absorbed the commerce, leaving to the island its political functions. 
Finally, an artificial harbor on the continent proved sovereign over 
both its predecessors and drew to itself all the functions both had 
exercised, adding to them new functions of its own. 

In this course there is nothing to set Dakar apart from several 
other places along the coast. Its preeminence appears natural, how- 
ever, in the light of the shifts in items, values, and routes of African 
trade during five centuries, the quality of the unique location amid 
revolutionary changes in the political and technological structure 
of the world, and the variety of the associated sites, which permitted 
flexible utilization to suit advancing needs, 


1 Reprinted by permission from the Geographical Review, vol. 31, No. 4, October 1941, pub- 
lished by the American Geographical Society of New York. 


381 


382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 
THE INDIGENOUS AFRICAN SCENE 


THE PHYSICAL SETTING 


Seen from an approaching ship the westernmost land of Africa 
emerges above the horizon as a group of cliffed islands, flat or gently 
rounded. A nearer view discloses that the highest of these eminences 
are linked by a somewhat lower platform, behind which low ground 
extends northward and eastward. A map (fig. 1) shows this low 
ground to curve on each side in a wide concave are to the mainland 
of the continent, 40 kilometers away. 

This peninsula is the Cape Verde tombolo, product of emergence 
combined with deposition by waves and currents. The promontory 
called Cape Verde faces west, and behind it rise the rounded Mamelles, 
the western and higher one to 103 meters. Some 10 kilometers to 
the southeast is Cape Manuel, a cliff of columnar basalt rising 40 
meters out of the sea. Between these heights somewhat lower ground 
is capped by altered limestone, which juts out in promontories to 
make a festoon of coves all around the headland. 

The higher cliffs are skirted by talus, and at their base the waves 
break on beaches of large black boulders. Sand, worn from the 
limestone or brought from the Sahara by marine currents, has softened 
the physiognomy of the coves on the seaward faces of the peninsula. 
On the north, strong surf and north winds have heaped beach and 
dune the length of the shore line. On the inner face, the long, sandy 
curve of beach that forms the south shore of the tie to the mainland 
gives way to the headlands of the south-trending coast. The coves 
between these heads are progressively less sandy, the southernmost 
having a stony beach. Unlike the coves on the Atlantic side, they 
are not silted by the predominant northerly winds and receive incre- 
ments of sand only from the beach to leeward. The tombolo bar is 
4.4 kilometers wide at the narrowest point and 40 at the base. 

Two basalt islands not yet tied to the mainland flank Cape Manuel. 
They are only slightly lower, and they duplicate in miniature the 
physical character of the peninsula. A few low islets sprinkled off 
Cape Verde are a menace to navigators but are otherwise negligible. 

The basalt islands and Cape Manuel are waterless and barren. 
Jn the rainy season the limestone plateau is moistened by seepage 
from dunes standing upon it. On the calcareous sands of the tombola 
bar the uninterrupted beaches convert streamlets into backwaters 
and marshes, and the lines of fixed dunes act as reservoirs feeding 
water into the depressions throughout the year. 

A few palms fringe the marshes, but elsewhere the native trees 
are baobabs, which dot the peninsula and give it its often-described 


DAKAR—WHITTLESEY 383 


THE CAPE VERDE PENINSULA 


==A//-weather rosds 0 City water supply « forts 


5 MILES 
———| 


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Sig 


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a ee 


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<2 GEOG E\ Ww. eT. 194 
GEOGR. REVIE' ¢ Sinema) 


Figure 1.—The Cape Verde Peninsula. Scale approximately 1: 300,000. Based 
on the 1: 100,000 map of the Service Géographique de l’Afrique Occidentale 
Francaise 4 Dakar, 1928. 


distinctive appearance.” Whether or not the landscape appears green 
enough to justify the name “Cape Verde” depends on the time of 
year. Throughout the long dry season, lasting from October until 
June, the gray, silo-shaped trunks of the leafless baobabs, the dusty, 
parched grasses, and the stubble of millet make a drab scene. Doubt- 
jess even this, however, would look refreshing to sailors from Europe, 
dazzled by the hundreds of miles of sand-dune coast that borders 
the Sahara. When the rains come, the Cape does turn incontestably 
verdant. The baobabs leaf out, the marshes fill and put forth new 
growth, and the plains push up a stand of millet that grows 6 feet 
tall in its brief life. 

All this verdure is the product of downpours between mid-June 
and late October (table 1). The peninsula hes in the belt of semiarid 


*Claude Faure, Histoire de la Presqu’ile du Cap Vert et des origines de Dakar, p. 17, 
Paris, 1914, quotes some of the descriptions. 


384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


climate between the arid Sahara and the Sudan, where rainy and dry 
seasons are of about equal length. As in all other semiarid regions, 
its rainfall is unreliable. The heaviest cloudbursts are brought by 
the rather infrequent “tornadoes.” These may occur at any time 
during the rainy season but are likeliest at the beginning. Dense 
clouds pile up swiftly from the east, sky and sea turn black, and a 
violent thundersquall ensues. Within half an hour the wind turns 
west and the storm is over, but rarely without damage to trees and 
habitations.$ 


Taste I.—Rainfall in Dakar, average for 1903-1933 * 


Rainfall Gnm))iso2 2221 OF 74s | 262N Sale lea ae | 540 


1} -O71"0 
RaIMivaG ty Sa | SOR On TO, 0 3 CW Ue aa ey jf al |). a 


Maximum annual rainfall (1906), 947 mm.; minimum annual rainfall (1913), 308 
mm. 


1 Data from L. Weisse, Note sur la répartition mensuelle, journaliére et horaire de la pluie 4 Dakar, in 
Etudes météorologiques sur l’Afrique Occidentale Frangaise, Publs. Com. Etudes Hist. et Sci. Afrique 
Occidentale Frangaise, Ser. B, No. 3, pp. 71-75, 1937. 

The ordinary rains are brought by monsoon winds from the west 
curing the period of maximum insolation in the northern half of the 
African continent. ‘Throughout the season the air is steamy and the 
horizon white with water vapor. For a month or so after the rains 
the sky is cloudy during a considerable part of the daytime, and the 
humidity remains high. 

The dry season is marked by light northerly winds that prevail 
to an altitude of about a thousand meters. Since they pass over 
the ocean to reach the peninsula, they bring rather high humidity. 
Occasionally the dusty harmattan blows out of the east, reducing 
relative humidity and raising the temperature. It seems to persist 
above the northerly winds during most of the dry season and perhaps 
accounts for the whitish blue of the sky. The uppermost air currents 
move from south to north during the dry months, at about 40 kilo- 
meters an hour.* The stability of the winds favors aviation. Except 
for tornadoes, the movement of air at ground level is a breeze rather 
than a wind. 

The annual range of temperature is rarely greater than 6° C., 
the diurnal variation is commonly 5° (23° to 28° are typical readings). 
It gets hot as soon as the sun is fairly up and stays hot until near 


On the mechanism of the storms see Henry Hubert, Sur les grains orageux dans 
l'Afrique de l'Ouest, Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. [Paris], vol. 205, pp. 464-466, 1937; also Les 
masses d’air de l'Ouest Africain, Ann. Phys. Globe France d’Outre-Mer, vol. 5, pp. 33-64, 
1938 (noted in Geogr. Rev., vol. 29, pp. 154-155, 1939). 

4M. Buroleau, Note sur les courants aérienes 4 Dakar, in Etudes météorologiques sur 
VAfrique Occidentale Francaise, Publs. Com. Etudes Hist. et Sci. Afrique Occidentale 
Frangaise, Ser. B, No. 3, pp. 35-40, 1937. 


DAKAR—WHITTLESEY 385 


sunset. In the shade sensible temperature is much lower, except 
during the rainy season. Then the nights also are stuffy, but for 
8 months they are pleasant. 


ABORIGINAL LIFE 


In this raiher unpropitious environment a small African popula- 
tion has been sparsely scattered over the peninsula for untold genera- 
tions. Presumably the prehistoric inhabitants gained their meager 
living as did their descendants described by early European travelers— 
from tishing, supplemented by such cultivation as the short wet 
season made possible.? Diggings show that water supply determined 
their distribution. The springs at Hann and Rufisque seem to have 
attracted the densest populations. There water seeps from sand 
dunes; elsewhere wells must be dug. The Hann site had the further 
advantage of a surf-free landing for fishing skiffs. 

When Europeans undertook settlement in the vicinity, they found 
numerous hamlets fringing the coast and a smaller number on interior 
sites at the base of lines of dunes. The people were tall, velvet-black 
Negroes, a branch of the Wolof. Most of the coastal settlements 
seem to have used brackish water from marshy backwaters, though 
some had shallow pits in dunesides. Those cut off by sand or marsh 
from arable land exchanged their fish for millet raised in interior 
villages. Oil and wine came from the palms that straggled along the 
backwaters. The brush and fallen trees furnished firewood. Wattle, 
basketwork, and thatch were building materials for huts and gran- 
aries. Al] these items except fish were getting scarce by the beginning 
of the nineteenth century. Millet, planted on one-third of the land, 
was reported to have been insufficient to support the inhabitants, 
numbering 10 to 12 thousand.® 

Today all the villages are modified by the presence of the French- 
African city of Dakar. Several have been engulfed in the metropolis, 
to which one, in vanishing, gave its name. Perhaps the fishing 
villages on the north coast remain much as they were before the 
Europeans came. 

N’Gor is typical of these hamlets of native huts and granaries. It 
stands on the crest of the continuous line of dunes that have piled 
up to a height of 8 or 10 meters above the wide white beach (pl. 1, 
upper leit). Among the houses-are tiny gardens of squashes and 
beans, partly protected from drifting sand by mats held upright be- 
tween stakes (pl. 1, lower left). Fresh water is drawn from wells 3 
to 5 meters deep, dug in the front slope of the dunes and walled with 


5 Pierre Laforgue and Raymond Mauny, Contribution 4 la préhistoire du Cap-Vert 
(Sénégal), Bull. Com. Etudes Hist. et. Sei. Afrique Occidentale Francaise, vol. 21, pp. 523- 
543, 1938. 

* Schmalz, quoted by Faure, op. cit., p. 34. In view of the extent of marsh and other 
wasteland, the crop area was probably smaller; but so was the poplation. The ratio given 
may be correct. 


386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


stones ferried from the offshore islet. The island gives a slight pro- 
tection from the surf, and behind it the native boats are launched and 
beached, thus explaining the location of the village on an otherwise 
uniform coast. When not in use, the skiffs are perched on animal 
skulls to prevent burial by drifting sand. On the beach a commodious 
shelter shades the somnolent fishermen during the heat of the day, 
while in the village above them the women are vigorously threshing 
and grinding millet and winnowing beans (pl. 1, upper right). This 
community has some poor millet fields behind the dunes, but it must 
supplement its supply by exchanging some of its fish. 

A different type of village is Ouakam, among baobabs near the 
Mamelles. There an expanse of low fixed dunes moistens the most 
extensive arable land west of Sangalkam. Millet, squashes, beans, 
and a little tree cotton surround the village and yield an agricultural 
surplus to exchange for fish. 


THE HARLY EUROPEAN OCCUPANCE 


PORTS OF SENEGAMBIA 


With the coming of Europeans, the Cape Verde Peninsula ceased 
to be merely a sandy offshoot of the African continent and became 
also the westernmost extension of the coasting route between Europe 
and East and South Asia. For mariners it marked also the southern 
terminus of the waterless Sahara coast. The first recorded voyage 
reported a stop for fresh water at the outlet of seepage from a long 
line of fixed dunes. This place the Portuguese later christened Rio 
Fresco (Rufisque) and made it a regular port of call. Food supphes 
were scarce on the peninsula, and anchorages were subject to storms. 
Hence for 500 years this neighborhood failed to gain decisive hegemony 
over its rivals. 

Cape Verde stands midway between the two obvious, nature-made 
avenues for penetrating the Sudan. To the south the Gambia River 
opens a broad estuary easily entered at all seasons by ships of moder- 
ate draft. This was early occupied by the English, and for political 
reasons has remained little used as a means of access to the hinterland. 
To the north a lagoon at the mouth of the Senegal River makes a 
safe harbor; but during the long dry season the shrunken stream can 
maintain barely enough water for small sailing craft over the bar 
built across its mouth by a south-setting current. In spite of this 
handicap, the protected anchorage, an easily defended townsite, and 
access to the interior by river boat at all seasons made Saint-Louis, the 
river-mouth port founded by the French, a rival of the Cape Verde 
district until a generation ago. 

Between the Senegal River and Cape Verde the coast is useless 
for a European port, because of shallow sea, dunes, and heavy surf. 


DAKAR-——WHITTLESEY 387 


Between Cape Verde and the Gambia River (the so-called Petite 
Cote) six points have been used for European stations at one time or 
another. Of the southern three, Kaolack, on a sluggish stream, one 
of several called locally “the Southern Rivers,” has recently become 
a modest exporting point. The northern three are on or close to the 
Cape Verde Peninsula and together constitute the Cape Verde Settle- 
ments, geographically an inseparable trio. 

Rufisque was the first site to attract attention, and its career has 
included brief periods of prosperity from the mid-fifteenth century 
to the 1920’s. Well supplied with fresh water, it lies in the curve of 
the tombolo bar and thus is sheltered from the northerly winds that 
prevail during much of the year, though it is exposed to the stormier 
winds of the rainy season. The water is shallow, only 3 fathoms at 
700 meters from shore. All goods must be lightered and, even though 
long piers reach beyond the surf, cargoes are frequently damaged by 
salt water. Both the port and the town are now moribund. 


THE ISLAND OF GOREE 


Under the lee of the cliffed hook of the peninsula a considerable 
body of water is free from the surf that beats incessantly on the rest 
of the coast. The high headlands enclose roads in which the water 
is generally quiet, and their steep slopes are associated with deep 
water fairly close inshore. These advantages disappear with the 
onset of the southeaster tornadoes and are diminished throughout the 
rainy season. Then the west side of the island of Gorée offers the 
least unsafe anchorage. In ordinary times the tiny cove, which faces 
northeast, offers the same shelter as the adjacent peninsular shore and 
it is easy to sail out of when a tornado impends. 

Other advantages of the island are not obvious. It is only 850 
meters long and 300 meters wide in the widest part. <A quarter of its 
16 hectares is a bare, basalt mesa, 30 meters high. The remainder 
is a platform a few meters above sea level, leading gently up from the 
cove to the base of the cliff (fig. 2). It has no source of water except 
rain, no wood for building or fuel, no sand for masonry, and no arable 
soul. 

The Portuguese, firstcomers, having a choice of ground, made the 
Cape Verde Islands their headquarters in this region and paid little 
attention to the Petite Cote. The Dutch were the first to occupy 
Gorée, and half a century elapsed before they took Rufisque and its 
neighbors. Their selection of a confined, waterless island for their 
principal settlement was sound, as is proved by the fact that under 
subsequent French (and occasionally British) occupation Gorée re- 
mained dominant along the Petite Cote for four centuries and at times 
rivaled Saint-Louis as the leading European post between Gibraltar 
and Sierra Leone. 

501591—43_26 


388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


This paradox is explained by the nature of the chief business of 
West Africa during most of this period. Gorée was, nearly all the 
time, the most important point in Senegal for the Negro slave trade.’ 
For this traffic the island had notable advantages. Habitual forays 
engendered unceasing warfare between the raiding coastal tribes and 
their victims of the interior. The European trading companies, in 
spite of superior weapons, had relatively slight military strength and 
therefore prized an offshore location. Gorée harbor lies 2.35 kilo- 


100 YARDS 


100 METERS 


Vicure 2.—Gorée in 19382. Condition of buildings noted by Sergeant Costel: ex- 
isting structures, solid; ruined structures, barred; sites of former structures, 
outlined. Key to principal buildings: 1, fort; 2, barracks; 3, church; 4, hospital ; 
5, boys’ school ; 6, normal school; 7, AOF printery ; 8, town hall; 9, west battery ; 
10, north battery ; 11, reservoir. (Reduced from map in Gorée, capital déchue, 
by Robert Gaffiot.) 

meters off Dakar Point, close enough for canoes loaded with slaves to 

be brought out conveniently under surveillance by batteries flanking 

the cove. The shark-infested waters denied escape to imprisoned 

Negroes. The flat-topped cliff lent itself to fortification against trade 

rivals from Europe sailing under enemy flags. Transfer of slaves 

and the small volume of minor exports and imports between continent 
and island entailed only a somewhat longer lighterage than at any 
other ports of the Petite Cote. 

The relations of island to continent were but slightly affected by 
successive changes in political affiliation, because Gorée and the Petite 
Cote always went together. That the Cape Verde area was an impor- 
tant element in the new world pattern being laid out as a result of 
the discoveries and the creation of colonial empires is indicated by 
repeated change of hands. 

More important for the fortunes of the island was its rivalry for 
the seat of French colonial administration in Senegal. At times it 
was supreme. Generally it administered the Petite Cote and the 
Southern Rivers. Occasionally it was subject to Saint-Louis. 


T Robert Gaffiot, Gorée, capitale déchue. Paris, 1933. 


DAKAR—WHITTLESEY 389 


The town was built to accommodate trade and administration, 
and its structures express their functions. All the buildings are con- 
structed of masonry, and most of them are made of rough stones or 
rubble concealed by smooth stucco. All the larger ones have capacious 
cisterns in the basement, to catch and store the run-off from the roof. 
The most conspicuous structures were designed for administration. 
A fort looms on the mesa, and batteries flank the lower ground. There 
are also barracks, hospital, church, and buildings for local and colony 
administration. The rest of the buildings with any pretension were 
planned to meet the peculiar needs of the slave trade. The ground 
floor is divided into cells where the captives were locked awaiting 
deportation. On the floor above are the offices of the trading firm 
and living quarters for the personnel. From a number of houses 
balconies overlook the street. Supplementary quarters for the house- 
hold are on the third story when there is one. All rooms are ranged 
about a patio, in which a tree or two may be growing. 

In the heyday of the place all available space was utilized. The 
solid blocks of buildings interfered with the breezes that swept across 
the island from the surrounding sea. The streets, narrow lanes though 
they are, were reported as “furnaces between ten o’clock and five.” § 
During the last half century, as the population decreased, buildings 
were abandoned. Today at least half of the land formerly occupied 
by buildings and patios either is open or stands as unroofed yards 
surrounded by ruined walls. This has opened the town to currents 
of air, which mitigate the heat. The razing of dilapidated buildings 
has been enforced, especially after epidemics, because the tight-packed 
town with its numerous cisterns has always been a potential center of 
infection. 

More than once the little white colony has moved temporarily 
to the peninsula when epidemics have broken out. The first siege of 
yellow fever occurred about 1779. It so demoralized the community 
that the forts were demolished, the survivors went to French Guiana, 
and the governor removed to Saint-Louis.2 In addition to soldiers 
manning the fort, only 200 persons inhabit the island now, and a high 
percentage of them are aged. The estimate for peak population is 
6,000, a figure for which no date is given but which presumably refers 
to the 1830’s. 'Three-fourths to four-fifths of them were captives. 

Today Gorée is a sleepy, ruined settlement, 40 minutes from Dakar 
by the launch that makes three or four trips daily. The printery for 
the colonial government is housed in the building used in prosperous 
days by the governors. A normal school and a boys’ school attract 
daily a little spate of pupils from Dakar. The small church is too 


8 Alfred Marche, Trois voyages dans l'Afrique Occidentale, p. 5. Paris, 1879. 
° Gaffiot, op. cit., pp. 75-76. 


390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


large for the present congregation, which is served by a curate from 
Dakar on Sundays. The mosque is tumble-down. 

Housewives have to patronize the Dakar market, because canoes 
no longer bring provisions to the island. The three or four little 
general stores carry a few canned goods. A cistern boat supplies 
the public reservoir in the dock square. 

Even in prosperous days the island was dependent on the nearby 
Continent for vital services and supplies. The dependence was recog- 
nized by the earliest French inhabitants. Two years after ousting 
the Dutch, they treated with chiefs of Dakar and other hamlets in the 
vicinity for the right to settle on the peninsula, but the treaty never 
became operative. Not until the interior of Senegal was conquered 
by French forces in 1857 and the slave trade thereby brought under 
control was it safe to settle on the peninsula. Instead, for nearly four 
centuries, the authorities at Gorée repeatedly came to terms with the 
chiefs of the opposite shore for specific privileges dictated by the 
limitations of resources on the island. 

Chief of these was shortage of water. Even in days when little 
water was used, the cisterns could not supply the town throughout the 
dry season, which might last 9 months. A supplementary supply 
was brought over by boat from the springs at Hann, on payment 
to the local tribe. In 1821 a vegetable garden and orchard was 
planted by men from Gorée on land watered by these springs. Even 
earlier three or four houses had been built by Goréeans at Dakar, 
to serve while their owners cultivated and harvested bits of ground. 
The indigenes generally refused to part with arable land, already 
insufficient for their own food supply. 

Wood for cooking was likewise scarce. By the 1820’s wood 
gatherers had to go inland 12 or 15 leagues." Sand and stone for 
building were more easily accessible but, like the water and the wood, 
could be had only on payment pursuant to treaty. 

Local fish, and millet and a little meat from the remoter mainland, 
were brought to the island by natives from peninsular villages. ‘They 
were charged an excise for doing business in the port but evaded it 
when they could. Merchant ships from overseas were supposed to 
pay for the right to anchor between Gorée and Cape Manuel, but their 
masters tried to slip out of their obligation. 

There was no cemetery on crowded Gorée. Captives who died 
were thrust into the sea to the sharks. This practice was distasteful 
when applied to residents. Freemen generally buried their dead where 
they could on the peninsula; but the shallow, sandy graves, unpro- 
tected by any sort of barrier, were frequently opened by beast, or 


1° Roger, quoted in Faure, op. cit., p. 49. 


DAKAR—WHITTLESEY 391 


man, or the wind. This led to many illicit interments in Gorée 
cellars, a subterfuge objectionable on sanitary grounds. To solve 
the problem, the authorities bought and enclosed a plot of land on the 
slope above the sea at Bel Air Point. 


OCCUPATION OF THE HEADLANDS 


While the islanders were gradually defining their relations with 
the peninsula, attempts were being made to occupy or control the 
Cape, independent of the interests of Gorée. 

A serious hazard to trade on the West African coast was the danger 
of shipwreck, as a result of heavy surf, low offshore islands, and 
submerged reefs. The African fishermen avidly picked up whatever 
flotsam came their way and made a practice of holding survivors for 
ransom. The bays on the north side of the head were particularly 
dangerous for shipping, and the villagers there were too far away 
across marshes and sandy plain to be intimidated by the small garri- 
son at Gorée. From the reestablishment of French suzerainty after 
Napoleon’s downfall until the indigenes were brought under control 
by effective occupation of the peninsula, the issue was never at rest, 
treaties notwithstanding. 

The Napoleonic Wars had taught the French military and naval 
establishment that Gorée was no longer safe from attack by rival 
European powers. From 1816 on they urged fortification of the two 
Mamelles and Dakar Point. They asserted that an enemy on the 
peninsula headlands could deprive Gorée of fuel, food, and water. 

All friction incidental to extraneous matters was made a pretext 
for urging a garrison. Thus, when trouble arose between natives and 
men getting water at Hann and searching for wood on the mainland, 
the commandant at Gorée hoped it would give occasion to seize the 
headlands, which “protect the island and vice versa.” ** So also when 
members of a Catholic mission on the mainland were captured. 

The abolition of slavery in French possessions (1848) complicated 
the relations of France and Senegal. The law was enforced on Gorée, 
but the indigenes of the peninsula paid no attention to it. This was 
also cited as a reason for the establishment of a garrison. 

Civilian attempts at settlement on the peninsula had proved 
unsuccessful. The most noted essay was an agricultural colony sent 
out to Dakar Point by a French society in 1817. The camp was still 
incomplete when rainy-season storms destroyed it. Many were seized 
with dysentery. Ten men were accepted for the garrison at Gorée; 
others went to Saint-Louis or the Southern Rivers; several returned 


11 Gaffiot, op. cit., p. 137. 


392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


to France. Six tried again, on what they hoped was more favorable 
terrain at Bel Air, but they died of fever.” 


MODERN EUROPEAN OCCUPANCE 
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF DAKAR 


At the beginning of 1857 a letter from the colonial minister author- 
ized the Chief of the Naval Division at Gorée to set up a military 
post at Dakar and to build a commercial city there.* The French 
authorities landed a force of marines and took formal possession on 
the feast of Ramadan. Each local headman was given a French flag 
to fly over his hut, thus to identify the occupation with the current 
atmosphere of rejoicing. All payments for water, wood, and building 
materials were thenceforth abrogated. 

A fort was built on Dakar Point. Several inhabitants of Gorée 
moved there to build houses under its protection and to cultivate 
small gardens. The Messageries Maritimes (then Messageries Im- 
périales) agreed with the French Government to have its ships stop on 
a monthly service between Bordeaux and Rio de Janeiro, the Cape 
being about halfway. The next year the company bought land under 
the point for a coal park and demanded that the government construct 
a breakwater, necessary during the rainy season to complete the pro- 
tection afforded by the cove. A curate took up residence. The barracks 
were manned by a detachment of troops under sentence for infractions 
of discipline. Besides overawing the indigenes, these soldier-prisoners 
maintained a garden and orchard at Hann. A street plan for the 
prospective city was adopted. 

For a quarter of a century after these beginnings Dakar made little 
progress. In the 1870’s Gorée felt a new wave of prosperity, after a 
decline that had resulted from the abolition of its slave trade. Its 
population numbered more than 3,000. The headquarters of the com- 
mercial houses remained there, and the island continued to administer 
the Petite Cote. Dakar, in contrast, had only a dozen or fifteen small 
merchants, whose principal business was that of dramshops. The few 
Kuropeans and a somewhat larger number of Europeanized Africans 
lived in nondescript dwellings, generally of wood, scattered among 
the huts and compounds of the aboriginal villagers. 

Whatever commercial business migrated to the peninsula settled 
at Rufisque. A decade before the founding of Dakar the first peanuts 
had been raised behind Rufisque in calcareous sand moistened from a 
line of dunes. The crop proved admirably suited to the soil and 

12 Faure, op. cit., p. 21; Gaffiot, op. cit., pp. 133-135. Accounts do not agree, even as to 


site of settlement ; but the picture is essentially true for the time and place. 
18 Quoted in Faure, op. cit., p. 118. 


DAKAR—WHITTLESEY 393 


climate. Beginning with 70 tons exported to France in 1849, Rufisque 
sent 3,000 in 1853. For seven decades the name of the port remained 
synonymous with Senegal peanuts, trade in which replaced traffic 
in Negroes as the leading export of the colony. To handle the busi- 
ness, large warheouses were built, and in time five piers extended 
through the surf. A gridiron pattern of sand-drifted streets, laid out 
earlier, was extended and in considerable part built up. Counting- 
houses of cut stone and residences of masonry with balconies occupy the 
center. Beyond are cabins of Africans, largely built of wood. 

As the peanut-growing area pushed inland, Rufisque had to share 
its exporting business with towns on the Southern Rivers. Dakar, 
25 kilometers farther from the fields along a track heavy with sand, 
got none of it. The locational advantage of Rufisque seemed to be 
so unassailable by economic weapons that the founder of Dakar pro- 
posed to suppress its trade by governmental purchase of the ware- 
houses and removal to the new town. When, years later, Dakar 
began to export peanuts and, after another interval, outstripped its 
rival, the change resulted from improvements in transportation. To- 
day most of the Rufisque warehouses stand empty, its piers are breaking 
up, and the trading firms have voluntarily abandoned their offices 
for new ones 1n Dakar. 

During its first stage of occupance as a European station, Dakar 
had little to do with its remote and inaccessible hinterland. Rather, 
its life hinged on the location of the peninsula and the character of 
the anchorage with reference to vessels passing along the West African 
coast. 

Any of the coves in the lee of the peninsula required a breakwater 
to be a safe anchorage during the rainy season. Gorée harbor was 
strongly supported by vested interests in the town; but small size 
and the limitations of the island were no longer offset by personal 
security, when once the whole of Senegal had been made safe by 
French arms.%* Bernard Cove had 3 fathoms of water only 200 meters 
offshore, but the breakwater would have to be built into water 6 
fathoms deep. The high land gave complete shelter against west 
and north winds, but the steep shore left no low ground for a townsite 
(pl. 8, upper left). Dakar Cove had ineffective protection from the 
northeast, but a breakwater in shallow water would deflect waves 
kicked up by east and south winds. The relatively low shore was 
suitable for a port. The tide range in the entire Bight of Gorée is less 
than 1 meter and therefore presented no problem. 

Dakar was selected, and the government undertook to run a break- 
water from the coal park of the Messageries Maritimes, using the 
soldier-prisoners and unskilled enlisted Africans. More than 200 


14 For the pacification see General Faidherbe, Le Sénégal. Paris, 1889. 


394 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


white men were enrolled, but illness reduced the average number at 
work to about a hundred. When 300 meters long, the pier reached 
water only 5-6 meters deep. Coaling still had to be done by lighter, 
and the Messageries Maritimes continued to use St. Vincent, Cape 
Verde Islands, as its port of call. A second jetty, running north- 
northeast from the extremity of Dakar Point, reached a depth of 10 
meters at 330 meters and withstood the storms of the rainy season of 
1866. The port of call was then transferred to Dakar, and the shipping 
company built a house near its quay for its representative, who was 
expected to put up official and other distinguished travelers during 
the 24 hours their boat remained in port for coaling. Although shelter 
from the northeast was still inadequate, the harbor received little 
further alteration for another generation. 

By the time the jetty was finished, the Cape had been supplied with 
suitable lights, and shipwrecks decreased. A lighthouse to mark the 
Cape was built on the western, higher Mamelle, supplemented by a 
beacon on the outermost of the reeflike islands off Almadies Point. 

The official town plan was dictated by considerations of health and 
commerce. The site was studded with low dunes, from which a small 
amount of potable water could be obtained; cisterns were also used. 
A cemetery (much in demand on this unhealthful coast) was begun 
well away from the habitations. The gridiron pattern usual in 
French colonial foundations was adopted, with orientation to compass 
directions, to take advantage of the alternately north and south preva- 
lent breezes. Its south edge was a street made broad for sanitary 
reasons, punctuated midway by a plaza intended for the church. Land 
facing the plaza was reserved for administration buildings. Be- 
yond the wide street stood the military quarters, an extension of the 
battery on Dakar Point. (Fig. 3.) 

The water front made a shallow S. Behind it the ground rose 
irregularly to a plain. <A belt 81 meters wide along the shore, on 
which no new construction was permitted, was reserved for public 
use. Conveniently central to the civil and military establishments 
and to the port was the market place. 

With the change of a few street names, this layout has become the 
core of the later city. At first population grew slowly. Superiority 
of the port to that of bar-choked Saint-Louis led a private company 
to build a railroad connecting the two, opened in 1885. Its terminus 
was on the harbor side, at the north base of the high ground where the 
early town stood. It stirred the stagnant town to its first real anima- 
tion. Gum arabic and other light produce of the Senegal River area 
came in to take advantage of the regular sailings. A few peanuts 


15 Pinet-Laprade (founder of the city and originator of the plan) to the Governor of 
Senegal, Aug. 24,1859. Quoted in Faure, op. cit., pp. 146 ff. 


DAKAR—WHITTLESEY 395 


came in past Rufisque, but high freight rates and paucity of wharfage 
left the older port well in the lead. 


RUDIMENTARY CAPITAL AND PORT 


The second stage of European occupance was initiated by stirring 
events at about the turn of the century. Senegal then became the 


DAKAR 


SKELETON STRUCTURE OF 
SETTLEMENT 


1000 YARDS 
1000 METERS 


Contour interval 5 meters 


Original 
Break water 


Si Pt Bernard 


a 


VA Tee SAL Sf) <6. 


Cape Manuel 


GEOGR. REVIEW, OCT. 1941 


Fieure 3.—Skeleton structure of the Dakar settlement showing relief (in 
meters). Key: 1, principal streets and roads; 2, area comprised in the plan of 
1862. Scale approximately 1: 46,000. Based in part on the Plan de Dakar et 
environs, 1: 10,000, d’aprés photo-aérienne Service Géographique de l’A. O. F. 


396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


DAKAR 


LAND USE 


Se 


Y 
Yyy 


YY 


14° 40'——— 


Jin Te. LAN Te eG 


GEOGR. REVIEW, OCT. 1941 


Ficurr 4.—Areal differentiation in land use at Dakar. Key: 1, unbuilt; 2, 
administration ; 3, defense; 4, public services; 5, communications; 6, manufac- 
turing; 7, African business; 8, Syrian business; 9, European business; 10, 
African residence; 11, European residence. Based in part on the Plan de la 
ville de Dakar, 1: 10,000, Service Géographique de l’A. O. F., Paris, 1936. 


base for active expansion of the French empire in West Africa. ‘The 
several coastal colonies were cemented along their inland borders by 
newly conquered territory. Plans were made to amalgamate old 
holdings and new as |’Afrique Occidentale Frangaise (AOF). Sene- 
gal was the easiest nexus between the outside world and much of the 
territory acquired at that time. Saint-Louis, traditional capital of 


DAKAR—WHITTLESEY 397 


Senegal, was designated as the seat of the new supergovernment, in 
addition to administering both Senegal and Mauritania as subcolonies. 

Dakar continued to make inroads on the business of Saint-Louis, 
and after a few years the government of the AOF was transferred to 
the rising town. Pending the construction of necessary buildings, the 
administration was housed at Gorée and gave the island a brief after- 
glow of authority. 

As at its inception 40 years earlier, the expansion of Dakar was 
planned with health and commerce as ruling considerations. (Fig. 4.) 

The capacity of the harbor was greatly enlarged between 1598 and 
1912. The jetty was prolonged to a total length of 530 meters. 
Thenceforth it was called the South Jetty, to distinguish it from the 
new North Jetty, a breakwater projected at right angles to the coast 
near the base of Bel Air Point, though not until years later connected 
with the land. It reached a point 2,080 meters from shore. Between 
the two jetties an easily navigated opening was left, 250 meters wide. 
The water thus enclosed covers 225 hectares. 

The sinuous water front was straightened with dredgings from the 
harbor, making a broad, level space for railroad tracks and roads to 
serve the port and for warehouses and other port buildings. The north 
half of the new frontage was reserved for a naval arsenal, with a dry 
dock to handle ships of 10,000 tons and a base for submarines and 
destroyers. The south half was improved to accommodate the grow- 
ing trade by two moles 300 meters long and a third as broad, oriented 
in the direction of the prevalent winds and equipped with warehouses. 
These, with the intervening quays alongshore, total 2,200 meters of 
wharfside (pl. 2, lower left). Running water was made available for 
ships, but coaling continued to be done by long lines of male and 
female porters, because of the cheapness of their labor. 

The need for providing water for ships was only part of a more 
insistent demand for sanitation of the whole city. In favored places 
north of the town, dunes were systematically honeycombed with 
channels, through which water collected in sumps. Thence it was 
pumped to a reservoir in town and distributed at hydrants in the 
streets. 

Other sanitary measures begun at this time were calculated to re- 
duce the menace of mosquitoes. Ravines in the town were filled. 
Marshes and backwaters for 20 kilometers out were drained by cutting 
channels through the sand bars that separated them from the sea. 
Brush was cut to eliminate breeding places, and plantings of eucalyptus 
and filaos on low places were made over the whole headland, to lower 
the water table. Harbor improvements and the installation of the 
government of the AOF were sure to bring increased population. In 
anticipation, the original plat of the city was quintupled by new 


398 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


layouts to the south and west. In these sections the gridiron was 
abandoned for a freer pattern, shot through with diagonal avenues, 
making “stars” and “round points” in the manner of Paris. Some 
of the new main streets had been country roads. Others included a 
broad avenue leading from the original plaza to and beyond the 
governor’s mansion, an imposing edifice of this period standing in a 
park on the breezy bluff above Bernard Cove (pl. 3, upper left). 

The extended city incorporated two or three African villages; and 
for some years the thatched huts of the indigenes, close-clustered in 
asymmetrical African fashion, continued to mingle conspicuously with 
the regular blocks of masonry houses put up by the government for 
its officials or by the trading and shipping companies for their ad- 
ministrators and with the less pretentious frame habitations of 
humbler white people. In places the commingling still exists. 

During this time most of the remaining Gorée merchants moved 
to Dakar. In the first decade of the new century port business 
increased threefold. External connections improved. Additional 
shipping companies made the place a port of call. A cable to France 
was laid. A direct railroad line to connect with the upper Niger 
River was begun. 


DAKAR COME OF AGE 


The first World War put a stop to government expeditures on 
Dakar and checked nearly all development. Afterwards a new stage 
of occupance was inaugurated by a long series of public works ac- 
companied by extensive private undertakings. 


WATER SUPPLY AND OTHER SANITATION 


In all tropical African stations the safeguarding of health is the 
most important and difficult obligation of the European government. 
In semiarid and ever-growing Dakar shortage of water has continu- 
ously complicated the problems of sanitation and health. In the 
hope of finding an assured supply a thorough hydrographic survey 
of the peninsula was made. No deep-seated sources were discovered. 
Instead, the dune-tapping system was extended. At Hann, on which 
Gorée had always depended for its supplementary supply, more 
water was found at a depth of 30 meters. An even more copious 
store was disclosed behind the village, along a line of rather high 
fixed dunes, on one of which stands Fort B. These dune sponges are 
about 6 kilometers from Dakar. ‘Twenty kilometers out, at M’Bao, 
a similar site has been developed and tied into the system. Additional 
supplies exist in the dunes that run from Rufisque northeast to 
Sangalkam. These are used only to serve Rufisque. Neolithic man, 
African indigenes, passing European ships, and the European settle- 


DAKAR—-WHITTLESEY 399 


ments of the district—all have been dependent on the dunes for 
their water. 

Water from the city supply is available for irrigating market 
gardens at M’Bao, Ouakam, and the outskirts of Dakar. These 
settlements and Tiaroye are served by hydrants in the streets. In 
Dakar itself water may also be laid on in buildings. The port is 
supplied through a separate pressure line, with a reservoir holding 
3,600 cubic meters, a 5-day supply. In the high part of the city 
are six reservoirs for city and suburbs, with a capacity of 7,400 cubic 
meters, a 2-day supply.7® 

Potable water is too precious to use for fire hydrants or for flushing 
streets and sewers. These services are provided by water pumped 
from Bernard Cove into a reservoir holding 3,000 cubic meters (fig. 
3). Regular flushing of the streets sweeps out the larvae of mosquitoes 
along with dirt and so renders a twofold health service. 

The sewer system is integral with the water system. It includes 
special collectors for storm waters. Public latrines are distributed 
throughout the municipality, and at least four public shower baths 
are available. The African population take full advantage of oppor- 
tunities to bathe and to wash their garments, whether in buildings 
provided for the purpose or at street hydrants or in the harbor or 
other calm waters. As elsewhere in tropical Africa, the indigenes 
need no coercion to bathe. Garbage and other waste is collected twice 
a day and burned in a city incinerator. 

As in every other tropical African center, there are separate hos- 
pitals for Europeans and Africans. Specialization has extended to 
include hospitals for the military and civilians, a maternity hospital 
for Africans, and, far out on Cape Manuel, a leprosery. Numerous 
clinics are distributed over the city and suburbs. The medical service 
is capped by a school of medicine. 


SEGREGATION AND POPULATION 


All these sanitary measures would have been less effective if steps had 
not already been taken to segregate the European inhabitants from the 
African. Much of the increase in population has been freshly re- 
cruited from the bush. These indigenes, and even a good many who 
have been long exposed to European sanitary practices, live without 
regard for standards necessary in urban agglomerations. Thereby 
they menace the health of their neighbors, particularly Europeans, who 
are less immune to tropical diseases than Africans. In the commingled 
community of Dakar occasional epidemics of yellow fever have taken 
heavy toll of both races. Less spectacular but more serious have been 


16 Georges Péter, L’effort francais au Sénégal, pp. 821-322, Paris, 1933. 


400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194? 


the ever-present scourges of malaria and dysentery, which strike out- 
landers down, often with fatal results, while touching indigenes as 
hardly more than uncomfortable ailments. In 1914 bubonic plague 
was added to the considerable list of infectious diseases of local origin. 
Although it attacked Africans almost exclusively, their careless atti- 
tude toward sanitation made eradication difficult. 

To eliminate African compounds within the European city, an Afri- 
can suburb, Médina, was laid out in rigid gridiron pattern, with blocks 
smaller and streets wider than those of the early plat of Dakar. It is 
separated from the older town by an unbuilt reserved clear belt 900 
meters wide, as well as by a racecourse and a stadium. Africans resi- 
dent in Dakar have been encouraged to move to Médina by gift of land 
and aid in financing housebuilding. The place has grown fast. To- 
day it contains more than half the total population of Dakar. Most 
of the habitations are thatched huts, a good many are wooden cabins 
with tile roofs, and a few are of masonry. 

Some 20,000 Africans still live in Dakar proper. In the northwest 
quadrant Africans occupy nearly all the land, and many are inter- 
spersed among Europeans in the older sections (fig. 4). Their houses 
may be made of wattle, boards, mats, flattened gasoline tins, adobe, 
frame, and even masonry. Many are tile-roofed. In size they range 
from huts to commodious houses (pl. 2, upper right). 

The strictly European residential quarters on the high ground are 
spacious and airy. ‘There the higher bureaucracy, some of the foreign 
consuls, and many leading executives of business firms live in villas 
hung with bougainvillaea and set in tree-shaded grounds. The houses 
are agreeably adapted to the climate, being shallow, with wide win- 
dows opening on verandas or terraces shaded by overhanging roofs. 
Most of them have been built by the government or company whose 
representatives occupy them. This has been necessary to house a com- 
munity who may make Dakar their residence for few or many years 
but who invariably spend long leaves in France at frequent intervals. 

Dakar, with its suburbs, forms a unit of 158 square kilometers, in 
which the population density is some 350 to a square kilometer. It 
is the largest native city in the area, thanks to opportunities for work 
of all kinds. At the same time the ratio of Europeans to Africans 
is high, 15 to 100, as compared with a tenth as many in Saint-Louis, a 
more nearly typical coast city. Half the Europeans in the AOF— 
some 6,500—reside in Dakar. The percentage of women and children 
is far higher than in any other place in West Africa. The African 
population is likewise exceptional in being made up of people from all 
over Senegal, and indeed the entire AOF. Contrasting physical 
types, accentuated by a wide range of dress, make the streets a color- 
ful pageant in the animated hours of early morning and late afternoon, 


DAKAR—WHITTLESEY 401 


TABLE 2.—Population growth of Dakar* 


SiGe eee ee eae ale ao. | aC ee ee * 40, 000 
TCO Le ee ee SMO Oo lena ee ee eee *53, 982 
TG oe ee eee OSA UCA  OSG See eee ee eee ees ° 92, 634 
th ? 23, 833 


1Data from various sources. Censuses are taken on July 1, when the population is 
reduced from the dry-season figure: many Europeans have returned home to escape the 
rains; many Africans are at work in the fields of their native villages during the rainy 
season. 

22.772, white civilians ; 1,242, white army and navy people. 

23,000, outlanders (estimate). 

44.989, French; 1,570, other outlanders, mostly Syrians, Lebanese, and Moroccans. 
Figures for Gorée included. 

5 Dakar and dependencies, including nearby villages. 


The outer garment of the men is a voluminous robe with low neck 
and short sleeves, in white, blue, or yellow, or, occasionally, brown, 
black, or mixed colors. For manual labor this is doffed, exposing a 
knee-length, sleeveless union suit. The headdress may be a red or 
black fez, a knit toque, a cone of straw, or a tropical helmet in imi- 
tation of the Europeans. An amulet is always hung around the 
neck, and armlets are common ornaments. The women wear a long, 
full-skirted dress. All who can afford it have gold earrings, and 
many braid gold coins into their tiny pigtails. The whole elaborate 
coiffure is capped with a bright turban. 


AREAL DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS 


Areal segregation of races is common in West Africa. Separa- 
tion of functions is rare and nowhere, except in Dakar, more than 
incipient. 

Because the city came into existence to serve French colonial 
interests, much land was taken at the outset for administration, 
defense, and other public services. For these services are reserved 
nearly the whole harbor front, the remainder of the coast line with 
two exceptions, the surroundings of the plaza, a central area in 
Médina, and more than a dozen scattered sites. Defense occupies 
Points Dakar and Bel Air, most of Cape Manuel, an area of high 
ground overlooking the open ocean, and range for target practice 
along the shore northwest of Médina. Hospitals overlook much 
of Bernard Cove. The government of the AOF clusters principally 
about the governor’s mansion. Local government buildings ‘are 
at the plaza (pl. 3, lower) or on the original water-front terrace 
(pl. 3, upper right), except the residency in the center of Médina. 

Public services less official than defense and administration are 
more scattered. Lower schools are dotted about; the high school 
(lycée) is on the west side of town. Where the new residential 
quarter for Europeans is pushing into the nondescript African 
purlieus, a huge cathedral has been completed recently in a style 


402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


reminiscent of both Byzantine and Moorish architecture (pl. 2, lower 
right). The mosques are small and are placed unostentatiously in 
back streets (most of the small spots symbolized as “services”). 
There are perhaps 10 to 12 thousand Catholics, including a thousand 
Syrians. 

The public markets handle all the perishable foodstuffs. For 
Europeans a market house has been erected on the site of the original 
market place in the old town (pl. 4, upper left). AJl but one or 
two of the vendors are Africans. Many shoppers are African 
servants, who mingle with European women making their own 
selection in thrifty French tradition. The other covered market, 
a huge, two-level building at the nexus of Syrian and African 
business districts, is entirely African. The lower floor is unfur- 
nished, and the market women heap their wares in little piles on the 
floor or in calabashes, or overflow into surrounding streets. There 
are also two large, open-air markets in Médina. Scattered trees 
or awnings shade the vendors, at least during the moister half 
of the year (pl. 4, lower left). 

All the markets carry the same range of goods. Vegetables come 
from the gardens and nearby village patches. They are abundant 
and varied during and after the rainy season but dwindle as the 
sandy plains become desiccated. Fruits are less common. To local 
mangoes and papayas are added imports—bananas from French 
colonies farther south, oranges from Brazil, apples from Argen- 
tina. Local fish appear, lightly smoked or sun-dried, and include 
herring, sardines, and achovies, and also several tropical species. 
Meat comes down from the interior and is killed in the local abat- 
toir for immediate sale, refrigeration being uncommon. The 
covered markets close about noon, but the others do business all day. 

Where private holding makes the use of land competitive, differen- 
tiation of functions has largely supplanted the original conglom- 
eration. Vestiges of the older order, particularly on back streets, 
emphasize the change toward the pattern of Occidental, middle- 
latitude cities and away from the traditional town of the low-latitude 
African coast.” 

The commercial core is an areal unit but is sharply divided into 
European, Syrian, and African sections. The earliest business streets 
led up from the passenger wharf to the 15-meter level on which the 
town started. These are now devoted to shipping offices, banks, and 
curio shops. They tie into the wide avenue that marks the south 
edge of the original planned town and leads to the central plaza. 
This avenue and the later and still broader one that leads from the 


fi For a description of the earlier stage of undifferentiated occupance see J. Rouch, Sur 
les cOtes du Sénégal et de la Guinée: Voyage du “Chevigné.” Paris, 1925. 


DAKAR—WHITTLESEY 403 


plaza up to the governor’s mansion have become the principal shopping 
thoroughfares. Between the old town and the plaza are bookstores, 
a music store, a pastry shop, a grocery, and several barbers, but 
large wine stores dominate. Between the plaza and the “plateau” 
are shops for women’s wear, shoes, novelties, stationery, and reirig- 
erators, besides pharmacies, photographic studios, and a cinema. 
Besides these, large stores carry varied merchandise. In kind, their 
inventory is much like that of traditional African comptoirs,; but in 
character they are European department stores, with show windows, 
well-defined sections for different articles, and emphasis on quality 
and fashion. Many shops are branches of French firms. Others are 
of local origin—another evidence of commercial progressiveness. 

These streets catering to the carriage trade are somewhat som- 
nolent, particularly during the sunny hours from 10 until 4, though 
the shops close for only a 2- or 3-hour siesta. In sharp contrast is the 
extension of the older main street beyond the plaza, where it changes 
both its name and its character. ‘The little, open-front shops of this 
section are owned and operated mainly by Syrians and North Africans. 
They cater to the indigenes, who enliven the street with their billowing 
costumes and incessant movement and chatter. “Cloths” and other 
“Manchester goods” sold in every West African town constitute the 
bulk of the stock; and nearly every place of business carries a little 
of everything, including staple groceries and dried codfish. Some 
differentiation appears in the separate wineshops (successors to the 
dramshops of old Dakar) and in stress here and there on French 
novelties. The shopkeepers live on the premises, a custom formerly 
universal in Dakar but becoming uncommon among European mer- 
chants. Half a dozen blocks along this street is the corner of the 
original town plat, now the principal traffic focus of the city and site 
of the principal market house. Beyond, shops run by Africans extend 
through an African quarter toward Médina. Most of these are dry- 
goods stores, where men busily sew the dresses worn by both sexes. 

Market gardens are cultivated on reclaimed coastal marshes or on 
sand dunes where the soil is moist, and some are irrigated. They are 
worked by men clad in breechclouts. Most of the fresh produce finds 
its way to European dining rooms. The Africans are consuming more 
and more imported food, chiefly rice from the middle Niger Basin and 
Indochina and dried fish taken by Bretons on the Icelandic or Grand 
Banks. 

In contrast with merchandising, there is scarcely any manufactur- 
ing in the European sense. The waterworks, the electric plant, a 
brewery for beer and soft drinks, two refrigerating plants, and a 
laundry make up the list. All stand near the north end of the harbor, 


501591—43—_27 


404 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 


adjacent to the coal park, on level land between railroad and water 
front. Small stone quarries and a brickkiln provide building material 
as needed. 

Most of the manufacturing is handicraft. Dressmaking with the 
aid of American sewing machines occupies hundreds of men (no 
women). Carpenters make furniture for loca] use out of the handsome 
African cabinet woods. Marabouts contrive amulets. A few jewelers 
still fashion the filagree ornaments prized by the women. Competi- 
tion by machine-made goods from Europe has all but driven out the 
weaving, dyeing, basketmaking, tanning, and steelwork that fiourished 
before the first World War, utilizing native materials to satisfy native 
needs. Some 8,000 men gain a livelihood from manufacturing and 
handicrafts. 

Race segregation and the clustering of business have set up a diurnal 
rhythm of movement, on foot and in a fleet of nondescript motor 
vehicles that ply as busses. Market folk bring in their produce before 
dawn. In the cool of the early morning a tide of workmen and 
domestics (all male) from African suburbs and villages farther afield 
flows into the port, the factory district, the artisans’ street, and the 
European homes. Clerks in the offices scatter through the commercial 
and official sections. All except the domestics return home about 
6 p.m. Oiled macadam roads connecting all the villages, and the 
98 kilometers of principal streets, facilitate this movement. Road 
building has been costly, because of shifting sand and the lack of 
laterite, handy road metal in many parts of tropical Africa. 


THE PORT 


Areal differentiation in the port is even more marked than in the 
city. Except for its political function, Dakar is the creature of its 
port. The chief commercial business combines importing and export- 
ing with servicing ships that call; the marine arsenal, covering 16 
hectares, is the largest factory in town. Both these functions greatly 
expanded between the two World Wars. 

Direct meter-gauge rail connection 1,291 kilometers into the interior 
was made in 1923. Since this date Dakar has handled nearly all the 
varied imports of Senegal and the French Sudan. Exports have 
increased, but less signally. Aside from peanuts, 78 to 80 percent 
of the commerce of Senegal and the French Sudan passes through 
Dakar. 

The dominant export crop of the hinterland is peanuts, grown in 
the short rainy season and marketed from November until June. Dur- 
ing the early months of each dry season, great heaps of bags and hills 
of unbagged, unshelled nuts accumulate at the peanut ports (pl. 4, 
lower right), taxing their resources. The lesser crops come in at the 


DAKAR—WHITTLESEY 405 


same time. Ports 60 to 120 kilometers upstream at navigation head 
on the Southern Rivers are close to the fields; but ships cannot take on 
full loads because of shallow bars across the river mouths. They must 
therefore call also at the peninsula to complete lading from stores 
sent down by rail. At Rufisque hghterage subjects the crop to dam- 
age. Kaolack, the only accessible river port on a railroad (a branch 
of the state-owned line), has the advantage of Dakar in mileage and, 
formerly, also in rates. Since purchase by the state of the Dakar- 
Saint-Louis line in 1982, the rates are proportionate to the mileage, and 
Dakar has increased its shipments. Nevertheless, Kaolack continues 
to lead in exports of peanuts, shipping nearly half the crop of the 
western AOF, 

Recently the North Jetty has been tied to the base of Point Bel Air, 
and dredgings have added a triangle of 15 hectares with 600 meters of 
harbor front. This land, christened “Peanut Plain,” is served by rails. 
Ships can be loaded alongside, as well as in mid-harbor. Peanuts are 
loaded by hand, because the bulk of the crop arrives in bags. These 
facilities have freed the older port for general business. A half mole 
has been affixed to the South Jetty, increasing wharfage in that section. 

The first business of the port is fueling ships in transit. This is now 
handied alongside and by lighters just inside the North Jetty. Coal 
is brought by ships from Europe coming for peanuts, and the coaling 
mole and basin, equipped with cranes and pontoon derricks, are next 
to the area where peanuts are loaded. Diesel and oil-burning ships 
have caused coal imports to fall off and petroleum to rise more than 
correspondingly. ‘The end of the jetty is piped for petroleum, which 
is also available by lighter. During the rainy season, business with the 
hinterland ebbs—exports practically cease. At this season the backlog 
of shipping in transit keeps the port going. To increase the business, 
the harbor has been continuously dredged deeper since 1924. The 
fueling area is now 514 fathoms deep; alongside some moles are 5 
fathoms of water, at others 414. 

Recent port statistics for Dakar are not available. About 1933 or 
1934 more than a million tons of merchandise (exclusive of bunkerage 
fuel) was carried on 2,250 ships. Passengers numbered 15,000 en- 
tering and leaving. The chief commodities imported were petroleum 
and coal, 612,000 tons and 213,000 tons respectively (including bunk- 
erage); in foodstuffs, rice led with 16,000 tons, followed by wheat, 
sugar, and wines. Of exports, peanuts were far in the lead with 
310,000 metric tons, followed by gum arabic (4,000 tons) and sisal. 


THE “AFRICAN GIBRALTAR” 


The improvements have increased the value of the port as a naval 
base, particularly for submarines. In 1938 work was set afoot to make 


406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1942 
>) 


a station of the first class. So vigorously was it prosecuted that it was 
nearing completion when the war broke out. ‘The submarine base has 
been improved. A floating dock supplements the fixed dry dock. 
Storage for petroleum has been enlarged by building concealed tanks.'* 

Still more ambitious has been the construction of an outer roads by 
building a new jetty, 2,500 meters long, southeastward from Dakar 
Point. It extends into 8 fathoms of water and provides anchorage 
calm enough for large ships, particularly war vessels. Craft of 35,000 
tons can ride there out of reach of tornadoes, though not well pro- 
tected from the choppy waves of the dry season. Since the outbreak 
of hostilities the entrance to the anchorage and harbor has been closed 
with a boom. Fifteen kilometers of meter-gauge rails and six kilo- 
meters of roads serve the port. 

Associated with naval expansion has been reinforcement of the land 
fortifications on Gorée, Point Bel Air, and Cape Manuel. Warehouses 
on the Peanut Plain and a seaplane port in Hann Cove under Bel Air 
Point can be used for warplanes, supplementing the naval and land 
defense. The place is now a stronghold; it has been called “the 
African Gibraltar.” 


A WORLD FOCUS 


Dakar owes its cosmopolitan character to its function as a contact 
point. Location makes it a convenient port of call for all ships plying 
between the North and the South Atlantic, except those in the Ameri- 
can coasting traffic. Besides French lines in the South American and 
West African trade, one connecting France and Morocco has extended 
its sailings from Casablanca to Dakar, twice as far from the home 
port. (Marseilles and Bordeaux are the French termini.)*® All ships 
plying regularly past the Cape call, and many tramps find it a good 
place to drop coal or pick up peanuts. 

Location at one end of the waist of the Atlantic has led to the 
creation of a powerful naval base. For the same reason Dakar is 
the point of departure for the oldest transatlantic air line. A weekly 
postal plane links Paris and Rio de Janeiro, each of which is about 
48 hours from Dakar. Two fields are used: for seaplanes crossing 
the ocean, at Hann Cove with facilities on Point Bel Air; for land 
planes in the European traffic, on level land near Ouakam. Dakar 
is likewise the terminus of an air route that traverses the length of 
the Sudan. 

Incidental to its world-wide sea and air routes, the place has been 
linked by cable to Brazil, to the Guinea coast of Africa, and to Brest, 


18 Herman Réckel, Dakar, das Zentrum der seestrategischen Stellung Frankreichs am 
Mittleren Atlantik. Zeitschr. Geopolitik, vol. 17, pp. 419-426, 1940. 

Hor a list of lines calling regularly at Dakar see Charles Morazé, Dakar. Ann. de 
Géogr., vol. 45, pp. 607-631, reference on pp. 612-613, 1936. 


DAKAR—WHITTLESEY 407 


France. <A radio station at the edge of Médina is the wireless nexus 
between French West Africa and the outside world. 

Dakar was selected to be capital of the AOF because it had the 
harbor with greatest possibilities in the part of the colony nearest 
to France by sea and because the peninsular climate is drier and 
more tempered by sea breezes than that of any competitive point. 
As capital, it was made the anteroom and outlet for the extensive 
hinterland of the open Sudan, a country easily traversed throughout 
the dry season and favorable to low-cost railroad construction and 
maintenance. For passengers there is daily rail service to Saint- 
Louis and semiweekly trains with sleepers to Bamako, near the 
interior end of the line. Not many roads passable during the rains 
have been built; but dry-weather roads penetrate all the back country 
and make connection with every one of the constituent colonies of 
the AOF. Dakar is the ganglion of 25,000 kilometers of telegraph 
and telephone wire, reaching to the far parts of its territory. 

The recent rise of a city in a district hitherto sparsely settled and 
rural has brought in a diverse population, which is not yet amalga- 
mated. Africans mingle with Europeans on the streets and speak 
French when necessary but preserve their native language and dress 
and perhaps return home seasonally or to end their days. Syrians 
and North Africans bring their families but plan to return when they 
have made a competence. They are not fully accepted in the Euro- 
pean society and hold themselves somewhat aloof from the indigenes. 

The Europeans are still less rooted. It is the French way to create 
the semblance of a European city (one which happens to have much 
the flavor of a provincial capital in France). When the working 
day is over, the white population forgathers at the cafés, on the 
business streets, and in the spacious and airy hotel dining rooms. 
Dining in public is even more usual than in Paris. A cabaret in the 
most fashionable hotel offers entertainment by actors and singers 
from Paris. A weekly newspaper carries the local news. In reality, 
the resemblance to European life is superficial. All Europeans come 
out for “tours of duty” lasting from 2 to 4 years. After a long 
holiday in France, they may or may not return to Dakar. On retire- 
ment they return “home” to end their days. Few of the younger 
men are married. The wives of the others often spend the rainy 
season in France. Many families leave their children in Europe, 
though the gamut of public education up to the university is avail- 
able in Dakar, alone among West African stations. Of the out- 
landers 65 percent are men, 25 percent women, and 10 percent 
children. 

The roots of a large part of the populace, of whatever color, are 
thrust in soil outside the Cape Verde Peninsula. In the spiritual as 
well as in the geographic sense, Dakar is a port of call. 


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INDEX 


A 

Page 
Abbot, Charles G., Secretary of the Institution____ ix, x, xiii, 10, 16, 29, 30, 40, 41, 82 
(The 1914 tests of the Langley “Aercdrome’”)________-________-__._ 111 
PANTO EO CU Urpren WV oe a ype LMA CO eres meres rma rece ee YO etree ene ere ire? Meike AGU Ee ER 22 
FALCONE SpE ESR 1). Le erent aetna ee opener A Se Le i en cern UAL SE Re 32 
NCTA 6) es ep papa pee ne ee me RE Ce EO 23 
ANC ERTS 579) Sp i ea A ore EE 40, 41 
Administrative assistant to the Secretary (Harry W. Dorsey) ---_____--____ ix 
PNET TNE KO, KOEN CYST ps ah el ea ae ey oe py gee tent eee aarp es De Ae (2 
JeNY CB WEE Od C0 DN Up Se a gi mem a ae a NN xiii, 2, 81 
ANOS OAS: Ng a a A et lee es ah oy Cae a Oe oe eae 23 
American Councilior Mearned Societiesss esas ee ee 2 
PATITCT CAUTND ECE Lan TOSS are cere a a es ec ee ee Re EE IE ILI NL EONS A US 35, 88 
JaNTBOUOTERS OF OH OTS 7p ae pep AR oe ag a A de gee A ee ie pe ere es 33 
SE SOUG ORAS See NI ae a a A al han ne ta eRe i a ae ag ee a ben X 
Annalsrorsche Astrophysical Oservatorya-2 222 nan ee 8, 79 
FATE ODOLO LVAD CD AE CINE GOL eee rer es es De nee SU ey x 
AT TIUT at LINCS Seer ee: Demet recs ret RD dd elie) AE epee et ee a ee 13 
ACC CCLUTe mm eVel te Si mtet oes 8 0s ae oe eit A ee 2 ee SS 13 
Assistant Secretary of the Institution (Alexander Wetmore) -_-_~_ ix, x, 4, 18, 19, 28 
Associate Director of the National Museum (John BH. Graf) --_-____-________ x 
Astrophysical ODSCL Va LORY =e eee ee eee xiii, 8, 79, 83 
VENTE SyoxO ped be a ae a Ta Ne ge 81 
VERE TO ERT OY Sse a a SU i a a See 80 
Perconnelichang Cg me asa eres ee ee ee ee 82 
Publicationiofvolume Giot theAnnals 02252 ae ee 79 
DRT OPE et tS ee ee a ee 79 
SS eel ere ree eee ee Lan A ee eo ee eee eee Xili 
Transfer of the Division of Radiation and Organisms_-__-______-__-- 80 
WOudic Bie VN YSU ayia Roy alts a eee 719 
AStLODHYSICa lelvesea rch) lviSlON) Ole ae a en eae eee xiii 

Attorney General of the United States (Francis Biddle, member of the In- 
SAT AO O)) ee ee eee ix 
AQyL Aime ha ee ee ee ee ee ee x 

B 

Baldwite Gord one seer sername Sas) ee eis EE ee) eee 25 
ES ATOLL MELD TTT AS eter eer RUE Rien a i ook a Nahe he. SS 72 
Barkley, Alben Ww... (regent of the Institution ) 222222252222 ss22 50 59 _. ix, 10 
LESPTO ODS): Ld ss ee ons el tele a ale ea Ral ele RL S A hee A eee ey Be Sa eR ER x 
AES Sain GENE LCT T ped ee me se sen va ns dt oes 42 
TATIR ISON DET La ae i oe ey PN a eh La Et ee 6. ¢5.4 
TESS 25 9] Bose PS aac te ee a Sa aa ge Oe gay ee nee a xt 
PEE TVD, SSSA ae hae eee pape le een ee eee ae pee Rete rt EY xi 


410 INDEX 


Page 
Beal, Gifford. 2222255222 222255 ono oe ee eee 40 
Belin, Ferdinand Lammot, Vice President, National Gallery of Art____ xii, 29, 30 
Bell, Atexanderi Graham 222226 2 52s ee oe ee 20 
Belotex i. 2a eee, joe ech Sasuessssue ase See See ee = xl 
Bent, Arthur Ci252 26 32 38 ae ees ee eee x 
Beyer, H. Otley (Philippine tektites and the tektite problem in general)__._ 253 
Biddle, Francis, Attorney General (member of the Institution) __-_______ ix 
Biology... Department; 0f22— 22225) 2 2. ee eee X 
Bishops Carl whiting: es. Se se ee ee 6 
Blackwelder, R. H_---------- Bas oa kee ols So ee eee x 
Board of MconomicWartaretasee 2. a2. 2) ee ee ee ee 25 
Bonham whrederickyi ee anes 2 Se ee ee ee ee ee ee 38 
Booths Missal ne = = ee eas 5 Ss 33 
Borer Charles yy wit tee ew So ee ee ee ee eee 40, 41 
Boss; Norman Hes. 222 223s oe ee a Se ee eee xi 
BB OVan ge wlan G See ee een G5 ey ee ae xi 
British Governm cnt2ies 2 ee ae ee ee a eee 34 
1syAUSI, Tiloveeiay. Cpe: boo toreenEnnloy ee 34 
Bromeliads! of Msrazily nem OH OStCT:) eee a eee ar 301 
ISTO Wills Wises see ee eee x 
Bruce, David K. E., President, National Gallery of Art--__________ xii, 29, 30, 38 
IByain Uae She = ae ee ee xii 
SE US ba Sqr VM oes Ng Ss as a a Ee ee er ee ee aa x 
Budapest ss tring; (© weir Ce tee eae a ee a bl 
Bush VanNnevar (resent OL the last ttlOm)) ee ee ix, 10, 105 

C 

Canada Solna TANTO D1 STN Si (META CSS) eect eee 367 
CanadianeNationalybark, Service. --. =e ee a ee ee 24 
CE sara YS Se ry a a ee a ae 19 
Cannon, Clarence (regent of the Institution)----...._-__-___---___=- ix, 10, 105 
CareyW©harl esse ies eee oe eT ae ee ee ee xii 
Carnesie: Corporation OL ewNeW Ol Kees. oa 35 
Carriker (MA Spies 2 Sos ea ae ee eee 4,18, 19, 22 
Caso“Sr: ies Alfonso 22a ee eee ee a eee eee ane 22 
Casscdy,.hdwiniG=2<28 5 a2= === Se et oo eee ee xiii, 59 
Casterton; Miso. SS 2 ee eee ee eee 42, 
Ghamberlaine Mrancesliea. fund 2242 == = ee 19 
Chancellor of the Institution (Harlan F, Stone, Chief Justice of the United 

Ste C CS!) ee ae ae rE A ee ix, 10 
Chapin hdiwantd sAtse = ae oe ee eee ae ee x, 4, 14, 18, 22 
(GHASCH AC In Cs ee a aaa Se ee es ee xi 
Ghase; Wlorence Meiers. 22 eos ae ae eee ee ee eee 83 
Chemicaliproperties of viruses (Stanley) 222 261 
Chief Justice of the United States (Harlan F. Stone, Chancellor of the In- 

S Gib On) a ee ES ES ee ee ix, xii, 10, 29, 30 
@hiles) Wenlhy220 22 222s Sens a ee TZ 
Citizens Committee for the Army and Navy, Ine__-_-----------_---__-_-- 35 
egret ign a aE re x 
Clark, Bennett Champ (regent of the Institution) --________________-____ ix, 10 
Clark,.Gilmores sae ee eS Bi ee ee 41 


@lark: «Sin kenneth == ae ae Seas ke 34 


INDEX 411 


Page 
@laricseilask sibrarian or theinstitutioness-— == ne ee ix, 16, 90 
COUN: TORN H Ye A Se ee ee ae ee ee xiil 
Clank eRODeCRGE Str Lin oia.<o eee ere ie ee Ee Bh xi 
SOTTO Sumw NON Wye 1 eee ee ey re ee ee 56 
@ochran wD Ovisp Via ase eae SAT ee ed es ee oh fe at x 
OSA VAULT TSA Tt eee ee ee he Ee Sn PE Bae 38 
ColemWilliamves dren (recent. of the Institutiom)sa2= 2 = se ee ix, 10 
Solesiogd ealsays ail eS ee a a ee he 23 
GO LALO PAC Cl Os Sere ee ere ee ee Pa eee ee 5, 20 
WOMINS BE eon eee ae ee ee ee RS ee Lh en ee xiii, 7, 58, 54 
COMME OL eee Heme eee meer een he Paolo ene AT ee xii 
COMMON Wealth eon AUStrali aes. a eee ee ee eA ea 35 
Compton, ArthurlH, (rersentiot une Institution a ix, 10 
COST CU O10) ea ee a ses A Ta Ee 2 A a oe ean 54 
<Ofora eos] LENT USES eae ae rege Sees Oe ea ee Orc ny ei, aes Peee eee, wee xi 
NOOK AEG) Sie = reese eee eee ee en ie ea ee eee >> 4 
BOOST RG USED Vit Nee ees Sele A ee xi, 5, 14, 20, 24 
@oordinator of Inter-American Affairs. 228 ee 38 
OTST Tr pW LTT Sa Yi gh na a ig eh Bn 16 
COPROGESE NAM TUE 00: Pal aaet ean Oe Ree aa re an rs ey eras Me, eeeenOtey +) Goes Pee, 5 Ss xi 
Sere eT gimp a ee ee ee le ake 12 
COTISHIN AI ee OSC eA st ee ee ee te x 
@uchimanwROVCKt OA ts. = = ea eo ee ee aed ee x 

D 
Dakar and the other Cape Verde settlements (Whittlesey)_._-_____________ 881 
Dale, Chester, Associate Vice President, National Gallery of Art__ xii, 29, 31, 33, 88 
HOV MMBECO LD Te eee eee eee a ea Ba ee er eee ener Se 56 
Davis, Harvey N. (regent of the Institution) _-__________________________ ix, 10 
Davidson ye Mrwand: Mrsy George: Wiles ee ee 33 
SSPE NRG COE JA TS ap a ar a mere erat tars eed ane 54 
DYES YE gmp 1B aul C fe aah i eg rt cee iene a oa ER Agar Be) ag peri eae ea x 
Delano, Frederic A. (regent of the Institution) ______________________ ix, 10, 105 
A EN STOLE see LOE ATC Cs a eee eee ee ree ae nee eee eee er eee eee {iyi 516), BY/ 
DY COX LET MEV LES OL ON eae eee eens eee Nt re ee Pa eee eee =a pet 33 
Disirictsor Columbia Health Department 2— 2 = ee ee 77 
Dorsey, Harry W., administrative assistant to the Secretary_____________ ix 
Worsey, Nicholas We, ereasurer of the Institution=.-22 =) ix, xii 
DDN CT Er py ee nee ee ens mee eee re Tree Senet STN, EON ee 7, 49, 55 
DD a SEAT A Chee w AE TULSA TL eee tere en eee ee ener Nae ree ee ee Ses 23 
CAT a VV alll ACO WV ee ree ae ee ee ee Nr RA Nee ee ee xi 
vy) 

PESTA SC ype EO aD i neh ose se stad ars ye bat eth rr ete macs eink le ten SEED 72 
Hditorial division, Chief (Webster P. True)___-_________ ete BROMINE ix 
IS SOT Sm El oer Seem lee ee ek aie i oe ets ris Bee tre) 29, 35 
SET) OTS ek © LR ee a ape Nah NP a ae steer, WPL OE 29 
ABE TT pm VA cacao sin eet do a SN bn ee et ee SE x 
Hivehjem, C. A. (The nutritional requirements of man)_---_-------__-_- 289 
Hndineof Wreht-smithsoniancontroversy-—=-— 2-2 eee 4 
Hngineering and industries; Department of-==—=-===—- —— ae xi 


Hnglehardts«Georgen Psa eS ee 18 


412 INDEX 


Page 
Hstablishmeént, Dhe@s sees os al ES ERIE 9 
Hthnogeographic Boards ee ee ee eee 2, 6, 49, 54 
Ethnology;“Bureau of “American:—22- 4-2 3 ee eee xiii, 6, 49 
CollectiOnSs2e0c = =2-=ne neh es ee ee ee a 598 
Editorialsworkvand spublica ti ori gee ese ee 57 
TilustrationS22 ai 2. ese a ee ee se ee ee 59 
Libraryssss se bee COR ES Sr ee ee 58 
VET SCOT ATA CO US ee aca re se ee 59 
GY SOTTO ee oe wa ee 59 
Special research es=.+ 2-225 sa a ee 56 
SS emi sh a SN a lo a a J mea TN cea RCE xiii 
Systematic: researches kes ow ae a 49 
Reporte=22-0 soe et US ee ST ee 49 
Hyening Star Newspapers Con... a ee ee 20 
Executive Committee of the Board of Regents____________-_________ ix, 99, 105 
Report cece. ean ee ee eee eee ete ee ee 99 
Appropriations <2. .- =... 2 ee 104 
A TE aN a at EP SEG ES 105 
Cash balances, receipts, and disbursements during the fiscal year__ 102 
Classification=of;-investments=_==_=—- eee 102 
Consolidated’) fund2s2222222 2) ee eee 101 
Hndowment. 4f0n ds oo eee 99 
Breer (Gallery: Of Art fara ea a 101 
GEIB E Or: TSU GS Ei a a a ea ke a a 104 
Summary{e22) 6) eee Senet eee ce La oe ea hak 101 
Expanding universe, The problem of the (Hubble)---__-__-_____________ 119 
Lxplorationsvand) field) works) 2222 oie es ae ee eee 14 
F 
DUS ed 0110 0 LET) BJAG mn eB Du TE POS ee Pap ee oe ee xi 
Mederal \WorksAgency2t22 = 2 ral. aa te a a 35 
RentonW Niassa ses ah le eS ee ae es Xi, 2, 7, 15, do, 54,05 
SUD TY COG Sa I he is hd 10 
Finley, David E., Director, National Gallery of Art-_--___-_--- xii, 29, 30, 38, 40 
PISO A Rs 0 EN oo ae ed ee ee xi 
SMM eran ra gs TOT Aa ie a et Ah hs A a Se 13 
(The suntand the earth'samacneticid 173 
OSV oes WW A eae eae ia oy nl sora Lees ac al i ne ray ede xi, 14, 25 
Foster, Mulford B. (The bromeliads of Brazil) _--__-________-_-_---_-__ 301 
MPa S@r;* Jia @S Hye = a ooo a ee fe ee 40 
Mreeman,:\(Hv Bi) 52258 We oe oe i De Se ee ee 81 
BPO RIS CERT Die i ae pe re yen Sa Nee a Re es 101 
Breer Gallery Of Art 2-422 243k el tS eee xii, 6, 44 
AtiGndanGe yes 25. Belt ae US es a es ee 46 
Collections: 2 22a tee eee ae See ee Ad 
Eectures:.and: docent Services=+=---22=2 Ss eee ee 47 
ECS C(O) 015\:) ee eee Nee we ee eee ee ee ve 47 
USO rete tn SI eS TT cM ey | 44 
HS} if: i 28 ee On Sey ROMANE ROM SUA Ww Ere eee Ae ee xii 
Frelinghuysen, Mrs) Peter Hi. Boh) ee eee 32 
Wrench Government) 22-2 fo ts a ee ee 34 


Briedmann' Fler Git ep = = oe a ee x,2 


INDEX 413 


G Page 
(SETS LOSS (USF SIC 0) LES 9) pe rg kc a i ea a ee ae 133 
LE EU LSPS  i a  p  e  ete eaai  ee aaWl 23 
CHEST E cd BPE lag] 1 emcee ea een eas el lap Aa Ree pean bc Ae oe ed xi 
CASS TN, FD ace ie ae lh poe arco th od eo sper Re eM 69 
Gazi Oe lie wl semen nts nee em ene Soars ie eee Rese ee Be een eee ate Kis 14 Oe 
Eo SEVEN PEIN CW ORES CK Wi a ea lS ee a hl eh lle 107 
GeolocyDepartmentsOpees ae ee ee eee ee eee ee ee xi 
Gershenfeld, Louis (Ultraviolet light as a sanitary aid)_________________ 209 
Gibson SIMCON= seat aseme na Nene fess Soe ee ee eee 53 
Gilmore Ne Charl es ee We ee a ee ee xi, 25 
Governor of the Department of Atlaimticoe.— eee a 
Graf, John E., Associate Director of the National Museum_______________ x 
(SHEET CEP et eGe BEE aa a Wn a ie a ae Sk as NR a ra a xi 
SECOND (CNATI CS Arce ee Serene ares Ole eres eee Se ee ee X 
COST ee eae rea en Le Oe Le ee er RUSE ek see ee 12 
Guest, Grace Dunham, Assistant Director, Freer Gallery of Art-_________ xii 
H 
IRSA ERE NDE COTO eral OS ED La reese et ei a Se cp 7 ce ie an 2 es = 56 
EAN HGOKPMOL] SOULMATE LI CAT Ty CLT See a nr ee eee ats 
ET EDITLTN COTA same) O Le oe era eee SS ee le ace be ly xiii, 7, 50, 51 
TECK Tite Gx COT 2 CD ee eects) Bil i ps Ck eo ne A ol pee ae es 29 
ARNT ZA WW Ch ed fap a Ue Se ree ee dB ae oN ee 38 
18 STAN a LEVESON OS Dal GS Re ae es ee ee ee eee xi 
(Meteorites and their metallic constituents) _________________________ 235 
ELON CLICKS + SAT UE Ni) ee 2 es eS I rnp es ee 25 
ERR STS FOV Zi eB TN ye rs Sa src ge os ea a lh tse eB 12 
EROS Pgs Air eee ee sh ae a rh LG ere ee ee xi 
Le Wireseata hsp EDF Wows) bp Soe ie ee he a cee eee 8S Sn eve ee AE 29 
EL ean esurl property. Clete ss 9-52 ne ee poe ee ee ix 
FERTS COM yoo) LV SLO TING fee ater a ese eld ee ae xii 
FELOD DS APES 1 ye Ene Fe See he ge er epee a xii 
1S Coy RES) 2) 0 Bg Selene tyes en ee te Oe ES ne ee 32 
FTO OVC MV VAULT citi ERNE ths RAGAN eal SRM oi cet SA yee Bt ae xiii 
TESTO) GTI SPA PU) a AU ee a x 
TO Walt Clee Diy 0) ment tes el es a a 2 has x 
HowardeUniversity, Gallerysof cAtie eee ee eee eee 42 
Le (OR ELLE Jp 8 oh 0 ay eee ca eT Oe Se eee EE Reh CEP bee a x 
TREWers CRT TDD PAN OS eae a in ae eh eb od ee PN ROE al x,5 
Hubble, Edwin (The problem of the expanding universe) -_-_____ __-________ 119 
15 ioieed oyeyets XO) oVsiiid Kets} DHL eae ease eae Ream a al eae og Seed QU eS Oty Se ova gee Oe Me ee 10, 29 
Hull, Cordell, Secretary of State (member of the Institution) _--_________ ix, 29, 30 
I 
Ickes, Harold L., Secretary of the Interior (member of the Institution) _-_- ix 
Industrial development of synthetic vitamins (Major) —-~----_--________-__ 273 
Insect enemies of our cereal crops. (Packard) —--~---- =~ +. lew eaee 323 
inisectsiot Southrandsi Central eAmericaeese ss a ee ee 3 
Instituto esCienciasmeNaturnl ess eee aan oe ae el ee ee i 4,19 


anterior) Sparetm en teas eee flrs, A ed es Ea nay ee rere a et 38 


414 INDEX 


Page 
Internationals xchange Services === ae ee xiii, 7, 61 
Appropriation: =—-2222 226 ee ee ee ee 61 
Foreign depesitories of governmental documents__-_____-_-----_____- 63 
Horeign exchange agencies... == ee eee 67 
Interparliamentary exchange of the official journal___________________ 65 
Rackazesisentiand received Stes 25- oo * os eee 61, 62 
Report. <s225325252248 20S eee ee 8 A ee ee 61 
J 
AVEDTIVOS VAAL ea ace eee ee ne eee eee 29 
Jeans, Sir James (Is there life on the other worlds?) ~-_-__--_________-___ 145 
Jenness, Diamond (Canada’s Indian problems) ~~_---_---_______-_-__-___ 867 
SSO TATA O10 ea 0) pg re a re eee x 
STOTT SCO ay ATS ee ar ee xili, 84, 85 
Jones, Jesse H., Secretary of Commerce (member of the Institution) __ ix 
BU FDO (5 Vaal (51 le een a er ea ae tas cee See eee era men een oop Ee Ks 
K 
Kelloce> (Reming tontss2= 2) 226.0 eee ee ee eee 3G PAN) 
(Past and present status of the marine mammals of South America 
and the West -indies) ae ee eee a oe ee ee 299 
Kellys eh reg et © Bee ee ee ee ee 4 
Keppel hired erick = Pee sae is Saale ee ae eee ree 41 
Ketchum Mariam Be. so ao a ee See eee a ee xiil 
ERED py, TUS yy set ee ae Se aa ee ee ee xi 
Benge. SERA Ene ene eid nerd NEE AO Bee iene Rien ser reer 24 
1G uaa cay, Woueeanee alorauen pe asi ee eee ae Me AA ee eel aE a a a a 76 
Knox, Frank, Secretary of the Navy (member of the Institution)_~-_- = ix 
Kress: "Samuel a2 2a aa eee ee ee aes eee xii, 29, 30, 38 
BENGTS  Ie apd cm a x 
L o 
Haco Petroleums Corporation: =_-- = = renee re ee 22 
AEA CGT © ee a 24 
Langley “Aerodrome,” The 1914 tests of the (Abbot) ------------------- 111 
Hawrence,.Walliam,. Neirsl2-22 2s ee eee 34 
Wcet Saran s a5 os) Whe El Se ee Be ee ee eee At 
Hyer), “WUNONINAR) IDEN ee 42 
Peo: INA Oh xi 
Eevorsen;_A. I. (Trends in’ petroleum ‘geology)_---=--_—— SS 227 
TUES RACIAL, VE ECGLS DC) xi 
Librarian of the Institution (leila HW. Clark))——-------—--=-- ===" ix, 16, 90 
Wibrary! 2220s. 2 eetest oe eee ee 16, 86 
INCCOSSIONG Sa es Sawa ee Be eee 89 
@atalovingS.-s ee eS Se 90 
Pxchangess ee eS 90 
Guise ates See ieee ne abe Dl lees teed Rae 88 
Othervactivities: 2... ete ee ee eee 90 
Personneli-coae a eee eee ee ee 89 
Reportes2 2322.66. oo eS ee 86 
Statistics: oe ee en eee eee 89 
Life on the other me euiga? Is, there. (Jeans) =-22--2-2-- = ee eee 145 
Lindbergh, Colonel__-_---__~-_-.---------.~----------=----=-=====< =-=== 4 


INDEX 415 


Page 
POC ICO MARC) LO peo MA cB ee ee se er a Bs 72 
Lodge, John Ellerton, Director, Freer Gallery of Art___-________ xii, 40, 41, 48 
LOSES Ds, LS SUUESE I 0) ee a 23 

M 

WITCCULTON ts GOORSE y Gal Gee a ae a x 
Major, Randolph T. (Industrial development of synthetic vitamins) —_______ 273 
Malaria, The geographical aspects of (Watson) --___________-_________ 839 
Mal One yAmd AICS 6 OMeweer ee one ae ee Se Re ee x: 
Mann, William M., Director, National Zoological Park____._____________ X, xiii, 78 
Ji wana ag “GEN a aot eb a sya) Uae pee seen ee eae en Saray eae = Cm aarp rere ee xii 
ish GOVE OE gL ake | oe a ee ee ea eee Oe ee ee 40 
Marine mammals of South America and the West Indies, Past and present 

Sta SEO RICH e wm (INC OG a) oe i Pe a ae 3s et 2O9 
Marquina STMAUn SINAC Oe = = = eae se ee 22 
WS EMEC a SS a ee gc ee eee eens (2. 
IME WAST OCU IL WVU OUT 8 ee een Se et ee ee a eee ee xi 
MAT bine Zire) OSC pleas fan ee 2 ee 13 
HIVECA'S OT pire eth oe a ee one ee 84 
NENUHER WH relive WeUL tai 85 ot 8 Aad oe Se ee te Sue 40, 41 
pO ESEO Lye CNeL Al ANLCLGS ts tas a nh a we 16 
Maxey GeCOLeCr DUT k@is sa sms ames St ee he a 24 
IER GMM WV ou) vss See ela a ge BS a a ee xi 
iC A IStCL EAL W AC ky eee ee ee Se ese eet eae 2 Be ee eae xiii 
BVTCAEE OC eV ULC Oi Mig aoe 8 a ey a a yee ern 4,18 
McBride, H. A., Administrator, National Gallery of Art__________________ xii, 29 
NMeClellanm Georg oy bowen ces Le ee ee ee ae eee 41 
McGrewarvin anduMits cds ee See ae ee 38 
MeNaryaCharleswa. (resent of the Institution) 2-2 = ee ix, 19 
ON, | a UG Lae AOR Ses i ee ee a ee ee eee ee = 44 
IY Axe TUN IG GSE A 0) ve esto oe ae ee ee aa eee eee ee ne ee La Ree Oars een eee ee 41 
Mellon; A. W., Educational and Charitable! Trust_2. 2 4 3 ===. es 35, 38 
Teo tag ail se Se eee A a lh Be he Bae ee. 3: 
SIDS ESO tek ee MS CHE er Eel © Ya ee ee ee ix 
Meteorites and their metallic constituents (Henderson and Perry)_ -____- 235 
RGU ATER Ae Aen eee eee os ee oe an RE Se Be = Sern Soe eae 52, 54 
Tuy GUUS G5 CG Ge US ee pe ce eee as res cen yee ge GE x 
VSNL reer) 0 tury Gy ee ners Stee ee ee a a ee ls ee 56 
AAV Esai Gs Tey TD gp Cea WV ee al el es es ee Rem oie to ie ee pri xi. 2 
AIT OTC ae ogee ee ee as me ened eS I te nS ae ie 2 ee Me 8i 
MGOLe SHI ZADe Lg eee re ee ee Nis Eee ee seth ge ryt eyo) 54 
TOOTS sedge gel CY arcs ces aes Oe yn ene) Ba er ee ae Xs 
PTGS TCs ERA Ves Ta sere reer ere ee ee a ene ey eens 10 
Morgenthau, Henry, Jr., Secretary of the Treasury (member of the Institu- 

LUGS ON) eo A nO ER UR VEE Se SOT ix, 29; 30 
MorrissRolandesi(recentrof the institution) 222. =) = eee be KG) 
VITO 171 SOV O SET aaa pw Hes ae me rae i ee ep pas x 
MORON MO ONTE Cais a a es eres fel ae beer ot? S425 
IN Sem eT Oa I RAS} a (Se I a RN EF Tene S 
Muskaoxca Dhesreturnofathes (Young) === 2 a ae eee 317 
hiyers@atherines Walden tund-—=—---- = eee Ai es en ees 6, 41 


SIV Ey ES are) @ ike) een reese ee en ee 83 


416 INDEX 


N Page 

National. Broadcasting Co. 222.s-se seca vesesee ete 10, 11 
National Collectionsolsb ine vA r tse ee el a xii, 6, 39 
Appropriations: foe oe he a ee hs 89 
Catherine” Walden: Myer fund ss+=:22 ==) Sse eee 41 
uoans accepted 322 Eee See ee eee 41 
Jloans- tor other? museums and organizations! === —— === aaa ae 42 
Loans> returned 2242 foes eee ae oe eee ee ae eee eee 42 
Publication Sic sae ets arses Se ee ne ee ee 43 
Reference: libratys=22 ===" a= a eea se eee a ee ee 42 
FRED OT bee eee ee an Se ene een er A ee ee ee eee 39 
SmithsomaneArt. Commi Ssto 1 See ae ee ee ee 40 
SpecialvexhipitionsSe=43 ese sa eee te ee 43 
Withdrawals*by (owllers eee oe ee a ete ee ee ee 42 
NationalyGalleryoLvAT SSS a eee xii, 5, 29 
A COUISTELONIS = Pate Fee sR ISS SS ee ee ee ee See 32 
Acquisitions = committee =2—= 228 eke sees see eee 80 
IAI T-TAlAmpPTO LEC bl O Nae ee ere eee ae ee ee ee eal 
Appropriations 2s2-)s322 <2 246s ee ee bese ate Soe en eee 30 
Attendane@vac<== <== 5-22 ses ee ee Ss ewe es en elec ee eee eee 30 
Auditvoreprivate tinds ot the Gallery== 38 
Curatoriala departmente~=22 o> seen a ee nie Se ee 86 
Hiducational: programs === = a tn ed een eee eee ere ee 36 
Executive. committee === =~ = 628 eee Se oes eee ee 30 
Ty eda LH O10 Sata me re oe rire he eS bs eee RE EA ee ee 34 
i xpenditues and-encumbrances=======——=—2 2 =.= === ee ee 30 
Minance- committee. 2s) 22 2 ee ee eee 30 
Gallery. building =.---<-.-+2=-2 sees ote ee 37 
Gifts-of paintings and!-sculpture-—=== = ee eee 82 
Gifts of prints a Se ee eee 82 
Wibtary noes coe Se en oe ee Ee eee 37 
Moanvof works. of art-returmed === 2S ee 34 
Moanvo& works ob arteby.thel Gallery —————EEEe 34 
oan of works Of art to the: Gallery===2- === = ee 33 
Officials) 222-222 52340. oe eae ee ee eee xii 
Organizationtand staft 22 See Ser ee Se eee ee eee 29 
Otherjgifits 222.22 a oe a a Se ete ee eS eee ee 33 
PhHOtOSTAp Wi CH Op vrs bryy eM bee 37 
BUTT 1 Evita TNS ea 31 
Removal of works of art to a place of safekeeping------_--________- 82 
1 $25) (10) 6] Bp RN eres ee 29 
Restorationyand, Lepainy OfswOlks) Of abies na ee eee 36 
Sale ior sexGhangenl awOl Wes wfc Tbs ee 33 
TERT: YI SEG GS se es xii, 29 
Nationa Eferboriim 2 ene ee ee Xi 
National Museum 22222. oe ee ee ee eee X, xi, xii, 4,17 
Administrative statt_—_-—- =e eee xii 
SASSTDIO PN eat oS 17 
@haneesmn organization and stot. eee 26 
@OUCCHONS 2c a ee ee alee 
IDYeyep neo Coo oe ee X, xi 
Hxplorationsyandfield..wObKi == - == ee 21 
Ofiicialss:2 {2.2.2 - ae. Pee ia TATE a Sea ee OE Ree eee = x 


PUplEseOn sev poe wn ee 26 


INDEX 417 


National Museum—Continued. Page 
Ie DOR tae me eae eR Sg le LI ly AE Ala EN aul eee. 5 tre 
SC LCTIGH CMS op ieee ee a i ee a hat RE ys x 
peeial exbnibieset es fae tweed als see terete ed eh sph se cpa Ds 26 
VALS Til 155 sre ore er I Oe a peg eh ey 26 
mblOn alba Tig SChViCen ans ats ese Deere 22525 
INationalgskvescarchig CounCiloc. = sees se ee 2 
ING TKOS MEME VOX) Koya esi LM) SF We) Pees ER A eee ae ee eee xiii, 8, 18, 70 
CEE SS LO TIS mee ree Se seems eee ee i hk 2 2 ta 9 72 
AE TAI we PLCCAULONS =e. = knoe se An eA EEE meatihe, Seager 2 
A DDEODEI aE ON ss eee oe pean SS fe a 8 Se ie Beene fyi pee 70 
LP ths pe oem bee tes teeta Aswan cet PPh eet Bick aen8 lool t per's 76 
CSD ON Sp} 5 aR ee cr ed ee Se ee 77 
DONOLS Ran date lee cit (seek ee OR a ee oe oe 73 
2 NBC ON YS ea a ST OR Lc se RCS Feo DG 76 
PERT SY CL vy, ae eae ee Se ee ale 72 
Goi (S| eae ee eee Se Th sheers Ye due Ded ety oh dee Donna Phew, (2183 
Jaap oy ROKK o0 (sb Rs) AS a eS ee ee eee eee ee 70 
INCCdS Of the ZOO. =a ae =e ee ee Seat Bee 70 
(CRE CHG Sf ea a a SD oe reel Be RES tele ee ee se xiii 
Persone) ese oes ens EY ei Pk oy ta hagelh EM Ey ie tee 70 
PUT CHE SOS ere ah alee sping eee A oa ree ON Daehn sey el LUTE 
BEET (21 ES oe fee kee ee a Pe a en EE eas Ut 
J SoS BLO erase a eee EE ee ee Te ess 70 
Species new to the history of the collection____.____________________ 78 
Statuspofgthewcollectlom sss ok eae ae Se a ee 78 
WASIEOTS) TOTS ENG: Vea oa 5 ice oe ei ee eS 70 
INSU sV pee VG pen brn OTN ees ee alte ae a eB aS on Bl 35. 
INV yy, CTI Seg IN au) 2 a nt a de ite Be ee 24 
MIN CSsyyirn S10 lV De 2 Sa Ne ane od ek x 
INE TTOREYES OVO ETDS {OAPI 9 recta ere RY Rie Re Cn Er Ma ey ee 52 
Nutritional requirements of man, The (Elvehjem)__---__________________ 289 
O 
(QUES ES RS: 3 Cz yD PD eset pe ORS ah i et re i en xii, 94 
Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairg___.__._________________ 35-36 
Office for Hmergeneys Mana cements sa. se 35 
Office of Production Management____________-__ Ss os Sa et oe wt Sag AN 41 
ieEIC a ShOl CheE nt LUCION a= oe ee ee ee ix 
COMIDSGEN LARNER EN EEE) cea a a a SG ee eee Tae xii 
CUTS LS oN sig [eee ee on niet eal piel e ae a See eens xii 
Ginisted. taelen A” personnel OfCer sa oe ix 
GS TEIN Os amP EEL TET) GAT) 0 (0 See cerca ne ale pa IR le 23 
CRON Ap EE ATICIS CO =e etna es Ot eee fee eu Ogee a ee OD 23 
12 
Packard, C. M. (Insect enemies of our cereal crops) _---_____------_-_ | 323 
agua ea PAUL ONSORSC  UNvaeet meee sacs a Sl a Da a Ln 25 
Havin Gah Us) Geese see ae lie ee all sili ig eine eee Pat x 
1 EASLTCNVS) oN O91 8 2) Key eee ee ee eee xiii, 57, 96 
2M rw DN COU OLE Nets e ae pee ee xi 
Ee BeAIn eC LIGA NM U1 OM sss ee eS Fe a ae 39 
ra keweNGLS OME eeeeere ete ea ee ee ek 12 


418 INDEX 


Page 
rebecca dy Fg aen WY Keven fee V9 il eee ee ee 56 
PEAS wae aL, AMON DE 72 
Perkins, Frances, Secretary of Labor (member of the Institution) -~------- ix 
JEOvS SHOE, JERI ee ee 42 
Perry, Kenneth M_--_---_----__-------~--------~------- ------=-_------== 47 
revere, (Sibeee Vel er xi, 4, 20 
(Meteorites and their metaliic constituents) --_--------------------- 235 
eyo, VENOM Wa Se 25 
Personnelaoticer (aclen; Ac Olmsted) === saa ass a es ix 
Petroleum geology, Trends in (uevorsen) -—----___-- __ 227 
Philippine tektites and the tektite problem in general (Beyer) =. 253 
jes nu yoCen DV ee ee Se ee ee xii, 29, 30, 32, 34 
Phillipss (GeOrse ea a ee 56 
TEKON AHO, SUE SSS 36 
Vergruvere, BIG Ee a xi 

Postmaster General of the United States (Frank C. Walker, member of the 
TROBE REKOS)) ee ee ee i 16: 
PostaO fice sD eps Cn tee 21 
SEXO, LR ee ae 25 
President of the United States (Franklin D. Roosevelt) ------____--__-- ix, 18, 42 

Presiding officer ex officio (Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the United 
STU) oe ee ix 
F211 COMA LEA OE SOM Goh © 0 ee ee 38 
Property, clerk. (James Gi. -Hill) 222s 0 202 S22 ee ee ix 
PE Ua PN CentER 1 aa ce ee 15, 91 
PAUIOtMeNES LOLs OLIN Gln oo ee 97 
American Historical Association, Report---_------------__--------- OT 
Astrophysical Observatory—=——-—_-___-____________ 97 
1Sibhgevanyy Cove SNraavenerCoesnay J DUC OTIC) (Of ee 96 
NTT, LRXS) OOS a 86 
Bulletins 222-2252 oe gee Best yy Se een eee 9T 
Daughters of the American Revolution, Report of the National Society 97 
IDI Sti bit Ons eee ae a en ee eee 91 
TOG a Cova GINS (Say a ee 9+ 
PNcanai PERE) 0 TG = 94 
BHU 0 a ee tees 96 
Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium__---~--------- 96 
Proceedings aoe te ee 94 
Reporte eee ee = ee 91 
Sarita Som ere 91 
iAnnuall Reports 2 eee ee 93 
Miscellaneous: COleCh Ons = 91 
Special publications__________---_----------------------------- 94 
War Background Studies_________----------------------------- 93: 

R 

Radiation and Organisms, Division of---_--__-—_---------—- xiii, 8, 9, 80, 82, 83 
Persone lie ee 85 
PUDLIGAbLOn Sees ee en ee 85 
Reportsso ses eae nn a 83 
Stat) 0 ne ee ee ee ee eee xiii 
Radio program-_---------------------------------------------~--- 3, 10; 145 12 


INDEX 419 


Page 
TRS OL OR Tey Daly C28 a7 fe a a A a NY Oe ee eee xi 
DEEL yaa WV eine Ne wa a es a ene 5 ON Bore go te) Spay xii 
REDO TG ibe es <p OS aa a ee oe Seed xi 
Red tie] deli wierd i Set a ea ss oe Pei rh ieee eed h iar 40 
IRCZCNUS Lhe ws ONTO: Obese sets See a Ba eee 9 
SVT rr ty ee a a ee a el ee OR aa MN ix, 10 
IPROCCCC Ings et = i asai en 3 te lty eee ee Pe i dk sehen et hag oo pret Ns ays 10 
FUT Clee Ne) Teall Cee eee eee es ee Se Ee ey ee x 
VEEN Se ap Bsc eh et EE A a cee eee yet me Po eh oe a a Be Xs 
ICR ITO NEES ony Ele eee eee ee ee ee ee Oe ee ye 24 
neScarchy \COUPOLAt OMe sa ere ee ee ee eee 104 
Resser. Charlesth ace. -- = ena a ee eee re Bytes = xi, 5, 14, 20, 24 
DSCC EY vere heed ON lead Se ec ee 5 A nen NI ee SL he ee Xs 
JB GL SA poe tae dT Oo) ea i a ee ee ee x 
RUSH WOLth a eNOMaS iD) ae k 2.4 aly eds Be eae he eS val 
ERODE TUS aig eet eae sD) To ee ee ee Kil, (lool or 
ocketellerse OUNGatiONe = eae. aa Nee ee a ea ee 18 
OCD iN gael Ges ae ee ae ee ee ee le eS a See = area 4 
eee) e) bb ay thd Ca) bu ay Ws We Veeck reek See Sean ae eee gees Baur ace Pe nie RE ON ay Ld 80, 97, 104 
ROR WETS Ac — = sear reese Tes eee ge ee ee I ee Pe 5. 
Roosevelt, Franklin D., President of the United States (presiding officer 
excoficio: and’ member of the Institution) _—_—- = ee ix, 18, 42 
FER CVSS OTM age a1 122k Be eV ce ce ce Bs ee erent xi 
esr OULOr = © =e ee She 19 
Russell iJ. Vownseng 2 225 Se ect ee a eS Liss ane ep Peh Ee esp eines x 
Ss 
ST ea re fete eet a i DAS eA A a Oe a 2 ae Dh re alle xi 
SS Cera aps wie 1h se cm ee Se oe se el eee ie eS 25 
SCENIC Cams 20) Cl sep ee me ines Bee at He Be Ne i ee a eh 5. 
BS CLNUI Zier Lee OTN A oe se LE RES OR 2 ee ee ney x, 22 
Schwarezs ben] angi se a I We ae CBE ee x 
Scien tiset st efit abated eB error dot) org Tobie all beta agile Daye vee leis VTA | x 
SearlesHarriet wich Ar SO re eee ee ee eee x 
Secretary of Agriculture (Claude R. Wickard, member of the Institution) __ ix 
Secretary of Commerce (Jesse H. Jones, member of the Institution)______ ix 
Secretary of the Institution (Charles G. Abbot) ~_----____________ ix, xii, 29, 30 
Secretary of the Interior (Harold L. Ickes, member of the Institution) ____ ix 
Secretary of Labor (Frances Perkins, member of the Institution) ~~ ______ ix 
Secretary of the Navy (Frank Knox, member of the Institution) —~________ :< 
Secretary of State (Cordell Hull, member of the Institution) _-____ ix, xii, 29, 30 
Secretary of the Treasury (Henry Morgenthau, Jr., member of the Insti- 
CULIOM) pean a eee cee oe Siem ey Pie et PALA VS ix, xii, 29, 30 
Secretary of War (Henry L. Stimson, member of the Institution)_________ ix 
SS GUZILG Toya Mpg a eV eerste eo i en I SEK Se ee es x, 22 
BEL ETAT bee EA ce EN S217 CO] (lives eer at nei AA abel soe Sada te he vee x 
Shapleyssarlowan(Galaxies))) sss sates eae ir 1 ATi BB ed ots 133 
Shepard, Donald D., Secretary-Treasurer and General Counsel, National 
Gaileryzo eA: ees een es ee ae ne Been AEE eee ees, ere xii, 29, 38 
ESUIVOTET TA CET EC Oi 2 Be ee PgR MR EI x 
SHOCIIAKE Ts Cre WV arene aes eee rn teh peteennevelenyn, 21 nee ntee sw LAST) Soe da ne Een IRIS 2 69 
SLTDISE SUPT oh Bigs pe CO BET pe ete mp A Alea er a ae 33 


501591—_43—_28 


420 INDEX 


Page 
SinclairiCharlese@ S222 2.5 See ee ee eee ee ee xii 
SMITCHSOMEA IS AI athe wT ey a aa ae ee al 
STEED CLAS OT VTA Te GO ORAD TNS Si 0 Toe ee 39, 40 
Smithsonian Institution-National Geographic Society archeological expedi- 

Hon. to; MexicOl 22222 see ee a ee ee a ee ee ee 7, 49, 55 
SocialéSciencesdResearchy@ ow cil See ee eee eee 2 
Solar radiation and the state of the atmosphere (Stetson) ____-_____-_____ ALE 
HS) OD eID OF DAS) cate)  e 0 ca -oee) taney rare eae ta ape oat panies Sei ee ee a eee A) fa 56 
Stanley, W. M. (Chemical properties of viruses) _____-___________________ 261 
hSSLeee 0 O10) 6 uel WME Gee SO gelesen Sin one te Se ne Set AE Syl xa 
La tev ep err tanne rahe ee a ee 22, 23, 36 
Sleaats, INS Ke (mere E Oe (HAE) 1 GaVS(OU AVION) — = ix, 10 
Stejneger.Heonhar a a ee ee X 
SternberssGeorgeskis ose ee ne ee ee eee ap ete he Ae 25 
Stetson, Harlan True (Solar radiation and the state of the atmosphere)__-_ 151 
Stevenson Joli vAGs = ss ee i a 2 ee xi 
Steward sulianthe = eee ee eee GN oH 1, rH, yb 
PSHE A (G21s Bie Diet [) Y3)] Nera ease me oe aes Seem ceelet seers WA RM Segal, fo x5 a5 
Stimson, Henry L., Secretary of War (member of the Institution) ________ ix 
Stirling, Matthew W., Chief, Bureau of American Ethnology_____- xiii, 7, 49, 60 
Stone, Harlan F., Chief Justice of the United States (Chancellor of 

theslnstitution)) = somes eee SEAT IETS TEL ES SLO eeEe -UN ES ix, 10, 29, 30 
SUPA USS UE Cr yagi ees a a a ee ee A 38 
SEL OE AAV ei ii arya se DO) pra ear eee se a ee 2, 54 
Summary of the year’s activities of the branches of the Institution______ 4 
Sun and the earth’s magnetic field, The (Fleming)_-___-_---____--_-_-_-____ 173 
SW COna pred Ola ee ee eee ee a ee ee xiii, 7, 49, 50 
SWAT OSes VV cu ie a ae os Bare lel eel ee Oe ee ee ed ene ee eee xi 

mT 
RayvlorwhrankeAee= === pare ee ene eee ea ty Siecle glee tS Ey xi 
Taylor ciWaltem awe, Hai Ae ee ee NE 1 ee eens 15, 21 
Tektites, Philippine, and the tektite problem in general (Beyer)_~_____— 253 
Teppers. .JOsephi 22 A ea ee ee eee 42 
Texas and Southwestern Cattle Raisers Association_______-________ 2 
Texas State Socletiy lt) ccc Sy edge el eh eee ee 72 
Tolman, Ruel P., Acting Director, National Collection of Fine Arts____ xii, 40, 43 
"TOUS Os TVA Ass ese teeth cna Ee mec ere cre pela Tea neh Se Te ee 69 
‘Toronto; Canadas Zooitsiess ait Be oslo eine ae ee ew ee 76 
Treasurer of the Institution (Nicholas W. Dorsey) _---______----________ ix 
Mreasuryi Depart iaen tases se tale be hE ls telnet) Li ee ee 21, 42 
Tremb ly: g2R pbs tee conte oben cas of teed ek ea Ea ST ee xii 
Truey Webster se: Chief, editorial divisions se ix, 2,98 
U 
Wirieh, she Ola22 2 22226 se Se ee ee <a 
Ultraviolet light as a sanitary aid (Gershenfeld)______--____-_-______s __ 209 
United States Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine______________ 19 
WnitedsStates: Geological S wivie yes eee 14, 25 
Wnited’ States! Mishvand wildlife|Sery1cela =. eee 4,18 
United States Omeexof Hace ti om ee 10 
United tStates*eublic Hg@alth Servi cen ee eee ids 


INDEX 421 


V Page 
Venue arise VV EDV LAT) Cl eeeeren eee te ee nee oe eS ee eee xi 
Vice President of the United States (Henry A. Wallace, member and 
RECeUCEO re CHER EUSUICUCTOM) tee acne Ee ee ee es ee a ix, 10 
WarasesaChemicalsproperties: of) (Stanley) =" 2-2 ss a fe ee 261 
Vitamins, Industrial development of synthetic (Major) —~-_------_______- 273 
WwW 
Walcott) HrederieC> (regent! of the Institution) ==— == ix, 10 
Walcott Marya VaUuxo==22 os =e Se ae ee ee eee 19, 104 
WValliker)Mebert hss =e SWS ee ee eee th 
Walker, Ernest P., Assistant Director, National Zoological Park________ xiii 
Walker, Frank C., Postmaster General (member of the Institution) ——______ ix 
Walker, John, Chief Curator, National Gallery of Art-_________________ xii, 29 
Wallace, Henry A., Vice President of the United States (member and regent 
Ofsthevin StitiiGiO n}) ewes ates ee ee Pe es ee ee ix, 10 
Wialierenathbonessacon scholarships === === eee eee 12 
Wares a CKOTOUN GMS UU CLCS ean ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 33 
Nite CommMitteese ns sai Ses pa ee ee pee ee a gee 1, 2, 4, 54, 81 
Viele) 6 aly tim Gn tee ee es Se ee ee ee ee 20, 35 
VV attikctin'S sn VV all bari: Nise a oe eth EE Re eee xi 
Watson, Sir Malcolm (The geographical aspects of malaria) ____________ 339 
BV VEC eal CMe a aera Te eee eer oe se Re eS ALE ee ee ee ee x 
VCE Tees Vell Gl Ope ee ee x 
WC GraU De ODCr Gee ere ae ae eee ee ee ee xiii, 838 
Wenn Gy Ame Att Chill a] cies Geena ene ek eS ae See aa ee ee xii 
Wetmore, Alexander, Assistant Secretary of the Institution____ ix, x, 4, 18, 19, 28 
Wihitebred Ger7© halts] CS ie. eas SOE ele ee Be hs ee oe ee Ie in xii 
Wihittall a MirssMotth ewe J Ol =) as a ee 31, 38 
WT ETeMOLe Hy spelen CO Sees ae ae ia es ot Se 34 
Whittlesey, Derwent (Dakar and the other Cape Verde settlements) —_-~_ 381 
Wickard, Claude R., Secretary of Agriculture (member of the Institution) __ ix 
AVVsT CL ree OSE [a py rer ec SR ee ee a xii, 29, 30 
WitlloughbyaeMlari ong ees= = ass eens Se Ue ee ee eee xi 
WalsontGharlesi bran Giae. 222i. Sil sins ee ee ee 19 
WC OCHO USE sa Ss TNT Cl Vee a ee ee ee ee x 
WYO] dsiSSVOULS a cner(radionpLO gram) = eee re re ee 3, 10; da, 12 
WVOLIM AN LUZ OMOS Ba. plete aes ee ere i ee ee ee 52 
Wild ohh ta © evil @ eee eee se en ee ee ee ee t 
Waieht-Smithsonianicontroyersy, Dnding, of2222 22 === ee 4 
% 
SGEVSHEREN SNA DT 0 Cr ee eee eee 105 
BYCD EGE TIN TNC files NV Ch TM reed aia ne ee cee ee eI 50 
SYCO UIET mV AE aT smear es ee Lene rot Le ew ee Se 40, 41 
Young Stanley, Ee» (The return of the musk ox))—--—--——- 317 


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