mm ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION CE VEEL INS PIEURION POR] THE. LEARY ENDED, JUNE 30 [O47 (Publication 3921) UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1948 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price $2.00 (Buckram) LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, February 13, 1948. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended June 30, 1947. I have the honor to be, Respectfully, A. Wetmore, Secretary. II f iar as U of ONAL MUSE CONTENTS Page BistiOl OfiCials® =e seo. 2a ate eee ae a Bee oe Aten ee oe mere eae oe Vv ‘he establishment) 5. 20s... Sweeter ete Soe kee oc 2 sBheybourd Ob ReceHussa. ac fe oe eel oes eee ous 2 INDDLOPI sulOnSa eee eat oe ene een wee eee ot swale ee 5 SIMiLunsonian, Conponiiale ci 29 eee cae ee Sein apne 6 BED TER ELD CE re eee eles et oe a eee ea rahe a meg ae eS 2 6 Trust Funds’ employees included under Federal Retirement System______ 7 NTAASUT 2) ws as ane eg MU Si ae Rae NN ee gM ag ee Mc Na CPR 8 PNOtLORFApHIC uADOPALOLY seo ne ke ee Se SB ee ee ces 8 PillaimnenanG equipment. soos fee eee. 2 eas Uae eh 9 Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum____________ 11 2. Report on the National Gallery of Art_....._..__________- 24 3. Report on the National Collection of Fine Arts.__________- 38 4. Report on the Freer Gallery of Art_._.........._.________- 45 5. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology____________- 53 6. Report on the International Exchange Service_____________ 83 7. Report on the National Zoological Park___....__._-_____-_- 90 8. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory_..__.____._-__-__- 118 9. Report on the National Air Museum_________-_-__.._---_- 124 10. Report on the Canal Zone Biological Area___....__.______- 126 bie jeportron the dbrary. se-e wesw S29 20 oo says eo 152 LZ SMREPOLb CONV PUPMCRUONS: oh as se eer we IT Sue meee tere eye 156 Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents____________-_ 162 GENERAL APPENDIX Large:sunspots, by, sesnvb:, Nicholsone 9222522 2s ee oe 173 ATOMNC-ENCTE DV eI OUNS ee ee tn bbe eS Se ae ile(¢/ Telegraphy—pony express to beam radio, by George C. Hillis_._________ 191 Plutonium and other transuranium elements, by Glenn T. Seaborg_______ 207 The use of isotopes as tracers, by A. H. W. Aten, Jr., and F. A. Heyn___. 217 Silicones—a new continent in the world of chemistry, by S. L. Bass_____- 229 New products of the petroleum industry, by Hugh W. Field____________- 235 The tsunami of April 1, 1946, in the Hawaiian Islands, by G. A. Macdonald, ES SOUP a ATE Dye OOK 2 ee eee con eee a Ret 257 Drowned ancient islands of the Pacific basin, by H. H. Hess___________- 281 The biology of Bikini Atoll, with special reference to the fishes, by Leonard ISAC EN CINE Beara es eR pee aL Scr 3/0 eM ag eNO eT 301 The senses of bats, by Brian Vesey-FitzGerald_____________-_____-__-- 317 Mollusks and medicine in World War II, by R. Tucker Abbott____-_____- 325 IV CONTENTS Page Some remarks on the influence of insects on human welfare, by Carl D. Duncane) sees Seek eee ee Ste ENE Foe OS an eh rm EY Se 339 Mosquito control tests from the Arctic to the Tropics, by H. H. Stage-__ 349 The primary centers of civilization, by John R. Swanton___-_-_-_-__-_- 367 The Ryukyu people: A cultural appraisal, by Marshall T. Newman and Ramsomy Th) Wingy bas 2 oo eae eeie emis 2 ee eee eer 379 Puzzle insPanama, by, Waldo G. Bowman =): 2-22.25. 2. ee ee eee 407 Comparison of propeller and reaction-propelled airplane performances, by Benson ama linya rl By Ser Cele ype ete ee ae ae a ee 429 LIST OF PLATES Secretary’s report: Plates ease ese Sa ete alee ete Sree een ne ee as a eee 46 USA fet ciBes ab Sicko epee ade a ee pane hs a ea ble eked yee fe 92 Marge sunspots (Nicholson): Plates (lh, 2022225235522 see ee ae 176 Telesraphy Cailis) > (rlates 1-32 21 2s ee ei ee he ae eee eee 206 Plutonium and other transuranium elements (Seaborg): Plate 1_________ 216 Isotopes as tracers: (Aten and Heyn):Plate 122222 S2 Si ee ee 228 Silicones; (Bass)t-(Plates) 1=3 oar Sane ae rey openers nena es ep eer SOP 230 Tsunami of April 1, 1946 (Macdonald, Shepard, and Cox): Plates 1-6____ 280 Biology of Bikini Atoll (Schultz): SAE Fos baat iene th the A eae OTA. el ah Svea pity Fk A Sa ek I ler 301 HBAs oct aly (pals aad tetas bie nai iB carts elle ei al aS a ME | 310 Senses of bats (Vesey-FitzGerald): Plates 1-4___________ 1-1 -_-__s___- 318 Mollusks and medicine in World War II (Abbott): Plates 1-3___________ 334 Mosquito control tests (Stage): Plates 1-8__..___-..-__------_-------- 366 The Ryukyu people (Newman and Eng.): Plates 1-5_.____--_--------- 406 Puzzle in Lanams) | (SO Waa) ee Elbe sil eet ee ne eee nn ee eae iene eee 414 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION June 30, 1947 Presiding Officer ex officio—Harry S. TRUMAN, President of the United States. Chancellor.—FREp M. VINSON, Chief Justice of the United States. Members of the Institution: Harry S. TRUMAN, President of the United States. Vice President of the United States. Frep M. Vinson, Chief Justice of the United States. GrorGE C. MARSHALL, Secretary of State. JOHN W. SNyveR, Secretary of the Treasury. ROBERT P, PATTERSON, Secretary of War. Tom C. CLARK, Attorney General. Ropvert EK. HANNEGAN, Postmaster General. JAMES FORRESTAL, Secretary of the Navy. Jutius A. Krua, Secretary of the Interior. CLINTON P. ANDERSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WILLIAM AVERELL HARRIMAN, Secretary of Commerce. Lewis B. SCHWELLENBACH, Secretary of Labor. Regents of the Institution: Frep M. Vinson, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. Vice President of the United States. ALBEN W. BARKLEY, Member of the Senate. WALLACE H. WHITE, Jr., Member of the Senate. WALTER F’. GEorGE, Member of the Senate. CLARENCE CANNON, Member of the House of Representatives. SAMUEL K. McConne Lt, Jr., Member of the House of Representatives. JOHN M. Vorys, Member of the House of Representatives. FRrepDErIC A, DELANO, citizen of Washington, D. C. Harvey N. Davis, citizen of New Jersey. ARTHUR H. CompTon, citizen of Missouri. VANNEVAR BusH, citizen of Washington, D. C. FREDERIC C. WALCOTT, citizen of Connecticut. Executive Committee.—FREDERIC A. DELANO, VANNEVAR BUSH, CLARENCE CANNON. Secretary.—ALEXANDER WETMORE. Assistant Secretary.—JOHN E. GRAF. Assistant Secretary.—J. L. Keppy. Administrative assistant to the Secretary.—Harry W. Dorsey. Treasurer.—NICHOoLAS W. DorSEY. Chief, editorial division.—WeEBS?TER P. TRUE. Librarian.—Lema F. CLarK. Administrative accountant.—THOoMAS F., CLARK. Personnel officer —BeERtTHA T, CARWITHEN. Chief, publications division.—L. BE. COMMERFORD. Purchasing officer —ANTHONY W. WILDING. vi ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Director.—ALEXANDER WETMORE. SCIENTIFIC STAFF DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY : Frank M. Setzler, head curator; A. J. Andrews, chief preparator. Division of Archeology: Neil M. Judd, curator; Waldo R. Wedel, associate curator; J. R. Caldwell, scientific aid; J. Townsend Russell, honorary assistant curator of Old World archeology. Division of Ethnology: H. W. Krieger, curator; J. C. Ewers, associate cura- tor; R. A. Elder, Jr., assistant curator; Arthur P. Rice, collaborator. Division of Physical Anthropology: T. Dale Stewart, curator; M. T. New- man, associate curator. Collaborators in anthropology: George Grant MacCurdy, W. W. Tay- lor, Jr. DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY: Waldo L. Schmitt, head curator; W. L. Brown, chief taxidermist; Aime M. Awl, illustrator. Division of Mammals: Remington Kellogg, curator; D. H. Johnson, asso- ciate curator; A. Brazier Howell, collaborator; Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., as- sociate. Division of Birds: Herbert Friedmann, curator; H. G. Deignan, associate curator; Alexander Wetmore, custodian of alcoholic and skeleton collec- tions; Arthur C. Bent, collaborator. Division of Reptiles and Batrachians: Doris M. Cochran, associate curator. Division of Fishes: Leonard P. Schultz, curator; R. R. Miller, associate curator; D. S. Erdman, scientific aid. Division of Insects: L. O. Howard, honorary curator; Edward A. Chapin, curator; R. E. Blackwelder, associate curator; W. E. Hoffmann, asso- ciate curator; W. L. Jellison, collaborator. Section of Hymenoptera: S. A. Rohwer, custodian; W. M. Mann, assist- ant custodian ; Robert A. Cushman, assistant custodian. Section of Myriapoda: O. F. Cook, custodian. Section of Diptera: Charles T. Greene, assistant custodian. Section of Coleoptera: L. L. Buchanan, specialist for Casey collection. Section of Lepidoptera: J. T. Barnes, collaborator. Section of Forest Tree Beetles: A. D. Hopkins, custodian. Division of Marine Invertebrates: F. A. Chace, Jr., curator; P. L. Illg, asso- ciate curator; Frederick M. Bayer, assistant curator; Mrs. Harriet Rich- ardson Searle, collaborator; Max M. Ellis, collaborator; J. Percy Moore, collaborator; Joseph A. Cushman, collaborator in Foraminifera; Mrs. M. S. Wilson, collaborator in copepod Crustacea. Division of Mollusks: Harald A. Rehder, curator; Joseph P. E. Morrison, associate curator; R. Tucker Abbott, assistant curator; P. Bartsch, associate. Section of Helminthological Collections: Benjamin Schwartz, collabo- rator. Division of Echinoderms: Austin H. Clark, curator. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY vii DEPARTMENT OF BiloLocy—Continued Division of Plants (National Herbarium): BE. P. Killip, curator; Emery C. Leonard, associate curator; Conrad V. Morton, associate curator; Egbert H. Walker, associate curator; John A. Stevenson, custodian of C. G. Lloyd mycological collection; Agnes Chase, research associate. Section of Grasses: J. R. Swaillen, associate curator. Section of Cryptogamic Collections: O. F. Cook, assistant curator. Section of Higher Algae; W. T. Swingle, custodian. Section of Lower Fungi: D. G. Fairchild, custodian. Section of Diatoms: Paul S. Conger, associate curator. Associates in Zoology: Theodore S. Palmer, William B. Marshall, A. G. Boving, W. K. Fisher, C. R. Shoemaker. Associates in Botany: Henri Pittier, F. A. McClure, W. R. Maxon. Collaborator in Zoology: Robert Sterling Clark. Collaborators in Biology: A. K. Fisher, David C. Graham. DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY : R. 8. Bassler, head curator; J. H. Benn, exhibits preparator; Jessie G. Beach, aid. Division of Mineralogy and Petrology: W. ¥. Foshag, curator; BE. P. Hender- son, associate curator; B. O. Reberholt, exhibits preparator ; Frank L. Hess, custodian of rare metals and rare earths. Division of Invertebrate Paleontology and Paleobotany: Gustay A. Cooper, curator; A. R. Loeblich, Jr., associate curator; J. Brookes Knight, research associate in Paleontology. Section of Invertebrate Palenotology: T. W. Stanton, custodian of Mesozoic collection; J. B. Reeside, Jr., custodian of Mesozoic collection. Division of Vertebrate Paleontology: C. L. Gazin, curator; D. H. Dunkle, as- sociate curator; Norman H. Boss, chief exhibits preparator; A. C. Murray, scientific aid; F. L. Pearce, preparator. Associates in Mineralogy: W. T. Schaller, S. H. Perry. Associate in Paleonotology: T. W. Vaughan. Associate in Petrology: Whitman Cross. DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIES: Carl W. Mitman, head curator. Division of Engineering: Frank A. Taylor, curator; K. M. Perry, exhibits preparator. Section of Civil and Mechanical Engineering: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. Section of Marine Transportation: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. Section of Electricity: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. Section of Physical Sciences and Measurement: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. Section of Land Transportation: S. H. Oliver, associate curator. Division of Aeronautics: P. EB. Garber, curator. Division of Crafts and Industries: W. N. Watkins, curator; F. C. Reed, associate curator; E. A. Avery, museum aid; F. L. Lewton, research associate. Section of Textiles: M. M. Windhorst, assistant curator. Section of Wood Technology : William N. Watkins, in charge, Section of Manufactures: F. C. Reed, in charge. Section of Agricultural Industries: F. C. Reed, in charge. Division of Medicine and Public Health: Charles Whitebread, curator. Division of Graphic Arts: J. Kainen, curator; BE. J. Fite, museum aid. Section of Photography: A. J. Wedderburn, Jr., associate curator. Vill ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 DIVISION or History: T. T. Belote, curator; Charles Carey, associate curator; M. W. Brown, assistant curator; J. Russell Sirlouis, scientific aid. Section of Civil History: T. T. Belote, in charge. Section of Military History: C. Carey, in charge. Section of Naval History: C. Carey, in charge. Section of Numismatics: T. T. Belote, in charge. Section of Philately: C. L. Manning, assistant curator. ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF Chief, office of correspondence and records.—H. S. BRYANT. Superintendent of buildings and labor.—L. L. OLIVER. Assistant superintendent of buildings and labor.—CHARLES C. SINCLAIR. Hditor—Pavu.L H. OFHSER. Accountant and auditor.—T. F,. CLARK. Photographer.—G. I. HIGHTOWER. Purchasing officer.—A. W. WILDING. Assistant librarian.—HLISABETH H. GAZIN. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART Trustees: FRED M. Vinson, Chief Justice of the United States, Chairman. GEORGE C. MARSHALL, Secretary of State. JOHN W. SNYDER, Secretary of the Treasury. ALEXANDER WETMORE, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. SAMUEL H. KReEss. : FERDINAND LAMMOT BELIN. DUNCAN PHILLIPS. CHESTER DALE. PavuL MELLon. President.—SAMUEL H. KRESS. Vice President.—FERDINAND LAMMOT BELIN. Secretary-Treasurer.—HUNTINGTON CAIRNS. Director.—Davip EH. Finiry. Administrator—Harry A. McBRIDE. General Counsel.—HUNTINGTON CAIRNS. Chief Ourator—JOoHN WALKER. Assistant Director.—MAcGiIL. JAMES. NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS Director.—RvEL P. ToLMAN; G. J. MARTIN, exhibits preparator. FREER GALLERY OF ART Director.—A. G. WENLEY. Assistant Director.—J. A. Porn. Research Associate.—Grace DUNHAM GUEST. Associate in Near Eastern art.—RicHARD ETTINGHAUSEN. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Chief.—MatTTHEW W. STIRLING. Associate Chief —F8ANK H. H. Rosperts, Jr. Senior ethnologists.—H. B. Cotir1ns, Jr., JOHN P. HARRINGTON, W. N. FENTON. Senior anthropologists.—G. R. WILLEY; P. DRUCKER. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 1x Coliaborator.—JoHN R. SWANTON. Editor.—M. Helen PALMER. Librarian.—Mir1aM B. KETCHUM. Illustrator.—EpWIN G. CASSEDY. INSTITUTE OF SocIAL ANTHROPOLOGY.—G. M. Foster. Jr., Director. River BASIN SURVEYS.—FRANK H. H. Roberts, Jr., Director in charge. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE Acting Chief.—HARRY W. DORSEY. Chief Clerk.—D. G. WILLIAMS. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK Director.—WILLIAM M. MANN. Assistant Director.—ERNEST P. WALKER. Head Keeper.—F rank O. LOWE. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Director.—LoyaL B. ALDRICH. DIVISION or ASTROPHYSICAL RESEARCH: Loyal B. Aldrich, chief; William H. Hoover, senior astrophysicist ; Charles G. Abbot, research associate. DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS: Earl S. Johnston, chief; Leland B. Clark, engineer (precision instruments); Robert L. Weintraub, chemist (biological) ; Leonard Price, junior physicist (biophysics); G. D. Talbert, instrument maker. NATIONAL AIR MUSEUM Advisory Board: ALEXANDER WETMORE, Chairman. Mags. GEN. E. M. Powers, U. S. Army Air Forces. Rear ApM. A. M. Prive, U. S. Navy. GROVER LOENING. WILLIAM B. Srovur. CANAL ZONE BIOLOGICAL AREA Resident Manager.—J AMES ZETEK. sis oh hee pan? ity H's ro gi iwi: ri i: ei’ p> ve ‘ " a A Bae. q i) e beg mei wi : Neneh REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ALEXANDER WETMORE FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1947 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: GrenTLEMEN : I have the honor to submit herewith my report showing the activities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and its bureaus during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1947. Appendixes 1 to 12 give detailed reports of the operations of the National Museum, the National Gallery of Art, the National Collection of Fine Arts, the Freer Gallery of Art, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Inter- national Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, the National Air Museum, the Canal Zone Biological Area, the Smithsonian library, and of the publications issued under the direction of the Institution. On page 162 is the financial report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents. The purpose of the Institution, as stated in the will of its founder, is “the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” The in- crease of knowledge is accomplished by means of scientific research and exploration, the diffusion of knowledge by its several series of publications, its International Exchange Service, its museum and art gallery exhibits, and various other means. As the Institution oper- ates chiefly through the bureaus that have grown up around it as a result of its early work, the year’s research and exploration will be found recorded in the reports of those bureaus, particularly the Na- tional Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and the Astro- physical Observatory. A complete account of the year’s publications appears in the report of the chief of the editorial division, appendix 12. The fiscal year here reported upon is the first in the Institution’s second century of existence. At the beginning of a new era, it is gratifying to report that a large part of the normal research and field work that had to be suspended during the war is now being resumed and, in certain lines, expanded. This is the first annual account in which appear reports on the newly established National Air Museum and on the Canal Zone Biological Area, recently placed under the In- stitution’s administration. The number of visitors to the National Museum, the Freer Gallery of Art, and the National Zoological Park 1 2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 is back to prewar levels, as is the number of accessions to the Museum collections. The International Exchange Service has made large inroads into the great accumulation of material for foreign exchange that built up during the war years, and the service will soon be again on a wholly current basis. The two greatest needs of the Institution as stated in my last report are for more personnel and more building space. New buildings must, of course, await more propitious economic conditions, but plans are already outlined and the future outlook is hopeful. Strong presenta- tions of the personnel shortage, particularly in scientific positions, are being made to the Bureau of the Budget and to Congress, with promise of relief in this direction also. THE ESTABLISHMENT The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 1846, according to the terms of the will of James Smithson, of England, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States of America “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and accepting the trust, Congress determined that the Federal Government was without authority to ad- minister the trust directly, and, therefore, constituted an “establish- ment” whose statutory members are “the President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.” THE BOARD OF REGENTS During the year the following changes occurred in the personnel of the Board of Regents: January 17, 1947: Chief Justice Vinson was elected Chancellor of the Institution. January 27, 1947: Representative John M. Vorys, of Ohio, was appointed to finish the unexpired term of Representative B. Carroll Reece. January 27, 1947: Representative Samuel K. McConnell, Jr., of Pennsylvania, was appointed to finish the unexpired term of Repre- sentative E. E. Cox. The roll of regents at the close of the fiscal year June 30, 1947, was as follows: Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson, Chancellor; members from the Senate, Alben W. Barkley, Wallace H. White, Jr., Walter F. George; mem- bers from the House of Representatives, Clarence Cannon, John M. Vorys, Samuel K. McConnell, Jr. ; citizen members, Frederic A. Delano, Washington, D. C., Harvey N. Davis, New Jersey, Arthur H. Comp- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 3 ton, Missouri, Vannevar Bush, Washington, D. C., and Frederic C. Walcott, Connecticut. Proceedings.—The Board of Regents held its annual meeting on January 17, 1947, with the following members present : Senator Walter F. George, Representative Clarence Cannon, Dr. Vannevar Bush, Dr. Arthur H. Compton, Dr. Harvey N. Davis, Frederic A. Delano, the Secretary, Dr. Alexander Wetmore, and the Assistant Secretary, John K. Graf. The Secretary presented his annual report covering the activities of the parent institution and of its several branches, including the financial report of the Executive Committee, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, which was accepted by the Board. The usual resolution authorizing the expenditure by the Secretary of the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, was adopted by the Board. The gift of Miss Annie-May Hegeman was mentioned last year as amounting in total to $300,000, being one-half the amount from the sale of the Porter property at the corner of Sixteenth and Eye Streets NW. The Library Trust Fund Board of the Library of Con- gress, which handled this matter, during the year forwarded a check for $275,000 on this account, approximately $25,000 being held tempo- rarily, pending settlement of claim for sales commission on the part of real-estate brokers. John A. Roebling made a generous gift to the Institution in further support of the work of the Astrophysical Observatory. On August 12, 1946, President Truman signed the act (Public Law 722) establishing the National Air Museum under the Smithsonian Institution. Under this act there is set up an advisory board com- posed of the Commanding General of the Army Air Forces, the Chief of Naval Operations, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and two citizens appointed by the President. General Spaatz, Chief of the Army Air Forces, has designated Maj. Gen. Edward M. Powers to represent him; Admiral Nimitz, Chief of Naval Operations, desig- nated Rear Adm. H. B. Sallada; and the President, early in December, appointed Grover Loening and William B. Stout, both well known for their work in aviation, as the citizen members of the board. Subse- quently, Admiral Nimitz assigned Rear Adm. Sallada to other duties and designated Rear Adm. A. M. Pride to represent him on the board. The first meeting of the Advisory Board was held December 16, 1946, at which the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution was elected Chairman. Discussions covered the scope, probable size, and location of the Museum. It was the opinion that these could be determined only after a complete survey of material of value for the Museum. The Chairman was instructed to prepare estimates for the $50,000 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 authorized by the act for a survey, this to cover the latter part of the fiscal year 1947, and the year 1948, and to include travel funds and necessary assistance. In view of the great growth in aviation the new agency is one of major importance for preservation of historical ma- terial in aeronautics, both for public display and for study and exam- ination by engineers and students of aerodynamics. Under Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1946, which became effective July 16, 1946, the President placed under the direction of the Smith- sonian Institution the biological laboratory known as the Canal Zone Biological Area located in the Canal Zone, Panama. When Gatun Lake was formed during construction of the Panama Canal, the im- pounded waters flowed around hills that stood in the valley, changing certain of them to islands. One of these, which became known as Barro Colorado Island, was notable for its fine stand of primitive tropical forest, and for the animal life confined on it by the waters of the lake. On April 17, 1923, Gov. Jay J. Morrow of the Canal Zone set aside Barro Colorado Island as a reserve, and on it there was established a field laboratory at which investigators might live and work on scientific problems concerned with a tropical jungle. This laboratory has been supported by small contributions from various agencies, including Harvard College, the University of Michigan, the Smithsonian Institution, and various others. So much valuable scientific work came from this laboratory that the Congress set it aside permanently as a reserve under the name Canal Zone Biological Area, in an act effective July 2, 1940, as an independ- ent agency under a Board of Directors composed of the Secretaries of War, Agriculture, Interior, and the Smithsonian Institution, the President of the National Academy of Sciences, and three distin- guished biologists appointed by the President of the National Academy as Chairman of the Board. In the process of unification of govern- mental agencies, the Canal Zone Biological Area has now become a part of the Smithsonian, where it will be administered under the office of the Secretary. The reorganization plan abolished the former Board as the controlling body, but it has seemed desirable to continue this as an advisory board composed of representatives of the departments originally concerned, to secure desired support and cooperation for the activity. Barro Colorado Island has been the site of a wide variety of studies and tests under tropical conditions. Those under way at the present time include an extensive set-up for testing termite-proofing of wood samples, tropical deterioration of plywoods, textiles, and packaging containers, and the effect of fungi on optical glass. Biologists come regularly to the island to make studies of the fauna and flora. Some 400 publications have been issued on research carried on here in the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 5 fields of entomology, forestry, and medicine, with special reference to the control of termites, fruit flies, and mosquitoes. The annual report of the Smithsonian Art Commission was pre- sented by the Secretary and accepted by the Board. The Commis- sion, at its meeting on December 6, 1946, accepted several works of art, including 23 miniatures. A resolution was adopted to reelect the following members for 4-year terms: John Taylor Arms, Gifford Beal, and Gilmore D. Clarke. Vacancies on the commission were caused by the resignations of Louis Ayres and Frank J. Mather. The names of William T. Aldrich and Lloyd Goodrich, recommended by the Commission, were approved to fill the above vacancies. The fol- lowing officers were reelected for the ensuing year: Chairman, Paul Manship; Secretary, Alexander Wetmore. The bill that was introduced in the House of Representatives (H. R. 2015 and H. Res. 139, 78th Cong., 2d sess.) for the relief of the estate of John Gellatly and/or Charleyne Whiteley Gellatly, his widow, was referred by the House, mentioned above as House Resolution 139, to the Court of Claims to ascertain the facts and make recommendations. The Court of Claims in an opinion dated May 5, 1947, stated that “there is no basis in law or in equity to set aside the gift or transfer and no basis in law or equity to allow a recovery in behalf of the Gellatly estate.” The Secretary brought to the attention of the Board the proposition to request the Civil Service Commission to extend the provisions of the Federal Classification Act to Smithsonian employees paid from trust funds. This proposal was approved by the Board under certain conditions. APPROPRIATIONS Funds appropriated to the Institution for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1947, totaled $1,632,912, allotted as follows: Generalvadministrationy ee eet eee ae es ea as $88, 366 National Museum. Sie 4 rie eet pee ees 530, 068 Bureau of American Dthnology i222 52-55 be ee sate ee 76, 366 AStrophysicaliObservatornyas 4 2-e ee ee oe 67, 596 National: Collection o£ MinesArts== 2222222 eee 24, 264 International Exchange Service_____-_-_________-_______ 55, 632 Maintenance’ and-operation® == 22 ae eee 632, 377 SELrvACSMGLVISLOMS = eee ee eae ee IES SS ee ENE SUSE 154, 749 Woh lig avec See eae ee ee Ree ee eee 3, 494 ERO (ey) eS ee eae ree ee Te eee ne a 1, 682, 912 In addition, $883,920 was appropriated to the National Gallery of Art, a bureau of the Institution but administered by a separate board of trustees; and $432,500 was provided in the District of Columbia ap- propriation bill for the operation of the National Zoological Park. 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Besides these direct appropriations, the Institution received funds by transfer from other Federal agencies, as follows: From the State Department, from the appropriation, Cooperation with the American Republics, 1947, a total of $139,589 for the follow- ing purposes: Operation of the Institute of Social Anthropology, in- cluding the issuance of publications resulting from its work; publica- tion of a Spanish edition of Compendium and Description of the West Indies, by Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa; and assistance in the pub- lication of the Handbook of South American Indians. From the Navy Department, $12,920 for scientific work in the Bikini area in connection with Operation Crossroads. From the National Park Service, Interior Department, $91,500 for archeological projects in connection with River Basin Surveys. Of this total, $64,500 was originally transferred to the Park Service by the Bureau of Reclamation, and $37,000 by the Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army. SMITHSONIAN GENTENNIAL In my last annual report I reviewed rather fully the features that marked the Institution’s one-hundredth anniversary on August 10, 1946. These included a commemorative Smithsonian postage stamp; an illustrated publication entitled “The First Hundred Years of the Smithsonian Institution”; a convocation and reception at the Insti- tution on October 23, 1946, to mark the occasion in a more formal manner; a public statement released to the press by President Harry S. Truman, who is ex-officio Presiding Officer of the Institution; and a Smithsonian Centennial issue of the journals, Science and The Scien- tific Monthly. In addition, many leading magazines and newspapers carried full accounts of the Institution’s history and achievements, and this type of public notice of the Centennial continued well into the fiscal year 1947. It has been particularly gratifying to the officials of the Institution to receive on the occasion of the Centennial so many letters of con- gratulation from distinguished scientists and educators in this country and abroad. It is satisfying to feel that there is a general recognition of the Institution’s earnest efforts to carry out its founder’s stipula- tion for “the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” and such recognition tends to stimulate greater zeal in furthering James Smithson’s purpose. FINANCES A statement on finances, dealing particularly with Smithsonian private funds, will be found in the report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, page 162. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY "7 TRUST FUNDS’ EMPLOYEES INCLUDED UNDER FEDERAL RETIREMENT SYSTEM For many years employees of the Institution have been divided into two categories: The first, and by far the larger group, consists of civil-service employees paid from Federal appropriations; the second, now numbering some 35 employees, consists of employees paid wholly or in part from Smithsonian trust funds. The first group, of course, has been covered by the Federal Retirement System; the second group had up to 1939 no provision whatever for retirement. On July 1, 1939, the Smithsonian Retirement System was put into effect to pro- vide retirement benefits for those employees paid from trust funds, but the number of members was so small that the system was unable to offer anything like as liberal benefits as the Federal System as amended in 1942. During the fiscal year 1947, the Civil Service Commission took under advisement the inclusion of trust funds’ employees under the Federal System, and pending a decision, the Board of Regents of the Institu- tion at its annual meeting on January 17, 1947, passed the following resolution : Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution do hereby consent to the officers and members of the Smithsonian Institution paid from trust funds accepting the benefits and privileges of the Federal Retirement Sys- tem, aS well as assuming the obligations and duties legally applicable to them under that system as presently constituted; Provided further, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution does not consent to the application of the Federal civil-service laws, nor the Federal Classification Act of 1923, as amended, to such officers and members paid from trust funds, nor to the application of any other laws which would in any way contravene the act of Hstablishment of the Smithsonian Institution approved on August 10, 1846, with amendments thereto. Resolwed, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, if and when officers and members of the Smithsonian Institution paid from trust funds are placed under the Federal Retirement System, approve in principle the use of the funds now held in the Smithsonian Retirement Fund for the benefit of the employees in question, to secure for said employees the maximum protection under the Federal Retirement Act to which their length of service in the Smithsonian Institution, respectively, entitles them; and that the Secretary be authorized to work out . the necessary plans to carry this into effect, with the approval of the executive committee, to which is given full power to act in this matter. A decision was reached by the Commission on May 16, and on May 22 I sent the following memorandum to the members of the Smith- sonian Retirement System: The Civil Service Commission has decided under date of May 16, 1947, that Smithsonian employees paid from trust funds of the Institution are eligible for inclusion under the Federal Retirement System. In accordance with the ap- proval of the Board of Regents, the Smithsonian Retirement System is therefore abolished, effective at the close of business May 17, 1947, except insofar as it TT7488—48——2 8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 affects payments to members in annuity status on that date, which payments will be continued by the Institution as provided by the Smithsonian Retirement System. Beginning May 18, 1947, retirement deductions from the pay of the Smith- sonian employees in question will be made at the rate of 5 percent (the rate of the Federal Retirement System) instead of 3.5 percent (the rate of the former Smithsonian Retirement System). Adjustment for back time on behalf of the individual members of the Smith- sonian Retirement System will be determined with the approval of the executive committee, as provided by resolution adopted by the Board of Regents on January 17, 1947. On June 30, the last day of the fiscal year 1947, I submitted to the executive committee of the Board of Regents a detailed recommenda- tion regarding the conversion to the Federal Retirement System, so that final action on adjustment for previous service will be deferred until the next fiscal year. However, all employees of the Institution are now on the same footing as to retirement benefits, thus remedying a situation of long standing. VISITORS An increase of 237,784 visitors to the Smithsonian buildings was recorded over the previous year, the totals being 2,353,377 for 1947 and 2,115,593 for 1946. August 1946 was the month of largest at- tendance, with 318,325 visitors; April 1947, the second largest with 298,724. A summary of attendance records is given in table 1: TABLE 1.—Visitors to the Smithsonian buildings during the year ended June 80, 1947 : Arts and Natural A Freer See Industries | History Soa Gallery Total f Bldg. Bldg. 8. of Art 1946 Dulyes ope ee le ee 61, 955 118, 106 64, 553 21, 964 10, 504 267, 082 AAD USG oor oe eee ee et 62, 254 137, 857 81, 674 24, 005 12, 535 318, 325 September: 22 ha eit! Pea 45, 152 93, 356 55, 256 18, 525 9, 339 221, 628 Octoberss=228 52 ae gen eae 32, 052 63, 843 49, 016 13, 428 8, 939 167, 278 Novem ber ee 28, 538 58, 667 42, 804 13, 054 7, 961 151, 024 December sa! 4 et oe 20, 292 34, 640 28, 335 8, 331 5, 865 97, 463 1947 aAnUany. = heer ee ee 18, 492 34, 019 34, 553 8, 919 4,121 100, 104 Mebruaryo lee ee eke ae 16, 285 33, 240 28, 329 7, 876 4,053 , 183 March = =5 > oh one eee 20, 037 47,114 37, 797 11, 336 7, 003 123, 287 PASTA ees Sane ecm deta 55, 236 127, 665 76, 488 23, 541 15, 794 298, 724 VE yee eee a a ee 42, 372 111, 480 68, 480 19, 318 11, 625 253, 275 DUNG A ae ee ee ae we 47, 292 116, 179 70, 632 21, 803 9, 498 265, 404 EDotalt sre saa Leh ee 439, 957 976, 166 1 637, 917 192, 100 107, 237 2, 353, 377 1 Not including 13,943 persons attending meetings after 4:30 p. m. PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY In connection with the research and exploration of the Institution, there is involved a large amount of photographic work which is han- dled for the Institution and its branches by the Photographic Labora- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 9 tory, located in the Arts and Industries Building of the National Museum. To show the quantity of work produced I will give a few statistics: Negatives made, 2,449; prints, 14,521; enlargements, 2,082; lantern slides, 264; cloth mounts, 174; also a smaller number of other types of work involving photographic processes. In addition to the routine operations of the laboratory, the staff spent considerable time in assisting scientists of the Institution in ob- taining photographic illustrations for their publications, as well as in aiding representatives of other governmental agencies and private individuals in their search for needed photographs. The photographer in charge served as the Institution’s representa- tive on the photograph supplies committee, Federal Specifications Board. He attended monthly board meetings and conducted special investigations for various subcommittees of the Board. While rep- resenting the Institution at the annual convention of the Photogra- phers’ Association of America in Chicago, the photographer in charge visited the Chicago Natural History Museum in the search for im- proved methods of photographing art objects, silverware, and glass- ware. The greatest needs of the laboratory are a complete catalog of file prints, so that the large and valuable collection of negatives would be more readily accessible to the Institution’s staff as well as to the gen- eral public; certain items of modern photographic equipment; and the fitting up of a room to be devoted to color photography. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT Repairs and alterations—Among important projects in connection with the several buildings, the following were completed during the year: Smithsonian Building: The metal finials on top of the northeast and southeast towers were removed and new copper finials were installed; removal of the wooden louvres on four sides of the flag tower (begun in 1946) was completed and new copper louvres were installed in their place; the rooms formerly occupied by the property clerk were dis- mantled and converted into additional space for the accounting office. Arts and Industries Building: Provision was made for office rooms for the National Air Museum by partitioning off room 30, formerly occupied by the division of engineering; major alterations and repairs were made in the southwest and west south ranges to provide exhibit areas for the section of manufactures and the section of aeronautics (now the National Air Museum) ; a photographic dark room was con- structed in the section of photography; the coin hall ceiling and walls were repaired and repainted and all exhibit cases were revarnished. 10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Natural History Building: All alcoves in the foyer, where all special exhibitions are held, were re-covered with monks cloth and all exposed woodwork repainted; to provide storage and working space for the coral collection, a section of the second floor at the northwest corner was remodeled, including changing partition walls, erection of a gallery, and painting of walls, ceiling, and storage cases. Freer Gallery of Art: The photographic studio and dark room were constructed by remodeling a section of one of the existing stor- age rooms. Heat, light, and power.—Electric current used during the year amounted to 1,664,710 kilowatt-hours. This figure represents an increase of 120,571 kilowatt-hours over 1946 despite the “brown- out” during the period November 23 to December 9, 1946, for the purpose of conserving coal during the miners’ strike. However, this increase is not considered excessive because additional fixtures were added and other improvements were made during the year. Steam consumption was held to the absolute minimum require- ments during the year, and despite the fact that heating temperatures were reduced 5° twice each day during the period November 23 to December 9, 1946, steam consumption increased 1,502,900 pounds over 1946. This increase was due to lower outside temperatures dur- ing the heating season. Total steam consumption for the fiscal year was 54,902,700 pounds. Ice production—The Smithsonian ice plant produced 186.7 tons of ice at a cost of $1.16 per ton, exclusive of labor. The plant was closed down 10 days during May 1947 for overhauling. Fire protection.—The fire hose, couplings, nozzles, and hose racks purchased during fiscal year 1946 were received and installed in the Smithsonian Building. Plans have been made to install a central control station for valving the standpipe lines in this building dur- ing the fiscal year 1948. Inspections of apparatus were made each month, and all soda and acid extinguishers were discharged and recharged. Respectfully submitted. A. Wermore, Secretary. APE HNDEX 1 REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the condition and operation of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1947. COLLECTIONS Nearly 757,000 specimens, about twice as many as last year, came to the Museum’s collections during the year, these being divided among the various departments as follows: Anthropology, 9,445; biology, 533,098; geology, 205,549; engineering and industries, 5,239; history, 3,539. Most of the accessions were acquired as gifts from individuals or as transfers from Government departments and agencies. The complete report on the Museum, published as a separate document, includes a detailed list of the year’s acquisitions, of which the more im- portant are summarized below. Catalog entries in all departments now total 19,561,872. Anthropology.—Archeological material came from many parts of the world, especially noteworthy being about a hundred items from Adak Island in the Aleutians; nearly 1,600 specimens from Mont- gomery County, Md.; a tripod bowl from a ruin near Oaxaca, Mexico; 2 earthenware bowls from the Taino site of La Caleto, Province of Trujillo, Dominican Republic; 2 Roman or Franko vessels from Speicher, Germany; and 14 stone implements and fragments from Larimer County, Colo. In ethnology, the year’s accessions included collections from the North American tribes of Alaska and the Aleutians, Eastern Wood- lands, Great Plains, and the Southwest; the Indian tribes of México, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia, and Brazil; the Oceanian peoples of Hawaii and New Guinea; the aboriginal tribes of Australia; the Indonesians of Java, Sumatra, and Bali; the Asiatic peoples of India and Mongolia; and the African tribes of the Belgian Congo and neighboring parts of West Africa. A collection of major importance was received as a result of the bequest of the late Princess Abigail W. Kawananakoa of Honolulu, comprising a well-documented group of masterpieces of Hawaiian handicrafts which were heirlooms of the Hawaiian royal family. heat White fallow deer_..--.-=.-- 2 Dasyprocta prymnolopha_-.-..------------ APO UTE sete eS Ee 1 PrelessCOneolone cme oe ate ain nem AL eS Seameee Pumas, bes 2k Soe RN ee ek ae 3 Girafaicamelopardaisesea ee 222E ss eee Nubian grater. 21s ee 1 Hippopotamus amphibius__._....--------- iDpPoOpoOtAamMse a= a ee 1 TFL ULI GRLC TACOS Stee ee ae Guanacol seal’ Soe ee) Sue 1 Odocotleus virgentanus 2222) 22 Lee ee Virginisideer vue ee oe oan 2 Ovis europaea: 2) = SAW Se iy Be aeaiy ao Pe Lyeat Mouflons cei ses eae 1 IPertogtchicus ono 2 sone Deen Potties ote ee i oe 1 (POEDNAGUS OTUNNIENG 2s Lees See Wake EE eee Cee Oe eecials 1 TPVOCU ON LOL OT ass Seana tog hans Nay fateh UiRy lol Soenen ME Raccoons eta 2 2p eh ae eee 2 Thalarctos maritimus X Ursus middendorffi. Hybrid bear__.._------------ 2 BIRDS Anasiplatyrhynchoss 22 oie Sa es Fee Mallardiducke issue eee ee 45 Chenopts, atrdta sou a us eo Ss ol ernie yk hie aA Blackswans sohosene lc Ue oe ae 6 Pialica@r Gnserecamae a Oe 8 Le Rae yeh OnLine yan American cootse sau ae eae 4 Gallusiapeen oo et en, De ae Highting fowl 32. 25-32 Sane ee 12 Gallusigatius oie ks 2 ey sara a Oe Red jungleifowlse ss: Sess 8 HeaUG er tabatie SNe! Nyse Ae yk hae ea Peafowl 22:3 scat 78 oe uaa 7 DOr CUriTtSORIUsin 2S eee Lak Je ce ae Ring-necked dove_----------- 18 REPTILES Agkistrodon bilineatus..-_-_....-----__---- Mexican moccasin. -___-._--- 17 ESnicrates Cenchriga na ee ee ee Rainbow botseeen os) ] eee 12 IN Coby S2) RY ae Seon ie Carey 0 Ra a ol Waterisnakes {2-2-4 2 Sos aes 20 Sceloporus Unadulatuesece le oe ee aes Pine or fence lizard__.._----- 6 MOLLUSKS Achauna achatinan wes Ui xe LO ion aes Gisntlandisnaile. _o2 24288 Lee 5 The birth of the rainbow boas makes the third generation in the Zoo, their grandparents having been brought from British Guiana in 1931. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY S9 ANIMALS IN THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, JUNE 30, 1947 MAMMALS MARSUPIALIA Scientific name Common name Number Dide!lphiidae: Didelpnreivirguviang noone ee ce cote Opossum Fee a ae SAS Phalangeridae: Petqurus Or evicepens ato) he ee ee Lesser flying phalanger....-.. 2 Macropodidae: Dendrolagusienustusss. see Dh ae New Guineatreekangaroo-... 2 Phascolomyidae: Vombatus no eho toe nee Binturongs2 2a ee eee 1 Cigelitctis cwetia. = 6k je i African: civet: 2a a2 1 Muyonaz sanguineus. 22002 22222 ease Dwarlicivetwic sess se oes 1 Paradoxurus hermaphroditus.....-------- Small-toothed palm civet- _-~-- 3 Hyaenidae: Crocuta crocuta germinans_....---------- Nast African spotted hyena... 1 Canidae: Canis dingons tae SOU TRe Buea els Dingoss.seei nists Nevis ghd 2 Cantstlatrans er ee 52 al OGY OtTemea mene uiewe P Ce 1 Canis latrans X familtarie_...-. 22-2 2-> Coyote and dog hybrid_-__---- 1 Canis lupusimubiius Pigingsswolte soe eee 2 Cantsinigenirujusse. oe ee et eet Rexaciredwwolteeee eee 1 Cuon javanicus sumatrensis__...--------- Sumatran wild dog--..------ 1 100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Scientific name Common name Number Canidae—Continued Dusicyon (Cerdocyon) thous. ..-.-------- South American fox__.-__.__. 1 INGCLCR ULES) DTOCTONMOLOCS ae eee ee RACCOON Op Sees ne aan 2 Urocyon cinereoargenteus__-------------- Grayitos hs 2) ou a os a ae 10 VAY TEAM AULA s Rabie geepclen septa till By. Ai yen) cue et Red foxee ses Sa 3) Seen ily Procyonidae: INGSUGNOTICA oi ( 42) nia ape NN ye Coatimun dice vouch ianlh hun 9 UNIS UR TUES VCH Se yea ae as Ly at DNA eye RL Redjcoatimundi22 aes 1 Nasuanelsongstad nt wees wei ho Nelson’s coatimundi..__..... 1 FOLOS PUGUY US Ieee is BELA era foe Ranke] Ou Seo et es ee he 5 Raccoons 22 awa eee 3 EPEGCU OTM OLOT ie Ae a eerste ee Black raccoon! 2c sat eeeaiins 4 Raccoon (albino) Saas = saa 1 Bassariscidae: ES GSSOTUSCUSKOSEULUS Ss ee eee ere eee Ring-tail or cacomistle______- 2 Mustelidae: Grasonella RURORGG 22s DES Bate Grison ss Mo 2 Vee Sette 1 GUE ORCOMELCTS ESO CO ee ea os ea ee loridaro¢cers tesa see 1 LEO (WECM D) CMT oe ek Small-clawed otter._.._...__- 1 Martes (Lamprogale) flavigula henriciti_..__ Asiatic marten__.____._..--- 1 Meles meles leptorynchus_.....-.-------- Chinese ibadger. 222 eens Neo = 1 Mellisoraveapensis! Senne eee eee ELC | sa tet Nara toca? oe ie ek 1 Mephitisimephitss nigra) = oe aes BAe Ryerss CN ae a oe ae eS 7 Mustela eversmanni._._......---------- Merrep em cemeine y auline, Sewanee 1 Mustela frenata noveboracensis._.__------ WVCAS ON ni Uh Le euia ds lyk Ne ee 1 Ly. GsOGr GT G UCT UGTaL ae LiL Ne ey abe aN Ye cule a SN ee pet tate age yay al Be 2 Lajratbarbaralsentlis:= oowe see ees Se Gray-headed tayra__....---- if Ursidae: ES UOMCLOSEGINCRLCG US er a Blacktbeare. 2s t= Sasa 4 Huarctos thibetanus__..__----- cj) Seay eet Himalayan beats saa eee 1 Helarctosimolayanusness | wane see a MoalayJonmisuntbeare s225 sae ae— 1 HNN RSLES OASIS les pct ae a Ng Slot inte sir eine eee ee eee 1 ROL CLOSHINGRUULNT US seen a eee ROMS T Deans Melee Ss = 22 eee 3 Thalarctos maritimus X Ursus midden- CORE Pee ea eas a EE Sd oh ey ea Eby orice ans at ee ae eee 4 re man chOSvOrNayilsee ne eee eee eee eee Spectacled bear_._...-.----- 1 [GERD S| Ck eH ple valet an fete pel ah A lfea ae cape ey Alaska brown bear__-.------- 1 UI SUS NCCE O SN epane eA a Se) sl ah European brown bear-_-_-_.---- 1 Ursusiarctos mentdtonaiise 2 eee Caucasas brown bear__.----- 1 Grswsigy ase aoe fee ae a Alaskan Peninsula bear____-- 2 Ursusimiddendornifim= = eee eee Prcn A e Kodiak *beanseee seo fae ne 3 WrSsusistckensise see ce ee ENS OE SEU AE Sitka TO wane aa eee 3 PINNIPEDIA Otariidae: Zalophus| caltfornianus285 too! Lo Sea Wiomeser sth sek d i Ge ape al 2 Phocidae: Phoca vitulina richardit__...-.----- pee eas Pacific harbor seal__.__.___-- 2 PRIMATES Lemuridae: Galagordemidourd ees ee ee a ee eéastigalagoss. Seas ge il Lemur mongogs 226 = at oe ae Ae ees eee Mongoose lemur.—. 322-2 2222 wa 2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Scientific name Saimiridae: Saimiri sciureus Cebidae: VALOUUSHENEU ETO CL IGS ya cee at ya Ateles geoffroyz vellerosus.._._.-..--.------ Cebwstap ella teeny EE Sy ie, (CEULESTCODUCUIT US eee ee ee Cebus fatuellus Lagothrix lagotricha Cercopithecidae: CerCcoceuusiatennvm snares ete ee ee Cercocebus fuliginosus Cercocebus torquatus lunulatus Cercopithecus aethiops pygerythrus__—_---- Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus * C. py- gerythrus. WERCOTILNECUS CODIEUS Hae) genni) LAE as Cercopithecus diana Ceropithecus diana roloway__------------ Cercopithecus Megrccise ee nee uw ae ae Cercopithecus nictitans petaurista.__------ Cercaprthecus: Spee ise os Ll Erythrocebus patas Gymnopyga maurus WMiageacakirusimnondad. nas Saba lp oe Macaca pitt ppinensts wma ge cere NIGCGCG Stee su ian eT Bian ae VRCCOCUS A TILS yap en ge eyo IN YE Nay Hylobatidae: A UQULES HAG TIIS = ae ee cee he Hylobates agilis X H. lar pileatus.._..--- Elyltooates: hooltock— 4use4 ee eR Fialopalesilariprleatuge SPAN 0 Symphalangus syndactylus Pongidae: Pan troglodytes verus RODENTIA Sciuridae: Citellus beecheyi douglasit....._.-.------ CUNOMYS OMENS. ee Puniserurus leucostigma._ 2 24-2 Glaucomys volans IVE GE TOURNTCOT OS By AS aga Ae mh Se 3k NET ASUSIT AGL UStae Dee ee ee NYS |e Ns Heteromyidae: UDI DOOG ING SOTA aiel nee ane taal bap 2. Common name Nu Douroucouli or owl monkey - - Spider/monkey2- 2. 22-2 babe Grayucapuchinysi mek 22 sey White-throated capuchin_-___- Weeping capuchin.__________ Woolly monkey# iu cmvag au Black-crested mangabey__-_.-_- Sooty mangabey White-crowned mangabey. ___ Vervet guenon Green’ guenons 0). saat Hybrid green guenon X vervet Moustached guenon Diana monkey Roloway monkey_____-_.___- De'Brazza’s guenon. 2224. 482 Lesser white-nosed guenon__-_ West African guenon_________ Patas monicey eee usc inn Midor’ monkeys. 24- 225 Javan macaque Chinese macaque_.__._____-- Rhesus monkey Pig-tailed monkey. -_---_-__- Philippine macaque_____-__-_- Wanderoo monkey_____--_--- Toque or bonnet monkey___-_-_ Crab-eating macaque Sumatran gibbon saeee aes Hybrid gibbon Hoolock gibbon. 555 saan. Black-capped gibbon________- sismang sibbons. = oo soe ae ae West African chimpanzee___-_- Douglas ground squirrel____-_- Blains prainie.dog: si £2.45 322 West African bush squirrel_ _- Blying squirrels. sul bs Woodchuck or ground hog_--.- Kastern chipmunk. -..-.-=..- 101 mber i) = Wh WD or onr De —_ cll eee So eS oe ne ne eet 102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Scientific nama Common name Number Cricetidae: Mesocricetus auratus.........-.--------- Golden hamster.._.___------ ie TEP OMIYSCUSILCUCOPUS sae ae ee eee White-footed or deer mouse. 7 Sigmodon hispid uss Loe smo ele Cotton wat. 2-2. seek she 1 Muridae: Meriones*unguiculaiususis_ 2522) 22 So Mongolian gerbil_._-..------ 1 Mais; miuseulis 15_byo toes ho ee White and other domestic MICS Ass Eons ak ce pe 12 Rattus maorvegicie™ se mrss Sy PMN Hooded laboratory rat______- 11 Hystricidae: Acanthion brachyurumese se eee Malay porcupine__._____.__- 3 AL eTUnUsAiTeCanes aa Awe Aetna al es West African brush-tailed por- CUDING 4s BU lee aie un heunine 3 Thecurus crasstspinis sumatrae__..._---_- Thick-spined porcupine - - - -_- 1 Myocastoridae: Mayocastor coypusie. 2siee bree he oon Oe Coypulicn aynttes. sual 5 Capromyidae: Canromys pilonides ste hey eee Butiaeo2 wei ke Siswubiarenel 5 Dasyproctidae: Dasyprocta prymnolopha_....--...------ AOE Ree mae NL mbna tales 1 Dasyprocda punctate esa ye ee Speckled agouti..........-.. 3 Chinchillidse: Chanchtllaxchinchliqniete sy. Sw hoes ee Chinchilla... 2. 723 Snes 4 Gagidsumivrscace7a a art setae eee Peruvian. viscachas. 220202245 5 Caviidae: Cavia-poncellie! sa sas on rere oe Guinea pigs Soames 3 Dolzchottspatagongast ee ee eae Patagonian cavy—o2225- 2222. I LAGOMORPHA Leporidae: Oryctolagus cunteulus: 2 eee Domestieirabbitees see 5 Bieta ARTIODACTYLA Ammotragusilervre ns Siti oh Aoudaedws=. 2s. 2S Seay 17 MANO GENO USOT er ey eee ae Mountain anoa.....--....---- 1 BxGOsiQaurntes te lo: Nee ee a ee Gaurss ule 5 el ee 3 Bile aun f American bison.......----... 13 MEAD EL at HAN T hf & RE Albino ibisont 23 eea Wey it Bositndicus:2 2 tile hae ein hte 2 oe Zebise be ees’ gaitided a 4 Y BANG pS © ay en eae ss BY ag Domestic cow (Jersey) ------- 1 Plosilau nee fc ol) Oho De ie as cc ee one West Highlandor Kyloecattle. 4 SOR ATU ie Se yah ole ts a aN By ral SO a British Park cattle..........- 6 Bubal ie GUbales at coe on Sees ean Weateribuffalos 5222 22-22. 2 Capraistbhinica. 28 coe 2 eee J ofeb ete ata eel ee eee 1 Cephatophusimmaxiwelivisi0 so) 22 eee Maxwell’siduiker2=- 42 oes 1 Cephatophrusiaviger 020i NA iho fal pea Blackiduikers2e) nt son aes 1 Cephalophus nigrifrons 222 2220 ae ee Black-fronted duiker____.___- 2 Hemutragusigemlahicusios.. See Tiegh prea eran SWART Ana 5 Oryeileucoryt oss 2 ea bee rela Arabiantony x= sec. oo eee 2 Gers artes eae 2 EOS DOO EE Sik il sae Woolless or Barbados sheep... 1 Ovisieuronaea= sss SEU ee ae ae eee Mouoneees =) ies eee eee 4 Poephagus grunniens 2 = 2 Walkera ees. 2! Ll 2 5 Pseudots: NOyQurcs s.r, Brot ley epee Bharal or blue sheep.-------- 1 Syncerusicaper. 20-2200 cu ee eae African buffalo..22022.0 30 2 2 Taurotragus ory2......-.-----<-=--- dec Elandiln ce. 5 Dieta eae REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 103 Scientific name Common name Number Cervidae: Agts actss oso ss So BAM OO Ay HAAS LOOT Meese atl Le 5 Cerpusicanadensts nos eee Besa ce ee AMO TICATIVET OU Sis oe ee 5 (OLE LEAT TY OTC SON Ee A SEEN SM a Sa Fedidee rs item iu stoi acca OU 4 Cenvusmmip pon see rie eee selu wae S ee NU Japanese deere to. oe ws 5 Cervus nippon manchuricus_.....--.----- Dybowsky deer,..-_--_-_--- 2 EE NIE UNIS it Unease nii eh cael Geer Ue eg nwa 13 ane R ABET NUNN S SHRUG ah White fallow deer_._......._.. 15 Odocoileuserroinianusse == eee Virpimiardeert sa) cas icc ees 6 Giraffidae: Giuajacamelopardalis.. Se eee Nubian giraffe___..__. A eae 4 Garapairelculata sss oo ES Ane Reticulated giraffe..._.._._-- 1 Camelidae: Camels ibactrianuseo ese WG ON ol ly Bactrian camel: ioe ne 3 Camelus:dromedartus ie OU) oe Single-humped camel____-__- 1 Grier Gama ss see Ne MAES Pama ye SONA au aD i Lama-glama gquanicoss 2 e820 wel GUANA CO la) a ee 3 Gmannacoger seu eal eee Lael ATR GBH ue iM 2 Wilh oa Riel AUER 2 Vacugna ‘vicugna: 22320 SON ey ne Sc Vieuiiac cee nen OS aac an 1 Tayassuidae: Pecars Gnguiatuss 2220505 oa Be ONG Collared peceary.. ool e22 L222. 1 Suidae: Babirussababynussaess sesso eo Babirussa 2. Jester delhi late 2 Phacochoerus aethiopicus aeliani....----- East African wart hog..___.- 2 Sasi Serle wee eres were en yh Lys OF al ys European wild boar_..-..--~- 2 Hippopotamidae: Choeronstsileberiensis2 22 2 ae Pigmy hippopotamus... _.---.- 6 Hippopotamus amphibius.-..--.-------- Hippopotamus! 422252 80 ees 2 PERISSODACTYLA Equidae: Equus burchellii antiquorum__---.---.--- Chapman’s zebra_.__.-_--_-- 2 GUUS OLCUUT COUR UG ee a ee Zebra-horse hybrid__..-_.__- il GUUS BUG Go Se LORD MERTEN, oe en Asiatic wild ass or kiang______ 1 GUUS ONG GOT eins snl WTI PE ay hy Onagert eo Ol MOU ie BES 1 Equus -preewalskitsuss Le On. a Mongolian wild horse_.-._--- 3 TGQ WUS (ERT Seraay Ty ae UNA, Mountain -zebraiinoee ei bons 1 Tapiridae: Aerocodia indica2 ot EUU SIE a) obese Asiatic! tapine ds. 2 sel tua lane 2 Rhinocerotidae: RNINOceros UNICONnIS = a 2 ce oe eee Great Indian one-horned rhi- NOCeros=_ ss oes 1 PROBOSCIDAE Elephantidae: Elephas maximus sumatranus_...-.------- Sumatran elephant_...._---- 1 Loxodonta africana oryolis_....-.-------- African elephant... ..-.--.-. 1 EDENTATA Dasypodidae: Chaetophractus villosusi se en 2 one Hairy armadillo: 2220 50 s0h 1 BUD iTOCls RETOAN CUS oo ee Six-banded armadillo____-__- 1 Myrmecophagidae: Myrmecophaga tridactyla___..-...-.----- Giant anteater_.._...-.-- Pees | 77T7488—_48——_8 104 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 BIRDS STRUTHIONIFORMES Scientific name Common name Number Struthionidae: Sirdinig CAMelUs= 22 LOT Se Ses Ostrichy css see Bie Meme hone 2 RHEIFORMES Rheidae: DEMOG ATCT EC TUC See aa OU a a LPO ee Common rhea eae oe 3 CASUARIIFORMES Casuariidae: Casuarius casuarius aruensis.___--------- ATU CASSOW AT Yee oe eee 1 Casuarius uniappendiculatus occipitalis__. Island cassowary -.--.------- 1 Casuarius uniappendiculatus uniappendi- CLEA SIN a ANd 28 LL a eI aN One-wattled cassowary-_--....-- 1 Dromiceiidae: Dromiceius novaehollandiae.-.__.--------- Common’ emu 2.334452 22a 2 SPHENISCIFORME Spheniscidae: VA RECN OG ULCSHTONSLERT = = str eee ae ete cy eres ace Emperor penguin___---.----- 1 Buayptes chryseiopnusoi 2. oe eee Se oe Macaroni penguin___--.---~- il udaypies ;crestatusy- oy ee ye 2 eS Rock-hopper penguin-._----- 2 TINAMIFORMES Tinamidae: INothuna n@culosa ees as Uae ON ee Spotted tinamouwl2. = 2 Seek 2 PELECANIFORMES Pelecanidae: IEGQRTI DMS (COlLORWUCU so ee ee California brown pelican ---- 2 IPEleConuUsienuLnTOneynchUsuen ese = ase Wihttel pelican’ 2 2c e sa wees 5 Pelecanus GCCULENT Aliso ae ee nea IB TO WAU OSI C Hage eneeaene eer 3) Pel CEC TALSI OSCUS Mee ee anya ee ea Rose-colored pelican _-_.------ 4 Phalacrocoracidae: Phalacrocorax auritus albociliatus___------ Farallon cormorant..-------- 1 CICONIIFORMES Ardeidae: VAR LECHLENOO LOS tale oe ae ys ae ae ey ee Great blue heron_.__..------ 2 VAT ECUOCCLCLENLCLUCS eee ee eee eee Great white heron._----_--~-- 1 ESOS CT ON ULL px Shah ear an Shaan SS eee gece SnOWYreRTC Use ee eae 5 Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis__._..-_----- Louisiana heron_--~--.------ 1 Notophoyx novaehollandiae_------------- White-faced heron_---------- 1 Nyctanassa violacea cayennensis___------- South American yellow- crowned night heron___---- 1 Nycticoraxz nycticorax naevius_..--------- Black-crowned night heron... 30 Cochleariidae: Gochlearzusicochilcaniicuess 2 ae iBoatbillheron {=e = ae 1 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Scientific name Common name Number Ciconiidae: Dissourgepiscopusesece. Gye Re ee Woolly-necked stork_-_-_.---- 1 TG tStOUTLen CUES eye aati Si Biers i Te OLED LE at ie ath | IME EDA Cy Roy Asch ee Oe a 2 TGDIN UN TNACLET Ce MOURA EM pay A ees eal) AF oF b ab MUR De ca AL ee ey 3 Leptopiilus: crumentferuss2 28 kh) foo Maraboul eimai iia ee tle 1 EE DOP UUs AUOTUS Y.-S aes eee Se Indian adjutantetess ser eee 1 Pevironiilus JAvanicussyain verre ae ee Messeradjuiantes seen eee 2 Maj chen tava mer.uCa na amen meee een eo NiAovoye USth oy eof Pen AU cM a eo 1 Threskiornithidae: FENGTAYIONG WIA To pelea Nhe aetna eRe tly Sp lo i PO Roseate spoonbill___.._..---- 4 Ga BALE Sere es Aa eee EW LU, Neng rene op kev span EU Se weal abe 8 Guar anal ba Se Ga rise ya uN Hybrid white and scarlet ibis. 1 Gular cir b7. a =e es eee ey Wed de Searletibisc 2 siyea wis los ee t Threskiornis melanocephala__..-..------- Black-headed ibis__.__...----- 4 Direskvornis Spiuvicolasaane 2 eee Straw-necked ibis_._....___--- 2 Phoenicopteridae: IEROENUCO DLETUSACHULENSTS a ae era Chileanlammgoe 22202 2 EZRACTUCOPLERUS TLD ET ate ee uy ae una Cuban famingoen iW eeeeeee a] ANSERIFORMES Anhimidae: Chana chavanr aan eee ree net pent White-cheeked screamer_-_-__-_- 1 Charinantor qirasae = seri pee LS Coane aa Crested screamer___...------ 7 Anatidae: AGUS DOTS (Eee eat CaN BOs ie lanl MYND VINE IS UPA CL Na’ Roxeye WiCc he (6) 12 Barbus) everctivemim asm mantra te UA aLew ata ez Clown barbsssen cs Sh NA 8 BOT DUS DATLEDENtaZONG. ee eam kaa Banded! barbsesse sees ae 20 BrachydantOrre7ie a eae alee eae ea a Zebra dani owen wens eee 3 CAR GSSUUSNAUT ALS ae ee eee Goldfishes «ss xaraae RU eRe Sores 10 ChAMNGEAStOL TC ee eee snakehead fishe._-. 223s 2 Cichlasomasfesiivumaa ee ee Bilaricichtid==s ssa ae 1 Gori Gor, GSKaenets een eee een Trinidadicathish=ess 25s aa 5 IDE PID TR BIING US Ro eae Ee Biverd anion es. face ae ee 2 Gummnocorymobusitennetzin ss eee Blackitetraa2 seen aoe. one 4 EXelOstomantemnvenckhiin a= ee ee Kissing gourami or gorami__.. 2 ENP MESSO GU UCOMRUTILES Poe aa ee Neon tetraas se. se ee KG DLO DE CHULSHOUCTT ILS =a ee ee Glass) catfish23 22 eee 1 IG CDUStESRRCLYCUL GL ILS ee ae ee aoa GUpDpy2t see ee Pe, ee es 100 Tlepiosien Par adoxra a= as eee ee Sas Bek South American lungfish_...-. 2 Dc massuitl ata: Sees ie a eae ee tele ne Cubanvlimias=s=2 2-2 10 Molisenssiasphenops 22s bos ee ee Victory anolly..2 220-50) 12 MonocinnhusipolyacanthUsase === eee eee Heafitis hn yee iis oo ane, 1 OLGCIN clus A TiNws el EL Sel tee Lis sucker cathsheeeees ase 6 Plaiynoectlusee ae lo Mee Rear, isa ait Redpmoonsso is 2 eee see 3 Pristellaniddlevsaasars aa ee ee eee Tetras am ae 7U NSS AS ee 10 POLO DLETUSEGTONRECLETLS ma African gts hee eee 2 Pierophyllnmis caver e a oe Oe RS eel Angel: fishes Sek Su aes 1 ARACHNIDS TEAL 1 DELNEC SD ase ee ee ee as Tarantulg es. 822 Oe eee 1 INSECTS ES LUD ORGS Pil See a ee sree eee Pema re a cere Giant cockroach@ss2s5--e-2—— 100 SUMMARY Anima als) omvb ar ch eh uly, ih OA Geo me asl 2a te ee es 2, 553 Accessions uring Fe Years. ea Fe le es a ee hee eg en 1, 462 Total number of animals in collection during the year___--------- 4,015 Removals for various reasons such as death, exchanges, return of animals ONIGEDOSIE? CLG! ean Sane FP 22s Dene ree ee See 1, 008 Tmicolleetion, On iu] DOs OG ea a eee cee 3, 007 Among the important losses of the year were three emperor pen- guins. Two of them had lived here for 5 years and 11 months; the last REPORT OF THE SECRETARY ews one to die, for 6 years and 3 months. These, of course, are outstanding records for life in captivity for these interesting birds, but the loss was a heavy one. STATUS OF COLLECTION i- Indi- Class Species| vid- Class Species| vid- uals uals Mammals xsi» sue 2 lesa ee 189 600)s) Risin stones csi a el ae 24 316 TES LE CS tee es eee oe ann eee teen 336 Teo OC MP ETISCCES Sees eee eee ar nani een eee 1 100 1242) ori kop eee ee eae eee 94 SSO PATaChnidsess eee yee na 1 1 Am phibianssss lee sete Dee 24 365 Tote sess os en Neer a 669 8, 007 Respectfully submitted. W. M. Mayn, Director. Dr. A. Wermore, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 8 REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the Astrophysical Observatory for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1947: The Observatory has two divisions: (1) The original Division of Astrophysical Research, engaged primarily in a study of solar radia- tion, and (2) the more recently established Division of Radiation and Organisms, engaged in a study of the effects of radiation on organisms. Both divisions of the Observatory helped to celebrate the one- hundredth anniversary of the founding of the Smithsonian Institution by participating in a special exhibit illustrating the activities of the Institution. Mechanical working models were displayed showing typical instruments as used by the Observatory at Camp Lee, Va., and also showing types of research in the Division of Radiation and Organ- isms, with emphasis placed on the role of light in the growth and de- velopment of plants. (1) DIVISION OF ASTROPHYSICAL RESEARCH Work in Washington.—As in the past, our first concern has been to appraise the solar-constant values received from our field stations and to plan and develop improvements in instrumental equipment and methods. Our plans have seemed unduly slow in fulfillment, but by way of anticipation we may state that in the near future at one of our field stations we expect to try several innovations. These include an improved vacuum bolometer, a fused quartz prism, and aluminized mirrors in the optical path in place of stellite. The resulting large increase in ultraviolet deflections should permit a more accurate study of the day-to-day changes in this important region. Our second concern has been the work at Camp Lee, Va., under con- tract with the Office of the Quartermaster General, described in last year’s report. The records of the Camp Lee measurements of sun and sky radiation have been compiled and prepared for publication in a series of 11 reports to the Quartermaster General. The maintenance of the equipment and observations at Camp Lee, and the preparation of the reports have all been under the direction of William H. Hoover. With the close of the fiscal year we have completed 18 months of con- 118 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 119 tinuous observations at Camp Lee. These records give the sun and sky radiation in calories per square centimeter, for each hour of each day divided as follows: (1) Total intensity on a horizontal surface. (2) Total intensity on a surface inclined 45° to the east. (3) Ultraviolet intensity on a surface 45° to the east. (4) Visible intensity 45° to the east. (5) Infrared intensity 45° to the east. (6) Intensity under a vycor filter which transmits all radiation, inclined 45° to the south. (7) Intensity under a black filter (Corning 2540) which cuts off the ultra- violet and visible, and transmits the infrared, 45° to the south. (8) Intensity under a yellow filter (Corning 3385) which cuts off the ultra- violet and transmits the visible and infrared, 45° to the south. (9) Ultraviolet intensity on a horizontal surface measured with a special photoelectric ultraviolet meter. The measurement and reduction of these voluminous records have been tedious and time-consuming. Integrating devices which will greatly simplify the work are being studied by Mr. Hoover and L. B. Clark, and several such devices are under construction in our shops. It is now 13 years since Dr. C. G. Abbot and the Director last deter- mined the standard scale of solar radiation on Mount Wilson. In anticipation of a new determination of this scale in the near future, the double-barreled water-flow pyrheliometer used successfully in 1934 has been partially rebuilt. Rubber joints within the instrument have been eliminated, copper-constantan thermojunctions replace the former nickel-platinum junctions, and the thermoelement arrangement is made more simple and efficient. Dr. Abbot, research associate of the Observatory, has continued his studies of the effects of solar changes on weather. He has also experi- mented with a small solar engine, and has made preparations for a further study of the energy spectra of stars which he will undertake soon with the aid of the Mount Wilson 100-inch telescope. At the request of Dr. Henryk Arctowski, and with the cooperation of Dr. Abbot and the Secretary of the Institution, Dr. Alexander Wetmore, arrangements were made for John McLean Hildt to come to Washington to assist Dr. Arctowski for 1 year. Mr. Hildt, form- erly meteorologist for the American Overseas Airlines, began work with Dr. Arctowski on June 2, 1947. He will help organize and pre- pare for publication the large amount of material which Dr. Arctowski has accumulated. Work in the field—In October 1946 Mr. Hoover and Paul Greeley went to New Mexico and packed for shipment the entire equipment of our Tyrone station, closed since February 1946. Arrangements were made for the sale and disposal of the buildings and for the return 177488—48-—9 120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 of the site to the custody of the Forest Service. The equipment was sent to Miami, Fla., and stored pending the completion of a building suitable for temporary solar observations at this sea-level location. In further development of their studies of the causes of tent dete- rioration, the Quartermaster Department decided to extend the Camp Lee work to include measurements and exposures at a wet, sea-level station and also at a dry, high-altitude station. Fortunately, in Miami, Fla., the General Motors Corp. maintains a test field for the exposure and testing of various materials. At the suggestion of Dr. S. J. Kennedy, of the Military Planning Division, Office of the Quarter- master General, a cooperative program was arranged between the General Motors Corp., the Quartermaster Department, and the Smith- sonian Institution. General Motors generously undertook to build a special observing shelter at their test field, to house our spectrobolo- metric equipment formerly in operation at Tyrone, N. Mex. This building, a most satisfactory, well-insulated structure of cement brick, was completed in April 1947. On May 1 F. A. Greeley, recently director at our Montezuma, Chile, station, took charge of the installa- tion of our equipment. Spectrobolometric observations are planned for a period of 1 year. During the war years our field stations were unavoidably under- manned. It is therefore a satisfaction to state that each of the stations now has two competent observers, as in prewar days. During the fiscal year, a generous gift to further the work of the Division was received from John A. Roebling. The staff of the Observatory is sincerely grateful to Mr. Roebling, and to Dr. Abbot through whose kindly interest the gift was received. (2) DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS (Report prepared by Harl S. Johnston, Chief of the Division) General.—Members of the Division were consulted as usual by out- side individuals and organizations regarding problems arising in the field of radiation, its measurement and its effect on living matter. Individual members also participated actively in the affairs of national and local scientific organizations. Research.—During the year the research of the Division of Radiation and Organisms was concentrated under two projects: (1) Photosyn- thesis, and (2) plant growth and development as influenced by light. (1) Photosynthesis—The purpose of this project is to determine the role of light, especially the wave-length effects, on the fixation of carbon by green plants. Included in this project are studies (a) to determine a more complete photosynthesis-action spectrum by use of the special spectrographic method for the determination of carbon REPORT OF THE SECRETARY P21 dioxide as developed in this laboratory; (b) to determine chlorophyll formation in the different regions of the spectrum; (¢) to investigate the wave-length balance associated with optimum plant production Many instrumental problems have arisen in connection with this CO,-measuring method which have prevented the full use of the ap- paratus in many of the planned experiments. New heat exchangers have been installed for better temperature control and other improve- ments made. After making 67 test runs, each of which required from 5 to 6 hours, all but two of the problems have been overcome. The Division has recently obtained a suitable spectrophotometer with which to continue its studies on chlorophyll formation. Work in the study of wave-length balance and optimum plant growth has been continued. (2) Plant growth and development as influenced by light.—The pur- poses of this project are (a) to determine the mechanism of dormancy in light-sensitive seeds, and (6) to study developmental physiology of grass seedlings. Role of light in seed germination—It has long been known that germination of many species of seeds under certain conditions is very markedly stimulated by, or entirely dependent upon, irradiation. About 10 years ago a cooperative investigation carried out in this laboratory (Flint and McAlister) demonstrated that only certain por- tions of the spectrum are stimulatory to germination whereas other regions are inhibitory. The mechanism of these effects of light has remained completely obscure, however. Subsequent discoveries by other workers have suggested new ex- perimental approaches to this problem which has been taken up again. These discoveries are (1) that certain chemicals have the ability to evoke germination in darkness and thus appear to act as substitutes for light, and (2) that other chemicals act as germination inhibitors in darkness but that light tends to overcome the inhibitory action. A considerable variety of compounds has been tested for ability to promote germination of lettuce seeds in darkness at temperatures which, in the absence of specific stimulations, permit germination only in light. A number of active substances have been found. The tests are being continued in an attempt to correlate the physiological potency with molecular architecture. The light-sensitive inhibitory effect produced by coumarin does not appear to be specific, being exhibited also by several other compounds among the many which have been examined. Thus there is little support for the suggestion made by other workers that coumarin, or a chemically closely related substance, is responsible for the natural light-sensitivity of lettuce seed. A report of this work is now being prepared for publication. 122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Evidence has been obtained, however, that dormancy and germina- tion in this species is regulated, or at least influenced by an endo- genous inhibitory substance. The nature of this inhibitor and the mode of its action are being studied. A critical review of the literature dealing with germination of lettuce is also in preparation. Effect of light on development of grass seedlings. Various phases of this project have been carried forward as time permitted. A com- parative investigation of the action spectrum for inhibition of meso- cotyl growth in several species has been published. Tests on the influence of several seed-disinfection treatments on subsequent seed- ling development have been completed. Additional experiments have been made on the effects of various salts on growth of etiolated oats. In order to explain the observed gross morphological effects of light and other environmental factors on mesocotyl elongation, a histologi- cal study of this organ is in progress. A large number of slides have been prepared and are being examined. It is planned to resume the experiments on the interrelation between light and temperature as affecting coleoptile and root growth as soon as the necessary equip- ment, now being constructed, is available. Volatile plant-growth inhibitors. It was observed that in a wooden growth chamber, of which the interior had been varnished, the germi- nation of several species of seeds was completely checked or greatly retarded, although all the commonly recognized environmental con- ditions were favorable for development. On removal from this cham- ber normal development was resumed promptly. As the plants were not in direct contact with the original box it appeared that a volatile substance of great physiological activity was present. A large number of subsequent tests showed that volatile inhibitors are indeed produced, presumably as the result of oxidation processes, by films of varnishes, drying oils, unsaturated fat acids, and by several species of wood. The rapid and complete reversibility of the inhibition is espe- cially remarkable. An agent with these properties might conceivably be of considerable value both in plant physiological experimentation and in practical plant culture. Studies on the identity of the respon- sible substance, or substances, are in progress. PUBLICATIONS The following publications relating to the work of the Observatory were issued during the year: ABBOT, C. G., 1946-47 report on the 27.0074-day cycle in Washington precipitation. Smithsonian Mise. Coll., vol. 107, No. 3, March 1947. Ansot, O. G., The earth and the stars. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., New York. 1946. 288 pp. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 123 ABEoT, C. G., The sun’s short regular variation and its large effect on terrestrial temperatures. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 107, No. 4, April 1947. Assot, C. G., Astrophysical contributions of the Smithsonian Institution. Seience, vol. 104, No. 2698, August 1946. AvpricH, L, B., and associates, Reports on Camp Lee studies, submitted to the Office of the Quartermaster General, as follows: Textile Series, Office of Quartermaster General, Report 17, Tent Research Report 3, pp. 53-99. Reports 2 to 11, Smithsonian Institution to Office of Quartermaster General. JOHNSTON, Wary 8., The Division of Radiation and Organisms: Its origin and scope. Scientific Monthly, vol. 63, pp. 371-380, 1946. JoHNsTON, Haru 8., An establishment was established. Journ. Washington Acad. Sciences, vol. 37, pp. 837-40, 1947. WEINTRAUB, Rosert L., and Pxrick, LEONARD, Developmental physiology of the grass seedling. I1. Inhibition of mesocotyl elongation in various grasses by red and by violet light. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. vol. 106, No. 21, May 1947. Respectfully submitted. L. B. Auprica, Director. Dr. A. WETMORE, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 9 REPORT ON THE NATIONAL AIR MUSEUM Sm: On August 12, 1946, President Truman approved an act of the Seventy-ninth Congress (H. R. 5144) establishing, under the Smithsonian Institution, a bureau to be known as a National Air Mu- seum. The act, now referred to as Public Law 722, stipulates that this bureau shall be administered by the Smithsonian Institution “with the advice of a board to be composed of the Commanding Gen- eral of the Army Air Forces or his successor, the Chief of Naval Op- erations or his successor, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, and two citizens of the United States appointed by the President from civilian life, who shall serve at the pleasure of the President.” The purpose of the National Air Museum is to “memorialize the national development of aviation; collect, preserve, and display aero- nautical equipment of historical interest and significance; serve as a repository for scientific equipment and data pertaining to the de- velopment of aviation; and provide educational material for the his- torical study of aviation.” After the passage of the act, Dr. Wetmore discussed with Gen- eral Spaatz and Admiral Nimitz the designation of appropriate rep- resentatives of the Army Air Forces and the Navy to the Advisory Board. As a result, General Spaatz appointed Maj. Gen. EK. M. Powers, and Admiral Nimitz appointed Rear Adm. H. B. Sallada. The latter was replaced on May 1, 1947, by Rear Adm. A. M. Pride. On December 3, 1946, President Truman appointed Grover Loening and William B. Stout to be civilian members of the Advisory Board as provided in the law. On December 16 the first and organizational meeting of the Ad- visory Board was held at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. At this meeting Dr. Wetmore was unanimously elected chairman. A general discussion of the preliminary plans for an aeronautical museum then followed, the Board calling attention to the danger of losing valuable historical and technical material unless prompt action were taken. ‘Toward this end, Dr. Wetmore was requested to com- municate immediately with leaders in all branches of aeronautics requesting that such material be preserved for future review by the Board. The Board also discussed section 3 of the act which calls on the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution with the advice of the Ad- 124 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 125 visory Board “to investigate and survey suitable lands and buildings for selection as a site for a national air museum and to make recom- mendations to Congress for the acquisition of suitable lands and build- ings for a national air museum.” At this meeting, too, the preparation of estimates of appropriations to implement the $50,000 authorized by the Congress for the purposes of the act was discussed in detail, and Dr. Wetmore was advised by the Board to submit the request to the Bureau of the Budget. This was done, and on March 21, 1947, President Truman transmitted to Congress “A Supplemental Estimate of Appropriation for the Fiscal Year 1948 in the Amount of $50,000 for the Smithsonian Institution” (H. R. Doc. No. 181). On April 30, 1947, Dr. Wetmore appeared before the Independent Offices Subcommittee on Appropriations and presented a brief statement on the origin of the National Air Museum and on the need for the requested appropriation. Following this initial meeting of the Advisory Board, approxi- mately 200 letters were addressed to aeronautical interests through- out the Nation. These letters called attention to the establishment of the National Air Museum and urged the recipients to advise the Board of any aeronautical items which in their estimation should be considered for inclusion in the future National Air Museum. The letter also requested that such materials be carefully preserved until such time as the Board could make a study of them. The response to these letters has been large and indicates the existence at this writ- ing of much valuable museum material in private hands scattered throughout the Nation. Both the Army and Navy, too, are assem- bling and holding large quantities of valuable aeronautical material of the recent war years. A portion of these collections, and several private collections, were inspected toward the close of the year at the Institution’s own expense. The major problem involved in the advancement of the National Air Museum project is the acquisition of a storage depot for the tem- porary assembly of the museum material. This is most essential to prevent the permanent loss of material and to enable the Advisory Board to determine and recommend to Congress suitable lands and buildings for the new bureau. At the close of the year this vital problem was still unsolved, nor had the Congress appropriated the $50,000 authorized and requested for use in the fiscal year 1948. Respectfully submitted. C. W. Mirman, Assistant to the Secretary for the National Air Museum. Dr. A. Wetmore, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 10 REPORT ON THE CANAL ZONE BIOLOGICAL AREA? Sim: It gives me pleasure to present herewith the annual report of the Canal Zone Biological Area, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1947, As in past reports, there are included data regarding rainfall, temperatures, relative humidity, and other data which are invaluable to those coming to the island for study. REGARDING THE ISLAND As this is the first report published in several years, it is desirable to include here some of the data that appeared in the earlier Barro Colorado Island Biological Laboratory Reports—particularly so, be- cause so Many new readers will want this information. The island was reserved for scientific purposes by Governor J. J. Morrow on April 17, 1923; hence in 1948 the island and its unique labo- ratory will celebrate its twenty-fifth anniversary. It is located in Gatun Lake, about halfway between Gamboa and Gatun. Its width is 8.1 miles, its length 3.4 miles, and its area 3,609.6 acres, or 5.64 square miles. Its coast line exceeds 25 miles. It is larger than the combined areas of the familiar islands of Taboga, Taboguilla, Urava, Otoque, Bona, Morro, Chamé, Estiva, Melones, Venado, Mandinga, Tabor, En- sena, Patterson, Tortola, Naos, Culebra, Perico, and Flamenco. The shore line of Gatun Lake is on the average 85 feet above sea level, and the highest point on the island, 537 feet. There are 24 trails, marked off into 100-meter sections, so that not only are all parts of the island available with ease, but the 100-meter designations give it a sort of cross index; thus, for example, Wheeler-6 has a very definite location. And since all trails eventually lead to the main laboratory, no one has ever been known to be lost on the island. As to buildings, there is a two-story main building 32 by 55 feet, the lower floor including a dining room, and the upper floor lodging rooms. There are two buildings 12 by 24 feet with two rooms each, the ZMA and Barbour Houses, the latter with a large porch for labora- 1 This is the first report to be published since the Canal Zone Biological Area was placed under the administration of the Smithsonian Institution. The first to the sixteenth reports, for the years when the organization was known as the Barro Colorado Island Biological Laboratory, were issued in mimeograph form, the last in 1940. During the war, owing to mnilitary restrictions and other considerations, no reports were issued. 126 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 17 tory space. Then there is the Chapman House, also 12 by 24 feet, with a wide porch; the lower floor is screened in and serves as a splendid laboratory unit. The Eastman Kodak Co. has a building for its serv- ice, deterioration, and corrosion tests, the lower floor serving as workshop. There is a three-room library, and another building used by the Resident Manager. The upper part of the kitchen is used as a dormitory. There are buildings at the end of the Barbour Trail, the Drayton Trail, the Pearson Trail, the Zetek Trail, and at Burrunga Point, all available for the use of scientists. At least two can live comfortably in these houses. Inquiries should be addressed either to Dr. Alexander Wetmore, Sec- retary, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D. C., or to James Zetek, Resident Manager, Drawer C, Balboa, C. Z. Accredited scien- tists receive an annual card pass on the railroad, and authority to pur- chase in the commissaries. Living conditions on the island are very comfortable, and working conditions good. Owing to the precautions taken, the malaria hazard is nil, and the water supply is safe. As the island force looks after the dormitories and the meals, it means that the scientists are relieved of all housekeeping duties. Thus their entire time is available for their research problems. Those who have worked in the Tropics where such facilities are not available, where drinking water must be boiled and malaria precautions taken daily, know what it means to be relieved of these chores. Furthermore, in many tropical localities good medical facilities are not within easy reach, whereas on Barro Colorado Island the scientist is never more than an hour from a Panama Canal dispensary, or an hour and a half from Gorgas or Colon hospitals, where one finds the very best in medi- cal or surgical services. With rapid air mail and air express service the island is in very close touch with the United States, and being under the United States flag, it is almost like being in the States. On the other hand, the isolation provided by an island does away with the many distractions so common on the mainland. THE ISLAND LITERATURE Since the laboratory was established in 1923 as the Barro Colorado Island Biological Laboratory, there have appeared 603 individual published articles and books relating to studies made on the island. This is an enviable record, equaled by very few institutions of this sort. The field covered is vast, even including papers on studies made here on cosmic rays. Many of the papers on physiology have paved the way to other studies that have solved problems relative to certain human diseases. A 3- by 5-inch card record is kept of these individual 128 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 books and papers. One index is alphabetical by authors, the other by subjects. The war halted the preparation and publication of many papers, as it also curtailed the number able to come to the laboratory for studies. During the war the laboratory was, of course, very active on problems relating to the war, particularly deterioration, corrosion, fungi, chem1- cal problems, and related matters, but very few of these findings will appear in print. It is also known that papers have been published of which we have no record. It is a difficult task to cull all the litera- ture, and probably the index is only 80 percent complete. Neverthe- less, it is an amazing record. SCIENTISTS AND THEIR STUDIES Dr. T. C. ScHneErrLA, curator of the department of animal behav- ior, American Museum of Natural History, perhaps the highest au- thority living on the behavior pattern of army ants, spent from Feb- ruary 7 to June 16, 1946, on the island, continuing his studies. A summary of his findings follows: “These studies on army-ant behavior and its biological basis were begun on the island in 1932, and were continued in the rainy-season periods of 1933, 1936, and 19388. The work began as an attempt to analyze the complex behavior system of these ants as a case study of ‘instinct,’ but as it went along inevitably led into other special prob- Jems, such as the social organization of the army ants, and the rela- tionship between reproductive processes and behavior. “To investigate the last problem in particular a project was planned for 1942; however, the war interfered. Since all the preceding studies had been made in the rainy season, it was especially desirable to ob- tain evidence on the activities and adaptations of the EKcitons in the dry months. Plans for an intensive investigation under dry-season conditions were resumed in 1946. “The basis of the study was the surveying of activities and condi- tions in two colonies, one of Hctton hamatum and one of LF. burchell, for as long a time as possible in the dry months. Other colonies of these two species were kept on record as far as possible for briefer periods, and supplementary field and laboratory tests were carried out on relevant problems. The object was to learn as much as possible about what changes may occur in the activities and in the brood pro- duction of these ants in the dry season. “Tf there is any other situation in the world today where such a project involving correlated field and laboratory studies can be carried out advantageously, I have yet to learn of its existence. The results of this project illustrate the island’s advantages. On the day of my arrival, February 7, I found a colony of Z. burchelli bivouacked on REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 129 Shannon trail just beyond No. 2, and this colony was kept on record until just before departure on June 15—about 125 days in all. A colony of Z. hamatum, found a few days later, was on record for nearly as long. Approximately 50 other colonies of these 2 species were studied more or less intensively during the 4 months. “The findings, first of all, showed in convincing ways that the periodic behavior changes (regular alternation of nomadic and statary—i. e., sessile—colony behavior) that I have found invariable for these ants in the rainy season also hold through the dry season. Regular phases were found as follows: For £. hamatum, about 17 days nomadic and about 20 days statary in alternation; for 2. burchelli, about 12 days nomadic and 21 days statary in alternation. An inten- sive study of colony brood-production, paralleling the behavior studies, revealed that in colonies which survive the dry season with their queens, new broods are produced at very regular intervals as in the rainy sea- son. Further evidence was found that this regular brood-production, based of course upon a very regular delivery of successive batches of eggs by the queen, provides the causal basis for the described regularity of colony behavior. For example, the queens of 2. hamatum produce new batches of eggs at about 36-day intervals. This island study of 1946 shows that this remarkable performance ordinarily is continuous throughout the year. “The production of male individuals, it was found, occurs in the dry season, at times characteristic of the species. Evidently in colonies that produce males, only one brood of males per season is produced, otherwise the broods are immense worker broods as in the rainy season. The production of males was studied, from early larval stages to ma- turity and dissemination by flight. A brood of (about 3,000, as a rule) winged males requires about 3 weeks for its complete exodus through nightly flights, after emergence. Results indicate that most of the males that survive the flight reach other colonies (evidently through chancing upon and following raiding trails to the bivouacs). The flight evidently operates against adelphogamy, although some evi- dence was obtained for occasional returns of males into their colonies of origin. From this 1946 work a considerable part of the virtually unknown problem of Eciton mating can be sketched in. More of it, and especially how the wingless queens are produced, we hope to learn in 1947-48, when a project is planned for studying transitional condi- tions in the Ecitons from rainy to dry season months.” Dr. James B. Hamizron, professor of anatomy, Long Island College of Medicine, and one of the foremost authorities on hormones, initiated a most interesting and promising line of research dealing with the matter of baldness, a subject on which he has already published im- portant papers. His experimental approach was through the three- 130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 toed sloth, the male of which has on its back a prominent bald area or “tonsure.” This sloth, and some of the large apes, appear to be the only animals that resemble man in that the adult males develop com- mon baldness. His observations thus far are in total agreement with the idea that a bald spot of increasing size develops upon sexual maturation of the male. It is still too early to report on his study of the anatomical material he obtained on the island. The sloths used were obtained through the cooperation of Mr. Shropshire and Lieutenant Keenan of the United States Army Sanitary Corps. If the studies corroborate the views outlined, then it will be important to study the pathogenesis of this condition. Its etiology is apparently identical with that respon- sible for other important pathological conditions, for example, hyper- trophy and cancer of the prostate. His present studies are only the beginnings of further ones. No one so far has made this approach through the sloth, and while quite a number of males and females received male hormone treatment, it is necessary to follow the experiment through on a large scale. This involves also a study of the sloths themselves, to learn how to keep them alive in captivity for at least 6 months. In captivity the sloth is not hardy, and no one as yet has made a serious study of the food habits and other characters of these animals. They are ideal for such studies. R. J. Kowat, entomologist in charge of the Gulfport, Miss., Labora- tory of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, and Ento- mologists Samuel Dews and Harmon Johnston, of the same regional laboratory, began their studies about 4 years ago, upon the initiative of Kowal. The object was to obtain information on effective methods of preserving wood against deterioration due to termites and other organ- isms, as well as to rot. To quote Kowal: “The severity of conditions conducive to deterioration, and the excellent facilities for scientific study, make the island an ideal location for such investigations.” The studies began in 1943 when funds were made available through the United States Forest Service, and the Coordinator of Inter-Ameri- can Affairs. Proposals for this work came as an outgrowth of requests for information from the Public Roads Administration, the War and Navy Departments, and other agencies engaged in the war effort. Briefly stated, the Inter-American Road became an urgent need, steel for bridges was hard to get and its transportation a problem, and to erect wood-preservation plants with creosote on the list of critical materials was out of the question. Could we not poison soils at the bridge abutments so as to eliminate the termite and rot hazard, and could we utilize native resistant trees by the additional process of sap-stream impregnation ? REPORT OF THE SECRETARY ok In the spring of 1943 two types of experiments were established, one to test the value of soil poisons in preventing damage by termites; the other to determine whether tropical tree species could be impreg- nated with water-soluble wood preservatives by the sap-stream method of impregnation. Soil poisoning had been previously tested on a small scale particularly in the treatment of soil along building founda- tions to prevent the entrance of termites into wood structure. The relative value of different soil poisons was not known, however, nor was information available on their effectiveness under tropical condi- tions. Thirty-nine different treatments were applied on Barro Colo- rado Island, each treatment being replicated 10 times. The procedure consisted of removing and treating 2 cubic feet of soil, replacing it, and driving a stake into the center of the treated area. After 3 years’ exposure it was apparent that treatments by means of the so-called “saw-kerf banding” and bore-hole techniques were the most effective. In the case of several of the tree species, intake of the chemical was not satisfactory and preservation consequently was poor. In 1946 the Division, in cooperation with the Corps of Engineers of the War Department, began investigations on problems of de- terioration of wood and wood products confronting the Army. The studies deal mainly with problems under military conditions, and research is pointed toward development of practical methods of pre- vention and control which can be readily applied by the Army using materials immediately available on location. Several types of soil- poisoning tests were established on Barro Colorado Island in Novem- ber 1946. An experiment similar to that described above was installed using numerous soil poisons and different dosages. Wariations of the method were also tested, one being the surface application of chemi- cals and another the bore-hole method. A soil-poisoning experiment known as the “platform test” was also established. In this test poisons are applied to the soil surface by spraying or sprinkling, and the board or “platform” to be protected is laid on the treated area. Dosages in this test are considerably lighter than in tests described above. The experiment is designed with the object of developing a method of preventing damage to materials in storage dumps and similar installations. The above experiments conducted in cooperation with the War Department comprise a total of approximately 100 treatments; all have been replicated 10 times. Experiments on impregnation of seasoned wood with preservatives have been established in order to determine the methods and chemicals most satisfactory for the protection of wood from insect attack. The experiment, like those above, is designed to provide a reasonable degree of preservation by practical methods using chemicals readily 132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 available to the Army on location. Ten different chemicals and chemi- cal mixtures were used in the experiment. Stakes 12 inches long were treated by instant dip and by dips of 3 minutes, 1 hour and 12 hours. Ten replications were made of all treatments. All stakes were driven into the soil to a depth of 6 inches. A small amount of treated fabrics, conduit, and insulation is now under test, and it is planned that more such material will be tested in the future. In addition, experiments will be conducted to develop methods and materials that might be of value in preventing attack of wood by marine organisms. Turopors J. Martin, technologist of the Forest Products Labora- tory at Madison, Wis., made several trips to the island in connection with the installation and inspection of the various tests of plywoods, glues, paints, resins, and other materials. Since most of this is covered in the report of Mr. Middleswart, little need be added here. It is always a great satisfaction to be able to give tribute where it is due. The thoroughness of Mr, Martin’s work, his attention to details, his ability to see and appreciate what too many would not note, all were apparent during his work on the island. Mrs. Exizasera G. Hartmann, of New York City, spent a short time on the island studying the bird life, preparatory to a more ex- tended trip into Costa Rica. The abundance of life on the island, in addition to the birds, crowded each day with no end of new experiences and information and made her stay all too brief. Dr. ALEXANDER Wermorr, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution, epent 2 days and 1 night, all he could spare on his return from Jacqué, and his urgent need to be back again in Washington. While all too brief, the period was spent in discussions with the Resident Manager of the island’s more urgent needs. G. E. Errxson, of the graduate school of Harvard University, spent some time on the island in connection with his research problems on the higher mammals. C. C. Sorrr, chemist for Eastman Kodak Co., and in charge of their research laboratory in Panama City, initiated and conducted on the island the most varied studies in connection with deterioration and corrosion of practically all the materials that enter into photography. The outcome of these studies means, of course, better results for those who do photographic work. Mr. Soper’s investigations dealt not only with corrosion of lenses and its elimination, but also with the proper- ties and keeping qualities of film, particularly color, papers, and other photographic supplies, and also with the matter of packing and pack- aging. It is the first really serious study of these multiple problems. The upper floor of the building built this year is used for these tests and studies. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 133 Mr. Soper, through his knowledge of photography and photographic processes, has been extremely helpful to scientists on the island. It is hardly necessary to point out here the difficulties, as well as losses, incurred during the past war, because of the lack of previous studies of this nature. It is to the point to emphasize the soundness of the decision made to go to the humid Tropics to make these studies, rather than to depend on tests made in the continental United States by simulating conditions in the Tropics. It is possible to duplicate tem- peratures and humidities, but it is not possible to duplicate the often rapid changes, and certainly not the action of micro-organisms. The past war has shown the wisdom as well as the urgency for conducting in the Tropics studies on corrosion, deterioration, packing and packaging, and similar problems, and particularly the need to study and test the great number of new materials which still lack sufli- cient service tests to show the true limits of their best usage. Dr. GraHam Bett Farrcui, medical entomologist to the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory, whose splendid work during the past war is so well known, made several brief visits to the island in connection with his entomological studies. Dr. Cuas. F. Quarinrancp, spent a little over 8 months of his sab- batical leave on the Isthmus, a few months thereof on the island. As head of the biology department of Eastern Oregon College, his main objective was to learn as much as possible about the plants and animals of the Tropics, and particularly the environmental conditions. To supplement his notes and collections, he also took a great number of kodachrome photographs for use in his teaching. It is one thing to read about the Tropics and then pass on this second-hand knowledge to students. But it is only when one sees, feels, hears, tastes, and smells that which is the humid Tropics that one is able to really teach about them. The past war emphasized the paucity of men who have had actual experience in the Tropics. Dr. Tuos. E. Snyper, senior entomologist of the Division of Forest Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, United States Department of Agriculture, and one of our greatest authorities on termites, came for a few weeks to discuss with the Resi- dent Manager the extensive termite studies conducted on the island since 1923. ‘The clearing of a piece of the immediate forest just behind the present laboratory buildings, to provide needed space for buildings and for water storage, necessitates the removal of several thousand of the termite exposure tests to a new area. During his stay he examined all the trail-end buildings, which are also termite tests. A report on this is given elsewhere. The great value of the island for such tests and studies has been attested and emphasized so often that any repetition here becomes redundant. 134. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Dr. Grover C. Prrrs, Naval Medical Research Institute at Bethesda, spent a very short period on the island because of difficulty in geiting off in the midst of important research at that great Medical Center of the Navy. Hastily, he writes as follows: “Tet me review my objectives and results in visiting the island. By profession I am a physiologist with strong leanings toward natural history. Consequently, the purpose of my short visit was to gain some familiarity with a tropical fauna and flora and to explore the possibilities of making studies in comparative physiology there. A secondary object was to determine what the island might have to offer the Naval Medical Research Institute for purposes of field research. Though I am now out of the Navy, I continue my affiliation with NMRI as a civilian. “Some results were obtained with regard to each objective. I iden- tified and gained some familiarity with the following organisms, all new to me: 52 species of birds, 14 species of mammals, 5 species of reptiles, and an undetermined number of species of plants and inver- tebrates. “This is at least some indication of what a worker can accomplish who desires to gain familiarity with the tropical biota and has only 1 week at his disposal. “With regard to the opportunities for studies in comparative physi- ology, they are legion. More studies in temperature control of the type that Peter Morrison did are indicated. In the past I have done some work on diurnal rhythms in various physiological functions. The island with its many dirunal, nocturnal, and crepuscular crea- tures offers boundless material for this type of study. One would have to bring most of the specialized equipment needed, but the usual laboratory facilities are available. I hope to pursue one of these problems when time and finances provide the opportunity.” A. V. Reenter, Jr., of Little Rock, Ark., visited the island for the purpose of preparing a motion picture of the wildlife, preparatory to a much longer stay later on. He exposed some 1,200 feet in color during the 3 weeks. He also included 2 weeks in Chiriqui, where he went in quest of the beautiful quetzal. Mr. Regnier reports: “The finished film with titles and animated maps is about 900 feet in length. The sequence on the island opens with the launch coming in to the landing followed by a view of those arduous steps. Then in quick flashes, the mango, banana, coconut, lime, lemon, and orange trees. Following are scenes of Erikson and myself walking along one of the trails looking up at the air plants on one of the giant Bombacopsis trees. Other subjects are the tamandua, tree for- micaria, three-toed sloth, marmosets, howlers, toucans and other birds, the sensitive mimosa, the zebra swallowtail, the Heliconia, the beau- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 135 tiful blue princess Morpho, and of course, the coatis. My still photo- graphs include many of the above subjects. “As I mentioned on my arrival in the Zone, my trip was one of examination to discover material for a full-length educational film. In Chiriqui Province at the foot of El Volein de Chiriqui, I found what I was looking for in the quetzal bird—they breed in March in that region and are said to be easily accessible at that time. So far, I believe only two persons have photographed them in color—Wolfgang von Hagen and Luis Marden of the National Geographic. I hope to make a complete film in color on the nesting habits of this beautiful bird. “Returning to the film which I made last summer, I have presented it to several clubs and groups along with my own narration, and it has been very well received. It has aroused a great deal of interest in Panama in general and in Barro Colorado in particular.” E. L. Mippieswakzt, technologist of the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis., and at present with the State Commission of Forestry of South Carolina, showed an intense interest in the life of the island. His report follows, and it must be understood that it is still too early for final conclusions. The fact remains that the island certainly has all that is needed for tests of this sort. “We were endeavoring to find a plywood which would withstand tropical jungle conditions. We had some 1,500 samples of plywood 14 inches square made of 4 different species of wood (red gum, douglas fir, cottonwood, and birch) giued with 12 different glues and glue mixtures, and given 5 different surface treatments on exposure on the island. One-half of the samples were placed on racks in the sunlight and the other half were placed on racks in the deep jungle to give a comparison between the two conditions. The samples were made at the laboratory in Madison, Wis., and flown to the Zone by the Army Air Forces. They were placed on exposure in January 1946. “The laboratory also sent the plywood wing-section panels for exposure on B. C. I., which came shortly after I left the Canal Zone. These wing sections were also sample sections of plywood used in studying the effects of tropical weather conditions upon various glues and woods used in making the plywoods and to find which glues and woods are the most satisfactory for use in the Tropics. “This covers the high points of our work there. I might add that the conditions were most nearly ideal on B. C. I. for this study. It will be some time before the results are compiled.” Wuu1m EK. Lunpy, of the paymaster’s office of the Panama Canal, and also secretary-treasurer of the Panama Canal Natural History Society, spent 3 days during the rainy season on the island, and being deeply interested in natural history, and a keen observer, his brief 777488—48——10 136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 report is of much interest. It shows what others, who are much more versed in zoology, can expect to find. And since these animals on the island are as nature has them, not in cages, but in the open, to see and observe them is to know them as they really are. To the ecologist, to the student of animal behavior, to the general naturalist, it is to see, smell, hear, feel, and touch that which is life. It is something that books can only feebly portray. We have the orderly sequence of ex- ternal nature, we have the living organism moving about in this environment inhabited by other species, and we have that continuous adjustment which constitutes life. This is what Lundy saw in but 3 days: 10 bands of howler monkeys, 3 of the white capuchins, 2 of marmosets. He saw any number of the coatimundi, peccary, squirrels, 2 deer, many nequi, 1 tayra, and best of all, 1 night monkey (Goldman’s Aotus zonalis). He came across 10 “armies” of army ants, and one huge bivouac of these most interesting ants. Among the birds he saw large numbers of toucans, parrots, and guans, also the tinamou, pileated woodpeckers, ant-shrikes, motmots, two king vultures, many of the other vultures, the scarlet-capped mani- kin, Ghiesbrecht’s hawk, and others. Among the insects, perhaps the most spectacular were the large metallic blue Morpho butterflies, another butterfly with transparent front wings and pink hind wings, and the graceful large “helicopter” dragonfly. COMMENTS OF SCIENTISTS “Life at the Island was a pleasant experience and I am telling my associates about conditions there. It seems to me to be an ideal place for the conduct of experimental studies of many types, and I would like to thank you for the opportunity to work there. The research station is certainly a well-run place.”—Dr. James B. Hamiuron. “My report is incomplete, of course, since it includes no statement of how thrilling and how great a privilege it was to return to the island to continue my work where f left it off, to meet and talk with you again, and to enjoy once more directly the countless emotional and perceptual satisfactions that come from hiking and strolling around, and from just standing in the many well-remembered Jandmarks, probably I had best leave the sentimental part of the return unsaid; at least the above sentence is sufficiently full of rushing verbal chaos to represent how I felt on February 7, 1946, and all of the days I was there.”—Dr. T. C. ScHNEIRIA. “The severity of conditions conductive to deterioration and the ex- cellent facilities for scientific study, make the island an ideal location for such investigations.”—JosrpH Kowat. “As for the Naval Medical Research Institute, the island would be a most useful proving ground for many of the things developed here. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13% These include insecticides and repellents, warm-weather clothing and footgear, a new type of salt tablet for men perspiring profusely, etc. In addition to all of the above, the island is a wonderful place for a boreal biologist to broaden his outlook.”—Grovur C. Prrrs. “With reference to my visit to B. C. L., I certainly want to put in my plug. I surely enjoyed my visit there, not only with reference to my work, but with reference to the many, many other phases of study adapted to the area. I certainly had my eyes opened as to jungle con- ditions and the flora and fauna therein. I have never been in a place where so many phases of biology in general could be so interestingly studied and all from the same roof. The beauty of the flowers and colorful birds still stands out in my memories of B. C. I., not to forget the hours I sat and watched the busy little monkeys playing in the trees. “The fellowship which I experienced with the fellow scientists work- ing and visiting the island, as well as the friendly reception of the native people welcoming me to B. C. I., is an experience never to be forgotten.”—Evucenr L. Mippteswarr. “To the visitors of the Barro Colorado Laboratory! May they get from the trails in the rain forest such an inspiration as will last them through life and make them ardent protectors of the tropical forests of the world, for without their aid these marvels of beauty will surely disappear forever.”—Davip Fatrcu i. “T take up my pen with the greatest of pleasure to record the out- standing impressions left by my recent visit to Barro Colorado Island. When I recall the expeditions I have made into Central American jungles, the great expense involved, and the meager equipment per- mitted by pack-mule transportation, the difficulties encountered and the usual sequellae of tropical malaria and dysentery, it is only natural that I should be struck first of all by the propinquity and safety of Barro Colorado Island. “Just to think that one can drop off a chair car at a railway station in a civilized community, and after half an hour’s launch ride find one’s self in the heart of virgin tropical forest, is to feel a wave of admiration for the foresight of those who secured the reservation of this great tract to scientific purposes. It is a biologist’s fantasy come true, and I hope as time goes on that more and more of our scientific institutions will come to its support, so that the potentialities of the laboratory can be developed in all directions, and utilized to the full at all times of the year. “TY believe there is nothing like it in the world. There are great botanical and zoological gardens in the Tropics which represent an attempt to facilitate man’s acquaintance with tropical nature by trans- porting the flora and fauna to some easily accessible place. Barro 138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Colorado Island has the opposite aim, of enabling man to transport himself into the midst of tropical nature and to live there for any period of time in comfort and safety. “Nature lovers as well as scientists can enjoy this unusual experience. My wife was as excited as I was on our morning walks, at the hundred and one novel things she had read about but never seen. We were equally lucky in sighting mammals and birds before they took alarm, while the trees and plants always stood still to be admired. I was struck by the intelligence and alertness of our Panamanian guide Silvestre, and his knowledge of jungle life. “In short, I am enthusiastic about Barro Colorado and I will not fail to endeavor to communicate this feeling to my friends.”—Dr. L. W. Hackett, Rockefeller Foundation. “As the result of my recent visit to Barro Colorado Island I feel impelled to write you to express my gratification with what is being accomplished. J remember my pleasure when the isolation of this area by the waters of Gatun Lake was first foreseen, and the decision was made to make it a permanent preserve for native life. Yet I can see now that I had a very inadequate idea of the realities of nature in that area; and an equally inadequate idea of what might be attempted in the way of scientific observation, experiment, and systematic record. I had, indeed, a general idea of the abundance of life in the jungle, but the scope of your records was a revelation. This means, partly, that the number of species is vastly greater than would be guessed, even by most scientific men. It also means (you must allow me to say this) that the work is being directed with wisdom and pushed with energy. That such records as I saw should be even attempted would seem to indicate the presence of a considerable staif, yet I could not help seeing that it is largely your own work. It is greatly to be hoped that your work will not only be continued, but augmented by further cooperation.”—Nrvin M. FennEMAN. “T find it difficult to say anything about my general impression of Barro Colorado that does not sound exaggerated, trite, or exactly like something I have read somewhere else. Perhaps you will know how I feel when I say that I wish (financial considerations aside) that a stay on Barro Colorado could be required of every candidate for the doctor’s degree in either botany or zoology. You may be amused to know that about a week after we returned to Chicago we went to Warren Woods, a beach-maple forest about 70 miles east of Chicago. It was very hot, 96° F., and the mosquitoes were indescribably thick. It was impossible to accomplish much, and we left after about 20 minutes. We both agreed then that we would a thousand times rather have the ticks and red bugs of B. C. I. than the mosquitoes of our temperate forests. In fact, when I begin to recount the virtues of that REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 139 little island it seems almost too good to be true. Of course we realize that the virtues of Barro Colorado Island are not entirely the result of its natural equipment. The well-marked trails, the laboratory, the library, the excellent living accommodations, the trail-end houses, and all the rest are the end results of a lot of patient planning and unending attention to detail. The summer of 1939 was the most stimulating and happiest one of our lives.”—Ratrxu and Mriprep Bucussaum. “The island is better than ever; and after knocking about in parts of the world where it is very difficult to organize one’s work, I appreci- ate more keenly than ever the possibilities Barro Colorado offers for profitable natural history studies which can be begun immediately upon arrival.”—ALEXxANDER F’, SkurcH. “All light talk aside, I have not seen any place in my travels which compares with Barro Colorado Island in point of excitement of the field-naturalist kind. In Java and Sumatra the Dutch have built palatial Jaboratories, but these are far removed from the new, fresh, wild jungle. In Ceylon the British have an agglomeration of build- ings like the United States Department of Agriculture, but it is surrounded on all sides by tea plantations. Everywhere it is the destructive activity of man that is clearing off the jungle and replacing the gorgeous forest with weedy growth or plantations of rubber trees in rows. Hold the virgin character of Barro Colorado at all costs. “Tell the visitors to take it from one who has just been there that the conditions for studying tropical plants and animals are better at Barro Colorado Island than anywhere I went in Sumatra or Java.”— Davin FarrcHi. “Barro Colorado Island is one of the most astounding places I have visited in any part of the world. Its value is tremendous for scientific research, even for research that has economic importance. I sincerely hope the day never comes when any of the land is devoted to investiga- tions such as are now being carried on in many agricultural forest and range experiment stations. The virgin character of Barro Colorado is sufficient asset and I hope you will fight every move that may be made to change this condition.” ——F rank FE. Eater. “T must confess I was amazed at the systematic way in which the trails are laid out and posted, the filing system in the library and the many other modes and ways of doing things. I doubly appreciate this because I have been places where such systems were not followed, much to everyone’s disadvantage.”—Grorer W. Prescorv. “Never again shall I make a trip like this one for merely 5 weeks. If I cannot make a trip next summer I am certainly going to make every effort to get down the following one. Caylor too, wants to get back to Barro Colorado Island and go through with our contemplated project of preparing a flora of the ferns of the region. We have a siz- 140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 able collection of ferns now on hand. In my algae collection I find 250 samples, many of which are simply loaded with species and I have no idea how many will appear in the final list. I think 500 would be a very modest estimate and very likely there will be many more than that when the diatoms are included.”—Groraz W. Prescort. “Even without special precautions, the island would seem to be safer, hygienically speaking, than most areas of like size in the United States. “Certainly all of the minimum requirements for successful labora- tory work are fulfilled on the island. In addition to these minimum facilities the laboratory possesses a remarkable versatility of equipment as well as adequate laboratory space. And while it is obvious that special equipment to suit the needs of the individual scientist must be supplied by him, it is comforting to know that many laboratory necessi- ties are accessible in a small clearing in a tropical rain forest.”—PavuL D. Voru. “The island is more than ever a paradise for the biologist. Living conditions are excellent, the food is fine, the resident staff efficient and courteous. The forest offers a pageant of life which is the ideal labora- tory for the study of the principles of biology. Not only has it proved to be of great value for the undergraduates, but its worth for the teacher has hardly been realized by morethanafew. LH very university and college ought to send the members of its staff in the biological sciences for a sojourn on the island, not once but periodically. It would be an economical investment in the improvement of teaching. This is especially true now when all emphasis is on the experimental side with the result that so many workers know very little about the organisms with which they work. The island will be an excellent place for studies in plant and animal physiology. The rapid growth rate of plants would aid such work tremendously.”—Rozrerr N. WoopworrH. “In addition to the value of publications based on work on Barro Colorado, who can estimate the influence of observations, studies, and photographs which have formed the basis of unnumbered addresses in lecture hall and classroom, or the educational value of museum exhibits depicting island life? In brief, during their 15 years as a laboratory, the 4,000 acres we know as Barro Colorado have contrib- uted more to our knowledge of tropical wildlife than any other area of similar extent in America—perhaps in the world.”—Franx M. CHAPMAN. THE SPECIES INDEX A 5- by 8-inch card index is kept for each species of plant and animal definitely known from the island. Each card lists the scientific name, the major division to which it belongs, and the family name; also the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 141 name of the collector, the name of the person who made the determina- tion, when and where collected, and other pertinent details. These cards are indexed first according to the major phyla—mam- mals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, arthropods, etc——which are further subdivided into superorders, orders, etc., and finally by fam- ilies. Under each family the genera are in alphabetical order, and the species for each genus are also in alphabetical order. This index is invaluable to the student. Itis a unique record of the life of the island. In 1940 the index covered a total of 4,924 species of plants and animals, representing 2,805 genera. In plants alone there were 747 genera and 1,487 species. Since 1940 new entries have been made, but no count has been made of the present number, owing to pressure of other duties, especially those concerned with the war effort. A conservative estimate is about 7,000 species. Extensive collections have been made of algae, fungi, and lichens, but because of the war, reports on these have not yet been published. Lesser collections were made in other groups. A conservative estimate would be fully 700 species. THE ISLAND HERBARIUM The herbarium consists of 1,533 mounted specimens, representing 806 species, not including the mosses. These sheets are in genus covers, and the collection is arranged in four major groups, the crypto- gams, ferns, monocotyledons, and dicotyledons. In each of these groups the genus covers are grouped according to the families, and these, for convenience in handling, are alphabetically arranged. There are on hand more than 2,500 additional named specimens as yet un- mounted and these will probably swell the number of species to close to 1,200. The herbarium is a most valuable adjunct to a laboratory such as ours. It does more than supplement the botanical library. Too often botanical literature is of little help to one not a trained botanist, and for this majority of students, the herbarium is what is needed. NEEDS The most urgent needs are for a concrete water tank to replace wooden tanks now in bad condition; new septic tanks; painting of all buildings, inside and out; herbarium and other storage cases; replace- ment of bedding and purchase of additional furniture; and miscel- laneous repairs to buildings: It is estimated that these present most urgent needs could be met at a cost of $10,000. Other needs that should be met promptly are for a more adequate supply of electricity; a new fireproof building to house the library, photographic equipment, herbarium, and records; and adequate 142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 animal cages to keep various creatures in captivity during scientific investigations. TERMITE-FREE BUILDINGS IN THE TROPICS Is is possible to build comfortable, well-ventilated houses of lum- ber and not have a termite hazard? The answer is “Yes.” However, few architects go to the trouble of getting the necessary information. We have 57 known species of termites in Panama and the Canal Zone. Of these, 45 species occur on Barro Colorado Island. Two of the most destructive in the world occur here, one of which is known to eat through the lead sheathing of electrical cables. The rapidity of destruction by some of the species is incredible. Some even work in living trees, and we have records of fruit orchards destroyed by them. And yet on Barro Colorado Island we have buildings where we let the termites do whatever they wanted to do—eat up the building overnight if they could—and yet these buildings are in excellent shape. In 1926 we built a test house at the end of Drayton Trail, 16 feet square and 10 feet high, set on wooden posts extending 3 feet into the ground. The timber used was pressure treated with coal-tar creosote and with zinc chloride. The wallboard is treated with chro- mated zine chloride. In the May 1947 number of Wood Preserving News Dr. Thomas E. Snyder, senior entomologist of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, published all details and results of his inspection in February of this year, showing no damage any- where due to termites, and yet termites tried to get a hold. The build- ing is in excellent condition after 21 years. It is true that pressure treatment increases the original cost of the timbers, but it is cheap in- surance. A building of untreated timbers would have been destroyed in less than a year. At the end of the Pearson Trail we have the Fuertes House, built in February 1931, 16 years ago. It is set on nine posts; hence there is good ventilation under the house. With the exception of the shin- gles, which are of red cedar (and need replacement), all the wood and timbers, including posts, were treated with zinc-meta-arsenite. The tables and chairs are also so treated. There is no damage anywhere to the treated wood. The wallboard also was zinc-meta-arsenite treated. It likewise is free of any termite damage. Test stakes of untreated wood half-buried in the ground near the building were destroyed within 8 months. Furthermore, this zinc-meta-arsenite treated building is free of cockroaches. No steps are taken to keep termites out of the building, and no termite shields are used—hence, termites have absolute free- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 143 dom to work if they can. Yet the building is in as excellent shape as when we first put it up. Here again, treated lumber costs perhaps 50 percent more, but as it gives freedom from termites, in a few years it pays for itself. The above two cases show that with treated timbers you can build a termite-free house even where termites are extremely abundant and active. Tests on the island also show that one can build of untreated timbers and have no termite hazard, provided a few simple precautions are taken. The main requirement is to build a good thick concrete floor which will extend out at least to the line of the eaves. The floor must be well made, with no cracks. The secret is to make an inspection at least once a week around this concrete floor, and if termites have built any covered runways, introduce into these runways either pow- dered calomel or finely powdered paris green. In this way the colony is poisoned, and by watching a treated runway, it can easily be deter- mined whether or not the job was well done. It takes so little time and does not need superior knowledge. Of course there must be no leaks, either in the roof or in the plumbing. Of course, by the use of properly made termite shields, properly installed, it is possible to keep termites out of buildings. Where it is possible to install them, termite shields are cheap protection, but not all buildings lend themselves to the use of shields. Soil poisons also are the answer for some type of buildings, but vigilance is always necessary, and inspection cannot be perfunctory. Circular 683, United States Department of Agriculture, “Effective- ness of Wood Preservatives in Preventing Attack by Termites,” by Snyder and Zetek, gives a good picture of the extensive termite tests on Barro Colorado Island since 1923. The annual progress reports by Hunt and Snyder in the Annual Reports of the American Wood Pre- servers’ Association give details of the more important of these tests. Nearly 4,000 tests are involved, in addition to the Kowal-Dews-John- ston series noted elsewhere in this report. LIST OF THE TERMITES OF PANAMA AND THE CANAL ZONE In this, the latest list, 57 species are represented, and of these, 45 are known from Barro Colorado Island (indicated by the initials BCI). There are 13 new species which will be described in the near future by Dr. Emerson. The Kalotermitidae are those commonly known as the “dry-wood termites.” The Rhinotermitidae are the bad actors, Coptotermes niger and Heterotermes tenuis being especially noted for their destructiveness. Some of the Termitidae are also very destructive. This list is by no means final. We feel that at least 15 more species will be discovered. 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 KALOTERMITIDAE (15) . Kalotermes (K.) clevelandi Snyder. . Kalotermes (K.) marginipennis (Latreille). Kalotermes (K.) tabogae Snyder. Kalotermes (Neotermes) holmgreni Banks (BCI). Kalotermes (Neotermeés), n. sp. . Kalotermes (Neotermeés), n. sp. . Kalotermes (Rugitermes) isthmi Snyder (BCI). . Kalotermes (Rugitermes) panamae (Snyder) (BCI). . Kalotermes (Cryptotermes) breviarticulatus Snyder. . Kalotermes (Cryptotermes) dudleyi Banks. . Kalotermes (Lobitermes) longicollis (Banks). . Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) brevicollis (Banks) (BCI). . Kalotermes (Oalcaritermes) emarginicollis (Snyder) (BCI). . Kalotermes (Glyptotermes) augustus Snyder. . Kalotermes (Glyptotermes), n. sp. (BCI). fet fet BMODNANA AAR WNYH ft pet im OO bO a or RHINOTERMITIDAE (5) 16. Coptotermes niger Snyder (BCI). 17. Heterotermes tenuis (Hagen) (BCI). 18. Heterotermes convevinotatus (Snyder) (BCI). 19. Prorhinotermes molinoi Suyder (BCI). 20. Rhinotermes (#&.) longidens Snyder (BCI). TERMITIDAE (37) 21. Cornitermes (C.) agignathus silwestri, var. Walkeri Snyder (BCI). 22. Armitermes (A.) armigera (Motsch.) (BCI). 23. Armitermes (A.) chagresit Snyder (BCI). 24. Armitermes (Rhynchotermes) peramatus Snyder (BCI). 25. Nasutitermes (N.) columbicus (Holmgren) (BCI). 26. Nasutitermes (N.) cornigera (Motsch.) (BCI). 27. Nasutitermes (N.) ephratae (Holmgren) (BCI). 28. Nasutitermes (N.) pilifrons (Holmgren) (BCI). 29. Nasutitermes (Subulitermes) kirbyi Snyder (BCI). 30. Nasutitermes (Subulitermes) zeteki Synder (BCI). 31. Nasutitermes (Subulitermes), n. sp. (BCI). 32. Nasutitermes (Obtusitermes) panamae Snyder (BCI). 33. Nasutitermes (Convexitermes) clevelandi Snyder (BCI). 34, Nasuiitermes (Uniformitermes) barrocoloradoensis Snyder (BCI). 35. Cylindrotermes macrognathus Snyder (BCI). 36. Amitermes (A.) beaumonti Banks (BCI). 387. Amitermes (A.) medius Banks foreli Wasmann (BCI). 38. Anoplotermes (A.) gracilis Snyder (BCI). 39. Anoplotermes (A.) parvus Snyder (BCI). 40. Anoplotermes (A.), n. sp. (BCI). 41. Anoplotermes (A.), n. sp. (BCI). 42. Anoplotermes (A.), n. sp. (BCI). 43. Anoplotermes (A.), n. sp. (BCI). 44. Anoplotermes (A.), n. sp. (BCI). 45. Anoplotermes (A.), n. sp. (BCI). 46. Anoplotermes (A.), n. sp. (BCI). 47. Anoplotermes (A.), n. sp. (BCI). REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 145 48. Anoplotermes (A.), 1. Sp. 49, Anoplotermes (A.), 0. sp. 50. Anoplotermes (speculitermes), n. sp. 51. Microcerotermes arboreus Emerson (BCI). 52. Microcerotermes exiguus (Hagen) (BCI). 53. Termes (T.) hispaniolae (Banks) (BCI). 54. Termes (T.) panamensis (Snyder) (BCI). 55. Termes (T.), 0. sp. (BCI). 56. Orthognathotermes wheeleri Snyder (BCI). 57. Capritermes (Neocapritermes) centralis Snyder (BCI). RAINFALL, TEMPERATURES, AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY, 1946 In the 22 years of record, 1946 was the third driest year. The rain- fall amounted to only 87.38 inches, showing a deficiency of 21.43 inches. This deficiency was most pronounced in the wet season, amounting to 17.93 inches. Only 2 months, July and September, had an excess, which, however, was very slight—0.77 and 0.20, respectively. ‘There was a total deficiency of 3.50 inches in the dry season, January to April, inclusive; only March showed a small excess—0.25 inch. February was the driest month (0.32 inch) and November the wettest (14.98 inches). Table 1 gives the total yearly rainfall, and the station aver- age, for each year from 1925 to 1946, inclusive. TaBLeE 1.—Annual rainfall, Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone Total Station Total Station Year: inches average Year: inches average LO 2b es aeeee Take 1O4R Sie Mee ae LOSGEe ut ewe Seen! 93. 88 108. 98 MIO 2 GB Gare a 118. 22 113. 56 LOG 7 ee eee 124. 13 110. 12 177 (ae Be SS aera a 116. 36 114. 68 TOSS eee he ERE 117. 09 110. 62 O28 2 28 wor ke 101. 52 111. 35 JOS9LLeL aes Sees 115. 47 110. 94 TO ZOE = ee RE he a 87. 84 106. 56 O40 tae eee 86. 51 109. 43 1930: eet 76. 57 101. 51 TO4 dws ose ela 91. 82 108. 41 112 3 besa Aan Me 123. 30 104. 69 DUG Ys Pes ate ae Bea 111. 10 108. 55 LA a ee ee 118. 52 105. 76 1943222 OR ie eee 120. 29 109. 20 OS See ee eerie 101. 73 105. 32 LO44 2 eee bees 111. 96 109. 30 LOS 4a aera ae ae 122. 42 107. 04 1945 eee ee 120. 42 109. 84 LOSSLESS AELLGS ie 143. 42 110. 35 LO4SG shot e aL 87. 38 108. 81 Table 2 gives the rainfall by months for the years 1945 and 1946, the station average for each month, the excess or deficiency for each month and the accumulated plus or minus, and also the maximum rains each month for 5 and 10 minutes, and 1 and 24 hours. These maximum values are consecutive wherever that maximum occurred; hence the 24-hour record is not necessarily from midnight to midnight. Table 3 gives the number of hours of rain each month for 1946 and the total amount in inches, and then these data separated into the four 6-hour periods. These data are of interest in that they indi- cate when most rains may be expected. From 6a. m. to noon there is less rainfall than from noon to 6 p. m. 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 TaBLe 2.—Comparison of 1945 and 1946 rainfall; and mawimum rains for short periods Total iN | Maximum rains Sor rs ecumu-|___ eet TY aes Month SSS | Sictatom Years of Plus or lnted ] average] record | minus | 4. )_| 5 min- |10min- : 1945 1946 fim ates 1 hour |24 hours January-- 2.89 45 1,91 21 | —1.46 —1. 46 10 nC at hea es 16 February - 67 32 23 21 —.91 —2.37 09 Oe | pees ee 20 March__. 27 al 1. 46 21 +. 25 —2.12 15 19 42 69 Apress a 1.59 1, 41 2.79 22 | —1.38 —3. 50 21 25 37 73 Mis yee eee 13. 55 8.05 113 22 | —3.08 —6. 58 25 40 65 92 JUNO ESts Sear 10.17 7.94 11, 27 22 | —3.33 —9.91 35 53 slp? 1,69 Jy es eee 13, 87 12. 58 11.81 22 +.77 —9.14 33 60 1,35 2. 41 Augustz steers 12.32 10. 50 12. 56 22 | —2.06 —J1. 20 34 60 2.00 4.91 September --_-__-_-_- 10, 07 10. 67 10. 47 22 +. 20 —11,00 ABE) - §2 1.83 2.50 October_-_-------- 10. 02 9.00 13.17 22 | —4.17 —15.17 . 40 . 60 . 90 1, 20 November__-_--- 20. 60 14.98 19. 30 22 | —4.3 —19.49 60 1.05 2, 29 4.51 December-------- 24. 40 9.77 Wer 22 | —1.94 —21. 43 46 82 1.18 3.42 Weare2)2 2.0 120, 42 STSSa MOSIS TA ee ee OEE. = 21 ASh Bee Cee rs SAAS SD Tae Drys-et st Rest 5, 42 3.89 hOOh| SS 2e Ae Re cee = S050) SoS See Re ee TABLE 3.—Rainfall 1946. Total number of hours of rain and amount in inches for the daily 6-hour period Midnight to 6 6p.m.to mid-| Midnight to a.m. ij night midnight 6am.tonoon | Noon to 6 p.m. Month : Hours ;Amount| Hours |Amount} Hours |Amount} Hours |Amount} Hours |Amount 9 12 3 20 5 05 3 08 20 45 8 18 3 13 1 SU) | cee SS] Be ecciee 12 32 10 19 18 55 12 94 3 03 43 zal 9 32 4 25 6 73 8 il 27 1.41 il 2. 97 12 69 20 4,31 5 08 48 8.05 19 84 10 2.41 32 4.08 11 61 72 7. 94 26 1. 63 15 2.49 48 6.13 19 2. 63 1 12. 58 19 54 20 2.70 29 6. 84 16 42 84 10. 50 25 1. 64 16 1. 46 38 5. 88 9 1.69 88 10. 67 25 1, 22 22 1.98 38 4. 03 19 1.77 104 9. 00 34 5. 29 24 2. 44 29 5. 41 27 1.84 114 14. 98 37 2. 44 21 1, 92 31 3. 78 23 1. 63 112 9.77 232 | 17.38 168 16. 92 289 | 42.19 143 | 10.89 832 87. 38 36 8 1.13 24 1.73 14 22 102 3. 89 Table 4 gives a summary and analysis of the 1946 rainfall for the entire year and for the dry and wet seasons, both as to hours and days, percentage of the total possible hours (if it rained every hour), and these data are significant. With so much less rainfall in the dry season, and particularly with so high a deficiency, the animals have a hard time getting food. The peccary in the dry season is noticeably thin—very different from his condition in the wet season when food is more plentiful. The effects of moisture are profound. This strug- gle for food is also reflected in the rate of reproduction in certain of the mammals. A bad year, deficient in rainfall and in food, increases the rate of reproduction, and conversely, a year of abundant rainfall, an abundance of food, shows in some mammals a falling off in this rate. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 147 Taste 4.—Summary and analysis of the 1946 rainfall for the year, and for the dry and wet seasons ENTIRE YEAR OED I NO USO ee FD SOR I EE AEN EB EBB LUO RR len a $32 Percentagerok totally POSSIDI Gs OUTS Her See ee ee ee ea ee 9.50 ROCA AY SOLA a Tin ee eee a OO a a ee Bln al ore 233 Percentage of total possible days______ Bae ALTE SP Sana GEM er ee URE ACRE A 63.84 DRY SEASON ToOtalPhours? OL rr aime eee seh eee ee OU AR AU eee SSeS gE Na VS TAS AP Lay 102 Percentage or totalypossiblenhours Seo ee ae ae eee ee 3.54 PO Talin GAY SO bp ra Ute eee ee ares eae epee ye Ree Oe 22 yea as eee 44 Percentage roitotalnoOSSib] el aay See ew we eae eee eu Le eee HN Sosa tn 36.67 VASTYV OVD ENO Se R DTN OUTLIER OTN CSS eae tes eee nC OER LiL DN ye es Se eA LL 3.89 Perecentaceiot totaliraintalletor. year = ese ee ee ee 4,45 WET SEASON TO CAB OUTS EO fees Te Ta rete se aes ee Ei ee 730 Percentagerotsto tally pOSSib] ey iO urs a ce ee a ee ae eee 12.42 EVE © CAD y CU EASY Sh Leo aT ea Tea A AS es We a a ee a 189 Percentagervor totalnossible; Gays ae sae Cee Ae ep a 77.14 AmountOLerainy anrMinCh esas son Sli Et Ee oes ce UE iE ek Ue a 83.49 PETECNLALE LOL COLA ara Lal eh OLY Ce Toe ee ey ete ce et ea aa 95.55 In table 5 are given (1) the number of hours and the amount of rains of 0.40 inch or more per hour, for each of the four 6-hour periods, and (2) the three heaviest rains each month (midnight to midnight). Rains of 0.40 inch per hour, if rather evenly distributed, will not seriously hamper field work, but if such rains come down in 5 minutes, it is another story. TABLE 5.—The three heaviest rains each month and number of hours and amount of rains of 0.40 inch or more per hour for 1946 _-———— ee — Midnight}6a.m.to| Noonto |6p.m. to = et 3 to6a.m. noon 6 p. m. midnight sed a 12 ,E& ey rains on ky + be 2 hy » be 2 midnight to eS IS Se gia) Bil gi | Be Bole ails ranteng) 3 BS 5 g§ cS) 8 S is} iS) 8 iS) 5 3 S = S| 5 S| Ss | 5 S| BH A eet We ee an eT <{ 24|< January =e eee il 7.0) | Pe ot | a (ey Pea Re ON a ee .14 08 05 Repruaryo2 ee 7 ib] (El [te ERE See SIE SES le Oy ES eH | 0s | See LO OG Mer O4 Marchi o=5 14 CE [es oe SES SB SE Pec eal pee cll -68 .58 .10 UN oj y Nga te te 12 PPM NA nee esl [ee ek eed (oa er a ee riley BPE ales Ou Kaman ate eee 16 48 2) | 1.59 On eeeeee Pe SOs | ee |e 2.99 1.14 .85 DUNC PeS ES eee ts. 21 (PA eS ee 3 | 1.63 3 PREY (| alee SUE 1.71, 12369)) 395 ys See 24 TOS; Resa |b esene 3 | 1.50 3 2. 48 2/ 1.68 | 2.48 1.91 1.38 August--_-- 27 foe a |e eal 1 | 1.65 4 CACY | pee eee 4.40 1.77 91 September. - a 26 88 1 46 1 . 50 4) 3.51 Pil alataeqy PAG eM abstr Vet) October_____ oe H 25 CB Pek peel (ae 1 . 90 2 1. 28 1 OLN | eke O: byte Lats a coe November--__._______ 14. 98 29 114 4 | 3.80 1 - 40 3) 3.45 1 41 | 2.54 2.49 2.12 Decambersassesse 9.77 21 112 J .47 1 ee 2 1. 50 1 .67 | 3.35 1.18 1.05 Wears t.-22. 87. 38 233 832 | 8 | 6.32 | 11 | 7.68 | 25 | 21.89 7 £ 12) a Seen eee 3. 89 441} 102} 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sale EO seks Wiebe bi Ser) sare 83.49 | 189] 730 | 8 | 6.32 | 11 | 7.68 | 25 | 21.89 | 7 | 4.79 120.76 12.76 9.01 148 |§ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 During the dry season, there were no rains of 0.40 inch per hour during 1947, and only 51 such hours in the wet season, amounting to 40.68 inches, or 46.6 of the total rainfall for the year. And these 40.68 inches fell during only 6.1 percent of the total hours we had rain. This means that the balance, 46.70 inches, fell during 781 hours, or an average of only .06 inch per hour. The three heaviest rains each month amounted to a total of 45.59 inches in only 36 days. This leaves only 41.79 inches for the remaining 197 days. Considering now these three heaviest rains each month (midnight to midnight), we have the following interesting data: Dry season: 12 days, 3.08 inches, or 79.2 percent of the dry season total. Wet season: 24 days, 42.53 inches, or 50.9 percent of the wet season total. The year: 36 days, 45.61 inches, or 52 percent of the year’s total. The remaining days when it rained show: Dry season: 32 days, 0.32 inch, or an average of 0.01 inch per day of rain. Wet season: 165 days, 40.96 inches, or an average of 0.248 inch per day of rain. The year: 197 days, 41.79 inches, or an average of 0.212 inch per day of rain. For comparison, the following tables are presented, covering the rainfall for other localities in the Canal Zone and Republic of Panama data on temperatures, relative humidities, barometric pressures, etc. ; and the maximum and minimum yearly rains of record for 19 impor- tant localities. These data are taken from the reports of the Chief Meteorologist of the Panama Canal. They givea better understanding of the climate, and it is only to be regretted that comparable data are not available for a great many more localities in the Republic of Pan- ama. To an ecologist, these data are of inestimable value. TABLE 6.—Annual rainfall at other Panamdé stations, in inches Total, Station | Excessor | Years of 1946 average | deficiency | record Balboa= so oe Sites le ee ee ie ae ee ee 50. 06 68. 84 —18. 78 48 IPedrowvilgieleer ne et ee ee eee 63.18 80. 14 —16. 96 39 Summits eS eee Be ee ee es eee ee 76. 00 86. 94 —10. 94 23 Gamboaeias A ae) ee AC ae ee eee 65. 37 88. 86 — 23.49 64 Madden) Dames ges tere SECT eee eee ee een 79. 62 97. 86 —18, 24 47 WrijOleg ee aaah Re ree eG COR Ed ee ea ees 94. 39 106. 64 —12.25 35 BOO ee ae ewe he se SCL Ee eer ta eS SD ee 99. 67 95, 14 +4. 53 29 LAN abel Cob: Vo Lege eee epee SA eS, Se As eee ee as 88. 61 110. 03 —21. 42 23 NTONLOWIEIO meron ee ee 2 Ce ROR GE es Mi ae tee 95. 48 118.71 —23. 28 39 tune cee He ee eS i ee ee 121.83 125. 30 —3.47 42 Oristoballas Rese ee eS ae ae ee eee 126, 52 130. 37 —3.85 76 RORLO MDB IIO Me mias selene ea ie we oar su Us ea OE i eercem mes 170. 53 160. 78 +9. 75 35 PortovArmuelles tee eS ee Pee A OEE Oa eee 62, 21 92. 46 —30. 25 17 Stari ose te Ta ae Si ie a ee a 54. 06 68.17 —14.11 21 Salamanca ss see a a ee ee eee 90. 30 100. 74 —10. 44 35 ORDIDRIIG A eee ie eo Re a ee eee 80. 12 97. 81 —17. 69 35 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 149 TABLE 7.—Mazrimum and minimum rainfall, Barro Colorado Island, 1925 to 1946 Mazimum Minimum Marimum Minimum JANUAR sec ono eae 4. 60 to | TAUSUStO soso e eee ee 21. 44 5. 93 Rebruarye 95200. .- 5. 91 . 05 | September________-_ 19. 96 6. 07 Wrarohres Ss l 5st 5. 54 sO @eLober.— see ee 22. 20 6. 06 (Aprileet ciate fhe ot Chai » 10))November-2- is 2224 - 41. 59 CePA Miwa ek tee aN 19. 02 3. 09 | December-______-_-- 28. 15 1. 88 UIT One Se es Be 19. 31 5. 43 —_—- a Daly es Be se cee 28. 58 5. 52 VWeart ube oe 1438. 42 76. 57 TABLE 8.—1946 pressure, temperature, relative humidity, etc. Balboa Madden Heights ani Cristobal Pressure (reduced to sea level): AWG. o ben bh es epee ee We ay pO ef Sn See An ere 30. 010 29.990 30. 010 IVE eee ee Oe a Se NE 29. 680 29. 660 29. 680 Anntialaneasn (binourly) 2 es a. 2 ee Nee 29. 831 29. 817 29. 843 Temperature (Fahrenheit): ‘Ariniial meant i Sloot | y CO i ie er i PMT op 2. eo Fue via ¢ rt 1 ; 7 # iL mp st (HPs, an - vip | ae ray i ; 1. r ; Heda i ne Ay oe : i ‘ 0 iN ’ ie TA Tee its " ; ; ae y Maye V9 “i 2) ee | t i , u ‘ ) . 1 ‘ : j if ’ a | ay) 4 :.} tt LEW Ens Tee CRIS TS j s yuyv Senps BND thy eae ne ann ; ’ maine i my ‘o As! hae fae Ni ite ae | i fin ; : — ya ee En ae ee pet UML ed uh ale iia | Prouil ; unt ; Le oe Nprraay By P08 IIMS o Age eam w Mates : ry. ie! ; naar 2 ome i's i y Piatt Ash y ie oon mt; ss Ay “Suey — y ay Sine Paar At r an ‘ hs a 7 ap) WR i per any ret : ‘wih tr , a) ei MY ish: peeriort » * De A, Oy Ay, eh ee Gh, (Re Weg PY: sae CNN eD oo ‘ ' ven hE ihe eeN ee ee ieee, ie | nine oh : Ryne ree: eee | en : Pail Ub tate wT! rae ia ps ; he hat xe AP GAGS aR! — : ie Ne ee f mer Din aio nhs ie aap : way . ‘Ke bein | ue i ce Hy we Wee, a y ry f ork Sine weives wv on Toa if mae ‘es yc ; | : ras, ? He pr i ais Lng (gl Snenyes Ms GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1947 171 ADVERTISEMENT The object of the GenrraL Appenprx to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum- mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, the Secretary had a series of abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889, a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- sion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1947. 172 LARGE SUNSPOTS? By SerH B. NIcHOLsoN Mount Wilson Observatory Carnegie Institution of Washington [With 2 plates] Nearly 16,000 groups of sunspots have been recorded since 1874 when the Greenwich Observatory began to catalog the spots observed on daily photographs of the sun. These groups range in size from small clusters of tiny spots a few hundred miles in diameter to huge groups nearly 200,000 miles long, containing individual spots as large as 80,000 miles across. Many spots are seen for only a day or two before they disappear, some develop to moderate size, a few grow into groups large enough to be seen without a telescope, and a very few into huge groups like the one which was visible from March 30 to April 13, 1947. The area of every group is given for each day in the Greenwich records, the unit of area being one-millionth of a solar hemisphere, or 1,174,000 square miles. Of the 16,000 groups observed since 1874, only 27, less than one-fifth of 1 percent, attained areas as great as 2,500 millionths of a solar hemisphere (about 3,000 million square miles). These 27 groups are listed in table 1, with their maximum areas as measured by the Greenwich Observatory or the United States Naval Observatory. The areas are given to only two figures because the irregular outline of a spot seldom permits greater accuracy. Measures by different observers of several of the groups listed differ by as much as 15 percent. Of the spots recorded before 1874, three at least were large enough to have been included in the table. One of these appeared in August 1859, at heliographic latitude 20° N.; the second in July 1860, at 26° N.; and the third in August 1860, at 24° S. All the groups listed in table 1 were conspicuous objects with the un- aided eye, if the sun was dimmed sufficiently by fog, smoke, or dark glasses. ~ 4 Reprinted by permission, with revisions (as of September 1947), from Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflet No. 207, May 1946. 173 174 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 TasBLe 1.—The largest sunspot groups Date Latitude| Area! Date Latitude| Area! ° ° —28 SOOO O26 an nede eae eee eee +21 3, 700 —18 25COOK I MLOISSSe pte eee —15 2, 600 —12 PRETO MIR EYE Ute = —10 2, 500 +13 PHGVM AO CB yl apie es ees +32 2, 806 —7 DATOOR | MLO TNO Charon eee een +9 2, 700 —15 SHO VRB a ksals gese es +17 3, 100 +10 ZiCOO PL 9SSholli yal Omen ee eS —11 2, 500 +14 SOOOs P1988 TO Ct apes aoe eee ee ee +17 3, 000 Te Ma a5 Poe ed 17, PAGING) |} WERE) Shay le ee i153 2, 600 190 Ter SUING 120 see ne eee —14 2550011| | S19804 Septeu Osan. sees —15 2, 500 TOTTI hed 0 eee een na —16 S600) | kAOSG SG i be eum nmunnIn +28 4, 900 OUT PATIOS Ole sae ene eens +16 BY PaO babyy Welk pole see +23 8, 950 1920; Miari22 05 ee ee ees —5 DOOM LOS VEAL lO helen eee eee —23 2 4,300 925s ECh 20 ease eae ea +23 DOO 0G ALO AVA rai eo oe ee —24 25, 400 oe Miionths of a solar hemisphere. To express the area in million square miles increase these figures 3 The large group in April 1947 was probably identical with the one in March, both being in the same region on the sun. They have been considered as one group in this article. The great spot group of April 1947, which was the largest ever recorded, developed from some small spots first seen on February 5, 1947, at the east limb of the sun in latitude 23° S. These spots grew rapidly until by February 7 they formed a group large enough to be seen without a telescope. When, after a solar rotation, the group reappeared at the east limb on March 8, it had changed considerably, being much larger and more compact than in February. In March the group was composed primarily of one huge spot, which had appar- ently developed from the preceding (western) members of the Febru- ary group, the following members of which had disappeared. When it reappeared on March 80 for its third transit, the huge group al- though breaking up had increased in area. When largest it covered more than 1 percent of the solar disk, its area being 6,300,000,000 square miles, 5,400-millionths of a solar hemisphere. On its fourth and last return the group was much smaller. The preceding part, which had always been the smaller, disappeared on May 7. The fol- lowing part passed around the west limb on May 11 and did not return. The large spot of March 1947 was the largest single spot on record with an area of 5,000,000,000 square miles, 4,300-millionths of a solar hemisphere. Before 1874, visual observers sometimes published the over-all length and breadth of a group instead of its area. From this data the area cannot be computed because the group may have been composed of several unconnected spots. A long spot group observed in September and October 1858 has been cited in several popular books on astronomy as the largest group ever recorded. H. Schwabe, a noted observer of sunspots, gave its east-west diameter as 32173, which is equivalent to 143,000 miles or one-sixth of a solar diameter. Someone, interpreting this figure as the diameter of a huge circular spot, computed its area as one thirty-sixth that of the solar disk, or 14,000-millionths of a solar hemisphere. This figure has since been LARGE SUNSPOTS—-NICHOLSON 175 quoted in many books as the area of the largest group on record. Actually that group was a long, narrow stream of spots with an area less than 1,000-millionths of a hemisphere. Plate 1 shows the great group of 1947 as it crossed the disk of the sun in March and April. Plate 2 shows four other large spot groups, all to the same scale. A spot group, composed of individual spots of various sizes, is usually elongated in an east-west direction. Each sunspot is composed of an irregular shaded area, sometimes nearly circular, called the penumbra, which is cooler than the sun’s surface (the photosphere). Inside the penumbra are smaller, darker areas called umbrae. In large spots the umbrae cover about one-seventh of the area of the spot. Even the umbrae are not black but only less bright than the photosphere; the contrast between the photosphere and the umbra of a spot is actually less than the reproductions of the photo- graphs would indicate. The temperature of the photosphere is about 10,000° Fahrenheit, that of the penumbra about 9,000°, and that of the umbra about 7,500°. Not all umbrae have the same temperature and the largest are not always the darkest and coolest. The radiation from the umbra of a large spot is between one-fourth and one-half that from the photosphere, from the penumbra, between two-thirds and three- fourths. In the large group of 1947, the area of all the umbrae was about 700-milhonths of a solar hemisphere, that of the penumbrae about 4,700. As seen projected these areas were, respectively, 0.13 and 0.90 of 1 percent of the solar disk. The total solar radiation was there- fore reduced less than one-half of 1 percent by the presence of the large spot group. Every group listed in table 1 except those of October 1894 and Sep- tember 1928, were observed for more than one solar rotation. Groups which attain their maximum area while visible are generally formed on the invisible side of the sun, and those born on the visible side are generally carried out of view before their maximum area is reached. Only 4 of the 27 largest groups were born on the visible half of the sun. ‘Two of these, February 4, 1905, and February 12, 1907, died on the visible hemisphere; their ages were 91 days and 98 days, respec- tively. The group of February 1946 lasted more than 99 days; how many more is not known because it developed and disappeared on the invisible hemisphere. Smaller groups have been recorded which lasted longer than any of these. Eleven of the twenty-seven groups in table 1 returned only once, nine came back twice, and five returned three times. A sunspot is recorded to have been observed for 18 months in 1840-41. The original record of this group has not come to my attention, but it is doubtful whether a spot or a group of spots ever retained its identity for so long a time. Although the same region on the sun may remain active for many months, the continuity of activity is usually due to a succession of spot groups. Sunspots have a habit of reappearing in 176 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 the region where an old group has been, sometimes not even waiting for the old group to disappear. ‘The group of January 24, 1926, may have been a return of the group of December 29, 1925; certainly both were in the same region of the sun. A small round spot closely follow- ing the large group of January 1926 was probably identical with the largest spot of the December 1925 group. The large spots of the January group, however, behaved like new spots which had developed near the waning members of the December group. The two groups were therefore probably not actually identical. The groups of March and April 1947 may not be identical but their relationship seems closer than that between the groups of December 1925 and that of January 1926. Large sunspots or, more precisely, the solar activity associated with them, definitely affect the earth. The obvious direct terrestrial effects are confined to the ionosphere, that high region of the atmosphere in which electric currents can flow and from which radio waves are re- flected. The most spectacular effects are brilhant auroras (northern and southern lights). Closely associated with auroras are changes in the electric currents in the ionosphere, which produce marked fluctua- tions in the earth’s magnetic field (magnetic storms). These disturb- ances can be so violent that long-distance telegraph lines and cables are affected, making communications difficult or impossible. Other terrestrial effects are produced simultaneously with very intense solar “flares,” phenomena which nearly always appear in or near large spot groups. Intense flares produce minor changes in the earth’s magnetic field and also cause high-frequency radio waves to be absorbed so that long-distance short-wave communication is impossible on the daytime part of the earth while a flare is in progress. These effects are in all probability due to an increase in ultraviolet radiation from the sun at the time of the flare. Although the change in solar radiation due to the presence of a large sunspot must affect the earth’s lower atmosphere, and therefore the weather, such effects are very small and are difficult to measure and interpret. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Nicholson PLATE 1 1947 MAR.3 1947 MAR. 3I OVERCAST MAR.4 1947 APR.I APR.2 APR.3 Ja APR.A2 APR.I3 THE LARGEST GROUP OF SUNSPOTS EVER PHOTOGRAPHED Daily photographs showing the great sunspot group of March and April 1947, being carried across the solar disk by the sun’s rotation. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Nicholson PLATE 1926 JAN.24 1946 FEB.6 1946 JULY 26 “« 100,000 MILES _ 1947 APRIL 7 THE FOUR LARGEST SUNSPOT GROUPS The last two photographs are of the same group showing its development during one solar rotation. ATOMIC ENERGY}? By A. E. JoHNs McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario INTRODUCTION Our topic for this evening is timely. Whether we are fully conscious of the fact or not and whether we like it or not, we stand at the open- ing of a new age—the atomic age, or the age of atomic energy. Atomic energy has always been present in the universe, but only now is it becoming available to man. The secrets of the atom are being unlocked before our eyes and life for mankind can never be the same. Your presence here in such large numbers on such a rainy night indicates your interest in this topic. We are all interested and want to know the underlying principles of atomic energy. It is my hope that some of these will be more clear in an hour’s time. But I warn you that I bring little that is new. Mark Antony’s words at Caesar’s funeral sum up the situation; “I am no orator, as Brutusis; * * * I only speak right on; I tell you that which you yourselves do know.” The lecture will be in informal classroom style. Few teachers can proceed long without a blackboard ; so I have already listed the topics I hope to treat and for two reasons. First it will help to guide me, and second it will comfort you. At any stage you can see how the lecture is progressing, and when thoroughly bored, can say “That much at least is over.” You note with pleasure that the introduction is already finished. FOUNDATION THEORY During the eighteenth century man discovered that great law, the Law of the Conservation of Matter. According to it, no matter is ever created or destroyed. ‘The total amount of matter in the uni- verse remains the same. ‘True, matter may be changed in form. Water may be heated into steam or frozen into ice, but its mass remains constant. Matter may be shifted about in the universe. The moon may lose its atmosphere or a meteorite from the bounds of the solar system may fall at our feet, but the total amount of material in the 1 Address of the retiring president, annual At-Home of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada at Toronto, January 24, 1947. Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, vol. 41, No. 3, March 1947. 177 178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 universe remains the same. In any chemical action the final products weigh just as much as the constituents entering it. On one scale of a balance put the coal you throw into your furnace, and pile on, if you can, all the oxygen used in combustion. On the other scale put all the ashes, and all the smoke and gases resulting from the fire. The scales balance. In the nineteenth century was stated another great law, the Law of the Conservation of Energy. No energy is ever created or destroyed. Its form changes, its amount is unaltered. The sun’s energy in the form of light and heat comes racing down to us. It dries up (at least we hope it will tomorrow) our sodden streets. The water, lifted into the clouds, has the potential energy of a raised weight. The winds carry it over Lake Erie and it falls as rain, losing some of its energy in heat, but it is still higher than the Niagara Gorge. It enters the turbines of the Ontario Hydro Electric Commission and its re- maining energy is transformed into electrical energy and distributed at high voltage all over Ontario. It runs our streetcars and lights our cities. It enters our homes, runs our washing machines, our radios, our refrigerators. It cooks our meals, toasts our bread, and heats our bath water. It begins as heat, undergoes many transformations and ends upas heat. None is lost. Nothing of him that doth fade But doth suffer a sea-change Into something rich and strange The twentieth century saw the two laws combined. In 1905 Einstein propounded his theory of relativity which has revolutionized all our thinking in the scientific realm ever since. He claimed that these two conservation laws are two aspects of one more fundamental law, for matter and energy are just two manifestations of the same thing. Neither law taken alone is quite true, for matter can change into energy and energy into matter. Together they are absolute. “The total amount of matter and energy in the universe remains the same.” He went further and wrote down from theory the equation E=me connecting energy # and mass m. If m is given in grams and ¢ is the velocity of light in centimeters per second, then /' is given in ergs. Since in these units c=3 X10", this equation shows that a very small bit of matter will yield an enormous amount of energy. One kilogram (2.2 pounds) of matter, whether of coal or butter, if con- verted entirely into energy would yield 25,000 million kilowatt hours of energy; thus 3 OOO XK DX107 450 5 B= —orx3600xX10" 10”. ATOMIC ENERGY—JOHNS 179 This is equal to the energy that would be generated by the total electric power industry in the United States (as of 1939) running for approximately 2 months. Burning this amount of coal would give us 8.5 kilowatt hours of heat energy, so that the ratio is about 3,000 million to 1. No wonder the tiny losses of matter could not be detected, and there was no confirmation of Einstein’s prediction for 25 years, though he had suggested that radioactive substances should give it. THEORY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE If we are to understand how atomic energy is released we must know something of atomic structure, and form some picture or con- struct some model of an atom. At dinner tonight Mrs. Johns re- marked that the Chinese thought in pictures for theirs is a picture language. One woman under a roof is their ideogram for peace. That picture appeals to us; fundamentally we are all alike. Our models of the atom may not be wholly correct, but if they help our thinking, their creation is justified. We believe now that all atoms are in the main constructed out of three fundamental bricks, the electron, the proton, and the neutron, and from these atoms the whole universe is built up. The electron or Beta-particle is very light and exceedingly small, since 50,000 million placed side by side would stretch across a period at the end of a sentence on a printed page. It carries a unit negative charge of electricity. The proton carries a unit positive charge of electricity, is smaller in volume than the electron, but weighs 1,847 times as much. The neutron was dis- covered in 1932 by Chadwick in England, has a mass close to that of the proton and, as its name would indicate, carries no charge at all. This unique characteristic of neutrons delayed their discovery, prevents us from observing them directly, makes them very pene- trating and so important in nuclear change. From these three basic cosmic units, the 92 elements of chemis- try are built and range from the lightest, hydrogen, to the heaviest, uranium. We conceive the atom as consisting of a central nucleus made up of an approximately equal number of protons and neutrons; and about the same number of electrons revolving as satellites around the nucleus. To be balanced electrically there must be just as many electrons carrying negative charges as protons carrying positive charges. This number is the atomic number of the atom. The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is its atomic weight ap- proximately and is called its mass number. Thus the hydrogen atom has 1 proton as nucleus, and 1 satellite electron. So its atomic number is 1 and its mass number 1. The helium atom has a nucleus consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, and 2 satellite electrons. Its atomic num- 180 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 ber is 2 and its mass number 4. Nature’s heaviest atom has 92 protons and 146 neutrons for its nucleus, and 92 satellite electrons. Its atomic number is 92 and its mass number 238. This atom turns out to be the basic source of atomic energy. Atoms themselves are also exceedingly small, for the combined di- ameters of 200 million of them would be an inch long. Even at that they consist mostly of emptiness, for if the nucleus were enlarged to a baseball, the satellite electrons would be specks some 2,000 feet away. As we know, the solar system is also mostly empty. In round numbers for both the atom and the solar system the radius of the whole is 10,000 times the radius of the central sun. The analogy is striking. The chemical properties of any substance are determined by the satellite electrons. In this sense then, chemistry is concerned only with the superstructure of the atoms, and never comes to grips with 7 ao) Se ene EN ~ SS ~e.- ” ~ 2 w---=— HYDROGEN ATOM HELIUM ATOM URANIUM ATOM Figure 1. the nucleus. The 92 elements of chemistry have the 92 kinds of superstructure. Though the satellite electrons move at high speed their mass is negligible, so that the energy values involved are rela- tively small and chemical changes can yield but little energy. ISOTOPES An architect with only 92 house elevations could design many more than 92 interiors. Similarly nature assisted by man has designed upwards of 600 atoms despite the fact that only 92 exteriors seemed possible. This is accomplished by the addition to or subtraction from the nucleus of neutrons, thus changing the mass number. These new atoms are called isotopes of the original and are chemically indis- tinguishable from them. Thus heavy hydrogen has 1 proton and 1 neutron in its nucleus and 1 satellite electron, so that it is almost twice as heavy as ordinary hydrogen, but has the same chemical prop- ATOMIC ENERGY—JOHNS 181 erties. Heavy water is built up from heavy hydrogen and oxygen. It is very expensive and is used by the ton in the atomic-energy plant at Chalk River. Natural carbon consists of 99 percent of ,C” and 1 percent of ,C*’, the former having as nucleus 6 protons and 6 neutrons and the latter 6 protons and 7 neutrons. The respective atomic weights are 12 and 18. Both are carbon with atomic number 6. Uranium as found in nature consists of three isotopes, a trace of U** with 142 neutrons, 0.7 percent of U**® with 143 neutrons, and 99.3 percent of U*8 with 146 neutrons. It turns out that the valuable one for securing the release of atomic energy is U***, but it is found mixed with 139 parts of U**. If the proportion in nature had been reversed, the Germans would have won the war. ATOMIC ENERGY RELEASED BY NATURE We have seen that chemical actions, which are always concerned with the superstructure of the atom, yield comparatively little en- ergy. To secure larger amounts the nucleus of the atom must be in- vaded. I shall cite two illustrations of such energy release which is going on in nature. The first is radioactivity. It has been known for about 50 years that the element radium is continuously shooting out projectiles at terrific speeds. Such emanations are of three types, «-particles which are the nuclei of helium atoms, £-particles or electrons, and y-rays which are similar to X-rays. By a series of transformations an atom of radium, s:Ra”*, with mass number 226 and atomic number 88 gives off, besides y-rays, five «-particles and four B-particles to become an atom of lead, s.Pb?°°, with mass number 206 and atomic number 82. The mass numbers check, since each helium atom has a mass number of 4 and 5X4=20 is the loss in mass number. The atomic numbers also check, since 5X2=10 units of positive charge are lost with the five «-particles, and four unit negative charges with the four elec- trons—a net loss of six units of positive charge from the nucleus. Radium is being transformed into lead before our eyes. In about 1,600 years half our radium will be so transformed. In another 1,600 years half of what remained, and so on. Hence we speak of the half- life of radium as 1,600 years. Always some radium will remain. Our second illustration is of special interest to the astronomer. We are told that the sun in every second of time is giving out 10” kilowatt hours of energy and has been doing this for some 10° or 10° years. Using Einstein’s equation H=me?, we find that this is equivalent to the transformation of 250 million tons of matter into energy every minute over this tremendous span of time. Professor 182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Bethe of Cornell suggests that the source of this energy is atomic and gives us the following “carbon cycle” of nuclear reactions. gC’?-++,H! Balas “NB +y 7N8 enemies «C+, e° sC®+,H? Tere yN4+¥ :NY +H? —> ,08-++y so" : 7N5-+Le° 2N Hi —> aC? +-,He* In this cycle enter one isotope of oxygen, three of nitrogen, and two of carbon. The net result of the cycle is to leave the carbon unchanged, emit three y-rays and two positrons, ,e° (the counterpart of the electron with a unit positive charge), and convert four atoms of hydrogen into one atom of helium. Now the mass of four atoms of hydrogen is 4.032 units while that of one atom of helium is 4.004. The difference of 0.028 units, which amounts to about 74, of 1 percent of the original, has been transformed into energy. The late Sir James Jeans made this statement, “A sun in which only 14 of 1 percent. was hydrogen could provide the present sun’s radiation for 2,000 million years, and it is fairly certain that the sun contains more hydrogen than this.” ? ATOMIC ENERGY RELEASED BY MAN—FISSION For the splitting of an atom man has at his disposal some very high-power projectiles in the form of neutrons, deuterons, protons, a-particles, y-rays, and rarely heavy particles. It is difficult to hit the nucleus of an atom with a charged particle, since either the shelter- ing cloud of electrons or the repulsive force of the nucleus will turn the missile aside. But neutrons, having no charge, can be deflected only by a direct collision and so are most effective as atom smashers. Using neutrons, men began bombarding all the elements, and it was found that in general the nucleus absorbed the neutron, achieved stability by emitting an electron, and formed a nucleus with atomic number and mass number each one higher than the original. It was natural to investigate what would happen when uranium, the heaviest element, was bombarded with neutrons. Late in 1938 O. Hahn of Germany (who in 1945 was given the Nobel Prize), showed that the heavy uranium nucleus was broken and that one of the fission products 2 For details I commend to you the book “Atomic Artillery and the Atomic Bomb,” written by my old friend and classmate, Prof. J. K. Robertson of Queen’s University. I am indebted to him for some of these ideas and even some of the phrasing. ATOMIC ENERGY—JOHNS 183 was barium. Extensive experiments in both Europe and America had by June 1939 confirmed this atomic fission. Here I only mention three of the many then known facts, but will amplify them later. (1) The products of the atomic fission were two unequal fragments near the middle of the table of atoms, for example, barium and krypton. (2) Tremendous amounts of energy were given off in the process. (3) From each atomic fission caused by one neutron, one to three neutrons arose. Graphically the fission may be indicated thus: FISSION FRAGMENT ONE TO THREE NEUTRONS FISSION FRAGMENT Figure 2. NEUTRON Here then was something new under the sun. Atomic fission was a fact. The atom had been split. Then the black curtain of war descended on the world and split the scientists also into isolated groups. THE MASS-DEFECT CURVE—BINDING ENERGY Let us return for a moment to the two illustrations cited of the release of atomic energy in nature, namely, radioactivity and the carbon cycle. It seems remarkable that energy can be released either by the breaking down of the more complex radium atom to the less complex lead atom or by the building up of the more complex helium atom from the less complex hydrogen atom. That both processes yield energy is possible because of the nature of the 92 elements them- selves. It is a fact that the mass per particle (neutron or proton) in the nucleus is greater for either the very light or the very heavy ele- ments than it is for the elements midway between. Hence when hydro- gen is transformed to helium or uranium to barium, mass is lost, and 3For details I commend to your study Smyth’s book, “Atomic Energy for Military Purposes.” 777488—_48——_18, 184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 it appears as energy released. A graphic picture of what happens may be made thus: MASS PER PARTICLE G Lo ea 60 140 MASS NUMBERS 238 Bo. u Figure 3. The mass lost in the change from uranium to barium represented by PQ is 100 times the mass lost in the change from hydrogen to helium represented by RS. The same facts may be stated in terms of energy. The “binding energy” of a nucleus is defined to be the difference between the sum of the masses of all the protons and neutrons which went into its compo- sition and the true nuclear mass. Thus the elements in the middle of the periodic table have the greatest binding energy or are most strongly bound. To break them up energy would have to be supplied; but when atoms of elements near either end of the table are transformed energy is released. A CHAIN REACTION Ordinary combustion is an illustration of a chain reaction. We light a match. It sets fire to some paper. This ignites the kindling next it. This in turn, we hope, will ignite the coal. It is self- sustaining. The fact that more than one neutron came out as a fission product, when only one caused the fission of U**, suggested the possibil- ity of a chain reaction, but no one knew whether or not it would work. If from 1 neutron came 3, from 3, 9, from 9, 27, the reaction would expand at a terrific rate. But it should be remembered that it is the rare isotope U* which is broken by the neutron, and this occurs in nature mixed with 139 times as much U?*. So at least four things could happen to the emitted neutrons. They might (1) escape, (2) be ATOMIC ENERGY—JOHNS 185 captured by U?* without fission, (3) be absorbed by impurities, (4) cause fission of another U** nucleus. To get a chain reaction the number of neutrons in (4) decreased by the sum of those in (1), (2), and (3) must at least equal the original number put in. The first three possibilities must then be reduced toa minimum. The first loss was easily handled by making the pile of uranium being treated large enough. When the edge of a cube is tripled in length, the surface is increased ninefold, but the volume is increased twenty-sevenfold. So the chance of escape through the surface per unit volume is much less than it was before. From theoretical considerations Fermi calculated how large, under attainable conditions, the pile should be and it worked—a marvelous achievement. Losses (2) and (3) were much more difficult to reduce toa minimum. Only the tremendous resources of the United States could make possible their solution, and a billion- dollar plant was built at Oak Ridge, Tenn. Since U** and U?* are chemically indistinguishable they must be separated by physical means from the fact that U?* is the slightly heavier of the two. Thermal diffusion would separate the lighter fluid, U*, just as our mothers got the lighter Devonshire cream on a pan of milk. Gaseous diffusion through barriers allowed the lighter U** gas to pass more readily. The cream-separator trick of the centrifuge brought the lighter U2* to the center and a huge electromagnet could deflect lighter ions more than the heavier ones. Since some substances, for example cadmium, soak up neutrons like a sponge, the problem of obtaining pure ma- terials was also a formidable one. However, these difficulties were sufficiently overcome and a pile was built in the squash court in Stagg Field at the University of Chicago. Cadmium rods were inserted as safety devices and on December 2, 1942, the first self-maintaining nuclear chain reaction was initiated by man, even with the cadmium rods only partly withdrawn. For the well-being of Chicago the pile was torn down and moved to the Argonne Woods, some 40 miles outside Chicago. It should be noted that there are always enough stray neutrons about to start the chain reaction, so that no “match” is required. MODERATORS It was early suggested by Fermi, Compton, and others that slow neutrons, that is thermal or low-energy neutrons, could be used to split U** and that such might not be absorbed by U**. Since the neutrons coming out of the fission are always moving at high speed, a search was begun for so-called moderators which would slow up such neutrons before they were absorbed by U?*. If such could be found, the separation of U?* from U** might not be necessary. Now fast neutrons are hard to stop, for they can pierce several inches of steel 186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 and about 3 feet of concrete, and yet the only way to stop them is to put something in their way. A tennis ball rebounds from the hard court with its velocity only slightly lessened, but if it collides head on with another tennis ball, its energy is passed on to the other and it stops dead. At each collision with a ball heavier than itself part of its energy would be given up. So moderators must have nuclei with masses comparable to the mass of the neutron, if the neutron is to be slowed up at each collision. Also to be useful it must itself not absorb neutrons. The substances with both these characteristics turned out to be carbon and heavy water, and both had to be of high purity. In the first pile at Chicago carbon was used, while at Chalk River heavy water is the moderator. This heavy water was made at Trail, British Columbia, tested at McMaster University, and used at Chalk River. MAN-MADE ELEMENTS When a slow neutron is absorbed by a nucleus of U**, a nucleus of an unstable isotope, U*, is formed. Its half-life is only 23 minutes and from its disintegration a new element, neptunium, with atomic number 93 and mass number 239 is formed. ‘This new element also is unstable with a half-life of 2.3 days and disintegrates to form a second new element, plutonium, with atomic number 94 and mass number 239. The reactions are og U8-+ on} aa og U9 + vy slow gg? Fisaee oN,?+ —10° + 23 minutes o3 N° —— Pu*?+ —1e+y7 2.3 days This isotope ,,Pu?* of plutonium does slowly decay by the emission of an a-particle to »,U***, but its half-life is 24,000 years, so that it is really very stable. Recently the discovery of two more man-made elements has been announced. Since the astronomers in their search of planets beyond Pluto have not kept pace with the discovery of elements beyond plutonium, it is proposed to call these two elements americium and curium respectively, in honor of the Americas and of Pierre and Marie Curie. Plutonium has qualities which make it so tremendously impor- tant that it is largely replacing U*** in both military and peacetime applications. Though usually stable, it is fissionable by slow neutrons just as U”**. It is potentially more abundant since it is created from the much more plentiful U***. It is a different element from uranium and hence can be separated from it by chemical means. So the atomic-energy plant using uranium is allowed to ATOMIC ENERGY—JOHNS 187 run several months, after which the uranium rods are removed and the plutonium created in them is separated out. It is like hunting a needle in a haystack, for 50 kilograms of uranium may have 10 grams of plutonium in it. FISSION PRODUCTS I have already remarked that the kinds of atoms now discovered number upwards of 600, and of these a very large number, well over 200, have arisen as fission products by neutron bombardment of uranium. ‘These fission products range all the way from zinc to sama- rium. Strangely enough they break intotwo groups. The light group consists of those from zine with mass number about 72 to palladium with mass number about 108, and shows the greatest concentration around krypton with mass number 94. The heavy group goes from palladium to samarium with mass number 150 and shows the greatest concentration around barium with mass number 140. Actually about 6 percent is krypton and 6 percent barium, with 97 percent of all fission products grouped closely around these. The minimum is around tin with mass number 117 and the yield there is about 0.01 percent of the whole. For the lighter elements in the periodic table the number of neu- trons in the nucleus is about equal to the number of protons. For in- stance carbon has 6 of each. But as we ascend in the table the propor- tion of neutrons to protons gradually increases until in uranium 238 there are 146 neutrons to 92 protons. So the fission products from uranium, which are near the middle of the table, are overloaded with neutrons and are likely to be unstable and give off beta-rays in succes- sion until a stable product is formed. There are 64 such mass chains of transformations now known, 31 in the light group and 83 in the heavy, and they involve about 164 known active products, and about 64 stable ones. McMaster University, under Dr. Thode’s direction, is given credit for the discovery of eight of the stable products, and one active one, namely, Kr* with a half-life of 10 years. The problems presented to the chemist by these fission products were appalling. He had to separate the minute quantities of these bewildering products from the original uranium and the neptunium and plutonium created there as well. He had to determine what ele- ments were there and what isotope. If the product was radioactive, what was its half-life; was it formed directly or was it part of a chain; and if of a chain, how was it related to other fission products? What energy had the B- and y-rays emitted? These and many other ques- tions confronted the chemist, and he had to work with exceedingly minute quantities and he had to work fast. Any product with half- life of less than 2 seconds cannot yet be identified. One instrument, 188 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 the mass spectrometer, has been his powerful ally. By it he “scans” the fission products and obtains results of surprising accuracy. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF ATOMIC ENERGY The energy released in atomic fission is tremendous. From the smashing of a single uranium nucleus come some 160 million elec- tron volts. (An electron volt is the energy acquired by an electron in moving through a potential difference of 1 volt.) Chemical action might yield 2 or 3 electron volts. The fission of 1 pound of U?** would yield 11,400,000 kilowatt hours of energy. Is it any wonder then that an atomic bomb can do such terrible dam- age? At 8.17 a. m. on August 5, 1945, there was a blinding flash in Hiroshima—a piece of the sun instantaneously created. AIl buildings within a radius of 2 miles were completely destroyed, roofs were off at 5 miles, and glass broken 12 miles away; 95,000 people were killed or missing, and 140,000 more injured. Of 600 girls from a Protestant girls’ school who were scattered over the city, 30 to 40 later returned. The falling roof pinned 50 of those at school under it and they were burned before the eyes of their principal. Such a bomb dropped on the campus of the University of Toronto would wipe out everything from St. Clair to the Lake, and from the Don halfway to High Park, and glass would be broken in Port Credit. Ina twinkling one-quarter of the population of Greater Toronto would be killed or injured. And now they can make bombs 1,000 times as powerful as that. But atomic energy could be and we trust will be a marvelous bless- ing. Already estimates would indicate that atomic-energy plants can deliver energy at 0.8 cents per kilowatt hour. (We pay 0.7 cents for domestic use in Hamilton.) We cannot expect it to power our auto- mobiles. The critical size of a pile to get any power at all, and the tons of steel and concrete necessary to protect us from those penetrating radiations, prevent us from just putting a gram of plutonium in our ear and running it for a lifetime. But such a pile could power an At- lantic liner, and it could provide power in parts of the world where there is neither coal nor hydro. Recently at McMaster I heard a fine address on Canadian Popula- tion Trends by an authority. In all his prognosis the speaker was careful to put in a qualifying “all conditions being the same.” TI re- called a jocular remark made in an after-dinner speech by my old professor, the late Alfred Baker. “It is customary for great men at some time in their lives to make a prophecy. I will make mine now. I predict that in 500 years the center of civilization will be in the Sas- katchewan Valley.” So in the question period I asked the speaker if that were possible. He did not think so. Industrial concentration was unlikely in a land where there was no iron and only poor-grade ATOMIC ENERGY—JOHNS 189 coal. Dr. Thode then rose to say that conditions were not the same. The atomic age had arrived. Power plants can as well be built in Saskatchewan asin Hamilton. Who can predict the industrial future of our Canadian West in this new age? ATOMIC ENERGY IN MEDICINE It was recognized at once that the wealth of radioactive fission products made available in quantity by atomic-energy plants had opened up great new possibilities in medicine. The half-life of some of these is long enough to make them useful. Phosphorus, P *, has a half-life of 14.3 days. Iodine, I‘, has a half-life of 8 days. Treatment by radium may be completely superseded by the use of such new products as these. They can be used as tracers. Radioactive sodium, Na**, injected into the blood stream in one hand reaches the other hand in 20 seconds. If taken internally it reaches the finger tips in 2 or 3 minutes. Radio- active carbon, C14, may help us to understand the whole process of metabolism. Some scientists claim that its production may well be worth all the money spent on atomic fission. Its half-life is about 10,000 years. Iodine, I 7%, if taken into the human system heads for the thyroid gland, as does ordinary iodine. Can cancer of the thyroid be cured by letting iodine, I*’, seek out its prey? Radioactive phosphorus, P *, concentrates in the spleen and liver, so that large doses can be given these organs. Already this isotope has given spectacular re- sults in the treatment of polythemia vera, a sort of cancer of the red corpuscles. But here, as always, must follow an immense amount of investigation of Just how each fission product acts on human tissue, what human enemy does it attack, and what is the proper dose that will kill this enemy and not unduly injure healthy tissue. We are just entering the Promised Land—the Atomic Energy Age. CHALK RIVER I had hoped to speak briefly on our Canadian atomic-energy plant at Chalk River, which I visited last summer. However, this lecture is already too long so that my remarks on this topic must be very sketchy. This site, halfway between North Bay and Ottawa, on the Ottawa River, was chosen because it had three main qualifications. It had an ample supply of pure water, it was accessible for bringing in heavy machinery, and it was not near large centers of population in ease of accident. In less than 3 years huge buildings have been erected and these are carefully guarded. In order to gain entrance, 190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 one has to lay plans some weeks in advance, be finger-printed, have his past history checked, and declare that he will not sell out to the enemy. Inside is the sign, “What you see here, what you hear here, stays here when you leave here.” In some respects it is almost like a university, for there were lectures almost daily, as each department tried to keep the others informed of its latest discovery. Everywhere the greatest precautions are taken for safeguarding the health of the workers and visitors. In certain buildings cloth shoes and coats are provided, to insure that we did not inadvertantly pick up some radio- active particle, which might cause a burn. The chemists watched their experiments through periscopes. No work is being done on atomic bombs, but important investigations in industrial and medical ap- plications of atomic energy are under way. I found it a stimulating, almost an exciting place, to visit. The workers at the Chalk River plant are housed in a town site, Deep River, 12 miles by bus up the Ottawa River. This, too, had a guardhouse at its entrance. Three years ago the site was just sand with a light stand of evergreen and birch. Bulldozers ripped out the streets, sidewalks went down, some 400 houses went up, and now behold a town of some 2,000 people. A staff house shelters and feeds about 200 workers and guests. There is a general store, a five-room public school, a hospital with plenty of maternity cases, a recreation center, and a church being organized. Some 20 clubs, camera, chess, skiing, etc., flourish. It is a young people’s town. The number of academic degrees held by its inhabitants per capita is probably the highest in Canada. CONCLUSION I conclude with the following quotation from the Presidential Address to the British Association delivered in 1934 by the late Sir James Jeans: Science has given man control over nature before he has gained control over himself. The tragedy does not lie in man having so much scientific control over nature, but in his having so little control over himself. Human nature changes very slowly and so forever lags behind human knowledge which accumulates very rapidly. Scientific knowledge is transmitted from one generation to another while acquired characteristics are not. Thus in respect of knowledge each generation stands on the shoulders of its predecessor but in respect of human nature both stand on the same ground. TELEGRAPHY—PONY EXPRESS TO BEAM RADIO? By GrorGe C. HIL1is General Inspector, Western Union Telegraph Co. New York, N. Y. [With 3 plates] Inasmuch as the Western Society of Engineers is composed of many branches of the engineering profession who may not be familiar with terms used in the communications field, I shall endeavor to review the progress of written communications from the early Morse days to the recently developed microwave radio beam in what our transmis- sion research engineer, F, B. Bramhall, likes to call “basic barnyard English.” To many people, a telegram calls to mind a mental picture of a Western Union messenger boy pedaling his bicycle down the street, or of a Morse operator copying a message by listening to the dots and dashes of a sounder. New and improved methods of operation have made strides to change this mental picture of telegraphy. The telegraph was invented in 1832 and mechanically perfected in 1837 by Samuel F. B. Morse. The first practical telegraph instru- ment, as he termed it, was exhibited in his rooms at New York Uni- versity. His receiver consisted of a magnetically operated pendulum mounted on a picture frame, marking on a moving paper tape. It was not until 1844 that the first public telegraph message “What hath God wrought?” was sent by Morse over the first line from Washington, D. C., to Baltimore. The marked paper tape had to be deciphered by the receiving opera- tor and the message written on a blank. The speed of operation de- pended on the ability of the sending operator and the receiving equip- ment and was probably less than 10 words a minute. It took but a short time before the receiving operator found he could read the dots and dashes without having to look at the tape— translating the sound was much easier. Improvement in apparatus allowed the operator to send about 11 dots per second with a semi- automatic sending machine termed a “bug.” Exceptionally good sending and receiving operators could handle an average of 100 short messages an hour. 1 Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the Western Society of Engineers, vol. 51, No. 3, pt. 1, September 1946. 191 192 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Duplex telegraphy was invented by the president of the Franklin Telegraph Co. in 1872. This allowed simultaneous sending and re- ceiving at each end of the circuit, doubling the circuit capacity. The Western Union purchased this patent, then made arrangements with Thomas A. Edison to see if any latent possibilities could be developed. After considerable experimenting, Mr. Edison invented the Quad- ruplex. This method allowed two simultaneous sendings in each direction. The single circuit capacity had now been increased four- fold. The Wheatstone siphon recorder, an English invention, was brought to this country in 1883 and was used extensively on the earlier cable circuits. It was soon replaced on land lines by a faster type Wheat- stone recorder. An inked wheel marked the dots and dashes upon a rapidly moving strip of paper. Signals from both of these systems were transmitted from perforated tape. The recorder could handle about 90 words per minute, but it was necessary to translate the tape and write the message on a blank. During the period 1901 to 1910, many printing telegraph systems were developed. The better known were the House system which printed on a strip of paper and the Buckingham system which printed directly on a message blank. The Barclay system was developed from Buckingham patents about 1904-05 and was the first printer to stand up under heavy traffic. It would handle about 50 words per minute but required frequent and careful adjustment of the selecting mechanism. It was soon re- placed by the Morkrum-Kleinschmidt printer, an invention of Howard Krum of Chicago. About 1912 the Western Union-developed page printer had been installed on the heavier circuits between New York and San Fran- cisco. The first printer had a stationary carriage and movable type wheel. Later on, a type bar printer was developed which used the Baudot code system and is now being used in conjunction with the Multiplex. The present 21—A tape printer will handle 72 words per minute with average maintenance whereas the earlier printers re- quired continual adjusting. It was soon found that the line-wire circuit was capable of carrying signals much faster than a single operator could send them or faster than a single receiving printer could print them, clear the selecting mechanism and be ready for a second incoming signal. In order to make full use of the circuit, it was necessary to develop a method which could handle signal impulses to the full capacity of the circuit. This system is known as the Multiplex and is used throughout our system to handle the major portion of trunk-line traffic. The Multiplex divides the use of the circuit among a number of channels. The sending distributor picks up signals from the trans- TELEGRAPH Y—HILLIS 193 mitting units of the different channels and turns them to the line in proper sequence. At the distant terminal they are picked up by a receiving distributor and turned to the corresponding printers. In order for the transmitter on channel 1 to send to the distant printer on channel 1, it is necessary to synchronize the sending and receiv- ing distributors and drive them at closely regulated speeds by syn- chronous motors. Alternating current for the motors is supplied by accurately regu- lated tuning forks. After the receiving distributor is brought in phase, an accurate phase-correction circuit is applied which will hold the receiving distributor in step with the distant sending distributor. It is not necessary to transmit a special phasing pulse as the phase-cor- rection circuit operates from line intelligence signals. Experiments have been made in driving the sending and receiving distributors from a common frequency source and using no correction at the receiving end. Long distances between terminals has prevented the adoption of this method of maintaining synchronism because of the lack of a common power source. The Multiplex is operated duplex, as 2, 3, or 4 channels, depending upon traffic load and circuit conditions. A standard operating speed of 66 words per minute has been adopted in order to facilitate the patching of channels between Multiplex systems. A 4-channel system, duplexed, working at 66 words per minute, with 4 sendings at each terminal, will provide a total message capacity of 528 words per minute. This is a considerable increase from 10 words per minute of the original recorder used on the Baltimore-Washing- ton circuit. The Teleprinter has almost entirely replaced the Morse method as a means of operating lightly loaded circuits. Most of you are familiar with this machine which sends from a slightly modified typewriter keyboard and receives on either tape or page copy. The sending and receiving units may be operated independently or in series. The Teleprinter uses the 5-unit code of the Multiplex with the addition of a phasing and stop pulse. The phasing pulse is necessary to start the receiving distributor with the transmitting cam and the stop pulse stops both the receiving and sending units so they will both start in phase for the next signal. Supplementing the Multiplex and Teleprinter, we have the Vario- plex, Telefax, and Photofax. The Varioplex uses the high capacity of the Multiplex system and by means of a control rack, a number of reperforator racks, as many as 36 Teleprinter subchannels may be operated over a single wire. Telefax and Photofax are Western Union developments of the prin- ciples of facsimile. Telefax utilizes the pick-up of a reflected light beam through a photoelectric cell which translates changes of light 194. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 intensity to corresponding changes of electrical intensity as the scan- ning beam passes over the copy being transmitted. At the receiving end, the intelligence may be reconverted to changes of light intensity and recorded on a photographic film as a negative. After developing, a print from the film negative will give a positive of the original material from which transmission was made. The received changes of electrical intensity may be inverted from a negative image to a positive image and recorded by a stylus on dry Teledeltos paper. This gives an immediate positive of the original photograph, message, drawing or other transmitted material without any further processing. Good photograph halftones may be made from this copy. Development of this equipment was halted by the war but our laboratories have resumed research in this method of communication. Telefax installations in China have greatly speeded up communi- cations in that country. Prior to Telefax, it was necessary to assign a number to each Chinese character in order to transmit a message by regular telegraph. This required that a message be coded in num- bers, transmitted by standard telegraph, deciphered, and written on a blank. ‘Transmission by Telefax gives an immediate reproduction of the original message with no chances for errors. The entire con- tents of a standard telegraph blank may be transmitted in a little over 2 minutes. Outside of the commercial telegraph field, one use for this system has been in the handling of railroad train orders where accuracy in transmission is absolutely essential. The transmission of intelligence from the various types of terminal equipment over open wire land lines has proved to be one of our great- est difficulties in the maintenance of uninterrupted service. The phys- ical hazards of sleet, ice, fires, floods, railroad and vehicular wrecks, and tornadoes have caused our Dispatching Bureau many hours of “blood, sweat, and tears.” Poor and corroded wire splices, kite tails that get tangled in the line, the boy (and, I might add, the man) witha 22 rifle, who finds insulators a tempting target, all add up to the inces- sant patrols by our linemen. Interference caused by inductive coupling to power lines, lighting, and the interference induced by adjacent telegraph circuits have lim- ited the distance over which transmission may be satisfactory without repeaters. When the signals become too badly mutilated, they may be rebuilt by regenerative repeaters, but this equipment is expensive and requires expert maintenance and adjustment. In a grounded telegraph system such as we use extensively, a bat- tery is applied to one end of the wire and the opposite end grounded, thus completing the circuit through the ground back to the battery. TELEGRAPH Y—HILLIS 195 Any disturbance to the earth potential will seriously affect operation over this type of circuit. On the morning of March 23-24, 1940, approximately 800 volts difference in earth potential was observed between New York City and Binghamton, N. Y. This means that with one of the wires grounded at Binghamton, the New York test- board attendant would see on his voltmeter connected to the New York end of the wire, not the Binghamton ground but anywhere from 0 to 800 volts of battery and varying from positive to negative. At times the maximum potential would hold steady for 30 seconds or more, decrease in intensity, then suddenly reverse potential and increase in intensity until approximately 800 volts of the opposite potential was reached. Under these conditions, telegraph signals of 160- or 240-volt potential were entirely obliterated. Trouble is also experienced during very wet weather when a thin film of water on the glass insulators acts as a high resistance conductor and allows a small portion of the transmitted battery to leak off to ground at each telegraph pole and return to the transmitting station. Although this is a very small amount at each pole, when you have a 200-mile circuit with 40 poles per mile, 8,000 such leaks do not allow much of the transmitted signal to get through to the distant end. When a second wire is substituted for the ground return, many of the above troubles are eliminated. This type of operation requires twice the wire facilities for the same number of circuits. One type of metallic system used by the telegraph company provides three excellent circuits from four wires. In order to provide a more stable means of transmitting intelligence between terminals which would not be affected by the inherent hazards of grounded operation and provide a number of circuits over a pair of wires, the Western Union began experimenting with carrier operation in 1927. The first 4-wire, amplitude-modulated carrier system was placed in service between New York City and Buffalo. While this system was a great improvement over physically grounded operation, it needed many improvements. The B-3 system was placed in operation a short time later between New York and Chicago. This was a 4-wire, amplitude-modulated system originally designed for 20 operating channels. Channel fre- quencies ran from 450 cycles to 6,450 cycles with a 300-cycle channel width. Carrier current for the individual channels was provided by a Hammond generator, an adaption of the same machine that supplies the basic tones for a Hammond electric organ. The addition of an automatic bias corrector to the channel terminals to compensate for changes in the received level, made these circuits far better than any ground return circuits for the operation of high- 196 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 speed Multiplex circuits where the line frequency reaches 66 cycles per second on certain letter combinations. The amplitude-modulated system still had difficulties inherent in this type of operation. Any variation in the received signal strength had to be compensated for by similar changes in the relay bias circuit. Your amplitude-modulated radio suffers from the same types of interference. Continual research by our Carrier System Development Group pro- duced the first frequency-modulated terminal in 1937. A series of imrovements led to the installation of the first type “EE” carrier system between Dallas and Los Angeles in the fall of 1942. This was a two- wire system, using frequency-modulated terminals and provided one voice channel in each direction of transmission. The frequencies of the nine telegraph channels in the west-bound voice band range from 750 cycles to 3,150 cycles and the east-bound band from 4,050 cycles to 6,450 cycles. The frequency-modulated telegraph channe] will continue to deliver a perfect signal even though the input power to the receiving channel amplifier may drop to one three-hundredths of the standard value. The FM telegraph channels have contiuued to work without inter- ruption when the physical wires over which they were working were so badly weather-bound by heavy fog that Morse signals could not be read between Chicago and Indianapolis. This system has also con- tinued to work when one wire of the pair was broken and both ends lay on the ground. The type “F” is also a two-wire system which provides two voice bands in each direction with a top freqency of 16 kilocycles. The two- wire type “G” system provides four voice bands in each direction with the top frequency of 30 kilocycles. Nine wide-band FM channels may be placed on one voice band. These channels will carry signaling frequencies up to about 75 cycles per second. Sixteen narrow-band FM telegraph channels may also be placed on a voice band. The narrow-band channel is designed for a top frequency of about 33 cycles per second and will be largely used for Teleprinter operation. Even with all the margin provided by FM operation, interruptions to the service were caused by weather conditions over which we had no control. Early in the spring of 1946, ice formed on the wires in the vicinity of Sidney, Nebr., until they became 38 inches in diameter. The weight of this much ice will break the wires in many places and if there is a slight wind, the ice-covered wires will start to swing and break off many poles, sometimes every pole between sections that are not extra-heavily braced. Terminal equipment appeared satisfactory, but trouble-free trans- mission was required between terminals in order to render the best TELEGRAPH Y—HILLIS 197 possible telegraph service. Coaxial cable will provide this type of service where large numbers of circuits are required, but the cost is high and where high frequencies are used, repeaters are required at frequent intervals. The Western Union electronic laboratory at Water Mill, Long Island, has continuously investigated the possibility of radio as a medium of transmission. Up to 1940, the use of radio was not advis- able, for the frequencies used at the time did not provide the continuous 24-hour service the year around that is required for dependable telegraph circuit stability. The concentrated development in the ultra-short-wave spectrum for radar techniques during the war disclosed that when the superhigh frequencies were propagated under line-of-sight conditions, they ap- peared to be quite stable. They were not affected by magnetic storms or lightning discharges so it was apparent that this method of trans- mission might be the solution to our problems. Before the war, equipment was not available to construct oscillators which would generate frequencies much above 400 megacycles. Os- cillator tank circuits were reduced in size until the capacity between elements in the vacuum tube was used as tank capacity and a single turn of wire for the tank inductance. The answer to generating still higher frequencies was found in a new type of tube which utilizes the speed of electron travel. Two types of tubes of this classification were used during the war for radar work. They are the Magnetron and Klystron. The Magnetron was developed by Dr. Hull in the General Electric laboratories and was improved on from time to time. Rus- sian scientists added a bit, but it was not until about 1940 that English scientists made further improvements which enabled them to use the tube for high-frequency generation. The Klystron tube was in- vented by the Varian brothers at Stanford University. Hither of these tubes is capable of generating frequencies up to 30,000 mega- cycles. It has been found that at these high frequencies, where the wave lengths become several centimeters or less, they may be controlled in much the same manner as light. There is still a long way to go before the wave length of visible light is reached. At a frequency of 4,000 megacycles, the wave length is 7.5 centimeters or 3 inches, while in- visible infrared rays have a wave length of about 0.01 centimeter in length and the wave lengths of visible light rays range from 0.00007 to 0.00004 centimeter in length. A parabolic reflector, such as is used to concentrate the small candle- power of a tiny incandescent lamp in an automobile headlight, may also be used to concentrate the radiation of the microwaves. It is not practical in standard broadcast wave lengths, for in order to concen- ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 198 "(SINGS}}{d-UoJZUIYSeM-AIOX AON ‘Ulo}SAS ABOI GAVMOIDIYY—T FAAS ‘9078 + UIMOL ,06 000 A313 NOLWIS AVR | NOLONIHSWM UIMOL ,02) ove A313 NUSASS TWNINYBL KVIA O sancisael ey Aaa | IH SND y9nd30383 cemee 3 wana ,001 > < YOoaN W713 Y3MOL ,09 Bolee lt Tete 4 og ‘A313 “psy fy yavd TIGNVO é pea UaMOL ,001 Vy? _|}@ ousessous fll AI Taunv7 LW UIKOL | ,004 0¥6 sinc in 09e2 A313 Stee eenan 0693 fm aN ITHASHSHVE 30150 1M Cy) zi 2H, | / 0001 A313 H OOo esis ' ¥aMOL ,00} Vey tst, A ed Nees waMoL 09, ooee am oS () 9h ‘A373 096 A373 NBT Ana be uae ANSHOS LY o> «6 S90EBIOOM WOON ASNOH KOH mm jOvee A313 yaMQL OOF 7 ~ 13 ‘LW ama 0182 “A313 ~~ fi J TH W3YyNVvI oe UIMOL ,001 092 ‘A313 YaMOL ,00F EES ITUASYATTIS oveh A373 b Loa (oss A373 NOILWLS HOYNESLLd I SINVHS3N SY3MOL 40 NOILVAS13 GNV NOILVDO1 Rev ae Meni Ca eas HOYNGSL Ld - NOLONIHSVM - YYOA MSN 3030'0'M WSISAS AV13Y4 OIdVY WYOA MIN TELEGRAPH Y—HILLIS 199 trate the broadcast frequencies of 720 kilocycles into a beam 6° in width, it would take a parabolic reflector approximately 13,000 feet in diameter. Now to concentrate the radiation of 4,000 megacycles into the same field pattern, we would need a reflector only 30 inches in diameter. With such a reflector, instead of letting the radio waves go off into free space in all directions, we are able to concentrate them into a beam only 6° in width, the angle being inversely proportional to the dia- meter of the reflector. This results in a very small field of intense radio energy at the point at which the beam is aimed. In fact, the reflector increases the energy 30 decibels, which is a gain in power of 1,000 to 1. For example, a nondirective antenna might require 1,000 watts to give the required field strength at a given point. With the parabolic reflector, only 1 watt of power would be required. If the receiving antenna is surrounded by an identical reflector, the receiver will pick up 1,000 times as much power as it would if the antenna was out in free space. The net practical result is that radio repeater stations may be spaced about 50 miles apart and we will require only one-tenth of 1 watt of radiated power to give dependable 24-hour service, where before we would require 90 to 100 kilowatts. The ability to concentrate the microwaves in a small space makes it possible to use the same frequency for sending or receiving from as many as eight positions at one location, or one for every 45° of the compass. All radio waves are propagated in straight lines, microwaves in- cluded. The difference between the longer standard broadcast waves and microwaves is that when the low-frequency waves enter the ionized layers of the upper atmosphere, this refractive medium causes them to be bent and some will return to the earth. Here they are reflected upward from the ground and again refracted to appear a second time on the earth. If the sending-signal strength is great enough and the signals enter the upper atmosphere at the correct angle, they may be reflected back and forth and eventually go around the earth. The height of the ionized layer that causes the low-frequency waves to be bent back to the earth varies continuously. The F-layer ioniza- tion decreases after sunset and reaches a minimum just before sunrise. After sunrise it splits into two distinct layers of ionization, which are termed F-1 and F-2. These layers remain separate during the day but merge into one at sunset. The average height of the F layer is about 185 miles, the F-1, 140-160 miles, and the F-2 150-250 miles. A long-wave-length signal entering these ionized regions at a con- stant angle will not always return to the earth at the same place as the skip distance varies as the height of the ionized layers change dur- 1774884814 200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 ing the day. The skip distance not only depends upon the time of day, but the phase of the sunspot cycle, the geographical location of the transmission path, and the season of the year. Maintaining communi- cations by use of this medium could not be considered reliable enough for the telegraph company’s use. When the microwaves enter this ionized region of the upper atmos- phere they pass through it, regardless of the angle at which they enter. This makes it necessary to transmit them parallel to the surface of the earth, catch them before they leave the earth at the horizon and retransmit them to the next tower. While the retransmission from tower to tower is more expensive than a standard broadcast which uses the ionization refraction for retransmission, it gives us a 24-hour- a-day service that the longer-wave-length frequencies can never equal in dependability. During March 1946 there were a number of magnetic storms, some of such severity as to blank out commercial radio, halting trans-Atlan- tic air travel, while the microwave beam circuit showed no interfer- ence from the aurora borealis. At this high frequency we are not bothered by any man-made or nature-made static; it is even above that of a lightning discharge. Tests were made by having an airplane fly directly in the path of the beam. No serious deflections of the received power level were noted until the plane was about 50 feet from the reflector. Several difficulties were encountered in developing the transmission of the microwaves when the beam was transmitted parallel to the sur- face of the earth. One is the absorption of energy by water vapor in the air, but this is not serious for wave lengths greater than 5 centime- ters. For the shorter wave lengths, such as at 1 centimeter, a heavy rainfall will drop the receiving power level 5 decibels, which would not be noticed in FM reception, but a cloudburst along a 1-mile path of the beam will drop the received level to one-thousandth of the normal value. A slow signal fading was noted throughout the year, but in the FM receiver this change caused no harm. A more serious type of fading was noted in the latter part of June 1945, when in the early morning hours of a still night, especially dur- ing periods when the humidity was high, the received signal strength would fiuctuate wildly. The transmitting power was increased but the results were still unsatisfactory. An investigation of the field strength at the receiving tower disclosed that the line-of-sight signal was being canceled by an out-of-phase signal. By placing a second receiving reflector between 25 and 27 feet below the upper one and using the combined output from the two reflectors, a fairly steady signal could be obtained as the fading did not appear simultaneously TELEGRAPH Y—HILLIS 201 at both reflectors. The resultant signal variation is well within the limits of the FM receiver and excellent results have been obtained. The present explanation is that during periods of perfect calm there is a stratification of either temperature or humidity or both which will refract the transmitting signal causing a multipath re- ception at the receiving parabola. Studies indicate that the initial installation cost and annual ex- pense of operation of a microwave relay system will be less than that of a land line, especially if the capacity of the microwave system is fully utilized. Very little time will be required for installation of the towers and they can be moved without too much trouble. Relocat- ing any stretch of land line is a long-drawn-out operation, with numerous interruptions to service. These and many other advantages led the Western Union to ini- tiate a comprehensive experimental program for the use of micro- waves for commercial telegraphy. A patent license agreement was entered into with the Radio Corp. of America in July 1944 for use of the necessary radio circuit patents. Similar arrangements have also been made to use the Armstrong method of frequency modulation. The design of the radio equipment has been rapidly developed from what were essentially radar techniques to those that will meet the requirements of telegraphy by the Victor Division of the Radio Corp. of America at Camden, N. J. The telegraph company’s engineers have developed the high-capacity WN-2 carrier system which will be used in conjunction with the microwave beam system. The Western Union carrier which feeds into the radio transmitter will consist of 32 voice channels, each of which may carry either 16 narrow-band telegraph channels, a telephone, or a facsimile cir- cuit. The 16 narrow-band telegraph channels are in two groups of 8, each of which has a frequency spread of 525 cycles for channel 1 to 1,575 cycles for channel 8. By means of a frequency translator, iden- tical terminal equipment is used for the second group, which, after translation in frequency, appears as a band from 2,025 cycles to 3,075 cycles. Thus the two groups fill a voice channel that has a band width of approximately 300 to 3,300 cycles. This means that only eight basic telegraph channels are required. Sixty-four duplications of each of the eight channels will be used for the entire carrier system instead of a total of 512 channel terminals, each having a different frequency. This is made possible by the frequency translator or varistor, a simple copper oxide or crystal rectifier. The output of each of the 32 voice bands will be identical but, again by using the frequency translator, each voice band has its output translated so that they may be “stacked” one above the other in the frequency spectrum, and at the carrier system output there will be 202 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 frequencies of 525 to 150,000 cycles, all originating from eight basic channel frequencies. The potential capacity of this system is enormous. If nine wide- band, high-speed carrier channel terminals were assigned to each of the 82 voice channels, we would have 288 channels over which we could operate the 4-channel Multiplex. This would give us 1,152 Multiplex channels, each operating at 66 words per minute, a total of 76,032 words per minute in each direction over the entire carrier system. In case we should get both feet clear off the ground and assign a 36-channel Varioplex system to each of the 288 high-speed carrier telegraph channels, we could get 10,3868 sending and receiving Tele- printer circuits for subscriber service. If the narrow-band telegraph channel terminals were used on the 82-voice channel carrier system, we would have 512 sending and receiv- ing positions at each terminal. During the first stage of the modernization program, a number of 2-channel Multiplex circuits will be established between the larger offices. ‘These will operate at 66 words per minute, or a line frequency of 33 cycles per second. In the ultimate, plans are to discontinue the use of the Multiplex with its complicated equipment and use nothing but Teleprinter circuits, as the simplicity and flexibility of this type of equipment will more than offset the high load capacity of the Multiplex. Radio relay stations will be spaced from 20 to 50 miles apart, de- pending upon the topography of the land. The location will also depend upon the availability of satisfactory commercial power and will be near good roads. The height of the open steel towers will range from 60 to 120 feet, as it seems advisable that the transmitted beam clear any obstacle by 30 to 50 feet. A small cabin 12 feet square and 9 feet high will be mounted at the top of the tower. Windows which will be transparent to the micro- waves will be provided. Several materials are available for this use, such as plexiglass, laminated bakelite, but tests indicate that impreg- nated fiberglass cloth has the lowest loss for the high-frequency waves. Ice on an open reflector apparently does little harm, while wet snow will cause a large drop in signal strength. Provisions will be made to house a total of four reflectors with their accompanying high-fre- quency oscillator circuit cabinets in each tower. A sturdily constructed concrete building about 16 by 30 feet will be located at the base of the tower. It will be heated in the winter and ventilated in the summer in order to keep the humidity as low as possible. The balance of the radio equipment and a reserve power plant will TELEGRAPH Y—HILLIS 203 be located in this building. The radio equipment is designed to work from single-phase, 60-cycle commercial power. In the event of a com- mercial power failure, the radio load will be automatically transferred to the output of a storage-battery-driven alternator or vibrator. At the same time a gasoline-engine-driven alternator is automatically started and after the engine has reached operating speed, the radio load is transferred to this power supply and remains there until the commercial power is restored. fission products+-neutrons-t energy (1) The neutrons liberated in this fission are fast neutrons, and in the case of the natural uranium constituting such chain-reacting units these would react preferentially with the large amount of U?* (99.3 percent by weight) and not leave enough neutrons to react with the U** to maintain the chain-reaction unless special precautions are taken. If the neutrons are reduced in energy this situation no longer applies, as the probability of the fission reaction increases markedly with decrease in neutron energy. In the uranium-graphite lattice structure, in which lumps of uranium are interspersed in a graphite matrix, the graphite slows down the fission neutrons without captur- ing them. ‘The fission neutrons which originally escaped from the uranium then return from the graphite to the uranium, and after the proper proportion undergo reaction 1 again in order to perpetuate the chain, the majority of the remainder undergo the following reaction: (UP Se yy Ee Np”? — > Pu9 (2) leading to the production of plutonium. However, a certain proportion of the fission neutrons have a sufii- ciently high energy to produce the following reaction: U*8.n —> U2"L2n (3) before they escape from the uranium into the graphite. The U*" formed in this manner decays to the above-mentioned Np*”, thus lead- ing to the production of this isotope in the uranium in addition to the primary desired product, Pu**, and the fission byproducts. In a uranium-graphite pile the Np**" is produced at a rate corresponding to the order of 0.1 percent of that of the primary product, Pu®®. Some of the isotope Np” has been recovered by suitable modification of the chemical separation process used at Hanford. As a result of this work and these special runs, several hundred milligrams of the isotope Np** have been recovered and made available for the investiga- tion of its chemical properties. Using this material, it has been possible to make an intensive study of the chemical properties of neptunium, leading to the establishment of its oxidation states and the properties of a large number of its compounds. This work has shown that neptunium has the oxidation states VI, V, IV, and III with a general shift in stability toward the lower oxidation states as compared to uranium. 210 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 The relatively low specific «-activity of the isotope Np*” places the element neptunium in a class by itself in the transuranium group because it is relatively safe to handle from the health standpoint. The other transuranium elements are so highly a-radioactive that spe- cial techniques and precautions are mandatory when they are handled in ordinary, let us say milligram, amounts. However, the half-life of Np*’, 2.25 X 10° years, corresponds to a specific a-particle activity of some 114 million a-particles per minute per milligram, only about 1,000 times that of ordinary uranium. Material of this level of radio- activity can be handled without special equipment, provided reasonable care and precautions are observed. It seems desirable to work toward the modification of the chemical separation processes used in the plutonium manufacturing plants in such a manner that the neptunium will be completely recovered in a routine manner and it seems likely that this will be done sometime in the future. When neptunium becomes available in moderate amounts, one can visualize its eventual classification as an element whose avail- ability to chemists as a whole for study will rank along with a number of the rarer elements in the classical periodic table. In fact, it is not out of the question that neptunium may -some day be used sparingly in university laboratory courses in qualitative analysis and advanced inorganic chemistry and in courses in nuclear chemistry and physics. PLUTONIUM Plutonium was the second transuranium element to be discovered. The first isotope to be fund was Pu**, an a-emitter of some 50 years’ half-life, formed according to the following reactions: U*8 +H? —> Np*8-+-2n (4) B- Np** ——> Pu (5) 2.0-day The chemistry of plutonium was first investigated by the tracer technique using this isotope. These experiments showed that the chemical properties of this element are similar to those of neptunium and uranium, differing in that the lower oxidation states of plutonium are more stable. The isotope of major importance is, of course, Pu**. ‘This isotope, which is an a-emitter with a half-life of about 24,000 years, is synthesized according to reactions 1 and 2 above, and its tremendous importance stems from its property of being fissionable with slow neutrons, together with the fact that the problem of its mass production has been solved. PLUTONIUM—SEABORG 211 The Plutonium Project of the Manhattan District was organized for the purpose of producing this isotope, the explosive ingredient for the atomic bomb. The first isolation of pure Pu*® and the early study of its chemistry and the design of the chemical process for its large-scale separation from uranium and fission products, which involved work on the ultramicrochemical scale with only microgram amounts of material, have been described in previous discussions. The availability of the relatively large amounts of plutonium, as the result of the successful operation of the chain-reacting uranium piles, has made it possible to make a complete investigation of its chemical properties using methods which can be considered to be those of ordi- nary chemistry except for the health precautions which are necessary. This work has established that plutonium has the oxidation states VI, V, IV, and III, and that there is a shift in stability toward the III state as compared to neptunium and uranium. A large number of compounds of plutonium have been prepared and their properties determined. It may be said that the chemistry of plutonium today is as well or better understood than is that of most of the elements in the periodic system, even though its chemistry is very complex as can be judged by the multiple oxidation states. Because of its relatively high specific a-radioactivity, amounting to about 140,000,000 « disintegrations per minute per milligram, special equipment and special precautions are necessary in the investigations of its properties. This high «-radioactvity makes it expedient to con- tinue to use rather small amounts—that is milligram amounts—for a number of these investigations even though large amounts might be available. Even if there were no other reasons, its high a-radio- activity places plutonium outside of the class of elements which might eventually find widespread distribution among chemists for investi- gation of its chemical properties. As I have indicated earlier, the question as to the existence of trans- uranium elements in nature has long been a matter for speculation and investigation. It was also indicated that it is now almost certainly known that these elements do not exist in appreciable amounts on the face of the earth. I wouid like to discuss this matter further because it is true that one of these elements, plutonium, has been experimentally found to exist in nature in minute amount. The knowledge of the chemical properties of neptunium and plu- tonium which had become available as a result of the discovery and study of these elements made it possible to conduct very effective searches for these elements in various minerals. Early in 1942 G. T. Seaborg and M. L. Perlman in Berkeley undertook a search for these elements in pitchblende ore, the primary purpose at that time being to establish whether such a source of a fissionable transuranium isotope might serve as a practical source capable of substituting for the, at that 212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 time, undeveloped and questionable nuclear chain-reaction for produc- tion purposes. The ore pitchblende was chosen for this first search because it was felt that a source rich in radioactive material would offer the most hope and also because pitchblende is known to contain a large number, some 40, of different elements. About 0.5 kilogram of pitchblende ore was completely dissolved and subjected to an exhaustive chemical process designed to separate and isolate the elements neptunium and plu- tonium. A small quantity of a-radioactivity was found in this trans- uranium fraction and these investigators attributed this to the plu- tonium isotope, Pu*. The amount of plutonium in the pitchblende corresponded to about one part in 10*, an amount which could not possibly have been found had the chemical properties not been known. Thus, although the experiment proved that this could not be a prac- tical source for the production of plutonium, it also gave good evidence that this element does exist in measurable quantities on the face of the earth. The relatively short half-life of Pu compared to the age of the earth makes it necessary that it be continuously formed in order that it be present on the earth in any detectable amount. There is a mechanism for its continuous formation which can both qualitatively and quanti- tatively account for its presence in pitchblende. Uranium undergoes spontaneous fission according to the following reaction: U8 __, fission products+ neutrons+ energy (6) and the rate corresponds to a “half-life” for this process of some 10"* years. If all the neutrons from this process are reabsorbed by U*** to form Pu*® according to reaction 2 above, the amount of Pu®® in the pitchblende in equilibrium with its parent U* would be (assuming two neutrons per spontaneous fission) 2X 24,000/10°=approximately 500 parts in 10%, This corresponds to some 100 or 200 parts of Pu’ per 10** parts of pitchblende. Thus only about 1 percent of the spon- taneous fission neutrons need be absorbed by U*, the remainder either escaping or being reabsorbed by the many neutron-absorbing impuri- ties in the pitchblende, in order to account for the Pu*® present. There are, of course, other sources of neutrons which may be of com- parable importance in the formation of this Pu*®. For example, uranium, and especially its decay products, emits a-particles which can give rise to neutrons according to the well-known (a, n) reaction as a result of their reaction with light nuclei—for example, lithium, boron, beryllium, fluorine, oxygen, etc.—in the pitchblende. A further search for the presence of transuranium elements in nature was made during the summer of 1942. Another radioactive ore— namely, carnotite—was chosen this time, the investigation being car- ried out by C. S. Garner, N. A. Bonner, and G. T. Seaborg. As in the PLUTONIUM—SEABORG 213 case of the pitchblende a transuranium fraction which would contain neptunium and plutonium was carefully isolated from the completely dissolved carnotite ore, about 5 kilograms being used in this case. Again an alpha-radioactivity was found, the concentration of the corresponding Pu being comparable to that found in the pitchblende. It was originally intended to extend the search for transuranium elements to a number of other ores, but the exigencies of the investi- gations in connection with the Plutonium Project made it impossible to carry out this program. Such a program did not seem justified in view of the small amounts which had been found in the pitchblende and carnotite. The results of the investigation tempt one toward the conclusion that transuranium elements do not exist in practical amounts on the face of the earth. There will, of course, be some neptunium, in the form of the isotope Np*’, present in pitchblende, carnotite and other uranium-bearing ores formed as the result of reaction 3 above, but it seems very likely that the concentration of this is even smaller than the concentration of the plutonium. The amounts of americium and curium on the basis of present indications would appear to be even smaller. However, there is just an outside possibility that there might exist some transuranium isotope or isotopes, perhaps, whose radiation characteristics have not yet been characterized, formed by a mechanism as yet not conceived. Thus, although it appears that transuranium elements do not exist on the earth in any ores in concentrations larger than some one part per 10", it might be a little premature to make this statement too definite and further searches for such elements might be worth while. AMERICIUM Americium, the element with atomic number 95, was the fourth transuranium element to be discovered, its first identification taking place late in 1944 and early in 1945. The first isotope of this element was identified in the experiments of G. T. Seaborg, R. A. James, and L, O. Morgan at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago. The bombardment of U** with very high-energy (40 to 44 Mev.) helium ions in the cyclotron leads to the formation of the isotope of americium with mass 241—that is, Am’. The Am*" is the daughter of a relatively long-lived B-emitting Pu which is formed in the primary reaction of U*** and helium ions. The reactions therefore are as follows: U*8+ .He* —> Pu*!+-n (7) Pu2t!? ——> Am! (8) long The isotope Am*™ emits a-particles with a half-life of 500 years. 214 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 The availability of this isotope of americium made it possible to study the chemical properties of this element using the tracer tech- nique. Deductions from this work led to the conclusion that this element probably exists in aqueous solution in only the one oxidation state, the III state. This is in line with the tendency toward the stabilization of the lower oxidation states in going to the heavier ele- ments in this region. It has recently been possible to isolate americium in the form of a pure compound of this element. B. B. Cunningham, working at the Metallurgical Laboratory, has succeeded in isolating this element and in studying its chemical properties using a weighable amount on the ultramicrochemical scale. This is a remarkable achievement in that the amounts available here were even smaller than those in the case of neptunium and plutonium. ‘This, then, is the third synthetic element which has been isolated in pure form. The work of Cunningham and L. B. Werner with pure americium in aqueous solution has confirmed the tracer work by showing that the III oxidation state is very stable in solution and is the predominant and most important state. Americium, with its 500-year half-life, has a higher specific a-activ- ity than even Pu**. Its specific «-activity amounts to some 7 billion a disintegrations per minute per milligram. Thus even if this element should become available in ordinary amounts, let us say, milligram amounts, it will always be necessary to conduct its investigation with special precautions and using the special techniques for handling highly a-active material. The investigation of the chemical properties of americium will demand investigators who are well trained with handling highly a-active materials. CURIUM Curium was the third transuranium element to be discovered. The first isotope of this element was the isotope, Cm*?, which was identified in 1944 by G. T. Seaborg, R. A. James, and A. Ghiorso at the Metal- lurgical Laboratory as the result of its production in the Berkeley 60-inch cyclotron by the following reaction: Pu**+ ,He*t —> Cm*?+n (9) The isotope, Cm, is an a-particle emitter with a half-life of about 5 months. The availability of this isotope of curium made it possible to study the chemical properties of this element by use of the tracer technique. Extensive investigations have led to the conclusion that curium prob- ably exists exclusively in the ITI oxidation state in aqueous solution. It is carried quantitatively by the rare earth fluorides in precipitation reactions and can be separated from them only with difficulty. PLUTONIUM—SEABORG 74 WS) The isotope Cm? is also formed as the result of the strong neutron irradiation of Am**. The Am*! absorbs neutrons to form a short- lived (18-hour half-life) -emitter, Am***, which in turn decays to the Cm*#, These nuclear reactions may be summarized as follows: Am*!+ — > Am *#?++ (10) Am*? —~+ Cm”? (11) 18-hr. Another isotope of curium is also known. The bombardment of Pu*® with 44-Mev. helium ions leads to the production of the 1-month a-emitting Cm*° by the reaction: Pu**-+,Het —> Cm”°-+ 3n The relative yield of Cm™° compared to the yield of Cm”? from re- action 9 above increases with increasing energy of the helium ions. The element curium has not yet been isolated in the pure state and therefore this is the only one of the four known transuranium ele- ments for which this has not been done.? It is, of course, of interest to inquire whether it will be possible to do this in the future. Appar- ently this will be difficult with the present isotopes, Cm?” or Cm”, since these have rather short half-lives—namely, approximately 5 months and 1 month, respectively. As has been the case for the other three transuranium elements the first isolation of curium in the pure state will probably take place as the result of work on the ultramicro- chemical scale with microgram or less amounts of material. The isotope Cm”? with its 5-month half-life has a specific a-activity corresponding to about 10" a disintegrations per minute per milligram. This will mean that even 1 microgram will correspond to some 10% disintegrations per minute. A specific «-radioactivity of this magni- tude gives rise to problems due to the aggregate recoil of submicro- gram particles as a result of the tremendous rate of «-emission. Never- theless, it seems entirely possible and even likely that curium, prob- ably in the form of the longer-lived isotope Cm”, will be isolated in the pure state as soon as the problem of its production in microgram amounts is solved. Once this pure element is available in microgram amounts it will be possible to study its chemistry by means of investi- gations on the ultramicrochemical scale, although each measurement in this case will be most difficult and laborious. Among the difficul- ties here will be the rapid decomposition of the water in the solution, the formation of hydrogen peroxide in the solution, heating of the solution, and other effects. However, as in the cases of the other ~ 2 Curium was isolated in pure form in the fall of 1947 by L. B. Werner and J. Perlman at the University of California. 777488—48—16 916 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 three transuranium elements, where it was possible to graduate from tracer scale investigations to the more certain investigations with the pure elements, it does not seem too optimistic to hope that this will soon also be true for curium. It is, of course, not improbable that it will eventually be possible to prepare isotopes of curium of longer half-life. It is, in fact, even probable that isotopes such as Cm**, Cm**, Cm***, or Cm** may have longer half-lives and that these isotopes may eventually become avail- able for investigation. Smithsonian Report. 1947.—Seaborg PRECIPITATE OF AMERICIUM HYDROXIDE IN CAPILLARY TUBE Eye of needle shows degree of magnification. ci THE USE OF ISOTOPES AS TRACERS? By A. H. W. ATEN, Jr. and F. A. Heyn [With 1 plate] INTRODUCTION When the periodic system of chemical elements was set up in the course of the previous century, it was thought that each element con- sisted of only one definite kind of atom. Later this was found to be incorrect: an element may consist of different kinds of atoms which have practically identical chemical properties—the criterion for denot- ing the atoms by the name of the respective element—but differ in atomic weight by one or more units. Such isotopic atoms, so called because they have to be given the same position in the periodic system, may be stable or unstable. In the latter case they undergo a gradual change, accompanied by a radiation, into another kind of atom; they are then radioactive. Almost all the kinds of atoms occurring in nature are stable. There are only a few unstable ones, namely the well-known substances with natural radioactivity, such as radium, thorium, uranium, etc. In addi- tion to these, however, it is nowadays possible to turn each element into one or more new isotopes which do not occur in nature, all of which are unstable (artificial radioactive substances). A single example will serve to illustrate the above. The element calcium occurring in nature consists of six stable isotopic kinds of atoms, namely, for 96.96 percent Ca“, i. e., calcium atoms with an atomic weight of 40 (in round numbers), and further 0.64 percent Ca*, 0.15 percent Ca**, 2.06 percent Ca**, 0.0033 percent Ca** and 0.19 percent Ca**, Furthermore, up to the beginning of the year 1944 it had been found possible to make artificially six more radioactive cal- cium isotopes with atomic weights 39, 39, 41, 45, 49, 49. The various unstable isotopes can further be distinguished from each other by the character of their radioactivity. In the case of a radioactive atom a 1 Reprinted by permission from Philips Technical Review, vol. 8, No. 10, October 1946. 217 218 © ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 certain percentage of the atomic nuclei present is transformed per second into another sort by spontaneous disintegration, each disinte- grating nucleus emitting, according to its sort, a negative or positive electron or an a-particle (helium-nucleus). This is often accompanied by an electromagnetic radiation (y-radiation). The intensity of the total radiation of a radioactive preparation at any moment can easily be measured. As the number of nondisintegrated atomic nuclei is continually decreasing, while the chance of distintegration remains constant for each atom and thus also the percentage of nuclei disinte- grating per second, the radioactivity observed decreases with time. The velocity of this decrease usually expressed by the “half-value time,” i. e., the time in which the intensity of the radiation falls to one-half, is characteristic for each isotope. The above-mentioned six radioactive calcium isotopes have half-value times of 4.5 minutes, 1.06 seconds, 8.5 days, 180 days, 2.5 hours, and 30 minutes respectively. The existence of the isotopes is not merely of theoretical interest. In the last 10 to 20 years isotopes have become an extremely useful prac- tical aid for all kinds of scientific and technical investigations. This use of isotopes is based for a large part on the fact that an isolated isotope of an element takes part in chemical and physical processes in exactly the same way as the familiar mixture of isotopes of that element which occurs in nature, while the isotope in question can always be recognized by the investigator and can be traced even in a chemically identical environment, thanks to its radioactivity or difference in atomic weight. The isotope thus functions as a tracer, capable of fur- nishing information about the process taking place, which would be much more difficult or even quite impossible to obtain in any other way. We shall explain this in more detail, but for better orientation of the reader we shall first discuss four examples out of the large number of investigations which have already been carried out with isotopes as tracers. WHAT CAN BE DONE WITH (RADIOACTIVE) ISOTOPIC TRACERS First example.—In the production of steel, among other substances the phosphorus, which is present in quite considerable quantities in the crude iron, has to be rendered harmless by adding a slag-forming substance or by lining the crucible with a material that reacts with phosphorus. A continuous check has then to be kept of the amount of phosphorus still present in the molten metal. This can, of course, be done by chemical analysis of samples, but results are obtained much more quickly and easily when a small amount of radioactive phos- phorus is added to the melt at the beginning of the process. This is rapidly distributed uniformly throughout the melt, so that the ratio between the natural phosphorus present and the radioactive phos- ISOTOPES—-ATEN AND HEYN 219 phorus added is the same everywhere. If phosphorus disappears from the melt into the slag floating on the surface or into the lining of the crucible this takes place to an equal degree with the natural and with the radioactive element. ‘The decrease in the percentage of phosphorus in the melt can thus be determined merely by ascertaining the decrease in the radioactive phosphorus. This is extremely simple, since it is only necessary to measure the radioactivity of a sample of the melt, which can be done very easily with an electrometer or an electron counter.’ Second example.—In many factories the workers come into contact with mercury, and it is known how harmful the regular inhalation of mercury vapor can be; in course of time a concentration of more than 10 gram of mercury per m° of air already becomes injurious to health. Tt is a difficult problem to detect the presence of mercury in such minute proportions, because chemical analyses are unavailing in such eases. Ina certain case which occurred in the manufacture of tubular luminescent lamps in an American factory, where the lamps were filled with mercury vapor at a low pressure, a glass side-tube con- taining a small drop of mercury had to be “blown” onto the lamp, and inevitably the glass blower inhaled a very small quantity of mercury vapor into his lungs. In order to determine how much was inhaled a number of tests were carried out with a volume of 2 liters of air that had been in contact with the drops of mercury under exactly the same conditions as in the manufacturing process, this being drawn off by suction and passed over a metal plate kept at the temperature of liquid air. Practically all the mercury in the air condensed on the plate. The mercury used for the experiments contained a known, small percentage of a radioactive mercury isotope. The radioactivity of the plate, which was quite simple to measure after the experiment, gave an indication of the amount of mercury contained in the air which had passed over the plate. In this way a concentration of 5 X 10 g/m*° could be detected. Average mercury concentrations were found of about 10° and in one case about 4X 10~ g/m’, from which it was con- cluded that in the manufacturing process in question the glass blower ran no danger of poisoning.® Third ewample—When a piece of metal is fused with a radioactive lead isotope in an atmosphere of hydrogen and then allowed to crystal- lize again, there are two possibilities. In some metals, such as thal- lium and magnesium, lead is soluble to a considerable percentage, the lead atoms being uniformly distributed in the grains and the poly- 2An electron counter was described, e. g., by A. Bouwers and F. A, Heyn, in Philips Techn, Rey., vol. 6, p. 75, 1941. In the measurements allowance must of course be made for the natural decline in radioactivity with time. We shall return to such practical details on a later occasion. 3 J, W. Irvine and C. Goodman, Journ. Appl. Phys., vol. 14, p. 496, 1943. 220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 crystalline metal obtained. In other metals, on the other hand, such as bismuth, tin, antimony, silver, gold, copper, and nickel, in which lead is practically insoluble, the radioactive lead is situated on the boundaries of the grains. When a microscopic preparation of the metal is made and laid on a photographic plate for several hours after development, the plate will be found to be blackened at those places where it lay against radioactive particles, thus where lead has been deposited. By means of such an “autoradiogram,” of which plate 1, figure 1 is an illustration, it is possible in the first place to ascertain whether and to what degree the added lead is soluble in the metal; if the lead is entirely dissolved the entire surface of the photographic plate is uniformly blackened; if the lead does not dissolve, or only partially, the radiogram shows up very nicely also the boundaries of the grains (pl. 1, fig. 1). Thus the isotopic method can also in this case furnish valuable information about the changes taking place in the structure of the metal upon recrystallization and in rolling.* Fourth ecample.—F riction between two metal surfaces is due partly to adhesion, the result being that when the surfaces slide over each other extremely small particles of metal are torn out of one and taken up in the other. This exchange of metal may take place to such an extent that two surfaces become, as it were, welded together (the familiar seizing). The quantity of material thus transferred from one metal to the other is a measure of the contribution of this effect to the total force of friction. In general it is a question of very small amounts which chemically can hardly be detected at all. An investi- gation has now been carried out with the help of a radioactive tracer. One metal surface was “activated,” i. e., it consisted for a small part of atoms of a radioactive isotope of the metal. After this sur- face had been made to slide over the second, nonactivated metal sur- face, the latter also showed a certain amount of radioactivity. Amounts of 10- gram of transferred metal were detected in this way, and, what is more, by means of a radiogram, as described in the preceding example, also the distribution of the transferred material on the surface could be studied. From the radiogram shown in plate 1, figure 2, a, it may be concluded, for example, that in this experiment the sliding of the two metal surfaces over each other was not con- tinuous but took place in small jerks. By this method the influence of all kinds of factors, such as the pressure, the hardness of the surface, etc., on the transfer of material can be studied, as also the effect of a lubricant. (See pl. 1, fig. 2, 0.) ‘@. Tammann and G. Bandel, Zeitschr. Metallk., vol. 25, pp. 153 and 207, 1933. 'B. W. Sakmann, J. T. Burwell, and J. W. Irvine, Journ. Appl. Phys., vol. 15, p. 495, 1944; J. N. Gregory, Nature (London), vol. 157, p. 444, Apr. 6, 1946. ISOTOPES—ATEN AND HEYN 221 WHY THE TRACER METHOD IS SO IMPORTANT From these few examples we can already deduce the most important aspects which have lent such great significance to the tracer method. We first call attention to the last example discussed. The transfer of material can also be measured when the two surfaces sliding over each other contain the same metals or even when they are exactly identical. It must be realized that this would not be possible by any other known method, since the transfer takes place in both directions: there is an exchange of identical particles. It would not be possible by any chemical or physical method to ascertain the origin of the metal present on one of the surfaces after the experiment, whereas the radioactive isotope immediately gives the answer. Processes in which there is an exchange of identical particles are very common in nature, not only in chemistry and metallurgy, but especially in the physiology of plants and animals. The tracer method, which offers the only method of approach, has been used on a large scale for the investigation of such processes, and the publications in that field are innumerable. In a survey of such investigations for the year 1940* in physiology alone more than 300 publications are cited. But also in the field of technology, for routine tests, and like- wise in agriculture and chemistry, the method is being more and more widely applied.’ Although the last example discussed illustrates the possibility of studying the exchange of identical particles with the help of an isotope, the employment of the tracer method in that case is not motivated only by the possibility mentioned. When two different metals slide over each other the transfer of material could in principle be studied also by other methods. The fact that a radioactive tracer is, never- theless, used, is due to the fact that a much greater sensitivity can be attained with the radioactivity measurements, i. e., much smaller amounts of a substance can be detected than with other methods so far available. The same applies to the case of the determination of mercury. In the determination of phosphorus, which was discussed as the first example, the indicator method is not necessary in principle either, but it was applied there because of the greater ease with which the quantity of phosphorus could be determined, compared with a chemical or other analysis. Finally, an important point in the em- ployment of a radioactive isotope is that it can be localized so easily when mixed with a different or a chemically identical substance, while also its distribution can be determined. (See the radiograms of pl. 1, figs. 1 and 2.) 6 J. R. Loofbourow, Rev. Mod. Phys., vol. 12, p. 267, 1940. 7 See, for example, the survey of chemical applications by G. Seaborg, Chem. Rey., vol. 27, p. 199, 1940, where more than 500 publications are mentioned, most of them different from those in the article by Loofbourow. 922 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Where radioactive isotopes are applied for the sake of the advan- tages of greater sensitivity and easier working, while in principle other methods would also provide an answer to the questions raised, one might speak of “untrue” applications of the indicator method. In such cases the nature of the isotope is sometimes a matter of indiffer- ence; in order to obtain a radiogram of the grain boundaries in a polycrystalline material it would also be possible to use a radioactive isotope of some metal other than lead, provided it does not dissolve in the base metal. In the “true” applications of the tracer method it is quite different, for there it is essential that an isotope can be detected in identical surroundings. In this connection attention should be called to the fact that the tracer method can also be applied with nonradioactive isotopes. The atoms of such isotopes are recognizable (labeled) by their different atomic weight and the properties connected therewith, such as specific weight, velocity of diffusion, heat conductivity, etc. The most im- portant atoms to be considered are “heavy hydrogen” (deuterium) of atomic weight 2 (approximate), the oxygen isotope of atomic weight 18, and the nitrogen isotope of atomic weight 15. With such stable isotopes the measurement of the radioactivity of mixtures of isotopes is replaced by measurements of density or the like. These measurements are generally much less easy than the measure- ment of radioactivity and also not so sensitive by far. With stable isotopes there is, therefore, no question of “untrue” applications of the tracer method. The reason for using these is solely the possibility of studying processes of exchange, where no suitable radioactive isotopes can be found. Owing to the very large number of applications of the indicator method (true and untrue) it has become impossible, as well as purpose- less, to give a survey of these applications, even if one confined oneself to a definite field. We shall not, therefore, attempt to do so, but in the following we shall say something about the origin of the method and follow this up with a number of suitably chosen examples, with the intention of showing the possibilities of the method from different angles. In a subsequent article we shall go more deeply into the practical performance of investigations with radioactive and also with stable isotopes. As to this practical performance we can only point out here that it is not necessary to prepare the radioactive (or stable) isotopes oneself, for they can be obtained from certain suitably equipped laboratories. In Europe the Philips Laboratory in Eind- hoven, among others, has already supplied suitable radioactive sub- stances for a number of applications. ISOTOPES—ATEN AND HEYN 223 ORIGIN OF THE METHOD The tracer method was initiated by Hevesy, who first discovered the possibility of studying processes of exchange by that means and im- mediately put his ideas into practice (in 1915). He used the method, for instance, to test the theory of Arrhenius about the dissociation of electrolytes. In essence his experiment was as follows. From a cer- tain amount of normal lead a lead salt is prepared, for instance lead chloride, and from a corresponding amount of the radioactive lead isotope, which is formed as a disintegration product of radium, another salt, for instance lead nitrate, is prepared. When the two salts are dissolved in water, the solutions mixed, and then the two salts extracted separately from the mixture, the two lead compounds are found to have become equally radioactive. The lead atoms from the two salts must, therefore, have been com- pletely mixed in the solution. This result agrees entirely with the hypothesis that the lead compounds are dissociated in the solution, i. e., that lead occurs therein in the form of free ions. We have just said that one salt was prepared from normal lead and the other from the radioactive lead isotope. Consequently, in order to carry out the experiment in this way a sample of the pure radio- active lead isotope would have to be available. Actually, however, this is not necessary. It is sufficient if one sample of lead contains only a small amount of the radioactive isotope. Hevesy recognized this from the very beginning, as may be seen from the curious story of the way in which he came to use the isotopes in this way. He had tried in vain to separate radium D from a quantity of lead containing asmall amount of that substance. Since radium D is an isotope of lead (the radioactive isotope mentioned in the radium series; its name dates from the time when there was no clear idea of the situation), it cannot, as we now know, be separated by ordinary chemical means. It was just this failure that gave Hevesy the idea that he could always dis- tinguish the lead of this sample “contaminated” with radium D from a sample of ordinary lead: in all mixtures with ordinary lead every fraction of the “contaminated” (radioactive) lead sample takes an equal fraction of the original radioactivity with it and can thus be determined quantitatively by measurement of the radioactivity. The “contaminated” lead is thus, as it were, indicated or labeled by the radio- active isotope itself, and provided it is a homogeneous mixture the whole sample can serve as a quantity of labeled atoms. ‘This is in fact obvious when it is borne in mind that the radioactivity of an element only means that per unit of time a certain percentage of the atoms present in a sample disintegrates spontane- ously. If the sample also contains a number of isotopic atoms which are stable and thus will never disintegrate, the only result, in the first instance, is that the percentage of disintegrating atoms per unit of time, is smaller, thus the radio- activity is “diluted.” In fact, also in the first examples discussed there were 777488—_48—_17 224 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 certain dilutions of radioactive phosphorus and mercury, and this is usually the case with artificial radioactive substances where the degree of “concentration” of the radioactivity depends upon the preparation of the substance. Hevesy’s applications of radioactive substances were not confined to exchange experiments. He realized also the significance of radio- activity measurements as a substitute for chemical analyses, owing to the great ease and sensitivity of the method as illustrated by our first examples, and he thus also made use of “untrue” applications of in- dicators. Once, when he had reason to suspect the cleanliness of his landlady, he smeared a bit of “dirt” with a radioactive substance on his dinner plate and checked daily whether the plate had been prop- erly washed simply by measuring the radioactivity which (literally) still clung to it. He was indeed able to detect radioactivity of the plate for many days. Whether or not this was to be ascribed to the carelessness of the landlady or to the extreme sensitivity of the method, history fails to relate. DENOMINATION OF THE METHOD Hevesy called a radioactive isotope used for the experiments de- scribed, an indicator, and thus following his example one often speaks of the indicator method. In recent years in English-speaking coun- tries the terms “tracer method” and “tracer atoms” have become more usual: The radioactive isotopes are used, as it were, for discovering and following a trace. “Labeled” and “tagged” atoms are also often spoken of. The terms speak for themselves. Finally, to complete the list, we may mention the denoting of these atoms as “spies,” as pro- posed by Evans.* This name is meant to indicate that each atom of a radioactive isotope can move about unrecognized in a “crowd” of even similar atoms until at a certain moment it “betrays” its presence and whereabouts by its disintegration. The concentration of “spies” in the experiments usually lies between 1 to 10” and 1 to 10** normal indi- viduals. Translated into terms of human society, this would be equivalent to one spy among a population at least five times as large as that of the whole earth. FURTHER EXAMPLES OF THE APPLICATION OF TRACERS The examples which will be discussed in the following in unrelated order, will give the reader an idea of the multifarious nature of the applications of indicators. In order to reduce them to some kind of systematic order we have sorted out the examples into three groups according to the character of the problem. In the first group the prob- lem is only where something is situated (localization), in the second 8R. D. Hvans, Applied Nuclear Physics, Journ. Appl. Phys., vol. 12, p. 260, 1941. ISOTOPES—ATEN AND HEYN 225 group how much of a substance there is, remains behind, or takes part in a process (quantitative problems) ; in the third group it is particu- larly a question of exchange processes. It must be said, however, that often the boundaries between the groups cannot be sharply drawn. In localization problems one is obviously always concerned with “untrue” indicator applications, as is also usually the case in the second group (quantitative problems), while the last group contains only “true” cases. Localization.—A very old example is the tracing of samples of radium that have been lost in hospitals through carelessness or theft ; the places where the sample might possibly be, for instance the refuse heap, are gone over with an electron counter. A more modern case is the tracing of stoppages in an oil pipe line. In the periodical cleaning of the walls of the pipe a screw-shaped scraper is placed in the line and pushed along by the pressure of the oil itself. If the scraper gets jammed somewhere, it has to be located as quickly as possible, in order to open the line at that point and remove the accu- mulated deposit. With the help of a radioactive indicator this locali- zation is astonishingly simple. A scraper is used that contains a little radioactive material emitting y-radiation, which easily penetrates through the walls of the pipe and can be detected with a somewhat modified “electron counter.” One rides along the line with this “count- ing” apparatus until the radioactivity betrays the position where the scraper has stopped. There is another similar application in the petroleum industry, for determining the setting depth of the cement that is pumped in behind the casing of an oil well. © 30 c, POWER oD REQUIRED © ae 10 BO § 30 140°" 50 "60" 70080 CAR SPEED — MPH FicureE 1. promotional stories along the line of get-away, pick-up, hill-climbing ability, top speed, and so on. These designers studied their engines and their cars and found many interesting facts. Let us look into a few of these. Figure 1 is a plot of horsepower against car speed for a typical car of the time operating in high gear. The curve depicts developed power as delivered to the rear wheels plotted against car speed. The straight lines approximate power required to move the car at corres- ponding speeds for level-road operation and for hill-climbing a reason- able grade. All conditions of wind, fuel quality, and loading were constant. It can be seen that this car has a top speed of 60 miles per hour on the level and has a reasonable amount of excess power for acceleration between the speed ranges of 15 to 50 miles per hour. However, on the hill the car speed will drop off to a top of 40 miles PETROLEUM—FIELD 237 per hour and will have practically no high-gear acceleration at lower speeds. Figure 2 is the same basic plot with one additional curve, the de- veloped-power curve for the same car with the same engine modified only by an increase in compression ratio from say 5.0 to 1 to a ratio of 6.0 to 1—a minor design change. Now the car has a top speed of 70 miles per hour on the level road and has good acceleration in the broader range of 10-60 miles per hour. More important, its hill- climbing ability is tremendously improved. On the same hill it can maintain a top speed of 55 miles per hour and below this speed shows SO DEVELOPED 40, POWER POWER REQUIRED HORSEPOWER e) lO E2030 19 40°" 50" \60"" 470" 80 CAR SPEEO — MPH FIGuRE 2. acceleration characteristics approximately as good as the previous model showed on the level road. Here was a direction for the engine designer to go and he started off that way and moved rapidly until he was stopped short by the fact that at the higher compression ratios his engines began to knock badly under load, particularly after the com- bustion chambers became fouled with the carbonaceous deposits which inevitably appear after several thousand miles of operation. Now let us look at what was happening in the refinery during this time. Initially, gasoline was the very volatile hydrocarbon material “topped” from crude oil prior to running for the kerosene fraction used extensively for cooking and illuminating purposes. The demands of the automobile for this gasoline rapidly took it out of the byproduct classification and the refiner was seeking ways and means of increasing 938 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 gasoline production. He had discovered the thermal “cracking” process with which, by the use of heat and pressure, he could convert a large portion of the fraction of crude oil between the kerosene and the lubricating oil cuts into gasoline. But this “cracked” gasoline fell into ill repute, largely because the refiner had not learned to finish it in such a fashion that it would not gum in the engine, resulting in sticking valves with attendant poor operation. A comparison of notes by the refiner and the automobile designer brought out fundamental information which initiated the series of de- velopments with which we are presently concerned. This information was that the knocking tendency of the higher compression automobile engine could be materially reduced or in some cases entirely eliminated by the use of the heretofore disfavored cracked gasoline in preference to the previously used straight-run gasoline, even though this straight- run material be cut to the extremely light old-time so-called high-test grade. Here was chemical synthesis of hydrocarbons appearing for the first time because very rough test methods, as then developed, showed that the cracked gasolines contained substantial quantities of olefins and aromatics, whereas the original crude oil contains few if any of these types of hydrocarbons. As a matter of interest, the earliest method of estimating the antiknock characteristics of motor gasoline came into being at this time. It matched the antiknock tendency of the fuel against known mixtures of benzo] and Pennsyl- vania straight-run gasoline in a small single-cylinder laboratory engine and gave the results in terms of “benzol equivalent.” Two parallel series of developments were thus started in the refinery as a result of the move by the engine designers to higher compression motors. One series was aimed at removing or otherwise taking care of the then prevalent deficiencies of cracked gasoline with respect to gum-forming tendencies, chemical instability, and offensive odor. Processes to remove the gummy materials, soon identified principally as diolefins, from the cracked gasoline took the form of treatment with sulfuric acid and vapor phase treatment over activated fuller’s earth. Further, various processes were developed to convert the malodorous mercaptans, which appeared in the gasoline as a result of an analogous cracking of sulfur compounds in the heavier cracking stock, into sweet-smelling alkyl disulphides, acceptable both to the public and to the motors. The result of these developments was the assumption by cracked gasoline of its rightful place as a desirable and important component of motor gasoline. The other series of developments which raced ahead at this time had to do with the production of cracked gasoline itself. Literally scores of thermal cracking processes and variations thereof were invented and many of them were patented. As special methods of fabrication were developed and new steel alloys able to stand high PETROLEUM—FIELD 239 temperature for long periods became available, thermal cracking op- erations were pressed to higher and higher conditions of severity with respect to pressure and temperature. The severe cracking con- ditions produced more marked improvement in the hydrocarbon structure of the cracked gasoline. It had better antiknock character- istics. At this point in our historical review the concept of “octane num- ber” should be established. The previously used “benzol equivalent” was proving to be unreliable and not sufficiently reproducible for a test of a property which was becoming such an important char- acteristic of automobile gasoline. Benzol was so high in antiknock that it was too sensitive a blending agent and Pennsylvania straight- run gasoline, the zero of the scale by definition, was not invariable and reproducible. The octane-number scale was substituted instead and used as its “100” the chemical compound 2,2,4 trimethylpentane (iso- octane), and as its “0” normal heptane. This scale was reproducible by blending these compounds and when coupled with the improve- ment and standardization of the test engine resulted in a more satis- factory fuel-rating procedure than had been heretofore available. In the refineries of the country, aided by the advances in steel metal- lurgy, the antiknock characteristics of motor gasolines were being pushed to higher and higher levels as new units came on stream. Further, the use of additives for improvement of antiknock received extensive investigation. Various organic amino compounds were used with indifferent success to increase octane number. Iron and nickel carbonyls were more successful from the octane-number im- provement standpoint but caused objectionable rust deposits within the engine. Finally, tetraethyl lead was discovered, proved satis- factory, and extensive manufacturing facilities were put into oper- ation to help further the improvement in engine and fuel perform- ance. The “octane race” of the thirties was on in dead earnest. Auto- motive-engine designers moved their compression ratios higher and higher to get much more power and performance out of smaller en- gines. Figure 3 gives an interesting comparison for a representative passenger automobile. From this it can be seen that during the thirties the performance characteristics of the typical passenger car of ap- proximately the same total weight improved considerably as a result primarily of the increase in compression ratio and the improvement in the quality of the motor fuel available for use in the higher com- pression engine. At this point in our technical historical study, the issues become somewhat obscure as so frequently happens whenever history is re- viewed, whether it be the history of people, cities, or nations. The automobile-engine designer had slowed in his advance to higher 240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 compression ratio due to the fact that the motoring public was reason- ably happy, if not somewhat unsafe, with the car performance being obtained. Added to this are the very practical facts that design diffi- culties were being encountered due to the necessity of allowing room in the engine head above the piston at the top of its stroke for the functioning of two valves and a spark plug and due also to a tendency to rough operation at high compression. However, the petroleum engineer was now in the saddle. He had many new processes all lined up to produce, and the refiner was now being urged by his sales- promotion people to produce qualities in gasoline that could be talked | CAR | GASOLINE WEIGHT LBS. 2930 | about. The result was that the petroleum refiners began to run races between themselves to produce gasoline with qualities outstripping their competitors in spite of the fact that scarcely any automobile engine could recognize differences in antiknock above its basic octane requirement. At the time, this race was scientifically invigorating but economically rather silly. In retrospect however, it was probably one of the best things that ever happened to our country in that it set the fundamental pattern for a technology that produced, during World War II, a stupendous tonnage of synthetic organic chemicals without which the war would have stretched through a much longer and more burdensome period. ENGINE COMPRESSION BRAKE OCTANE NO. REGULAR GRADE RATIO HORSEPOWER AVERAGE US. EFFECT OF ENGINH AND FUEL DEVELOPMENT ON AUTOMOBILE DESIGN Before proceeding further with the later developments in motor-fuel processing it will be well to stop to examine,the results of all this PETROLEUM—FIELD 241 engine and fuel development work on the other parts of the automo- bile and on petroleum-product requirements for these parts. In- creasing the power output of the engines produced greater loads on the engine connecting rod and main bearings with the result that many engine designers developed engines in which alloys of cadmium-silver and copper-lead were used for bearings instead of the conventional tin- lead (babbitt) which had been used heretofore. From the standpoint of bearing loads these materials were excellent but they immediately gave the petroleum refiners many headaches. The sulfur compounds present in the lubricating oil, the condensate from combustion cham- ber “blow-by” to the crankcase, and the acids produced by normal oxidation of the lubricating oil caused severe and rapid bearing dete- rioration. The corrosion attacked the lead and cadmium in these bear- ings, resulting in weakening of the bearing alloy, high wear, and early noisy operation of the engine. Protection of these bearing materials was critical and the challenge to the petroleum research laboratories started a new trend in lubricat- ing-oil development. This trend has resulted in the progressive addi- tion to lubricating oils of a long series of additives. Initially additives were used to take care of bearing-corrosion problems. Later, additives were developed to add higher film strength characteristics. Presently, additives are being incorporated to furnish, in addition to the pre- vious benefits, properties to prevent build-up of sludge deposits in the crankcase and to increase engine life heretofore shortened by internal rusting between periods of operation. As engines increased in power and the streamlining of automobiles resulted in smaller wheels and lower floorboards, a redesign of the dif- ferential drive in the rear axle came about in efforts to lower the drive- shaft to avoid the necessity for a tunnel in the rear floor. This gave rise to the use of hypoid gearing to drop the driveshaft below the cen- ter line of the rear axle. Hypoid gearing worked out very admirably from the standpoint of chassis design but necessitated an extensive amount of research in petroleum laboratories to develop a rear-axle lubricant for these new-type gears. The previous type of gearing, namely, spiral bevel gears, operated on the principle of rolling fric- tion and a conventional heavy lubricant protected the faces of the gear teeth quite satisfactorily. The hypoid gear, on the other hand, oper- ates on the principle of sliding friction and conventional lubricants could not give protection, with the result that the hypoid rear axles were scuffing severely because of failure of the oil to stay between the gear teeth. By the use of additives especially developed for the pur- pose, the oil companies quite promptly were able to furnish lubricants which had the proper combination of surface tension and wetting properties to stay in place on the gear teeth of heavily loaded hypoid gears. 242 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 The smaller wheels previously mentioned, the higher speeds result- ing from greater engine power, and the general adoption of internal expanding four-wheel brakes raised another problem for the petroleum indusiry in lubricating the wheel bearings. The wheels were turning faster, creating higher operating temperatures in the bearing and greater centrifugal force which tended to throw the grease out of the bearings through the oil-retaining ring into the braking system to cause malfunctioning of the brakes. Grease compounding quickly re- ceived a complete overhauling in order to furnish a wheel-bearing lubricant which would maintain its consistency at high temperatures of operation, neither separating into oil and soap with resultant loss of oil and clogging of the bearing with soap, nor changing in physical characteristics as the temperature increased to a point where the grease would leave the bearing as the result of excessive softness. General chassis lubricants also had to be restudied. All the pre- viously mentioned developments were making cars run with less noise. Changes in spring-hanger design had increased the bearing loads on spring shackles so that there was an increased tendency for the shackles to squeak and with less noise competition the squeaks were more noticeable. New chassis lubricants were developed which could be pumped readily by the automatic chassis-lubricating equipment being installed in the service stations and would stay between the bearing surfaces in spite of heavy impact loading and the tendency for splashed water from the highway to wash this grease away. This particular development, incidentally, is probably one of the most ingenious feats of compounding that the industry has accomplished and is probably the least known generally. CHANGING PETROLEUM REQUIREMENTS OTHER THAN AUTOMOTIVE During this period under discussion the automobile, although acting as a pacesetter, was not the only requirement which was causing rapid changes in petroleum technology. The aviation industry, which had even more to gain from power from smaller engines, was stepping out ahead in requirements for high octane, high chemical stability fuel. The aviation-engine designer increased compression ratio with the attendant advantages previously discussed, reached the mechanical limitation to high compression posed by necessity for valve and spark plug clearances and engine roughness, and then moved on to even higher levels in antiknock requirements by adopting the principle of supercharging. The supercharging approach to this problem is interesting and deserves further examination. If compression ratio cannot be in- creased readily, another way to get the same effect from a given engine is to pack more air and fuel into the cylinders by forcing it in under PETROLEUM—FIELD 243 external pressure, rather than letting the engine draw it in by the vacuum created on the suction stroke. This development, started mildly by the automobile designer and adapted mainly for racing-car engines, really went ahead at a tremendous pace when the aviation- engine designers started to use it. While the superchargers built for racing-car engines operated with only a few inches of water “boost pressure,” the aviation-engine designer moved ahead to the point where, during World War II, combat aircraft equipped with exhaust- driven turbo superchargers actually delivered a boost pressure in the range of 60’’ of mercury or about 2 atmospheres increase. This de- velopment threw a tremendous burden on the petroleum industry for high antiknock fuel and, as will be mentioned later, the industry responded by adapting their newer processes and developing other specialized processes in order to produce the required volumes of aviation gasoline having performance characteristics well in excess of 100 octane. Another type of engine was becoming important and giving the petroleum research laboratories critical problems to solve. This was the Diesel engine initially developed for propelling ships, later for long-distance truck hauling, and now becoming very important as a source of power for railway locomotives. The Diesel engine, unlike the gasoline engine, does not depend on a spark for ignition but de- pends on autoignition induced by the heat and pressure created by the compression stroke of the piston. It is a fact that an operating cycle of this type necessitates a chemical composition of the fuel dis- tinctly different from the type of compounds which are included in motor gasoline and to a greater extent in aviation gasoline to improve antiknock characteristics. The latter have a decidedly deleterious effect on the starting and ignition qualities of the Diesel fuel, par- ticularly for high-speed truck and railway Diesel engines. Thus a technical contrast is presented in which the best Diesel fuel was found to be a carefully refined fraction obtained directly from high-grade crude oil, whereas high-grade motor and aviation gasolines consist of a blend of various fractions of crude oil molecularly rearranged by severe thermal and catalytic cracking together with synthetic prod- ucts of complicated structure obtained from alkylation, polymeriza- tion, etc. Most of the comments made with respect to automobile-engine lubri- cating oil hold for lubricating the Diesel engine, except that whatever is done to the oil to improve its inherent characteristics must be greatly emphasized for the Diesel. Most high-speed Diesels run under much more severe conditions of loading, combustion roughness, and high-temperature operation than most automobile engines. In industrial fields a new tempo of development has been evident. 244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Machine tools, industrial machinery, electrical equipment, heavy fuel oil consuming equipment, all have had their speeds, loads, and re- quirements for continuity of operation increased at a rapid pace. The petroleum industry has conducted research successfully to fur- nish petroleum products required to meet these demands. Complete details on the many ramifications of the changes in the petroleum industry’s industrial requirements have no place in this review, but the order of magnitude of changes has been of the same degree as that depicted for automotive and aviation industries. NEW PROCESSES WHICH LHAD TO NEW PRODUCTS In 1939 the writer was requested to present to the Refining Division of the American Petroleum Institute a paper which attempted to systematize and catalog the many new processes which were under development at that time. This paper was somewhat whimsically entitled “Petroleum-ization—1940” ? since it dealt with such previously little-known or unused processes as dehydrogenation, isomerization, polymerization, aromatization, alkylation, etc. The paper attempted to place these various new processes on the checkerboard of petroleum refining to determine which ones were competitive, which were com- plementary, and which should be considered for use as various refinery situations arose. Owing to the undeveloped state of some of these processes at that time, a large amount of forecasting based on personal opinion was woven into the pattern presented. However, subsequent events, specifically the war, forced the hasty commercialization of most of these processes substantially along the lines predicted and since this pattern is fundamental to our examination of new products it is presented here. Definitions and descriptions.—A certain number of definitions and descriptions will be useful in our study of the situation; and if these definitions do not agree exactly with the organic textbook, it should be remembered that they were drafted for “petroleum-ization” rather than for the broad field of general organic chemistry. Catalyst—A catalyst can be defined as a substance which, although present during a chemical reaction, apparently does not enter into the reaction but causes, by its presence, a change in the conditions under which that reaction occurs. Thus catalytic reactions offer a pos- sibility for product control by selective acceleration of certain reac- tions which, in the opinion of many, is the most important phase of this new refining technique. Hydrogenation —The hydrogenation process adds hydrogen to the hydrocarbon molecule. Hydrogenation may be either nondestructive or destructive. In the former, hydrogen is added to the molecule 2 Proc, 20th Ann. Meet. Amer. Petroleum Inst., vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 65-71, 1939. PETROLEUM—FIELD 245 only if, and where, unsaturation with respect to hydrogen exists; thus the boiling range of the product is substantially the same as that of the charge to the process. In the latter, operations are carried out under conditions which result in rupture of some of the hydrocarbon chains (cracking), the hydrogen adding on, in general, where the breaks in the chain have occurred. A lowering of boiling range generally results from this type of hydrogenation, the degree of change depending on the operating conditions. Nondestructive hy- drogenation is generally a low-temperature, low-pressure operation, whereas destructive hydrogenation operates at high temperature and high pressure. Catalysts are employed in almost all hydrogenation processes. Dehydrogenation.—The general use of this term is so broad that it is practically useless. For example, the cracking of gas oil in an early batch still involved dehydrogenation. For the purpose of this discussion, the term will be limited to operations on material in the gasoline boiling range, or lighter, and considered in two categories, as was done for hydrogenation, i. e., nondestructive and destructive. Nondestructive dehydrogenation is defined as the removal of hydrogen from the hydrocarbon molecule without the cracking which would significantly change its boiling range. Destructive dehydrogenation removes hydrogen from the molecule, but is accompanied by chain rupture to some degree. Catalysts are employed for the nondestruc- tive dehydrogenation, but the destructive dehydrogeneration may be carried out either with or without catalyst, depending on the degree of selectivity desired. Polymerization.—Broadly speaking, polymerization can be consid- ered as the linking of two or more hydrocarbon molecules to form one molecule having a longer carbon chain and a higher boiling point. Here again the definition must be narrowed to make it useful, because the tar produced when gas oil is cracked in a conventional cracking coil is the result of polymerization. Polymerization, as practiced intentionally, at the present time is confined to hydrocarbons having four carbon atoms or less to the molecule (butane and lighter), and links them together under conditions which result in the product being predominantly within the gasoline boiling range. The operation can be carried out either catalytically or thermally. The catalytic process operates at relatively high pressures, but at moderate temperatures, and only the unsaturates in the charge react. The thermal process operates at high pressures and high temperatures, but both unsaturates and saturates react, owing in part, but not entirely, to thermal dehydro- genation taking place in the heating coil as the charge is brought to operating temperature. Alkylation—Ilf any saturated hydrocarbon molecule is deprived of a hydrogen atom and then united with another hydrocarbon molecule 246 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 through the bond where the hydrogen atom was removed, alkylation has been accomplished. The broad definition of this term leaves us nowhere, but one of the specific alkylation processes in which interest is at a high pitch at the present time unites isobutane (a branched- chain compound) with a butane (unsaturated branched- or straight- chain compound) to produce practically pure iso-octane. The opera- tion is carried out at low pressure and low temperature, and requires [SELECTIVE MOM SELECTIVE CATALYTIC wo f POLYMERIZATIONY. Les HY OROGENATION THERMAL POLYMERIZATION CATALYTIC DEHYDROGLAATIVAL 7 THERMAL DEHY DROGE RATION Ye, © < PENTANE ISOMMRIZATION CATALYTIC DENY DROGENATION BUTANE IZOMLRIZATION CHEMICAL DESULFURIZATION CATALYTIC DCSULFURIZATION CYCLIZATION AROMATIZATION CATALYTIC IDEHYDROGEAATION CHEMICAL DESULFURIZATION CATALYTIC POLYMER IZATIONL/ 7G MON- SELECTIVE Np CaATaALYTic POLYMERIZATION CATALYTIC OCSULFURIZATION CATALYTIC DEY DROGEAATION THERMAL DENYDROGENATION CHEMICAL DISULPURIZATION CATALYTIC DESULFURIZATION CHEMICAL IDESULFURIZATION CLAY FINISHING CATALYTIC —-—=== enares e CRAC RING r THERMAL SOxINS : CATALYTIC ATALY TIC ROMPLETH DENY DROGENATIO: RACKING |PARTIAL [ THOR MAL CRACKING mid HY DROGT MATION THERMAL THERMAL VIS BREAKING Gs THERMAL SS U4 COKIAG a CATALYTIC CORKING CATALYTIC ALKYLATION THERMAL ALKYLATION THERMAL POLYMERIZATION HYDROGENATION THERMAL POLYMERIZATION CATALYTIC ALMYLATION HERA, REFORMING POLYMERIZATION ALK Y LATION 7) Ficure 4.—Petroleum-ization—1940. Diagram indicates the complexity of the refiner’s problem in properly selecting the processes for the several products and stages of refining best suited for his specific crudes. a catalyst. Another example is the process which produces cumene. In this process propylene is reacted with benzol to produce isopropyl benzene, a valuable aviation blending agent. Desulfurization—In general, this term is self-defining, but here it will be considered as applying to the removal of sulfur from material within the gasoline boiling range. Chemical desulfurization, using either sulfuric acid or caustic soda, has been practiced for many years. There is, however, a definite feeling that destructive chemical desul- furization is on the way out; so, for the purpose of this summary— PETROLEUM—FIELD 247 which is concerned chiefly with the new catalytic processes—the defini- tion will be narrowed to identify processes which decompose the sulfur- hydrocarbon compounds in the gasoline, and evolve the sulfur as hydro- gen sulfide or possibly as sulfur dioxide. Isomerization.—Inasmuch as saturated hydrocarbons can exist as either straight- or branched-chain compounds, and as the branched. chain compounds in the gasoline boiling range have higher antiknock qualities than the straight-chain compounds (e. g., iso-octane vs. nor- mal heptane, the 100 and 0, respectively, of our antiknock scale), in- terest in controlled changing of straight chains to branched chains (isomerization) increased sharply as practicable methods were dis- covered. Isomerization, as now available for our study as an isolated process, is confined to butane and pentane conversion to the correspond- ing iso-compounds; but inasmuch as the extremely high octane-number increase obtained during certain catalytic-dehydrogenation operations on gasoline can best be accounted for by assuming some isomerization to have occurred, it is the opinion in many quarters that catalysts and conditions will be found eventually which will extend isomerization as a controlled process into the broad gasoline boiling range. Aromatization.—¥ or present purposes let us define aromatization as the conversion of saturated hydrocarbons to aromatic hydrocarbons, e. g., conversion of hexane to benzol, heptane to toluol, etc. Processes using catalysts at relatively high temperatures and moderate pressures have accomplished such conversions with surprisingly high yields. Catalytic cracking and reforming.—As mentioned previously, crack- ing involves dehydrogenation of the type defined as destructive. In the rupturing of the hydrocarbon chains, there are created fragments which are extremely active chemically. In the course of reacting to attain chemical stability, these fragments apparently, to some degree, engage in practically all of the reactions which we have been discuss- ing. The use of a catalyst during cracking has the interesting effect of decreasing the amount of polymerization to tar and at the same time encouraging aromatization and isomerization of the cracked fractions into the gasoline boiling range. Asa result, material of high antiknock value is produced. In catalytic reforming a different effect is sought. Here aromatization and isomerization are encouraged by different operating conditions and catalysts, but every effort is made to suppress the chain rupture which would cause excessive conversion of gasoline to gas. In figure 4 catalytic reforming is classified as de- hydrogenation, but merely for convenience, and does not infer that the dehydrogenation phase is considered predominant. Coking.—The operation of coking, whether thermal or catalytic, consists of heat-treating heavy hydrocarbons, usually crude residuum or cracked tar, in order to increase the ultimate yield of gasoline from 777488—48-——19 248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 the crude. Heavy hydrocarbons are low in hydrogen-carbon ratio; gasoline is relatively high in this same ratio. The conversion, there- fore, necessitates the throwing out of carbon (coke) as a means of adjustment of this ratio. Catalytic coking, as contrasted with thermal coking, results in less coke “throw-out” for a given conversion, pos- sibly due to the fact that gasolines of relatively high aromatic content have a lower hydrogen-carbon ratio than nonaromatic gasolines, and lower carbon “throw-out” would suffice for the adjustment in hydro- gen-carbon ratio necessitated by this type of conversion. Figure 4 is taken directly from the above-mentioned paper.? This scheme starts with crude petroleum and presents some of the various courses which might be charted in converting this crude oil to gaso- line as the major product, the shaded circles representing positions in a stepwise examination where a stop is made to review ways and means before taking the next step. A quick review of this chart shows that the first step for most of the operations in refining crude oil to high octane gasoline, is that in which the hydrocarbon fractions existing in the crude oil as received are changed in molecular structure from chemically stable hydrocar- bons to materials which are chemically reactive and are thus suscepti- ble to synthesis into highly branched chain materials which have been found to have the higher antiknock values. Upon completion of what- ever synthesis methods are used, either thermal cracking, thermal or catalytic dehydrogenation, polymerization, or alkylation the materials thus produced may be satisfactory for blending into motor fuel directly as such, or may require further treatment such as hydrogenation or desulfurization. COMBAT-GRADE AVIATION GASOLINE In 1939 very few plants were operating dehydrogenation, polymeri- zation, alkylation, or hydrogenation units. During the war the re- quirements for combat-grade aviation gasoline posed a problem in large-scale production of isopentane, iso-octane and the other trimeth- ylpentanes, alkylated aromatics, and carefully fractionated and pre- pared catalytic base stocks to be blended into finished fuel. It was only by tailormaking the fuel in this fashion that the characteristics required by the modern aviation engine could be met completely. The fuel had to be 100 octane under normal cruising conditions, it had to be chemically stable under storage conditions in all parts of the world, and it had to respond with an apparent antiknock value considerably in excess of 100 to permit a heavily loaded plane to take off with maxi- mum power at top supercharge boost pressure and rich mixture conditions. 3 Petroleum-ization—1940. PETROLEUM—FIELD 249 The important development of catalytic cracking enabled the pro- duction of superior aviation base stocks. In these processes, the pres- ence of a catalyst results in the formation of appreciable quantities of isoparaflins and aromatics. Only a very small amount of olefins, which are undesirable for aviation gasoline, are formed in contrast to older thermal cracking processes which produce large amounts of olefins. Three chief sources of isoparaffins were utilized. The most im- portant was the product known as “alkylate,” which is produced by combining low molecular weight olefin and isoparaffin hydrocarbons. The second was the polymerization of two low molecular weight olefins (product known as codimer) followed by hydrogenation to obtain an isoparafin. The third was the rigorous fractional distillation of straight-run stocks. To meet military demands all these processes were perfected and expanded. The need for aromatic hydrocarbons immediately imposed another synthesis problem since benzene, the most readily available aromatic, freezes at 40° F. and cannot be used to any great extent because avia- tion gasoline must meet low-temperature requirements for high- altitude flymg. Consequently, cumene (f. p., —141° F.) was imme- diately synthesized by alkylating propylene (a waste refinery gas) and benzene and became the first important source of aromatics for aviation fuel. It is interesting to note that cumene had never been produced commercially before the war but by the end of the war about 500,000 gallons per day were in production. Other sources of aro- matics were xylenes and toluene both synthesized from petroleum and excess ethyl benzene from the synthetic-rubber program. The fact that some of these aromatics were produced by alkylating benzene with olefins (cumene and ethyl benzene) while others were made by dehydrogenation of cycloparafiins illustrates the versatility used to achieve results. The old source of pentanes used for volatility did not escape examl- nation and these ultimately were separated and only the isopentanes used. The chemical “aviation gasoline” near the close of the war had the following composition, listed in approximate order of increasing boiling range: Isopentane Isoparafiins : Alkylate Hydrogenated codimer Isohexanes and isoheptanes (fractioned from straight-run naphtha) Aromatics: Toluene Xylenes Ethyl benzene Cumene (isopropyl benzene) Catalytic cracked base stock 250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 This mixture of components with the addition of tetraethyl lead was known as 100/130-grade aviation gasoline. It has a performance rating of 130 under take-off conditions and a rating of 100 under flight conditions. This fuel made available 30 percent more power over the old fuel for take-offs and short bursts of speed during actual combat. At the start of the war the production of 100-octane aviation gasoline was approximately 40,000 barrels per day. At the close of the war 100/130-grade aviation fuel was being produced in excess of 500,000 barrels per day. INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING MATERIALS FROM PETROLEUM In the field of what are known as processing materials from pe- troleum there continue to be new products and applications. In fact there are few articles that do not utilize petroleum in some form in their manufacture. It is said that over 30 basic industries employ petroleum in their manufacturing operations. Individual applica- tions are numerous. It is in the classes of processing materials and manufactured chemicals that petroleum products number into hun- dreds and unit values are greatest. One of the processing materials made from petroleum in largest volume is paraffin wax with which we are all familiar as a component of bread wrappers, waxed paper, paper milk bottles, and candles. A newcomer to the field of waxes is a material known as micro- crystalline wax which is tough and pliable at low temperatures and extremely resistant to water. Microcrystalline waxes had been made prior to the war but their real value was not appreciated until the advent of problems created by the war. They were first called “amorphous waxes” because they were believed to be noncrystalline. Later is was found that they contained minute crystals and the name microcrystalline waxes came into use. Small arms and rations were packaged in containers utilizing these waxes in their construction. They have also been used for liners of metal cans and drums to resist the action of beer, wines, and acids. The developments in these waxes created large demands and it is necessary for the industry to bend every effort to supply the required quantities. In most uses of petroleum waxes, they are applied in a molten con- dition. Wax can also be applied in the form of a wax emulsion which is a Suspension of fine wax particles in water, with a suitable dispersing agent. The use of wax emulsions is attaining increased importance. The armed forces used thousands of yards of tent cloth, cotton duck, and mosquito netting that had been treated with wax emulsion to im- part a water repellent finish to the individual fibers. The treatment has practically no effect on the appearance and “feel” of the fabric PETROLEUM—FIELD PAR | and because of openings remaining between the fibers, adequate ventilation is assured. Rust preventives are another group of products designed for war service. Protection against rust has always been a problem but it was made more difficult by military requirements. Metal objects both large and small had to stand shipping on boats all over the world where exposure to salty air and high humidity was ideal for rapid rust formation. Practically all metal articles used by the armed forces were coated with one of many rust preventives developed, and in many instances the rust preventive was subsequently removed before use of the article, adding to the problem. Practically all these rust preven- tives contained a petroleum base. The knowledge gained here should find ready application in preserving metal machinery such as farm tools and machinery frequently stored for long periods without use. Two new developments in the field of asphalt are prefabricated air- port runways and asphalts which will satisfactorily coat wet stone. In the first development burlap is saturated with asphalt, coated with small stones and rolled up as is common asphalt roll roofing for ship- ment. It is put down by employing a 50 percent overlap and cement- ing together with an asphalt cut-back. A large amount of this was employed by the armed forces. The nonstripping type of asphalt contains additives which increase its adhesion to stone, even if applied when the latter is wet. Roads may thus be laid in rainy weather and in addition give better and longer service. Other developments in processing materials derived from petroleum include plasticizers and softeners for synthetic rubbers, special oils that are heavier than water for mosquito control, and high refractive index oils for use in examining quartz crystals which are cut into oscillators to control wave length in radar and radio equipment. SYNTHETIC RUBBER FROM PETROLEUM Much has been written about this country’s synthetic-rubber indus- try, claimed by some before the atomic bomb announcement to be the greatest technical achievement of all time. Large quantities of buta- diene and styrene were needed to make the Government’s all-purpose rubber known as GR-S. There are several methods of producing butadiene from petroleum but the best method consists in dehydro- genating certain C, hydrocarbons to form butadiene. As an example of the commercialization of butadiene production the Government- owned plant of the Neches Butane Products Company producing butadiene from petroleum is rated at 100,000 tons of butadiene per year and has produced at a rate far in excess of this. New uses for butadiene can be expected now that this material is commercially 252 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 available, and at least one such product (butadiene monoxide, a chemical intermediate) has already been announced. Styrene production also required for GR-S rubber is carried on by the chemical industry by alkylating benzene with the petroleum olefin ethylene to form ethyl benzene which is converted to styrene by dehy- drogenation. Ethylene is recovered from refinery gases or produced by cracking a petroleum hydrocarbon such as propylene. Butyl rubber, another very important synthetic rubber, is a 100- percent petroleum product and a 100-percent American development. It is synthesized from isobutylene, a petroleum hydrocarbon obtained from cracking processes, and a small amount of a diolefin such as iso- prene. ‘These two hydrocarbons are converted into butyl rubber at temperatures of approximately —150°F. by a continuous process. This development filled the nation’s need for heavy-duty inner tubes at a critical time, since GR-S (butadiene styrene rubber) is unsatis- factory and natural rubber was cut off. Butyl rubber in some re- spects is superior to the latter in having better resistance to oxidation and lower permeability to the passage of gases. Inner tubes from it have proved superior to those of natural rubber. This product is expected to have an excellent future. It should find new uses in electrical insulation, waterproof fabrics, and mechanical goods. PLASTICS FROM PETROLEUM In the field of plastics there have been some notable products de- rived from petroleum hydrocarbons. Among the newer petroleum plastics are polyethylene resins, allyl plastics, and polyvinylidene chloride resin. Polyethylene resins are a 100-percent petroleum hy- drocarbon resin produced by polymerizing ethylene itself. Their production was announced in 1944 by the duPont Co. and then in- dependently by the Carbide & Carbon Chemicals Corp. Polyethylene plastics are flexible and tough over a wide range of temperatures, have exceptional electrical properties, are resistant to moisture pene- tration, and are chemically inert. They are thermoplastic and can be made into thin sheets and filaments. Polyethylene has been used primarily in electrical insulation for radar equipment. It can be expected to find many uses in a peacetime economy. Its production represents another major technical achievement. Allyl plastics are based on allyl alcohol which is derived from propylene. In 1942 two allyl resins were announced, one (diallyl phthalate) by an oil company and the other (now allymer CR-39) by a chemical company. ‘These plastics are reported to make excellent coating materials for cans and metal containers, one being reported to be less brittle and harder than glass and harder than any other transparent plastic. Its uses have been strictly military. These resins have properties unique to themselves which should make them PETROLEUM—FIELD Po 5" find ready markets. Allyl alcohol and chloride will doubtless find many other uses in chemical synthesis. Some time ago a chemical company announced a resin produced from the monomer vinylidene chloride which is a derivative of eth- ylene and is therefore of interest to the petroleum industry. It differs from the older vinyl chloride monomer in that two chlorine atoms have been substituted for hydrogen atoms in the ethylene molecule instead of one. This plastic is very tough and resistant to solvents, has a very high tensile strength and can be made into strong filaments. Taking advantage of these properties, expected uses include seat cov- ers, filter cloths, house screening, fishing lines, hose connections, and flexible tubing. Older resins which are derived at least in part from petroleum and were greatly expanded for war uses are the polyvinyl resins, acrylic resins (Lucite and Plexiglass), ethylcellulose, and phenolics employ- ing alkylated phenols. Among important chemicals newly derived from petroleum and announced during the war is phthalic anhydride, produced by oxi- dizing orthoxylene (previous production has been from naphthalene from coal tar). One petroleum company has built a plant to manu- facture this chemical which is used in the synthesis of plastics, plasti- cizers, and insect repellents. Another company has announced a new synthesis of carbon bisulfide from methane and sulfur. This chemical is used in the manufacture of viscose rayon, solvent extraction proc- esses, and in the manufacture of chemicals used in ore separation and for vulcanizing rubber. Its older synthesis was from coke and sulfur. DETERGENTS FROM PETROLEUM For many years both oil-soluble and water-soluble soaps have been produced from petroleum mainly as byproducts from the treating of oils for industrial or medicinal purposes. Just prior to the war a de- mand arose for synthetic detergents or wetting agents which would be superior to either the byproduct soaps or those made by saponi- fication of fatty or vegetable oils. Research carried out in petroleum laboratories resulted in development of processes for synthesizing such detergents from petroleum hydrocarbons, and commercialization of these processes was quite rapid. During the war all such production was under allocation to such uses as incorporation in GI all-purpose soap for use in all kinds of water, penicillin manufacture, and many other critical uses. Since the war, requirements have increased largely through the use in industrial and household cleansers. In addition, many of the products have been improved by utilizing plant facilities and processes developed for aviation-gasoline or toluene manufacture. The petroleum soap of today is a complicated chemical synthetic 254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 ASOLINE GASOLINE ACID TREAT > SWEETEN (HI-TEST) SOLVENTS TEST DISTILLATE ACID TREAT RERUN KEROSENE GAS OIL FURNACE DISTILLATE GAS TO FUEL THERMAL CRACKING ACID TREAT —————- RERUN ——————_—>- GASOLINE NR EE PIPE STILL FRACTIONATIONING COLUMN WAX DISTILLATE aes) I LIGHT : EIGHT NEOTIRALIREIAL Cee” NEUTRAL OIL ‘L press +-PRESSEO_. RERUN L HEAVY HEAVY NEUTRAL a REA ren 6 ELEN Faire NEUTRAL OIE SW’ ——> SWEAT ——~ACID TREAT+ REFINED WAX CYLINDER STOCK OR FUEL OIL FURNAGE PUMP FLOW DIAGRAM CRUDE OIL REFINING, 1926 Wicure 5. PETROLEUM—FIELD ZOD = és so GAS SMM oe ce” is RECOVERY SYSTEM T CATALYTIC FUEL GAS —* POLYMERIZATION — > ALKYLATION LIGH HYDROCARBONS POLYMER ALKYLATE GASOLINE SWEETEN RERUN SOLVENT STOCK CRUDE SWEETEN NAPHTHA | DESULFURIZATION GASOLINE REFORMING p= GRAY TREAT STABILIZEUNISOL TREAT AS TO GAS RECOVERY SYSTEM REFORMER STOCK SPECIAL SOLVENTS SWEETEN ————— a SO RECIAL Loacio treat— SOLVENTS EXPORT PIPE STILL KEROSINE ~ RERUN DOMESTIC KEROSINE —*ACID TREAT WEETEN-FILTER-©S EXPORT DOMESTIC KEROSINE KEROSINE FURNACE oor pee lel OR CATALYTIC TREATMENT——~ FILTER ————*FURNACE OIL FURNACE OIL CATALYTIC CRACKING GASOLINE ————> STABILIZE ———=-CAUSTIC WASH 1 GAS Ol. GAS TO GAS RECOVERY SYSTEM ; _ STEAM AND Aes TABILIZE —>-ACID TREAT—= SWEETEN ——,ctim RERUN R CRACKING 1 Lcray TREAT—=STABILIZE——-UNISOL TREAT TAR TO ™6 FUEL FILTER ————=—NEUTRAL OILS PRESSED__ PIPE STILL acip oS : R OIL RERUN is PARAFFIN OILS GAS OIL GASOLINE DISTILLATE —~ PRESS YELLOW CRUDE Jacip TRE AT—=FILTER—» SCALE SCALE WAX PARAFFIN WAX SWEATED WAX-=ACID TREAT—=FILTER = REFINED SLACK = SWEAT PARAFFIN WAX = 2 = o ° © < e a 2 ° - (2) a a w =] 2 = o w o < OOTS OIL TO CRACKING OR RECYCLING SLACK WAX ACETONE TO CRACKING BENZOL DEWAXED oIL ~ FILTER—*LUBE OIL ENTRIFUGE + PET VACUUM STILL ——————————>- COASTAL OILS NITRAFFIN— DEWAX LUBE NITRO DISTILLATES TREAT SPECIAL pOGK PRODUCTS CRACKING NITRENE LUBE STOCK vacuum STILL ——=DISTILLATES TAR #6 FUEL GAS TO RECOVERY SYSTEM STEAM AND aM STABILIZE —~;Re ar —> SWEETEN ——= vacuum vata FURNACE VIS BREAK Pe CUNE GRAY TREAT ———@STABILIZE ——> UNISOL TREAT GAS OIL TO CRACKING TAR TO *6 FUEL ASPHALT FLUX PETROLEUM ASPHALT STEAM REFINED STEAM ROU CED AS RHALTS OXIDIZED AIR BLOWN PUMP aoe ASPHALTS FLOW DIAGRAM CRUDE OIL REFINING OCT., 1946 Ficure 6. 256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 controlled in properties to meet very exacting requirements and a far cry from the older types of byproduct soap. WHAT HAS HAPPENED TO THE REFINERY As we have traced refinery history in the preceding discussion many new processes have been developed to handle the requirements for the many new and improved petroleum products now in demand. The process flow of a refinery has become almost a maze. Figure 5 depicts a typical refinery flow, corresponding in chronology approximately to the start of our historical survey. Without commenting on the details the main thing to note is the relative simplicity of processing and number of products. Figure 6 depicts a typical refinery flow today, without including the details of some of the previously mentioned complex chemical processes. A comparison with the preceding figure explains why pres- ent-day refineries must be heavily staffed with technically trained per- sonnel and must operate hand in hand with large and competent re- search and development departments. Today a petroleum refinery is not only that but has alse become a large-tonnage chemical manu- facturing plant; and we are still going strong. CONCLUSION In conclusion it can be said that the petroleum-refining industry has in either active or contemplated production materials used in: Alcohols and antifreezes, Lacquers, paints, varnishes, and solvents, Rayons and plastics, Dyestuffs, textile oils, and leather oils, Synthetic rubbers and paper, Medicines, poisons, and toilet goods, Explosives and anesthetics, Detergents, emulsifiers, and wetting agents, in addition to bottled household fuel gas, motor fuels, kerosene, fur- nace oil, lubricants, and heavy fuel oils which are generally consid- ered the refiner’s main stock in trade. Does it seem strange to hear that coal is hauled to market by a Diesel oil engine? Thus refining is rapidly becoming a broad and versatile chemical- manufacturing business and the refinery chemist has reason to believe that he can derive from oil practically every hydrocarbon that can be derived from coal, many products now or formerly derived from vegetable and animal materials, and many products that cannot be obtained on commercial scale from any of these sources. The last 10 years of petroleum-refining developments have been in- teresting and exciting, and rapid obsolescence of processes and prod- ucts has given truth to the statement that “there is no such thing as an up-to-date refinery” since it will be obsolete, at least in part, before it can be completed. THE TSUNAMI OF APRIL 1, 1946, IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS? By G. A. MacponaLD U. 8. Geological Survey F. P. SHEPARD Scripps Institution of Oceanography and D. C. Cox Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association Experiment Station [With 6 plates] INTRODUCTION The tsunami which struck the shores of the Hawaiian Islands on the morning of April 1, 1946, was the most destructive, and one of the most violent, in the history of the Islands. More than 150 persons were killed, principally by drowning, and at least 161 others were in- jured. Property damage reached about $25,000,000. The wave attack on Hawaiian shores was far from uniform. The height and violence of the waves at adjacent points varied greatly, and not always in the manner which would have been expected from superficial inspection and a study of the existing literature on tsunamis. Therefore, a detailed study of the effects of the tsunami has been made, in an effort to understand the observed variations, and in the hope that the principles established may help lessen the loss of life and property in future tsunamis. Space is not available in the pres- ent short paper to discuss findings in detail, or even to present all the evidence for all the conclusions. These matters will be treated in detail in a longer paper (Shepard, Cox, and Macdonald, in prepara- tion). Acknowledgments——We wish to thank the many persons who fur- nished information during the course of the field study. We are also especially grateful to M. H. Carson, H. S. Leak, H. W. Beardin, and W. K. Sproat, who supplied measurements of the highwater level in areas not visited by us; H. W. Iversen and J. D. Isaacs, who supplied additional measurements on Oahu; A. F. Robinson and Dexter Fraser, 1 Reprinted by permission from Pacific Science, vol. 1, No. 1, January 1947. 257 258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 who furnished descriptions of the wave effects on Niihau and Lanai, respectively; the Hawaii County engineer’s office, which supplied a map showing the extent of flooding in Hilo; and the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, which supplied data on the earthquake and the record of the Honolulu tide gage, and permitted the use, in advance of publication, of C. K. Green’s manuscript on the tsunami along the shores of North and South America. Howard A. Powers, seismologist of the Volcano Observatory at Hawaii National Park, aided greatly in the investigation on the island of Hawaii. Miss Maude Jones, archivist of the Territory of Hawaii, and Miss Margaret Titcomb, librarian of the Bishop Museum, aided in locating records of past waves. C. K. Wentworth and H. S. Palmer aided greatly in discussions. Wentworth and Walter Munk read and criticized the manuscript. J. Y. Nitta prepared the illustrations. DEFINITION OF “TSUNAMI” The name “tsunami”? is applied to a long-period gravity wave in the ocean caused by a sudden large displacement of the sea bottom or shores. A tsunami is accompanied by a severe earthquake, but the earthquake does not cause the tsunami. Rather, both are caused by the same sudden crustal displacement. The waves of a tsunami have a period of several minutes to an hour as contrasted with sev- eral seconds for ordinary storm waves caused by wind, a wave length of scores of miles as contrasted with less than 500 feet for wind waves, and a speed of hundreds of miles an hour as contrasted with less than 60 miles an hour for wind waves. ‘Tsunamis are also sometimes termed “seismic sea waves,” and are popularly known as “tidal waves.” The latter term is patently undesirable, as the waves have no connection whatever with the tides. “Tsunami” is used herein in preference to “seismic sea wave” because of its greater brevity, and because the etymological correctness of the term “seismic sea wave” appears open to question.$ HISTORY OF TSUNAMIS IN HAWAII Tsunamis probably reach Hawaiian shores on an average of more than one a year. Most of these are small, however, and generally escape notice except when their record is recognized on tide gages. Earlier tsunamis in Hawaii have been discussed by Jaggar (1931) ? Also spelled “tunami,” the Japanese equivalent of the letter “t” being pronounced “ts” in English. It appears preferable, however, to use the phonetic spelling in English, avoiding thereby much ineorrect pronunciation. 2The adjective “seismic” is derived from the Greek root seismos, meaning earthquake, and is defined as pertaining to, produced by, or characteristic of an earthquake. The Waves in question are not, however, characteristic of most earthquakes, even those of submarine origin, and are not produced by earthquakes. TSUNAMI OF APRIL 1, 1946—-MACDONALD, ET AL. 259 and Powers (1946, p. 3). The accompanying table lists all the tsuna- mis noticed on Hawaiian shores, in the period of written history, of which record could be found, together with their sources if known. A total of 27 are listed, or an average of 1 every 4.7 years since 1819. Most of them, however, did little damage. During the same interval 140° + “.., HAWAIIAN GALAPAGOSy, -.PHOENIX IS. ISLANDS L . FG 5 se Y "+ ISLANDS oe See : Y WAKE Is = : 2 : RIANAS IS. : : “xy oe Jl = J MARSHALL . %, y * lune 1S STANDS CLIPPERTON 1. ‘ Me PE ROS seg EN Ge PALMYRA I. Y Y, * GILBERTHIS. Seah vat MARQUESAS +, ISLANDS 4 . ZU Wy j “ie YEA E 0, 1/ fi ‘yp Is *. .ELLIGE IS 4 «+ TUAMOTU .” ARCHIPELAGO 3 EASTER I. FIcuRE 1.—Map of the Pacific basin, showing the pusition of the Hawaiian Islands, the place of origin of the tsunami of April 1, 1946, and the distribution of seismi- cally active belts around the Pacific in which tsunamis are likely to originate. there are listed five severe tsunamis which caused extensive damage, an average of one every 25.6 years. Other violent waves have been termed “tidal waves” in the news- papers, but were more probably storm waves. Such were the waves which hit Maliko, Maui, on January 28, 1895, and those which struck Kaumalapau on Lanai, and Nawiliwili on Kauai, on May 30, 1924. It will be noted that only 2 of the 27 tsunamis listed in the table were of local origin. With the exception of the numerous volcanic earthquakes on the island of Hawaii, which seldom cause tsunamis, the Hawaiian region is only moderately active seismically (Gutenberg 260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 and Richter, 1941, pp. 84-85). The great majority of the tsunamis reaching Hawaii originate in the highly seismic border zone of the Pacific. Of the 22 tsunamis from known sources listed in the table, 5 came from near South America, 1 from near Central America, 1 from near California, 3 from near Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, 5 from near Kamchatka, 3 from the Japanese area, and 1 from near the Solomon Islands. Of the five severe tsunamis, three originated near the coast of South America and one in the Aleutian area, and one was of local origin. One tsunami of moderate intensity came from near Kamchatka, and another probably from South America. TABLE 1.—Hawaiian tsunamis ; Average Date Source (nearest coast) Damage in Hawaii speed of waves Mi. per hr. ASLO ADIs t2 seo a eee soa eee 1906, Aug. 16__- fe 1918, Sept. 7_--- _| Kamchatka 1919 WAtpraoObeee< Sea se See Unknown (distant) - -------- None <2 25 PoP eae ee TODD INioveplleencesee eee en oe SouthtAmeni cal seaeeees eee doe 2. aS 450 LOIS Mob nOe ese eee eae eee Kamchatkale2 ee eae 432 TPR INO TE eee ee ee Kamchatkalses eee seesoee 3 } 438 TOD TAINOVi4aneoe- see eee ease @slifornia= 222 ees Ses d 462 1OQT AND eCHoS ee eee ana nanee Kamchatka 222s ie et See |e aos 438 TOPS dohave) GL eee ee Mexico 462 1929, Mar.6_-_- Aleutian Is___- 499 L031 VO ctr ses=— .| Solomon Is_-_- 447 1933, Mar. 2_--- JADRN= 22 soe ae termes 477 AGSSS INO veg] ON ae ee ‘Alaska 2 See ie Poe ae 496 TIME ID GOs Paani a ese ose Japan? = /20e oe o2 seen Suelo ee d 425 TRY, IN} oye TS ee Aleutiantlsit222- 2 eS: 490 GENERAL FEATURES OF THE APRIL 1946 TSUNAMI: ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE WAVES The tsunami of April 1, 1946, was caused by a movement of the sea bottom on the northern slope of the Aleutian Deep, south of Unimak Island. The same crustal movement gave rise to a violent earthquake, recorded on seismographs all over the world. In Hawaii it was re- corded on the instrument of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey located on the campus of the University of Hawaii in Hono- lulu, and on those of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory at Kilauea on Hawaii. The epicenter of the earthquake has been located by the Coast and Geodetic Survey at latitude 53.5° N. and longitude 163° W., and the time established as 1°59™ a. m. Hawaiian time (12°29™ Greenwich time) (Bodle, 1946, p. 464). It may be assumed that the tsunami originated at the same place and time as the earthquake. The TSUNAMI OF APRIL 1, 1946—-MACDONALD, ET AL. 261 place of origin was thus 2,241 miles N. 8.5° W. of Honolulu, and 2,875 miles N. 12° W. of Hilo (fig. 1). The time of arrival of the waves in the Hawaiian Islands is known with certainty only at Honolulu. The record of the Honolulu tide gage (fig. 2) shows that the first rise started at about 6:33 a.m. (C. K. Green, 1946, p. 491), though the exact time cannot be stated closer than 2 or 3 minutes. The drum of the water-stage recorder at the Waimea River, on Kauai, revolves too slowly to give an accurate in- dication of time, but the first rise appears to have started there at about 5:55. At Hilo, electric clocks were stopped at 7:06, and a HOURS 1AM. 2 Si 4 5 6 i 8 9 10 ul 12 1PM 2 mat Ve aaa NG Nw ° Approximate datum a 1AM 2 3 4 5 6 i”. 8 9 10 il 12 1PM 2 = HOURS FIGuRE 2.—-Record produced on the tide gage in Honolulu Harbor by the tsunami of April 1, 1946. brief power failure occurred at 7:18. These have been interpreted by Powers (1946, p. 2), probably correctly, as the time of arrival of two wave crests at Hilo. From other considerations, discussed briefly elsewhere (Shepard, Macdonald, and Cox, in preparation), it ap- pears probable, however, that the crest at 7:06 was the second wave at Hilo, not the first. If so, allowing for the observed 15-minute interval between later waves, the first rise at Hilo probably started at about 6:45. Computed from these times of arrival, the approximate average speed of the tsunami from its origin to Honolulu and Hilo was, respectively, 490 and 498 miles an hour. On entering shallow water the waves decreased greatly in speed. The waves moving up Kawela Bay, on Oahu, were estimated by Shepard to be moving only about 15 miles an hour. Similar low speeds near shore were reported 262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 by other observers, and are comparable to the speed of 20 miles an hour recorded in San Francisco Bay (C. K. Green, 1946, p. 492). The interval between the first and third wave crests, as recorded on the Honolulu tide gage (fig. 2), was about 25 minutes, indicating an average interval between early wave crests of approximately 12.5 minutes. The interval between the first wave crest and the succed- ing trough was 7.5 minutes, however, indicating a wave period of 15 minutes at the beginning of the disturbance. This corresponds with the mean wave period of 15.6 minutes found by Green (1946, p. 499) at Honolulu and eight other stations on the coasts of North and South America. At the mouth of Nuuanu Stream in Honolulu, C. K. Wentworth observed an interval of approximately 15 minutes between successive bores ascending the stream, and a wave period of about 15 minutes was observed by J. B. Cox and D. C. Cox at Waikiki at about 7:45 a. m. Observations elsewhere were poor, but in general indicated an interval not far from 15 minutes between the early waves of the series. The interval between later waves at Honolulu (fig. 2) and elsewhere was shorter and less regular, probably because of the arrival of chains of waves traveling by somewhat different routes, refracted around different sides of islands, and reflected at various points, as well as traveling by the most direct route. Probably contributing to the irregularity of later waves were wind waves and also the free-period oscillations, in harbors and channels, known as “seiches.” If the period of the waves is assumed to be 15 minutes, and the average speed to be about 490 miles an hour, the average wave length from crest to crest was about 122 miles. Direct observations on the height of the waves in the open sea are lacking, but theoretical considerations indicate that the height prob- ably did not exceed 2 feet from crest to trough.* If so, the small height combined with the very great wave length should have made the waves imperceptible to ships at sea. That such was indeed the case is indicated by the fact that the master of a ship lying offshore near Hilo could feel no unusual waves, although he could see the great waves breaking onshore. Crews of fishing boats in the Hawaiian area also reported no unusual conditions at the time of the tsunami, although heavy storm waves were running. The few reports of violent waves of great height from ships at sea were probably occasioned by storm waves, together with the knowledge that a tsunami was taking place. The nature of the waves sweeping up onto Hawaiian shores varied greatly from place to place. At some places the water rose gently, * Based on the assumption of a 10-foot wave in 10 feet of water, and the variation of the wave height inversely as the fourth root of the depth. TSUNAMI OF APRIL 1, 1946—-MACDONALD, ET AL. 263 flooding over the coastal lands without the development of any steep wave front. At such places most of the damage resulted from the violent run-back of the water to the sea. At some localities, although the general water surface rose gently, ordinary storm waves moved in over the top of the broad swells of the tsunami, and there at least part of the damage was caused by the storm waves. At most places, however, the waves of the tsunami swept toward shore with steep fronts and great turbulence, causing a loud roaring and hissing noise. Locally, the wave closely resembled a tidal bore, the steep front rolling in over comparatively quiet water in front of it. Behind the steep front, the wave crest was broad and nearly flat, with smaller storm waves superimposed upon it. Such bores were best developed in bays and estuaries, but waves of closely similar form were observed crossing shallowly submerged reefs upon otherwise open coasts. At many places the violence of the waves moving shoreward was sufficiently great to tear loose heads of coral and algae, up to 4 feet across, and toss them onto the beach as much as 15 feet above sea level. Locally, blocks of reef rock weighing several tons were quarried at the outer edge of the reef and thrown onto the reef surface. Between crests, the water withdrew from shore, exposing reefs, coastal mud flats, and harbor bottoms for distances up to 500 feet or more from the normal strand line. The outflow of the water was rapid and turbulent, making a loud hissing, roaring, and rattling noise. At several places houses were carried out to sea, and in some areas even large rocks and blocks of concrete were carried out onto the reefs. Sand beaches were strongly eroded by the outgoing water. People and their belongings were swept to sea, some being rescued hours later by boats and life rafts dropped from planes. At a few places, generally but not exclusively on the sides of the islands away from the wave origin, the first wave was reported to have been the highest. At those places, the rise was generally of the quiet sort. There are, however, no instrumental records showing the first wave to have been the highest, and it is possible that at places reporting the first wave as the highest, earlier waves may have been overlooked. Much more generally the third or fourth wave was re- ported to have been the highest and most violent. The third crest was the largest at the Honolulu tide gage (fig. 2). At other localities the sixth, seventh, or eighth waves were said to have been the highest. At Waimea River, Kauai, the sixth crest was higher than any other, both in absolute level and in its height above the preceding and succeeding troughs. In general, if not everywhere, the size and violence of the waves increased to a maximum with the third to eighth waves. The oscilla- tions then gradually decreased in amplitude over a period of at least 777488—48—-20 264 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 2 days, but with occasional waves which were larger than those just before and after them. Such temporary increases in wave height probably resulted from mutual reinforcement by the essentially simul- taneous arrival, in phase, of waves which had traveled different paths, or from the coincidence of tsunami waves with storm waves or seiche oscillations. Measures of the height of the waves approaching shore in shallow water, but before they dashed up on shore, are poor. At Kawela Bay, Oahu, Shepard estimated the height of the waves advancing across the reef to have been as much as 18 feet, and observers estimated the height of the waves crossing the reef off Lanikai, on Oahu, to have been about 7 feet. Photographs taken at Hilo show the top of the breakers to have been 25 feet above the normal bay surface where they struck Cocoanut Island, but the waves may have increased considerably in height in crossing the breakwater, and the effect of dashing up on the shore was probably already present, further exaggerating the height. Photographs of some of the late waves at the mouth of the Wailuku River, in Hilo, show them to have been 6 to 8 feet high (pl. 6), and early waves undoubtedly were higher. In general, these heights cor- respond fairly closely with the measured heights to which the water dashed on the shore at those localities. At any rate it appears clear that the waves not only slowed down, but increased in height on entering shallow water. George Green (1838) states that the wave height varies inversely as the fourth root of the depth of the water. Most observers reported the first movement on Hawaiian shores to have been a withdrawal of the water. However, the only available instrumental records, at Honolulu and Waimea, both indicate the first movement to have been a rise. The instrumental records are prob- ably more reliable than the reports of untrained observers. The initial rise at Honolulu was small (fig. 2), and a similar small rise at other localities may easily have been overlooked. Certainly it would have been less impressive than the large withdrawal of the water from shore as the succeeding trough approached. It is interesting to note that the records of tide gages along the coasts of North and South America cbtained by C. K. Green (1946, p. 497) all show the initial movement to have been a rise, with amplitude of about one-third that of the ensuing trough. HEIGHTS REACHED BY WAVES ON HAWAIIAN SHORES Measurements of high-water marks have been made around the shores of all five major islands of the Hawaiian group. The measured heights are shown on figures 3 to 7. All heights are stated in feet above lower low water. At each point sea level was estimated, the height of the high-water mark above that level was measured by means of hand level or steel tape, and the measurement reduced by TSUNAMI OF APRIL 1, 1946—-MACDONALD, ET AL. 265 means of tide tables to height above lower low water. Some inaccuracy undoubtedly has entered in the estimation of mean sea level, but it is believed that the heights are probably accurate to within 1 foot. The levels measured include: points indicated by eyewitnesses as the upper limit of the water, lines of flotsam or swash marks, the upper limits of soil and vegetation scouring, levels of consistent scratching and barking on trees, and the upper level of staining on the walls of buildings. 45° 90° 35” 30” 25° 159° 20° KILAUEA pa eea alk aan 24 Mine eee 12 i] i4 5 - bl 4g HANALEI HANAMAULA, WAIMEA NAWILIWILI, PORT ALLEN y __5 miles | le 50 40° 35’ 30” 25’ 159°20° 50: + ay Ficure 3.—Map of the island of Kauai, showing heights reached by the water during the tsunami of April 1, 1946. Heights are in feet above lower low water. The measured heights of high-water marks range from 55 feet at Pololu Valley on Hawaii, 54 feet at Waikolu Valley on Molokai, and 45 feet at Haena and Kilauea Point on Kauai, to 2 feet at Kaunakakai on Molokai, 2 feet at Milolii and Hoopuloa on Hawaii, and less than 2 feet at the head of Kaneohe Bay on Oahu. Causes of the variations in height will be discussed in a later section. Most of the heights measured are, of course, not the heights of the actual waves, but rather the heights to which the water was driven on shore. On a vertical cliff directly across the path of the wave, this height may theoretically amount to twice the height of the actual wave. On slopes less than vertical, or on cliffs at an angle to the 266 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 direction of wave advance, it should be somewhat less than twice the wave height. This measure represents the height of dash of solid water, but very abundant spray may be thrown much higher. More- over, storm waves riding on the crest of the broader swells of the tsunami undoubtedly added in places to the height to which water dashed on shore. There are places where normal trade-wind waves are flung to a height nearly as great as that reached by the tsunami, and many places, particularly on shores facing away from the origin 4 10° os 186°00" Le 80 a3’ 40 “WAIMEA OF Pas > ze (S za SG ° aS oS HAUULAS ees mi18s : aif 20 ie \ ui "HALEIWA Hi SKAENA POINT KAHANA, 21°30 : . 1: : KANEOHE $ 0.2 KAILUA®= SNANAKULI ,, CP? aff = SSSHONOLULU = MAKAPUU erie, a WAILUPE, Lae Ey, as ae Nu i 12/7 | Ta Oo Cc E a Me Ficure 4.—Map of the island of Oahu, showing the heights reached by the water during the tsunami of April 1, 1946. Heights are in feet above lower low water. of the tsunami, where waves of heavy storms reached appreciably higher than did the waves of the tsunami. It is not possible to make reliable estimates of the magnitudes of these complicating factors, as there are too many unknown elements involved. However, it is probable that most of the water heights recorded for the tsunami on the northern and eastern sides of the islands were appreciably increased by these factors. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE HEIGHTS AND INTENSITIES OF THE WAVES It may be assumed that the size and speed of the waves approaching the islands from the open ocean to the north were essentially the same throughout the length of the Hawaiian Archipelago. Differences in TSUNAMI OF APRIL 1, 1946—-MACDONALD, ET AL. 267 height reached by the water and in violence of wave attack along Hawaiian shores must be attributed to local influences modifying the size and behavior of the waves. The factors found to have affected the height and intensity of the waves during the tsunami of April 1, 1946, are: 1. Orientation of the coast line with respect to the point of origin of the tsunami. 2. Shape of the island. . Exposure to storm waves, . Submarine topography. . Presence or absence of reefs. . Configuration of the coast line. . Merging of waves from different directions, or of different types. AS Ol Pm CO Orientation of the coast line with respect to the point of origin of the tsunami.—ln general, the heights reached by the water were great- est on the sides of the islands facing the origin of the waves, and lowest on the sides away from the wave origin. This is evident from even a cursory inspection of the maps (figs. 3 to 7). Heights average con- sistently greater on the northern than on the southern sides of the islands. All the extreme heights were measured on the northern or northeastern sides. Conversely, most of the lowest figures were found on the southern and southwestern sides. It appears almost self-evident that this should be so. Waves striking northern shores retain their full force, whereas the refracted waves striking southern shores sufier a diminution in force and height. This effect is discussed for wind waves in Breakers and Surf (U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office, 1944, pp. 12-18). No wave can be refracted or reflected without losing some of its force. Shape of the island—Waves were refracted around circular or nearly circular islands much more effectively than around angular or elongate islands. This fact had a marked effect on the height and violence of waves on the southern shores. Thus the water reached considerably greater heights along the southern coast of the nearly round island of Kauai (fig. 3) than along the southern coast of the angular and elongate island of Molokai (fig. 5), even though the heights along the northern coast of Molokai were on the average per- haps a little greater than those on the northern coast of Kauai. The contrast between the very high average height on the northern coast of Molokai and the very low average height on the southern coast is greater than that between the two sides of any other island, although the difference between the extreme highs and lows is almost exactly the same as on the island of Hawaii (fig. 7). Exposure to storm waves.—At the time of the tsunami, large storm waves had been running for several days. As already pointed out, these storm waves riding in on the backs of the broad swells of the 268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 tsunami in places undoubtedly increased the height to which the water dashed on shore. Moreover, in other places, where the rise in water level due to the tsunami was gentle, storm waves on top of the tsunami were responsible for much of the damage. ‘The generally greater vio- lence of the waves on the windward (northern and northeastern) coasts as compared to that on the leeward coasts may have been in considerable part the result of the large storm waves which were driv- ing in on the windward coasts. Places on the windward coasts which were sheltered from the storm waves also experienced less violent waves. Thus at Kalaupapa, on the sheltered side of the peninsula on the windward side of Molokai, both photographs and the testimony of observers indicate that the rise of 25 feet caused by the tsunami was not violent. On the windward coasts, much of the rapid variation in 26 39 PKEPUHI KAWAILOA 25 M Oo IN LAAU POINT KOLO KAUNAKAKAI WAIALUA . a 2 PUKOO Si NZ A 13 2 KAWELA 6 7 N KAMALO {| 4 1 4 4 6 7 8 4 ‘4 || \5 5) \z o 1 2 3 4 Smiles 7 SS 5 20 10° 57°00 so FicurE 5.—Map of the island of Molokai, showing heights (in feet above lower low water) reached by the water during the tsunami of April 1, 1946. intensity of wave attack may have resulted from the caprice of storm waves. Submarine topography.—Owing to their great wave length, the waves were somewhat affected by the ocean bottom throughout their course. However, the effect of the bottom increased greatly as the waves moved into shallow water, and caused a slowing of the wave, an increase in its height, and a steepening of its front. A direct evi- dence of the increase in height of the waves in shallow water was afforded by the lesser heights reached by the water at the ends of cer- tain peninsulas projecting into deep water and not prolonged seaward by pronounced ridges, as compared with the heights on adjacent shores rising from shoal water. Thus at the end of Kalaupapa Peninsula, on the northern coast of Molokai (fig. 5), the water dashed only 7 feet above normal sea level, distinctly less than do the waves of ordinary storms; whereas on the coasts rising from shoal water both east and west of the peninsula, the water swept up to heights of 30 to 54 feet. At the end of Keanae Peninsula, on the northern coast of Maui (fig. 6), TSUNAMI OF APRIL 1, 1946—-MACDONALD, ET AL. 269 the tsunami reached heights only a little greater than large trade-wind waves. Submarine ridges and valleys, particularly those pointing toward the wave source, were of great importance in their effect on the strength of the waves. The best examples of the effect of ridges are found on the northern coast of Kauai. A long ridge extends in a direction slightly west of north from Haena, to a depth of about 8,000 feet (fig. 9). Another extends northeastward from Kilauea Point, to even greater depths. The greatest heights (45 feet) reached by the water on the shores of Kauai were at the heads of these two ridges (fig. 3). HONOMANU). J- KEANAE 10 OLOWALU MAALAEA if KIHE] ,PAAKO oKEONEONEOIO As CS 6 miles eon 10z 156°60 30 20° 156°00 Fiaure 6.—Map of the island of Maui, showing heights (in feet above lower low water) reached by the water during the tsunami of April 1, 1946. Another ridge extending northwestward from the western coast of Kauai is probably responsible for heights of 35 to 38 feet at its head. Long ridges projecting from Kaena and Kahuku Points on Oahu simi- larly caused an increase in wave heights there as compared to the heights on both sides (fig. 4). The ridges projecting eastward north of Hilo Bay and at Cape Kumukahi on Hawaii had, on the other hand, no such pronounced effect on the heights at their heads; but it should be noted that they extend across the general direction of wave advance, not toward it. The greater heights reached by the water at the heads of sub- marine ridges are not difficult to explain. The ridge has a greater effect in limiting the movement of water particles in the advancing 270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 wave than does the deeper water alongside it. Consequently the por- tion of the wave over the ridge is retarded more than that away from the ridge, and the wave front becomes bent, with its concavity di- rected toward the ridge head. The result is a focusing of wave force on the shore at the head of the ridge (U. S. Navy Hydrographic Of- fice, 1944, p. 13). Similarly, in moving toward shore along the axis of a submarine valley, the part of the wave in the deep water along the valley axis moves faster than that in shallower water on the two sides. In con- sequence the wave front becomes bent, with its convexity toward the valley head. In the vicinity of the valley head the force lines (orthog- onals) of the wave are diffused or spread apart, and over any unit area the force of the waves striking shore is greatly decreased. An example of the effect of a submarine valley in lessening the force of the waves at its head is found at Kahana Bay, on Oahu (fig. 4). There the waves dashed to heights of 11 to 17 feet on the coasts north and south of the bay, but reached heights of only 4 to 7 feet in the bay itself. A small submarine valley extends 2 miles north- eastward from the bay, to a depth of 150 feet. An example on a much larger scale is afforded by the zone of small heights along the northwestern shore of Kauai (fig. 3), at the head of a broad swale extending outward to oceanic depths. The broad valleylike depres- sion off the eastern coast of Hawaii south of Hilo Bay probably also was somewhat effective in reducing the heights reached by the water along that coast. Although fairly great, ranging from 16 to 19 feet, the heights there are not much greater than those reached by ordinary storm waves. Presence or absence of reefs——The presence of a well-developed fringing reef appears to have had a decided effect in reducing the intensity of wave onslaught. Along the reef-protected northern coast of Oahu the heights reached on shore by the waves were on the average decidedly less than on the unprotected northern coasts of Molokai and Hawaii, or on the less-protected northern coast of Kauai. The best-developed coral reef in the Hawaiian Islands fills Kaneohe Bay on Oahu, where it has a width of about 3 miles. Despite the fact that the broad mouth of Kaneohe Bay is open to the north and northeast, the tsunami produced a rise in water level at the bay head which was so small as to be hardly perceptible to observers, and, so far as could be determined, nowhere exceeded 2 feet. Along the shore north of the bay the heights ranged from 4 to 10 feet, and on the end of Makapuu Peninsula southeast of the bay the heights reached more than 20 feet (fig. 4). The lesser heights along the southern shore of Molokai were prob- ably partly due to the wide protecting reef. The effect of the reef in reducing wave violence along that shore is well shown at places TSUNAMI OF APRIL 1, 1946—-MACDONALD, ET AL. 21. where channels cross the reef. There the waves striking the shore at the heads of the channels were distinctly larger than those reaching shore on each side of the channel. Thus at the head of a small chan- nel which crosses the reef just west of the mouth of Kainalu Stream the water rose 11 feet, damaging houses, whereas just east and west of this channel the water rose only 7 to 8 feet. Configuration of the coast line—It is generally considered that the effects of tsunamis should be intensified near the heads of V- shaped embayments. Such embayments greatly increase tidal fluc- tuations, as in the Bay of Fundy, and might be expected to act like- wise on the similarly long waves of a tsunami. Imamura (19387, pp. 125-127) states that as such a wave rolls up a V-shaped em- bayment its height increases in inverse ratio to the width and depth of the bay, and cites examples of such increases in height of the waves toward the bay head during Japanese tsunamis. Consequently, spe- cial search was made for this phenomenon in funnel-shaped bays on Hawaiian shores. No good examples could be found. Hilo Bay would appear to be an almost ideal site for such funneling, but measurements around its shores show no systematic increase in heights toward its head (fig. 7 and 8). Similarly there was a lack of increase in heights toward the head of the broad V-shaped embayment on the northern coast of Maui. Possibly the extreme height of 54 feet at Waikolu Valley, on the northern shore of Molokai, may have been partly the result of funneling between Kalaupapa Peninsula and the point and small islands just east of the mouth of the valley. At both Pololu Valley on Hawaii and Pelekunu Valley on Molokai, the water level was higher at the bay head than on the walls of the bay part way out. However, at Pololu Valley, and probably also at Pelekunu, this level was the result of a local upsurge where the waves crossed the beach. Conversely, several bays were found in which the heights reached by the water were less at the bay head than near its mouth. Several smal] steep valleys, debouching into small bays, were found in which the water rose to appreciably greater heights along the valley axis than on the sides near the bay mouth or opposite the beach. Thus, in the small bay just south of Hanamaula Bay, on the eastern shore of Kauai, the water rose only 25 feet on the bay sides, but swept up the small valley at its head to a height of 40 feet. At Moloaa, on Kauai, the water reached an altitude of 40 feet in the axis of the valley, but only 30 to 35 feet on the bay walls. Again, at Honouliwai, on Molokai, the water reached a height of 27 feet opposite the beach, but went 6 feet higher up the valley. These are merely specialized examples of effect, upon the rush of water up on shore, of a topography above sea level which served to concentrate the inrushing water. Merging of waves from different directions —Wave crests traveling by different routes may arrive at a given locality simultaneously 2/2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 giving rise to a wave of greater size than either. Likewise, the simul- taneous arrival by different routes of a wave crest and a wave trough may effectually cancel out both. Thus, variations in the size and in- tensity of waves, particularly on the sides of the islands away from the wave origin, may result from the arrival, either in or out of phase, of 15600" 2 ay 20 155°00" ast B U ae NIULIDH A 5 4 { POLOLU "ST ies MAHUKONA PEA eB WAIPIO VALLEY¥#—~__ 72 HONOKAA c o>KAWAIHAE 15+ 30 eo 08) LAUPAHOEHOE® Ya HAKALAU X_32 hh Qa PEPEEKEO ,\_-2? ONOMEA of 34 PAPAIKOU ¢ >9 32 16 3) 5 HILOS 40° 4 so 7 KAILUA ; KEAAU d_ ] / ber? © Wn wl hi : 3_\, KEAUHOU 16 19 KUMUKAHI POINT # 6 3eNAPOOPOO ‘POHOIKI , °/ \ HONAUNAU OPIHIKAOs aS iw g \HOOKENA KAIMU_~, KALAPANA2<—5 20% 12 20 KEAUHOU PUNALUU . HONUAPO 1o miles ieroo: ee 19°00 156°00" 40’ 20 155°00" Figure 7.—Map of the island of Hawaii, showing heights (in feet above lower low water) reached by the water during the tsunami of April 1, 1946. two wave trains. During the tsunami of 1946 several examples of the formation of a large wave by the juncture of two smaller ones were observed. Thus, in the Keaukaha area east of Hilo, witnesses described the arrival of a wave from the north simultaneously with one from the northeast, which built up a very high crest at the place of juncture. At the head of Maunalua Bay, on the southeastern shore of Oahu, two Waves were seen to advance up channels across the wide reef, move toward each other parallel with the shore, and meet, throwing water TSUNAMI OF APRIL 1, 1946—-MACDONALD, ET AL. 273 upward like the spray from a geyser. The water dashed up on shore to a height of only 3 feet except at the place of juncture, where it swept over the top of a sandspit 5 feet above sea level. Progressively southward around the shores of Kauai, the average height of the high-water marks gradually decreases, and along much of the southern shore it is 6 to 12 feet above sea level. However, in a zone 3 or 4 miles wide it ranges from 15 to 18 feet. This zone is almost directly across the island from the direction of wave origin, and prob- ably represents the area in which the waves refracted around opposite sides of the island met and reinforced each other. DAMAGE BY THE TSUNAMI Damage by the tsunami can be divided into structural damage, damage by erosion and deposition, and damage by flooding. The total property damage has been estimated by the office of the Governor, Territory of Hawaii, at about $25,000,000. Space permits only a brief review of the types of damage. The numbers of dwellings destroyed and damaged by the tsunami on the major islands are listed in table 2 on page 276. Structural damage includes damage to buildings, roads, railroads, bridges, piers, breakwaters, fishpond walls, and ships. Frame build- ings at low altitudes along Hawaiian shores suffered extensive damage. Some were knocked over, by the force of the waves, by cutting away of the sand on which they stood, or by destruction of the foundations. Others were bodily washed away from their foundations. Some had walls pushed in by the force of the water, and in a few residences the water went on through the house and took out the opposite wall. As with earthquakes, there was a tendency to reduce the few two-story buildings to a single story, by destruction of the lower story. It is noteworthy that houses which were well built and tied together in- ternally could be moved for considerable distances without suffering severe damage. Even more striking was the fact that houses elevated on stilts a foot to several feet above the ground survived the waves much more effectively than did those built directly on the ground. Appar- ently the water was able to pass under such houses without greatly dis- turbing them, unless it was deep enough actually to float the house off the stilts. The few reinforced concrete structures in devastated areas suffered little or no damage except that caused by flooding. The railroads along the northern coast of Oahu and in Hilo were wrecked, partly through destruction of the roadbed, but largely because the tracks were shifted off the roadbed, either inland or shoreward. Locally rails were torn loose, but more generally the track was moved en masse, a motion probably aided by the buoyancy of the ties. Coastal highways also were partly destroyed, largely by undercutting as the water returned seaward, but partly by the direct force of the waves. 274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Several highway and railway bridges were destroyed. Most appear to have been partly or entirely lifted from their foundations by the rising of the water under them. The head of the pier at Waianae, Oahu, was damaged in thesame manner. At the Wailuku River, in Hilo, an entire span of the steel railroad bridge was torn loose and carried 750 feet upstream, passing under but not damaging a highway bridge. At Kolekole Stream, 11 miles farther north, an entire leg of the high steel railroad trestle was removed and carried upstream about 500 feet. Part of the end and much of the shed of pier 1 in Hilo was wrecked by the force of the wave. Most of the damage on pier 2, however, re- sulted when heavy pontoons, which had been moored nearby, were washed across the pier. The wharves at Kahului on Maui were flooded, but sustained little structural damage. The upper part of the breakwater at Hilo was about 61 percent de- stroyed (fig.8). Blocks of rock weighing more than 8 tons were lifted off the breakwater and dropped both inside and outside it. Destruc- tion was limited, however, to the part above water or that only slightly submerged. The average depth of water over the destroyed sections after the wave was only about 3 feet. The breakwater at Kahului, Maui, also suffered minor damage. At both Hilo and Kahului the breakwaters appear to have reduced materially the height and violence of the waves in the enclosed portions of the harbors. Many small boats were washed ashore and damaged. Railroad cars were overturned on Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii. Many automobiles were wrecked. ‘The loose stone walls of fishponds along the southern coast of Molokai were partly thrown down. The mill of the Hakalau Sugar Co., situated only about 10 feet above sea level at the mouth of Haka- lau Gulch on the island of Hawaii, suffered severe damage. Erosion by the tsunami resulted in the partial removal of some sand beaches, in some places causing a retreat of the shore line for several tens of feet, cutting of small scarps, and forming of large beach cusps at the heads of beaches; locally, erosion caused stripping away of a small amount of soil. The erosion was largely concentrated high on the beach, several feet above sea level. Some of the sand from the beaches was carried inland and redeposited. At Haena, Kauai, the highway was buried under 4 feet of sand, and thinner layers of sand covered roads on Oahu. Flooding caused much water damage to house furnishings and personal property. LOSS OF LIFE AND PERSONAL INJURY The following table summarizes, by islands, the number of persons killed, injured, or missing as a result of the tsunami. The figures were supplied by the American Red Cross. Most of the deaths were by drowning. By far the heaviest toll was at Hilo, with 83 known dead 275 TSUNAMI OF APRIL 1, 1946—MACDONALD, ET AL. “19] BAL MOT JOMOT BAOGV JOoJ UL 91B SIYSIOH ‘OFGT ‘T ady Jo lureuns} 04} Sulinp (suotjiod papeys) peforjsep 19} VMyBveag aq} Jo uol}Iod oq} puv ‘Surpooy jo vor oy} ‘10} vA oY} Aq PayovaT S}YSloy oy} SUIMOYS ‘TIVBMvE JO PuRISI 9} UO Boaw OTTET oy} Jo deyy—'s aunoy sazemyeouq jo uciqoS8s pebeweg a ALINIOIA [| Sey anv tweuns} Aq pespoojy souy OntH: 40-XEI9 | N = | j — DYDYDYDYaUO ws soe HL ——— p oe as, {9 : : { 276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 and 13 missing. Those listed as missing have been missing for more than 2 months, and must be presumed dead, bringing the total number of probable dead to 159. Great as it was, this loss of life was moderate compared to that in some other tsunamis, such as that of 1896 in the Sanriku district in Japan, which took more than 27,000 lives (Byerly, 1942, p. 72). TABLE 2.—List of casualties during the tsunami of April 1, 1946 Homes de-| Homes molished 4 | damaged ? Island known Missing | Injured ! DS i ae ed ee ee ae 87 34 153 283 313 CNT io eats oe alge Aelia A ee eet syd sae § 5 65 144 ee Se ee SE ee, Be 9 0 0 67 335 WMGIOK als eee ere ea ee a eee 0 0 0 13 14 Wau aioe ae ee EES ae 10 5 8 60 130 POCA) Swe ok oe Ee cee ee Shes 115 44 163 488 936 { Injury sufficiently serious to require hospitalization. § Homes only; other buildings not included. Data from Lewers & Cooke, Ltd. MITIGATION OF DISASTERS RESULTING FROM FUTURE TSUNAMIS There is no Hawaiian shore which is exempt from tsunamis. The most likely sources of devastating tsunamis are the North Pacific and South America. The areas heavily hit by the 1946 tsunami are prob- ably those most likely to be hit hard again by tsunamis from the North Pacific. Violent tsunamis from Central or South America might, how- ever, cause much more damage than did the 1946 tsunami along eastern and southern coasts. There is also possibility of serious damage on western shores by a tsunami from Japan, particularly if the tsunami occurred during a heavy southwesterly storm. Tsunamis of local origin might do heavy damage on any shore. It is obviously impractical to consider the removal of all dwellings from Hawaiian shores because of the danger from tsunamis. It might, however, be advisable to prevent or restrict building in certain areas of greatest danger, particularly in centers of heavy population, such as the waterfront at Hilo. Construction of suitable sea walls might also be advisable in places. Sea walls cannot, however, be built high and strong enough to hold the water back completely, and an open zone should be left back of the wall in which the water pouring over the wall can use up its energy in turbulence. Any construction per- mitted in such areas should be of a wave-resistant type, such as rein- forced concrete. These wave-resistant buildings would have the added virtue of serving as a line of defense for frailer structures behind them. Frame structures in rural areas should be built up off the ground, and far enough back from the edge of the beach to reduce the danger of undercutting. They should also be properly reinforced and tied together. TSUNAMI OF APRIL 1, 1946—-MACDONALD, ET AL. Dd 22 er 40 miles @) CONTOUR INTERVAL 1000 FEET Figure 9.—Map of the Hawaiian Islands, showing submarine topography (after H. T. Stearns). 278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 It appears inevitable that future tsunamis will cause loss of property on Hawaiian shores, but loss of life from all except tsunamis of local origin could be largely or entirely avoided. A system of stations could be established around the shores of the Pacific and on mid- Pacific islands, which would observe either visually or instrumentally the arrival of large long waves of the periods characterizing tsunamis. The arrival of these waves should be reported immediately to a central station, whose duty it would be to correlate the reports and issue warn- ings to places in the path of the waves. It should be possible in this way to give the people of the Hawaiian Islands enough warning of the approach of a tsunami to permit them to reach places of safety. The effectiveness of the warning, however, would depend on education of the public on the necessity for leaving areas of danger, and on the efficiency of the local organization in spreading the warning and evacu- ating the threatened areas. Eventually it should also be possible to state, at the same time, which areas are likely to suffer the most damage. Before that can be done, however, we need more knowledge of the behavior of tsunamis on Hawaiian shores, particularly tsunamis from sources in the eastern and western Pacific, and a more complete picture of the submarine topography around the Hawaiian Islands. SUMMARY The tsunami which reached the shores of the Hawaiian Islands on April 1, 1946, was the most destructive in the history of the Islands. Generated by a sudden shifting of the sea bottom on the northern slope of the Aleutian trough, the waves traveled southward to Hawaii with an average speed of 490 miles an hour, an average wave length of about 122 miles, and a height over the deep ocean of about 2 feet. Effects on Hawaiian shores varied greatly. Locally the water dashed more than 50 feet above sea level and swept as much as half a mile inland. Elsewhere the rise in water level was very small, and waves were gentle. Property damage was heavy but loss of life was moderate. The heights and intensities of the waves at different points were in- fluenced by position on the island toward or away from the source of the waves, offshore submarine topography, presence or absence of coral reefs, shore-line configuration, mutual reinforcement or inter- ference by waves traveling different paths, and the presence or absence of storm waves. Loss of property during future tsunamis can be reduced by proper construction, by erection of sea walls, and by re- stricting or prohibiting construction in certain especially dangerous areas. Loss of life can be nearly or entirely eliminated by the estab- lishment of a suitable system for warning of the approach of waves. TSUNAMI OF APRIL 1, 1946—MACDONALD, ET AL. 279 REFERENCES Boptre, R. R. 1946. Note on the earthquake and seismic sea wave of April 1, 1946. Amer. Geophys. Union Trans., vol. 27, pp. 464465. BYERLY, PERRY. 1942, Seismology. x+256 pp., 58 figs. Prentice-Hall, New York. GREEN, C. K. 1946, Seismie sea wave of April 1, 1946, as recorded on tide gages. Amer. Geophys. Union Trans., vol. 27, pp. 490-500. GREEN, GEORGE. 1838. On the motion of waves in a variable canal of small depth and width. Cambridge Philos. Soc. Trans., vol. 6, pp. 457-462. GUTENBERG, BENO, AND RICHTER, CHARLES F’. 1941. Seismicity of the earth. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Paper 34, 131 pp., 17 figs. New York. IMAMURA, AKITUNE, 1937. Theoretical and applied seismology. 358 pp. Tokyo. JAGGAR, THOMAS A., JR. 1931. Hawaiian damage from tidal waves. Volcano Letter No. 321, pp. 1-3. POWERS, HowArp A. 1946, The tidal wave of April 1, 1946. Volcano Letter No. 491, pp. 1-3. SHEPARD, FRANCIS P., MACDONALD, GorpON A., AND Cox, Doax C. The tsunami of April 1, 1946. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr. Publ. (In preparation.) UNITED States NAvy HyproGRAPHICc OFFICE. 1944. Breakers and surf. Publ. 234, 52 pp., 4 pls., 19 figs. TT7488—48 21 eh, a (ay, ELM | . en ee ete Chula ee Vader gant eee ay sean TA it ane uae yak tie Pownall WEAR EP ema gel SOc Bae en Lee opie a ing Pos) \\o% vat ‘ii re egroarith a Ve i. (yh f ik 4 OL Zu jem i reer) alate lt bao of Liason nil no ty hie: ite one | ‘vos # i " Ay ths i ieee wi) Heat never wk — " ¥ Hamad tvs awd a Ia ee a an Mtge Yolk 1 Mi heh sh iy ails Hassan renee aeneny ih. ak Re eho 2 TAN oy elie, : ue eure A en a er 4 Hey UR TAv ae ire deny 4) bist Vieaihocn iy ihe U a ns he diaat ivy val Aon | Ne Mou eh ay er ph: Teh if eh Poh bk Vib athal eee ee ra hey ret ye ‘iat Ne ain, ; SL a At ae a at Seed im Na A Laney ve aie no De si: aries i mya et vay valve Lea tPA i aa sidetdy diy OE Z ime. AN i Bi, ion Pinion gion aa ae . Pid ea ae ram. es ay Mian beth italy mm ey " ih arial wa, 4 ar een yh crerpihaebek tania : ; j e ie ‘wlan ty i) ey ih iY ey 4 i Wi mind vgs witnyintiiien : i | jal Elina)’ Seagal: Dig We papery: avai: fusiing. rn mdiaet Vib shir er COR etn witinlen te wee va Prana ve a ee Ling Winnie iy i ed Pde id + Drew ape a i sl bie sila ad Saachine toa Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Macdonald, Shepard, and Cox PLATE 1 1. WRECKAGE LEFT BY THE TSUNAMI ALONG KAMEHAMEHA AVENUE, HILO Buildings on the left-hand (seaward) side of the street have been pushed into the street, some more or less intact, others as heaps of debris. Photograph by Francis Lyman. 2. HOUSE IN KEAUKAHA, EAST OF HILO, CARRIED INLAND ABOUT 100 FEET BY THE WAVES The house in the background was above the reach of the water. Photograph by G. A. Macdonald. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Macdonald, Shepard, and Cox PLATE 2 1. MOUTH OF THE WAILUKU RIVER AT HILO, SHOWING THE ADVANCE OF ONE OF THE LATER WAVES INTO THE RIVER MOUTH Photograph taken near the trough between two waves, showing very low water, and the waves starting up the river as the next crest approaches. The steel span from the distant railroad bridge is visible in the middle distance. Photograph by Francis Lyman. 2. A MINUTE OR SO LATER, THE WAVES ARE SWEEPING TURBULENTLY UP THE RIVER Photograph by Francis Lyman. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Macdonald, Shepard, and Cox PLATE 3 1. THE VERY HIGH STAGE OF THE WATER, IN WAILUKU RIVER AT HILO, REACHED 3 OR 4 MINUTES LATER THAN THE STAGE SHOWN IN PLATE 2, FIGURE 2 Photograph by Warren Flagg. - rs See re i s a a a 2. SCARP 5 FEET HIGH CUT BY THE TSUNAMI AT THE HEAD OF THE BEACH AT MOLOAA, KAUAI The roots were exposed by removal of the enclosing soil. Photograph by G. A. Macdonald. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Macdonald, Shepard, and Cox PLATE 4 1. RAILROAD TRACK SWEPT INLAND FROM ITS BED AT WAIALEE, OAHU Photograph by U. 8. Navy. 2. CORAL HEADS THROWN UP ON THE BEACH AT KAAAWA, OAHU, BY THE TSUNAMI Photograph by G. A. Macdonald. Smithsonian Report , 1947.—Macdonald, Shepard, and Cox PLATE 5 1. GROVE OF PANDANUS TREES PUSHED OVER, AND BLOCKS OF CORAL THROWN UP ON THE SHORE PLATFORM BY THE TSUNAMI NEAR HAENA, KAUAI Photograph by F. P. Shepard. 8 een a ee ae 2 a 2. SMALL BOAT WASHED INLAND AND LEFT STRANDED BY THE TSUNAMI NEAR PIER 1, HILO Photograph by G. A. Macdonald. eulfigsg nissigg Aq ydeisojoyd “41 JO UOT) UI 1018M 94} JO Aqrproeryd oy) pues ‘41 puryeg 1038M oy} JO sdUaTNqGny oy} ‘yUOI} daojs 9} 010N O1IH ‘YSAIN NYNTIVM AHL AO HLNOW AHL LV 39q01Y¥g GVOYUTIVY SHL LSVd DNIONVAGY 340g ERED IRS, 9 ALV1d xO7) pue *paedays ‘pjeuopoe|j—'*/6| *yiodayy ueruosyztWIG DROWNED ANCIENT ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC BASIN? By H. H. Hess Department of Geology, Princeton University PART I. DESCRIPTION A large number of curious, flat-topped peaks have been discovered scattered over millions of square miles in the Pacific basin. These peaks are roughly oval in plan and their slopes suggest volcanic cones. The remarkable feature about them is that they are truncated by a level surface which now stands approximately 750 fathoms (4,500 feet) below sea level. For convenience in discussing these submerged flat-topped peaks which rise from the normal ocean floor, the writer will henceforth call them “guyots” after the nineteenth-century geographer, Arnold Guyot. Betz and Hess (1942) discussed the major features of the floor of the North Pacific. This was in the nature of a broad areal reconnais- sance of the largest features of this extensive region. Since 1942, Hess has spent 2 years at sea in the western Pacific and has thus had the opportunity to fill in some details which bring to light many new relationships and necessitate some modification of ideas originally set forth. The data presented in this paper were obtained on random traverses incidental to wartime cruising on the U.S. 8S. Cape Johnson. What passed beneath the ship was recorded but it was not feasible to investigate further such interesting features as were encountered. Nevertheless it is evident that much information can be obtained on the geological history of an oceanic area by judicious use of available techniques. It is a vast and intriguing field for research under more auspicious peacetime conditions. SCOPE OF PRESENT INVESTIGATION From random sounding traverses across or merely grazing guyots an attempt will be made to construct a picture of their physical fea- tures. The data collected on the cruises of the Cape Johnson have 1Presented before the Section of Tectonophysics, American Geophysical Union, in Washington, D. C., on May 27, 1946. Reprinted by permission from American Journal of Science, vol. 244, November 1946, with added text and illustrations. 281 282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 been supplemented by soundings obtained from the files of the Hy- drographic Office, United States Navy. The origin and age of the flat upper surfaces of guyots represent the main problem of this paper. Secondarily the relation of guyots to atolls of the northern Marshall Islands will be discussed. AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF GUYOTS The distribution of known and suspected guyots is shown in figure 1. Roughly they are known to occur north of the Carolines and east of e © CAMOLINE Iota. . FicuReE 1. ea distribution of guyots in the western and central Pacific. The numerals next to some of the guyots indicate the depth in fathoms to the flat upper surface. the Marianas and Volcano Islands between latitudes 8°30’ and 27° N. and longitudes 165° W. to 146° E. None has been found west and south of the above boundaries though this area has been at least as well explored as the former. North and east of the region outlined above it appears from scattered soundings that the area containing guyots DROWNED ANCIENT ISLANDS—-HESS 283 does extend to 45° N. to 165° W. Some of the seamounts in the Gulf of Alaska described by Murray (1941) almost certainly are guyots, whereas others appear to be of a different character. Twenty bona fide guyots were encountered at sea by the writer and some 140 more are indicated by soundings on Hydrographic Office charts and docu- ments. Considering sparseness of deep-sea soundings in parts of the area mentioned above, it is likely that a large number of undiscovered ones are present. FicurRe 2.—Index map showing area included in figure 1. PHYSICAL FEATURES OF GUYOTS One of the best: profiles obtained across a guyot was one encountered south of Eniwetok on October 6, 1944, in latitude 8°50’ N., longitude 163°10’ E. This guyot is about 35 miles in diameter at the base, and the truncated upper surface is about 9 miles in diameter. The top is remarkably flat at a depth of 620 fathoms.? The outer rim of the top is beveled by a gently sloping shelf 1 or 2 miles wide (slope 2° to 3°). The outer margin of the gentle slope is about 70 fathoms deeper than ? All soundings mentioned in this paper are uncorrected for salinity, temperature, and pressure, and were taken with fathometers set to a speed of sound in the sea water of 4,800 feet per second. The corrections would be too small to be of significance in this discussion. 984 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 the inner margin. This gentle slope breaks abruptly to 22° at its outer margin. The profile from the edge of the shelf to the normal ocean floor at 2,600 fathoms is, as might be expected, concave upward. From an average of 22° at the top it gradually decreases in steepness until it forms a smooth tangent with the ocean floor at the bottom. a Sie Sed — ee Ficure 3.—Fathometer recorder trace of a typical guyot. Note irregularities on lower slopes with considerable thickening (lengthening) of the echo trace. These indicate steep slopes to the side (parallel to ship’s course) and necessitate an adjustment to obtain the approximate depth immediately beneath the ship. The adjustment has been made in figure 4. Figures 3 and 4 are reproductions of the sounding traverse across the guyot. Guyots vary widely in size. One a few miles northeast of Eniwetok has a flat summit only a couple of miles across (latitude 11°45’ N., longitude 162°55’ E.) ; whereas one some distance farther northeast apparently has a flat upper surface 35 miles wide and has a diameter of 60 miles at its base (latitude 14° N., longitude 167°30’ E.). In general they appear to be circular or oval inplan. No correlation has DROWNED ANCIENT ISLANDS—HESS 285 been noted between the depths of the flat upper surfaces and the depths of the surrounding ocean floor, which normally ranges from 2,600 fathoms (15,600 feet) to 3,100 fathoms (18,600 feet). The observed depths of the flat upper surfaces of typical guyots range from 520 fathoms (3,120 feet) to 960 fathoms (5,760 feet), with most values concentrated near the center of this group (800 fathoms). Thus the guyots rise from 10,000 to 15,000 feet above the ocean floor. The flat tops of guyots in general do not exhibit accordance of summit levels. It is quite common to find groups of guyots in a relatively small area with flat tops varying several hundred fathoms from one 8 FATHOMS g ° ‘ 4 5 10 Nautical Miles | i ince Nm FicurE 4.—This diagram was traced directly from figure 3 and adjustments for steep slopes to the side made. The vertical and horizontal scales and numerical values of the slopes in degree are given. ry a’ i Sa) i EES === = See aE —— sa ————— Ls) a to another among the group. Less commonly two or three guyots in a group will have approximately the same depth. A few guyots were found to have upper surfaces which were gently undulating rather than flat. These undulating or hummocky surfaces have a maximum relief of about 40 fathoms. In most cases the flat surface can be seen here and there in the profiles and it passes beneath the hummocky material (fig. 5). Judging from the evidence, most guyots have been swept clean of the fine sediments which must be continually settling upon them. In the case of the rare, hummocky ones it would appear that the fine precipitates had for some reason not been completely swept off. It is rather surprising that the normal guyots are swept clean since water currents at such depths as these are thought to be slight. One must look to occasional bottom stir-up by tsunami (Bucher, 1940), though possibly currents related to tides might be strong enough. Once the sediment on these isolated, flat- topped peaks is stirred up, very little of it would be expected to fall back on top of the guyot. It would be dispersed over the surrounding area. 286 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 BE Figure 5.—Guyot showing hummocky type of upper surface. Top of guyot 2O miles north of Eniwetok NAUTICAL MILES Ficure 6.—Tracing of fathometer record shown in figure 5, adjusted and with scales indicated. DROWNED ANCIENT ISLANDS—-HESS 287 Though few guyots show any suggestion of terraces on their outer slopes, one large guyot near latitude 20° N., longitude 148° E. has a well-developed flat upper surface at 800 fathoms, and projecting from under its southeastern margin there appears to be a terrace or older guyot with a flat upper surface at 1,100 fathoms. In the area between Wake Island and Johnston Island there are a number of normal guyots rising from hilly areas which have numerous flat or nearly flat sur- faces between 1,100 and 1,900 fathoms. These hilly areas with flat or nearly flat surfaces have as yet been insufliciently explored to under- stand the relationships they exhibit. They may represent areas of older, deeper guyots partly buried by sediments, but until a more detailed examination of them can be made, their nature will have to remain rather obscure. Such areas do not appear to be common Ficure 7.—Relation of Eniwetok Atoll to nearby guyots which are outlined on the diagram by dash lines. elsewhere. Some of Murray’s Gulf of Alaska seamounts possibly also fit into this category. The great majority of guyots rise from the normal ocean floor. RELATION OF GUYOTS TO ATOLLS IN THE MARSHALL ISLANDS Many guyots are present in close association with atolls in the northern Marshall Islands. The present discussion is centered about Eniwetok Atoll of that group. This atoll apparently rests in part upon two guyots so that the flat upper surfaces of the guyots project out beneath its southern and northwestern slopes resulting in a well- developed bench on those sides at a depth of 700 fathoms. The eastern side of Eniwetok shows a normal atoll slope with no suggestion of a bench, and the central portion of the western side shows similar fea- tures. Figure 7 shows the relationship between Eniwetok Atoll and the nearby guyots, and figures 8 and 9 show two profiles, one approach- ing the passage between Japtan and Parry Islands from the east and 288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 the other approaching Wide Passage at the south end of the atoll from the south, which shows the guyot apparently disappearing beneath the atoll slope. The absence of a 700-fathom bench locally around part of Eniwetok Atoll strongly suggests that the atoll and its volcanic core are younger than the benches which project from its southern and northwestern sides. The whole structure of the atoll, in other words, seems to have been superimposed upon the older and already existing surface of the guyots. Since it can, without too much license, be assumed that the other nearby atolls of the Marshall group developed simultaneously with Eniwetok, their slopes might be examined for +700-fathom \<€—ENIWETOK ATOLL % = S R & es) fey £5) (sy) COURSE 5 173° True ' 2 3 4 5 NAUTICAL MILES Figure 8.—Tracing from fathometer recorder of traverse extending southward from Eniwetok showing the atoll presumably superimposed upon a guyot (A-A of figure 7). benches for further substantiation of the age relations postulated above. Only two of these have been adequately charted, Majuro and Kwajalein, and neither of them shows 700-fathom benches. When it is considered that a relatively small atoll such as Majuro shows no bench at 700 fathoms while not very far away a guyot has a truncated upper surface 35 miles across, it is evident that Majuro could never have been subjected to the conditions which planed off the 35-mile- wide surface of the guyot. PART II. THEORY The writer has given a great deal of thought to the problem of origin of guyots since first encountering them in 1944. In part I of this paper the physical features of guyots, so far as they are known, are described. It now remains to account for them. During the past 2 years, many hypotheses were tried and discarded. Finally the writer DROWNED ANCIENT ISLANDS—HESS 289 arrived at the hypothesis here presented. Though it explains the facts at present available, it is highly speculative and might easily be wrong. Nevertheless, it seems worth presenting as a working hypothe- sis, particularly since it has many interesting ramifications, some of which would be worthy of investigation even if the parent hypothesis were found to be invalid. EXPLANATION OF DEVELOPMENT OF UPPER SURFACE OF GUYOTS When the writer first discovered guyots, he supposed that they were drowned atolls. However, this hypothesis proved untenable upon ENIWETOK ATOLL——>, | COURSE > 284° True 1000 FATHOMS {200 1400 1600 | | 1800 HG lil NAUTICAL MILES Figure 9.—Profile B-B of figure 7 showing normal atoll slope approaching EKniwetok from the Hast. further study. A profile of an atoll should show a rise along the outer margin representing the area of active reef growth and should be dished in the middle—the lagoon—unless it were filled in with younger sediments. On an atoll, the profile breaks abruptly outside of the living reef and descends in slopes averaging about 25°. ‘There is no feature comparable to the gently sloping shelf found around the flat tops of nearly all guyots. In fact there seems to be no way of account- ing for these shelves unless the guyots had developed in a sea which did not support reef-building organisms. It may reasonably be assumed that guyots were originally volcanic peaks. After a long period of time they became stabilized and were eroded down to low relief. At this time they developed gently sloping shelves around them as might be expected in the case of a maturely dissected island. This was followed by a long period of marine planation, unhampered by reef growth, ultimately forming the fiat upper surfaces. If marine planation cut the island down to about 30 fathoms below sea level, then the outer margin of the gently sloping 290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 shelves, normally some 70 fathoms deeper, would have originally represented approximately a 100-fathom curve around the island. Possibilities of accounting for the reef-free surface of the guyots by some connection with a glacial epoch were considered and rejected. If reef growth had been inhibited by a glacial epoch, the guyots would have had to have suffered marine planation followed by sudden subsi- dence to below the level at which reef growth would recommence at the end of the glacial epoch—a coincidence which makes the hypothesis very unlikely. The glacial epoch would have had to be a very long one to permit complete planation of the larger guyots. It cannot possibly be referred to the Pleistocene epoch since the Marshall Islands atolls are younger than the guyots and there could obviously not have been time for marine planation, subsidence, and upbuilding of the atolls 11° S5'N 164° 45'E % = i) = = g EE eae NAUTICAL MILES Iicure 10.—Profiles across two guyots. A is normal except that the gently sloping shelf is lacking on the right-hand side; B is an example of the hummocky type of upper surface. all in this short epoch aside from the inconsistency that the cold water was called upon to keep the guyot surface reef-free but later on per- mitted the upbuilding of the atolls. GENERAL RELATIONS WITHIN PACIFIC BASIN Since it is difficult to discuss any theory of origin of guyots against the background of misconception and ill-founded theories which at present confound geologic literature on ocean basins and the Pacific Basin in particular, the writer proposes to wipe the slate clean and start on a new basis. The Pacific Basin is here considered to comprise the central portion of the ocean and is bounded by an almost continuous belt of strong late Cretaceous-Tertiary mountain building. On the northern and western borders this belt is characterized by elongate deeps which lie over downbuckles of the earth’s crust.’ Related island arcs show 8 See the works of Vening Meinesz and others on gravityat sea. DROWNED ANCIENT ISLANDS—HESS 291 intense volcanic and seismic activity. On the eastern margin are found the cordilleras of the North and South American west coasts and on the south little-known Antarctica. The volcanic rocks of the islands of the Pacific Basin are dominantly basaltic, whereas those related to the island arcs and their uplifted cordillera equivalents are dominantly andesitic. The area of arcs and cordilleras bordering the Basin is tectonically the most active and unstable area of the earth’s crust today. The Pacific Basin itself seems to be tectonically a most stable area and possibly has been throughout geologic time.® One encounters no evidence of folding anywhere over its broad ex- panse. Though fault scarps can be found, their rarity bespeaks great stability. Seismic activity in the Pacific Basin is almost nil. The writer favors Buddington’s (1943) concept of the nature of the earth’s crust and considers that the suboceanic crust probably consists of horizontally layered rocks including such types as norite, gabbro, anorthosite, pyroxenite, peridotite, dunite, and probably some eclogitic facies. These are relatively strong rocks—stronger than the granitic to quartz dioritic rocks which presumably make up the “granitic” layer of continents. The writer believes the oceanic crust is very strong though this opinion is at variance with existing textbooks and much of the current literature. However, Jeffreys (1929), Daly (1940), and Longwell (1945) all favor a strong oceanic crust. The only bases for judging its strength are its behavior and the strength of the rocks of which it is thought to be composed. Both of these indicate strength. The reason it has been generally considered to be weak, appears to be related to calling it the exposed sima or the basaltic substratum and consciously or unconsciously bringing in Daly’s theory of a weak glassy basaltic substratum. But Daly post- ulated a strong crust and weak substratum at considerable depth. Those favoring the hypothesis of continental drift assumed a very weak basaltic crust below the oceans without, so far as the writer is aware, presenting evidence other than the hypothesis of drift to substantiate assumption, ‘There is general agreement as to the position of the “andesite line’ along the western margin of the Pacific Basin except for the area of the Carolina Islands. Some place these inside and some outside of the “andesite line.’”’ The writer tentatively includes most of the Carolines in the Pacific Basin and traces the “andesite line’? down their western margin including Ulithi, Yap, Ngulu, and the Palaus behind—on the west side of—the ‘andesite line.” This is essentially the same as the line drawn by Hobbs (1944). 5 Having obtained considerable first-hand information in the Pacific during the past few years the writer must now revise the views expressed in Betz and Hess (1942). The tentative trend lines shown on the chart should be considerably reduced in number by eliminating practically all of northeasterly trends. Further development of the bottom topography shows that they do not exist. The hypothesis that certain linear groups of islands and shoals, particularly the Hawaiian group, lie along a major earth fracture which may be a strike-slip fault is retained. The relationship on a small scale of the volcanic activity to fractures has been demonstrated by Stearns and MacDonald in Samoa and Hawaii. The trends of these fractures are approximately parallel to the elongation of Samoa and the elongation of the Hawaiian chain. 292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Many authors have correlated the observation that island ares (and hence mountain building) develop in the oocean basins along the margins of continents with the concept that the continental massifs are strong and the oceanic crust weak, thereby accounting for the localization. However, if mountain-building forces are related to Figure 11 Spend cea meets trace of guyot in latitude 14°20’ N., longitude 165°55’ W. Ship’s speed, 13.7 knots; course 059° true. convection currents within the earth (Griggs, 1939), the most satis- factory of the present theories, then the localization can more reason- ably be explained on the basis of heat, relations within the crust. Being warmer under continents and cooler under oceans the down- ward-fiow part of the convection cell would be more likely to be localized under the ocean and would be supplemented in some cases by the outward flow of warm material from beneath the continental area. Having concluded that the Pacific Basin was in general strong and stable, it is now appropriate to turn to exceptions in detail to these generalities. All volcanic islands of the ocean basin proper (exclud- ing from this discussion the highly unstable island are areas) are subject to frequent vertical movements as long as vulcanism is active. DROWNED ANCIENT ISLANDS—HESS 293 In this sense they are unstable. The expansion during magma genera- tion, injection of magma into the crust below the volcano, crystalliza- tion of magma and contraction, extrusion of magma from a central vent and isostatic adjustments to the load, out-flow of weak oceanic clays from beneath the volcanic load, etc., all tend to result in vertical movements of the volcanic island. Such islands may have terraces TERUG. 1URRROGUEG ETS et Ean Pe Es Pas! i a ie SHE 2 saint + fee THs s. P= Pe fb [4 Ficure 12.—Fathometer recorder trace of guyot near latitude 21° N., longitude 173° E. Ship’s speed, 13.5 knots; course 059° true. extending to hundreds of feet above sea level and at the same time have drowned shore lines and exhibit a series of submerged terraces as well. Once this vulcanism dies, the island will probably become stable. Of the hundreds of atolls and banks with their volcanic pedestals beneath them, one can find very few in the Pacific Basin which have had their coral reefs uplifted by as much as 150 feet.® ~ 6 Vening Meinesz (1941) reexamines gravity data for oceanic islands. Though large, local, positive, isostatic anomalies are found on such islands, the regional anomalies show that such small islands are regionally and not locally compensated and thus closely approach isostatic equilibrium. This indicates a geologically rapid adjustment to the disturbance of equilibrium brought about by vulcanism. 294 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Aside from vulcanism and its effect of producing local points of instability, convection currents of lesser intensity than those produc- ing island arcs may result in vertical movements of the suboceanic crust at times. HYPOTHETICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE HISTORY OF THE PACIFIC BASIN AND THE ORIGIN OF GUYOTS Most discussions of Pacific historical geology jam all the known history into the late Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent ages. To be sure the rocks visible on the surface of volcanic islands are mostly very young, predominantly Recent plus some Pleistocene, and very rarely rocks that can be demonstrated to be as old as Tertiary. Many writers seem inclined to place Pacific atoll formation in the Pleistocene though others extend it back into the Tertiary (Stearns, 1946). On the other hand, the Pacific Basin is generally considered to be very old, probably dating from early pre-Cambrian time (Kuenen, 1937). It seems reasonable to suppose that volcanic activity in the Pacific Basin and hence island formation has gone on sporadically since early pre-Cam- brian. Where then are the pre-Cambrian, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic islands? In order to answer this it is necessary to digress along several other channels. Any island formed in the Basin can be assumed to have begun as a volcano or group of volcanoes. After vulcanism ceased and the island had become stabilized, the following sequence of events would neces- sarily take place. The island would be eroded to low relief, and after a long period of time (providing growth of reef-forming organisms did not interfere) the island would completely disappear as a result of marine planation. Such must have been the fate of all pre-Cambrian islands before reef-forming organisms existed. Kuenen (1937) and 1941) has concluded that there has been little change of sea level since early pre-Cambrian time. He estimated that the rate of sedimentation in the deep sea is approximately 1 cubic centimeter in 10,000 years for red clay, since the end of the pre-Cam- brian, and 1 cubic centimeter in 5,000 years for globigerina ooze. Since most of the material deposited on the ocean floor has ultimately come from the continents, isostatic adjustment of the load on the sea floor and the loss of weight from the continents has resulted in the sinking of the former and rise of the latter so that the relative sea level with respect to the continents has not changed very much. One obviously cannot put a layer of several thousand feet of sediments into the oceans without causing the water to rise by an equivalent amount (less the water included in pore space in the sediments). Thus, quite apart from the discussion of isostatic adjustment mentioned above, every centi- meter of sediment put into the ocean causes sea level to rise with respect to an oceanic island by just a little less than_a centimeter (less by the DROWNED ANCIENT ISLANDS—HESS 295 amount of water in pore space of the sediment). Even though the fig- ure cited for the rate of sedimentation may be inaccurate it neverthe- less follows that oceanic islands are and have always been slowly sink- ing relative to sea level. It stands to reason that once lime-secreting organisms appeared in the oceans, presumably in Cambrian time they would grow upon any available shallow, wave-cut platform and both tend to protect it from further wave action and build it up to sea level. These reef-forming organisms need not have been very efficient reef builders to keep pace with a settling rate of 1 cubic centimeter in perhaps 5,000 years. So RECENT Cenozoic = YOLCANO fe > MESOZOIC ATOLL 1100-1900FA BREE Ee z ATOLL = PROTEROZOIC Z EARLY th 3. PROTEROZOIC GuYoT 2. OLD PRECAMBRIAN GUYOT L Ficure 13.—Sequence depicting diagrammatically guyots and atolls in steps of decreasing age. CRstands for Cenozoic and Recent ; M, Mesozoic; P, Paleozoic. In upper half of diagram the effect of the limestone load on atolls is neglected to illustrate the original depth relations to the volcanic foundations. In the lower diagram the effect of load has been added. that beginning in Cambrian time every island in warm seas which at that time had not been submerged below the level at which these or- ganisms could live, would be built up to sea level or nearly to sea level and could henceforth maintain its growth. In other words all Pale- ozoic, Mesozoic, and Tertiary islands which were eroded to low relief and submerged in warm seas must inevitably become banks or atolls and be maintained as such throughout the remainder of geologic time except for the interference of some rare diastrophic accident. Kpochs of glaciation might inhibit growth of reef-forming organisms tem- porarily. But these epochs are too short to permit the islands to sink to such a level that growth would not recommence with the return of warmer water. We may now turn to the ultimate objective of this long series of digressions, the guyots. It is proposed that they represent the relics 1774884822 296 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 of pre-Cambrian islands formed by the processes suggested above. The group of guyots with which we have been mainly concerned range from 520 to 960 fathoms (38,120 to 5,760 feet) below sea level. Ac- cepting Kuenen’s figures for accumulation of sediments, at least 2,000 feet of sediments (solid) would have been deposited in the deep sea since pre-Cambrian time. The great bulk of sediments, however, are deposited along continental margins, on the shelves, slopes, and shal- low epeiric seas. It is almost impossible to estimate the amount of water displaced by these inasmuch as a thickness of tens of thousands of feet may displace only a relatively small amount of water since the bottom of such basins of sediments tend to sink isostatically under the load. These thick prisms of sediments may at a later time be deformed and welded to the continents, thereby enlarging the con- tinents at the expense of the oceans. Certainly these processes have decreased the areal extent of the oceans a considerable if unpredictable amount since the end of the pre-Cambrian. If sediments deposited in shallow waters around the continents displaced only half as much water as deep-sea sediments, an estimate which seems to the writer to be on the conservative side, then one could account for a rise of sea level relative to an oceanic island of 3,000 feet (500 fathoms) since the end of the pre-Cambrian which is comparable to the present depth of the shallowest guyots. Thus we might attribute most guyots to a Proterozoic episode of vulcanism. The occasional, less well-preserved surfaces mentioned in the text, having depths between 1,100 and 1,900 fathoms might be older and well back in the pre-Cambrian in age. RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH With the above hypotheses in mind it would be exceedingly interest- ing to drill a hole 5,000 feet deep in the center of a Pacific Basin atoll. It is necessary to avoid the outer margin of the atoll since it may well have built outward over its own debris. From another point of view, a hole drilled on the southern rim of Eniwetok would almost certainly penetrate into the underlying guyot at a depth of approximately 4,200 feet. It would be extremely interesting also to make magnetic surveys of a number of atolls to estimate the depth to the volcanic core and perhaps couple such an investigation with seismic and gravimetric work. Bottom samples with the Piggot sampler taken from the flat tops and gentle marginal slopes of guyots might bring up some of the rock of which they are formed, provided these surfaces had been swept completely clean of sediments. Pleistocene to Recent banks in high latitudes where cold water would inhibit growth of reef-forming or- ganisms should be investigated to compare their profiles with those of the guyots. A further investigation of Murray’s seamounts in the Gulf of Alaska might furnish some of the missing clues to the origin DROWNED ANCIENT ISLANDS—HESS 297 of guyots, and might, if the hypothesis here presented is correct, show features exactly comparable to guyots but at depths shallower than 500 fathoms. At the latitude of the Gulf of Alaska the water may have been too cold for reefs to grow on the platforms. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to thank Dr. J. Brookes Knight, Prof. F. A. Vening Meinesz, Prof. A. F. Buddington, Prof. Charles Steel, and Dr. J. C. Maxwell for reading the manuscript and offering numerous valuable criticisms. The writer also wishes to express his appreciation to his quartermasters on the U. S. S. Cape Johnston for the care with which they took soundings while at sea, in particular QM1/c Robert Kiefer, QM1/c R. K. Pritchard, QM2/c H. Jensen, and QM3/c Frank Grumblatt. W. Miner Buell, Jr., of the Hydrographic Office, United States Navy, was very helpful in collecting data on ocean-bottom fea- tures from documents in the Hydrographic Office, and many of the data were plotted by Ensign William Roche and Miss D. Trussell of that office. FURTHER COMMENT ON GUYOTS AND ATOLLS IN THE LIGHT OF RECENT INFORMATION Since the above paper was first written investigations of Bikini Atoll have yielded important information, in particular the seismic profiles reported on by Dobrin, Snavely, White, Beresford, and Perkins (1946). Further comment seems desirable on the problems suggested by this information. The seismic profiles indicate the presence of a rock comparable to basalt below the atoll. This high-velocity material reaches a maxi- mum depth of 11,000 feet on the eastern side of the atoll, but rises to aj depth of 5,500 to 6,000 feet not far from the southern rim, at a point slightly to the west of the north-south center line of the atoll. The western third of the atoll was not investigated during this survey. Since the highest point on the “basalt” surface lies on the western margin of the area investigated, it is possible that this “basalt” rises to a level nearer the surface somewhere in the vicinity of the western or southwestern rim of the atoll. It is evident from the survey that the volcanic core of the atoll forms a peak located eccentrically with respect to the present atoll structure. Textbook diagrams have led most of us to expect that the volcano would be nicely centered beneath the lagoon. A logical con- sideration of the proposition would have indicated that the peak of the volcanic core should lie not under the center of the atoll, but more or less displaced toward the lee side with respect to the prevailing winds, for reef growth is more rapid and vigorous on the windward side. The same conclusion was implicit in the results of the Royal 298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Society investigation of Funafuti (1904). In that case a magnetic survey was made before the boring was attempted. The results showed a magnetic high close to the western margin, on the lee side. It was, therefore, deemed desirable to drill on the western margin, but un- fortunately it was not possible to get the equipment on this location so the boring was made on the eastern rim instead. (See figs. 14 and 15.) In 1944 the writer found a guyot centered about 20 miles northwest of Bikini and made four NE.-SW. profiles across it. During the Crossroads Operation the Navy surveyed this guyot, making a number SEALEVEL Sei WY UMMM 44 LATE PRECAMBRIAN GUYOT SURMOUNTED BY ATOLL FicuRe 14.—Relations between the top of a Jate Pre-Cambrian guyot and the vol- canic core of an old Paleozoic atoll. Settling because of loading by limestone has depressed volcanic core of the atoll below the level of upper flat surface of guyot. of NW.-SE. sounding traverses over it, so that its outline and form are now well known. It has a flat upper surface at 700 fathoms (4,200 feet) and is separated from the northwestern slope of Bikini by a low saddle. If the writer’s hypothesis were correct, that the surface of the guyot became submerged in pre-Cambrian time before the appearance of reef- building organisms, how could nearby Bikini Atoll have grown up from a peak which is now deeper, i. e., 5,500 feet below sea level? This peak would be more than a thousand feet below the top surface of the guyot. It might be supposed that the peak under Bikini comes much closer to the surface west of the investigated area, and therefore might have been both younger and higher than the adjacent guyot surface. Thus it would have been able to support reef-building organisms after the guyot was planed off. However, let us disregard this possibility for the moment and consider the more fundamental DROWNED ANCIENT ISLANDS—HESS 299 relationships which should apply to the depths of guyot surfaces with respect to the depths of atoll cores. According to the writer’s hypoth- esis, the atoll cores should be younger than the youngest guyot surfaces and should have once projected sufficiently above these surfaces (closer to sea level) so that lime-secreting organisms would grow upon them. Considering the Bikini results, it is evident that an old atoll will have many thousands of feet of limestone deposited on its core. The mass represented by this material is in excess of that which the earth’s crust could bear without yielding. Isostatic adjustment will, there- fore, take place. As a result of this adjustment to loading, the peaks of the cores of old atolls must necessarily be considerably deeper than Ficure 15.—Sketch showing the effects both of loading by limestone and of asymmetrical growth of atoll—more rapid growth to windward toward the right side of the diagram. Note that the high point of the volcanic foundation now lies beneath the lee side of the atoll and that the foundation has been tilted somewhat by the load. Overlying old atoll surfaces are also tilted but progres- sively less as the surface is approached. the upper surfaces of the youngest guyots, as illustrated in the accom- panying diagrams (figs. 18, 14, 15). The settling in the case of Bikini from this change might be estimated roughly as perhaps 3,000 feet. There was implicit in the original paper a general theory of atoll development in oceanic areas. Island arc areas were specifically ruled out since they present a very different problem. Much confusion has resulted in the past from lumping the two. The theory was close to Darwin’s original concept, but substitutes slow rise of sea level by partial filling of the ocean basins with sediment for subsidence of undetermined cause. True, there are many reasons why a young oceanic volcano should subside, such as isostatic settling of the load represented by the volcano, squeezing out of weak oceanic clays from beneath the volcano, consolidation by crystallization of the magma in the chamber beneath the volcano with consequent decrease in volume, etc. But all these are comparatively short-lived and could 300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 only explain subsidence in the early stages rather than the apparent long-continued relative subsidence of many oceanic atoll groups. While the main mechanism of oceanic atoll formation as envisioned by the writer is the slow rise of ocean level, further subsidence of the atoll isostatically to compensate for loading by the limestone deposited is a necessary corollary. It is emphasized that this isostatic settling must be a secondary consequence and not a primary factor in atoll formation since the settling will always be much less than the thick- ness of the limestone deposited. More rapid reef growth on the wind- ward side will ultimately result in the eccentric location of the under- lying volcanic pedestal which is displaced relatively toward the lee side. This also causes eccentric loading, as shown in figure 15, and should result in a tilting of the original volcanic core and of old, now deeply buried, atoll surfaces.’ BIBLIOGRAPHY Betz, F., and Hess, H. H. 1942. Geogr. Rey., vol. 32, pp. 99-116. BucHer, W. 1940. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 51, pp. 489-511. BUDDINGTON, A. F. 1943. Amer. Mineral., vol. 28, pp. 119-140. Daty, R. A. 1940. Strength and structure of the earth. Prentice Hall, New York. Dosrin, M. B., SNAVELY, B. L., WHITE, G., BERESFORD, R., and PERKINS, B., Jr. 1946. Seismic-refraction survey of Bikini Atoll. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 57, p. 1189 (abstract). Gries, D. 1939. Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 237, pp. 611-650. Hosss, W. H. 1944. Proc. Amer. Philos, Soc., vol. 88, pp. 221-268. JEFFREYS, H. 1929. The earth. Cambridge Univ. Press. KUvuENEN, PH. H. 1937. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 5, vol. 48, pp. 457-468. 1941. Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 239, pp. 161-190. LONGWELL, C. R. 1945. Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 243A, pp. 417-447. Murray, H. W. 1941. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 52, pp. 333-362. Roya Society of LONDON. 1904. The atoll of Funafuti. 428 pp. STEARNS, H. T. 1946. Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 244, pp. 245-262. VENING MEINESZ, F. A. 1941. Nederl, Akad. Wetensch., Proc., vol. 45, No. 1. 7Since preparation of this discussion, the report on drilling of Bikini Atoll has been presented before the Geological Society of America (Ottawa, December 1947) by Ladd, Tracey, Lill, Wells, and Cole. Calcareous sediments were found to the bottom of the hole at 2,554 feet. Miocene fossils were identified from 1,305 feet. The hole was drilled on the windward side of the atoll where the thickest Cenozoic section should cccur (see fig. 15 above). 9r6l ATNGF ‘INIMIG LY NOOSV7 SHL NI NOISO1dx4 aWwog WOLY YALVMYSGNN AHL =e *yaodayy ueuosyziU AaLV1d zynyos— Lr6l PAB IMOSe TUS THE BIOLOGY OF BIKINI ATOLL, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE FISHES By LEonarp P, SCHULTZ Curator of Fishes, U. S. National Museum [With 17 plates] The fourth and fifth atomic bombs were exploded over and in Bikini lagoon in 1946. A year later in 1947, the palms were still waving in the tropical breeze, the pandanus was fruiting, the tacca or arrowroot formed tubers in the soil, and a new plant, the papaya, was bearing delicious fruit. It had sprung from seeds left by the retreating hordes of men. A lone dog wandered on Bikini Island, a cock was crowing on Enyu Island, and the little brown rat was scampering about at night. Birds flew overhead and fishes swam in the lagoon nearly as abundantly as a year ago. Along the outer edges of the reefs in the crashing and foaming surf life went on as before. The large purple slate-pencil sea urchins, holding their positions by bracing their spines into crevices and irregu- larities, were everywhere along the lithothamnium ridge. Farther inward on the flat area in broad, shallow depressions were vast numbers of the black sea cucumber, often concentrated by the dozens in pools. Ghost crabs, leaving their sandy burrows at night, ran along the sandy beaches. Their slower relatives, the hermit crabs, labored along, carrying heavy snail shells on their backs. On land the nocturnal coconut crab came from hiding to feed on the coconut, or the female went down to the sea, to dip her tail into the water, causing thousands of eggs to hatch the moment they were moistened. Yet, with all this life going on normally at Bikini, one should not feel a false sense of security; the atomic weapon is terrible. The radiations emanating from the isotopes resulting from the atom bomb explosions are dangerous to animal and plant life. The lower animals can withstand greater amounts of radiation than the vertebrates, but, among the latter, man and the other mammals are most sensitive. The explosion of the Baker Day blast was so powerful that it could have lifted an entire fleet of battleships high into the air as easily as a summer wind blows thistledown across a field. The concussion in a limited area from such a sudden explosion caused great mortality 301 302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 among aquatic life; hundreds of dead and dying fish were seen floating in the lagoon waters shortly after and for a few days. Great quan- tities of oil were released from the stricken ships. It floated and was driven by the wind onto coral and algal growths, smearing shellfish and echinoderms on the reefs, causing additional mortality of organ- isms in limited areas. BIOLOGICAL EXPEDITIONS TO BIKINI Under the direction of Commander Roger Revelle, U. S. N. R., and Lt. Comdr. Clifford A. Barnes, U. S. C. G. R., an expedititon sailed from San Francisco in February 1946 on the U. S. S. Bowditch, returning to the United States in September. Assembled on this ship were numerous scientists representing the fields of biology, oceanog- raphy, and geology. It was the purpose of this group to map and study Bikini Atoll in a thorough manner before the explosions so that if the atomic bombs caused any profound changes these might be detected. As control atolls, extensive biological studies were made at Rongelap, Rongerik, and Eniwetok in the northern Marshall Islands. A second expedition, the Bikini Scientific Resurvey, left San Diego July 1, 1947, on board the U.S. S. Chalton for the purpose of deter- mining changes that had occurred as a result of the Crossroads Opera- tion of 1946. This resurvey, made under the direction of Capt. C. L. Engleman, U.S. N., returned on September 11 to San Diego. The biological field work in the northern Marshall Islands consisted of making extensive collections of the flora and fauna, and of taking statistical samples of the populations of the marine animals. The botanical studies were made by Dr. William R. Taylor, Uni- versity of Michigan, during 1946. In 1947 the physiology of aquatic plants was undertaken by Drs. L. R. Blinks and P. M. Brooks, Stanford University, California. The marine invertebrates were studied by Dr. J. P. E. Morrison and F. M. Bayer of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. During July and August 1947, Dr. D. M. Whit- aker, Stanford University, made special studies on the echinoderms; Dr. A. C. Cole, University of Tennessee, on the insects; and Dr. Robert W. Hiatt, University of Hawaii, on the food of fishes. Dr. M. W. Johnson, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, made extensive col- lections of plankton, and Dr. D. B. Johnstone, New Jersey Agriculture Experimental Station, studied the microbiology of Bikini during 1946. The geology of Bikini and other Marshall Islands was studied by Dr. Harry S. Ladd, Dr. J. Harlan Johnson, Joshua I. Tracey, of the United States Geological Survey, aided by Dr. John W. Wells, Ohio State University, and Gordon G. Lill, Office of Naval Research, Geo- physics Branch. Dr. K.O. Emery, University of Southern California, mapped the bottom geology of Bikini. The 2,556-foot deep hole was BIOLOGY OF BIKINI ATOLL—SCHULTZ 303 drilled by the G. E. Failing Supply Co., under the direction of the geologists. The study of the effect of radiation on marine animals, especially fishes, was made during 1946 and 1947 by the University of Washington group under the direction of Drs. Lauren R. Donaldson and Arthur J. Welander, School of Fisheries, Seattle. Since fishes represented the group of animals of greatest economic importance in and around the atoll, emphasis was placed on them. Statistical studies were attempted in 1946 and 1947 with the view of measuring the relative abundance of fishes, those caught by trolling, and on the reef by other means. The pelagic kinds—tuna and their relatives—were caught by commercial fishermen, using trolling meth- ods. This work was under the immediate supervision of John C. Marr and Osgood R. Smith, United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Similar population studies were made of the lagoon and reef fishes by Vernon E. Brock, director, Division of Fish and Game, Territory of Hawaii, Dr. Earl S. Herald, United States Fish and Wildlife Serv- ice, and Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes in the United States National Museum, Smithsonian Institution. The latter and Loren P. Woods, curator of fishes, Chicago Natural History Museum, are preparing a descriptive catalog of the fishes of the northern Marshall Islands. BIKINI ATOLL AS A FISH HABITAT Bikini Atoll in shape resembles a bathtub, except that its sides are cut through by several deep channels. It is about 22 miles long by 13 miles wide, inclosing a lagoon whose depth is mostly 180 feet with a few areas down to 200 feet. Rising from the lagoon floor are large coral heads, a few of which come near the surface, whereas around the margins of the atoll reef are more coral heads that reach the sur- face. The lagoon floor slopes gradually upward from its deeper parts to those areas exposed during the low tides. The bottom is composed of loose sand, fragments of calcareous algae, and coral remains, on which are growing a great variety of sessile invertebrates, aquatic algae, and into the rocky fragments worms burrow. In otherwise un- used crevices, fishes hide. SANDY AREAS Considerable areas adjoining the rim of the atoll in the shallower parts of the lagoon are composed of loose sand. In places where this sand is continually shifting, no corals occur, but where it remains stable small isolated ones from a few inches to 2 or 3 feet high occur. These areas are somewhat barren of fish life. Usually around coral clusters are a few kinds of damsel fishes, one or two species of wrasse, scorpion fish, often gobies and blennies. 304 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Small schools of the black-banded damsel fish, Dascyllus aruanus, when disturbed, seek shelter in closely branching coral heads. They remained within it while we broke loose from the bottom the entire growth in order to carry it ashore. There the coral, with its fish and crustacean inhabitants, was broken into fragments, and its denizens were picked up without a single individual escaping. Swimming in schools over these broad, sandy stretches are yellow- streaked goatfishes, harvest fish, threadfins, jacks, mullets, lizard fishes, sand perches, and sometimes a few flatfishes (Bothidae). Cruis- ing around individually are black-tipped sharks. In holes in the sand can be seen a species of large goby with a prominent blue streak across its cheek. Snake and worm eels burrow in the loose gravel and sand of the bottom. Giant tridacna lie on the bottom, with their beautifully iridescent mantles exposed to the flickering sunlight. Big sting rays occasionally are seen on the bottom in 10 to 30 feet of water. Vernon E. Brock, assisted by Dr. Robert Hiatt, speared one off Eman Island in 20 feet of water, while skin diving. The capture of this dangerous fish, with its venomous sting, was a remarkable feat. Brock swam down over the fish and drove a spear into it, then grabbed the end of the spear, pulling the hundred-pound creature toward the surface, but had to come up for air, and it went down. Once again he tried, and this time with Dr. Hiatt’s aid brought it up, all the time keeping away from the lashing tail of the ray. After a desperate struggle, it was speared again and finally brought alongside the row- boat from which they were operating. It is now preserved in the United States National Museum along with about 50,000 other fish specimens collected during 1946 and 1947 in connection with the atom bomb experiments. CORAL AND ALGAL AREAS From this somewhat barren sandy habitat, there occur all gradua- tions in abundance of coral heads with algae up to the stage where they are so close together that there is scarcely room to step between them. More often the channels between the corals are 3 to 15 feet wide, and some reach 30 feet or more in width. This type of habitat may occur in the lagoon, in the wide passes, or on the ocean side of the atoll rim. Where the corals and algal growths are luxuriant, over 200 species of fish occur and were regularly captured through the use of rotenone. However, during 4 hours’ work, the maximum number taken at a single station was 136 at Erik Island, Bikini Atoll. Although the smallest fish known, a fresh-water goby from the Philippine Islands, is not found at Bikini, one of its relatives is a close runner-up. The Philippine goby measured 9 or 10 millimeters (three-eighths of an inch), whereas the smallest Bikini fish, the goby BIOLOGY OF BIKINI ATOLIL-~--SCHULTZ 305 Eviota, when adult and sexually mature was 15 millimeters or five- eighths of an inch long. This contrasts sharply with a 10-foot wide manta ray weighing about 700 pounds, taken in Enyu passage. The largest fish, however, was caught by the commercial fishermen at Bikini in over 40 feet of water. It was a tiger shark measuring 18 feet 11 inches long, with an estimated weight of considerably over half a ton. Living in the branching polyps of the coral Acropora, was the little yellowish goby, Gobiodon citrinus, which had during July and August prepared a nest and laid eggs in it. Gobiodon cleared off a small area, three-fourths of an inch by 2 inches long, at the base of a coral branch arising near the center of the colony. On this carefully pre- pared spot, a thin growth of green, purplish, or brownish-colored algae occurred. Acropora responded to the presence of Gobiodon and formed a slightly raised rim around the nesting area. This goby, only about an inch long, then deposited a small cluster of eggs in the shallow depression and both parents remained to protect their home. Each egg was attached to a gelatinous substratum by a short adhesive stalk with the head of the embryo on the opposite end. Among these eggs, numbering 100 to 200, was a fine, branching, filamentous red alga. The oblong eggs were close together but not crowded. Another remarkable association between a fish and an invertebrate host occurred in this same habitat. On the lagoon floor in a few feet of water down to depths of 20 feet or more lives a globular starfish, Culcita novaeguinae, that reaches the size of a man’s head. We found in its body cavity, in about half of those investigated, a nearly trans- parent 6- to 10-inch-long eel-like fish—the pearlfish, Carapus. We kept one of them in a jar of water, noticing the very slow rate of respiration and its ability to live in sea water with a low amount of dissolved oxygen. Because Carapus was transparent, the circulation of the blood was observed clearly. FLAT PAVEMENTLIKE AREAS The nearly flat pavementlike areas on the atoll reef are carpeted with a layer of tiny foraminifera and vinelike algal growth, forming a mat 1 or 2 inches thick. West of Bikini Island, such a reef is trans- versed with numerous “cracks” or shallow grooves only a few inches deep. In other places there are vast areas incompletely drained during low water, leaving shallow tidal pools only an inch or two deep. In these occur a few species of blennies, gobies, and sometimes a large number of the blackish sea cucumber. Whenever these de- pressions retain about a foot of water, corals begin to grow and the animal life increases. 306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 As the tide rises and the surf breaks over the lithothamnium ridge, then surges several inches deep across this flattened part of the reef, great schools of blue-green and dark-red parrot fishes, Scarus, often with their backs exposed in the shallow water, move about on the reef, grazing like a herd of sheep on the algae growing there. Their tooth marks, remaining on the rocks, are easily observed. When the water deepens to a foot, surgeon, needle, trumpet, halfbeaks, damsel, goat- fishes, mullet, and dozens of other kinds appear. The black-tipped shark, H'ulamia malanoptera, with its black-tipped fins sometimes exposed, cruises around on the reef, too. Although they are speedy swimmers, a man with a rubber sling and spear, or with a gun, may capture them without difficulty. ISOLATED TIDAL POOLS AND SOLUTION CHANNELS Around the shores of certain islands are small tidal pools and solu- tion channels that are eroded in the limestone beach rock. They re- main more or less filled with water at low tide. These depressions are from a few inches to a foot deep, with rounded smooth sides. They vary from a few inches to a few feet in width. Some appear as shal- low pot holes but with the seaward side cut away. On the bottom in favorable places were accumulated coral fragments and occasionally pieces of beach rock. During the period of low tide, several kinds of blennies appeared to be trapped in the pools. They remained motionless with their tails curved to one side, then suddenly, when disturbed, would flip through the air from one pool to another over the rocky ledges. Their agility and speed of traveling over “dry land” astounds one on his first visit toareef. The young of AwAlia, mullets, and damsel fishes regularly remain in these shallow pools. The goby Bathygobius is a frequent inhabitant, too. Hiding or trying to hide among the loose beach rocks and in the pools was the black speckled moray eel, Gymnothorawz picta, sometimes curled between black sea cucumbers. As the incoming tide rose and refilled the solution channels and pools, the dark-banded damsel fish, Abudefduf septemfasciatus, returned to its favorite habitat along the very edge of the beach rock. LITHOTHAMNIUM RIDGE The outer margin of an atoll rim on the ocean side usually consists of the slightly raised pink to red-colored lithothamnium ridge con- trasting beautifully with the deep blue ocean beyond. It is dissected by rugged surge channels and deep pools often 20 feet deep directly connected with the ocean. ‘This ridge, creviced and pitted with holes, is about a foot or two higher than the flat part of the reef farther inward and varies in width from 40 to 100 feet. At extremely low BIOLOGY OF BIKINI ATOLL—SCHULTZ 307 tides it is exposed except as the surf crashes over it, then some of the water is forced back over the flat part of the reef, flowing seaward again through the surge channels. Some of the surge channels, extending for 100 feet or more back into the solid reef, are more or less roofed over or with perforations large and small through which the water may pour or spout on the incoming surge of a wave. They are lined with rich green and red algae, blue, red, yellow, and green corals, and a host of brilliantly colored fishes live in these clear waters. The red calcareous algae forming the chief surface growth on this ridge were minutely pitted and creviced. Living among these perfora- tions were several fishes, characteristic of the area. The little blunt- headed blenny, Cirripectes, appeared to favor this habitat, along with pseudochromids, especially Plesiops. Numerous too was a little viviparous orange-colored brotulid, several kinds of wrasse, eels, and small filefishes and puffers. In the surge channels were the pempherids, surgeon and butterfly fishes, and hiding during the day in the dark crevices were the bright red soldier or squirrel fishes that come out at night to feed. Inver- tebrates characteristic along this narrow zone were the slate-pencil sea urchins and in the deeper crevices and pools the venomous sea urchin with its long, purple, needlelike, poisonous spines. Octopi were common, along with several kinds of shrimp and crabs. OPEN-WATER HABITAT Contrasted with the atoll rim and its coral-algal growths was the open-water habitat of the atoll, in which a great variety of fishes thrived that never sought the protection of the reefs. In these waters occurred very small fishes, moderate-sized ones, and the giants. Some are predaceous—the tunas, jacks, and sharks—whereas others, such as the manta and the round herring, lived by feeding on the small pelagic organisms in the water. This latter species, 2 or 3 inches long, occurs in big schools. It was seen daily near the ships anchored in the lagoon. Cruising slowly around Bikini lagoon, one saw now and then big manta rays. However, in the middle of the broad Enyu channel, during 1946 and 1947, almost every day one to several occurred at at the surface with the tips of their broad pectoral fins moving slowly up and down. To capture one of these giant fish, 10 feet across, required prepara- tion. A spear, fitted on the end of a long wooden shaft, with lines attached, was made. To the spear point was fixed about 75 feet of tiller rope lashed to an empty steel drum with the excess rope wound around it. This gear was then placed at the bow of a picket boat, 308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 in a favorable place for throwing the spear the moment a big ray was approached. Standing poised, a man cast the spear into the head of a big fellow. The pole came out of the spear point, and was hauled aboard by the attached line. The tiller rope unwound from the float- ing drum as the ray sounded. Then, for nearly half an hour, the big manta tired itself out on the floating buoy. Finally, it was killed by rifle fire. This harmless ray measured 9 feet 8 inches across and took 8 men to haul it up on the deck of the boat. It has at the front of its head, on each side, a long fleshy cephalic lobe, used to direct a current of water into its big, almost toothless mouth. This pair of lobes resembles the wings of the trawl and served the same purpose. Within the mouth, along the sides, are very fine-meshed gill rakers, serving to strain the planktonic organisms from the sea water that passes in the mouth and out the gill openings. The stomach of this big ray contained a few quarts of larval crustaceans. Another group of fishes, the sharks, attracted attention. Although several kinds were encountered, such as tiger, bullhead, and whaler sharks, the most common were black-tipped, white-tipped (fins), and the gray shark. The latter species, not exceeding 7 feet in length, outnumbered all the others. One night in Boro Passage, a picket boat was anchored for the purpose of catching sharks. Tuna fish caught that day by trolling along the outer reef and through the passages were passed through a small sausage grinder, and the chopped up meat and blood was cast slowly into the channel waters that were flowing outward. Within a short time, sharks were chummed to the boat by the presence of blood in the water. Then chunks of tuna meat, the size of a man’s fist, were thrown into the water and others placed on big steel hooks. The gray sharks struck these baited hooks with greed and speed. They jumped from the water. Several would rush the bait and each other as they fed voraciously. At the end of a few hours, 29 sharks measuring from 3 to 7 feet had been successfully landed on the boat. USE OF ROTENONE IN COLLECTING REEF AND LAGOON FISHES Methods of collecting fishes at Bikini included baited hook and line, trolling, spearing, dredging, attracting them to a surface light at night, and the use of various nets. The most important was the use of powdered plant roots to stupefy fishes, and since our methods of using it on coral reefs are unpublished, they are herein described. Powdered cubé or derris root with 5 percent of rotenone content has been used by various ichthyologists for nearly 40 years to collect: fishes for scientific purposes. Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann, during field work in South America in 1908, probably was the first ichthyologist to BIOLOGY OF BIKINI ATOLL—-SCHULTZ 309 use vegetable poisons, although aboriginal natives in nearly all parts of the world have made use of them. Since that time most American ichthyologists have used vegetable poisons to collect fishes for scientific purposes. Drs. Eigenmann and W. R. Allen, University of Kentucky, describe methods of collecting fresh-water fishes in their 1942 pub- lication, “The Fishes of Western South America.” From 1936 to 1938 the author experimented with the use of pow- dered derris root in fresh-water streams, and during the second World War, with the rotenone extract; the latter, however, did not appear to be as effective as the powder. It was not until 1939 that an op- portunity came to carry on extensive experiments. Upon arrival in the Phoenix Islands, he found practically no enclosed tidal pools, the type of habitat in which ichthyologists had previously used ro- tenone fish poisons in small quantities. The reefs were flat, pavement- like structures, with narrow to wide channels, connected with open water, whereas the deepest isolated pools left at low tide were only a few inches deep and often lacked fish. A large variety of fishes could be seen swimming in the channels, in the open waters, and even in the ocean surf. These had to be collected somehow. After carefully studying the currents and esti- mating the depth of water, the author attempted the use of rotenone in the open water among the corals and algae. At the end of July 1989, after 4 months’ continuous work in various coral-reef habitats, methods of using rotenone in open-water situations had been per- fected and, as a result, over 14,000 excellent fish specimens were recovered for the United States National Museum. When the author was asked late in 1945 about obtaining samples of shallow-water reef fishes at Bikini, Operation Crossroads, for pur- poses of determining the relative abundance of fishes before and after the atomic explosions, he suggested the methods developed in 1939. A few months later, during March to August 1946, and again in July and August 1947, fishes were collected by the use of rotenone. Differ- ent techniques were applied depending on the situation. As a result, there were taken over 70,000 fish specimens on which systematic and population studies could be based. Part of these were discarded after data from them were recorded. Thirty-five minutes before the tide reached its lowest point, the dry powdered root was placed in buckets or any suitable containers and mixed with water to a thick chocolate malted milk consistency, allow- ing about 20 minutes for one man to mix 25 pounds. By squeezing and stirring with the hands as water was gradually added, the powder soon formed a thick mud. Ten minutes before low water, the dis- tribution of the mixture began. The stupefying of a great variety of fishes with rotenone was most successful at the lowest stage of water. The success of this operation depended on determining the strength 310 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 of the currents and depth of water. A little of the mixture was tossed into the water and the direction of movement of the small, light brownish cloud, watched. After several such tests, assistants, each with a bucket or two of the mud, were stationed in the water and the distribution began. In water 4 to 5 feet deep, with a slow current, the mud was thrown out, permitting the little pellets to dissolve as they settled toward the bottom, forming a light brownish cloud. Twenty-five pounds of the dry powder formed a cloud about 100 to 150 feet long by 50 to 75 feet wide. It was highly effective if it took 10 minutes to pass any one point in water above 80° F. When used at lower temperatures the fishes must be exposed for a longer time. Usually a part of a bucket of the mud was reserved to strengthen the cloud after it had traveled a few hundred feet. This precaution was advisable, since the currents did not always behave as predicted. SHALLOW-WATER REEF Through experience it was learned which shallow-water habitats (to a depth of 10 feet) were suitable for collecting fish with rotenone. An area with an abundant growth of coral heads in about 3 to 4 feet of water, down to 10 feet in pools, with narrow to wide channels between the various kinds of corals, and a wind blowing the surface water more or less shoreward, was the most ideal situation. Many kinds of fishes in the areas treated floated for a few minutes, then sank to the bottom. Some were picked up while they were vio- lently swimming more or less in circles. A greater quantity of fish appeared at the surface than were recovered immediately. Those that drifted ashore were recovered, but those that got over deep water were often lost. Immediately after introducing the rotenone, recovery of the fish started, but it was inadvisable to enter the area in which the treated water would flow, since that drove the unaffected fishes away. As soon as the water cleared, those fishes that settled to the bottom were col- lected. ‘Two or three men continually wandered over the treated area, picking up the specimens in fine-meshed, bobbinet. dipnets, 14 or 15 inches in diameter and 25 to 30 inches deep, with a 4- or 5-foot- long, light-weight wooden handle. As the water-laden cloud of rotenone drifted onward for a thousand feet, it spread out, gradually becoming so diluted that it lost its effec- tiveness. When the water appeared as a light, tan-colored cloud, it was most effective since it retained its stupefying properties yet was not so much concentrated as to be detectable by most fishes. Sharks, apparently able to detect small amounts of the rotenone in the water, left the area until the cloud had passed. They then returned to feed on the sick and dead fish, sometimes becoming troublesome. With *][018 9] JO WII 94] OJON NOOOSV"7] INIMIG AO 30VAUNS AHL SAOSY GAGOI1dxy AWOG WOLY SHL YaLAV SALNNIW M34 V ‘9761 (1 ATING NANVL Hd VYSDOLOHd c@ 31V1d ZaNYIS— p61] *qyaodayy URluOsyqIWIG Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Schultz 2. THEU.S.S. ‘‘CHILTON,’’ HEADQUARTERS OF THE BIKINI SCIENTIFIC RESURVEY OF 1947, OFF BIKINI ISLAND Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Schultz PLATE 4 1. THE G. E. FAILING Co. DRILLING A DEEP HOLE ON BIKINI ISLAND, 1947 2. COMMANDER ROGER REVELLE AND DR. HARRY LADD EXAMINING A FOSSIL BROUGHT UP FROM A DEEP HOLE Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Schu!tz Pe Re 1. SURGE CHANNELS (DARK PATCHES IN FOREGROUND) BISECTING THE LITHOTHAMNIUM RIDGE AT OCEAN EDGE OF ATOLL RIM 4) 2. SAND SPIT (WHITE FOREGROUND) THAT CONNECTS WITH Bock ISLAND ON RONGERIK ATOLL The island is covered with trees. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Schultz PLATE 6 1. Dr. ROBERT HIATT HOLDING A COCONUT CRAB TAKEN ON NANU ISLAND, BIKINI ATOLL. AUGUST 1947 ; 2. A SMALL SPECIES OF GOBY GUARDING EGGS AND NESTS BUILT IN THE CORAL ACROPORA Photograph taken in July 1947. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Schultz PEATE? 1. SLATE-PENCIL SEA URCHIN This was abundant on the lithothamnium ridge both in 1946 and 1947. 2. Capt. C. L. ENGLEMAN (LEFT) AND A Navy DiveR HAVE JUST BROUGHT UP A 40-INCH- LONG CLAM, THE GIANT TRIDACHNA Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Schultz PLATE 8 1. VERNON E. Brock, WITH THE GIANT STING RAY THAT HE SPEARED IN 20 FEET OF WATER 2. OSGOOD SMITH RECORDING DATA ON TROLL-CAUGHT TUNA FISHES AT BIKINI, 1947 Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Schultz PLATE 9 1. THE YELLOW PUFFER Like others of its kind, this fish inflates itself with water or air as a means of defense. 2. THE PARROT FISH This fish, when living, is brilliantly colored with red, green, and blue. Smithsonian Report , 1947.—Schultz PLATE 10 1. SURF CRASHING OVER THE LITHOTHAMNIUM RIDGE AT OCEAN EDGE OF ATOLL RIM AT BIKINI 2. A GRoOuP OF BIKINI INHABITANTS AT RONGERIK ATOLL IN 1947 Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Schultz PEATE i 1. ZANCLUS CANESCENS 2. ONE OF THE NUMEROUS KINDS OF BUTTERFLY FISHES, CHAETODON MERTENSIS, TAKEN AT BIKINI Smithsonian Report, eee 1947. Schultz * 1. THE RED SNAPPER, LUTJANUS BOHAR 2. THE DOoG-TOOTHED TUNA, GYMNOSARDA NUDA PLATE 3. ONE OF THE PELAGIC SNAPPERS, APRION VIRESCENS Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Schultz PlATIE iS 1. A VORACIOUS SHARK, CARCHARHINUS ALBIMARGINATUS 2. THE DeEviL RAY, MANTA ALFREDI Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Schultz PEATE, 14 1. Dr. WILLIAM R. TAYLOR, SEARCHING THROUGH A DREDGE HAUL FOR ALGAE TAKEN FROM THE BOTTOM OF BIKINI LAGOON 2. THE DREDGE USED FOR BOTTOM SAMPLES OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES AND ALGAE GV4H WWHOD Ga9yuaWENS Vv NOSIOg OL SNAWIDSdS HSI4 ONINIVLNOD LANdIGQ V HLIM\ 3OV4AHNS AHL OL YALVM 4O 1334 Gp NINMOq SNIOD auO43g LSNF AYNLXIW LOOY 38ND ONINYNLAY ‘YALV7 YNOH NV ATYVAN “LSIDOIOAHLHD| AWVS AHL °Z HLIM SVG YaLVM\ LYSSAQ V ONITMN4 SLSIDOIOAHLHS| SHL 4O 3NO °*[ Gl 3ALV1d Z3[NYIGS—"/p6| ‘Jodayy uetuOsyzIWIG Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Schultz PLATE 16 1. THE AUTHOR SPREADING THE LAST OF THE CUBE ROOT MIXTURE OVER A REEF IN SHALLOW WATER 2. Dr. EARL. S. HERALD AND THE AUTHOR RECOVERING FISH DURING A POPULATION STUDY AT BIKINI ATOLL Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Schultz PEATE 17 1. FLOATING FISH WERE RECOVERED OvER DEEP WATER BY USE OF A RUBBER BOAT 2. A LARGE CORAL BLOCK WaS USED AS A LABORATORY FOR THE PRESERVATION OF FISHES DuRING LOw TIDE ON A REEF BIOLOGY OF BIKINI ATOLL—SCHULTZ oll only one or two 8- to 6-foot-long sharks feeding on the sick fish, the diver can keep watch of them. However, when two or three of these voracious creatures became too bold, as happened on one or two oc- casions, the ichthyologists left the water. The searching for the demobilized fishes was done by means of a face mask covering eyes and nose, swim fins on the feet, and a dipnet. With a face mask, both hands were free to devote to picking up fishes, some of which were rather slippery. A canvas glove as an aid for holding slippery fish was used on one hand when necessary. Some of the fishes affected appeared lifeless, but when touched were found to be very much alive and quickly moved away unless caught in the dipnet. Those fishes too small to pick up with the fingers were, with a little practice, lifted from the bottom by inducing upward currents through rapid movement of the hands or feet. A fish, thus suspended for a few moments, was scooped up in the dipnet. Desirable fishes frequently swam into the crevices of the corals and erected their spines, making their removal difficult. With clear vision ee the face mask, these, too, were collected. A rubber boat, tied to one of the coral heads, served as a base from which to work and was an added safety in case someone ran into trouble under the rugged conditions under which we worked. This boat held the preserving tank, and other gear. Three good swimmers at Bikini picked up enough fish to keep one man busy preserving the specimens in the rubber boat. On shore, one ichthyologist and a Navy photographer took over 300 color pictures. Those fishes first to be affected by the rotenone were the damsel, cardinal, butterfly, surgeon, and puffers; others such as needlefish, halfbeaks, goatfishes, gobies, jacks, threadfins, and mullets were a little slower in reacting to the treated water. The burrowing fishes, namely, eels, appeared last, probably because it took longer for the rotenone to diffuse into their habitats. Fish continued to appear for over 6 hours after treatment, and I recovered eels that came out 8 hours after the cloud had passed their burrow. Care was exercised in picking up supposedly dead spiny fishes, and especially moray eels, since they may inflict serious wounds. Scorpion fishes, siganids, and other venomous species, even the stinging corals and jelly fishes, were treated with respect. The snake eels often appeared with about 6 to 12 inches of their head section above the bottom. I grabbed them firmly and quickly, then pulled out the remaining 2 or 3 feet of their bodies. A light touch or a miss when grabbed usually caused the eel to withdraw into its burrow, and the specimen was lost. The rotenone appeared to affect the fishes by constricting the capil- laries of the gills, depriving the animals of an adequate oxygen sup- 777488—48——28 312 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 ply. They left their hiding places for more oxygen, thus exposing themselves under a weakened condition and simplifying their capture. Shallow tidal pools that trap fish at low tide are simple to work, but the use of rotenone in the ocean surf on the ocean reef of a coral atoll requires special technique. Rotenone was used successfully along the lithothamnium ridge in the ocean surf. The “mud” was administered a few minutes after the low point of the tidal cycle. An area was selected where pools oc- curred but which were not completely connected with the surge chan- nels. These pools were desirable as settling basins for the sick and dying fishes. The area between two or three surge channels, where the waves flow inward across the ridge was the place where we placed the rotenone mixture. Big handfuls of the thick mud were thrown out as far as possible into the backwash of a wave. The next moment the oncoming breaker churned the water into foam and carried the water-laden cloud of rotenone inward, spreading it over the area and into the numerous crevices; then it flowed out the surge channels. Soon the rotenone cloud was distributed along the ocean edge of the reef, and some was brought back again over the lithothamnium ridge. The continual surging inward of the water brought in the sick fish. Men were stationed along the surge channels to take fishes that were being swept out to sea and perhaps lost. After the pools and channels cleared, the bottoms were searched for fishes by the skin divers. The use of a face mask in skin diving and swimming enables one to see clearly for 50 to 100 feet in the lagoon and ocean waters. Look- ing down in the surge channels between the corals, one sees a gorgeous display, a colorful marine garden of coral algae and fishes. Some of the corals are fan-shaped, others resemble the antlers of deer. They are blue, bright green, red, brown, yellow, and purple, contrasting with the white foraminiferal sand of the bottom. The light from the tropical sun flickers down into these enchanted caverns, filled with the blue sea. The trembling shafts of light illum- inate the green, brown, and red algae, waving in the dim light. Fan- tastically shaped fishes, as if from another world, dart about, reflect- ing their weird color combinations of brilliant blues and sapphires, greens, and yellows, red or scarlet, and with black and white markings contrasting sharply. Some have big red spots, others sapphire-blue bars and dazzling yellow and crimson stripes. Butterfly, damsel, surgeon fishes and wrasse lazily swim about in the aquatic caverns and channels, but the moment a large predaceous fish appears they seek protection, disappearing there, reappearing here, among the coral growths. Some swim as easily sideways and upside down as in a vertical position. The view of this gorgeous marine garden fades away into nothingness a hundred feet or more below. BIOLOGY OF BIKINI ATOLL—-SCHULTZ 313 DEEP-WATER USE OF ROTENONE Vernon E. Brock and Dr. Earl S. Herald, two ichthyologists who are excellent swimmers and skin divers, successfully carried on sev- eral deep-water poisonings of fishes with powdered cube root. They mixed in the usual manner about 35 pounds of the substance, then placed 5 to 10 pounds of the “mud” in desert water bags. Equipped with standard U. S. Navy shallow-water diving outfits, Brock and Herald took the rotenone to the bottom, distributing it around coral growths. Down below with the usual dipnets, they recovered fishes, bringing them to a man at the surface, who preserved the specimens. This deep-water work was necessary to obtain a more complete pic- ture of the fish fauna of Bikini and the change in kinds of fishes at various depths in the lagoon. Several fish species occurring over the shallower parts of the reefs normally are not found at depths below 10 or 20 feet, whereas some kinds below that depth are not taken near the surface. COLLECTING WITH A LIGHT AT NIGHT A bright light suspended from a small ship at night at the surface of the sea attracts to it myriads of nocturnal organisms—crustaceans, worms, squid, octopi,and numerous species of fishes. Silversides, small wrasse, round herring, the pelagic stages of goatfishes, surgeon fishes, puffers, lizard and file fishes dart in and out of the field of illumina- tion. Large flying fishes, a foot or two long, come swimming or flying toward the light at night. Down below a few feet, larger predaceous fishes can be seen rushing about feeding on the abundant animal life. Eager collectors gathered above this light on a platform, and with fine-meshed dipnets scooped up the animals, preserving them for future study. Several kinds of fishes and invertebrates taken around the light were never collected by any other means at Bikini. UNDERWATER TELEVISION At Bikini in 1947 I saw demonstrated the Navy’s new underwater television, prepared and operated by the Cornell Aeronautical Labora- tory, Buffalo, N. Y. The camera end of this remarkable devise was set up on the deck of the sunken submarine, Apogon, in 160 feet of water. It wassufliciently sensitive to daylight to give clear and precise images on the screen in the control and observation room of the U.S. 5S. Coucal. The color patterns of fishes were portrayed in pale greenish light with distinctness as they swam in front of the lens. I identified with ease two species of pigfish (Zethrinus), the trumpet fish (/istu- laria), a jack (Caranzx), the moorish idol (Zanclus), and Siganus punctatus. 314 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 This apparatus opens up new fields of investigation in the study of aquatic animals in their natural habitats. Scientists and laymen who wish to study animal behavior will be able to do so now without the dangers of deep-water diving. The applications of underwater tele- vision to biological research is of the same magnitude of importance as the discovery and first use of the microscope. BIKINI’S BIOLOGY, PAST AND FUTURE Bikini’s ecology was disturbed, not only through the atom bomb ex- plosions, but by the presence during the Crossroads Operation of a great armada of ships, with about 45,000 men, dumping garbage and debris into the lagoon waters. This, together with the blasting of coral heads in preparation for the great anchorage, made the water turbid and increased the sedimentation in certain areas. During March and April 1946, corals could be seen at a depth of 120 feet at midday, but during July of both 1946 and 1947 coral heads were scarcely visible at depths of 35 feet off Bikini Island. These changes appear to have been confined to the eastern and northern reefs off Bikini Island in the lagoon, whereas the southern and western reefs showed little change. The water there was as clear as in the early part of 1946. Open ocean waters are relatively barren. Organic matter and dis- solved nutriments in the sea are very slight. An atoll, however, is a very rich area of living plants and organisms. It is an oasis in an aquatic desert. Its reefs support luxuriant growths of algae, coral, and vast numbers of animals. This richness results from the conser- vation of organic matter by the living forms. Organic matter is not lost in the complicated food chains of the living organisms. ‘They may die in the lagoon waters, but are imme- diately devoured by the scavengers—crabs, lobsters, shellfish, fishes, worms, coelenterates, and echinoderms—which in turn are eaten by predaceous animals. Plant life is consumed by the vegetable-eating fishes and other creatures. Coral polyps are fed upon by certain file fishes, whereas parrot fishes scrape algae off the corals. Even through the death of a 10-ton shark or manta ray, the organic matter is not lost. It appears in the form of tiny organisms such as bacteria, worms, and crustaceans. These in turn form the plankton—the chief food of numerous fishes. Thus the atoll becomes a great storehouse or reser- voir of living organisms competing for every bit of nourishment. The aquatic plants extract carbon dioxide from the sea water. Both plants and animals deposit calcium carbonate in building their cal- careous skeletons, which remain after death. The organic matter is re-used by the living, and the skeletons of the dead remain to build BIOLOGY OF BIKINI ATOLL—SCHULTZ 315 up the solid rocky atoll, leaving scarcely a trace of the animal proteins in the limestone reefs or in the bottom deposits of the lagoon floor. The antiquity of such an isolated atoll must be very great to have accumulated through the eons of time such a tremendous variety of animals and plants—to have deposited nearly two miles of animal and plant remains on top of a volcanic mountain top. The distribution of this great variety of animal life that now lives at Bikini and on other isolated atolls must have been accomplished through pelagic stages—free-floating eggs and larvae—across vast stretches of the open ocean. Fishes that build nests in the corals and are without such a means of dispersal from one atoll to another, or from island group to island group, have in many instances differen- tiated sufficiently from their neighboring allies to be recognized as dis- tinct species. Those with pelagic stages usually are distributed ex- tensively, some ranging from Easter Island to the Red Sea. There apparently has been enough interchange of individuals to keep each of these widely ranging forms breeding as a single species. That Bikini and the northern Marshall Islands have some endemic species of fishes is highly probable. Our recent ichthyological investi- gations indicate that in about one-third of the fish families studied, one or two new or previously unknown species occur. These are being described along with every other kind of fish from Bikini, and the publication of this material should make it possible to detect in the future any anatomical changes that might be induced by the Crossroads experiments. The mystery of the biological changes resulting from radiation are little known. In that great natural laboratory, they are difficult to observe and more difficult to measure. The time is too short since Able and Baker Days for the radiation to have caused observable anatomical changes in the animals, if any have occurred. Undoubtedly, alpha, beta, and gamma rays will be emitted for years to come, and how those rays will affect the somatic and genetic cells of the organisms at Bi- kini is yet to be discovered. Undoubtedly there has been and will be sterilization of sex cells and the destruction of red blood cells, neo- plastic growths may form, and possibly mutations will appear. Any organism that changes morphologically to any extent may not be adapted to compete in the continuous struggle for existence, or if weakened by the fission products, may have little chance of survival in the keen competition that exists. These unfit animals soon form part of the food chain in the intense struggle of life. The carnivorous fishes, feeding on the algal eaters that fed on contaminated algae, are in turn exposed to the isotypes and their radiations. Thus, during the course of a few years, nearly every lagoon fish may be expected to have been subjected to the radiation effects, at least in a small way, of the atomic bomb. 316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Undoubtedly, countless animal individuals have perished at Bikini because of the atomic bomb experiments and still others may perish. But this destruction of life in a large atoll like Bikini amounts to only an extremely small percentage of the total animal life. The over- all picture of life on the reefs has changed little because beneath this surface layer, and from extensive adjoining unaffected areas, indi- viduals have come forth to repopulate and occupy the reefs. The pres- sure of population from all sides into the damaged areas is very great and soon replaces the losses. Thus nature begins the repopulation cycle, and, if given sufficient time, the wounded reefs will be cleansed of their contamination, biological equilibrium will be reached, and life will establish itself as in past millenniums—similar to that before man released the greatest destructive force in his history. THE SENSES OF BATS? By Brian VESEY-FITZGERALD, I", L. S. [With 4 plates] Of all the many problems which bats set for the inquiring naturalist, none has been more puzzling than that presented by their flight at night: the way in which they catch the insects upon which most of them feed (in the case of British bats, upon which all of them feed) without colliding with objects in their path. The flight of bats is rapid and the course erratic, frequently through thick woods or the narrow winding passages of caves, often in total darkness. It has always seemed unlikely that animals with such small eyes could see well enough in the dark to fly in such surroundings without mishap. Many experi- ments have been tried with captive bats to demonstrate their ability to avoid obstacles which they could not see. Toward the end of the eighteenth century the Italian scientist, Lazzaro Spallanzani, found that bats which he had blinded could fly about a room, avoiding the walls, the furniture, and silken threads stretched across their path. A Swiss scientist, Louis Jurine, confirmed this and made the addi- tional discovery that bats lost their ability to avoid obstacles when their hearing was interfered with. Cuvier poured scorn on these findings, and they were forgotten for a century and a half. All that was remembered was that a blinded bat could fly perfectly surely. But the uncanny ability remained, and all sorts of theories were ad- vanced to account for it. It was suggested, for example, that bats were very sensitive to changes in atmospheric pressure. Then, in 1920, Professor Hartridge suggested that bats when flying in the dark were probably able to ascertain the position of obstacles by means of supersonic sounds emitted by the animals and reflected to their ears. Twenty years later, after the development of radar as an operational system, Griffin and Galambos working in America were able to prove him correct. Both radar and sonar are, of course, founded on the same fact, namely, that if a short burst of energy is sent out and the time taken for the echo to come back is noted, then, if the speed at which the energy travels is known, the distance of the object can be accurately calculated. Moreover, by sending the energy down a narrow beam 1 Reprinted by permission from Endeavour, vol. 6, No. 21, London, January 1947. 317 318 © ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 the bearing of the object can be accurately determined. In radar the energy used is in the form of electromagnetic waves; in sonar (the method by which the depth of water is measured) ordinary sound waves are used. In their direction-finding bats use not audible sound waves, but, as Hartridge suggested and as Griffin and Galambos have proved, supersonic waves. The range of frequencies that a normal human being can hear is from about 16 vibrations a second to about 380,- 000 a second. Middle C is 256 vibrations a second. The range of fre- quency of the supersonic waves used by bats is from about 25,000 to 70,000 a second, and is thus mostly above the limit of human hearing. Griffin and Galambos began their work by confirming that blind- folded bats are able to fly surely. They then confirmed Jurine’s dis- covery that if the hearing of a bat is impaired it is unable to avoid obstacles when flying. Indeed, they found that a bat with both ears covered is most reluctant to take wing at all, but that a bat with one ear covered will fly with moderate success, though it will be unable to avoid all obstacles. These simple experiments indicated that bats are made aware of the position of obstacles which they cannot see by means of sound waves reflected from them. They then covered the noses and mouths of their bats, but left the ears uncovered, and found that again the animals were unable to fly with certainty. They thus proved that the sound waves reflected by objects must be produced by the vocal apparatus of the bats themselves. Their further experiments were conducted with the aid of an elec- tronic apparatus known as a supersonic analyzer. This consists essen- tially of a microphone sensitive to supersonic vibrations, a magnifier which amplifies them and converts them to vibrations of a lower frequency, and a recorder which traces a graph on paper when super- sonic sounds are received. The analyzer measures the frequency of any supersonic vibrations it may pick up. By means of this instru- ment it was discovered that bats make supersonic sounds at frequent intervals almost all the time. The frequency of the vibrations varies, of course, but it is most usually about 50,000 a second, and at this pitch each squeak lasts for a little less than one two-hundredth of a second. Now, it is evident that the more frequently squeaks are emitted the fuller the information received. It has been proved that a bat at rest emits a supersonic squeak about 10 times a second, but that as soon as it takes wing the rate goes up to about 30 a second. That was to be expected, since a bat on the wing obviously needs more information than a bat at rest. Griffin and Galambos further found that the closer a bat approached an obstacle the faster became the rate of squeaks, rising to 50 and sometimes even to 60 a second, and dropping to normal as soon as the obstacle was passed. The rate of squeak is, of course, governed by the distance from the object, for there must be time for the echo to come back before the next squeal is sent out. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Vesey-FitzGerald PLATE 1 THE WING ACTION OF A BAT IN MORE OR LESS LEVEL FLIGHT AND FLYING TOWARD THE CAMERA Bats make between 15 and 20 strokes of the wing a second, and fly at about 10 miles an hour. (See also pl. 2, fig. 1.) Smithsonian Report, 1947.— Vesey-FitzGerald > PLATE 2 1. THE WING ACTION OF A BaT IN MORE OR LESS LEVEL FLIGHT AND FLYING TOWARD THE CAMERA (See also pl. 1.) « 2. FLIGHT MORE OR LESS BROADSIDE TO. THE CAMERA (See also pl. 3) Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Vesey-FitzGerald PEATE: 3 FLIGHT MORE OR LESS BROADSIDE TO THE CAMERA Bats fly by raising the wings partly folded, bringing them sharply down and forward. Note that in these photographs the mouth is held open. (See also pl. 2, fig. 2.) *puodes 000‘00T/T 48 UAY¥ey o1oM SUdBIsOJOYUd o9soy} [TY ‘IUBAGUIOUL [BILOULoJAOJUL Possoldop ot} DION “MOPBYS OY} AG WMOYS SI JUOPIOIB YNOYILM OULOD SBY 41 OSOTO MO FL LHOIWY OL DNIAOOMS °*Z TIVM V GIOAY O| A1dYVHS SYNVG LYg V‘OHOF SHL Ag GENYVA * | Be py ALV 1d ple495z114-AesaA—"/p6| ‘J40dayy ueluosyzIWIG SENSES OF BATS—VESEY-FITZGERALD 319 The supersonic tone is not the only sound produced by bats. In addition to the supersonic squeak, which cannot be heard by human beings, they produce three other kinds of sound: (1) The ordinary voice, which is the flight call, and which Hartridge has named the signaling tone; (2) a buzz, which is audible if one is quite close to the animal; and (3) a click, which is usually audible at a distance of several feet. I am not competent to say whether the buzz differs in any way with the species; it sounds exactly the same to me whether emitted by a serotine (Z'ptesicus serotinus) or a pipistrelle (Pipistrel- lus pipistrellus) , nor can I distinguish any difference between the clicks emitted by the different species. The flight calls, however, are quite distinct. It is possible to distinguish between the species on the wing by means of their flight calls (it is also possible with practice to dis- tinguish between the types of flight), and I have elsewhere attempted to translate the differences between the calls of the various species to paper. It has been shown that the buzz and the click are accompanied by the supersonic tone. In the case of the click there is a single short burst of supersonic energy, but in the case of the buzz there is a con- tinuous evolution of the interrupted supersonic tone. The flight call, however, may be produced by itself or it may be accompanied by the supersonic tone. Some bats, notably the lesser horseshoe (/hino- lophus hipposideros), have a considerable vocabulary of ordinary sounds, whereas others, notably the whiskered (Myotis mystacinus) , scarcely ever make a sound of this sort. I have never heard the whisk- ered utter a sound on the wing, and of the many I have kept in captivity only a few have uttered faint grunts, and those very occasionally, when at rest. How these four different types of sound are produced is not yet clear, but examination of the vocal organs of bats shows that they are very different from those of other animals. The larynx, which in most animals is built of cartilage, in bats is made of bone and is com- paratively a massive structure with large and powerful muscles. The strength of the bat’s larynx and its small size are obviously well adapted to the production of supersonic sounds, for there must be tremendous energy in the supersonic squeaks as compared with the audible squeaks. The higher the note and the greater the frequency, the greater the energy. Though it is not yet known exactly how the supersonic vibrations are produced, it is known how the bat avoids hearing the squeak. It is, of course, essential that only the echo should be heard by the bat. The same difficulty had to be overcome in radar transmission. In order to ensure that only the echo is picked up by the receiver, this is suppressed while the transmitter sends. Something of the same kind happens in the bat when emitting the supersonic tone. Griffin and Galambos found that while the squeak is being made a muscle in the 777488—48—24 320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 ear contracts momentarily, shutting off the squeak, and permitting only the echo to be heard. Bats are not the only creatures with the power of echo-location. The tapping of Blind Pew’s stick is an example of the same process, and many blind human beings develop what appears to be an uncanny ability to move about without striking obstacles. Nor are bats the only creatures able to hear supersonic vibrations: dogs, for example, are often trained on the Galton whistle. But so far as is known at present bats are the only creatures that emit supersonic vibrations and guide themselves by the reflections. This important discovery, however, still leaves unanswered many questions about the behavior of bats, and, as is the way with important discoveries, poses a number of fresh problems. Invariably the first question that is asked is: Why do not the bats become confused between the echoes from their own squeaks and the echoes from the squeaks of their neighbors? It might be thought that with a large number of bats of the same species together in a cave or in the roof of a church, and all uttering supersonic squeaks, con- fusion would be inevitable. But it must be remembered that super- sonic squeaks do not travel far, for their energy is quickly dissipated in the air. It has been shown that the supersonic squeaks of bats travel only about 15 feet, and that they are able to give a useful echo only up to about 12 feet. In other words, provided that the bats are not crammed close together, there is very little likelihood of confusion. But, as everyone with any field experience of bats knows, they very often are crammed close together, yet there is no confusion. It seems evident that there is a difference in the frequency of the vibrations made by each bat. A very slight difference in frequency would be sufficient to enable each bat to recognize its own voice. There remain a number of problems to which no answer has yet been given. First, do bats emit the supersonic squeak through the mouth or the nose, or both? All the British bats are insect eaters, and all, with the possible exception of the barbastelle (Barbastella barbastellus), habitually fly with their mouths open. Furthermore, all the British bats capture their prey while in flight, and most of them take flying insects. What happens when the bat closes its mouth on catching an insect? Does echo-location cease (in which case the bat must fly blind) or does its continue through the nose? We do not know. In the greater horseshoe (Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum in- sulans) the epiglottis does not open into the back of the mouth as in most animals, but is projected up into the roof of the mouth, fitting into the rear opening of the nasal passages. It is not fixed in this position, and can probably be withdrawn, but the arrangement suggests that the supersonic squeaks, in the Rhinolophidae at any rate, are emitted through the nose, and this suggestion receives additional SENSES OF BATS—VESEY-FITZGERALD 321 support from the extraordinary skin development on the muzzles of these bats. While the purpose of this appendage, which in some species attains an astonishing complexity, is not known, it has been suggested that it is concerned with directing the squeak into a narrow beam so that the bat’s knowledge of its position is greatly increased. Be that as it may, I have no doubt from long personal observation that the horseshoes have a much finer appreciation of position than other British bats, and especially is this so in the case of the greater horse- shoe. Indeed, this species is quite uncanny in its judgment of distance. Bats normally hang head downward, suspended by the toes. It is the usual practice for bats to land head upward and then to shuffle round until they can get a grip with the toes, but the greater horseshoe is accustomed to turning a somersault in the air and gripping straight- way with the toes, landing, in other words, in the head-downward position. Very rarely indeed have [ seen a bat miss its hold, and there appears to be no slackening of speed as the resting-place is approached. Some of my captive greater horseshoes used to sleep under a sideboard, and when they were hanging there was little more than a couple of inches clearance from the floor, yet they would fly under the sideboard, turn their somersaults with absolute certainty, and hang by the toes. And many, many times have I watched this acrobatic performance when they have been hanging from picture rails and so forth. There is a marked difference in the structure of the ear in the Rhinolophidae and in the Vespertilionidae. In the former the pinna is comparatively simple in build, but in the bats without nose-leaves the ear is a much more complex structure, characterized by a great development of a lobe known as the tragus. This is especially well seen in the long-eared (Plecotus auritus), in which species it stands up like a second pinna. It has been suggested that the tragus is in some way connected with echo-location, and the fact that the bats with nose-leaves have no tragus while the bats with the tragus have no nose-leaves is surely significant. It would appear that the two developments must in some way perform similar functions. It is, I think, noteworthy that the long-eared, in which there is such a marked development of the tragus, is in comparison with other bats of the same group a master of flight in confined quarters. Most bats, when flying to their feeding grounds, do so at a consider- able height ; the long-eared does so very close to the ground, often at a height of no more than a few inches, and the flight is fast, direct, and confident. Furthermore, the long-eared captures comparatively few insects in flight, preferring to pick them off the leaves of bushes and trees, a habit which entails the nicest judgment of distance. Two other British bats, Natterer’s (Myotis nattereri) and the whiskered (Mf. mystacinus), have the habit of picking their prey 322 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 from foliage rather than taking it in flight. Natterer’s is fairly im- partial, but the whiskered very rarely captures a flying insect, pre- ferring to search the hedgerows and fences, especially for spiders, of which it is inordinately fond. Both species have a well-developed tragus, and in both, but more particularly in Natterer’s, there is a marked development of the glandular pads on the face. How bats find their prey is a mystery that has not yet been solved. It is certain that they cannot find it by sight, and there does not seem to be any evidence that their powers of scent are particularly acute. How, then, does the noctule (Vyctalus noctula), flying high and fast, find its prey? If you throw a pebble into the air beneath a hawking noctule, the bat will dive on to it, swerving away from it at the very last moment without touching it. Attach a fly to a long line and make casts into the air while bats are hawking and you will have them diving at the fly, but it is very unlikely that you will catch one. Daubenton’s bat (Myotis daubentonit) is sometimes caught on the flies of anglers, but almost always by the wing. I do not think that there has been a single instance of the bat being caught by the mouth, which suggests that at the last moment (but too late to avoid con- tact altogether) it has realized its mistake. All this suggests that the supersonic squeak sends back an echo from anything flying into or across the path, but it does not explain how the bat knows that that something is worth investigating. Yet I have never seen one bat dive at another, even when there have been many flying at random in a confined area. Nor does it explain how the long-eared and the whiskered know that there is an insect or a spider on what their echo-location must have told them is an obstacle to avoid. Yet in a long experience of whiskered bats, I have not seen one hit a fence or make fruitless visits along a hedge. One would be inclined to say that the supersonic tone was even more selective than we know it to be were it not for certain things that field experience has brought to notice. I have seen bats of different species collide in mid-air—on one occasion a noctule with a serotine (and both animals were killed), and on another occasion a pipi- strelle with a barbastelle (when the pipistrelle was killed). These accidents happened during the evening hawking, and one can only suppose that at the time echo-location had stopped, possibly because both animals had captured insects and their mouths were closed. Field experience shows too that there are times when echo-location does not function at all. I have caught many bats by netting their dens of a summer night. At one time, anxious to discover whether bats flew at night or not—it was at that time thought that they had an evening and a morning flight only—I made a number of all-night watches at dens of noctule, whiskered, pipistrelle, serotine, and Natter- SENSES OF BATS—VESEY-FITZGERALD 323 er’s, and, after the bats had left the hole for the evening flight, netted the entrance. I caught many bats (and at almost all hours of the night) in the nets, trying to get back tothe holes. At that time nothing was known about supersonic vibrations in connection with bats, and 1 did not think that there was anything odd about it. But in the sum- mer of 1946, realizing that the supersonic tone should have warned them of an obstruction, I repeated the process at dens of noctule, whiskered, Daubenton’s, and serotine, with the same result. The bats appeared to be quite unaware that there was an obstruction and flew straight into the nets. Later I covered the entrance hole to a noctule den with thick brown paper, and even this did not seem to be indicated to the bats, which flew straight into it. Before returning to their den noctules fly around the tree and in and out among the branches with never a false movement, yet they are unaware of an obstruction at the very entrance to their sleeping quarters. It seems evident that echo-location, for some reason, is shut off at that moment. On the other hand, it seems to operate to some extent during hiber- nation. Everyone who has entered a hibernaculum of bats must have noticed the tremor that goes through the sleeping creatures at the first presence of a stranger. They are asleep, and incapable of movement, but there can be no doubt at all that they are aware. REFERENCES DIJKGRAAFR, S. 1943. Vers. Ned. Akad. Wetensch. Afd. Natuurkunde, vol. 42, p. 9. 1946. Experientia, vol. 11, p. 11. GALAMBOS, R. 1942. Journ. Acoust. Soc. Amer., vol. 14, p. 41. GALAMBOS, R., and GRIFFIN, D. R. 1942. Journ. Exp. Zool., vol. 89, p. 475. GRIFFIN, D. R., and GALAMBOS, R. 1941. Journ. Exp. Zool., vol. 86, p. 481. HAugN, W. L. 1908. Biol. Bull., vol. 15, p. 165. HARTRIDGE, H. 1920. Journ. Physiol., vol. 54, p. 54. 1945. Nature, vol. 156, p. 490. MATTHEWS, L. H. 1946. Zoo life. Summer. Pavan, M. 1944. Le Grotte D’Italia, ser. 2, vol. 5, p. 22. SPALLANZANI, L. 1932. Le Opere di L. Spallanzani. VESEY-FITZGERALD, B. 1941. Naturalist, pp. 789-791. 1943. Journ. Soc. Pres. Fauna Emp., vol. 38, p. 10. 1944. Proc. Hants Field Club, vol. 16, p. 64. 1945. Discovery, September. TUE. WE Rater th) He Ty iy \ asta 4 orl oF do Ee) { ehivteiiraidane (anit i) iti UAE OENS AS OLA leat me Need ee CEE ke ye ARGH LRNeD iar ; t i DOB ee RP Tea ; WAL Y 7 A , Le) ree a ey fh ivi io) Soe haan ae: thy PIS DRA It ; , § ' yu , i” i VD Feat oy ae AY i 4 an WMS a 7 : is . ont ’ ‘ iy ti : roi) Fae 7 } ' bas ne ‘te ssaotehi Sie ARR ESD ey yl iy) aH a ray erie : ; ee EEL OEY sy BEAD CE ak D4 } aD) ae by | aot! 2 Fi fay ih Tata ei i e a t 1 ii aoe IY P ,, i H ves i! in alt pits. athe BEG pitt ol Be ee i Af aa * les an OU the HF fG it \ dilate ty v4 od mit v J a ts ; Ph ies! ‘ andi. an a i ~ iJ +. ne ie r : } tt Ne ; t r ‘ ‘ = t | MOLLUSKS AND MEDICINE IN WORLD WAR II By R. TucKER ABBOTT Assistant Curator, Division of Mollusks, United States National Museum [With 8 plates] When American troops of MacArthur’s Sixth Army landed on the eastern shores of Leyte Island to begin the liberation of the Philippine Islands, they were committing themselves not only to a bitter military struggle but also to one of the strangest of the many medical battles of the Pacific campaign. Within a week our troops had fanned out over an area which is highly infectious with a fatal snail fever or blood-fluke disease known at that time to only a comparatively small number of tropical-disease experts. Up through Gloucester, Finsch- hafen, and Hollandia many of the men had come, fighting Japs with a rifle in one hand, warding off malaria with a yellow atabrine pill in the other. Here on Leyte the malaria mosquito was almost unknown, but in its place was a tiny fresh-water snail carrying and spreading a parasitic disease which, if left untreated, led to extreme enlargement of the liver, and usually ended in the death of the victim. Characteristically, the disease did not manifest itself among the troops for a number of weeks. Then on New Years Day at an evacua- tion hospital in the town of Palo the first 2 military cases were dis- covered. An intensive survey of our personnel was immediately begun, and the fears of the Army doctors were confirmed by the discovery of 973 cases. Before the epidemic could be brought under control, over 1,700 Army and 17 Navy men had been stricken by the blood-fluke disease, schistosomiasis. NATURE OF THE DISEASE “Schisto,” as the disease became familiarly known among the troops, is caused by a parasitic trematode worm which lodges itself in the blood vessels of the liver and the mesenteric vessels of the mammalian host. The adult male is about a half inch in length with a large groove along its underside in which the slender and slightly longer female rests during most of her mature life. Each fluke has two round suckers at 825 326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 the head end, one for holding to the walls of the blood vessel, the other for ingesting blood cells. The greatest damage to the host, however, does. not come from the small loss of blood or the obstruction caused by the worm, but rather from the vast number of tiny, spined eggs being constantly liberated by the female. A large proportion of the eggs are carried to the liver by the blood stream, and as protective encystment takes place, hepatic congestion or liver blockage develops. Ultimately, with increasing deposition of eggs and the introduction of toxins given off by the adult flukes, the liver becomes a gigantic mass of scar tissue. Accompanying symptoms are daily fever, extreme weakness, diarrhea, loss of appetite and weight, emaciation, and, in untreated cases, death from exhaustion. A number of the eggs laid by females in the mesenteric blood vessels work themselves through the intestinal wall and pass out into the open, thus permitting the life cycle of the worm to continue. The eggs must reach fresh water directly or be rain-washed within a day or so to a nearby creek. There, the eggs break open to liberate a minute, free-swimming miracidium. Unless this microscopic larval form can reach an Oncomelania snail within 35 hours it will die. The miracidium will swim rapidly through the water in erratic and un- directed courses until by chance it passes within a few inches of an Oncomelania snail. At that moment, it turns and takes a straight course to the mollusk and plunges its head into the flesh of the snail. In a matter of a few minutes it will have bored itself through the skin. In time, the tiny invader burrows to the liverlike digestive gland of the snail, and there, during 8 weeks of complicated transformation, multiplies into hundreds of small, fork-tailed cercariae. The more miracidia that invade a single snail, the greater will be the production of cercariae; in heavy infections, the reproductive ability of the molluscan host will be impaired. It was this fork-tailed cercaria that infected our troops. During the early hours of morning thousands are shed from the ruptured tissues of the Oncomelania snails. Invisible to the naked eye, they lie on the quiet surface of the creeks and marsh waters and await the first person that comes to bathe or swim. Cercarial penetration of the skin is painless and often goes unnoticed, although occasionally in heavy infections an itchy rash or cercarial dermatitis is produced. Two to three months may pass before the victim shows any dis- tressing symptoms of the disease. During this incubation period the larval worms will have migrated from the small blood vessels and lymphatics to the heart through the venous system and will have reached the lungs. From here, the maturing worms penetrate through the tissues to the vessels near the liver, pair up in sexes, and begin their deadly production of eggs. MOLLUSKS AND MEDICINE—ABBOTT 327 CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE DISEASE Fortunately, two medical units capable of temporarily coping with the menace were stationed on Leyte Island when the schisto- somiasis outbreak occurred. Combined medical guns were opened on the problem by the Fifth Malaria Survey Detachment under Maj. M. S. Ferguson and the Army Medical Research Unit under Maj. F. B. Bang. Both officers were on military leave from the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. The method of treatment for the disease by the injection of an antimony drug called fuadin had been rather well worked out by previous workers, so that the immediate and most important problem became one of preventive medicine—how to keep our men from catching the disease. This involved a laborious survey of military personnel and natives in the endemic area, a search for waters inhabited by the deadly snail, and the introduction of a rigorous educational program among the troops. Signs blossomed out over the entire area wherever infectious waters were located. Slogans of “Danger! Snail fever! Keep out of this river,” “Schisto and death here! Don’t swim in these waters,” became the roadside counterpart to the “Come to Smith’s Beach. Excellent swimming” billboards at home. The Army and Navy, however, were as much interested in a thorough research attack on the problem as they were in an immediate solution of the Leyte situation. They wanted to be prepared for similar epi- demics if and when we sent troops into the highly endemic areas of China’s Yangtze Valley and the Japanese home islands. The Army sent out to the Philippines, and later Japan, the Commission on Schistosomiasis, headed at first by Dr. Ernest Carroll Faust, schisto- somiasis specialist, and later under the direction of Dr. Williard H. Wright, expert on public health matters and chief of the Division of Tropical Diseases at the National Institute of Health. From Commo- dore Thomas Rivers’ unit on Guam, the Navy dispatched two doctors and a snail specialist. The use of the latter, a mollusk man, repre- sented the first time that a military organization had employed a malacologist for snail research. Long after the last of the schistosomiasis cases among our men had been reported and successfully treated, this group of scientists were continuing their research. The Army group went on to Japan and the Navy team was sent into China. Our knowledge of the distribu- tion, habits, life cycle, methods of survey and identification, and con- trol of the schisto-carrying snail was increased tenfold. Successful repellents and protective clothing were developed. Substantial ad- vancements were made in chemotherapy and methods of surveying for the disease. 328 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 ROLE OF THE SNAIL The key to lasting preventive measures against the blood-fluke dis- ease is the elimination of the mollusk, for without this one kind of snail the disease could not continue to exist. Of the several hundred species of fresh-water mollusks living in the Philippines, only the Oncomelania snail has been known to serve as the intermediate host. Although this species of mollusk is always found in endemic areas, there are localities where the disease is unknown, yet where the snail is present. One such region discovered by the Navy exists in the Lake Lanao area of central Mindanao Island. Formerly an American mili- tary site, and perhaps in the future to be used as a Philippine Army training camp, the country bordering the north end of the lake is cool, relatively free from tropical diseases, and not unlike the country- side of Connecticut. Yet the tiny creeks flowing into the northeastern end of the lake are heavily colonized by Oncomelania snails. Until these snails are eliminated, the area must be considered a potential breeding ground for the blood fluke. It is probably only a matter of time before the disease is introduced and established there. Surveying Philippine jungles and swamps for Oncomelania snails was, before the war, a particularly difficult task as is evidenced by the fact that Philippine workers, familiar with the country, found the snail in only 25 percent of localities where the disease was endemic. Recognition of the disease-carrying mollusk was hampered by the presence of similar-looking, harmless shells, and because the habitat preference of the guilty mollusk was not completely understood. Military medical men, armed with malacological information, were able to track down the snail in every case. Recognizing the guilty species of snail is not done by only studying the shell, but principally by observing the snail animal which is housed within. Oncomelania snails were found to possess a combination of animal characters not present in any other Philippine or Oriental snail—two delicate gray tentacles at the bases of which is a small black eye surmounted by a bright lunar splotch of yellow color gran- ules. This last distinctive feature was referred to for convenient identification purposes as “yellow eyebrows.” Studies on habitat preference had been hampered from the be- ginning. The Japanese who had been working on the problem had reported many years ago on the partially successful eradication method of scattering hot, unslaked lime in snail-ridden creeks. This had been misinterpreted in fairly recent American literature as mean- ing that crushed limestone and the changing of creek water from a slightly acid to a slightly alkaline condition would eliminate the snail. It took many months of water testing to show that temperature of the water, with the causative amount of shade and resultant amount of MOLLUSKS AND MEDICINE—ABBOTT 329 oxygen in the water, was the chief factor. It was also discovered that the ideal condition of the water for the shedding of cercariae was on the slightly alkaline side. Today, the fact is almost universally ac- cepted that a creature which builds its shell of calcium carbonate will grow best in slightly alkaline waters. The Oncomelania snail is am- phibious, and although a gill-breather, is as much at home on the moist earth bordering the creeks as it is under water. If the water is cool, the mollusk will make no attempt to leave. If trapped in a small puddle of water from a previous flood, and if the temperature rises above 88° F., it will either crawl out over moist ground or, if the water is still slowly draining to the main creek, will come to the top, cup its foot to the surface film and float to cooler safety. This matter of temperature and habitat preference is not without its far-reaching military aspects when it comes to locating safe areas for encampment. ‘Two similar-appearing valleys can, by the nature of their drainage and terrain, possess totally different mollusk popula- tions. On Leyte Island nearly any flat stretch of fairly well-shaded and creek-drained land may be looked upon as good breeding grounds for the Oncomelania snail. The bordering hillside streams are, with- out exception, perfectly safe. However, on Samar Island, at the northeastern end, a small valley tucked away in the hills was found which presents a totally different type of snail distribution. It is an area much like one that our troops might have entered had an assault on Japan been necessary. The center of the valley had every outward appearance of being snail-ridden country, yet a thorough survey there would have given a clean bill of health. The bordering hills, lush in protective woodland and near a source of clean, running water, would have been automatically recommended as an ideal site for encampment. Yet, unlike Leyte conditions, the areas around these hillside streams were heavily colonized by Oncomelania snails. The valley proper was ideal as a habitat in every respect except one—the temperature of the water was above 88° F. Had the inhabitants of our hypothetical Japanese valley fled, so that no survey could have been made of the natives, 1 to 2 months might have elapsed before the presence of the disease had become known. By that time our infected troops might have been holding an important sector of a battle front. Locating small endemic areas of schistosomiasis has been made diffi- cult by the migration of thousands of people during and after World War II. This has been particularly the case in the Philippine Islands and China. Medical surveys brought to light cases of the disease in areas which had always been thought to be free. Questioning usually revealed the fact that the patient had lived in or passed through an endemic area. ‘The Navy unit employed an accurate and easy method of mapping out small endemic areas by trapping and inspecting wild rats. In the Philippines the rats which forage in the brush do not 330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 migrate for any appreciable distance, for their food supply from fallen and broken coconuts is always plentiful. The rat acts as a blind reservoir host, catching the disease in the creeks, but apparently not passing schistosome eggs in their feces. A glance at a smear prep- aration of the liver under the microscope will show whether the rat is infected or not. In temperate regions of China and Japan the rat method is usually unsuccessful for locating endemic areas, for the animals prefer to remain near houses and barns and are not as likely to become infected. Control measures against the snail were undertaken jointly by the Army and Navy. Asa preliminary to chemical tests, the life history of the snail had to be known, for eliminating all visible snails might prove useless if, unknown to the workers, a habit of migration or secluded aestivation existed, or if the eggs of the snail could resist poisons. ‘Two types of experiments were carried out to determine if the snail had a habit of migrating. The first was simply by setting a marker in a creek and liberating 500 snails whose shells had been painted bright yellow. Two weeks later 90 percent of the marked snails were recovered within 25 feet of the marker. Other observa- tions involved the method of parasitological examination. At the edge of a marsh on the south side of the town of Palo a drainage ditch empties its schisto-polluted filth into the area of an extensive colony of Oncomelania snails. At the mouth of the ditch, where schistosome eggs were hatching into miracidia by the thousands, it was found upon microscopic examination that the snails were heavily infected with cercariae. Snail samples taken progressively farther from the ditch, and hence in zones of less miracidial exposure, showed lower and lower percentages of infection. Since the lapsed time from miracidial pene- tration to cercarial development is 8 to 9 weeks, it was safe to assume that the snails do not voluntarily migrate more than a few feet for at least that period of time. The search for the egg of the Oncomelania mollusk Jasted for 3 months. The size and nature of the egg were unknown to the Navy workers, and females kept in captivity could not be induced to lay. Mollusk eggs of a dozen species found in the creeks were carefully raised to an advanced stage of development so that identification could be made, but in every case they were found to belong to other species. The thrill of finally finding Oncomelania snail eggs was one which only comes to a naturalist engrossed in such strange searches. The egg was not only of extremely small size, no larger than the head of a pin, but was always carefully camouflaged by the feces of the female. The excrement of this snail is made up almost entirely of fine bits of undigested grit and sand. As the egg leaves the oviduct and is stuck to the surface of a moist piece of wood or coconut shell, the female places a number of her’sandy fecal pellets on the egg and MOLLUSKS AND MEDICINE—ABBOTT 331 pats them down into a protective, camouflaged jacket. With eggs available, the long list of chemicals effective against the adult was tested until all were eliminated save two which killed not only Oncome- Jania adults and their eggs but spelled death to the fork-tailed cercariae. OTHER PARASITIC DISEASES CARRIED BY MOLLUSKS In other parts of the world there are two additional blood-fluke diseases which have plagued the human race since the memory of man. One of these, bilharzia, is mentioned in early Egyptian records, and its presence has been discovered in Egyptian mummies dating from 1250 B. C. Napoleon’s troops were infected in the Nile region, and during World War I the disease became familiarly known among British Tommies as “Bill Harris’ disease.” It has been estimated that 39 million people in Africa are at present suffering from bilhar- zia, with 6 million cases alone in Egypt. This almost equals the 46 million estimate for Oriental schistosomiasis. Bilharzia blood flukes take their toll of human lives by attacking the urinary system. The life cycle of the worm must include an intermediate snail host, as is the case with all trematode worms. It is rather odd, however, that this species of schistosome, so closely related to the Oriental type, is obligated to live part of its life in a lung-bearing snail which is not even remotely related to the gill-bearing Oncomelania snail. The third type of schistosomiasis, Manson’s disease, is of more in- terest to Americans, for its prevalence in Puerto Rico, the Lesser An- tilles, and the northern parts of South America presents a serious men- ace to tourists who enjoy fresh-water swimming. Manson’s disease is believed to have originated in Africa where today it is second only to bilharzia as a trematode menace. It has been thought that its pres- ence in the Western Hemisphere is attributed to early slave trade. The snail responsible for the spread of this disease is related to the bilharzia carrier in Africa. In addition to the three blood-fluke diseases, there are some half dozen other snail-borne diseases which directly affect the health and economy of millions of our fellow beings. These differ from schisto- somiasis in being less damaging to the body, but are perhaps biologi- cally more interesting in having developed strange variations in their life cycles. The lung fluke, according to recent surveys, is at present limited to about 3 million cases of infection in Asia and a few thousand in West Africa. The half-inch-long adult attaches itself to the inner walls of the lungs and often produces fatal tuberculosis-like lesions. No effec- tive cure is known. The eggs of the fluke are coughed out of the lungs into the river where they hatch into snail-seeking miracidia. This spe- 332 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 cies nearly always seeks out the river snails of the Thiarid family. In contrast to the simple schistosome life cycle, the lung fluke spends only a part of its larval life in the snail, and then emerges again to seek out a second intermediate host, this time a fresh-water crab or crayfish. The crustacean must be eaten raw by man in order that the lung-filuke larvae may penetrate the intestinal walls and migrate to the lungs. One marvels that such a disease can continue to flourish with so many weak links in its long and complicated life chain. In the Shoahsing area of Chekiang Province, China, famous for its good wines, a large proportion of the population is infected with lung flukes because of the native custom of eating uncooked crayfish that have been dipped in wine. Peculiar and unchangeable eating habits of man are again respon- sible for the world’s largest endemic area for the bile-fluke disease which affects several million people in the Canton areas of southern China. The life cycle of this fluke worm includes a mammalian host, usually man, dogs, or cats, a first intermediate snail host, and a second intermediate fish host. The infectious larval stages of the worm are embedded in the flesh of the fish, and must, as in the case of the cray- fish, be eaten uncooked. Raw fish is consumed as a delicacy by the Can- tonese during the fall festival season. Strips of the more succulent parts of the fish are dipped in hot tea or hot rice gruel, and are thus only partially cooked. Many of the natives cannot afford sufficient fuel to cook the fish thoroughly, and thus become infected. THH SNAIL PROBLEM IN THE UNITED STATES No sooner had the schistosomiasis epidemic among our troops in the Philippine Islands been quelled, when Public Health authorities, under the leadership of Dr. Willard Wright, turned their attention toward the possibility of an outbreak in our own country. Although schistosomiasis has never been contracted in the United States, the recent return of infected service personnel presents a potential threat. To determine whether or not domestic species of snails are capable of serving as intermediate hosts, Dr. Eloise Cram, parasitologist, and Dr. Elmer Berry, malacologist, have been carrying out an intensive study of this matter. Living specimens of many of our American species are shipped from the field to the aquarium rooms of the Na- tional Institute of Health in Bethesda, Md. There they are exposed to the various trematode diseases under study. Already, one species of Tropicorbid snail sent in from Louisiana has been shown to be capable of acting as an intermediate host of Manson’s disease. The native habitat for this species is the island of Cuba, with a few scattered records in Louisiana and Texas. These latter records may represent accidental introductions by man. Laboratory infec- MOLLUSKS AND MEDICINE—ABBOTT 333 tions do not necessarily forecast what may happen in nature. Schis- tosomiasis is unknown in Cuba where the snail is rather common, and where undoubtedly infected visitors have given the disease every op- portunity of becoming established. A number of parasitologists be- lieve that the slave trade, with its accompanying cases of the two kinds of African schistosomiasis, has served as a great natural “experiment” in which it was clearly demonstrated that neither of the diseases were able to establish themselves in this country. It is probable that slaves were able to introduce Manson’s disease into Puerto Rico, the Lesser Antilles, and northern South America because of the presence of a suit- able snail host. A similar “experiment” occurred in the Canal Zone during World War I where a few infected Puerto Rican troops were stationed. The disease did not establish itself in that area, nor have mollusk surveys brought to light species of known carriers. Research on the potential American snail carriers of Oriental] schis- tosomiasis has been intensified recently by the promising early experi- ment of Dr. Horace Stunkard at Princeton. He has found that the Pomatiopsis snail can be infected by the Oriental disease, but has been unable, so far, to have the larval worm complete its growth. Present experiments now being continued at the National Institute of Health may meet with further success. The Pomatiopsis snail, already well known as a carrier of animal lung flukes in this country, is extremely close in its morphology and amphibious habits to the Oriental schisto- somiasis carrier. In fact, it has been dubbed the “Oncomelania snail of North America.” Its distribution, as shown by the accompanying map, is limited to the central regions of the United States except for a minor area of dispersal along the central portion of the Atlantic coastal plain. By far the weakest link in our public-health defense is in future accidental introductions of known snail carriers from foreign coun- tries. A number of slugs and other garden pests, including the giant African land snail, have already found their way to our shores. No disease carriers have been found in the United States as yet. The possibility of this is not too remote, as is demonstrated by the recent introduction and establishment of a Brazilian race of the Australorbid snail carrier of Manson’s disease on Luzon Island, Philippines. It may be only a matter of time before the disease finds its way from Africa or the West Indies to the Philippines through the agency of some infected traveler. The importation of living snails into this coun- try 1s subject to the fine-toothed combings of our plant quarantine and control agents, but this is not necessarily a perfect screen. Once here, the Oncomelania snail has ample room for spreading, and would probably follow much the same distribution of the Pomatiopsis snail. As long as the accidental introduction is discovered within a year or two, no harm will have been done. Newly introduced species usually 334 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 take two or three mating seasons to build up their population to the point where they begin to spread for more room. Fortunately, our leading natural history museums are in constant touch with thousands of mollusk amateurs and naturalists in the United States. From past experiences we know that any “new species” of mollusks discovered by Figure 1.—The distribution of the Pomatiopsis snail, a relative of the Oriental carrier of the blood-fluke disease, is limited to the eastern third of the United States. Black dots show the locality records for Pomatiopsis lapidaria. amateurs are promptly sent to professionals for naming. In this way any molluscan stranger is likely to come to the attention of malacolo- gists aware of the danger. SUMMARY OF MOLLUSCAN INTERMEDIATE HOSTS In order to avoid belaboring this article with scientific names, a table of human trematode diseases and their molluscan intermediate Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Abbott PLATE 1 1. A handful of innocent-looking snails—yvyet they put a battalion out of action on Leyte Island, Philippines. (Navy photograph.) a — | q te ais 2. An advanced case of snail fever or schistosomiasis. The liver of this Filipino boy will continue to enlarge until death occurs. (Navy photograph.) Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Abbott RIZASIES 2 1. Experimental snails infected with deadly schistosomes. The specimen being held is the West Indian carrier of Manson’s. disease. (Photograph by Perry, National Institute of Health.) 2. The venomous cone shells of the Indo-Pacific are collector’s items, but are capable of inflicting a fatal sting. Top row, left to right, the marble, geography, and courtly cones; lower corners, the textile cone; lower center, the tulip cone. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Abbott PLATE 3 ~ 1. Dr. Willard H. Wright (eft), chief of the Division of Tropical Diseases at the National Institute of Health, and Dr. Eloise Cram earry on experimental work to safeguard our country from the introduction of snail-borne diseases. (Photo- graph by Perry.) 2. The laboratories in the Division of Tropical Diseases at the National Institute of Health are constantly receiving living snails from all parts of the country. Zach species of snail undergoes rigorous tests to determine its disease-carrying potentialities. (Photograph by Perry.) 339 MOLLUSKS AND MEDICINE—ABBOTT er “ysyABiIg “oUON "B90 -BYSNIO JdJBM-YSILT *ynuysoyo iajeM UO sjssouq "YS 10}BM-YSILJ 4ysoy O}¥IpauIIE}UT pu0d0g “LEG ‘SI-1 “dd ‘1 ‘ON ‘eg [OA “YISBIVT “UINOL ‘[[OIS "§ UBUIION WOIJ USRBL 1 (22}001))ay Snuiucbni0g ) SSS SRROS oe piunpidn) sisdoynuog |\~~~~so}e}Q poyug [BIjUeD |~-~~~~"UMOUyUQ |~~ 77777 ONG Suny yeuaruay "SoyByg *IQUIUINS (sorsads aulosoysTyog) Se soroods nanuwh7 | poyug [e1}t90-YJAON | YoRs spolpuany | - YO FT S TOULUTEMS “‘piafiunsi6 DsvVy J, “qseq Iq Ajpewod (WUpULa}saN snuiMobdivg) Sani =e purpiagy virdsoojnsimag | -sa ‘soldory, OpIM-pyIoAy, [~~~ ~~ ~uorIat g |7 ~~ 77 ~~~ ~~~" aseasip eyng-sunyT (2ysnq sisdoj02198D 47) Se diayonuryos sunaddipyy |~---~------"~BIsy udojseq [~~~ ~~ UOl]]TUT QT | ~~~ ~~~" "esBesip eyng-][eulysoyUuy "s7uon1buo) pumuwo0l py (sisuau2s $149.10U0))) “-""~ snorunoyouniu snjnivssofoipg |~~ ~~~ 77777 eISY Uloeyseq |~~ ~~~ WOT G al 2 = oe eee asvesIp oyNY-olq | *snjp.1gv7}h siqioj)vAjsny “‘BOolIpy ‘eo! (2uosuDUu DULOSO}S1YIG)) amehanaoa= 2fiss10g siquounjdoufp | -tauLy YyNO, ‘setpuy ysayy [~~~ ~ “WONT Gy | - ~~ asBasIp S,UOsuB] (mnrqojDUmaDny DULOSO}SLYIG)) Se ee ae SNIDIUNAT SNUUNG = Waa HSS — = Foss eae eB nye |=. = CON[EUG SEs sat gee oe ee eee eS Lear “‘pUDsSOWLOL DIWDIAWOIUGC, “pLoydosou DIUD)EuWOIUC) “sisuadny DIUDIIULOIUQ *BSOULIO (unowodnl pwosoj}s1yog) Gere ie = wpiponb vriunjawooug | ‘ueder ‘vuryo ‘sourddyigg |~~~ ~~ aorpiut gp |~~~ ~~ ~~~ “SISBIUTOSOJSTYS [BJUINO 4soq [fBUS o}eIpotTIOJUT 4SILq uolngystq HSesUa30 asvasiqy JaQUINU pI BUTysT S$]SOY aMIPIUsLaJUL LAY] PUD SasSDesip apo DUa.} UDUuUNn FJ —T GAIEV I, ” S 4 (T7488—__48—— 336 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 hosts is given herewith. Only the more important diseases are listed and for each of them only the most important snail carriers. Insig- nificant trematodes of man, such as Heterophyes heterophyes, Hap- lorchis pumilio, and Echinochasmus perfoliatus, have been excluded. Doubtfully or accidentally implicated mollusks such as Syncera lutas, Thiara (Melanoides) tuberculata, and others have also been left from the list. The trematode, Paragonimus kellicotti, at the bottom of the table is not a human-infecting species, but its intermediate snail host, Pomatiopsis lapidaria, is considered a potential host of Oriental schistosomiasis. THE VENOMOUS CONE SHELL Seashell collecting and the handicraft of shell jewelry became pop- ular hobbies among many of our troops stationed on remote Pacific islands. The coral reefs of the South Seas and the East Indies under- went the most intensive scouring for rare and beautiful specimens since the days of early natural history exploration. Yet despite the many hazards of reef collecting, relatively few accidents and no cases of fatal bites and stings were recorded. This may be accounted for, in part at least, by the wide circulation of information on poisonous foods and animals given in survival handbooks by the Army and Navy. Among the most dangerous inhabitants of the coral reefs are the cone shells whose sting is equally as powerful as the bite of a rattle- snake. Although the beautiful cone shells are one of the commonest of Indo-Pacific mollusks, the total list of authentic cases of death by their sting is not at all impressive. Of the many dozen species found in this region, only five have been known to produce a venomous sting. The number of cone-shell stings is few because of the shy nature of the animal. Invariably a snail will withdraw into its shell when disturbed, and unless the cone shell is held quietly in the palm of the hand for some minutes, there is little likelihood of the collector being stung. The apparatus for the injection of venom into the skin of the victim is contained in the head of the animal. Bite, rather than sting, is perhaps more descriptive of the operation. The long, fleshy pro- boscis or snout is extended from the head and jabbed against the skin. Within this tube are a number of hard, hollow stingers, slender and long as needles. These are actually modified teeth or radulae, com- monly used in other snails to rasp at their food. Under a high- powered lens the teeth of the cone shell resemble miniature harpoons. As the teeth are thrust into the skin, a highly toxic venom flows from a large poison gland located farther back in the head, out through the mouth, and into the wound through the hollow tube of the tooth. There have been a number of graphic accounts of the symptoms MOLLUSKS AND MEDICINE—ABBOTT 337 involved in cone-shell stings, two of which are quoted below. Dr. H. Flecker, in The Medical Journal of Australia, vol. I, 1986, reports that— C. H. G. [Charles H. Garbutt], a male, aged 27 years, whilst on a pleasure cruise landed at Haymen Island on June 27, 1935, and picked up a live cone shell (since identified by Mr. H. A. Longman, of the Queensland Museum, as Conus geographus). According to an eye-witness, it was gripped in the palm of one hand, with the open side downwards in contact with the skin, whilst with the other he proceeded to scrape with a knife, the epidermis, that is, a thin cuticle covering the hard part of the shell. It was during this operation that ce SSSESSeqo cee Figure 2.—The needlelike tooth with which the venomous cone shell stings its prey. The top row shows the harpoon-shaped heads of the teeth of five venomous species. Left to right, Conus textile, striatus, geographus, marmoreus, and tulipa. Magnified 50 times. he was stung in the palm of the hand. Just a small puncture mark was visible. Dr. Clouston did not see the patient until just before death, but following details were obtained by him from the patient’s mother, who was present with him, Local symptoms of slight numbness started almost at once. There was no pain at any time. Ten minutes afterwards there was a feeling of stiffness about the lips. At 20 minutes the sight became blurred, with diplopia; at 30 minutes the legs were paralysed; and at 60 minutes uncon- sciousness appeared and deepened into coma. No effect was noted upon the skin, lymphatic, alimentary or genito-urinary systems. Just before death, the pulse became weak and rapid, with slow, shallow respiration. Death took place 5 hours after the patient was stung. A post mortem examination showed that all the organs, heart, lungs, et cetera, were quite healthy. Mr. J. B. Henderson, Government analyst, reports that no poison was found in the stomach contents. The victim was prior to the injury in perfect physical condition and in training for football. In the other species of cone shells, the reports show that considerable pain accompanies the sting. Andrew Garrett, a famous shell collector of the latter half of the nineteenth century, reported that he was stung by a Conus tulipa “causing sharp pain not unlike the sting of a wasp.” 328 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Another case was recorded in Japan by H. Yasiro (Venus, vol. 9, pp. 165-166, 1939). The translation of this paper appears anon- ymously in the proceedings of the Malacological Society of London, 1940, vol. 24, p. 32. On 29 June 1985 a man 382 years old left home about 10 a. m. for bathing and shell-collecting. Soon after he was infected by the bite of a Conus geographicus. He immediately felt great pain and scarcely managed to walk home. A doctor attended promptly ; the patient’s temperature arose to about 86° C, (=118° F.), breathing became difficult and his finger-tips went purple. He was soon uncon- scious and died about 3 to 4 hours after infection. Other cases, not all fatal, have been recorded from New Guinea, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Tonga, Samoa, Fiji, the Carolines, and the Society Islands. An excellent and much fuller account of the various cases appeared in a recent article by W. J. Clench, curator of the department of mollusks at Harvard College (Occasional Papers on Mollusks, Harvard University, vol. 1, No. 7, pp. 49-80). The cone shells apparently use their venomous armature primarily for the purpose of subduing their prey. Fish, crab, and mollusk remains have been found in the crop and stomach. Secondarily, the cone shells use their sting as a means of defense against such enemies as the octopus. Recently in Queensland, Australia, the effectiveness of the cone shell’s defense was demonstrated during the course of a shell- collecting trip on the reef. An 18-inch octopus had been captured and put alive in an enamel pail of sea water. Later, a venomous cone shell was found and dropped in with the octopus. Ina few minutes the latter began to attack the cone shell with its customary procedure by plac- ing one of its tentacles across the mouth of the shell. Under normal circumstances it takes an octopus a few minutes to dig and suck a snail animal from it shell, but in this case it suddenly withdrew its hold, wav- ing its tentacles about in violent agitation. Immediately after the retreat of the octopus, the tiny, needlelike radula of the cone shell could be seen slowly withdrawing into the snail’s proboscis. A few minutes later the octopus shed one of its tentacles. Although the crea- ture was soon transferred to a well-aerated tank of fresh sea water, it was found dead the following morning. The venomous cone shell, on the other hand, remained healthy and active for many more days. The species of cone shells reported in the literature as having been responsible for deadly stings are the tulip cone (Conus tulipa), the textile cone (Conus textile), the geography cone (Conus geographus) , the marble cone (Conus marmoreus), and the courtly cone (Conus aulicus). Oddly enough, the nature of the cone-shell poison has never been investigated by a chemist. The marlinspike shells of the genus Terebra, a cousin of the cone shells, are also armed with harpoonlike teeth and a small poison gland, but to date no records of their inflicting a sting in man have appeared in the literature. SOME REMARKS ON THE INFLUENCE OF INSECTS ON HUMAN WELFARE? By Cari D. DUNCAN Professor of Entomology and Botany San Jose State College The ways in which insects affect human welfare are so numerous and diverse that no approach to completeness of treatment can be made in a brief paper. In the present instance, however, completeness is not needed, nor in fact is even a comprehensive sampling. ee Lad Pt 1. Counting mosquitoes on different colored shirts, Churchill, Hudson Bay. “Barebacks”’ were also attractive bait. 2. The author applying mosquito repellents to legs and arms of volunteers in Alaska to evaluate the most effective materials. (Photograph by Signal Corps, WS seas) : Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Stage PEATE 3 1. Flying from Seattle to Alaska we passed over the 9,000-foot St. Elias Range and the source of some of the coastal glaciers. 2. The B—25 applying the 5-pereent DDT spray over the Panama jungle. (Photo- graph by Signal Corps, U.S. A.) Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Stage PLATE 4 1. Leaves showing good coverage of droplets of DDT spray even in the lower elevations of the jungle. (Photograph by Signal Corps, U.S. A.) 168A 2. Naias bed in Gatun Lake, Panama, where a dozen Anopheles albimanus larvae were taken in each of 200 samples before treatment with DDT. Twenty-four hours after treatment not a single larva could be found. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Stage PLATE 5 1. Mexican technician spraying DDT on thatched homes near Cuernavaca, Mexico. 2. Moengo, Surinam. Practically every square foot of surface of these buildings was sprayed with a 2.5-percent wettable DDT powder. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Stage PLATE 6 1. Rotary-type trap as used in Moengo. 2. Cone trap mounted on the fender of an automobile as used in Moengo. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Stage PLATE 7 1. The author’s house in Moengo, Dutch Guiana. The apartment in this house, sprayed with a 2.5-perecent wettable DDT powder, killed mosquitoes 10 months after application. 2. An example of a perfect deposit made with a wettable DDT powder applied to a wall surface. Droplets are large, coverage thorough, with no running of liquid. Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Stage PLATE 8 2. A Djoeka village in Dutch Guiana. THE PRIMARY CENTERS OF CIVILIZATION By JoHn R. Swanton Collaborator, Bureau of American Ethnology If civilization is produced, or induced, by biological factors, factors in the natural environment, or factors in the cultural environment, a study of the several centers where it originated may enable us to isolate these and use that knowledge for the benefit of the race. But at the outset it is somewhat difficult to determine the exact number of cultural or civilizational centers with which we have to deal since the archeological survey of our globe is still incomplete. Yet certain general statements may be made. Taking the Eastern Hem- isphere first, it would be pretty generally agreed that one such center existed in Egypt, a second in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and a third in the valley of the Indus, while most would probabiy be willing to add a fourth, in northern China. Elsewhere in and near the Iranian Plateau, however, in Syria and Asia Minor and in the island of Crete there were higher cultures of an antiquity nearly as remote. The site of Anau north of the Elbruz has shown a series of archeological types which seem to parallel in antiquity those of India and the twin rivers, and almost as much may be said for the remains in Crete. This last center, although undoubtedly dependent on the cultures of Egypt and Asia, shows from an early age such esthetic maturity as to incline one to give it semi-independent position. As to the rest, it is clear that although they pursued in the main an independent course of develop- ment, they yet influenced one another at times in a very marked man- ner. ‘This is not so evident in the case of China, but sinologists gen- erally hold that China was in its beginnings subject to strong influ- ences from the west. In the New World we have another series of centers lying, as in the case of the Old World, along the main mountain massif of the con- tinent and not far from its center. Here, however, it would be gener- ally agreed that two stand out above the rest, in Central America and in Peru, although there were a number of secondary foci and these two centers themselves show considerable complexity. In the present study of these several culture centers we shall have 367 777488—48——27 368 |= ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 to leave largely out of consideration that represented by Anau which calls for more supporting material as the survey of northern Iran is pursued by undertakings like that of Krogman on Tepe Hissar. To begin with the westernmost of our centers, Crete (although ad- mitting that it is doubtfully entitled to a primary position), we find it generally agreed that the physical type of its inhabitants was what has been called Mediterranean, dark and dolichocephalic. This was partially displaced and its culture overthrown by a brachycephalic, Armenoid type connected with the Alpines of Europe. These brachy- cephalic people constituted one of the chief Greek strains, and the partial substitution of one for the other shows that both are capable of supporting high civilizations. Most of the ancient Egyptians were dolichocephalic. The brain cases of the predynastic Tasians and Merimdeans are said to have been wide. Those of the Badarians, Amratians, and Natufians, who succeeded them, were narrow. The Badarians are also said to have had just a hint of the Negroid or South Indian about them. In the dynastic period a larger and more robust but still dolichocephalic type makes its appearance in the royal tombs, and during the epoch of the third dynasty a brachycephalic Armenoid type becomes prominent among the upper classes. Petrie distinguishes as many as six racial types among the enemies and followers of Menes. The earliest Sume- rian skeletal remains suggest a long-headed type, and two long-headed types have been found at Kish, but at that site there also appear Armenoids. These last were probably contributed by the Hurrian or Japhetic population. Our knowledge of the physical types con- nected with the Indus culture is thus summarized by Childe: The population of Mohenjo-daro was certainly mixed; the skeletal remains and figurines undoubtedly belong to several physically distinct types. At the bottom of the social scale came a primitive Australoid stock; the thick lips and coarse nose of a little bronze statuette disclose at once the kinship of this group to the surviving aboriginal tribes of Southern India and the position which it, like its modern representatives, occupied in the community. A higher type, long-headed like the last, has been termed Eurafrican or even Mediterranean. It seems to approximate to one of the long-headed Sumerian types and the similarity is accentuated in the portrait statues by the beard, shaven upper lip, and long hair done up in a bun behind quite in Sumerian fashion. Thirdly, a brachycephalic Alpine or Armenoid type is represented as at Kish in Akkad. Finally, a single skeleton and several clay figurines belong to undoubted Mongols or Mongoloids, the earliest dated examples of this racial type yet detected. It is a fair guess that the people mainly responsible for Indus civilization were Eurafricans, and if we are to associate vitality as civilization producers with physical type, the dolichocephalic people usually called Mediterraneans would seem to have most of the facts in their favor since they vastly predominated in Crete, in Egypt, at the head of the Persian Gulf, and probably in the Indus Valley. How- CENTERS OF CIVILIZATION—SWANTON 369 ever, the circumstance that a brachycephalic, Armenoid type makes its appearance in Egypt in the Third Dynasty and “in the upper classes,” the greater significance now attached to the Hurrian broad- heads in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley and the fertile crescent as a whole and the neighboring highlands, including the Hittites, the pronounced brachycephalic element among the Indus people, and above all the attainments of the brachycephalic Greeks, indicate just as clearly that they were perfectly capable of taking over a high civilization and even, as in the case of Greece, improving upon it. Whatever doubts may remain as to the abilities of brachycephalic people as discoverers and inventors are removed, however, when we turn to the remaining centers of civilization. The Chinese are among the most typically brachycephalic people in the world. There are and have been from a remote period dolichocephals in eastern Asia, but evidence is as yet lacking that they originated Chinese civilization. In the New World, at any rate, the higher cultures are decisively associated with brachycephaly. The Maya may be mentioned at once, and in the secondary culture areas along the Mississippi Valley and on the North Pacific coast brachycephaly is very prevalent. It is again markedly in evidence among the Quechua and other advanced tribes of northwestern South America. On the other hand the hunting peoples of northeastern North America and eastern South America usually are dolichocephalic. The conclusion seems evident that head form, pathological cases aside, has nothing to do with cultural status. Indeed, if that were the case, artificial head-deformation, which often distorted the occiput vastly more than nature varied it, should have had a more marked effect on the intelligence of tribes which practiced the custom. On the contrary, many of them, such as the Aymara, Maya, and Natchez, were among the more advanced peoples. Nor do we find, allowing for the later date of those in the New World, any marked differences between the several culture centers when we compare their contributions to civilization. Emmer wheat was cultivated by the Egyptians, and bread wheat by the Sumerians of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. Both also had barley. Wheat and barley were cultivated by the Indus people and they may have raised rice which, in any case, originated in India or China. The great American contribution to the staple cereals was corn, and they also gave us various species of beans and squashes. Olive culture is thought to have started in the eastern Egyptian delta, but on the other hand the Sumerians and Indus people cultivated the date palm. Flax was raised by the Egyptians and Sumerians, cotton by the Indus people, Maya, and Peruvians, and the Chinese contributed silk to the textiles of the world. Cattle, sheep, and swine were already domesticated in Egypt in predynastic times and apparently in the earliest period in Sumer. Humped and humpless cattle, buffaloes, sheep, fowls, and 370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 elephants were domesticated by the people of the Indus who seem not to have had swine. Asses were also known in Egypt and Sumeria from a remote period, but horses were introduced from Central Asia much later and were taken up most enthusiastically by the people of the two rivers. In this particular the New Worid was much behind the Old. Nearly all of its tribes including the Maya had dogs, but they were of very limited utility. The Peruvians with their herds of llama and alpaca were somewhat in advance of the rest. Stone masonry was, of course, further developed in Egypt than in any other Old World center except Crete, the Sumerians and Indus people depending on brick. In the New World the Peruvians were by all odds the best masons. Copper seems to have been known to the Egyptians and Sumerians at an early date, but bronze was employed first by the latter and by the people of the Indus. The Indus people also prepared an alloy of copper and arsenic. In the New World copper was widely known and considerably used, but we do not know where it was first employed. The Peruvians had learned to make bronze, and it is believed to have been invented independently by them though it appears also in Central America. The plow was independently invented in Egypt, Sumeria, and China, and the foot plow was known to the Peruvians. The potter’s wheel seems to have been used earliest in Sumeria and India, and the wheel for vehicles appeared first in these centers or the intervening territory. We apparently owe the true arch and dome to the Sumeri- ans. The invention of glass is attributed to the Egyptians, but the art of glazing goes back to the earliest Sumerian epoch. To China we owe the mariner’s compass, block printing, rag paper, paper money, playing cards, procelain, and gunpowder. To medicine Peru has made two notable contributions, quinine and cocaine. Chocolate comes from Central America; tea, from China or India. Tobacco is again an American product, but we do not know at what center it was first taken over by man. A boat used by the Egyptians in predynastic times is regarded by many as the ancestor of all laterships. Sumerians had discovered at a very early date the principle of the modern ax- head perforation to admit the handle. The rebus system of writing was evolved independently in all these centers except apparently Peru, where its place was taken by the device of the quipu. Our alphabet comes from Semites, who derived their inspiration, it is generally held, from the Egyptian hieroglyphs. It is also believed at the present time that the Maya hieroglyphs had evolved to the threshold of phonetic representation. The Egyptians seem to have been the first geometricians, and they led the Old World in the development of an accurate solar calendar of 365 days. Incidentally they gave us our earliest fixed date, 4241 B. C., but the Maya independently, though later, evolved a calendar CENTERS OF CIVILIZATION—SWANTON 371 equally accurate. The Sumerians and their Semitic successors, on the other hand, surpassed both in astronomy in spite of having associated it with astrology. They identified five of the major planets, and could predict eclipses with a high degree of accuracy. They introduced the use of degrees, minutes, and seconds, divided the day into 24 (originally 12) hours, and the circle into 360 degrees and were the originators of the Zodiac. Breasted states that “the earliest known literature of entertainment was produced in the Tweifth Egyptian Dynasty, 2000-1788 B. C.,” and he also claims for the Egyptians the doubtful honor of having created the first empire in the world, 1580- 1350 B.C. Philology apparently received first serious study in India, but that probably did not go back to the Indus culture. The same may be said of Hindu philosophy and religion, though it has been demon- strated that its non-Vedic elements stemmed from the Indus. India is also supposed to have influenced the second great center of philos- ophy in the ancient world, Greece, through Pythagoreanism, but it is probable that Greece also drew philosophical inspiration from the cultural centers nearer at hand. If we attempt to characterize the governments of the several centers, we may say that Egypt, the Inca Empire, and to a certain extent the Maya impress us as theocratic despotisms, Sumeria as a group of military states, Crete as a trading empire, and the Indus culture as one finding its outlet in communal civic enterprise. Something has already been said regarding the physical types of the occupants of the several cultural areas. Let us now take a somewhat broader world view of this subject. The first classification of human races to recelve wide acceptance was that of Blumenbach into the Caucasian or White, Mongolian or Yellow, Ethiopian or Black, Ma- layan or Brown, and American or Red. Cuvier reduced these to three : White, Yellow, and Black; and Huxley recognized five: Australoid, Mongoloid, Negroid, Xanthrochroic (yellow-haired), and Melanoch- roic. Haeckel based his classification on hair texture, and gave the following divisions: Wooly-haired (subdivided into fleece-haired and tufted-haired), and smooth-haired (subdivided into straight- haired and curly-haired). Retzius based his on types of heads and prognathism; narrow heads and projecting jaws, narrow heads and straight Jaws, broad heads and projecting jaws, and broad heads and straight Jaws. The American anthropologist, D. G. Brinton, set up the following groups: The Eurafrican race (including a north Mediter- ranean and a south Mediterranean branch), the Austrafrican race (including the Negrillo, Negro, and Negroid branches), the Asian race (including the Sinitic and the Sibiritic branches), the American race, and Insular and Littoral peoples (including the Nigritic, Malayic, and Australie branches). 372 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 F. Miiller and Latham classified by language and Waitz and Ratzel by progress in culture. These, of course, are not classifications of races at all. In his classic work on “The Races of Europe” Ripley laid down a trinal grouping for that area which has affected all later studies. These three are the tall, fair, dolichocephalic Nordics centering about the Baltic Sea, the brachycephalic Alpines in the central part of the grand division, and the dark, dolichocephalic Mediterraneans abcut the sea of that name. In more recent years Dixon attempted a sweeping change in bio- logical classification by dividing all peoples in accordance with three indices, the length-breadth index, usually called simply the cephalic index, the height of the skull, and the nasal index. Different com- binations of these yielded him eight races which he called Caspian, Mediterranean, Proto-Negroid, Proto-Australoid, Alpine, Ural, Palae- Alpine, Mongoloid. His system has had few followers or imitators, the tendency being to return to simpler categorizations more nearly like those of Blumenbach and Cuvier. Thus Kroeber gives us the following: Caucasian or White, Mongoloid or Yellow, Negroid or Black, of doubtful classification Australian; Vedda, Irula, Kolarians, Moi, Samoi, Toala, etc.; Polynesian; Ainu. In other words, we have three great races and a wastebasketful of odds and ends. Some would probably add the Australoid to the three majors, and some would fit all the odds and ends into the three-race pattern, in effect a return to Cuvier. Boas is inclined to make two major divisions of mankind, a Northern Fair and a Southern Dark, and to consider the Whites and Yellows first major subdivisions of the former. The troubles of would-be classifiers show at least the difficulties attending the attempt, and indicate at once that races do not fall spontaneously and readily into a set of clearly indicated patterns, yet the fact that from two to four somewhat vaguely defined grand divi- sions can be made out and have been specified by several students shows that there is “something there.” It is only when we attempt to draw boundary lines rigidly about them that we get into difficulties. Now when we come to compare our culture centers with these racial divisions we find that four of the former, Egypt, Sumeria, Crete, and the Indus Valley, fall within the boundaries generally assigned to the White race and one within the boundaries of the Yellow, while the American cultures, once assigned to the Red race, must be added to the Yellow in the more general categorizations. It is noteworthy, how- ever, that all these primary culture areas were tenanted by dark peo- ples, not by ultrablacks or ultrawhites. Gobineau’s preposterous at- tempt to attribute Central American and Peruvian civilizations to colonization by prehistoric Whites of course has no basis in fact. There was probably a Nordic strain in Greece, but since we know that CENTERS OF CIVILIZATION—SWANTON 373 Greek civilization received its stimulus from Crete, Egypt, and western Asia, and not from the north, any such strain could have had no significance for the primary civilizing effort. The inhabitants of those three regions belong to the darker subdivisions of the White race, those which approximate in some measure the Yellow peoples of eastern Asia and the Blacks to the south. In a trinal classifica- tion four centers, Egypt, Sumeria, Crete, and the Indus, may with the reservations just given be attributed to the Whites; and three others, China, Central America, and Peru, to the Yellows. If we fall back upon a dual classification, a Northern Light race and a Southern Dark one, the centers of civilization fall within the former. However, any deduction regarding inherent racial ability has to be qualified immediately by the admission that none of these centers was in territory occupied by the ultrawhite subdivisions. All are among darker Whites and among Yellows. In Egypt and the Indus, moreover, we have to admit the intrusion of a Negroid strain. Apart from the above-noted slight advantage which light strains seem to possess in a dual classification of mankind, we may say that the primary centers of civilization show diversity in physical type, language, and general culture, and that all have contributed to the sum total of human attainment. Moreover, there is evidence of heterogeneity at an early period in the population of these centers and subjection to heterogeneous influences from without. As we have seen, at least two types made their appearance in predynastic Egypt, three at Kish in Babylonia, and three or four at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. Wemay add that Egypt lay on the edge of the Hamitic family of languages and had constant dealings with both the Semites and Hurrians, Sumeria lay between the Hurrians and Semites and had constant dealings with the Indus, and the Indus Valley lay be- tween the Dravidians and Aryans with Mongoloids not far to the north. Both of the Chinese culture centers postulated by Eberhard lay where three culture areas came together. In the New World the Maya country was between the Uto-Aztecan peoples—with whom they were perhaps connected—and tribes with cultures following South Ameri- can patterns. The Peruvian area really contained two cultures, one belonging to the interior and one coastal, the latter, and perhaps the former as well, consisting in turn of several minor centers. The question thus arises whether human culture in these areas did not respond to influences other than those of race. There were no Blacks or Whites in the New World to affect culture either way. In the Eastern Hemisphere all primary culture centers lie in semiarid areas between 25° and 50° north latitude and toward the center of the land mass of the continent. The fact that they lay far north of the Equator has given rise to the supposition that climate had much to do with their origin. It has been claimed that a temperate climate fur- 374. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 nished the necessary stimulation discouraging human energy neither by its enervating warmth nor its paralyzing cold. Without denying that climatic influences played a part here, atten- tion should be called to one other factor not as yet sufficiently empha- sized. This is the possibly relative nearness of the Old World cultural centers to the original home of mankind. It might naturally be as- sumed that in moving outward from any given center the tribes which went farthest would have least leisure in which to make themselves at home in their environment and build up elaborate adjustments, 1. e., civilizations, within it. But when we note that, although the New World was populated at a late period, centers of civilization not much inferior to those in the Eastern Hemisphere had appeared there in a relatively brief section of the human time scale, we are warned against laying too much stress on this particular factor. However, it remains true that Old World civilizations lay in regions where some of the oldest human skeletal material has come to light. Other materials of this kind, including the Piltdown man of England, the remains of early man in South Africa, and Pithecanthropus erectus, are remote from these centers, but if a point is selected central to the area determined by them and as nearly equidistant as possible from them it will bring us to southwestern Asia and India. It is, admittedly, much too early to dogmatize as to the earliest home of our race. Asia, Africa, and Europe each has its champions, and at any moment some new discovery may incline the weight of evidence to an entirely unex- pected quarter. The only thing that seems reasonably certain is that mankind is of Old World provenience. However, southwestern Asia and India happen to lie about midway of the oldest human remains. Central Asia has been one of the spots most favored by searchers for human origins. It attained its first prominence as a result of the early studies of Indo-European languages, although of course the speakers of those languages were only a portion of the human race, and in more recent times it has been recognized that the spread of languages and the spread of peoples may follow entirely different paths. Never- theless, Central Asia was taken up by the biologists, particularly under the stimulus of the late Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn and his followers, and still exerts a powerful influence among both biologists and anthropologists. It was made to fit very neatly into the wave theories of race movement of such men as Griffith Taylor, and seemed to be strengthened markedly by the discovery of China man. At this point, however, we may introduce another line of evidence which may have some bearing upon the question. In the evolution of animal forms it is usually assumed that the generalized types pre- ceded the specialized, and that the main stem of evolution consisted of forms retaining the ability to adapt themselves to a greater range of situations than the rest. The specialized forms given off by these CENTERS OF CIVILIZATION—SWANTON 375 are believed to have continued to reproduce in the environments to which they had become adapted and to have died out if radical changes in such environments took place. Under perfectly uniform environmental conditions it might be assumed that new species, genera, families, orders, and so on would spread wave-fashion from this center, but external conditions introduce modifications in any theoretical pattern so that considerable samples of these forms are found from center to circumference. In numerous cases, in fact, earlier and later forms persist in the same environment. In large areas like continents we should expect differentiation to extend over considerable areas and to bear some relation to the completeness of the separation between continent and continent and the time when such separating occurred. In volume 5 of Bartholomew’s Physical Atlas the following zoo- geographical provinces are indicated, based upon earlier work by a number of students and valid in the main today : The Palaearctie region, including all of Eurasia except India, Indochina, and southern China; the Ethiopian region, including Africa south of the Sahara and southern Arabia; the Oriental region, including nearly all of India, Indochina, southern China, and the nearer East Indies; the Australian region, including Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, the East Indies from the eastern end of Java to the Solomon Islands, and Polynesia; the Nearctic region, including all of Canada, Alaska, the United States, and northern Mexico with a tongue of land down the Mexican highlands to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; and the Neotropical region, including the rest of central and southern Mexico, Central America, and South America. It is undoubtedly significant that the number of these regions is exactly equal to the number of grand continental divisions, and in some cases at least we can account for their differentiation by the isolation of the continent in question at a particular period in its history. Thus the Australian region owes its peculiar land fauna to the fact that it was set apart from Asia by the Wallace Deep shortly before the appear- ance of placental mammals. Considerably later South America was separated from North America by the submergence of the Panamanian section, although North American fauna intruded into it when union was reestablished. Again, the fauna of North America is known to resemble that of the Palaearctic region owing to the existence of a land bridge which persisted to a much later period than the Central Ameri- can isthmus. The African region has been differentiated from the Palaearctic in part by the interposition of the Mediterranean but still more by the sea of sand which we call the Sahara. Farther east the Palaearctic and Oriental regions have acquired their differences in part owing to the interposition of the Indian Ocean which once ex- tended entirely through to the Arctic and in part by the great deserts of central Asia which succeeded. 376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 The two last-mentioned regions and the African region very nearly come to a corner in southwestern Asia, the African extending as far east as Oman while the Oriental region includes the Indus Valley. The Iranian Plateau intervenes as a tongue of the Palaearctic, and separates not merely the Ethiopian and Oriental regions but many related stocks of the higher fauna as well, including civets and ichneu- mons, chevrotains, pangolins, false vampire bats, elephants, wild asses, buffaloes, lemurs, and Old World monkeys. Particularly it severs the present habitats of the anthropoid apes, man’s nearest relatives. This fact indicates some intermediate point as a probable center of distri- bution, and has given rise to the hypothesis of a former continent in the Indian Ocean which has been called Lemuria since the segregation of the lemurs is particularly striking. Without creating a new con- tinent, I think economy of movement calls for an intermediate center of origin. If our areas were ranged concentrically, we should be justified in supposing that the one on the periphery was the oldest and that nearest the center the youngest, and this is measurably true of the Australian and New World regions, but the three others are placed radially and not concentrically. A center in western India or south- ern Iran would therefore be nearest to the greatest number of organic forms and involve the least motion in bringing them to their present habitats. We might imagine one genus to have originated at one end of their later habitat and spread lineally to the other, but to suppose two to have done the same thing and to have covered practically the same territory moving in the same direction would be less likely; with three, four, or more the unlikelihood increases rapidly. And if the region indicated gave rise to the higher animal forms, the argument is good that the same was the case with mankind. Culture centers need not necessarily have arisen near the very spots which witnessed the birth of mankind, but relative nearness to that spot is to be expected. Another argument for southwestern Asia, how- ever, is the fact that cultures are apt to appear where peoples are sub- jected to a variety of environmental influences or to racial admixture. Thus, the high spot in the aboriginal Northwest Coast culture in Amer- ica came just where racial and linguistic diversity was most pro- nounced. The same was true of Southeastern culture, and we have to remember that the Pueblo culture of our Southwest existed among people belonging linquistically to four distinct stocks. Similarly we find that the Maya lay between cultures and languages which are dis- tinctly North American and others clearly connected with South America. Incaic, and the earlier Tiahuanucuan culture arose side by side with two or three somewhat diverse coastal manifestations. We may add that the Maya also lived very nearly on the boundary between the Nearctic and Neotropical biological regions and that two of the principal subregions of the latter, the Brazilian and Chilean, are CENTERS OF CIVILIZATION—SWANTON 377 bounded by a line cutting through Peru and Bolivia from north to south. Returning to the Old World we note that the boundary between the Oriental and Palaearctic regions cuts directly through the Indus cul- tural center and that the boundary between the Palaearctic and Ethi- opian regions crosses the Nile close to Upper Egypt. ‘The Sumerian, Cretan, and Chinese centers lie considerably north of the southern boundary of the Palaearctic zone in the general map of Bartholomew, but on the maps of some zoogeographers they lie much closer. CONCLUSIONS From the foregoing discussion it appears that the higher civiliza- tions have made their appearance and have spread among peoples of varying physical types and that these centers have contributed to the higher culture of mankind in about equal measure. If the races are ranged in a dual category, Northern Fair and Southern Dark, the centers of civilization fall within the former as usually defined, but in all cases among marginal peoples, not far from the boundaries of the darker races. If it is true that no primary center of civilization arose among the ultrablacks, it is equally true that none arose among the ultrawhites. In one or two of these centers, moreover, there was a black strain at a very early period. Some of these centers—Egypt, Sumeria, the Indus—show early evidences of considerable hetero- geneity, and all of them signs of trading contacts with the outside world. There is thus evidence that factors other than race were responsible for the position of these cultural centers. AJ] of them show signs of contact, and none of those in the Old World, except the one in China, is far from the Plateau of Iran where three of the principal zoogeo- graphical areas come together. This would seem to be a natural point from which life forms spread as indicated by their present geograph- ical distribution. Although skeletal remains of primitive man have been found at widely separated points very far from the region under discussion, it is a fair question whether the distribution of animal life may not indicate the actual center more accurately, and that there is reason to look for the great cultural centers of mankind in the same general territory. A summary of the foregoing discussion would result about as follows: 1. The primary culture centers lay among people of both dolicho- cephalic and brachycephalic head form and among those who were intermediate in pigmentation. 2. They were in warm temperate latitudes. 3. They were in areas containing heterogeneous populations or close to areas of divergent cultures. 378 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 4. Their contributions to civilization were fairly equal, allowing for the distance which separated American civilizations from the rest and the consequent handicaps under which they labored. 5. The centers in both Old and New Worlds lay near the central portions of the continents and close to the main mountain chains. 6. The Old World centers (except perhaps that of China) lay near the junction point of the three most important zoogeographical areas north of the Arabian Sea and rather distant from Central Asia, the favorite racial homeland of so many theorists. 7. These centers of civilization apparently depended on factors other than those of race. THE RYUKYU PEOPLE: A CULTURAL APPRAISAL By MarSHALt TT, NEWMAN Associate Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology, U. S. National Museum and Ransom L. ENG Former Executive Officer Military Government Research Center Okinawa [With 5 plates] INTRODUCTION As United States forces conquered island after island in the Pacific, hitherto obscure peoples suddenly became headline news. Such a people were the Ryukyuans who were living a simple agrarian life as vassals of the Japanese on a chain of small islands between southern Japan and Formosa. But with the invasion beginning March 27, 1945, the islands, especially Okinawa, became household words over- night. After organized Japanese resistance ceased, following 82 days of bitter fighting, Okinawa and the Ryukyus left the headlines. Since the Japanese surrender, Okinawa continues to be important as one of the reduced-status bases in the Pacific retained by the United States. Currently the civil affairs of the Ryukyu people are admin- istered by the United States Army Military Government. In view of our interest in the Ryukyus, we have summarized avail- able information on the native people from earliest times to the present. We have attempted to relate the natural environment of the islands and the long history of foreign influence to the native way of life up to World War II. Thus we hope to show not only what the native life was like but how it came to be that way. To complete the picture we have considered the impact of World War IT and the effects of the American occupation upon the islanders. This has not been easy. The archeology of the Ryukyus is little known, and the early written records usually show either a Chinese or Japanese bias. Satisfactory racial and cultural studies of the 379 380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Ryukyus do not exist. Although many Americans have observed the war’s effect upon the Ryukyuans and their culture, no one has published a full account. In the following summary, therefore, we have had to do our best with the information at hand.! THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT The Ryukyu islands form a curving chain extending 775 miles southwest from southern Japan to within sight of Formosa off the China coast. Consequently cultural influences and political pressures from China and Japan have bulked large in the Ryukyus’ destiny. The Ryukyuan chain consists of 11 island groups and numerous scat- tered islets totaling a land area smaller than Delaware, larger than Rhode Island, but housing almost as many people as the two States together. Geologically the islands are the tops of three submerged mountain chains closely ranged together as if they were the strands of a necklace. Ryukyu waters are warmed by the Japanese current, intensifying the heat of the southern monsoonal winds in the summer and ameliorating the cold of the northern monsoons in the winter. In this way seasonal climatic variation is less in the south than in the northern part of the chain. Rainfall is sufficiently heavy to stimulate lush natural vegeta- tion on most of the islands, but the scarcity of natural reservoirs and the great depth of the ground-water table render the water supply a major problem on most of the islands. In addition, typhoons are frequent between May and October. Ryukyu homes and other build- ings are built with the destructive forces of these storms in mind, but great property damage still results. Since typhoons usually strike in the growing season, crops are often destroyed. The islands themselves have such varied terrains that they defy description as a group. Except for some of the low-lying islets, few have much flat land. Some have narrow coastal plains of clayey loam or sandy soil, overlying limestone deposits. These soils are rather fertile, but low-lying strips near the shore are frequently ruined for agriculture by tidal waves. Most shore lines show signs of submer- gence and the larger islands have bays suitable for anchorage. Where the coral reefs have not provided protection along the slowly sinking coasts, the sea has attacked the shore and cut cliffs and headlands. 1 The best source material is in the Navy Department’s Civil Affairs Handbook—Ryukyu (Loochoo) Islands. It was compiled before the invasion by a Navy Research Group at Yale University headed by Prof. George P. Murdock. Yale’s Cross-Cultural Survey was the major source of information, but data provided by various Federal intelligence agencies were also used. We have leaned very heavily upon the Civil Affairs Handbook and the Cross-Cultural Survey, and are especially indebted to Professor Murdock for the large part he played in both of them. We wish to thank Professor Murdock for his cogent criticisms of the manuscript, and Dr. Gordon R. Willey for helpful suggestions on organization. We are grateful to the U. S. Navy, J. Allen Chase, Dr. Leon Lewis,,and Dr. A. C. P. Bakos for the use of their photographs. RYUKYU PEOPLE—NEWMAN AND ENG 381 720° RYUAY ISLANDS px WAUTICAL MILES o $2. 100 180 AILOMETERS = ray SH/MA sof 40 gre S Mae iy L ne 40 ° NORTH ° oa 40 age ye 4HAHIO Sima a O KIKAI JIMA | y) TOKUNO SHIA ye ro P OKINOYERABU JIMA CENTRAL ye Buy-o p ° ty o of 6 260 2° OK/INAWVA JIMA % SOUTH we oe po iN w an oy eas YOWAKOW? MIYAKO JIMA Suma &, P ISHIGAK! SMA IRIOMOTE JIMA eT 2e-] s2a° 126° 120° pre Figure 1.—Map of the Ryukyu Islands (adunted from the Navy Department’s Civil Affairs Handbook, p. v). Inland from the coast on most islands, the sloping or gently rolling terrain merges into rugged hills beyond. The plateaus and gently rolling lands are usually covered with well-drained, moderately fertile soils of clay and sand. The best lands are the alluvial soils in the shallow valleys. On the slopes of the rugged hills the covering of sandy loam has been washed thin, except where it accumulated in pockets. At best it is of mediocre fertility. Usually the smaller islands are less fertile than the larger, provide a less certain water supply, and consequently are less habitable. As in all but the most advanced civilizations, the environment has strongly molded and lim- 382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 ited the way of life. In the Ryukyus, long considered culturally back- ward, we shall see how true thisis. But first we must give background to the cultural picture. THE PREHISTORY AND HISTORY The Ainu.—The earliest inhabitants of the Ryukyu islands were probably a preagricultural food-gathering group closely related to the Ainu of northern Japan, but there is no positive evidence for this. Allegedly Ainu archeological remains have been reported? but the identifications need checking. It is possible that cultural traits hark- ing back to the Ainu ’ have existed in Ryukyu society within the past 100 years, but the matter has not been fully explored. Physical traits of almost certain Ainu origin, however, are said to have been present in many Ryukyuans living in the latter part of the nineteenth century.* This is the strongest suggestion of an Ainu occupation. If the Ainu were the first people in the Ryukyus, they were there in early times— the first or even the second millennium B. C. The early Japanese.—Sometime before the third century B. C. a new people entered Japan from Korea, and spread slowly over the Japanese islands pushing back the Ainu there. These invaders were the early Japanese who bore a maritime culture of manifest South Asiatic char- acter, and were closely related racially to the Southern Mongoloids. Some of these early Japanese settled in the Ryukyus, where they prob- ably outnumbered the Ainu. The Ryukyu language, a sister tongue to Japanese, is attributable to these newcomers, and it is likely that they brought agriculture to the islands. The early history of Chinese and Japanese contact.—Chinese annals of the third century B. C. contain the first historic mention of the Ryukyu Islands. But it was not until the early seventh century A. D. that the Chinese sent an information-collecting embassy there. Twelve years later Japanese records indicated that a delegation from the North Ryukyus paid their respects to the empress in Tokyo. During this early historic period Ryukyu relations with Japan were even more tenuous than with China, and were almost wholly carried on by upper- class people in the port towns of the island chain. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries Japanese legendary history mentions small movements of people from Kyushu to the Ryukyus. Some of these emigrés were displaced nobility. The most famous was the archer Tametomo, who is said to have sired King Shunten—the ruler of Okinawa from 1187 to 1237. When Shunten ascended the throne, the Kyushu prince of Satsuma was given theoretical jurisdic- tion over the Ryukyus. This is part of the modern Japanese claim to the islands. 2 See Newman and Eng, 1947, pp. 114-116. 3 See Murdock, 1934, pp. 163-191, for a description of how the recent Ainu lived. 4 Newman and Eng, 1947, pp. 121-128. RYUKYU PEOPLE—-NEWMAN AND ENG 383 The period of greatest Chinese influence (1372-1609) —In the late thirteenth century China attempted to dominate the Ryukyus politi- cally, and by 1372 had the Okinawa king paying tribute. With this entering wedge, Chinese-Ryukyu trade increased. This started a flow of more advanced customs and ideas into the islands, producing modi- fications in political structure, law and medical practice, the arts and literature, and funerary procedures. These modifications were largely felt by the upper classes, while the Ryukyu commoners continued their work-a-day life with little change. The net effect, however, was cul- tural advancement for the Ryukyus. In 1579 a Chinese emperor called the islands “The Land of Propriety.” This title is deserved even to this day. In the fifteenth century Japan forced the Ryukyuans to pay tribute to them as well. Perceptive islanders at that time could probably see that they were caught between their more powerful neighbors. The sweetpotato, destined to become the staple food of the Ryukyus, was introduced from China in 1605. In 1623 sugarcane was brought in. Neither became vital to the Ryukyu economy for over two centuries. The period of the Japanese protectorate (1609-1871) —Angered by the Ryukyuans’ refusal to help in the Korean war, Japan conquered the North and Central Ryukyus in 1609. The North Ryukyus were ceded to her, and these islands were Japanese-governed from then on. The other islands retained more independence, at least in domestic issues, but larger questions of policy were settled by agents from Japan. Nevertheless the Chinese-style civil state was permitted to exist there for 260 more years. Since China’s ports were closed to Japanese ships from 1552 to 1643, and in 1636 Japanese merchants were forbidden to leave their country, the Ryukyu Islands became extremely useful as a means of indirect trade between the two countries. Naha, the main port of Okinawa, was used as a way-station in commercial transactions of high profit to China and Japan. The Ryukyus gained little capital benefit, and their position in this commerce can be likened to the trained fishing cormorants in the Orient that are kept on a string and forced to relinquish most of their catch. The period of Japanese rule (1871-1945.)—In the nineteenth cen- tury the Western powers showed enough interest in the Ryukyus to make the Japanese apprehensive. So in 1871, just 18 years after Admiral Perry broke the Japanese policy of seclusion, the Ryukyus were formally annexed by Japan over China’s protests. Within a few years all the island chain was organized along Japanese lines. The colonial policy fostered complete assimiliation of the Ryukyus into the political, economic, and cultural structure of the expanding Empire. In the 68 years before World War II this assimilation was 177488—-48-—_28 384 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 most complete in the North Ryukyus which Japan had dominated since the early seventeenth century. It was least complete in the un- developed South Ryukyus, where much of the old culture still exists today. Yet complete assimilation of the Ryukyu people was impossible since, despite official protestations of brotherhood, the islanders were looked down upon as uncouth rustics by the Japanese. The Ryukyu- ans had their own pride and according to Murdock (personal com- munication) considered themselves a subnationality of the Japanese. Thus they were Japanese in about the same way the Scots are British. Cultural changes under the Japanese.—Ofiicially imposed changes in Ryukyu culture were effected during the 74 years of full Japanese rule. These changes were cataclysmic to the upper-class natives, but were much more lightly felt by the commoners. And the smaller, less accessible islands were affected the least. The Japanese commenced their assault on Ryukyu culture by lop- ping off the top of the native social hierarchy. By the 1920’s the rigid and numerous class distinctions had disappeared. Almost everyone was a commoner, except for the Japanese officials, who were strictly top-dog. With the social reform, there was a reapportioning of arable land. Under the Ryukyu monarchy, land had been granted in fief to the upper classes, and the rest was divided communally among the peasants. But beginning in 1899 the land was allotted in small plots to independent farmers. Contrary to Japanese expectations, this did not increase the over-all yield, but it distributed the food supply more evenly among the people. The Japanese inheritance laws were properly designed to keep the land within the family, but younger children did not receive a share. Since the small plots could only support an expanding family with difficulty, landless young men and women were often forced to seek a livelihood elsewhere. This tended to weaken the family structure. Although Japanese administrators were aware of this danger, they merely resorted to palliative measures. The changes in planting of crops stimulated the food economy. In the final centuries of the Ryukyu monarchy, heavy subsidies were paid to wet-rice growers, and the number of flooded fields greatly increased. At the same time sugarcane growing was restricted. Since Ryukyu rice lacked hardiness and abundant yield, required scarce water, and took a lot of work, this was an impractical plan. Under the Japanese, sweetpotato and sugarcane raising were encouraged, and were, respec- tively, the primary food and cash crops of the islands. Ryukyu food habits in the 1930’s showed a strong shift to rice, but only half the required amount could be produced locally. Conse- quently, to reduce the necessary imports, Japanese agronomists introduced Formosa No. 65 rice, which was hardier and had several RYUKYU PEOPLE—NEWMAN AND ENG 385 times the yield of local varieties. As a result, in the few years before World War II, Ryukyu farmers were shifting back to wet rice where- ever the land permitted. Direct economic ties with Japan also stimulated local industries, especially sugar and silk production. This brought money and goods to the Ryukyus, but having part of the economy geared to world markets rendered the islands more susceptible to depressions. This is especially true when a country exports only two major products. So the drop in sugar prices after World War I caused widespread suffer- ing in the Ryukyus, and large numbers left for lands of better opportunity. Although industrial development never proceeded far in the Ryu- kyus, there was enough to threaten the old system of household crafts. This forced a shift in certain manufactures from the household to the factory, and required some workers to leave their homes and villages in pursuit of work. The Japanese-style mutual benefit associations, which appeared to be eagerly seized by Ryukyu craftsmen, did not compensate for the threat to the household. A corollary change was the decline of native arts and crafts which the local market could not support and Japanese consumers did not care for. Asan example, Ryukyu lacquerware of considerable artistic excellence used to be made, but the traditional designs lost out to Japanese styles. The native theater, dances, and music, formerly sponsored by the upper classes, disintegrated with their disappear- ance. ‘The folk art of the peasants in the rural and more isolated areas is all that remains. The effects of the assault on the old-time native religion are hard to gage, although no foreign creed ever had a large popular following in the Ryukyus. With the social and land reforms of this century, however, the native priestesses or “noros” lost their hereditary lands. Lacking their former wealth, these priestesses lost some influence, but were said to be still powerful in out-of-the-way places. With the rise of Japanese nationalism, official efforts were made to impose state Shintoism on the Ryukyus. This met with greater success in the North Ryukus than elsewhere. Under Japanese rule, the population of the Ryukyus increased tre- mendously. From about 600,000 in 1890, it reached a peak of almost 880,000 in 1935. The natural increase was actually greater than this since about 200,000 Ryukyuans left the islands between 1920 and 1940 in search of better opportunities. Since immigration to the Ryukyus has been negligible within historic times, this rise in population meant an increased live birth rate, a lowered death rate, or both. Whatever the exact reasons for this gain, it was surely the most compelling reason for the great exodus of people to other lands. Out-movement became essential to the economic balance of the overcrowded islands. 386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 It got rid of extra mouths to feed, and remittances sent home by prospering relatives abroad helped offset the unfavorable balance of trade recently characteristic of Ryukyu economy. THE CULTURE THE Foop Hconomy The earliest inhabitants of the Ryukyus were probably scattered bands of hunters and fishermen, totaling only a very few thousand. Later, the introduction of agriculture, perhaps by the early Japanese, set the stage for a dense population. The intensive exploitation of arable land is as basic as the heavy Chinese and Japanese influences in the establishment of the complex feudalistic pattern of Ryukyu culture. Other factors which greatly influenced the local food econ- omy were the seventeenth-century introduction of the sweetpotato, and the twentieth-century contributions by the Japanese toward more scientific farming. The physical nature of the islands themselves has largely deter- mined the limits of Ryukyu food production. In the Central and South Ryukyus, about one-quarter of the total land area was culti- vated in 1939, with a smaller proportion under cultivation in the North Ryukyus. The total cultivated area perhaps could be increased 50 percent by farming potentially arable but untouched land, especially in the relatively undeveloped southern islands. Almost three-quarters of the Ryukyu households engage in inten- sive subsistence farming, with many of them growing sugarcane as a cash crop. The prime food crop was the hardy sweetpotato, although just before World War II rice was becoming more of a dietary main- stay (see p. 384). In the late 1930’s almost half of the cultivated land was devoted to raising sweetpotatoes. The small family plots of land, usually on the less fertile plateaus and gentle hill slopes, often pro- duced two crops a year. As with all Ryukyu farming, cultivation was almost entirely done by hoe, although single horse or ox plows were occasionally used. Since sweetpotatoes are likely to rot in storage, it was customary to grate and then dry the surplus for future consumption. Lacking the knowledge of how to preserve part of the crop against a “rainy day,” the sweetpotato never would have become a year-round staple food. Rice was second in importance as a food crop, and was mostly grown in irrigated paddies in the shallow valleys and alluvial plains. Irri- gated fields total about 10 percent of all the cultivated land in the Central and South Ryukyus, with a higher figure for the North Ryukyus where more rice was grown. In the North, there was one crop a year; in the Central and South, two were raised. Although about 40 percent of the farms in the two-crop area had rice paddies, RYUKYU PEOPLE—NEWMAN AND ENG 387 they were usually small and averaged half an acre. With the demand twice the supply in the late 1930’s, rice imports from Japan were high. During World War II, these imports were reduced. Ryukyu methods of wet-rice culture were virtually the same as those of other Far Eastern countries. Irrigation involved no reservoirs or canals, but only called for diverting stream water into narrow chan- nels to the terraced paddies. The water then filtered from higher to lower paddy. Manure, night soil, cover crops, compost, and some commercial fertilizers were used on rice and other fields. The use of all available natural fertilizers, so shocking to people of the Western world, was characteristic of the extreme economy of Ryukyu life. The hoeing or plowing, harrowing and leveling, transplanting of seedlings, weeding, and harvesting were almost wholly done by hand. Other grains were grown, but did not bulk as large as food crops. These were wheat, millet, and barley. Although broadcast sowing was known, it was more usual to plant seed in rows of holes with a simple digging stick. Some root crops other than the sweetpotato were cultivated in minor quantities. Truck gardening and raising of hay and other forage crops were little practiced. On steep slopes and otherwise infertile lands, cycads (Cycas revoluta) were grown from seedlings. The pith of these trees was washed, dried, and made into sago flour, which was used by the very poor, or in times of famine. Under the Ryukyu monarchy, cycad cultivation was sufficiently im- portant to have an official in charge of it. Sugarcane was grown as a cash crop on about one-quarter of the cultivated land in the Ryukyus. It was preferably planted in the clay soils of the coastal plains, but was especially susceptible to typhoon damage there. Most plots were small, rarely over an acre in size. Although there were a few large sugar “centrals” most of the cane was crushed in small, literally one-horse mills of original Chinese design. The cane juice was then boiled, put in clay trays for drying, and ex- ported in unrefined state. Animal husbandry and fishing were overshadowed by agriculture. Most farm households had a hog or two and several goats. Fewer owned horses and cattle. Stock farms were almost nonexistent in the Ryukyus, so most of the slaughterhouse meat came from the small farms. Home-grown pork was more frequently eaten than other meat. Tt was a large enough item in the diet to elicit the contemptuous nick- name “Pork-eater” from the Japanese. At the onset of the war, meat consumption was cut until it reached the average table only about four times a year. | Most Ryukyu fishermen operated from small offshore craft. (See pl. 3, center.) Their commercial catch was small compared to the few deep-sea fishermen who seined, drag-netted, and hooked bonito from large boats. More commercial fishing was done in the North Ryukyus 388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 than elsewhere. Lack of a well-equipped fishing fleet restricted the over-all catch, although Ryukyuans were famous all over the Pacific as fishermen. Their commercial fishing techniques were unexcelled throughout the world, according to professional fishing men (Mur- dock, personal communication). OTHER WoRK While three-quarters of the gainfully employed produced food, the remainder made a living in crafts, services, and commerce. The pro- portions employed in these categories were, respectively, 12, 7, and 5 percent in 1930° for the Central and South Ryukyus. Most of those engaged in crafts made goods of Japanese design for export. A smaller number produced hand-made utilitarian items for the local markets, or were in the building trade. The rest did relatively unskilled manual work in such industries as mining, quarrying, and lumbering. In the Central and South Ryukyus, the major service occupations were, in descending order, banking and insurance; hotel, restaurant, and entertainment; transportation; domestic service; education; and government service. The numbers in religious, legal, medical, literary, and artistic fields were notably small, but need not indicate intellectual impoverishment under the Japanese. On the contrary, the literacy rate was high, and even the peasant homes appear to contain more and better books than the average American home (Murdock, personal communication). In the field of commerce, most of the people were small local mer- chants, although a few had trade connections with Japan and For- mosa. Most rural settlements had general markets where vendors sold food, ceramics, cloth, and tools, but these were on a decline in the 1930’s and 1940’s. Specialized markets for such commodities as livestock were located in the larger towns. Retail shops in the cities increased in number, owing perhaps to the influx of Japanese capital there. In addition, a few branch stores were established by Japanese firms. Foop Hasits AND DIET With the exception of some food imports and local barter, the Ryukyuan people ate what they raised and caught. Sweetpotatoes, therefore, were the national food, with rice an important secondary item. Other vegetables, such as soy beans, cabbages, carrots, green onions, eggplants, squash, cucumbers, taro, and small tomatoes, were eaten only in minor quantities since many households did not raise 5It is improbable that the 1940’s brought much change in these figures. As Japan girded itself for war, some Ryukyuan weavers were forced into other occupations, and others were conscripted for work in the Empire’s war plants, or for military service abroad. Of those remaining in the Ryukyus, the proportions engaged in food production, crafts, services, and commerce probably remained the same. . RYUKYU PEOPLE—NEWMAN AND ENG 389 truck gardens. Some flour from wheat, millet, or barley was used, but usually just for occasional fancy baking. Noodles and imported vermicelli were also used. Fresh fruits were rarely eaten. Fish and especially meat were “prestige” foods, which is another way of saying that not everyone could afford them. They appeared on the family table as often as availability and buying power permitted. Horse mackerel, shark, flyingfish, tuna, and bonito represented the largest coastal catches. Cuttlefish, octopus, shellfish, and seaweed were also taken. In times of famine, the coral reefs and rock pools were thoroughly searched for edibles. Most of the meat was pork, with goat flesh secondary in importance. When not eaten fresh, it was salted down for future use. Beef was also eaten, but was more likely to be exported on the hoof. Indeed, many farm households felt they could ill afford not to sell much of their livestock. Food was most usually boiled or cooked in vegetable oil or pork fat. Steaming and baking in brick ovens were practiced in some households. Foods were seldom eaten fresh or raw. The most com- mon seasoning was soy bean sauce, and in addition salt, vinegar, and tomato paste were used. Compared to Western dietary standards,® Ruykyu diet appears to be bulky and to have a high carbohydrate content. It has been sug- gested that the unusually long, large colon of the Ryukyuans may be an adaptation to this bulky vegetarian fare.?’ High-quality pro- teins and fats seem somewhat lacking in their diets. Further analysis might indicate a low intake of one or more of the B vitamins. But regardless of how the diet measures up to modern nutritional de- siderata, the Ryukyuans did very well on it. On the basis of their hardiness, longevity, fertility, and small amount of metabolic dis- turbances and deficiency diseases, Steiner (1947, p. 241) feels the diet to be well suited to the people. This in turn would imply the basic adequacy of the food economy. TECHNOLOGY AND ART Architectwre.—Public buildings built in modern times closely fol- low Japanese and occasionally Western architectural styles and are usually of cut and mortared stone or concrete construction. The old castles and shrines of yesteryear Ryukyu show considerable Chinese as well as Japanese influence. The larger ancient structures were strongly constructed of cut stone, and ones like Shuri castle were even hard to reduce by bombing and shellfire. Smaller edifices were made of stone or mortised frame and panel construction. Home dwellings range from the temporary rural hut shown in plate 4, lower, to urban homes as elaborately made as the priest’s house in 5 See Steiner, 1946, pp. 18-19 ; 1947, pp. 240-241. 7 Steiner, 1946, p. 5. 390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 plate 4, upper. The simple rural houses were usually rectangular with thatched roofs and walls made of two layers of bamboo lattice with a straw filler in between. No windows were used, sometimes even a smoke hole was lacking, and the floors were often packed earth. Better rural homes had more rooms, paneled walls, raised board flooring, and even tiled roofs, but this was more the urban style. In these homes the family shrine occupied an important place in one of the rooms. It was a highly stained and polished waist-high cabinet with frames and sliding panel of elaborately cut lattice. Within were at least two steps housing family name plates and other objects. The rest of the house might be very plain, but the family shrine was as exquisitely made as the household could afford. Rural dwellings were almost always surrounded by a live hedge, a stone wall, or both, if money permitted. As can be seen in plate 3, up- per, the entrance to the compound was sometimes guarded by a short wall just within. In addition to the main dwelling, there was a stable, small storage house, and a pigsty directly under the latrine. A cistern or well usually completed the farmstead structures. In the urban homes, sliding paneled walls, board flooring, and hipped tile roofs were used where they could be afforded. Usually these homes were surrounded by a high stone wall. Within the court- yard, small storage structures and pigsties were usually present. The most unusual feature of Ryukyu architecture was the womb- shaped tomb of South Chinese inspiration. (See pl. 3, lower.) Most tombs were set into steep banks and hillsides unsuitable for farming, but were by far the most costly family edifices. The approach was through an outer courtyard walled by hewn rock. These walls joined the lateral abutments of the tomb. The tomb itself, carefully constructed of concrete or cut stone, was pear-shaped with a flat or low- domed roof. The entrance to the funerary vault was large enough to admit a coffin. Within the vault the remains of recently deceased fam- ily members lay in coffins, while the carefully cleaned bones of the long dead were deposited in elaborate pottery jars of native make. The burial customs were part of the ancestor worship, an integral part of the old Ryukyu religion, embellished by Chinese customs. Currently the Japanese cremate their dead, and have disseminated this practice to the North Ryukyus. Cremation was rare, however, in the South and Central islands, although not every family could afford a burial tomb. Poor families were more likely to place their dead in caves or cemeteries. A fine family tomb was a prized possession, and took great sacrifice to construct. Often a family might live in a hovel, but would labor lifetimes to possess a suitable resting place for its dead. A fine tomb was considered much more important than a fine home. Transportation and communication —The larger and more heavily RYUKYU PEOPLE—NEWMAN AND ENG 391 populated islands have narrow roads, mostly running along the coasts and connecting the larger towns. Few roads were cut through rugged terrain, so that the more isolated areas were served only by footpaths. Most of the smaller islands had only trails. ‘The roads were usually made of limestone topped with coral sand, and were nationally, pre- fecturally, or locally maintained. Cut and fitted rock bridges were used to traverse streams on the major roads. Owing to a heavier population and more favorable terrain, most of the roads were in the Central and South Ryukyus. The bulk of these were on Okinawa Jima. Even so, the total of 4,000 miles of roads over the entire Ryukyus in 1989 is small as compared with areas the same size in this country. Major Ryukyuan cities had many broad and well-paved streets. In 1939 Naha and Shuri (combined population of over 80,000) had a street system totaling almost 1,300 miles. Most of the vehicles were bicycles, rickshas, and horse-drawn carts. There were few automobiles and busses. In 1939 the Central and South Ryukyus had a total of 504 miles in bus routes. Railroads were of little consequence in Ryukyu transportation and were only narrow-gauge spur lines between large towns, or were used in nationally-promoted mining and lumbering activities. Steam and gasoline engines were used, as well as horse cars. Means of water transportation ranged from the single-log native dugout through motor launches to the small Japanese steamers which touched only the several main ports. Most of the interisland traffic was by motor sampans and larger sailing craft. The bulk of the ocean travel was by Ryukyuans in search of seasonal or permanent employ- ment. Few Japanese or other foreigners visited the islands. Communication between the larger islands and Japan was possible by radio, submarine cable, airmail, and regular mail. Small post offices were located in almost every township, in addition to those in the larger towns. Telegraph and telephone lines connected the post offices on the same island. In addition to a small circulation of Jap- anese newspapers, a handful of 2- to 8-page local papers were printed. The circulations were not known, although plenty of newspapers were found in abandoned rural homes during the invasion. Both the Japanese and local press were rigidly controlled. Utility crafts —The textile industries employed more people than all the other crafts combined, and rivaled sugar production in capital return. Most of the work was done by hand, producing goods of excel- lent quality mainly for Japanese luxury trade. The first ranking tex- tile industry was silk, wherein an expert weaver would take 2 or 3 months to produce 10 yards of high-grade material of 14-inch width. Most silk was made in the North Ryukyus. The next most important 392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 was the Panama-hat industry, confined largely to the Central Ryukyus. Linen cloth made from the fibers of the textile banana constituted the third industry. Its manufacture was concentrated in the South Ryukyus. Other textile products were rush matting, cotton cloth, and straw articles. A large part of the weaving in all textile industries was done by women on hand looms in small shops or athome. Natural dyes, especially indigo and the juice of the Japanese hawthorne, were still used, although larger factories had begun aniline dyeing. Both batik and vat dyeing were practiced. Other manufactures in the Ryukyus were conducted on a very small scale. Carpenters and stone masons still performed high-quality work in the cities, despite their rather primitive tools. Food process- ing and canning accounted for a few more workers, and dealt largely in dried bonito, and canned meats and vegetables. Other small in- dustries only worthy of mention were machine and metal work, wood and bamboo working, paper manufacture and printing, ceramics and tile, and mining and quarrying. The arts.—The leveling of the native class system by the Japanese had the effect of abolishing the national art of the Ryukyus. Lacking upper-class patrons for luxury goods of traditional design, craftsmen turned to Japanese markets for an outlet. This meant that the pat- terns and decorative styles were dictated by Japanese fashions. Tra- ditional designs lost out, except in crafts such as architecture and woodworking which catered to the small local market. Ryukyu ce- ramics and lacquerware used to be of high artistic excellence, owing largely to Chinese influence. Recently, however, only building tile and pipe and cheap utilitarian and ornate funerary ware were produced for local consumption. The exports followed Japanese designs, usu- ally the more gaudy. The textile industries alone retained much of the old-time technical excellence, but had to use Japanese styles. As with the artistic crafts, the Ryukyu theater, music, and dance had distintegrated from lack of upper-class patrons. In the cities traditional forms of entertainment were largely replaced by Japanese- style performances, especially by geisha. The rural areas still retained their folk music and dances, which figured largely at the annual festivals. THE SOCIO-POLITICAL PATTERN Settlement pattern: The family—The biological family, consist- ing of parents and their children, was the basic unit of Ryukyu soci- ety. Economic and religious pressures made family ties particularly strong. Great family solidarity, almost to the exclusion of other loyalties, was encountered by Americans during the invasion. It was almost impossible to secure volunteer blood donors or nurses RYUKYU PEOPLE—NEWMAN AND ENG 393 among the Okinawan civilians unless the welfare of an immediate family member was involved.® Within the family, the father was the household head, but did not achieve the authoritarian status found in Japan. The status of women was considerably higher than in Japan or any other country in East Asia (Murdock, personal communication). Although all contributed to the household’s support, the members of a Ryukyu family controlled their own finances, and only lent money to other members at interest. The differential behavior toward younger and older family members, and toward those of the opposite sex was almost as formalized as in Japan. These distinctions are reflected in their kinship terms, which otherwise are comparable to our own. Although some family households were large, the average one consisted of four to five people. Many households lost at least one member as a result of the heavy 1920-40 emigration, so the size of the average family would have been somewhat larger. Reliable in- formation on the number of children per family is not available. On Okinawa Jima, Steiner (1947, p. 240) states that it averaged five or six, but questionnaire returns in 1945 from 1,000 Okinawans gave a mean of 3.7 for families having children. In Ryukyu society a group of families related in the male line formed a clan. Since married sons often settled near their parents’ households, clan members tended to cluster in communities. In former times, these patrilocal clans had considerable power, but more recently were overshadowed by the village group and the mutual benefit assoc- iations. In out-of-the-way places, the clan still retained its strength. Landholding and land tenure.—In the North Ryukyus the Japanese pattern of extensive tenancy prevailed, but to the south reallotment of small plots to individual farmers early in this century made for wide diffusion of private ownership. In 1935 the tenancy rate for the Central and South Ryukyus was only 10.5 percent. One thousand questionnaire returns from Okinawans in 1945 indicated that 24 per- cent were tenant farmers. Small as this sample is, it suggests that tenancy increased from 1939 to 1945, possibly as a result of bankruptcy of small independent farmers or the breaking up of their families by conscription and emigration. Most of the privately owned and operated farms in the Ryukyus were very small. In 1939 they averaged 2.1 acres in the North, 1.6 acres in the Central and South Ryukyus. Rights of possession and transference of private land were regulated by the Japanese civil code. The chief aim of the inheritance laws was to keep the land within the family as far as possible. This tended to bolster the household by protecting its means of material support. Nevertheless, creditors had the right to seize private land in lieu of a debt. 8 Moloney, 1945, p. 395. 394 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 The physical nature of the communities and their functions.—Since the arable land was largely divided into small plots, farm houses were not far apart. This can be seen in plate 1, upper. More often, how- ever, these houses were clustered in small villages (see pl. 1, lower) ranging in size from only a few families to over 1,000 people. ‘These villages resulted from a natural growth, perhaps starting with only a few related households, and later adding other kin groups and single families. These kin groups of a number of households related in the male line often formed subsettlements in the rural villages, but were generally of less functioning importance than the village group. The locations of villages were determined by several factors. The desire to conserve arable land for crops favored using the less fertile areas for villages. On the other hand, the less readily cultivated hilltops and ridges were exposed to the full force of typhoons, and hence were often avoided for village sites. For this reason, some Okinawans were dismayed at the American tendency to erect hospitals and other installations on the higher and more exposed land. More usually, therefore, Ryukyu villages were located along the flats, in valleys, and on the lee slopes of the hills. Most villages had a central area for markets and other communal affairs. Festivals, geared to the economic and religious annual cycles, were also held there. Also administrative matters, in part passed on to the village headman from the township officials, were discussed and put into practice in the central area. In any village, this area embodied the core of the local society. This was where the people got the word. Although the Ryukyus were largely rural, nine settlements became large enough to classify as towns or cities. These ranged in size from about 7,000 to 66,000, and totaled almost one-quarter of the total 1940 population of the islands. Several of these, notably Naha on Okinawa Jima and Naze on Amami O Shima, were port towns or cities. The rest were merely overgrown villages, set apart only by their size and the presence of modern administrative and commercial build- ings. The towns and cities served largely as mercantile centers, and also in most cases were the focal points for voting, agricultural, police, and postal organizations. Class structure-—Although early in this century the Japanese lev- eled the native hierachy of social classes, enough time has elapsed since then for a social system patterned after the Japanese to begin to take hold. In this system holders of administrative and educational posts enjoyed the highest status. Next, and pressing these oflicials closely, were the larger landowners. As Murdock (personal com- munication) says, a man with five or more acres of farm land was considered rich and was much respected. Village heads, assemblymen, and teachers were usually drawn from upper middle class landed households. Below them were the'rank and file of artisans, fishermen, RYUKYU PEOPLE—NEWMAN AND ENG 395 tenant farmers, and small shop, restaurant, and hotel keepers. In addition, when sugar prices were high, a small group of nouveau riche sugar producers sprang up to occupy top positions in the upper middle class until the market turned downward. A ssociations.—Occasionally cutting across the growing class lines, but mostly operating within the class level were the characteristically Japanese associations, designed to align those people interested in ac- complishing specific things. Some of these were government spon- sored and controlled, especially the patriotic, reservist, and youth or- ganizations. Others were more spontaneous and developed from spe- cific economic needs. Of these, farmers’ buying and selling coopera- tives were the most numerous. As Japan tightened its economic belt for war, the government took over many of these spontaneous associa- tions to achieve higher production. Other minor associations were concerned with civic, cultural, and wholly social affairs. All associa- tions were checked by the police, but sometimes this was only perfunctory. Formal government.—In the Japanese administration, the prefec- ture stands immediately below the Imperial Government and usually deals with the local units directly. The Northern Ryukyus were ad- ministered as part of Kagoshima prefecture; the Central and South Ryukyus, comprising the whole of Okinawa prefecture, were admin- istered asa unit. Prefectural governors were appointed by the Prime Minister, and operated with a secretariat and four departments— General Affairs, Education, Economic Affairs, and Police. An elec- tive assembly served the governor in a largely advisory capacity and had virtually no power. In addition representatives of the various Imperial Ministries were assigned their specific duties in the Ryukyus. Except for the governor, his advisors, and an occasional high official, most of the administrative posts were held by Ryukyuans. Within the prefectural governments in the Ryukyus, branch oflices were established on the more remote islands to facilitate their admin- istration. Two such offices were present in the North, two more in the South Ryukyus. The Central islands were themselves the seat of the Okinawa prefectural government and needed no branch offices. The seats of the local administrative units were the cities, towns, or in rural areas, townships. In all cases the mayor or headman and their staffs were elected by the local assembly, which in turn was chosen by popular vote of all male residents over 25 years old. These city, town, and township administrations could operate autonomously in purely local issues, subject of course to a veto from higher up. On policy matters, however, their courses of action were dictated to them. In rural areas the village heads were appointed by the township head- man and served without salary, but had local prestige well worth the troubles of office. 396 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 RELIGION The native animistic religion has survived in little-modified form in the Central and South Ryukyus. Owing to long-time Japanese domination, it was less strong in the Northern islands. Its strength, however, from Okinawa south is indicated by the absurdly small num- ber of adherents to foreign religions in that area. For 1937 less than 4 percent of the people were Buddhists, less than 2 percent Shintoists, and only 0.2 percent Christians. This means that 94 percent of the people practiced their old-time religion, although a few may have had no religious feelings at all. The essence of this folk religion was the endowment of natural phenomena with supernatural forces. Thus fire, mountain peaks, the sea, and groves of trees made up a pantheon of spirits, to which the people paid homage. Locally sacred areas were marked by fetishes. Temples came as a later, probably foreign-influenced, development. The worship of these vague naturalistic spirits is an old and very widespread form of religion. Particularly striking in Ryukyu religion was the veneration of the hearth, which was sacred to the fire god. Also noteworthy was the cult of sacrosanct priestesses, or “noros,” for whom celibacy was once a requirement of office. These “noros” were almost the sole religious practitioners of the native reli- gion, although lesser female assistants took minor roles. The office of “noro” was largely confined to certain families and was passed on from generation to generation with the paraphernalia of sacred objects—a vesture, tablets inscribed with names of ancestral priestesses, a string of crystal beads with jewels or stones in between, and a fire-god fetish. Almost every village had a “noro” who sometimes wielded great enough power to reverse the will of the people. A “noro” figured prominently in the village-square festivals and was consulted at other times for prayers and advice. Less benevolent practitioners were the fortune-tellers, or “yuta,” who in addition to clairvoyance, would pro- pitiate evil spirits and ghosts. The Japanese administrators felt the “yuta” abused their influence and in recent times outlawed their operations. THE Lire CYCLE There is little information on childbirth practices in the Ryukyus immediately prior to the war. In 1939 the ratio of physicians was about 3.5 per 10,000 population, and the number of registered mid- wives not much higher. The 1945 questionnaire administered to 471 Okinawan mothers indicated that 58 percent of the women were attended by midwives for the last child, with the remainder almost wholly unattended professionally. Formerly, both mother and child were kept close to the sacred family hearth for a week, while friends and relatives made loud music RYUKYU PEOPLE—NEWMAN AND ENG 397 day and night. This custom may still persist in out-of-the-way areas. Other ancient customs, such as placing a crab on the male baby’s head to insure early crawling, may also be found in the recent culture. Once the baby came into the Ryukyu world, we have the word of an American psychiatrist ® that it was well mothered. Of 241 Oki- nawan mothers questioned in 1945, the average age of weaning their last child was 3.8 years (Japanese).° During that time a mother seldom left her child, but carried it on her back in a sling. No set feeding schedules were followed, but the baby was nursed when it desired. When it was weaned the baby was taken over by a substi- tute mother, usually the next elder sister. These “little mothers” carried their charges in slings or led them around, and continued the Ryukyu system of good mothering. In contrast to the Japanese who commence rigid bowel training well before a baby is 1 year old (Western), Ryukyu mothers made no such attempt until their off- spring reached at least a year and a half. At that time the training was largely a matter of emulating the older children. A significant aspect of child training is pointed out by Moloney (1945, p. 394), who states that only once did he see a Ryukyu mother corporally punish her child, When the child was over 314 years old (Western) it was ready for school operated under the Japanese educational system. As Moloney (1945, p. 394) says, “One not familiar with psychological maturative processes would be inclined to believe that the Okinawan brand of mothering would produce a self-centered, a spoiled, an undisciplined child. On the contrary, they show themselves capable of harmonious social cooperation * * *, Calm, confident, and without fear, they obeyed their elders, but were not obsequious.” He emphasizes that Japanese doctrine did not reach a Ryukyu child until, under the pro- tective tutelage of the home, its basic personality structure was al- ready well consolidated. During the next 6 years in the nominally compulsory lower elementary school, Japanese indoctrination only made a superficial impression on the children. Like their parents, they learned to pay “a superficial and expedient homage to Imperial Japan.” Differential treatment of boys and girls began at preschool age and was continued with more force in the schools. At early ages, both sexes were taught their ascribed status in society, so that they knew how to treat those people with whom they came in contact. These behavior patterns for girls required more humility and deference than for boys. In the early training of both sexes, however, respect for ° Moloney, 1945, pp. 392. Jn Japan and the Ryukyus a baby is considered 1 year old at birth, and picks up another year the following January 1. Thus a baby born December 31 is 2 years old the following day, but a baby born January 1 does not become 2 years old until the following January 1. On the average, Japanese ages are 114 years ahead of Western ages. 398 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 elders was emphasized. The etiquette of ostentatious self-abasement, however, never reached the heights seen in modern Japan. “Face” was nevertheless important in Ryukyu society, and the mechanisms of face-saving were learned early in life. Ordinarily a child attended school for 6 to 8 years. Emphasis there was placed in the following order upon Japanese-style “ethics,” the Japanese language, use of the abacus for working arithmetical prob- lems, and memorization of large numbers of Chinese characters. For the sake of “health” and also to promote national solidarity, group calisthenics were often coordinated by radio with similar activities all over Japan. During the school years, boys and girls were taught to be useful at home, and shouldered household burdens as soon as they were able. Girls usually took care of younger brothers or sisters. Boys assisted older men in the family in the more specialized male tasks. Both boys and girls did their stint in the field, especially at harvest time, often dropping out of school to do so. At the age of 13 (Japanese), both went through coming-of-age cere- monies. These involved the first wearing of adult clothes, symbolic of the end of childhood and the assumption of a grown-up role in soci- ety. In recent times these ceremonies were of a more perfunctory na- ture, particularly since schooling might not be completed until the next year, or even later if more advanced education was desired and could be afforded. At about the turn of the century, 14 to 17 years was considered the proper time for marriage. Matches were almost always arranged by the parents. In the 1920’s and 1930's, however, marriages began taking place later in life. By 1937 the average ages for first marriages were 27 for men and 24 for women. Obviously, as in Japan and the United States, most young Ryukyuans were not well enough fixed financially to marry in the ’teens. In addition, military conscription took many young men out of circulation for a while when they reached 20 years of age. The betrothal in an arranged marriage involved visiting ceremonies, led by intermediaries. Details varied locally, and some of the mar- riage customs described in the literature may no longer be practiced. Both the “wife search” in the North, and “bride capture” in the South Ryukyus may now be things of the past. The marriage ceremony it- self was held in the groom’s home. It was sometimes customary for the groom’s party to leave the bride for a belated and lengthy “bach- elor dinner” but this luxury could not be afforded by the average young farmer. Ryukyu marriages were easily broken by common consent with a minimum of family turmoil. The divorce rate in the Central and South Ryukyus was higher in the 1930’s than in any other Japanese RYUKYU PEOPLE—NEWMAN AND ENG 399 prefect. ‘The broken ho:nes occasioned by easy divorce apparently did not cause appreciable maladjustment in the children. The reasons for this are obscure and would merit special study. Almost all married couples and their children lived in a narrow work-a-day world which called for hard labor and great frugality. Americans were particularly impressed with Ryukyu woman’s hard lot, not realizing her relatively high social status. It is true that the women worked in the fields, did the housekeeping, raised children, carried heavy burdens, marketed much of the produce, and performed many other routine tasks. But the men of the working class also worked hard. Theirs were more specialized tasks, such as building, carpentry, and irrigation, as well as a good part of agricultural work. Both sexes were extraordinarily well muscled and hardy. The small number of days a year when they were too sick to work would make a proud record in the United States. This physically strenuous life, coupled with low emotional tensions and a simple and largely vegetarian diet, apparently made for late senility (Steiner, 1946, pp. 22-23). The number of elderly people compared favorably with that of Western countries noted for their medical science. Outstanding in the Ryukyus was the very small amount of heart disease, alimentary and kidney disorders, cancer, and other degenerative changes so common in the more civilized world. Old people were able to remain active most of their lives. When they could no longer carry on, their families took care of them. Above all, special care was taken to give them a proper funeral and place the coffin in the family tomb. Years later the unmarried girls of the fam- ily would carefully clean the bones in sweetpotato brandy, and rev- erently place them in a funerary urn. Within the vault these urns were arranged on an altar according to the status and kinship of the persons whose bones they contained. The bones of the husband and wife were often placed together in a single urn, so they could grow old together. It is reported“ that the tombs were deliberately fash- ioned in the shape of a womb, and that the Ryukyuans considered death merely a return to the place from whence they came. THE Ryukyu CULTURE PATTERN AND THE RYUKYUAN’S WoRLD VIEW In the past 1,000 years or more, the influences of Chinese and Jap- anese civilizations were largely absorbed by the upper class of Ryu- kyuans. Some of these foreign customs filtered through to the com- moners, who in the main went on eking out their simple rural exist- ence much on the same cultural level as the medieval Japanese peasant. After Japan annexed the Ryukyus, she lopped off the upper classes there, placing almost everyone in commoner’s status. “4 Moloney, 1945, p. 396; Steiner, 1947, p. 311. We consider these reports of questionable validity, but cannot disprove them, 777488—48—_29 400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 What remained of the indigenous Ryukyu culture was only the peasant part of it. The esoteric character of the upper-class native life was lost, to be replaced by Japanese customs. ‘The peasant cul- ture has been outwardly changed by new food plants, limited partici- pation in world trade, Chinese manners, and Japanese regulations. Yet inwardly it reflects an old pattern, the core of which probably goes back to an early agricultural level. This core is the food economy. It has never been easy for peasants to make a living in Ryukyus, and to do so most effectively has re- quired hard physical work, cooperative effort, and frugality. This hard work was performed cooperatively by family members, who farmed small plots of land in tenancy or actual ownership. This placed tremendous strength in the in-group solidarity of the family, which was reinforced by a religion emphasizing the sacredness of the household hearth and the veneration of ancestors. Within the family relationships were regulated by differential behavior patterns for each member. Only enough freedom of action was permitted to ab- sorb domestic tensions and alleviate otherwise intolerable personality clashes. Where husband and wife were so unsuited as to threaten family solidarity, divorces occurred. These were accomplished with a minimum of controversy, the wife returned to her people, and the rest of the family carried on until a more suitable wife and mother was brought in. Children were usually extremely well mothered, and were serenely brought up to take their ascribed adult status in the family and the immediate society. Family “face” was as impor- tant as individual “face.” Both were preserved at almost any cost. Village ties were much less important than the solidarity of the family, but in modern times transcended the bonds of the patrilineal clan. Ties to the village were motivated largely by economic matters. Cooperative building, construction of roads, and improvement and repair of irrigation systems were some of the village enterprises. Group participation in religious ceremonials and social events, mar- riage bonds between village families, and the village market helped cement village solidarity. In times of great stress, although a Ryukyuan would do a great deal for his family, he would probably make no great sacrifices for a fellow villager. In all probability, he would reject the thought of aiding an outsider. The loyalties were first to the family and then to the village. In his world view, the Ryukyuan probably did not see far beyond either one. To make a living in the Ryukyus, everything had to be used. How else could four or five people derive their support from an acre and a half of hand-tilled soil? Projecting this frugality into the psychologi- cal realm, Moloney (1945, pp. 394-395) suggests that it makes for the realistic attitude that worthless things, people included, are to be rejected. As he says, “Apparently * * * social consciousness RYUKYU PEOPLE—NEWMAN AND ENG 401 does not extend to that which is no longer valuable” (ibid, p. 395). As an Okinawan might have expressed it in a United States Navy hospital (see p. 892), “Why should I give blood to a countryman whom I don’t know, and who will probably die anyway?” In terms of this realism, and the in-group solidarity which blots out other ties, there would be no answer to him. The possession of a sometimes ruthless realism did not render the Ryukyuans “almost devoid of religious sentiments,” as Leavenworth (1905, p. 88) would have it. To be sure, few natives were converted to Buddhism or Christianity, but in their own way they made strong identifications with the supernatural. It is important to note that these identifications were on a practical level. The old-time religion held that all of nature was alive and endowed with spirits. Because the people realized their helpless dependence upon nature, fire, moun- tain peaks, groves, rivers, and the sea were construed as vague but pow- erful friendly or unfriendly forces. The prayers and ceremonies were to please the friendly forces, and, insofar as their feeble powers per- mitted, placate the unfriendly ones. There are no indications that the belief in inimical spirit forces made for a fear-ridden society. Possi- bly the popular attitude was rather one of resignation, which might be expressed as “We will do what we can, and observe all the proprieties. Then come what may.” In their practice of ancestor worship, the elaborate funerary procedures were also carried out to the letter. Apparently there was deep satisfaction to be derived from properly honoring the dead. A fine tomb for this purpose was a prime goal in Ryukyu culture. THE WAR AND THE FUTURE The assigned task of the Ryukyus during World War II was to provide military conscripts and war workers to the Empire and to tighten the belts at home. As the Japanese military position became desperate, more and more Ryukyuans were fed into the war machine. And beginning with the heavy United States air strike on October 10, 1944, bombed-out natives fled to southern Japan. So by the time of the invasion, the civilian population of the Ryukyus was as low as it was about 1900. Okinawa and adjacent islets felt the smashing effect of a shooting invasion, while only the military areas of other islands were bombed and shelled by American and British forces. On Okinawa itself, some 30,000 able-bodied native men were pressed into the Japanese defense force of some 120,000. In many cases their families went with them and were caught in the bitter fighting. Most of the civilians, however, hid out in the hills and in caves under overcrowded and difficult conditions until they were brought out by the Americans. In addition to the injuries of war, the lack of food, warm clothing, 402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 sanitation, and medical care took heavy toll. One out of eight died as a result of the invasion and the losses of able-bodied men and of infants were proportionally much higher. The Okinawan civilians were crowded into Military Government camps back of the lines (see pl. 2). Until the salvaged food in the area of these camps was exhausted, most interned Okinawans were fed enough to sustain life. None were fat, and emaciation, while not the average condition, was common enough. By early summer, their losses in body weight were not as great as their hardships would lead one to suppose. In midsummer of 1945 most of the 300,000 civilians were transported to new Military Government camps in the more barren northern part of Okinawa. There they suffered great privations despite American efforts to take care of them properly. Housing was most primitive (see pl. 4, lower), sanitary facilities and water supply were meager, and food was considered abundant if one day’s supply was on hand. In the early fall a nutritional survey (Culbert and Lewis, 1945) reported that 10 percent were on the borderline of starvation, while 43 percent showed signs of early malnutrition. Average body weights taken by ages were down 10 percent as compared to the early summer figures. Commencing in the late fall of 1945, the internees were gradually released and permitted to settle in their home areas. The homes of 90 percent of them had been destroyed during the invasion, and many of their fields had been ruined or were reserved for military installa- tions. Part of the tremendous task of resettling involved aiding them in building new homes, reclaiming and releasing arable land, and feeding and clothing them until they could become self-sufficient. The problems of Military Government were somewhat less difficult on the less war-torn islands. In 1947, however, the total Ryukyu acreage planned for cultivation was only about 60 percent of the pre- war figure. This reflects the over-all dislocation of Ryukyu economy, and explains why even in the first half of 1947, one-third of the food consumed in even the most basic rations had to be imported from the United States. These imports are being gradually reduced, pending the time when the Ryukyus will be self-sufficient in food supply. While this reconstruction of Ryukyu economy was going on, over 200,000 Ryukyuans from all over the Pacific were brought back to their homeland. This repatriation began in early 1946 and was vir- tually completed that year. This brought the June 29, 1947, popula- tion to 44,000 more than the early 1944 figure, so that the Ryukyus are now as overcrowded as they ever were. ‘The current hope for render- ing the Ryukyus self-sustained in food supply is the work of mechan- ized land-reclamation teams, cooperating with the farmer’s associa- tions. If all the arable land is utilized (see p. 386), it may be suffi- cient to support the present population. Rehabilitation of the fishing RYUKYU PEOPLE—NEWMAN AND ENG 403 vAUEY Ware CENTLY BLOPING COMDTAL Fiat QGAcHED Figure 2.—Pre-invasion panoramic map of the island of Okinawa. 7. ComPhib Group FOUR. OKINAWA SHIMA NANSEI SHOTO 404 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 industry should also aid in providing food. In this connection, sal- vaged United States landing craft have been turned over to Ryukyu fishermen. Efforts are also being made to rebuild other Ryukyu industries, and apparently the results have been satisfactory where raw materials and in some cases salvaged equipment are obtainable. The Military Government rehabilitation program envisages trebling the stone quar- rying and woodworking production to meet high current needs; build- ing up the cement, Panama-hat, and lacquerware industries for export; eventually developing silk production to meet the local demand; and bringing back the ceramic, brick, dyeing, sulfur, and coal output to prewar levels. The household crafts, such as mat making and linen weaving, went back into production with less difficulty than other industries. As early as September 1945 temporary elementary schools were or- ganized. By early 1947, enrollment was as high as in 1937. High schools and technical schools were being organized, and present labor laws require school attendance until 18 years of age (Japanese). School texts have been mimeographed and distributed. Certainly the curric- ula of present-day schools represent a decided change from prewar days. In addition to educating the youth, special adult classes have received practical instruction. Motor maintenance and repair, use of heavy equipment, and preparation of unfamiliar imported foodtstufis are examples of this training program. Recently malaria, influenza, and trachoma have been the most preva- lent communicable diseases. Before the war, malaria was endemic only in certain areas of the Ryukyus, but the thorough shuffling of the native population during and after the invasion has rendered the dis- ease an island-wide problem. Mass immunizations for smallpox, dys- entery, and diphtheria (see pl. 5, lower) have been carried out by Military Government authorities. The prevalence of intestinal para- sites and filariasis in the native population needs the attention of a co- ordinated program, but will require sanitary measures to which the Ryukyuans are unaccustomed. In early 1947, 25 Christian churches were holding services in the Ryukyus, with about 200 more members than in 1937. (See p. 396.) Attendance doubled by the end of that year. It will be interesting to see whether or not a Christian philosophy can be successfully grafted to the Ryukyu culture pattern. The rehabilitation of the Ryukyu people is proceeding apace under American administration. The immediate goal is to make them econ- omically self-sufficient. The ultimate problem is how to best facili- tate the adjustment of a simple agricultural people to the modern industrial world. RYUKYU PEOPLE—NEWMAN AND ENG 405 LITERATURE CITED CULBERT, R. W., and LEwIs, LEON. 1945. Nutritional study—Okinawa (a preliminary report). November 4. (Manuscript. ) Hne, Ransom L. 1945. Okinawan opinion study (a preliminary survey). April 30. (Manu- script.) LEAVENWORTH, CHARLES 8S. 1905. The Loochoo Islands. 186 pp. Shanghai. Motoney, JAMES C. 1945. Psychiatrie observations on Okinawa Shima. Psychiatry, vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 391-399. Murbock, GEORGE P. 1934. Our Primitive Contemporaries. Macmillan Co., N. Y. Navy DEPARTMENT. 1944. Civil Affairs Handbook, Ryukyu (Loochoo) Islands. OPNAYV 13-21, 345 pp. NEWMAN, MarsSHALL T., and Ene, Ransom L. 1947. The Ryukyu people: A biological appraisal. Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop., n. s., vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 113-157. STEINER, PAUL E. 1946. Necropsies on Okinawans. Reprinted with additions from Arch. Pathol., vol. 42, pp. 359-380, by Amer. Med. Assoc., pp. 1-28. 1947. Okinawa and its people. Sci. Month., vol. 64, No. 3, pp. 283-241; No. 4, pp. 306-312. YALE UNIVERSITY. No date. Cross-Cultural Survey—the Ryukyu Islands. (Unpublished.) Note: A full bibliography on the cultural anthropology of the Ryukyus is listed in the Navy Department’s Civil Affairs Handbook. References on the physical anthropology are covered in Newman and Eng, 1947. Official documents dealing with the American occupation of the islands are: Army Military Government Summations of the United States Army Military Government Activities in the Ryukyu Islands, July 1946 to current. Navy Military Government, Ryukyu Islands, 1 July 1946. Report of Military Government activities from 1 April 1945 to 1 July 1946. War Department, Public Information Division, Press Section releases. Ait heures | you sah lb tabs ae un ih iaie ~ ind Mea by Kuhl vials a ‘eet eile pete 58 i oe . aioe ’ . ay nize ok Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Newman and Eng PEATE: 1 1. Aerial view of the Bisha River and adjacent countryside in west-central Okinawa. The first invasion waves of landing craft are in the background. (Official U. S. Navy photograph.) 2. Aerial view of an Okinawan village. Many of the houses have been bombed or fired. (Official U. 8S. Navy photograph.) Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Newman and Eng PEATE SZ 1. Okinawan women and children who just arrived at an M. G. civilian camp in the early days of the invasion. (Official U. 8. Navy Photograph.) sake Minin 2. One of the first M. G. civilian camps set up on Okinawa. (Official U.S. Navy photograph.) : Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Newman and Eng PLATE 3 Upper, native village on Ishigaki-Jima in the South Ryukyus; center, native sailing craft in the Iriomote Jima group; lower, concrete tomb from Okinawa. (Photographs courtesy J. Allen Chase, Leon Lewis, and A. C. P. Bakos.) Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Newman and Eng PLATE ; wh { re ! Upper, home of a Shinto priest at Kin, Okinawa; lower, temporary home of a refugee at Gimbaru, Okinawa. (Photographs courtesy J. Allen Chase and Leon Lewis.) Smithsonian Report, 1947.—Newman and Eng PLATE 5 Bon ees <>, ere i. i = “ Upper, a group of lepers in the colony on Yagaji Shima, off northwest Okinawa lower, school children of Kanna, Okinawa, being immunized for dysentery. (Photographs courtesy J. Allen Chase and Leon Lewis.) PUZZLE IN PANAMA? By WALDo G. BOwMAN Editor, Engineering News-Record [With 8 plates] A good many things came to an end when the atomic bombs exploded over Hiroshima and Nagasaki. And not the least of those things that were lost forever was our confidence in the security of the Panama Canal. That fact is now being reflected in a comprehensive engineering study to determine whether the present Canal or any canal in the same or any other location can be made safe for our merchant and naval fleets in wartime. And, of equal concern, if not of the same erimness in consequences, is the problem of the adequacy of the Canal to meet the growing demands of peacetime shipping. It all adds up to a puzzle of first-order magnitude. Nor is the puzzle simplified (although the scope for its solution is undoubtedly broadened) by the fact that the atomic bombs not only blasted confidence in the present Canal, but also raised up a ghost— that of a Panama sea-level canal whose earthly body was interred on June 29, 1906, when Congress adopted the lock-type canal favored in the minority report of President Theodore Roosevelt’s board of con- sulting engineers. And to this sea-level canal ghost the present in- vestigators may well repeat Hamlet’s famous questions to the ghost of his father, “Be thou a spirit of health, or goblin damned? Say, why is this? Wherefore? What should we do?” Sea level or not, and if not, then what? That is the question, and the present puzzle in Panama. Because a proper solution is of vital importance to every American, and of major interest to all engineers and construction men, a first- hand account of the progress of the studies was deemed timely and desirable. What the conclusions and recommendations will be is not now known, indeed will not be known until they are reported to Con- gress late this year (1947). But after 2 weeks in the Canal Zone talk- ing to officials, witnessing tests, traveling the canal, clambering over 1 Reprinted by permission from Engineering News-Record, vol. 138, No. 18, May 1, 1947. 407 408 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 its famous once-sliding banks, inspecting its locks and dams, and listen- ing to scuttlebutt and rumor, a reasonably complete account of “Isth- mian Canal Studies—1947” can be rendered. ‘This is it. OBJECTIVE AND PLAN OF THEIR STUDIES The studies had their beginning on December 28, 1945, when Public Law 280, Seventy-ninth Congress, first session, was passed. In it Congress said to the Governor of the Panama Canal, “Tell us how we and the American people can best be assured of a ship crossing of the isthmus that will be safe from war hazards and of ample capacity for many years to come. Give us a recommendation for the best type of canal and the best route, no matter where located, in Panama or out.” Included in the studies, of course, was to be a revaluation of the $277,- 000,000 project to build a third set of locks, larger and removed some distance from the present pair, begun in 1939 (Engineering News Record, September 14, 1939, p. 330) and suspended because of the war in 1942 after most of the necessary excavation had been completed. Maj. Gen. Joseph C. Mehaffey, Governor of the Canal Zone, and him- self an Army Engineer officer with a long record of service on the Canal, lost no time in initiating the authorized study, for which about $5,000,000 has been provided. Assigning the task to the Canal’s special engineering division, which was created to handle the third locks project, he appointed Col. James H. Stratton as supervising engi- neer. Enjoying an outstanding reputation as one of the ablest tech- nical men and administrators in the Corps of Engineers, Colonel Stratton was soon successful in assembling an unusually capable staff of civilian engineer specialists to head up the various phases of the work. Supplementing his own organization with a board of eminent consulting engineers to afford continual guidance and advice, he went to work. And as need developed, individual specialists from private life and from the Office of the Chief of Engineers were called in while, in addition, special research contracts were awarded so as to bring the nation’s best talents to bear on the problem. The procedure of the studies is simple and effective. Investigations of each particular subject—routes, lock design, dredging, drilling and blasting, soil mechanics, flood control, hydraulics, construction plan- ning, to name a few—are carried out by the staff specialists through their own research and analysis and aided by the outside research con- tracts. As the study of each phase or subject is completed, a report or memorandum is prepared. Then, at the periodic meetings of the consulting board, the section heads present the memos (No. 183 hav- ing been reached on March 1, 1947), which are approved, turned down, or returned for further study. The eventual result of this whittling and sifting will be a set of conclusions from which a final recommendation can be made to the PUZZLE IN PANAMA—BOW MAN 409 Governor by Colonel Stratton and the board. If the Governor accepts it, as is probable since he keeps in close touch with the work even to taking part in the consulting board meetings, the recommendation will be presented to the War and Navy Departments for review, and will then go to Congress. What happens after that in the way of actual design and construction is up to the law makers, the President, and the American people. a Q PANAMA Mt ) PANAMA CONVERSION ROUTE § 3¢¢ Gamboa: ¢ i ey z ie a OR: TS caro emt 2 PEDRO MIBUEL N Ms e THIER ff Lacs CONTINENTAL OIVIDE , > roar or i : OOl+ Rien oot ya NVIIO Is19vd s § P OUI] 40{U92 UO UOMDADIXE BS 8 8 10 yurod ysxybiy ,ZIE 1F + 3 Jouo0g jena7-0ag 40f vorjon09x7 LSS : Ht aoe IIH $40}9044u09 {0 \\ Sac f0U0Q ¥207 40; suoduauy fq peyor0ox7 [___} uoyonooxe 4o qulod 4seybYy Ole 17 iH 8 youesy Aq payonwax7 EZ. OOD tt uoyonoaxa 4O 4urod {saybiy BSS 17 414 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 agree that the conditions were as “poor” as represented, and many concur in that view today. IMPROVING THE LOCK LAY-OUT The Pacific terminal lake plan referred to above, advocated by sey- eral engineers at the time the present canal was being planned, and before that by one of the early French engineers, would increase the capacity of the canal by putting Miraflores Lake between the last lock lift and the entrance to Gaillard cut, thus providing an anchorage area for Atlantic-bound ships above the locks in case the cut were too foggy to navigate. Now ships have to wait below Pedro Miguel lock or out at sea until the cut is clear. The theory is that in bad weather a good many ships could accomplish the slow process of locking-through whereas now the locks are idle if the cut is shrouded in fog. In any such improvement scheme, of course, the new locks could be built of increased size and efficiency (some of as much as 200 feet width, 1,500 feet length, and of two-lift design, having been studied), which would further augment the canal capacity. Also, most of the schemes studied have contemplated raising the level of Gatun Lake from elevation 85 to elevation 92 to increase the supply of lockage water. As to increased security, the supposition apparently is that a con- centration of all lock lifts in one place would also permit more effective concentration of protective facilities and defensive measures. Addi- tional security could also be achieved by separating the two lanes of any new locks safe distances from one another. CONVERSION OF CANAL TO SEA LEVEL But is any type of lock canal secure in the sense that Congress used the term in the request for the study? The decision of the investi- gators on that point is vital. One has only to recall the movies of the Bikini atomic bomb tests, where a column of water that looked to be half a mile across was thrown several thousand feet in the air, to visu- alize what would happen to a lock. Or look at the hole in the ground caused. by the explosion of a hundred pounds of dynamite and inter- polate to the equivalent effect of millions of pounds of TNT. And once a hole were breached in a lock or one of the impounding dams, the lake would drain out, and no amount of repairs could restore the canal to service until rainfall and run-off refilled the lake. It is a sobering thought, and one that cannot be ignored under the mandate that Congress wrote into Public Law 280. One way to eliminate the danger is to eliminate the lake and the locks, to convert the canal to a sea-level waterway. And there is ample evidence that the investigators are studying the possibilities long and (ouy ‘uoTyeloossy ssoig Aq ydeisojoyd) ‘BUR BUIBURY ‘syoo'T Jonsiyy Oped | 3LtW1d uReWMOg—"/p6| *‘qaodayy uviuOsy yw (ydersojoyd SaeyN "SQ [RHOWO) ‘“UoKsenb ur ore Aqoyes ourjaeM pue Aownbops oangny osoyA “UNZeE) 4B oso} SB Yons "[BuB) BUIBUBT oy} UL Syao'T c 3LV1d uewIMog—*/p6| ‘qaodayy URIUOSYyzIWG (pej1ou se ydooxo 10yyne Aq sojoyd [[y) ‘voBueurt opT[s sy} YIM odod pynod ‘podorfeq st 41 ‘espopmouy jUuosolg “popuoUlUlOded ST SUTUO}YSIBIYS IO “suUtUAde0p “SUIUOPIM SUTATOAUL oULOYOS AUB JL WOMONISUOD JOf[wUT JO aUVDS OY} 9G UTBSR pyNoM ‘OTQNO1 YONUL OS posnBd BABY Sopl[s OSOYAr Yu) pxBTpLe € 3ALVW1d uPWwMOgd—'/b4) *1I0daXT UPIUOSsUIIUIC “OyBT] unjer Urol 41 Soywaedes yey) Snid woody pavMvBes Sulryoo] pus onuRpy 9B yno ‘4Y Su foye'T] sotopeiyy UOJ] 41 seqwiedes yey} Snj{d ssoioe SuLyOOT pus oyloeg 4B 4nd “4joTT + “ABpoy 4Stxo AoY} SB Synd YooT Mou pajefduroa Moys sydvisojoyd aaoge ‘syoo] quaseid 04 aAT}eIOI Yooford Jo UOT}BOOT 9}BOIPUT F 9INSY ul sdvyy “UOIYwSTySeAuT yuesoId ay} INogK IYySnorq jeuBs yuoserd oy Jo AyLandes puw Ayoedeo osvotour 07 Ao“nbepe pouorsenb ssoyM ‘GE6T UL UNseq “ooford Syoo'T pay], yY Atvild urUMog—'/p6| ‘Oday URLUOSY{IUICG Smithsonian Report, 1947.Bowman 1. Test drilling and blasting at unprecedented depths of 135 feet below water surface are being carried out from a barge plant in the approach to the Third Locks Cut on the Atlantie side. 2. Tide-control structures simulated in the half-mile-long hydraulic model of a sea-level canal built to the alignment of the existing canal. To the left is the tide lock. The man is standing over the navigable pass gate, and to his left is the water-control structure. During tests the model is covered with canvas, as at the right, to shield it from the wind. “unap oy} WoO punomM aoded ydeis WO popdodod O1B SUOIBIIVA Oply, “]BUBD OY} OF JOB ‘OUOZ [BUB’) OY} UL pozyONAJSUOD Wood SBtL VBY} TBUBO [OAD] jo yunowe sodoid oy} SqTuIpB YOIYM DATBA YBOY B soyVn joe pus -BoOS B JO Jopoul oYy JO UOTodsuL UB UO |. 26] —SeIpnys 3) oolAop out} B AG poaour st ‘poriod anoy-pfZ B ULSepT} ayy Jo Jord [BUB) UBIUIYYST,, JO ooIBYO UL U0IVBIYG “FF soulee “[O—-) *] iejod & syussaidad OUI[INO BSOYM “Yjoy oy} YB WIRD OY, “[EpoUl oyneapAy oy} jo puso Yowo ye wistuBYyoour sufonpotd-eply, °Z% psene” of Ys < ueWwiMog— ‘Lrél *ysodayy UPRIUOSY IU ‘peasoutad oq ppnom deo yeseq aq} UOTJONAJSUOD oINYHY UL ‘[BUB. Jo UIO}}Oq UI BAROY 0} 1o})R] OY} OJ AOUOPU9}] B SUYBOID “LON BULLOJ BYBIBON, JOS UO dRo yeseq prey JO JYSIOM Aq posnwo st yeuR) BUIBUB_ UO ops Jo vdAy ouGd _Y204 Ualfio-s ZLALV1d URWIMOG——"7p6| ‘j4odayy URIUOSY WS ‘pud dyed 4B 4[Bseq eUUIN[OO ‘YS pus o1jUR[Zy 4B 9UO4SpuRS UNH “4YjoT ‘SIND SxIoT pay yT, oyy Ul suoyeu0; Aq pozisvydure st [euBD oy} Suo[e ASojoos SurdrwA 8 3LV1d uewmMog—'/p6| *340day] ueIUOsy yw PUZZLE IN PANAMA—BOWMAN 415 carefully. For one thing, they have built a half-mile-long model of a sea-level canal to the alignment of the present lock canal to test the effect of tides on currents. They have set up criteria for improved alignment, and are having the Navy study the behavior of ships in canal models built to these criteria in the David W. Taylor testing basin at Carderock, Md. They have let design and study contracts in the United States for the development of dredges that can dig at un- precedented depths, as would be necesary in Gatun Lake. And they have recently tested tide-gate and navigation-pass lay-outs in their sea-level model in the Canal Zone. All these activities point to unusual concern with the possibility of converting the present lock canal to one of sea-level type. Cristobal pin ' ay. To Atlantic Ocean --- s » a < RSS yy YN Locks SN q 1 N. resets cssioaN \ 8) WJ un) \y “Proposed oe ‘ locks and bypass channel if iY A ATLANTIC EN OF CANAL Fieurr 4.—Maps indicating location of Third Locks Project, begun in 1989, relative to present locks. (See plate 4.) Of the numerous ways by which the conversion could be effected, at least two are known to have been studied, one involving lowering Gatun Lake to sea level in stages, the other lowering it in one operation. They have been called the stage-lowering plan and the deep-dredging plan. TO SEA LEVEL BY STAGES The essential element of the plan for lowering Gatun Lake to sea level by stages is a temporary lock at each end to permit the passage of traffic at each lowering stage, first from elevation 85 to 50; second from elevation 50 to 20; and third from elevation 20 to sea level. The location for these temporary or conversion locks is ready-made in the cuts that were dug for the Third Locks Project, 14 mile east of the existing Gatun locks at the Atlantic end and 3% mile west of Mira- flores locks at the Pacific end, although some widening might be re- 777488—48-—30 416 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 quired if locks wider than the 140 feet originally planned were deemed necessary. Should the third locks idea be abandoned, this plan thus provides an effective way to save a large part of the investment already made in that project. Two variations of the conversion locks have been studied, one using a single-lane lock, the other a double lane. Since two lanes for traffic must be maintained during all lake-lowering stages, adoption of the single-lane conversion lock would require also that first one lane and then the other of the existing locks be modified to operate at the lower lake stages. This would entail a construction operation of consider- able magnitude and difficulty, since the center wall between the existing locks would have to be underpinned during the time that the upper chamber of one lane was being removed so that this lane could be available for traffic when the lake was lowered to elevation 50. Later, when the other lane was cut down from elevation 85 to elevation 20 to serve traflic at this lake level, the same ticklish operation would have to be repeated. Asa corollary of the construction difficulties of this method there would be considerable risk, for a failure of the center wall might result in draining the lake. The two-lane conversion plan is both simpler and more certain, for it would permit complete abandonment of the existing locks during the lowering stages. The idea would be to make the conversion lock of one-lift design, capable of being used at all stages from elevation 50 to sea level. While the lock at the Atlantic end, for example, was being built in the third locks cut, seaward from the unexcavated plug that separates the cut from the lake, the deepening of the channel in the lake would be carried out. This would entail dredging to a maximum depth of about 85 feet (present water surface, elevation 85, minus future water surface, elevation 50, equals 35, plus a 50-foot channel equals 85 feet). Such a depth is well within the capabilities of con- temporary dredging equipment. Once the channel was deepened, the plug ahead of the conversion lock would be blown out, and the lake water surface rapidly lowered to elevation 50. Then, with the two-lane conversion lock in constant service, the channel could be deepened as the water surface was progres- sively lowered until the bottom of the excavation reached project grade of 50 feet below sea level (and increasing to 60 feet at the Pacific end because of the greater tide variation there). At the Pacific end the conversion plan would be only slightly differ- ent. The single-lift conversion lock would be built in the third locks cut at Miraflores. When it went into service, as the Gatum Lake water level was dropped to elevation 50, Pedro Miguel lock, which operates between elevation 85 and elevation 50, would be high and dry. Since the third locks cut at this location was hardly more than begun before that project was shut down, a bypass around the existing lock would PUZZLE IN PANAMA—BOWMAN 417 have to be provided. This, however, would be a part of the required channel deepening and not lost motion. Finally, with respect to any of the stage-lowering plans, there is one special requirement to be met that would involve extra cost and con- struction difficulty. This is the provision of salt-water pumping plants to make up a deficiency of water for lock operation after Gatum Lake is lowered to elevation 50. Estimates indicate that such plants might have to aggregate over 4,000 second-feet in capacity. DEEP-DREDGING PLAN All the expense and trouble of conversion locks could, however, be eliminated if dredges could dig as deep as 135 feet below the water surface, i. e. from elevation 85, existing lake level, to elevation —50, the required sea-level channel depth. It is the great appeal of this plan, as to simplicity and to probable lessened cost, that has led the investigators to award the special dredge-development contracts. Should this plan prove feasible it would only be necessary to dredge channels in Gatun and Miraflores Lakes to elevation —50, and then knock out the protective plugs in the third locks cuts, draining the lake. There would be 8 to 10 days interruption to canal traffic while the plugs were being removed and the channels cleared of debris, but after that the sea-level canal would be a going concern. Simple in concept though it is, the deep-dredging plan raises some puzzling questions. One of these is basic: Can dredges be designed and built to dig at 135-foot depths, and fast enough to be practicable from a cost standpoint? To find out, two contracts have been awarded, and to date the results are encouraging. One of the contracts, covering both the design of a hydraulic cutter head dredge and studies and estimates of a construction plan, is held by a combination named Panama Contractors and consisting of Gahagan Construction Co., Standard Dredging Co., and the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific Co. Their contemplated dredge is said to have a 46-inch suction and a 40-inch discharge, and to incorporate the unique feature of a booster pump set about 65-foot down on the 185-foot long boom. Lifting and swinging gear would be of unprecedented size, and large buoyancy tanks would help support the boom. The spuds on this huge machine would be 150 feet long, the lower 80 feet of which telescopes into the upper part as required for adjustment. The second deep-dredge contract covers design only of a bucket ladder dredge and is held by the Yuba Manufacturing Co., specialists in these types of dredges. Although ladder dredges with 24-yard buckets have operated at 124-foot depths in California gold-mining work, nothing approaching the high capacity and 135-foot depth required for the Panama dredging has ever been built. Buckets as large as 6 cubic yards were investigated, but it is believed that the 418 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 greatest efficiency, relating power input to excavation production, can probably be attained with 2-cubic-yard buckets. Designed so that six such buckets would always be in contact with the bottom, a ladder dredge, it is claimed, would provide an efficient means for digging at 135-foot depths. Large dipper dredges, although impracticable for such deep work, can be used for slightly shallower digging, particularly in hard ma- terial, and the Bucyrus-Erie Co. holds a third design contract for such a machine capable of working at a 90-foot depth. With a 20-yard bucket for hard digging and a 30-yard size for softer material, the use of four 250-horsepower motors on the main hoist of such a dipper dredge, supplemented by a 165-ton counterweight, would provide speedy operation and large production. For all the proposed dredges there seems to be a preference for self-contained Diesel-electric power units rather than relying on an outside energy source. The cost of any one of the dredges, it is rumored, might run as high as $5,000,000. Another important consideration in the deep-dredging plan relates to drilling and blasting procedures under such great depths of water. Such work has never been done before, and powder-company estimates of the amount of explosives required are quite variable—from 2 to 4 pounds per cubic yard of rock removed as compared to conventional charges of 144 to 1 pound. Tests now under way in the Atlantic approach to the third locks cut, however, prove that the Gatun sand- stone, a relatively soft rock, can be broken to sizes for handling by any of the contemplated dredges with only slightly over 1 pound. Similar deep-drilling and blasting tests are planned in the hard basalt rock that prevails on the Pacific side. Powder costs could, however, be doubled or tripled without any im- portant consequence. Getting the holes down is what will run into big money. The actual drilling at great depths adds no new difficulties, according to the present tests, so that the crux of the drilling question will be speed and how to attain it; whether by exceptionally long drill steel or by the development of techniques to connect more conventional lengths rapidly; whether by a few supersize drill boats or by large numbers of smaller ones; and whether by rotary or percussion-type drills. TIDH CONTROL Any sea-level canal, no matter how or where built, will require a number of auxiliary structures and special construction operations. Thus, structures that will exclude unwanted currents, as from tides or from entering rivers, are of prime importance; while the necessary canal alignment to assure ease of navigation and the required side slopes to obviate slides will affect dry as well as wet excavation practices. PUZZLE IN PANAMA—BOW MAN 419 A great deal of design effort and model study has been expended on the subject of tide control, since the large difference in tide ranges— 20 feet maximum on the Pacific side and only 2 feet on the Atlantic— would be expected to generate a considerable current. Actually the maximum velocity has been shown on the sea-level model to be only 4.2 knots, and interestingly enough this occurs at the Atlantic end and farthest removed from the high Pacific tides that create it. Never- theless, this is considered excessive for ordinary merchant-ship opera- tion in a canal much of whose bottom and banks would be rock, as con- trasted with the sand in the Cape Cod Canal where such a velocity occurs, and means are being sought to reduce it. One method, and the one proposed in the majority report on the original canal in 1904, is to use a barrier dam and locks. But since it would take time to lock every ship entering or leaving the canal, even though the average lift would be only about 6 feet and the maxi- mum 10 feet, the present investigators have been studying a “navigable pass” arrangement similar to those used on the Ohio River by which ships could pass between canal and ocean at certain tide stages without using the locks. Not only would this speed canal operation, but the navigation-pass lay-out would provide maximum security from bomb- ing since, if hit, the closure dam could be quickly dragged out of the way. Then the canal could be used without tidal regulation, which is deemed practicable in an emergency. An opening could of course be cleared through a barrier dam and lock, if they should be bombed, but it would be a time-consuming operation. Moreover, it is believed to be the present thinking of the investigators that use of the navigable pass would so familiarize the pilots with open-water operation of the canal that they would be ready for any emergency, whereas the lock-and-dam plan would not permit this advance training. ELEMENTS OF NAVIGABLE-PASS PLAN The proposed navigation-pass lay-out would include three ele- ments— the pass equipped with a movable dam, a set of locks, and a gated water-control structure. Just how these would be arranged would depend upon the location chosen for the tidal-control works. One of the arrangements tested on the sea-level model places the tide lock, equipped with sector-type gates, in the third locks cut at Mira- flores; the navigation pass, with a 750-foot-wide opening, in the ap- proach to the present canal; and the water-control structure, of whatever width necessary, beside it. An interesting aspect of this arrangement is that the tidal lock could temporarily be increased in height and used as the conversion lock should the stage-lowering plan of canal conversion be adopted. 420 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 From the lay-out on the sea-level model it is apparent that the designers are thinking of a retractable-type dam across the navigation pass. And, since the dam must be capable of withstanding a 10-foot hydrostatic head on either side, a triangular cross section steel box has been chosen. Mounted on rollers, the prototype dam would be 80-foot high, extending 60 foot below and 20 foot above the sea bot- tom. One contemplated way of operation is by hydraulic pressure, introducing water into the retracting chambers to close the dam and evacuating the water to open it. The water-control structure involves a normal tainter gate set-up, its purpose being to bring the pool elevation inside the navigation pass to the tide elevation outside as early in the tide cycle as possible so that the navigation dam can be open the maximum length of time. Under the tentative criterion of a maximum permissible current of 1.8 knots (3 miles per hour) the tests indicate that the navigation Miratlores Locks. 750 navigable Woter control Fresent Canal axis pos: Structure ee aa ieee onan : SaaS es of cent ON Construction bypass channel- FicureE 5.—One of the tide-control schemes studied locates the necessary structures in the vicinity of the present Miraflores Locks. Ve ene oy, ° 2 3 6 7 Scale in Miles + |Barro Colorado z Island = & s 3 z = uw ° a Ss oS 8 8 is a s E c 8 3° iS s \ g 8 O —. fee te | y + eee fe ‘lee eee tereee 2t cole in Miles Puma Island i Pelenquitla Point Keys ue mye —GOtun Loke El. ws . Ce: ES oS pr = SS ie nS isin AME Se Se NESS Sd Sell Se SAR SUSESS SS SQ 28 23 30 3 32 Scole in Miles LEGEND SEDIMENTARY ———— IGNEOUS =, ] sed 774 HE 27) (Ee) ER Ed EPS MM SS ZA 3 ee ptenhc Gatun Lo Boe: Pedro Cucarocha Enwperador Culebra Ccim hio ae val olt Andesite Rhyolite ~Gontoct Foull mayon Foqnation Miguel Formation Limestone Formation oat een pee Agglomerate Mucks = | “eo ocane : Oligocene Oligocene and Miocene Pleistocene Miocene Reatcoois Ficure 7.—Geological sections across the Isthmus of Panama at the Canal Zone indicating the types of formations to be excavated to convert present canal to sea level. bearings pressures can be set, and that correct construction procedures can be outlined, certainly for any canal in the vicinity of the present one. For one thing they have determined that the Cucaracha clay, the famous slide material, will stand on relatively steep slopes (1 vertical to 8 horizontal) when it occurs alone, which is about the same as for the similar but harder Culebra formation, but that if overlaid by such hard and heavy rock as agglomerate or basalt the Cucaracha slopes 424 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 must be quite flat, 1:5 or more. For safety and eventual economy, much of the overlying hard rock would have to be removed. The third locks cuts indicate that Gatun sandstone will stand on a 6 vertical to 1 horizontal slope, and that 12:1 is safe for agglomerate and basalt: for the latter, berm widths and spacing criteria have also been established. Extensive loading tests have demonstrated that Cucaracha will safely carry 6 tons per square foot, while the harder Culebra, upon which the Pedro Miguel locks are founded, will carry 15 tons. It is facts such as these that give the investigators confidence in designs and construction methods being assumed for the purpose of their estimates. As to devising actual construction methods, the present studies are going only so far as is necessary to prepare the cost estimates for construction periods of either 10 or 15 years. It is, nevertheless, un- derstood that one of the most promising possibilities for moving the huge quantities of dry excavation involved has been shown by the stud- ies to be a combination of batteries of 30-yard shovels and barge dis- posal. Some recasting of material by draglines would be necessary to reach the barges, or this could be largely eliminated by digging auxiliary channels into the banks through which the barges could be towed to within reach of the shovels. With a half billion yards of dry excavation to be handled large and expensive plant lay-outs are obviously justified. TWO CANALS IN PLACE OF ONE Earlier in this article mention was made of the possibility of a rec- ommendation that would provide for building a new sea-level canal while at the same time the present lock canal would be kept in service. San Blas, Caledonia Bay, and Atrato-Truando were among the possible locations, but there are also routes near the present canal, and particu- larly one known as the Panama Parallel Route, that have also been seriously studied. This Panama Parallel Route, whose alignment corresponds closely to that of the present canal except that it eliminates the big bends in the latter, is an original conception of the present investigators grow- ing out of their studies of several routes having a Pacific terminus in Chorrera Bay a short distance outside the west boundary of the Canal Zone. One of these routes crosses the isthmus to the small town of Lagarto and is entirely outside the Zone. It has the advantage of offering dry excavation for the major part of its length, but the yard- age would be formidable and the construction of new ports and har- bors at both ends would entail tremendous expense, with Lagarto being practically in the open sea. PUZZLE IN PANAMA—BOW MAN 425 To eliminate the problems at Lagarto, two other Chorrera routes with Atlantic terminals near those of the present canal in Limon Bay were studied, followed by the next logical idea of shifting the Pacific terminus from Chorrera to the vicinity of Balboa on the present canal. Thus the Panama Parallel Route came into being. A common element of all these routes was a crossing of Gatun Lake that would be blocked off by barrier dams, which would also provide flood protection from the various lake-feeding streams. By digging the other sections of the canal first, the resulting spoil could be used to build the dams, after which the Gatun Lake sections could be exca- vated in the dry behind their protection. This idea has great appeal, its principal drawback being, of course, the tremendous dam-building job involved, since the total barrier dam length would exceed 14 miles. A conventional cross section of say 100-foot top width would not be too serious, but if this were increased 10, 20, or 30 times to provide security against modern weapons, grave doubts arise as to the advisability of the scheme. Nevertheless, once built, it would undoubtedly represent a reasonable solution of the problem that Congress set up. In the final analysis, also, it will have to compete with one of the Panama conversion plans on the basis of cost. THE SITUATION SUMMARIZED What then are the possibilities of solving this puzzle in Panama? What considerations must be resolved to come up with a recommenda- tion for a canal that will best meet the requirements of security and ample capacity set up by Congress? Among the obvious ones are sound engineering, practicable construction, and minimum possible cost. To which must be added resistance to or possible protection from the destructive effects of present and future weapons of war. Adding up these considerations as they apply to each of the proposals and then comparing the results is the present task of the investigators. It is futile, and it would be improper, to anticipate or speculate upon their conclusion, but a few applicable facts will serve to summarize the situation as it now exists. There are four routes removed from the present canal and three in the vicinity of it whose merits must be weighed. Of the former, three are sea-level routes whose yardages, estimated on a 1:1 bank slope assumption are as follows: Atrato-Truando, 1,590 million; San Blas, 1,520 million; and Caledonia, 1,260 million. What these yardages would prove to be were sufficient knowledge available to use geological slopes in estimating them is problematical, but they would increase rather than diminish judging from the Panama Conversion Route; using 1: 1 slopes, this plan required 688 million yards, which increased to 917 million when geological slopes were applied. 426 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Any one of these sea-level routes thus might require up to 2,000 million yards of excavation. It is also pertinent to note that they are in isolated locations without terminal ports or harbors, and that the construction problems to be met are uncertain and difficult to appraise. On the credit side any one of them would provide a route supple- mentary to the present canal, not only far removed from it, but devoid of locks, so that requirements of both security and capacity could be satisfied. It would seem that cost and construction difficulties relative to the other routes—and perhaps political considerations—would be the determinants in deciding whether one of these three crossings would be recommended. The Nicaragua lock canal has many advantageous aspects. 'Topo- graphical and geological conditions of the route are well defined. Excavation would be less than for a sea-level canal. On the basis of the 1931 cost estimates, the present cost might be fixed in the neighbor- hood of 11% billion dollars. Political considerations are favorable since the Nicaraguan Government has offered complete cooperation. From the standpoint of dispersion, canals in Nicaragua and Panama would satisfy security to the degree that a lock canal can be considered secure; or, stated in another way, to the degree that they increase the difficulty of an enemy to deprive us of a trans-isthmian crossing. This latter consideration is the one to be resolved in deciding for or against recommending the Nicaraguan route. The Chorerra routes in Panama offer the possibility of a sea-level canal with a minimum of wet excavation. Topographical and geo- logical conditions are reasonably well known, which may or may not be an advantage since they presage expensive harbor and port facilities and total excavation of over 114 billion cubic yards. A distinct dis- advantage is that their construction would require an enlargement of the Canal Zone and removal of one or both terminals from the vicinity of existing Panamanian cities. The Panama Parallel Route would permit a sea-level canal to be built in the Zone without disturbing the present lock canal. By its construc- tion we would have two canals, although their proximity one to the other would raise the question of complete wartime safety. Construc- tion could be done in the dry, but the building of the barrier dams required to hold back Gatun Lake would be a task of great magnitude, while their breaching in case of attack might put both canals out of service. Relative cost and security from attack are the factors to be considered in choosing this interesting scheme. Converting the present canal to sea level will entail less total exca- vation than on any other sea-level route and probably no more than for a lock canal in Nicaragua. Terminal facilities are established and thus do not enter into the future costs. On the other hand, the neces- Lend PUZZLE IN PANAMA—BOW MAN 427 sity for dams and diversion channels to control floods in intersected streams and for temporary locks to maintain traffic through the canal during the construction period willadd greatly totheexpense. If deep dredging is feasible, construction difficulties and costs will be greatly lessened, but even if the alternative of building temporary conversion locks, as required for stage lowering of Gatun Lake, is necessary, no insurmountable troubles are involved. As a matter of fact, the deep- dredging and stage-lowering plans are not mutually exclusive initially. It would be possible to start with either one and then shift to the other after the first 2 or 3 years of preliminary work, without appreciable loss of time or money. Finally a sea-level canal undoubtedly offers the greatest assurance of security and minimum interruption in wartime, since damage from bomb hits could be repaired by dredges in a matter of days as con- trasted with the many months that a lock canal would be out of service if its water supply should be lost. The sea-level canal also promises no real navigation hazards because of tidal currents. Cost is the principal question upon which a recommendation favoring conversion of the present canal to sea level is believed to rest. Insofar as improving the present lock canal is concerned the Pacific Terminal Lake Plan is the one to be weighed and compared. Building the new, enlarged two-lift locks required, and dispersing them as much as necessary for safety, makes this by no means a low-cost solution. Here, too, relative cost and security will control the decision. In summary, the choice of the investigators must rest between sup- plementing the present canal with another removed a safe distance from it or converting the present canal to sea level. After that the choice shifts to Congress and the American people. If they want a safe canal badly enough to invest what it costs—1 billion, 2 billion, perhaps 3 billion dollars—they can have it. If security comes too high, and they will settle for increased capacity, any one of the schemes mentioned earlier in this article for improving the present canal, in- cluding completion of the Third Locks Project, will suffice. Upon such a decision rests finally the solution to the puzzle in Panama— and incidentally the silencing or the resurrection of the ghost of a sea-level canal. CONSULTANTS ON THE WORK In addition to the staff of the investigation, numerous consultants have been engaged on the work, as mentioned earlier in this article. Most important of these, of course, are the members of the consulting board, which consists of Rear Adm. John J. Manning (C. E. C. USN) Chief of the Bureau of Yards and Docks; Brig. Gen. Hans Kramer (C. E. Retired) ; Prof. Boris A. Bakhmeteff, Columbia University; 428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Joel D. Justin, consulting engineer, Philadelphia; W. H. McAlpine, office of the Chief of Engineers, Washington: and H. M. Hill, North- ern States Power Co., Minneapolis. Harvey Slocum, well-known construction specialist, has advised upon construction plans and estimates, while such experts from the office of Chief of Engineers have been called in as Gail A. Hathaway on flood control, Carl Giroux and B. W. Steele on dams and hydro power, and Leon Zach on construction camps and permanent town planning. Soil mechanics and foundation guidance is being supplied by Profs. H. M. Westergaard, Arthur Casagrande, and L. Don Leet of Harvard University, and E. M. Fucik of Chicago. Prof. Roland Kramer of the University of Pennsylvania has made extensive studies and advised upon canal traffic growth. COMPARISON OF PROPELLER AND REACTION- PROPELLED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCES? By Benson HAMLIN Project Engineer and BF. SPENCELEY Performance Group Aerodynamicist Bell Aircraft Corporation INTRODUCTION Coincident with the development of successful turbojet power plants for aircrait, a broad new field of propulsion has come to light. Power- plant research and development has progressed so rapidly that a wide choice of power plants is now available to the aircraft manufacturer, who as yet has had little opportunity to demonstrate the practical applications. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the airplane- performance potentialities of four types of widely differing power plants and to indicate their trends and particular fields of application. Conventional power plants of the reciprocating, internal-combustion type, both direct and indirect air-cooled, have been extended to com- pounding with a gas-turbine wheel operated by the normal exhaust gases and delivering the power thus generated back into the crank- shaft. The independent gas turbine is also available for use in con- junction with the propeller, in which case approximately 80 percent of the energy in the gases is absorbed by the turbine to drive the propeller and the remainder is utilized in the form of reaction propul- sion. Air-stream engines include the turbojet, reso-jet (or intermit- tent duct), and the ram-jet (or athodyd), all of which are reaction motors depending upon atmospheric air supply. A third classifica- tion of available power plants consists of dry- or liquid-fuel types of rocket motors, which are distinguished principally by the fact that atmospheric oxygen is not used for combustion as in the case of other power plants. 1 Presented before a closed meeting of the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences, Holly- wood, Calif., Aug. 15, 1945. Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, vol. 13, No. 8, August 1946. 429 430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 For this paper four power plants having distinctly different per- formance characteristics have been chosen: (1) a V-type, reciprocating, liquid-cooled engine employing water injection for emergency power; (2) a turbojet engine having about 23 percent less sea-level static thrust than the former; (3) a hypothetical subsonic ram-jet; and (4) a bipropellant liquid-fuel rocket motor. For brevity, these power plants will be referred to as a propeller, turbojet, ram-jet, and rocket, respectively. Because these power plants differ so radically in performance char- acteristics, it is difficult to determine a sound basis for comparison. Ji has therefore been decided to design a single-engined, single-place fighter or pursuit type airplane employing each type of power plant and limiting the size to some reasonable weight, say less than 14,000 pounds. It is feit that the results submitted, together with the analy- sis presented, offer sufficient justification for classifying these types of power plants in specialized categories in which they excel. Thus, if a particular type of engine shows outstanding merit in a high-altitude and high-speed performance for a fighter, similar reasoning may be judiciously applied in considering other aircraft types. The text is divided into three parts. Part A compares the various types of engines independently of airplane characteristics insofar as possible. Part B briefly describes a logical and practical airplane design configuration for each power plant. In part C, the results of the airplane performance characteristics are presented from which comparisons and conclusions may be advanced. PART A—POWER-PLANT CHARACTERISTICS 1. Reciprocating engine and propeller—A typical high-perform- ance engine employing water injection is assumed, which delivers 2,000 b. hp. for take-off, the power varying linearly with density to 1,700 b. hp. at an engine critical altitude of 20,000 feet. Typical propulsive efficiencies have been used in converting power to available thrust in order to afford a direct comparison with the other types of power plants in which thrust is the fundamental consideration. Exhaust jet thrust has also been included. The gas turbine driving a propeller bas not been considered because the differences when compared to the remaining three power plants are not radically different from those of the reciprocating engine. Specific engine weight and size are improved, but fuel consumption will be increased in comparison to reciprocating engines. Also, the propeller itself imposes a definite limitation on maximum speed. Both the gas turbine and compound engine may be considered to be alternate developments in relation to propeller-driven airplanes. 2. Turbojet engine.—The turbojet engine selected is typical of the single-stage centrifugal blower type employed in a number of aircraft. AIRPLANE PERFORMANCES—-HAMLIN AND SPENCELEY 431 Performance characteristics represent those already attainable at the present state of development. 3. Ram-jet engine.—Of the four power plants considered, the ram- jet represents the only hypothetical design under consideration, it being the only type of propulsion not actually known to exist as a flight article. Asa basis for the theoretical engine performance, the analysis presented in reference 1 is used herein. This type of power plant will not operate at zero air speed, and consequently cannot take off. Aux- iliary take-off means are assumed to launch the airplane and accelerate to a flight speed of 350 miles per hour, at which time the ram-jet is started. Since no logical engine output rating exists in this case, a unit of a size suitable for 10,000-pound fighter is assumed. Combustion temperatures of the order of 3,000° F. are assumed to be structurally possible since moving parts do not exist to complicate the problem. Successful operation in this regime has been demonstrated. Already turbine buckets are operating in a 1,500° F. gas temperature. Kerosene fuel to the engine is provided by a turbine-driven fuel pump. 4. Rocket motor —The rocket motor, being small and light, has been chosen as a 9,000-pound thrust unit, which takes advantage of a high thrust output without presenting impractical arrangement or installa- tion problems. An example of actual application is the well-known German Me 163. For practical reasons an existing type of rocket motor using a bipropellant fuel system has been chosen, leaving room for considerable improvement with further research in the relatively near future. The problem of supplying the fuel and oxidizer to the motor at high pressure is solved by turbine-operated pumps using the same propel- lants for power. 5. Maximum thrust available (figs. 1-8).—Immediately apparent is the fact that the conventionally powered airplane will have the low- est maximum speed at all altitudes and, also, that it is essentially a low- altitude power plant. Obviously, the ceiling of this airplane will be inferior. Furthermore, the maximum speed limitation is absolute as indicated by the fact that above 600 miles per hour the propulsive effi- ciency limitation due to compressibility effects causes the thrust avail- able practically to vanish. The slope of the curve indicates good accel- eration characteristics in level flight below maximum speed and also that climb characteristics will be relatively good. Considering the rocket airplane, maximum performance is obviously superior under all conditions. Inasmuch as atmospheric pressure variation is but a small percentage of the motor chamber pressure, the small variation in thrust with altitude has been neglected. Air speed has no effect upon thrust output. At low altitudes only does the ram-jet offer competition in available thrust, but this is offset by the fact that airplane drag at high air densities is also extremely high. 777488—48——81 432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 ibe aan Pee eae aS sono alba bale SSS /__ |__| ese —" Caen a a fa epee tL : an Wee i ane a a fo NA ed eg TRUE AIRSPEED— MPH. FicurEe 1.—Thrust vs. air speed at sea level. pe ans he toad | a ia eet et ar | lsd en ll pee aa Gad i a cl a lV Za lad a el ol Di Ka FY Secnctrsnzoecs a ua eal wa TRE AVAILABLE THRUS AT Pp OOO FEET # Ha I pealey eaters meee mere ceED FEELERS TRUE AIRSPEED — M.PH Figure 2.—Thrust vs. air speed at 20,000 feet. Outstanding is the rocket’s complete superiority in performance at high altitudes where airplane drag is greatly reduced. Thus, high- altitude speeds will necessarily be outstanding as will also the high rate of climb at all altitudes. Relatively constant thrust with speed variation is also apparent for the turbojet. In this case output suffers considerably with altitude, AIRPLANE PERFORMANCES—HAMLIN AND SPENCELEY 433 ROCKET CONSTANT 9000 LES basta TO peer 5000 Bl || Ei Nias ~ BeeSee see 4000 Ae ene Figure 7.—Power plant plus fuel weight. 9. Power plant plus fuel weight (fig. 7).—-Figure 7 is a plot of power-plant weight plus fuel weight, excluding fuel tanks, taken at maximum continuous rating versus duration. Weights of power plant are assumed as follows: Power-plani weights Propeller | Turbojet Ram-jet Rocket Motor + controls and plumbing__-..__.-._-_----------- 1, 900 2, 000 550 450 Goolingisystem: --’coolants! 2 s2e-32 ee 450 0 0 0 Propelleriest e422 ea eh a a ee eee 500 0 0 0 ‘RULDING SNGspUM DS eae ee eee eee eee aes SER 0 0 150 225 Total pounds 242220 be ole eee kt eee ee be 2, 850 2, 000 700 675 For the rocket motor the power plant plus fuel weight is startling, being 10,000 pounds for less than 4 minutes duration, with no weight allowance for fuel tankage. However, when the vastly superior thrust rating is considered the picture improves somewhat. AIRPLANE PERFORMANCES—HAMLIN AND SPENCELEY 439 Investigations have revealed clearly the fact that for any given airplane and gross weight, the minimum pounds of fuel expended per 1,000 feet of altitude gained in climbing always occurs at the maxi- mum available thrust. This phenomenon is valid irrespective of com- pressibility drag increases. Consequently, an extremely high thrust rocket compared to the other power plants has been chosen because it is practical to do so in this case where the power-plant specific weight is small. The tremendous amount of energy available in an extremely short period of time provides dazzling performance for a decidedly limited duration. Even under maximum range operating conditions at vastly reduced thrust the high S. F. C. still obtaining irrevocably limits range and endurance. The only possible recourse would be some means of launching or commencing rocket flight at high altitudes where exceptionally high air speeds will offset the high rate of fuel consumption. Thus, rocket-powered flight in the present instance is considerably limited in range. Next comes the ram-jet, in which case the fuel consumption depends directly upon speed and altitude. Assuming a maximum speed of 700 miles per hour at sea level and 550 miles per hour at 30,000 feet, it is apparent that at low altitudes a substantial, though not large improve- ment over the rocket obtains. At altitude, the fuel consumption is not a great deal more than the propeller or turbojet-propelled air- planes. In this case 10,000 pounds of power plant plus fuel results in a practical average duration of 30 minutes. Generally, it may be con- cluded from the figure that the ram-jet is suitable for relatively high maximum speeds at medium to low altitudes for relatively short duration. By virtue of a lower power-plant weight the turbojet excels over the propeller up to 15 minutes at sea level and 30 minutes at 30,000 feet, after which the propeller takes over. Considering the decided advan- tage of speed for the former, it may be generalized that for excellent high-speed performance at all altitudes up to 40,000 feet, the turbojet endurance at maximum continuous thrust is a good half-hour. To compare with the rocket and ram-jet a 10,000-pound power plant would show an average duration of some 135 minutes, or 214 hours. The propeller and internal-combustion engine is by far the best power plant for long endurance at maximum continuous power but at a considerable sacrifice in speed. Hxtrapolating an average curve to a 10,000-pound power plant results in an endurance of about 12 hours. Note that the ram-jet and turbojet show an increased econ- omy at altitude as does the propeller, but the latter is the only one to show an improvement in high speed at altitude. 10. Power plant plus fuel volume (fig. 8).—In addition to power- plant weight its size is also a critical factor in the design of the aircraft 440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1947 Figure 8 shows the volume of power plant plus fuel corresponding to the weights shown in figure 7. Power-plant volumes are the volumes occupied by the units if wrapped with cloth. In other words, power plants having an odd shape will result in still more space unusable for other airplane components. Power-plant volumes in cubic feet are estimated as follows, representing the minimum space not available for other airplane components: Power-plant volumes Propeller | Turbojet Ram-jet Rocket mneinewplowerand.cear bOxKe sees ee eee eee See tS Peete QG6 Ua ues 235 Ko ea ee 9. TN WRG HOU) Ka et et ks Sa ORR Se se a SU Pie ta 25 ueeee Ofere 0. ‘hurbine/and ‘pum pss. 45 Slee eee NE Ey ee Qin Qe obe By Albee aliiBk Ojiljandicoslant:systems sane un ee eee 1B, peel ep Quan eee Oi ereaees 0. Ly BY) es Wa a Fa apse ae GOtee oes 120 ft.3____} 240 ft.3____| 14 ft.3 Mquivalent frontal diameterss-.oss 2) = aes ee eee Ssinee =e 52a ee Shins see 18 in. Mrontallarede: see aoe aie eres Pea ved eee 5.5 ft? eee 14.8 ft.2..__| 13.6 ft. aod AS itt.2 LMC Peta La ce a at Nama: B2eeaeee we Sa Lob WA oe Ficure 8.—Power plant plus fuel volume. In comparing the engine volumes, the power plants in order of preference are the rocket, propeller, turbojet, and ram-jet. Fortu- nately, although the last-named has a considerable volume, its weight and installation considerations are such that it is practical to convert the aft fuselage, which always is relatively vacant because of balance considerations, into the power plant proper. Tending to offset this effect is the fact that the large mass airflows consumed dictate large duct inlet scoops. The simplicity of mechanisms alleviates installa- tion problems considerably. AIRPLANE PERFORMANCES—HAMLIN AND SPENCELEY 44] Next in bulky space requirements is the turbojet, nearly one-quarter of the volume of which is compressor entrance air supply ducting in an average installation. This feature requires a relatively large nacelle or, because of the weight and diameter, dictates the fuselage size and arrangement in a single-engined airplane. Although the internal-combustion engine is small, the space require- ments are nearly doubled by carburetor, oil cooler, and Prestone radia- tor alr scoops and ducting. Fortunately, the main component parts, the engine, oil coolers, and Prestone coolers, may be disposed about the airplane structure to best advantage. The rocket motor is by far the smallest and simplest from the design standpoint. ; F i i i i a t it . ; hale TT TCEA RPS | ae em CG , n [7 RY Y . ' i ; / a hi ; . i ba) Wiss Heyy cn | nf a us A i TW } 4 i 7 i i * ; 7 : ; fii { ; i ny; ‘ r ee ey Pe by LENT A \ } TA awe i 5 : i rr a ‘ at A J Hid : i Wt Hy vA ivi ‘HA Wa mh hie Na ae Make ey le Baan aloe line i b hae PUY Are ap Gis aE ane Ro a Per a ‘i ae, Pee vA a, re i, Wa aah Yoh SL tO h it ia mee ies wid genie Wik v pe a Me URTAE | mn e . if ei bee, Bath i is i po na ic : i ie he eee hs ate AS a om ber si a f On | | | Me ne Rts ae ae om nol aM ee Wa Oi ay AN 9 NG A Page A boeeC harlest Gort et easel nelets Gill RW ed gs wipe ye See le viii, 119, 120 IAD DOLE wer uUCKOR Ge oe 22s ie ain. wee Seen ee a i ee eat elas eee vi (follusksiand!medicmne:iny WorlduWar Up sess eee ee anes eee ee 325 INCCEBSIONS SE Ate Foose ou se See Bes Co 11, 29, 38, 39, 40, 45, 82, 93, 152 Bureaulofl American: Mthnologysac22 soos a eee ee ee erate 82 Breer: Galleryioh Arte see swe ste eae es Ae te 45 VET GD 2 caf SLATS Slee ae Tar ee Pg RN ue te OT OH LOD OPS RNG Sr 152 National Collection of Fine: Artsios22 25 22h See bee ease ee 38, 40 National: Gallery Oh Artis oe ere tere Sik oe ean Ree le ae 29 ING E10 NSS eV IT ae en ec a eh I Oa Gy tee eee ene 11 National ZOOlOgICAl Rar Kees eae ee oe ee ice eee 93 Snuthsoniancnsticuvione a= se eee See css cys eens 39 Administrative accountant (Thomas F. Clark)__..__..--------------_-- Vv Administrative Assistant to the Secretary (Harry W. Dorsey)_----------- Vv Acminisorative statins ssae= cers ea NS ee et oe See eae viii Airplane performances, Comparison of propeller and reaction-propelled (Hamilinrand spenceley) sa2is 22s ae Das eee Be oe ee 429 Aldrich, Loyal B., Director, Astrophysical Observatory.---.---------- viii, 123 ATU WWE ETM Le lee ee or ts ss Sy Sate ey er 5, 39 UAT ESE UY oN RRS NE A oe pe rn rar aegis Ue tL 20 Anderson, Clinton P., Secretary of Agriculture (member of the Institution) - Vv PST CETC VSN rede ees er as Ae a ng a hf thes cet oie Se ae vi APPIGDMationsas= ee ess eee se was se renee 5, 25, 62, 64, 90, 125, 150, 161, 168 CanaliZone: BiologicalwArcass2. oy auto. oe Se eee wee 150 Institute of social Anthropology. S24 ss2e ess. cee sae eee 62 NL ELO NO CATT VIOUS eereptes ob SEN oss Sta a Secale ae eee 125 Nationall Galleryaois Arte seen = Sa eo Se ae ere 25 INational:Zoolopiealebarksso so see aes SE oes et on sete 90 Erin gine and pmmGing se se eke wees oe ts ce wate eteepse 161 RIVED DaSsiN SULVEVS see oe en eee ee Se OU on OL eee 64 IATCLOWSKI Henry es sereraisat te eine a ah See eee ee 119 ATMS OUN 8 ylOT eto Seas See eas See eae ae lees ae oeee et eeas 5, 39 Assistant Secretary of the Institution (John E. Graf)_-_..-------------- v,3 Assistant Secretary of the Institution (J. L. Keddy)------------------- Vv AstropuysicaluObservatory 29-22) e es eee se a See eee viii, 118 Division of Astrophysical’ esearch 22-22-2222 5 esos esl 118 WiOrKrIMitHetneld Set se ee a ee Na ee ae eee ee ee 119 Workron washington 2255222 See So bo shes hile Seo so oeeoes 118 Division on nadiation and Organisms. 252-2002 of 22 Ss eee oe 120 CORE y Leip | Ukr a sa SI ay ge ys an ca a 120 ERE SCA RC mete ea ME ae I Se Sn Ce ye ee ee oe 120 BSAEG OLEH boy a1 fay ch Seo hh mn a ty Aa i age ea Lae ae 122 EON eee ne ee ee SS cee i eS ee eR Soe oe 118 PS REN A SS SL Pe 2a a hd cg ME Ape ncn ended panda viii Aten, A. H. W., Jr. (The use of isotopes as tracers)_.------------------ PAN 460 INDEX Page Atomic energy (Johns) 22202. --22422 5522. 2222 S22 22 4 ee See wr lZ¢ Attorney General of the United States (Tom C. Clark, member of the Anns Ga GUL U1 1) ys A aI aA a nh re ee ee Vv JARs i phell Sa; es ep Ee eee aS SE No ee ee eee oa soe vii Awl, “Aime Miles oo Soc Coes eee ee ee ee ee vi CAA eI st Deo URS ce es eet 5, 39 B Bachandslviadeleine As oe cece Ea a Pe ake lear Sole gS see 65 BY: el ov sh gw OK Gi Mag A A yp AN SY LS Eg a) 12-13 Barkley, Alben W. (regent of the Institution) _.___.---22------2 22 22_ v,2 Jogo Gh yd DN ten es as pL Ra ee ee Owe ee vi 1 BP et Royo} © BU od 0 LARRANI PR AU UP Ba) eA I) LAS A sete he vi Bass, S. L. (Silicones—a new continent in the world of chemistry) ----__--_- 229 Bassler, (Ribaleoe (oboe wace ase coe eee e eee se en eee seks ae eee vii Bats,, Phe senses, of(Vesey-ritzGerald) oon eee eee eee eee 317 BAUKAT CU. Go OSSD Ne see ten es seats ei a ela ele hale etna a ee ier eer 68, 69 i BYE (eV coud Oh fst (=) Co eae) LEMMA eyo ya pec A Sem ep Sp vi, 19 Beach: Jessie Gav e2 2 eos VO acne cei sea eee ee eee ee vii IB SEIS G18 0 oo PC ns rp ec ee ee 5, 39 Belin, Ferdinand Lamot, Vice President, National Gallery of Art__-_- viii, 24, 25 TBE) CO syed We Reece a SSN yA el a RE eS ie ot et viii IBYspob ie dahl a tees ae ee ee i eee ee Peace eens Saas vii LB eye, eG ao bet Oca tee abel Pad pe ee Se RO IN Hi ete abe ee a ee vi Bikini Atoll, The biology of, with special reforeri¢e to the fishes (Schultz)__ 301 Blackwelder, Robo ce. soot onc tae See ee tae ase ee eee aa ees vi Bliss Roberti Wiss oss ee oso sea Sees seen ae eee ae 39, 40, 68, 69, 71 [Bove Hol Ohi aVey soiree eee ee ee eS ee Le ee oe See SeeSoSsce v, 2 xeeuti ve, COMM Ghee ee ss se eee weg ree a ee eee v, 169 Members i022 2 Sy fo Sect oe NE Oey eee ee es v, 2 Proceedings 2.20 30 Na 8 fab e ee ce soe. Be ge ea Posh EN wretch 2 IByaySey ONGoy many pe Qs hey MU) le Ss ek a eee SES ou se Vii | Bua Kilby eqs e Gael Gy nso ae iy ales Milan Um i eI et oa a ee Vii I BNpOYS} eo] OPN) O) Sok Oates aA ge a a al ae ee ae 80, 81 EOIN: eC UN TD IN seo rere are ape nee eee 39 J Bovagoyy sn OU) eh CoN UN RS a ae a a Ta NE ie eel et a Viii DBA Tw Acid Byml miia hae Wa Oey aaa A a ee eRe oak a vi JBsrekfo hatte! Bly SMe Neh i ange a a ee eS ev Stec GevAllt LBABYd rab ove ha vahe Unig pias URE sa el wala ie se i eS ee ee ee Seas vi Buchsbaum. Ralphand Mildredi22 5222 eye ee eee eee 139 Bush, Vannevar (regent of the Institution) __...__---------------- v, 2, 3, 169 C Cairns, Huntington, Secretary-Treasurer and General Counsel, National Gallery. OL yAt Gs teas a et ee a ieee viii, 24, 37 CG sa) hayes Ne fad OSC po Lay ee aa vi, 18, 73 GanalyZone biological) Arcai2 a: ses2 2302 le eee Se See viii, 4, 126 139) 00) x RENE een ce OS IRIE DS ON et eS Lt Ba ees ae ok 126 Gommentsiof Scientists== 2022 oe a2 eee ae ee ee 136 ED TS(orEM US gy oo ope ee es es I Se Be wee BeBe et 150 Island herbarit@ias 225 2G) 20s 2 2s ee oo ee See eee 141 Island literatures.) 5225200 ee ee 127 List of termites of Panama and the Canal Zone____------------ 143 INDEX 461 Canal Zone Biological Area—Continued Report—Continued Page Dah eye 8 a a A a a Nl le lL aE ee ele ged 141 Organizations contributing to support of the laboratory__-~____- 151 Rainfall, temperatures, and relative humidity, 1946___________- 145 FLOP ATEINS THe SLAC e cece se Ser ne ieee) UNERE IEhe aRent AA cc a OLE Se 126 Scientists and their studies___._.----------- PIM ea AD sel Ned ARE SO 128 Species ide xe ee ere ne Se cere eee a erene na Ree are a Bae Sue w 140 Jermite-tree buildings tm the: Lropicss ss = 22-2 os nat eee eee 142 Cannon, Clarence (regent of the Institution)_--_-.--.-_--_-__- Vargo 109 Cappannaninestepuent @ he. 6 win we swan SEs Helin elle Ae a de Ea ee 76 Garey Charlese sot nse ie ee a re neem oe Seem tone Seen Shoe mois viii Carrikcrmo Niet As Ur eee ee nee ate es eae Sele eles Eon ye 12,19 Carwithen + berthac hs personnel Oli Cera iss ao bie sare ls ere a Vv Cassedy HawiniGss 2a 22 cok Joe eS Jee ee shoe ele ee viii, 80 Gy WOO OUTS r re eee tah ye aa CMU Oe REE re NLS gee ce ea eet ide Wentennial Somithsomiane. sg) fete oe ee ee aa a 6 Chace TiwA.. IRs eee eee wa ME a Oe Ee ee vi Chancellor of the Institution (Fred M. Vinson, Chief Justice of the United SORCES) eee eee eee Oe ee Ee ee aie ee elec eae a etre eae eae v, 2 GhapinwtidwardvAc aw ee soso iede peewee Nes ceo cee ee ere vi, 13 @hapman phranka Mtoe s sees eoee CEO Se ee Ue 140 @hasey ACN eS er acee = ee es ie ee ara Le oe See ACR a Se eI vil Chief Justice of the United States (Fred M. Vinson, Chancellor of the In- FSA OH ETE 6 (0 0) Sr pens ine Os ee a pe AB LO PERNA Vv, viii, 2, 24 Civilization, The primary centers of (Swanton)_______..-_____--.-_____ 367 Gar Aas inns Es ee SS ey rs acer ya es 2 ae aR vi CiarkwWeilasl., librariances 26 255 ae Sa cle Na eee RN v, 155 (SER Fah 5) Fea UP 8 La BA a BD Ne ua AN EA eee a ON too viii, 119 lark RODS SterHO goose aes race ga ee eer ene ee en eee AO PEN ORE vii Clark, Thomas F., administrative accountant___._._--------_--_-_-__- v, viii Clark, Tom C., Attorney General (member of the Institution)_--________ Vv @larke Gilmore iss So se ek oe on et eR A ei ela 5, 39, 40 STO Ce ee ayes so ort ay a Se ae A ha a ge ee 20 Cochran. DorisuViest sees es gece al, ies Pee eS es ees vi (5) HITS 8 Oy 8 a flee ae ear er aT Re to NE ROE ep mH ee Y LIB viii, 56, 57 Commerford, L. E., chief, publications division._._..........-._.__-_-- Vv Compton, Arthur H. (regent of the Institution)_-...-....-_-.-----..-- v, 2,3 @ongdon wn Warles: Hie eae elated 58 Won sere aUlise = 220i ya TE ee be ee ae era aN ay re vii, 20 WOOK Oa ee ike 1s Ssh RUB ONS ae SC as 2 2 a EN eR EE vi, vii (Orava oy abe: MG TSS HEA tie ies Sa anal le BS SVR BARE Aca ay ce CNL Sh vii, 14, 20 CWoopery bau ee ee a ee opener —fels Ewes hid hay be VN 66, 68, 69, 70 Cox, D. C. (The tsunami of April 1, 1946, in the Hawaiian Islands)_-_--- 257 a GN DE gl i oe) so De Ea Nes lp Een gop me EI SS 2 CTOs AV DIEIMS eweente 2ae Loe a oe oy Bo ee peed ee eRe vii Cumming oberipoen eos eee eerste 2 Sel! ee a 70, 71 @usumane Josep lim Anerson 21) 8 ayy ayiiyny meted liye 12) see ee ed tat Be vi D DE Thee OM VETS YF 29 ek las IR a el SA Bu eM Cs 2 viii, 24, 25 Daugherty richard yls seers 2 Le wl. ee Be le ee oo hl Ae. & UU DavissHarveyaN.-(regentiofmue mnstitution)!) 228204542 280 oo eee v, 2,3 462 INDEX Page Dearborn, Nedive sit eee ke eee nel a eee ee 12 Deardorff ;/Merle: Hes 22222 Uae Ee eS ee ee ee as 58 Deignan, Hy Goi..u pone en tee ee ete ae see oe eee ees vi Delano, Frederic A. (regent of the Institution)__.___..__.._--.-----.-- Vice Director, National Museum (Alexander Wetmore) -_-_---_------------- vi, 23 Donohoe; John C.2 2225 2b s22 coe oh ete Se ee toes eee 73 Dorsey, Harry W., Administrative Assistant to the Secretary--_---_-- v, viii, 89 Dorsey, Nicholas W., Treasurer of the Institution. _-..-._.-_-__-_------- Vv Drowned ancient islands of the Pacific Basin (Hess)____._____________-_ 281 Drucker; Philips ss es oe ee ek ee viii, 59, 60, 76, 77 Duncan, Carl D. (Some remarks on the influence of insects on human wel- LATS) SPN AIDA ALAS pe NL Pla tL UIA Oa 339 SFO) tne cD ei ADD SE ash 0a ep ee ee eee ieee a far vii, 22 E Hagel; George whos. sons oe. eo eee eee ee eel ae eos See 39 Editorialdivision. chief, (Webster/P. True) 2252 -- 22". 2. eee eee v, 161 Egler) Prank (yst2 28 pil SS eS Si UM Bye ee eer 139 5 DY Vo V5 Cay) dy Noel felted eae ray, he el ny na a aaty MR MC MEE SCA ENE Uc vi SNES pV asx) IVE Soe oe ee ee i ale oe Or vi imery,, Murl- 22 Seis soe eet Se aaa eke ee ee ee 54 Eng, Ransom L. (The Ryukyu people: A cultural appraisal) -_-.-------- 379 Brdman, AD SS 22 eeike 292 ee eee es ee ee as eee vi DE eae Ora ag Ca 2p Ee a mee 132 Bssex, John, G22 20 2228 oak oe ee ey ee A ee eee EE see 73 histablishmen tC ee eee ee ae re ere coe 2 Ethnology, Bureau of American = 22-2 502.6 2 ee eee viii, 53 IAT CHIVES 202 ee ee ee eee ee eee eae eae ae ae 80 Collections: 220025 Ge 2 oe Bs a a ar ee ee 82 Editorial work and) publications) 422 8s5sen 2 tee es eee eee 79, 160 Tilustrations:2eolteopeies Alek Ts ae laye ty tees are ee eee 80 Institute.of Social: Anthropology 222022 Se ee eee 62 OAV ob ei yy ENO AN APR A pe Gd aD Ca tipent a Ca UE BN nese ae oi 79 Miscellaneous ie oe eee ee eee ae aa as ate at 82 1 Sse) 076) 5 ouOeR see Apa 1 ene eR EN RM RIAN AY RTT eb Ne a A 53 River Basin Surveys =. .-4=-4So 50h: eye tee Se ae eee 64 Special photographic restoration project_.....-.-.---------------- 80 ROGER ches et ee ee ce eae a nr Vili Systematic researches’. 25 sts heise mene ee eal ee 53 MBB rary TATA TD EGC ERTL eae a a ere Viii 1 Dish: PPL Ok © MONTANE Deal snes RAR eWay pele nUA IML CRE Ae api a Ba ae ek vi Executive Committee of the Board of Regents. ~.~----22--2---22 5" 162, 169 Miembersea et. bethany OG sel au Ns AG ee ep eee ree a ee 169 DEASS 00) ween oa ea ay EP a a ee Saree pone eee 162 ATO PIIA tO Sere ae a re eee eae a 168 PYG hee cee ee Ca Ae ee BS 168 Cash balances, receipts and disbursements during fiscal year 1947. 166 Classification of investments 22-26 eee ee eee 165 Freer'Gallery of Art funds oko trees Ea ee ee 164 Gifts and ‘bequestss<24 coc 4s05 45s see oe So ae 167 (SrrevgdocroyavtshalwejaVo Loh paan(siahn A000 (ee oe 162 INDEX = 463 EF - Page Rigmebi dap i Geeeeteee oe 5s Se Se yee ea ee ee vii, 137, 139 hsirchild Grahame ellesse = 2. see he et ee ee ee ee 133 nederaluG lassilicAtiOnyACts> 25-52 5e— fo. 2222 i ee ee em 5 MENS Carp rane ee ete fs See. he ea ee eR ee CCE GROIN Tapp IN Gy TT ee ine a ag ee 138 ONLOn RW ANIEAT INS = ath oe So ae Sy ee AL Ee ae eee ene ee eee viii, 57, 58 Field, Hugh W. (New products of the petroleum industry). Sarde, ree 235 ES tObse Mie li. 25-2 ae Seo eed Sat oe BE Sor aE lh een eae A AE 79 In ances fee Sat ac Se ee ee Seen See es Se ea 6, 162 Finley, David E., Director, National Gallery of Art...____-__- vili, 24, 25, 39, 40 DEVS) VSS 7) CB ee ee era yy a eee SPOS Ts Ee Fy Tp vii PBS IV CI NV ie EA ek eh a hk oe ea vii COM eee ens 2 ae te Lees Woe ee te ee eee vii Forrestal, James, Secretary of the Navy (member of the Institution) ____-_ Vv oshap Wissliat. eee eee ee ee ee oe vii, 22 Foster, G. M., Jr., Director, Institute of Social Anthropology ----_-- viii, 62, 63 Erase MU ames Hee eee 42a tf a ee a ye ae ee oe 39 HreersGalleryOmaArt.ose= o-oe= soe keene le 23 oe ee ee viii, 45 IAGTORGSN CON ae! Ses Dee Te ee ee ee Se ee ee 50 @hangeshinvexhibitiois® 2206 sees see eee a eco eee eee eee 48 Collectiqns hs See ase Se at ea ee oS 45 IDocentiserviceslechlires; Mectings so-so er a ee eee 50 Ve pairsntont Mey collec tir ere = apes ce a eee 48 RE DOLi sete ee ee toe eee ee Sod eae ee ee ee A ee 45 SEG Ee AR oy re age UE Sl Ee ty ee ee Dae Pee tet Spe, 2 viii tua yr collections 4.9 ste feek se te ieee Oni by ce aay eee oe 50 Hriedmann. sHlerbertes smite: ae es ea ee Se et cee ae vi G CSTE) OY 53 ul Soe pe Ale A ep nd Cae A) aE aye tase ny oT Pepe peed Aka aap CIN a vii Gazine C©.clewiss 2. 6 parle eek oat Ye be ype ial ee ne ye eee vii, 14, 21 Gavin, wustbethen on. se a ee See tee erin hee ee see ete ge viii Gellativas J Ohms estate ater ee oa Nat sa ele no Ry ote eee 5 George, Walter F:(regent of the: Institution) >..-_° 2 =. v, 2,3 Goodrich: Lloyd ss 522s ein pete ee ete Ne ote It, qpabyaea lk Baca 5, 39 Graf, John E., Assistant Secretary of the Institution_________...___-__-_ v,3 See] oS fatten] D pr Sas A Cm ipa ea a ay os ay) Cee ss re eer em ERE E ALU Vii RERTCG LE oR cr Ne ee ere re eee, ee a eaten Se Nee Oe te es 120 Grecloy eal sao Soe ee SD MOTI RM eal. UE 119 Greene se haries yes tow ae ee Oe SD: ol a See vi GriiirGH eee Oly Wie ee ae ee ee 2 = ee es SIL SN Ue SER Dt le 74 GesosGrrcer Unban a= some Doe Se eee ee oa wl bED ae tale viii H DEUS Fe Shi gel bi NV hc, ye pe a SEP PORT SD 138 ial ob erim see aor se Le ne eee be ye eee be a Bees 73 lama CON yd ACS e Deo = eee ian mne i leo ts 9 e 129, 136 Hamlin, Benson (Comparison of propeller and reaction-propelled airplane Periorinances) = ae ee weer ns 22 ee ees Soe ei Bye a Oe oe 429 Hannegan, Robert E., Postmaster General (member of the Institution) ___ Vv Hargrevt. Western vine setae. en Se Ne Dn See So 57 464 INDEX Harriman, William Averell, Secretary of Commerce (member of the In- Page stitution) #Sos. es 3 282s see ees tele eee eae ess Ae Ween Soe eee Vv Harrington, John..P: ssn ssetises2 S2cee SSoes aes se eee viii, 54, 55 Hartmann; Mrs: Hlizabeth G.sasseti6= 2228 32 Ss eewe tee SS eee eee 132 Hegeman, Miss Annie-May, gift___....----------- etecinn AA ET Me 3 FHendeérson,-BS Pianos 5 Sec see be eee Se oS SEE Ree eee oe eee vii, 22 Herald sWarkliSiGe 222514 2ivi ase ese lous qlee a isne meee geet ACU TL oh 12, 19 Hess Hrank: bs vos st OS te Ore Cae SE ee aS eee eee vii Hess, H. H. (Drowned ancient islands of the Pacific Basin) ________-_-_-- 281 Eleyn sk. Aw (ihe ise of isotopes asittracers)=-== 2222-2225 e seen Se 217 HMishtower: Giicd2=i25420etek OU eee ea eet Se La tee ee viii RildéJobn-eMeLeanss= 232 ess. cc sbi Beck ese ae eR eae eee 119 Hillis, George C. (Telegraphy—pony express to beam radio) . -__-_------ 191 robbs, Horton Ss eae s ee ae emer mer vill, 38 Catherine awa eran fy ere cry Cleese eee yea nee ae ee Terre 40 Henry Ward «Ranger fume = sss eee eA eee ae 42 TDA Gaim gee pte ae Ga Ac le a i pcre a Fe pe NS tyr 42 GANS "A CCEPCE we oe eee tee ne ee ety ety REEL ee 40 Oana ne CUrmMed ss ah ey eT eRe eee oe 42 Loans to other museums and organizations____._._______________- 41 MBAS) a0) cy Sg peter I ea Rea Be al ae ees ore hd 2 388 Smithsonian) Art: Commissions 92st eo se eee ee 38 Specialke xii ihi om sees er eee ae ee 43 Watiicranallsibo yx wines © ances oa ae pte at ae on ee 41 Nationals GallenyroirArte oe ss* 5 35 ss eNy Su ee eee ee ee viii, 24 UNC CIT GIO TIS ee eet Rt ote pte Se Ee ey ee ee 29 ACGuisitionsicommittees =o 2ee oe Soe ee ee eee ee 25 ADPrOphiatOnseeenn a kame ae aes eae ene 2s Oe ae een 25 PNG ELA FEM AY Xe Fase ee nes | eeepc terete ays, cetera Sere 26 Audit of private fundsof the: Gallery. -22 222255202259 eae 37 Carelandimaintenance ofthe buildingys2 22 3: ss See ee 26 Curatorialidepartment2ues 332 ans. See ee ee ee eee 35 CustedyJof:Germantsilver ss 625) case. oe bets ee eee es see 29 PIAUCALION ALG PRO PT ANNE Se paisa ttn eh rr ere 36 Hxchange ofiworksiol tart so 2 Oy ant) Bina 10 Ve ee eee) 30 EXECUTIVE COMMILtCO= ee Poe Se aD oe Sle ern oe 2s ee ee 24 dpe of opt Vay oY jeg ep A a oy UN em Hy ey MS Uy pe Oe ne Ruy ae Ee 5 2 32 EOI BM COLCOMMATE TCE Sc gee er ee a 25 Giftstoivdecorativerarise=- c= 252 5 So a ee ee ee 30 Gitts ofapaima Gunes rem cle SC Ul pb Ure pe eee ee 29 Gifts of prints and idrawings 22) Sei ee Sis ee ee 30 Gifts tonthelindex.of American Desi or sme ee ee eee 30 Iindextof“American(Deésign= 2-2 aoe see eee ee eee 35 Installation of additional air-conditioning equipment______. _______- 26 intersAmerican: Offices 2. -500 scene os ee oes a ae eee 35 qhibTrany.s 2 ae eee see aero ew See Se se ee eae me 36 Loanvof works,of art by the Gallery,..---=2-=--—. - Sa ee ee ee 32 oan of works of art.to: the Gallery 22 5225-222 -- 22 2 eee 31 POAC aw OT KSC hn eu Tet et UTA Cee re 31 COPE 1a ia tn es Say hay ee rh a viii, 24 Organizationvand stall 32222 2235-2 oooe de eee eee 24 GE Sry te sees es a he COC 37 Photographic departments.22.20 - 47. eo ee eee ea eee 36 PUTT eatin ra eae aS Wa aaa ee 26 Reportyse. nse ss oe ee Dae Ss a ere 24 IResStOratiOnyan Gere Pals OlawOLKS 1 ee Tt eee ee ee 36 Traveline exhibitions 2225 eee Le ee ee ees See ees 33 AESTENTS GEC oe a se a LP ot ea a lpr me viii, 24 Various Gallery activities:..-<..<2224.eL2eess— 2 22 oe Se Sete tee 34 INDEX 467 Page INationalolViuise umes a an errs eee ee ee 2) eee viii, 11 PGMS GES ULV OB UBE Re a= ota er ae wan Si Ste tes Se te len Be viii Buildings and equipment. 2-225 -< ou 222+ 2.2 a ee 9 Changesiinvorganizationes 442: 22s eerie ste ante ey echt eerie 23 Collectionsess se = ae sa aes ere eee Ea be ee oda ee ee 11 Exploration andi fieldwork s1oc4 8) 22) nhl b acid py le: Cade al eee 16 Meetingsiand specialexhibites 22-1 =- | oe. ee eee 22 PUI CA TIONS 235 Ske =n oe ee ee ee ee Be 22, 159 1RS, O10) Fes Se See oS ee eee ees ae OT ly ei 11 Clemtifiey states ta ake lee eel PL Bap UE eb Snot iye EY eet 5. Boy ce ied vi INationaleZoologicalibark:===- = 5 ae 2a eee eee sar! viii, 90 INC QUISTEL ONY ODES PE CUNT S eee pe eee 93 JAMO EY stay aVEy REN A eed fb boVey OL Mey Uf es oe ease 99 APPEODIIStIONS <2 een oe ee a ete sa ea 90 iBirthsyand hatchings22s— 6 = fe ee BS 2 pee ors A ee 98 Depositors;and'donors.and their gifts. . »lie 4 _.b4so2_ bas eat 94 Exhibitee: 9.222. Sato. Sone ee Sn ee ee ee ee ee Eye eee 92 INeedsI{ofthe‘Z00- i=. 2-2 - =. 22 ee ee 8a eee 90 VSS) OY 0) 5 ee ae ee PR 8S ne Ae ACE EE nae) 2 geen 91 SS ESET ae Sn ye ec peta ie a A Op pan np vili tatusvorathe collection ae 2) on a et be ete alae s WASItORSS e758 38 es ose eed rope be RA pee 91 INS wn ras Mite Meee oe ca ene a a nS. es eet ane vi (ihe Ryukyu people: A cultural /appraisal)< 4204-2 ee 379 Newmans Stanley Swets =e Soe ee a ge eee PAS eee Prep e eoee 63 Nicholson, Seth B= (Large sunspots) 22 2455-8) see a ne ee 173 Nimitz. Admiral Chester Wi2.< 325) oe goo eke ea oy ee ag 3, 124 INO] Sra ay te en et NM ee pt Le SON py a eR 21 O (Gio Eh of agian SEEN (2) 0 ye as cps ga cha ah a ae Aly a AL eo She Si 62 (OE ONSTSY ahd GENT Tl cg a al en ea gD ARG DP PTR EE AE Cit Se eg! DP viii, 159 OFTCIAESTO he Liters tA GUI G LO Ta epee tes cee ee ee v CODING ea aha Dipped es sehr oa a oe iether aint ate rep ep ia Street nen to ie made viii ROTTS se ele a ter en ean ee ners ee a eet fe ee eee oe ay eee vii P Ealmery Mi. Helenaese 22 2. ee cet ay cae one elias viii, 79, 160 palmer PheodoreS 322 = 2.5. ook Sok oo a ee ee aed vii Panama huzzlein (BowMan)) = /hes oes se eer le eee eee 407 Patterson, Robert P., Secretary of War (member of the Institution) _~ ___ Vv ECACC ste dime OF 5p eee i es a oa eee be eee pee vii, 21, 22 PEC Tony pine Viewers i Se ee ee Ria a ee vii ESR Ip yao oe Ue os yt ee ss ie cee ee abe ta ees 2g eee, Be eee vii LEGER Oy aN ler UY Lek Ss oe pers Aa kee ee a EN ie A a a AG Real 12, 20 Personnel officer’ (Bertha TL. Carwithen))-__---_----------2----2-- 2 ee Vv Petroleum industry, New products of the (Field)_._____________-_____- 235 IPinillips mune ane were oe se ke ee er Ss eae viii, 24, 25 bnotorraphicuiaboratory=-.- 52-06 8425 ees ek ea oe I aa 8 Pichetto, Stephen §_2. 52-22. -_~._- ae rare een PR eit Payee es” 36 TOT CO pee N eg Gxt rr ee ai Set vo Se Wt ee a ei Ryle aot pe ee 73 468 INDEX Page Pierson, Donald so... ooo stots Lg SoS se ts th a ee 62 Pittier, Guenri seo = Nee Ge ee Ae ee ee vii Pitts «Grover. Cis. 3 33 Josas ees sss StS 55 25 oe ee BES 134, 137 Plutonium and other transuranium elements (Seaborg)________________- 207 Bope, Johnny A a3 ooh 5 ook et a Se Sa ae a 2 viii, 52 Postmaster General of the United States (Robert E. Hannegan, member of the lnstitwtion) = vise teri ery ees etree i Ee Vv Powers,4Maj..Gen:-Hs(M a ee ee eee viii, 3, 124 Prescott. George, Wea. oso na ss ate aes Se ee 139, 140 President of the United States (Harry 8S. Truman, Presiding Officer ex Oficio.O£ the institubiom) eee Vv Price, Leonard 2062 ee so Se tee ee RR ee viii Price, Waterhouse, & (Cosas > sana BER SOG SUE, See 37 rice: Fear Ary Ae ME ceo in oy Ne main ce 8 a ap viii, 3, 124 Primary centers of civilization, The (Swanton) ____.____________--_-___-- 367 Propeller and reaction-propelled airplane performances, Comparison of (HamlinvandySpenceley,) —<2s=2s25522s ose ss = as ese ee 429 I Tn SLE eek GEO Sie eee aha ln ee he a Ac ea ate 22, 27, 79, 122, 127, 156 American HistoricaluAssociation 2-22) 5.4.55 542-2224 55sgecse ee 161 Appropriation for, printing and binding... 4222552522222 52222425-"— 161 Astrophysical: Obsemvatoryaass2<45- 55-32-00 R See 122 iBureaukof,Amenicanyhthnol 0 yee nes 79, 160 Annual Reportsi sss 55235 sesie 5s ae 3S Ss ese oe ee 160 Institute of Social Anthropology ---_---- Ae oS Behe 64, 160 Canal:7Zone Biological Area cos 522 hs oes se ee arg Daughters ofthe American: Revolutions 23 sas se ee eee 161 reer GalloryeOf eAtts. = 2 2~sss2 seu sce as ce= 2! Ce ee 160 National Gallery: of Aft. +> s--22 5225555 25e525555-5 53 Pall Na tionalaViiscumieo 2225 0. Se Se ee Se eee 22, 159 AnmuUalsheponbsce 5 2. SUS Be ee ee 159 UBUD AEG Loveys peony eeetane ees Seen he ete ope See eee os 160 Contributions from the United States National Herbarium_---_-- 160 Proceedingeeict jaan Se See ee eee 159 IRQ pOnteseeas ms. Me sess a5 Mas Oe a eae ee ee eee 156 SHULSOMIANVINStItUtiON joe Cee eee eee CG ee 156 ArmualWReportss2 22 63s. see eee ee ea 158 Mascellaneous Collections..2- = --- 55-555. 3 ee 156 Special publications! 5» {eno 22 oe. s See eee Cee 159 Publications division, chief (L. E. Commerford) --_--------------------- Vv Purchasing oficer\(Anthony. Weowvilding)L2e_ 1a Seg eas = is eee ae Vv Puzzlerin-Panamsa (Bowman): si 34 2-2 ae a ee ee eee 407 Q Quaintance, Charles: B22 2 2. J. tes eo eee oe eee 133 R ReberholteBa Osess4 3922500 5 SNe ls ae ee = aoe ee vii 1 Bete och! 8 ek Oto 0 lg ek Se Sn Ea tk a a Y= a ee aN ics 2 Reed Ce FSIS FES be en i he 6 eh ol ee RRB: Gee Cee eee vii FUCE SIC SA eS St IT a 9.u. 5.2 ste Mi ep he pk al Se ART eee Vii Rerentsoftheslnstitution® > sar Ss aan te Se v, 2 Regnier vAtiV< dre Hho) Cee hes) ee 2 Re eee See ee ee 134 Rehder ‘HaraldtAc si 2055 28. SS See ee ee vi Report of the Secretary of the Institution - - -------------------------- 1 T77488—48——33 INDEX 469 Page Re hIne@MmeNt RYSUCINH = = es re aa Sa a a if Rice, Arthur Pages 23-552 so = 2 335 23- SS SS Slee sess oss BY vi iRiddells Krancis; Asse fa. ooo hasan ans tsa sacs nse see sat COrnae: Riddellelarcy. © mse e OU Lee Pe SU Sie 52 OS ee SER 76 Raple yale SD MlONEr es Soot Sees sate a Sees 20 Hiver-basingouLveysats fe Sela S Ne Se et SS SO AeA Se viii, 64 Roberts,Prank H:.-H JP sos2n2-ee estas cece seeseses viii, 53, 54, 60, 65 Roebling wdJohnvA. oft ae ieee ee Be SE See ee eh ee ee 3, 120 ROK Wer WO An tas so a ot Beis Sar ears ee Secienske See see vi ROMECEOy UA VICl Ss sae es se a ee se is SE ee co ee tott BEES 18 Rowe wd ON a Sasose tree hee Shee Si Se ee 63 Fussell. Ji hOWNSCNGS 25-2. Sores os eer roe et OS vi Ryukyu people, The: A cultural appraisal (Newman and Eng) -_____----- 379 s Dallada. nearsAdm sd Bata sees =n | SORE ALOUYE Leeds eee 3, 124 SCH allen 6 Wise bese at He i Ss 4 oi a a es tt vii Vee EARNAA Cites oN SSRN CO eg ec a te Lot pcr a yh hs a peer ese ey vi Sedan eine gh oe De eee ee het oe 9 Se ey ee 128, 136 S10 CUI yl O20) 1a lel eee ee eee ee eee eee ef vi, 12,19 (The biology of Bikini Atoll, with special reference to the fishes) _____. 301 SchwWwaniZ ee DenyamUnie 22 cease oe eee So ae oa ee eee vi Schwellenbach, Lewis B., Secretary of Labor (member of the Institution) __ Vv NClCUpGBbALier see A oe eee ee eno ese Oe ee ae ene eee vi Seaborg, Glenn T. (Plutonium and other transuranium elements) ______-_- 207 Searle, irs: tarrict, hICHDALGSON—- cn = ee eee ee ea eee vi Secretary of Agriculture (Clinton P. Anderson, member of the Institution) _ Vv Secretary of Commerce (William Averell Harriman, member of the Institu- UAC OVL sD eee ea enemy OR mae Phe a laa an Fg NO TE a RS POH Vv Secretary of the Interior (Julius A. Krug, member of the Institution) ______ Vv Secretary of Labor (Lewis B. Schwellenbach, member of the Institution) __ Vv Secretary of the Navy (James Forrestal, member of the Institution) ______ Vv Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution (Alexander Wetmore)__ v, viii, 3, 24, 25 Secretary of State (George C. Marshall, member of the Institution)__ v, viii, 24 Secretary of the Treasury (John W. Snyder, member of the Institu- AIO C1) ee Se ca ea eg a cg pe Pap cI Apa PO ep ina Bean Te ea v, viii, 24 Secretary of War (Robert P. Patterson, member of the Institution) ______ Vv Bepzler-wren kes! Mie as 2 ge ke oo erate 8 a onlaene Soe ie a em a vi Shepard; Donald” De v= 52.25 oa Pee eel Bie eerie tthe nate BD ee a 24 Shepard, F. P. (The tsunami of April 1, 1946, in the Hawaiian Islands)__.__ 257 Shideler ss Walliqyny Hy. 421.0) ate OT ott Be ee Re OR Roh tion Ae 21 GeMaM KEN Waele as oe ees ne ee! wee Ey cee es Sa eee ee vii HOC Kem encl Winer ey Se 2 ee A RE Ss eee ve ee 60 Silicones—a new continent in the world of chemistry (Bass).___._______- 229 Sinclairm@harles © eee haa SU) pe ee re wee viii SUMIOUIS OL EVUSSOleraer en 235 oe Sh eo oe Se eee ey viii Sisto: Alexanger hse = a St eaeeti i) oh Re 139 SiilonaClarenceseerm See. ob ek eee 76, 77 Riba R UCL): eeeeeec ener 5 ote 8 ee eg SU ls Be 20 SSAC L a Eee ee oe ee ey se ee OU Oe eae ne se 60 SmMithsonianyArtyCommission=== 24) eee Uae ott ER eee 5, 38 Snyder, John W., Secretary of the Treasury (member of the Institution) _ v, viii, 25 Spoolepeyi gd BG) enV ct Die eet ee ee a, Ss Oe oy ee 133, 142 470 | INDEX Page Soper) Ci wns. oe Se ae. oe en ee es 132 ppaatz, Gens Carl: 2.2.5. esas ies oe ee ee eee eee 3, 124 Spence; tH seh See te fee ee he eS ea Se nee ea 57 Spenceley, F. (Comparison of propeller and reaction-propelled airplane PeriOrmances) Se. ses Se ee pe Ee ee 429 Stage, H. H. (Mosquito control tests from the Arctic to the Tropics) __._- 349 POST CO Tis et WV OS eo oe ase era eye Ss a ol oat vii Stephenson, Robert uid. oc oesacece seceded ee ee Se ee eee 75 DCerMbery iG Se te cel eu eee ee eT ee Lees ale ee ee ee 22 DLSVENSOMsra oly mt A See eye ge I cme Eset eth 2 2 aA vii SAPSN ELUM 6 PReLITY DEN OU] s Uap g On 2d Rn See ane Oe eA ERE eRe Mes yee = C.F. ee 62 Stewart eon Sse oer eee ee el aks Se ee eee ee 73 Stewarts TMD ales ese ooo apg Poa hecpines yet Ves ce ahaa SN) pete Ene eae vi, 17 Stirling, M. W. (Chief, Bureau of American Ethnology) -..--------- vili, 53, 82 Stout siWalliamebe weaielein hr ihe hu ws ae aera ellen viii, 3, 124 Sanspots, muargex(Nicholson)i.2s> owe ae ee ee Ee es eee ee 173 Neier ol acd EX (o) ce 8 eee enn op a a Wr eee A PR ae, 6 ul. 7 5 vii, 13 Swanton Jonnie 2 oe ee Sr ee ee ee viii (ihe primary.icenters of civilization) =.2--- 22+. -- =. eee 367 Fahiiab i¥ed Leva) pepe Ipecac ae So LS ae ne mE eS, Es ees A vii T OCT I Ye aj Haat © Ho pa an eagle pn aa aga vir hg iene) nym ae Becerra yeh dies viii al DY Sst wl Sho 0s Wats at ce RI SP oR Pay RES eet vis Pr Ripa vii HS REE 1A COS an USAR fhe oo pe le a aie ee ey Snare Gf ON al ps vi Telegraphy—pony express to beam radio (Hillis) __--_-.-_-------------- 191 Tolman, Ruel P., Director, National Collection of Fine Arts____-------- 39, 44 Treasurer of the Institution (Nicholas W. Dorsey)_...----------------- Vv uruesWebsterab., chiel editorial GivisiOn=2 224) 2-2 s-. 22s eee v, 161 Truman, Harry S., President of the United States (Presiding Officer ex OHTETO LOL SEM SG LTAS GLU VEGI O Tn) as a a a ey a Vv Trust Funds’ Employees included under Federal retirement system -. - -- a ei EYE) 00) od (Si 1: PA) Rr AN NS gM aS ee NE ee SE ese 63 Tsunami, The, of April 1, 1946, in the Hawaiian Islands (Macdonald, Shepard and Cox es fee ak pat eat eh cs a ck a 257 PE Uie cer HVAC WW is aie ce ches aes yes ae ME eR ay NC a Ears cy ney a 80 V We crs et) TV ee I a ae Tp apt doo Sint de hd hh yk = A vil Vesey-FitzGerald, Brian (The senses of bats). =----+=-----+--+--+----- 317 Vice President of the United States (member of the Institution) _---.-_- v Vinson, Fred M., Chief Justice of the United States (Chancellor of the Tnstitution)@.--2 4. eee dl oes eee ee ee Dee eee v, viii, 2, 24 Wisitorsi iy. easiest soe ton Ae See ae eee se 8 Freer: Gallery: of sArtt: 22.0 Siete 30 RET aod ee ee 50 National: Gallery-of Arten-2222s24e se 2e ese Se ees See 26 National’ Zoological «Park. 2: ..-- 9s 4 ee eee 91 Vorys, JohneM. (regent; of -the Institution) =o 2552s >ss222-2 =e ene v, 2 Vobh ePaul De. stat ones pee se sa ee a ee Se eee 140 W Walcott, Frederic C. (regent of the Institution) ----..----------~------- v, 2 Walker Mebertgll sot 2 33 ooh sanac cee aS ooeee nee I ee vii INDEX 471 Page Wisilkershrnes abe sens ee ae Sek See te ne oe 2 he oes viii Walker, John, Chief Curator, National Gallery of Art..-.------------ viii, 24 VV eo tlcarasea VN /om Noe amet ee ernest ee ASS ae eee Salas Ne were ee vii Wii eben ketenes ee ne eS eee Se A Soe ee eo ee 75 Wedd erburn Atma Teenie na enenrk eela Sian a oe ee ae SS vii Were mm Wid Omnia <2-seon sree eee eee eee a vi, 18, 66, 67, 69 Neingraup eho bertulys 28 = S82 eee oes 8s se ee oo ea ae viii Wenley, Archibald B., Director, Freer Gallery of Art_.------------ viii, 39, 52 WiestmeROment Co 22 sase i ais yh ee ee oe eee oes 63 Wetmore, Alexander, Secretary of the Institution___.___.--------- Vv, vi, viii, 3, 5, 12, 20, 23, 25, 39, 40, 119, 124, 125, 127, 132 Wiheat eo OON Delis | soe ae eee ee ena eee ee 75 Wihitew: Pheod@re seis” 220 tei Fae satis ee oe ee Se 68, 72, 73 White, Wallace H., Jr. (regent of the Institution)_--___________-------- Vv; 2 Wihitebread-Chariegma ses = voce. Cee eae lee ee Soe eee vii Waiding Anthony .W., purchasing officer=.-2-2- 4-25 --o 222. see ee V, viii WitleyAMOOrdony hao. an eh set eee sek Me eed oe ae ee See viii, 60, 61 Wilismsee? Gelli p23 on sees Bee oe oe ee ee ee eee viii Walon aViTrstiVi Sauer tts s eee ca ee e Ceke oe AS 28 eee vi Wandhorst) 2 Nis. Mieke een ete wos sow Oe ee ae eee vii WatinvraNVaAncenwl ise. 2. ses ae ee Le fe Se eee ee ee 73 WiOOnWwOrEn LO DenGe Nite oes ee Bo eee oe a Ne ee ee eee oe 140 ry VECETS PAT DE 0 Sl Be ee ae ete ee Pree eee ag ee ae ee ate eae 169 KOTOR fod 0 ads EN pe a a ar Ba a oO Soke eh Ue hee 12 Z Zetek, James, Resident Manager, Canal Zone Biological Area_ -_- -- viii, 127, 151 O a De ee ead i) b> \¥. er Oe, cmt i : a 7 addy ec, ie i, ee Bue ele . - mh Ech oO - a , : _ am <. x v . ae: is re “i Noone ae nd + a. itl eae nae ae Wee ; aa ig ae o , “as ‘ a 4% = : a sa 2. 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