= r ae: ——— RE ce PE I ee SE RTE —— Rae Se ——_— —-— =: —— — — —— ee = aa e—— me Sunapee aesepued ee eee te edad seer an ape ae eet o> nee ne ee ee ee en ae er ———- _—-_--= wSR— sts Sas ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION PORKEEAE CME ART ENDED: FUNE-30 il (Publication 4062) UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1952 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. - Price $3.00 (Buckram) LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL SMITHSONIAN InsTITUTION, Washington, December 20, 1951. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, on behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended June 30,1951. I have the honor to be, Respectfully, A. Wermore, Secretary. Ir CONTENTS Page MSt MONIC aster ere See ee SER ESS oS ee et Cee Soe v General'statement 2. 22225.426 5225 eer See eee ete Sos LS 1 The Establishment - - - -- PE See ar mee pie ya ee a i SS 3 eu GardtOtm eRe bss > eames Ser FAG a) ipl ie WO ke eee S 3 EAR RICE ee ee ee ee OR ee ee Ea OE ye re eee ee 4 PIP DLOPIIALLOTS = 4 seree _ See ae BET oe, Serie Bo ek a eae 5 Riots =a ren See ere Be ie ee te Lee 5 Eighteenth annual James Arthur lecture on the sun_____-_-_-_-------_-- 6 Openinc of Adams-Clementicollection 2 == 22-s2__.-..---.=-.-2= bes 6 Bremoriquciitsn 52s sek) Ub stele: fasyncin’! 2 > EL) spate cht. apey task beer 7 Summary of the year’s activities of the branches of the Institution_______ if Faplicationg 4 == 2: (18 See et Set fe el den}. getelhl + Ctl eh aay ie. 11 BAO eT Veg ee ek te rg ee oe 118 8 eh be 2 (aie ¥ Lol agama Jey 12 Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum__-_-_-______-_- 14 2. Report on the National Gallery of Art______________-_-_-- 25 3. Report on the National Collection of Fine Arts.___________ 4] AV Report, ont hey reer Gallerycof Artes 2 ses = bert ar. See ees 49 5. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology___-_-_-_---- 56 6. Report on the International Exchange Service_--_-_-_-_---- 96 7. Report on the National Zoological Park____.________-_--_-- 104 8. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory --___-_-_---_---- 117 9. Report on the National Air Museum-_-_-_______-___-_-_---- 123 10. Report on the Canal Zone Biological. Area____-___-_-_---_-- 134 fii Sep OLGOnGOeCr Dray s 8 Sek ge ye nS 144 Leno Onapluplcatlons. 2 0-2) ee be ee 148 Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents____--------- 154 GENERAL APPENDIX Stormy weather on the sun, by Walter Crr Roberts______________-_--_- 163 An appraisal of cloud seeding as a means of increasing precipitation, by CIV ae PEL Ue GO Maes ae. eee cee eT ee ee ee 175 On Ejinstein’s new theory, by Leopold Infeld________________----------- 189 Some results in the field of high-pressure physics, by P. W. Bridgman__-_ 199 Uitirssonics eb yeAninuneiys loaUtereee soe eee ese nee ee ee 213 The industrial applications of atomic energy, by M. L. Oliphant_-__-----_- 223 Some prospects in the field of electronics, by V. K. Zworykin_------_---- 235 The new chemical elements, by Saul Dushman_-___________-__--------- 245 mMiewdusices of metas, by Carl AC Zapite.— 2-222 = eee see 2-3. = 253 Atomic weapons against cancer, by E. N. Lockard______-_-__----------- 263 Enzymes: Machine tools of the cellular factory, by B. A. Kilby -------- 273 ahepanisar america, by Anetn He Clark -- 222. -.-t22.22se sce 287 lV ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Page The mechanics of snakes, by Alfred Leutscher------------------------- 303 Hormones and the metamorphosis of insects, by V. B. Wigglesworth ___--- 313 Utilizing our soil resources for greater production, by Robert M. Salter___ 319 The carbon—14 method of age determination, by Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr_ 385 River Basin Surveys: The first five years of the Inter-Agency Archeological and Paleontological Salvage Program, by Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr---- 351 Artificial lighting in America: 1830-1860, by C. Malcolm Watkins_--__-- 385 The development of the halftone screen, by Jacob Kainen---_---------- 409 The artist and the atom, by Peter-Blanc... --=-=+-.+ «-.s22=<=<2 S422 427 LIST OF PLATES Secretary’s report: Platesids 2 Blan 2 SU Se ee AL eee, Jew Pl Jalen apace 52 Platesis,4eoh22 6 eee Sec 2 Sse 2 Aer), Teeth ey A Rey oe 108 Stormy weather on the sun (W. O. Roberts): Plates 1, 2-_______._-_-__- 174 Ultrasonics:(Lanter):iblatesiS3 2 scan este te oe ele pages eee Bh es 222 Pieetronies:.(awory kin) “ am = — F- Ms. Bossi — “aon Wives a ey Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution ALEXANDER WETMORE For the Year Ended June 30, 1951 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith my report showing the activities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1951. GENERAL STATEMENT The lengthy discussions and debates among both scientists and legislators that preceded the creation of the National Science Founda- tion, on May 10, 1950, are reminiscent of the ten-year deliberations more than a century ago that culminated in the establishment of the Smithsonian Institution. James Smithson, the English benefactor who bequeathed half a million dollars to the United States of America to found at Washington “an institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” had been dead 17 years before our Govern- ment decided what form the “institution” was to take or even to accept the gift. Finally, on August 10, 1846, President James K. Polk signed the bill that created the Smithsonian Institution, our first “national science foundation.” With that act, which was actively supported by John Quincy Adams, Joel R. Poinsett, and other science-minded leaders of the day, our Government formally recog- nized that science is a matter of national concern, and as a nation we committed ourselves to the Jeffersonian idea that science is a legitimate function of government. Today, in the wake of the atom bomb, no one dares question that concept. Present-day exigencies have forced us to recognize that there are certain types of scientific investigation which are essential to our national security and that these must not be left to haphazard and uncertain backing of private individuals and organizations, no matter how worthy or well-meaning. They must be publicly and continuously financed so long as science continues to be so strategically integrated with our politics, economics, and social well-being. The statement that “this is the age of science” has taken on deeper and more somber implications. 2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Throughout the 105 years since it was established, the Smithsonian Institution has seen and has been a part of the development of this national attitude toward science. It has witnessed and sometimes aided the establishment of many great and potent scientific agencies, such as the National Academy of Sciences, the National Research Council, the National Bureau of Standards, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, and others that came into being during World War IJ. The Institution itself has undergone many changes and vicissitudes: it has survived four major wars, several panics and depressions, and controversies that seemed important at the time. But its one continuing purpose has been, and is, to serve science—not merely American science but all science—in a way that its founder Smithson might have envisioned. It has endeavored not to compete but to serve as a sort of catalyst to complement and cooperate in the work of other agencies, Government and non-Government alike, and to support worthy projects that otherwise might languish. The unique character of its status—as a privately endowed institution and at the same time a ward of the United States Government—has given it a freedom of action backed by authority that has proved fortunate and has increased its usefulness. In the early days of its existence the Institution carried on its re- search programs largely by subsidizing the work of scientists not on its own staff and by publishing the results of their work. Sources of such aid to American scientists were then extremely limited, and the favor that this practice found can well be understood. Gradually, however, the activities of the Institution became channelized as they expanded, and “bureaus” grew up around the Institution, each with its own staff specializing in the work of its particular field. These are now ten in number, as follows: United States National Museum, National Gallery of Art (with separate board of trustees), National Collection of Fine Arts, Freer Gallery of Art, Bureau of American Ethnology, International Exchange Service, National Zoological Park, Astrophysical Observatory, National Air Museum, and Canal Zone Biological Area. Most of these branches are now supported by Government funds although remaining under Smithsonian direction. At present, nearly all the research and exploration of the Institution is done through these bureaus, notably the United States National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and the Astrophysical Observatory. Curtailment of the Government’s nondefense spending since the Korean crisis has prevented the Institution from proceeding with some of its long-term programs, such as the modernization of museum SECRETARY’S REPORT 3 exhibits, construction of urgently needed new buildings, and purchase of modern instruments and equipment for its laboratories. The de- mands made upon our buildings, as has been pointed out in previous reports, are little short of incredible: the annual number of visitors is rapidly approaching the 3,000,000 mark, and the increase of the collections in the fields of natural history, industry, history, and aeronautics has long since crowded all available storage space. It should be emphasized that the Institution has no desire to expand its activities inordinately or to add functions unjustified by normal de- mands. At the same time the public expects certain services from the Federal Government, through the Smithsonian, in maintaining the priceless collections in the National Museum and in the art galleries under the Institution’s care and in making them available for exhibit and study. These are services that have long been entrusted to the Smithsonian; they fall in that category of activities aimed at the cultural and scientific advancement of all the people, and hence their support by Federal appropriations of funds is proper and justifiable. Smithsonian administrators, therefore, are duty bound to do every- thing in their power to obtain adequate support for the irreplaceable treasures in their custody, even in times of national emergency. In the pages that follow the director of each of the bureaus under Smithsonian direction presents his detailed report for the year (Ap- pendices 1-10). Included also are the reports of the Librarian and the Chief of the Editorial Division (Appendices 11 and 12). THE ESTABLISHMENT The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 1846, in accordance with the terms of the will of James Smithson, of England, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States of America “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithso- nian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and accepting the trust, Congress determined that the Federal Government was without authority to administer the trust directly, and, therefore, constituted an “establishment” whose statutory members are “the President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.” THE BOARD OF REGENTS There were no changes in the personnel of the Board of Regents during the year. One vacancy still exists in the class of citizen re- gents. The roll of regents at the close of the fiscal year, June 30, 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 1951, was as follows: Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson, Chancellor ; Vice President Alben W. Barkley; members from the Senate: Walter F. George, Clinton P. Anderson, Leverett Saltonstall; members from the House of Representatives; Clarence Cannon, John M. Vorys, EF. E. Cox; citizen members: Harvey N. Davis, Arthur H. Compton, Vannevar Bush, Robert V. Fleming, and Jerome C. Hunsaker. The regular annual meeting of the Board was held in the Regents’ Room on January 12, 1951. The Secretary presented his annual re- port covering the activities of the Institution and its bureaus, includ- ing the financial report of the Executive Committee, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1950, and this was accepted by the Board. The usual resolution authorized the expenditure by the Secretary of the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1952. The Secretary announced that he would reach retirement age in June 1951 and brought to attention the question of the selection of a successor. Accordingly, the Chancellor appointed a Special Com- mittee to make recommendation in this connection. Dr. Wetmore agreed to serve until a successor had been chosen. Concerning the Gellatly art collection, the Secretary reported that under date of February 28, 1950, the office of the Attorney General informed the Institution that the Supreme Court had denied Mrs. Gellatly’s petition for a writ of certiorari to review the decision of the United States Court of Appeals. This long controversy of more than 20 years apparently has come to an end, with result favorable to the Smithsonian. On the evening of January 11, 1951, preceding the annual meeting, an informal dinner meeting of the Board was held in the Main Hall of the Smithsonian Institution, with the Chancellor, Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson, presiding. This occasion gave opportunity for mem- bers of the Smithsonian staff to make a fuller presentation of the scientific work of the Institution than was practicable at the regular meeting the next day. On May 3, 1951, a special meeting of the Board of Regents was held in the Regents’ Room with the Chancellor presiding, concerned with the operation of the Institution, including the extension of tenure of office of the Secretary. | | FINANCES A statement on finances, dealing particularly with Smithsonian pri- vate funds, will be found in the report of the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents, page 154. SECRETARY’S REPORT ; 5 APPROPRIATIONS Funds appropriated to the Institution for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1951, totaled $2,700,000, obligated as follows: Mian a's Cm ent eee ene oeeee eres eee eee eee ee $57, 322 United= States National= Museums: 2222 23s 781, 754 BureausoL American wnnologyse==-— = |e ee ke 57, 297 Astrophysicala@bservatoryeee oe ee 127, 188 Nationals Collectioncotdwine vA risuers se. = ay ee ee eee 48, 852 IN a Gon allerAdiee Vis @ Une eee ae ee Se 182, 931 Canale ZOnesbiolocicaly AWC ee sae ae ee ee 18, 000 International bxchange (Neryicen = = ee eee 70, 388 Maintenance and operation of buildings..__-- _-______ 927, 919 Generall’ Servicess= | ee ee = 5 ee eae 316, 483 Estimated savings____________ Sopp aA IM Uh pe ge ere 8 ee 11, 866 TIMpPOUNnGed atu OSs. Fee Fo 100, 000 PTO Ure ee ae eh 2,700, 000 Of this total $100,000 was impounded by the Bureau of the Budget through direction of the Congress. In addition, $1,170,000 was appropriated to the National Gallery of Art, a bureau of the Institution but administered by a separate board of trusteees; and $636,000 was provided in the District of Columbia appropriation act for the operation of the National Zoological Park. Besides these direct appropriations, the Institution received funds by transfer from other Federal agencies, as follows: From the State Department, from the appropriation International Information and Educational Activities, 1951, a total of $92,740 for the operation of the Institute of Social Anthropology, including the issuance of publications resulting from its work. From the National Park Service, Department of Interior, $309,949 for archeological projects in connection with the River Basin Surveys. VISITORS Visitors to the Smithsonian buildings during the year 1950-51 to- taled 2,867,544, an all-time record of attendance and about a 10-percent increase over the previous year. July 1950 was the month of largest attendance, with 383,919 visitors; May 1951 was the next largest, with 362,443. A summary of attendance records for the five buildings is given in table 1. These do not include 3,460,400 visitors estimated at the National Zoological Park and 1,503,148 at the National Gallery of Art. 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 TABLE 1.—Visitors tothe Smithsonian buildings during the year ended June 30, 1951 A pg ER EE et ue" ol ed Soke CES SO ee = ae) Pe Smith- Artsand | Natura Aircraft Freer r j i alle Tota Year and month °°] eon | Madame | puncte | Balding | “Cras 1950 A (lh Seen ee 5°. ee 77, 651 189, 476 85, 020 23, 365 8, 407 383, 919 POC i Sa eae ree a 69, 703 170, 219 83, 630 20, 780 8, 104 352, 436 Sercem bir se-- 52 22-ch eo 45, 092 94, 608 53, 219 13,956 5, 836 202, 711 Ontober A- 0 gut ais oe Rs vine Mantegna, Andrea. A WMaracle of Saint Benedict..._...-__.._..\___. Marmion, Simon, Studio of. Parirasion peti ret bo eee Master of the Archinto Portrait. TthpyMadonna ef Trumility..._ 4... Master of the Bucking- ham Palace Madonna. The Enclosed Ganden = o.oo Sn ow a Master of Flemalle, Studio of. Saint John the Baptist Meets Two Pharisees__._. Master of the Life of Saint John the Baptist. Birth, Naming, and Circumcision of Saint John Master of the Life of the Baptist. Saint John the Baptist. The Obsequies of Saint Anthony Abbot________ Master of the Osservanza F Altarpiece. The Conversion of an Arion by Saint Remy____ Master of St. Gilles. The Baptism of Clovis. _....__...-..._..22__- Master of St. Gilles. PES HET art Se cl RE os Master of the Saint Lucy Legend. SECRETARY’S REPORT 31 From Artist Samuel H. Kress Foundation, New York, N. Y.—Continued The Crucinxionp ete) {oe 2s os 8 Sa Matteo di Giovanni. he (Mapibetorei Herod 0S 2 oot 3-2 Matteo di Giovanni. PorteatsonawMiane ste eee eee oo soot Mazzola, Filippo. Saint Verosics. 4.27 93268 2 bdete Oba set Memling, Hans. Bieta. 5 fopisee oS. Ae ett eh Mae BA 4: Moretto da Brescia. Portrait of a Gentleman in Black.__.-_.------- Moroni, Giovanni Bat- tista. Poriraitnomas Wane == 2.2.2 2 Ph ys North Italian School (probably). Christtamong the: Doctors. .-.-_...-------- = Orley, Bernart van. TheMarnageiorthe Virgin... 22.22. 52-2.--.- Orley, Bernart van. Theperimiphorue aesare == Palma Vecchio. Rebecca matatheasWells-2 - 2p 2 82. Se... - Pellegrini, Giovanni An- tonio. Elijah Taken up in a Chariot of Fire_---------- Piazzetta, Giovanni Bat- tista. Young Man in Oriental Costume-------------- Piazzetta, Giovanni Bat- tista. The Feeding of the Child Jupiter. ...-.-------- Poussin, Nicolas. Holyamily onpthejSteps—.-.=-.-.----.---~.-- Poussin, Nicolas. ~ Sain tebartholomew:)..2-< 2 2-2 = Ribera, Jusepe de. The OldsBridgéseay..2- = 2 2s Bes a Robert, Hubert. Portrait.of a,Man-in Armor.-.-+2=-=2-S=2-==-< Romanino, Girolamo. Coral Fishing in Africa__---~------ Ses oe he eee Rosa, Salvatore. Rortrait omapMiant 222-8 i So = Rosso. Porsraiijona night. ..2- 2022 22-22 Savoldo, Giovanni Girol- amo. phoevAdoration.ottme Child-=- 02... 422.224 = Salvoldo, Giovanni Girol- amo. Cardinal Bandinello Sauli, His Secretary andtwo Sebastiano del Piombo. Geographers. Portrait of a Young Woman as Mary Magdalen. Sebastiano del Piombo. The Adoration of the Shepherds with Saint John Sienese School, c. 1440. the Baptist and Saint Bartholomew. Gallwey ee ee ee ee See aa Signorelli, Luca. The Flight into Egypt and Christ among the Signorelli, Luca. Doctors. Saint George and the Dragon——___._~4.- ------ Sodoma. BishoprAlvise GriManle eso e oe eee Strozzi, Bernardo. Saint Lawrence Giving the Treasures of the Strozzi, Bernardo. Church to the Poor. ApollovPursumpe Waphne 2128 _ sees oe. Pest} Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista. @hensseriice of ipiigenia:-=-- 2. "22222-0222 Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista. The Circumcision of the Children_-__----------- Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista. Venetian Lady in Domino and Tricorne- - - - ---- Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista. The Apotheosis of Orazio Porto--------------- Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista. Portrait of a Member of the Contarini Family... Tintoretto. Portrait of a Procurator of Saint Mark’s- - - - --- Tintoretto. Portrait of a Young Lady as Venus Binding the Titian. Eyes of Cupid. 32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 From Artist Samuel H. Kress Foundation, New York, N. Y.—Continued Ranuctio Parnese® = 2 ao oe Titian. Alessandro Alberti with a Page__-_------------ Titian, Northern Follower of. Annunciate Virgin, Archangel Gabriel, Saint Tura, Cosimo. Francis, Bishop Saint Maurelius. The Pispelation of Christ. _....... ty _ Umbrian School, ce. 1505. PPR IG ane oss Ae ae ee Venetian School, c. 1500. The Countess of Schoenfeld___-.-_------------- Vigee-Lebrun, Elizabeth. NLU ET I yet 5 SRR Aa eS, Die me ES Bordone, Paris. The’ Deposition OF Christ... 2: 2 Greco, El (Domenico Theotokopulos). Whetitee (00 ee roc cose tea east eee Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo, School of. GIs oe Ce eo Se a Si a ee Bouchardon, Edme, APOUO OF Litas 2. on BU 30 BR Candido, Elia, ASB SCChant eo ee ees Clodion (Claude Mickel). A@Baecltantes. kl! 2 ns = n= os a A Clodion (Claude Michel). A Bacchante with Cluster of Grapes in Left Hand. Clodion (Claude Michel). Madame Royale as an Infant._.__._......-.-. Clodion (Claude Michel). Poetry and Musie® * 2 ons sles cacses ee Clodion (Claude Michel). A WEG te eee 6 stb ss bs Se eae Clodion (Claude Michel). ous Pet Ven eRe se on a oes asa Coysevox, Antoine. Phillipe: Die ew Otlewng: -¢ os 222222525222 Coysevox, Antoine. Madame de Pompadour as the Venus of the Doves. Falconet, Etienne- Maurice. SHUG BRrURE Ee Oh new sce oes Franco-Portuguese School. Ape sne IWare Vas = oo so-so ssssSsrc- 22s Michelangelo, attributed to. The Muse Calizope = _ 0% SUR imovose Pick ae Pajou, Augustin. LSE cet ge hg eR A ME Re SO I WAN GEL Robert le Lorrain. Tie Dew. VOR wees Cuma’ VIB £2 BRIO! Robert le Lorrain. Painting and Sculptures. Sues Hoty Rowan Tassaert, Jean-Pierre- Antoine. C, 8. Gulbenkian, Lisbon, Portugal: 3 rare books (from the Wilmerding Collection). Robert Woods Bliss, Washington, D. C.: 26 objects of Pre-Columbian art. LOANED WORKS OF ART RETURNED The following works of art on loan were returned during the fiscal year 1951: To Artist Copley Amory, Washington, D. C.: Elizabeth Copley (Mrs. Gardiner Greene) __-____ Copley. Self-Portrarn 2 Pie. Viole invigiggO onde Copley. Chester Dale, New York, N. Y.: Le Chevalier Louis Eusebe de Montour_.______. Carle (Charles-Andre) Van Loo. SECRETARY’S REPORT 33 WORKS OF ART LENT During the fiscal year 1951 the Gallery lent the following works of art for exhibition purposes: To Artist Birmingham Museum of Art, Birmingham, Ala.: Gece alee ee a ee ees Gilbert Stuart. MasaGeorgereolloglcs 2s 2s = se 855) > are ete Gilbert Stuart. Annoy. Sucker 5423840 9552 32528 BSS Sse 42 Thomas Suliy. Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Mass.: Costume Study (drawing) -_---__..---------=-- Diirer. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, N. Y.: Vounc. Won. Ht White: = +3524 - eS. a Robert Henri. Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, Pa.: ‘Ther Dead Loreador---— = S#t= 220 see ee $e 5S Manet. CMG DET abe Pie ee ee age ee ee | ae eee Renoir. Whee ACHAT ater = hes Sees Sees Se he te el Gilbert Stuart. Meme ASCE Sid ae ed epee ee a et See meee Whistler. Drawings: Se he et oe ee Bee OE es te Boucher. COS NC SL Hag en a a eee wee oss Diirer. LER in oud Perce Eee ok ee eee See Moreau le Jeune. Elieser and Rebecca at the Well_--_------- Rembrandt. Colonial Williamsburg and the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.: PG ta Dil ica ee a re J. 8. Copley. PRH OMIA RE RHIC mrEr ye ae et fee eee re ee ee Jarvis. CR AHH RT RET ISON se 2. es BE oe ae C. W. Peale. SC Tir gl CSS 0s 12]) ee ee ee Gilbert Stuart. Alexanders amilbone =. Sa. John Trumbull. EXHIBITIONS During the fiscal year 1951 the following exhibitions were held at the National Gallery of Art: Rosenwald Collection. Exhibition of recent accessions of prints and drawings in the Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection. Continued from previous fiscal year through October 15, 1950. ‘Makers of History in Washington, 1800-1950.” Exhibition Celebrating the Sesquicentennial of the Establishment of the Federal Government in the City of Washington. Continued from previous fiscal year through November 19, 1950. Paintings from the Gulbenkian Collection. Lent for an indefinite period to the National Gallery of Art for exhibition by C. S. Gulbenkian. Opened October 8, 1950. Canadian Paintings. Exhibition of Canadian paintings arranged by the Na- tional Gallery of Canada. October 29 through December 10, 1950. “Vollard, Connoisseur.” Exhibition of prints from the Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection. December 17, 1950, through April 15, 1951. Kress Collection. Exhibition of paintings, sculpture, and bronzes for the Tenth Anniversary of the National Gallery of Art. Opened March 17, 1951. 34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Flower Prints, Original Botanical Drawings, and Color-Plate Books. Bxhibi- tion from the collection of Mrs. Roy A. Hunt. April 22 through June 10, 1951. American Paintings from the Collection of the National Gallery of Art. Opened June 17, 1951. The following exhibitions were displayed in the cafeteria corridor of the National Gallery of Art during the fiscal year 1951: Folk Sculpture and Folk Painting. Index of American Design. Water-color renderings. Continued from previous fiscal year through August 1, 1950. Prints by Mary Cassatt. Rosenwald Collection and gift of Miss Elisabeth Achelis. August 2 through October 15, 1950. Popular Art in the United States. Index of American Design. Water-color renderings. October 16, 1950, through January 14, 1951. Portraits of Stuart and Tudor Times. Rosenwald Collection and gift of Wil- lis E. Ruffner. January 15 through April 23, 1951. Etchings by Whistler. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. J. Watson Webb. April 24 through June 24, 1951. Engravings by William Blake. Gift of anonymous donor. Opened June 25, 1951. TRAVELING EXHIBITIONS Rosenwald Collection—Special exhibitions of prints from the Rosenwald Collection were circulated to the following places during the fiscal year: Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, Pa.: 3 drawings. October 1950. University of Minnesota Art Gallery, Minneapolis, Minn.: 3 prints. October 1950. American Federation of Arts, Washington, D. C.: 50 prints for circulation by the Federation. October 1950. Columbia Museum of Art, Columbia, S. C.: 40 Hogarth and Rowlandson prints. October 1950. Philadelphia Art Alliance, Philadelphia, Pa.: 8 prints. November 1950. Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, Mass.: 34 prints. December 1950. Pasadena Art Institute, Pasadena, Calif.: 11 Toulouse-Lautree prints. January 1951. University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia, Pa.: 1 water color. : April 1951. SECRETARY'S REPORT 35 Index of American Design.—During the fiscal year 1951 exhibitions from this collection were shown in the following States: Number of State exhibitions ARK anSasis 2m ieee Aa Nhs SOS DERI NAD IE leet 5 1 California re wipe rweesit rises eee ky reel) by de fe 4 Connecticut. =— ee ed = ne te te 8 DISLWC COM COU DIR ae a ee 5 Ela Wane tee rae Se ee es oe ee ee 1 WIGTicAates = eee eee | eee eure ib one es epee eek a 2 J UR b oYey Spee Lee AT aR ee ee ee ee ee ee 1 Iindinwartan: 7st s tress trroeeghs ould Dn ont tis 1 enpuic kaye =e eas eile ta. Je ee 1 1M (aL 00 Batman acpi, Siting alae erties 1 Miassachtusettsuese mee me wee ene See 2 ny LTC) ELUTE he, Daur ee at ya pe ea a ee 2 Minne Otae testis a) UE 2 Sect etl OF Be. 1 INEISSOUTIE Ss ee ee ee ee ee ee 2 New Hampsuires:) see Seveles & 2 Vee S 1 INew Sorkier. ores 000” Sealey (iis A ws ay ee 8 INOLtHEDakotan bar cstins Sear soe Ms Ss ] Oi OEE ees ASE gees se Lik We ed Tr Pes Laren 4 Pennsylvania = a=. Sones et a alee At 5 ANE. CVE. Se Dg ae ee Se ee ST. ieee 3 LOSE GS =, ae Sa re el ea 2 nen. gneeane Sit eae 1 Two exhibitions from this collection were circulated in Europe during the fiscal year. CURATORIAL ACTIVITIES The Curatorial Department accessioned 2,457 new gifts to the Gal- lery during the fiscal year. Advice was given in the case of 305 works of art brought to the Gallery for opinion, and 41 visits to other col- lections were made by members of the staff in connection with prof- fered works of art. About 300 paintings were studied and con- sidered for possible acquisition. A total of 1,311 inquiries requiring research were answered. During the year, 10 individual lectures were given by members of the curatorial staff, both at the Gallery and elsewhere. In addition, Miss Elizabeth Mongan conducted a seminar with Robert Walker for Swarthmore College; and Charles M. Richards gave two courses in art history under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture. Perry B. Cott served as chairman of the Medieval section of the Symposium of the College Art Association held at Dumbarton Oaks; Mr. Richards presented reports to the American Association of Museums meeting in Philadelphia on “Pres- ervation of Essential Records during an Emergency” and “Sugges- tions for a Work of Art Shipping Label.” He served on two com- mittees of the Association, acting as chairman of one. During the year Miss Katharine Shepard was elected secretary of the Washington Society, Archaeological Institute of America. 36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Special installations were prepared for the European Paintings from the Gulbenkian Collection, lent by C. S. Gulbenkian, Esq., and for Paintings and Sculpture from the Kress Collection acquired by the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, 1945-1951. The cataloging and filing of photographs in the George Martin Richter Archives continued to make progress, with the gradual en- largement of the collection. Also, about 100 additional catalog notes were prepared for the new catalog of paintings in the National Gallery. Further activities of the department are indicated under the head- ing “Publications.” RESTORATION AND REPAIR OF WORKS OF ART Necessary restoration and repair of works of art in the Gallery’s collections were made by Francis Sullivan, resident restorer to the Gallery. All work was completed in the restorer’s studio in the Gallery. PUBLICATIONS During the year Huntington Cairns contributed an article on the late American philosopher, Morris R. Cohen, to the Rivista Inter- nazionale di Filosofia del Diritto; reviews of “Styles in Painting,” by Paul Zucker, “Impressionists and Symbolists,” by Lionello Ven- turi, and “Painting in France, 1895-1949,” by San Lazzaro, to the Yale Review; and the foreword to “Morals and Law: the Growth of Aristotle’s Legal Theory,” by Max Hamburger. He also delivered a series of eight lectures at the Johns Hopkins University on “The Theory of Criticism.” The book “Paintings from America,” by John Walker, published by Penguin Books, Ltd., appeared during this year, and Mr. Walker’s book review of “Landscape into Art,” by Sir Kenneth Clark, was published in the December 1950 number of Burlington Magazine. Also, Mrs. John Shapley contributed an article, “A Predella Panel by Benozzo Gozzoli,” to the Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 1950. An illustrated catalog of European Paintings from the Gulbenkian Collection was prepared by Mrs. John Shapley and was issued for the opening of the Gulbenkian exhibition on October 8, 1950. An illus- trated catalog of Paintings and Sculpture from the Kress Collection acquired by the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, 1945-1951, was com- piled by William E. Suida, curator of research of the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, in collaboration with the Curatorial Department, with foreword by Mr. Finley and introduction by Mr. Walker, for the open- ing of the Tenth Anniversary Exhibition, March 17, 1951. Perry B. Cott completed a catalog of the Kress Renaissance bronzes for the same opening. SECRETARY'S REPORT 3d Progress was made on the second volume of “Masterpieces of Paint- ing from the National Gallery of Art” by Huntington Cairns and John Walker; and work on Erwin O. Christensen’s second Decorative Arts Handbook, “Objects of Medieval Art,” and his third Decorative Arts Handbook, “Jewels and Rock Crystals,” approached completion. During the past fiscal year the Publications Fund added 8 new 11-x-14’’ color reproductions to the large group already available, and 5 more plates of the new Kress paintings were completed and ready for use; 17 additional new plates in this size were on order. Portfolio No. 2 on “The Life of Christ,” containing fifteen 11-x-14’’ color reproductions and accompanying text, was issued. An exchange of 11-x-14’’ prints with the Metropolitan Museum in New York was also instituted. The long-awaited book entitled “The Index of American Design,” with a foreword by Erwin O. Christensen, was published during the fiscal year and received wide acclaim. A new type of publication, a guidebook to the Italian paintings, is now on order. About 3,000 copies of the catalog for the Sesquicentennial Exhibi- tion, put on sale a year ago, were sold; and during the exhibition of Canadian paintings over 300 catalogs as well as portfolios and maga- zines were distributed. A new set of Index of American Design playing cards was made available; and three recordings by the National Gallery Symphony Orchestra were put on sale for the first time. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM The attendance for the General, Congressional, and Special Tours, and for the “Picture of the Week,” was more than 37,000 for the fiscal year. The Sunday afternoon lectures in the auditorium, by members of the staff and visiting lecturers, continue to be a popular activity of the Education Office. Three Sunday afternoon programs were given over to the showing of educational art films. The work of the Department has been extended by circulating the black-and-white film strip of 300 paintings from the Gallery’s collec- tion; by lending slides and the film “The National Gallery of Art.” The monthly Calendar of Events announcing all the Gallery activi- ties, including notices of exhibitions, new publications, lectures, gal- lery talks, tours, and concerts, was mailed to approximately 4,700 persons each month. LIBRARY The most important contributions to the Library this year were the books, pamphlets, periodicals, and subscriptions purchased out of the fund presented to the National Gallery of Art by Paul Mellon. These included the collection of 2,775 art sales catalogs dating from 38 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 1727 through 1948 purchased from Martinus Nijhoff at The Hague, a collection containing several rare manuscript catalogs. Gifts in- cluded 145 books, pamphlets, and periodicals, while 700 books, etc., were received on exchange from other institutions. During the year 375 persons other than the Gallery staff have used the Library for research either in person or by phone. INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN During the fiscal year, 608 examples from the Index were repro- duced in various magazines while 284 were borrowed for use in forth- coming publications. Of the 630 persons visiting the Gallery for the purpose of studying Index material, 567 were new users. In all, 948 photographs of Index material were sent out for use by designers, possible publication, for research, study, etc., and for publicity; and 413 slides of Index renderings were used in connection with lectures. Mr. Christensen, as a member of the faculty of the Seminar in American Culture, New York State Historical Association, Coopers- town, N. Y., participated in lecture courses, panel discussions, and classes. CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE BUILDING During the past year, the Gallery building and grounds and me- chanical equipment were maintained at the high standard established in the past. Considerable redecorating work was done, including the painting of several galleries and offices. Flowering plants, totaling 3,94 in number, and valued at approximately $6,975, were grown in the moats and used for decoration of the Garden Courts. The condenser water, chilled-water, and dehumidifier pumps, and the fountain and sump pumps were overhauled; all air-conditioning equipment was inspected, serviced, and repairs made; two refrigera- tion machines were completely overhauled; new lawn sprinklers were installed in the space between the sidewalk and Constitution Avenue, east of the service entrance; 12 sections of skylight, repre- senting an area of more than 5,000 square feet, were completely overhauled ; an azalea storage frame was constructed in the southwest moat with surplus building tile; a contract was entered into in June 1951 for the raising to the original level of the granite and marble platforms at the Mall entrance which had settled and created a poten- tial hazard to the public. CONSTRUCTION OF NEW GALLERIES AND OFFICES Work under the contract accepted June 24, 1949, for completing 12 galleries in the east end of the building was completed on July 15, SECRETARY'S REPORT 39 1950; and work under the contract awarded March 10, 1950, for the completion of five offices with a slide storage room in the west wing on the ground floor for the Educational Office, was completed in December 1950. A contract was entered into on July 31, 1950, for the completion of five galleries in the west end of the building. It was anticipated that the work on these galleries would be completed early in 1951; however, completion has been greatly delayed because of the difficulty en- countered in obtaining the quality of oak flooring called for in the specifications. Private funds were made available for these purposes. CONSTRUCTION—STORAGE FACILITIES A contract was entered into on March 1, 1951, to build a storage room adjacent to the Gallery building in the southeast moat. Work is progressing satisfactorily, and it is expected that this project will be completed by late summer. A contract was entered into on March 2, 1951, to build a storage building and reconstruct a cottage on the site of Randolph-Macon Woman’s College, Lynchburg, Va. This work is also progressing satisfactorily and, unless unforeseen delays occur, will be completed in the late autumn of 1951. Both of these projects are being carried out with private funds advanced for these purposes. OTHER ACTIVITIES Forty-five Sunday evening concerts were given in the Garden Courts during the fiscal year. The Eighth Annual American Music Festival was held in April, featuring 22 works by American com- posers. Most of the concerts were broadcast in their entirety by radio station WCIFM, Washington. The National Gallery Orchestra also made four long-playing records for WCFM Recording Corporation, recording works by Mozart, Handel, and Ives. The Photographic Laboratory of the Gallery produced 12,593 prints, 313 black-and-white slides, and 1,723 color slides during the fiscal year, in addition to 2,110 negatives, as well as X-rays, infra- red and ultraviolet photographs. A total of 2,298 press releases and 21,000 invitations for exhibitions at the Gallery were issued during the fiscal year, while 222 permits to copy paintings and 214 permits to photograph were issued. Also 416 releases on current weekly activities of the Gallery were sent to the Washington newspapers, radio station WGMS, and the weekly guidebook, “This Week in the Nation’s Capital.” During the year, a group of German leaders in the field of art and other educational and cultural endeavors, toured the United States, 981445—52 4 40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 first visiting the National Gallery of Art, where itineraries for their trips were arranged by the Assistant Director’s office. Also, during the year, two Austrian leaders—one a museum official, the other an artist—visited the Gallery and were accorded the same help in making plans for their tour of this country. OTHER GIFTS Gifts of books on works of art and related material were made to the Gallery by Paul Mellon and others. Gifts of money during the fiscal year 1951 were made by the A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust. AUDIT OF PRIVATE FUNDS OF THE GALLERY An audit of the private funds of the Gallery has been made for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1951, by Price, Waterhouse & Co., public accountants, and the certificate of that company on its examination of the accounting records maintained for such funds will be forwarded to the Gallery. Respectfully submitted. Hontineron Catrns, Secretary. THe SECRETARY, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 3 Report on the National Collection of Fine Arts Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activ- ities of the National Collection of Fine Arts for the fiscal year ended June 380, 1951: THE SMITHSONIAN ART COMMISSION The twenty-eighth annual meeting of the Smithsonian Art Com- mission was held in the Regents’ Room of the Smithsonian Building on Tuesday, December 5, 1950. The members present were: Paul Manship, chairman; Alexander Wetmore, secretary (member, ex of- ficio) ; John Nicholas Brown, George H. Edgell, David E. Finley, Gilmore D. Clarke, Archibald G. Wenley, Lloyd Goodrich, John Taylor Arms, Robert Woods Bliss, and George Hewitt Myers. John E. Graf, Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution, Thomas M. Beggs, Director, National Collection of Fine Arts, and Paul V. Gardner, curator of ceramics, National Collection of Fine Arts, were also present. The resignations of William T. Aldrich and Gifford Beal as mem- bers of the Commission were submitted and accepted with regret. The Commission recommended to the Board of Regents Lawrence Grant White to succeed Mr. Aldrich, and Andrew Wyeth to succeed Mr. Beal. The Commission recommended the reelection of John Taylor Arms and Gilmore D. Clarke for the usual 4-year period. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: Paul Manship, chairman; Robert Woods Bliss, vice chairman, and Dr. Alexander Wetmore, secretary. The following were elected mem- bers of the executive committee for the ensuing year: David E. Finley, chairman, Robert Woods Bliss, Gilmore D. Clarke, and George Hewitt Myers. Paul Manship, as chairman of the Commission, and Dr. Alexander Wetmore, as secretary of the Commission, are ex- officio members of the executive committee. Mr. Beggs reported that the reorganization of the permanent col- lection progressed steadily during the year as further work of in- dividual artists and various types of artistic work were assembled. Seventeen paintings by Albert Pinkham Ryder, N. A. (1847-1917), have been installed in a gallery to be known as the Ryder Room of the Gellatly Collection. Meissen, Worcester, and Sévres porcelains 41 42 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 have been grouped by Mr. Gardner for systematic display in the Pell Collection. Two additional storage rooms with movable screens and air conditioning are being provided for the better maintenance of the collections. Mr. Gardner explained briefly the progress made in a project in- volving spectrochemical analysis of ancient glass, the purpose being to associate known types with the time and location of their manu- facture and to trace ancient trade routes and material sources. An initial group of specimens lent by two museums has been turned over to the National Bureau of Standards for qualitative analysis, the results of which are to be interpreted in collaboration with Ray Smith, of the Archeological Institute of America. The Secretary outlined briefly further legal action relative to the Gellatly Collection under which the United States Supreme Court had ruled that there were no grounds for reopening the case. He also mentioned briefly tentative suggestions relative to the art collections in connection with present threats of war. The Commission accepted as a whole the 15 paintings of the Adams- Clement Collection, gift of Miss Mary Louisa Adams Clement in memory of her mother, Louisa Catherine Adams Clement, with dis- cretionary powers to be exercised by the National Collection of Fine Arts in regard to the showing of the individual pictures: Oil portrait, Mary Louisa Adams, by Asher B. Durand. Oil portrait, Georgianna Frances Adams, by Asher B. Durand. Oil portrait, John Adams, by Edward Dalton Marchant. Oil portrait, George Washington, by Edward Dalton Marchant. Oil portrait, John Adams, by Gilbert Stuart. Oil portrait, Joshua Johnson, attributed to John Trumbull. Oil portrait, Mrs. Joshua Johnson, attributed to John Trumbull. Oil portrait, John Quincey Adams, by Pieter van Huffel. Oil portrait, Mrs. John Quincy Adams, by undetermined artist. Oil portrait, Little Girl (one of the Adams children), by undetermined artist. Water-color portrait, Mary Louisa Adams, by undetermined artist. Miniature, Joshua Johnson, by Thomas H. Hull. Miniature, Boy in Peasant Costume, by Mary Louisa Adams Clement. Miniature, Portrait of a Young Woman, by Mary Louisa Adams Clement. Miniature, Louisa Catherine Adams Clement, by Mary Louisa Adams Clement. The following objects were also accepted: Oil portrait, Miss Mildred Lee, by S. Seymour Thomas. Gift of the artist. Oil portrait, Col. William Shakespeare King, by George Catlin. Gift of Daniel Packard King and Allene Packard King, through Mrs. Harry Lazelle King. Oil portrait, Townsend Bradley Martin, by Abbott H. Thayer, N. A. Gift of Mrs. Grosvenor Backus. Oil painting, Great Western, by William Marsh. Gift of Mrs. Alfred Born- mann, in memory of her father, Frederick Boesen. Oil painting, Street Shrine, by Jerome Myers, N. A. Henry Ward Ranger bequest. SECRETARY'S REPORT 43 Fourteen pieces of modern glass including Austrian, Dutch, French, and Swedish. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Hugh J. Smith, Jr. Four items of Bohemian glass. Gift of Mrs. John E. Lodge. A collection of 50 miniatures by American and foreign artists. Gift of Mrs. Henry L. Milmore. THE CATHERINE WALDEN MYER FUND Hight miniatures, water color on ivory unless otherwise stated, were acquired from the fund established through the bequest of the late Catherine Walden Myer, as follows: 71. August Fricke, by Henry Elouis; from Edmund Bury, Philadelphia, Pa. 72. A Member of the Washington Family, attributed to James Peale; from the estate of H. W. A. Cooke (L. B. Alexander, executor), through Mrs. J. H. Reiter. 73. Zachariah F. Johnston, by undetermined artist ; from Conrad Reid, Wash- ington, D. C. 74. Mrs. Frances Barton Stockton, by Hugh Bridport. 75. Mrs. John McCluney, by James Peale. %6. Portrait of a Gentleman, by James Peale. 77. Dr. Joseph Glover, by Charles Fraser. (Numbers 74 through 77 were acquired from the Mr. and Mrs. Norvin Green Sale, Parke-Bernet Galleries, Inc., New York City.) 78. Rey. William White, D. D. (Bishop of Pennsylvania, 1747-1836), enamel, by William Birch; from Katharine Woodward, Middleburg, Va. STUDY COLLECTION The following were accepted by the Smithsonian Institution for the Study Collection of the National Collection of Fine Arts: Ten pieces of Sévres (4 cups and saucers, 1 sugar bowl without cover, 1 cream pitcher), and eight pieces of Worcester type (2 small pitchers, 1 sugar bowl with cover, 2 bonbon dishes, 1 cup and saucer), the gift of Mrs. John E. Lodge. An Oriental ceramic, Ch’ien Lung (1736-1795) vase with base, the gift of Mrs. James W. Rickey. A piece of stained glass from one of the shattered windows of the demolished cathedral at Verdun, France, period of World War J, was transferred from the division of military and naval history, Department of History, United States National Museum. ALICE PIKE BARNEY LOAN COLLECTION On January 1, 1951, a collection of approximately 224 paintings by Alice Pike Barney (1860-1931), well-known Washington artist, social worker, and civic leader, 54 pictures by other artists, together with many sculptures and objects of art, was presented to the Smithsonian Institution by her daughters, Natalie Clifford Barney and Laura Dreyfus-Barney. This collection is to be used by the National Collec- tion of Fine Arts as the nucleus of a loan collection for the embellish- ment of Federal buildings and for lending to museums, libraries, 44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 colleges, and other educational institutions for the development of public appreciation of art in this country. An oil painting, Old Woman and Child, by Hendrik Maarten Krabbe, was given by Mrs. Edith Newlands Johnston and Mrs. Wil- liam B. Johnston for use as a loan to museums, libraries, and colleges. ALICE PIKE BARNEY MEMORIAL FUND A generous fund has also been given to the Smithsonian Institution by Natalie Clifford Barney and Laura Dreyfus-Barney for the use of the National Collection of Fine Arts in maintaining the Alice Pike Barney Loan Collection and in organizing and circulating traveling exhibitions for the development of art appreciation in the United States. TRANSFERS ACCEPTED A full-length plaster cast of the statue of George Washington, ex- ecuted by William J. Hubbard from the original statue in marble by Jean Antoine Houdon, wastransferred from the United States Capitol on July 21, 1950. Seventeen oil paintings, ten oil sketches, and ten crayon studies of Arctic and Antarctic scenes, by Frank W. Stokes, were transferred from the United States National Museum on August 1, 1950. An oil portrait, Alexandre Dumas, by William H. Powell, A. N. A., was transferred from the Public Library of the District of Columbia on August 17, 1950. An oil, Your Forests, Your Fault, Your Loss, by James Montgom- ery Flagg, was transferred from the United States Forest Service on October 13, 1950. TRANSFERS TO OTHER DEPARTMENTS Twelve medals awarded to Edmund C. Tarbell, N. A. (1862-1938), given by the heirs of Edmund C. and Emeline Tarbell, were accepted for the Smithsonian Institution and transferred to the division of numismatics, Department of History, United States National Museum, June 29, 1951. LOANS ACCEPTED Three pieces of Bohemian glass were lent by Mrs. John E. Lodge, Washington, D. C., on July 17, 1950. A silver sugar bowl and a silver cream pitcher, made by William Thompson, were lent by William E. Huntington, Washington, D. C., on October 20, 1950. SECRETARY'S REPORT 45 A bronze, Destiny of the Red Man, by Adolph A. Weinman, was lent by the R. W. Norton Art Foundation, Shreveport, La., on Decem- ber 7, 1950. Two oils, portraits of Charles II and the Earl of Lauderdale, by undetermined artists, were lent by Lady Ross of Balnagown Castle, Ross-shire, Scotland, on March 22, 1951. WITHDRAWALS BY OWNERS Two oils, portraits of Lady Mary Ross and the late Sir Charles W. A. Ross, by Andrew Somerville, lent by the Bruce Corporation (Litd.), of Kildary, Scotland, and Wilmington, Del., through Sir Charles Ross on December 2, 1926, and one miniature, portrait of the 8th Baronet, Sir Charles Ross, by E. C. Thomson, lent by Lady Ross on April 4, 1949, were withdrawn by Lady Ross for shipment to Bal- nagown Castle, Ross-shire, Scotland, on March 21, 1951. LOANS TO OTHER MUSEUMS AND ORGANIZATIONS Two oils, Moonrise at Ogunquit, by Hobart Nichols, and The Storm, by Ludwick Backhuysen, were lent to the Bureau of the Budget on July 27, 1950, for a period not to exceed 4 years. (The Storm was returned on March 28, 1951.) Twenty-five booklets of sketches on the protective coloration in the Animal Kingdom, by Abbott H. Thayer, and a bird model used by him were lent to Mrs. Mary Fuertes Boynton, Trumansburg, N. Y., on December 7, 1950, for lecture purposes. (Returned January 8, 1951.) Two Japanese cloisonné vases were lent to Howard University on January 15, 1951, to be used as exhibition material in connection with a series of lectures on Asia and the Asians, January 15 through 30, 1951. (Returned January 31, 1951.) Oil, Fired On, by Frederic Remington, was lent to the Denver Art Museum on February 9, 1951, for an exhibition, “Life in America,” held in its new Schleier Gallery, March 4 to April 30, 1951. (Re- turned May 14, 1951.) Bronze, Field Artillery, by Herbert Haseltine, with pedestal, was lent at the request of the owner, Hon. Robert Woods Bliss, to The Baltimore Museum of Art on April 6, 1951, to be included in the special exhibition of “Sculpture of Herbert Haseltine,’ April 16 through June 3, 1951. (Returned June 6, 1951.) Three water colors, Ancient Castle, by Georgette Agutte, Sketch of a Village, by Albert Lebourg, and The Windmill, by Guillaume Tronchet, and one drawing, colored crayon and pencil, Landscape, 46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 by Henri Le Sidaner, were lent to the Bureau of the Budget on May 16, 1951, for a period not to exceed four years. Nine oil paintings, Elf Ground, by George Inness; At Nature’s Mirror, by Ralph A. Blakelock; Spring, by Alexander H. Wyant; Indian Summer, by John Francis Murphy ; The Return from the Fold, by Elliott Daingerfield; Lower Ausable Pond, by Homer D. Martin; Cliffs of the Upper Colorado River, Wyoming Territory, by Thomas Moran; In Jamaica, by William H. Holmes (owned by Glenn J. Martin) ; and October, by Robert C. Minor (owned by the United States National Museum), were lent to Howard University on April 24, 1951, to be included in the May Festival from May 1 to June 15, 1951. (Returned June 20, 1951.) LOANS RETURNED Oil, portrait of Commodore Stephen Decatur, by Gilbert Stuart, lent to the Truxtun-Decatur Naval Museum on April 27, 1950, to be included in their first exhibition, was returned on September 26, 1950. Three oil paintings, Gen. John J. Pershing, by Douglas Volk; Ad- miral William S. Sims, by Irving R. Wiles; and Gen. William T. Sherman, by George P. A. Healy; and one marble bust of Alexander Graham Bell, by Moses W. Dykaar, lent to the National Gallery of Art on May 22, 1950, to be included in the Sesquicentennial celebra- tion, “Makers of History in Washington, 1800-1950,” were returned November 27, 1950. THE HENRY WARD RANGER FUND The paintings purchased by the Council of the National Academy of Design from the fund provided by the Henry Ward Ranger bequest, which, under certain conditions, are prospective additions to the National Collection of Fine Arts, are as follows: Title Artist Date of purchase 126. New Lebanon Railroad Louis Bouche, N. A. (1896- )_ Mar. 19, 1951 Station. 127. The City—No. 2________ Ralph Gleitsmann (1910- )- Mar. 19, 1951 a. Berber... __..... _.... Xavier Gonzalez (1899- )-- Mar. 19, 1951 129. Four Houses___________ Antonio P. Martino, N. A. Mar. 19, 195] (1902- uP OO Albert John Pucci (1920- =). Mar. 19, 1951 131. Paris (water color)______ William A. Smith, A. N. A___. Mar. 19, 1951 132. Farm in Essex___.._____ Gifford Beal, N. A (1879- }~ wasy 9; too 133. Nine Men__._-__......_ Joseph Hirsch (1910- )___. May 7, 1951 134, Rabbit Island, Hawaii Millard Sheets, N. A (1907- ). May 7, 1951 (water color). 135. Blacksmith Shop (water John Alonzo Williams, N. A. May 7, 1951 color). (1869- i 136. ged Beams (water Andrew Wyeth, N.A(1917- ). May 7, 1951 color). SECRETARY’S REPORT 47 Since it is a provision of the Ranger bequest that the paintings pur- chased by the Council from this fund and assigned to American art institutions may be claimed by the National Collection of Fine Arts during the 5-year period beginning 10 years after the death of the artist represented, five paintings were recalled for action of the Smith- sonian Art Commssion at its meeting on December 5, 1950. One painting, listed earlier in this report, was accepted by the Commission to become a permanent accession. The following four paintings were returned to the institutions to which they were originally assigned by the National Academy of Design, as indicated. No. 19. East Coast, Dominica, British West Indies, by Frederick J. Waugh, N. A. (1861-1940), assigned to the Museum of History, Science, and Art, Los Angeles County Museum, Los Angeles, Calif. No. 87. Eagle Lake, by Jonas Lie, N. A. (1880-1940), assigned to the Iowa Memorial Union, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. No. 99. Easterly Coming, by Charles H. Woodbury, N. A. (1864-1940), as- signed to the Society of Liberal Arts, Joslyn Memorial Art Museum, Omaha, Nebr. No. 118. Fifteenth Century French Madonna and Child, by Harry W. Watrous, N. A. (1857-1940), assigned to the Coker College for Women, Hartsville, S. C. THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS REFERENCE LIBRARY In all, 280 publications (173 volumes and 107 pamphlets) were accessioned during the year; 671 parts of periodicals were entered in the periodical record; and 17 volumes and 45 pamphlets (serials) were entered in the catalog. The total accessions in the National Collection of Fine Arts Library now number 12,026. INFORMATION SERVICE The requests of 1,629 visitors received special attention, as did many similar requests by mail and phone. During the year 1,285 art works were submitted for identification. The members of the staff served as judges or as members of juries of selection and award for a number of exhibitions held in and around Washington. SPECIAL EXHIBITIONS Sixteen special exhibitions were held during the year as follows: July 1 through 25, 1950.—Exhibition of 56 paintings of Ancient Egyptian Monuments, by Joseph Lindon Smith, held under the patronage of His Excel- lency Mohamed Kamil Abdul Rahim Bey, Ambassador of Egypt. A catalog was provided. This exhibition opened on June 8. August 6 through 28, 1950—Exhibition of Ceramic Art by The Kiln Club of Washington, consisting of 62 pieces by local ceramic artists and 75 pieces by outstanding artists in this and other countries, lent by the artists themselves or 48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 by embassies and collectors. The technique of throwing on the potter’s wheel was demonstrated. A catalog was privately printed. August 6 through 28, 1950.—Exhibition of 31 pieces of sculpture by the Wash- ington Sculptors Group. Gallery talks and demonstrations were given. September 8 through 24, 1950.—Exhibition of Pictorial Art of the American Indian: A Living Tradition, from the collections of the Philbrook Art Center and the Department of Anthropology of the United States National Museum, con- sisting of 158 paintings, drawings, and other examples of graphic art. October 8 through 29, 1950.—The Eighth Annual Exhibition of The Artists’ Guild of Washington, consisting of 86 oils and sculpture. A catalog was privately printed. November 5 through 26, 1950—The Thirteenth Metropolitan State Art Contest, held under the auspices of the District of Columbia Chapter, American Artists Professional League, assisted by the Entre Nous Club, consisting of 333 paintings, sculpture, prints, ceramics, and metalcraft. A catalog was privately printed. December 10 through 29, 1950—The VFifty-fourth Annual Exhibition of the Washington Water Color Club, consisting of 174 water colors, etchings, and drawings. A catalog was privately printed. February 8 through 27, 1951—The Fifty-ninth Annual Exhibition of the Society of Washington Artists, consisting of 47 paintings and 7 pieces of sculpture. A catalog was privately printed. February 23, 1951.—The opening of the Albert Pinkham Ryder Room of the John Gellatly Collection. March 8 through 28, 1951—Memorial Exhibition of 84 oil paintings and pastels by Alice Pike Barney (1860-1931). A catalog was published. March 9 through 29, 1951.—Exhibition of 48 paintings and sculpture by artists from El Salvador, sponsored by the Ambassador of El Salvador to the United States, Dr. Héctor David Castro, under the auspices of the Pan American Union. A catalog was privately printed. April 18, 1951.—The opening of an exhibition of the Adams-Clement Collection given by the late Mary Louisa Adams Clement to the National Collection of Fine Arts and the Department of History of the United States National Museum, in the west hall of the Arts and Industries Building. May 6 through 30, 1951—The HWighteenth Annual Exhibition of The Miniature Painters, Sculptors and Gravers Society of Washington, D. C., consisting of 180 examples. A catalog was privately printed. May 17% through July 1951.—A Centennial Anniversary Exhibition of Paintings by Thomas Wilmer Dewing, N. A. (1851-1938). Twenty paintings were shown in the Natural History Building and twenty-one in the Freer Gallery of Art. A list was mimeographed. June 7 through 27, 1951.—The Second Annual Exhibition of the Florida Artist Group, consisting of 24 paintings. A catalog was privately printed. June 8 through 26, 1951.—An exhibition of 147 Swiss posters, held under the patronage of His Excellency Charles Bruggmann, Minister of Switzerland, and the auspices of the American Federation of Arts. A eatalog was privately printed. Respectfully submitted. Txomas M. Braas, Director. Dr. A. Wrermore, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 4 Report on the Freer Gallery of Art Sir: I have the honor to submit the thirty-first annual report on the Freer Gallery of Art for the year ended June 30, 1951. THE COLLECTIONS Additions to the collections by purchase were as follows: 50.7. 50.9. 50.10. 50.17. 50.18. 51.2. 51.5. 51.6. Bie 50.5. BRONZE Chinese, Chou dynasty (1122-256 B. C., early). A ceremonial vessel of the type fang ting. Design cast in relief and intaglio, the latter filled in with black substance. Inside one side a 41-character inscription. 0.263 x 0.246 x 0.107. Chinese, Shang dynasty (ca. 1766-1122 B. C.). A ceremonial weapon of the type ko, inlaid with turquoise. Protruding bottle horns. 0.096 x 0.411. Chinese, Chou dynasty (1122-256 B. C., late). Gilt bronze plaque inlaid with jade, turquoise, carnelian, and silver. Relief design of fabulous animals sporting among waves. 0.028 x 0.095. Chinese, Chou dynasty (1122-256 B. C., late). Incense burner of the type hsiang-lu. Decorations incised, gilded, and inlaid with gold; open- work cover; powdery gray-green patina. 0.107 x 0.103. Chinese, Chou dynasty (1122-256 B. C., early). A ceremonial vessel of the type fang tsun. Design cast in high and low relief. Twelve-char- acter inscription cast inside bottom. 0.279 x 0.290. (Illustrated.) Chinese, Han dynasty (207 B. C—A. D. 220). A cylindrical covered box of the type lien. Incised designs on sides and cover; removable tray inside. Loose ring on cover, and three very low feet. 0.142 x 0.155. Chinese, Han dynasty (207 B. C.—A. D. 220). A cylindrical vessel of the type lien with cover missing. Design of fabulous beasts in landscape east in high and low relief and incised ; two loose ring handles on sides; three feet in form of bears. 0.177 x 0.255. Chinese, Han dynasty (207 B. C.—A. D. 220). Garment hook, kou, inlaid with turquoise. A tiger, a water-buffalo head, and a snake head in relief. 0.217. Chinese, Chou dynasty (1122-256 B. C., late). Statuette in two parts: (1) figure of a dancing man in nomad costume with belt and dagger, with upraised arms; (2) a small bear crouched on top of a pole the lower end of which is socketed to fit the man’s right arm. 0.164 over all. METALWORK Persian, 10th—11th century. A silver bottle of globular shape with flaring foot and tall; straight neck. Decoration includes birds, animals, and in- scriptions in relief with niello and gilding. 0.249x 0.120. (Illustrated.) 49 50.21. 50.11. 50.19. 50.20. 60.23. 50.8. 50.12. 50.13. 50.14. 50.15. 50.16. 50.22. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Persian, 10th century. A silver bowl of shallow form with no foot. Decorated inside with two bands of inscription surrounding an eagle in the center, all incised in the metal. 0.043 x 0.239. Persian, 12th-13th century. A bracelet made in eight links; gold decorated with filigree and niello outlining birds, floral scrolls, and inscriptions. Stones missing. 0.197 x 0.030. PAINTING Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty (A. D. 1644-1912). Scroll painting by Wu Tan dated in correspondence with A. D. 1675. Landscape in ink and color on paper ; inscription, artist’s signature, and two seals on painting ; label, four inscriptions, and seven seals on mounting. 0.179 x 2.614. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty (A. D. 1644-1912). Scroll painting by Wang Hui (1632-1717). Landscape in ink and color on paper; eight seals on painting; three inscriptions and seven seals on mounting. 0.384 x 7.435. Chinese, Yiian dynasty (A. D. 1260-13868). Scroll painting by Chu Te-jun dated in correspondence with A. D. 1864. Landscape in ink and color on paper, signature, 45 seals, and 2 inscriptions on the painting; 68 seals and 26 inscriptions on the mounting. 0.283 x 2.112. Japanese, Kamakura period (A. D. 1186-1334). Portrait by Fujiwara Nobuzane (1176-1268) of Onakatomi no Yoritomo; one of a set of 86 poets painted in ink and colors on paper; inscription on painting. 0.279 x 0.511. (Illustrated.) . Japanese, Kamakura period (A. D. 1186-1884). Portrait by Fujiwara Nobuzane (1176-1268) of the poetess Saigu no Nyogo; one of a set of 36 poets painted in ink and colors on paper; inscription on painting. 0.279 x 0.511. 5. Japanese, Kamakura period (A. D. 1186-1334). Portrait by Fujiwara Nobuzane (1176-1268) of Minamoto no Kintada; one of a set of 36 poets painted in ink and colors on paper; inscription on painting. 0.279 x 0.511. POTTERY Chinese, Sung dynasty (A. D. 960-1279). Chiin ware bottle with pear- shaped body and tall, slightly flaring neck; gray-blue glaze with purple splashes. 0.280 x 0.128. Chinese, Chou dynasty (1122-256 B. C., late). Figure of a horse; soft, dark-brown clay with polished black surface; traces of red pigment. 0.080 x 0.092. . Chinese, Chou dynasty (1122-256 B. C., late). Figure of a dancing woman; soft, dark-brown clay with polished black surface ; traces of red pigment. 0.107. Chinese, Chou dynasty (1122-256 B. C., late). Figure of a standing woman; soft, dark-brown clay with polished black surface; traces of red pigment. 0.081. Chinese, Chou dynasty (1122-256 B. C., late). Figure of a warrior; soft, “po gape clay with polished black surface; traces of red pigment. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty (A. D. 1644-1912). Peach-bloom vase of slender form with flaring lip and deep narrow foot; 6-character mark of the K‘ang-hsi period (A. D. 1662-1722). 0.150 x 0.053. Chinese, Sung dynasty (A. D. 960-1279). Southern kuan ware vase of bottle shape with glassy, crackled glaze of mottled brown. 0.139 x 0.088. 51.1. SECRETARY'S REPORT 51 Chinese, Sung dynasty (A. D. 960-1279). Bowl of chien type from Yii Chou, Honan; ferruginous glaze running from reddish brown to deep glossy black. 0.085 x 0.148. Chinese, Ming dynasty (A. D. 13868-1644, early). Bowl of Yung-lo type; white porcelain decorated with floral designs in underglaze blue; iron- red wash on unglazed base. 0.157 x 0.410. Chinese, Ming dynasty (A. D. 1868-1644). Bowl of white porcelain with floral designs reserved in white against a ground of underglaze blue; 6-character mark of the Hsiian-té period (A. D. 1426-1435) on base. 0.087 x 0.187. REPAIRS TO THE COLLECTION A total of 114 objects were cleaned, resurfaced, remounted or re- paired as follows: AMEeHICAN sp ainbin gies anes Spl Ee oe ae 108 Chinese paintings mepaireds= sex ee = as fe ee Se 2 Chinese: potteryarepained® = 2 202 fa eee? ee 2 Japanese potery,srepaired sass = see ee 1 Rersianinpottepy: repaired 224%. << S20 aes eee See ee 1 This includes the final work of cleaning and restoration of the Whistler Peacock Room mentioned in the last three annual reports. The room was reopened to the public on October 18, 1950. Work on the Peacock Room and on all other American paintings was carried out as before by John and Richard Finlayson of Boston. CHANGES IN EXHIBITIONS Changes in exhibitions totaled 907 as follows: American art: OU pain Gin 2 Spee te eee ae ee ees a ee aS 2 eI oe 108 URES STS SIRS SN EN 1 eee eee ee 31 SUVELD OMICS 2a aie a esse eee ee. a ek 2 Wi SCTACOl OLS 2 ess eee ee ees Pet eee aed ell Chinese art: STON ZG ree coun eee aeeen eee enor oer ee De es 292 SNS (Cae a ER aad a 2p yt De Ed AS 300 Bu G2 Th el 0) Ke pelts ag NS Pee oe es +t Metall wor ke fica re eet 2 ees Po ee oe 52 IP OCECT ya ee ee nen er eee ener Wet Be le eS Sie 35 STONCESCULDtUT Cheer eee fe ee oe ere Bee 34 Japanese art: WaACHHeTASCUlP CUTE a oe es eee ee Se ee 2 PTT EIN IRS ee ee re FEN Pah ges eo ne a 34 EOE Tyee ee ee es A ed ees A 2 LIBRARY During the year the following work was accomplished in the library: Accessions of all kinds including books, pamphlets, periodicals, study material, and photographs, 780; cataloging of all kinds, includ- 52 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 ing cards typed and filed, 4,096; binding, labeling, repairing, and mounting, 496. Mr. Freer’s letters from Canfield, Dewing, Metcalf, Thayer, Tryon, and other artists represented in the collection were arranged chronologically and listed on cards which were filed; this project is continuing and these letters will be indexed in the future. Cataloging was completed of the collection of rare books purchased by Mr. Freer in the Orient; and two bibliographies were prepared for publication. Work continued on the major project of indexing both the English and Japanese editions of the Japanese periodical Kokka. PUBLICATIONS Five publications of the Gallery were issued during the year: Ettinghausen, Richard: Studies in Muslim Iconography, I. The Unicorn. Occa- sional Papers, vol. I, No. 3. 8S. I. Publ. 3993. September 1950. Freer Gallery of Art Pamphlet, revised edition. September 1950. Gallery Book VIII—The Art of India. October 1950. Steindorff, George: A Royal Head from Ancient Egypt. Occasional Papers, vol. I, No.5. S. I. Publ. 4022. February 1951. The Whistler Peacock Room. An illustrated pamphlet containing a brief description and history of the Peacock Room decorated by James A. McNeill Whistler. 8S. I. Publ. 4024. April 1951. Papers by staff members in outside publications were as follows: Pope, John A.: Ming blue-and-white at Philadelphia. Oriental Art, vol. 3, No. 1 (1950), pp. 21-27. Selected Chinese antiquities from the collection of Gustav Adolf, Crown Prince of Sweden, by Nils Palmgren. (A review.) The Far Eastern Quar- terly, vol. 10, No. 1 (Nov. 1950), pp. 85-89. Letter from the Near East. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 13, Nos. 3 and 4 (Dec. 1950), pp. 558-564. Wenley, A. G.: Selected Chinese antiquities from the collection of Gustav Adolf, Crown Prince of Sweden, by Nils Palmgren. (A review.) The Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 69, No. 3 (Oct./Dec. 1949), pp. 238-239. REPRODUCTIONS During the year the photographic laboratory made 3,809 prints, 433 glass negatives, and 189 lantern slides. BUILDING The cabinet shop has been kept busy with the usual work of making necessary equipment, doing repair work on the collections and mak- ing minor repairs on the building. A temporary painter made a small start on the long-accumulated backlog of work in the redecora- tion of the exhibition galleries and painting other parts of the building. Secretary's Report, 1951.—Appendix 4 matte tet OF ART THE COLLECTION OF THE FREER GALLERY ADDITION TO RECENT Secretary's Report, 1951.—Appendix 4 PLATE 2 50.18 RECENT ADDITION TO THE COLLECTION OF THE FREER GALLERY OF ART SECRETARY'S REPORT 53 At the end of the year work was begun on the construction of a technical research laboratory in the west end of the building. The firm of Keally and Patterson, architects, of New York, com- pleted a survey of the building with a view to modernization of the lighting throughout, air conditioning, and effecting structural changes for enlarging the library and adding much-needed office space. Plans were also drawn for a proposed addition to the building. All this work was preliminary in nature. ATTENDANCE The Gallery was open to the public from 9 to 4: 30 every day except Christmas Day. The total number of visitors to come in the main entrance was 62,895. ‘The weekday total was 49,893, and the Sunday total 18,002. The highest monthly attendance was in July, 8,407, and the lowest was in December, 2,281. There were 1,471 visitors to the office during the year. HERZFELD ARCHIVE Mrs. Charlotte Bradford, sister of the late Ernst Herzfeld, pre- sented to the Herzfeld Archive additional squeezes, plans, maps, draw- ings, ete., executed by Professor Herzfeld. STAFF ACTIVITIES The work of the staff members has been devoted to the study of new accessions, of objects contemplated for purchase, and to general re- search within the collections of Chinese, Japanese, Persian, Arabic, and Indian materials. Reports, oral or written, were made upon 2,377 objects as follows: Belonging to private individuals, 1,552; belonging to dealers, 705; at other museums, 120. In all, 289 photographs of ob- jects were examined, and 242 Oriental language inscriptions were translated for visitors. By request, 10 groups met in the exhibition galleries for docent service by staff members; the total attendance was 208. ‘Two members of the staff spent parts of the year engaged in research projects outside the United States as follows: During the summer months of 1950, Mr. Pope traveled to the Near Kast to study the uniquely important Chinese porcelain collections in Tehran and Istanbul. In Iran, additional material was examined in Mashhad and Isfahan; and passing through Europe to and from the Near East provided an opportunity to see important Chinese ceramics in museums and private collections in Bristol, Cirencester, Oxford, London, Paris, Amsterdam, and Leeuwarden, as well as scattered ex- amples in Rotterdam, Rome, Faenza, Venice, and Ziirich. 54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 In October Dr. Ettinghausen began a year’s study trip to the Near East. After a month in Europe, he proceeded to Cairo where he studied for two months. A brief stop was made in Baghdad en route to Iran where he spent four months studying and visiting the impor- tant sites and monuments. At the end of the year he was continuing his work in Afghanistan. By invitation the following lectures were given outside the Gallery by staff members: 1950 Noy. 5. Mr. Pope addressed the fall meeting of the Far Eastern Ceramic Group in the Brooklyn Museum on “Notes on Chinese Ceramics in the Near Hast.” (Illustrated.) Attendance, 40. Dee. 7. Mr. Pope addressed the Washington Society of the Archaeological In- stitute of America at the Corcoran Gallery of Art on “Chinese Porcelain in Europe and the Near East.” (Illustrated.) At- tendance, 40. 1951 Jan. 8. Dr. Ettinghausen addressed the faculty of art, Faruk I University, Alexandria, Egypt, on “Animal Lore in Moslem Art.” (Tllustrated.) Attendance, 60. Jan. 9. Dr. Kittinghausen addressed the Société Royale d’Archéologie of Alex- andria, Egypt, on “Moslem Art in the West from the Middle Ages to Modern Times.” (Illustrated.) Attendance, 75. Jan. 11. Mr. Pope addressed the annual dinner of the Smithsonian Board of Regents, giving a brief account of his findings in the Near East. Attendance, 25. Jan. 17. Dr. Ettinghausen addressed the U. S. Offices of Information and Educational Exchange, at the U. S. Embassy, Cairo, Egypt, on “‘Ani- mal Lore in Moslem Art.” (Illustrated.) Attendance, 75. Jan. 22. Mr. Pope addressed the Fine Arts Group of the Special Libraries As- sociation in the Whittall pavilion of the Library of Congress, on “Chinese Porcelain in Europe and the Near East.” (Illustrated.) Attendance, 25. Mar. 6. Dr. Ettinghausen addressed a group at the Tehran University, Tehran, Iran, on “Science and Fiction in Islamic Art.” (Illustrated). At- tendance, 120. Mar. 27. Mr. Pope addressed the Far Eastern Art and Archaeology Section of the annual meeting of the Far Eastern Association at Philadelphia on “Two Kamakura Kongorikishi.” (Illustrated.) Attendance, 60. During the year 7 members of the staff made a total of 16 trips outside of Washington on official business. Members of the staff held honorary posts and undertook additional duties outside the Gallery as follows: Mr. Wenley: Trustee, Hermitage Foundation, Norfolk, Va. Chairman of the Louise Wallace Hackney Scholarship Com- mittee of the American Oriental Society. Trustee, Textile Museum of the District of Columbia. Member, Visiting Committee, Dumbarton Oaks Research Li- brary and Collection. SECRETARY'S REPORT 55 Mr. Wenley—Cont. Member, Smithsonian Art Commission. Mr. Pope: Research Professor of Oriental Art, University of Michigan. Member, Committee of Expert Examiners, U. S. Civil Service Commission, for the Smithsonian Institution. President, Far Eastern Ceramic Group. Art Editor, Far Eastern Quarterly. Member, Two Advisory Selection Committees for Fulbright Awards in Fine Arts and Architecture, under the Con- ference Board of Associated Research Councils. (One meeting in New York, one in Washington, both ad hoc.) Dr. Ettinghausen: Editor, Bibliography of the Near East prepared by the Com- mittee on Near Eastern Studies, American Council of Learned Societies. Editor, Ars Islamica. Respectfully submitted. A. G. Wentery, Director. Dr. A. Wermor:, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 981445—52—__5 APPENDIX 5 Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the field researches, office work, and other operations of the Bureau of Ameri- ean Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1951, conducted in accordance with the Act of Congress of April 10, 1928, as amended August 22, 1949, which provides for continuing “independently or in cooperation anthropological researches among the American Indians and the natives of lands under the jurisdiction or protection of the United States and the excavation and preservation of archeologic remains.” SYSTEMATIO RESEARCHES Dr. M. W. Stirling, Director of the Bureau, left Washington early in January to continue the program of archeological work in Panama inaugurated in 1948 in cooperation with the National Geographic Society. En route, he made stops of several days each in México, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Costa Rica to study and photograph archeological collections in those countries. In Panama the primary objective was an archeological reconnaissance on the relatively un- explored Atlantic coast of Panama lying between the Canal Zone and the Chiriqui lagoon. It was here in 1502 that Columbus attempted to establish the first European colony on the American mainland. Three river systems in this region were explored— the Rio Salud, Rio Indio, and Rio Coclé del Norte. The latter is the largest river on the Panama north coast. Columbus found this region inhabited by Indians who wore gold ornaments and who did not live in villages but in single houses separated from one another by considerable dis- tances. Dr. Stirling’s archeological work confirmed this observation. The archeological remains consisted primarily of pottery and stone objects removed from the refuse deposits where the houses had stood. Near the coast the pottery was simple in style, unpainted, and with a limited variety of forms. Near the headwaters of the rivers the pottery became more elaborate as a result of influences from the high culture centers that existed in pre-Columbian times on the Pacific side of the divide. On concluding this survey, in the latter part of March, the expedition established headquarters at La Pintada in the Pacific drainage opposite the headwaters of the Coclé del Norte, where additional excavations were undertaken with the intention of estab- 56 SECRETARY'S REPORT 57 lishing the relation between the prehistoric cultures of the two re- gions. Dr. Robert Rands accompanied Dr. Stirling in the field as archeological assistant. Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., Associate Director of the Bureau and Director of the River Basin Surveys, devoted most of his time during the year to the management and direction of the River Basin Surveys. In October he went to Lincoln, Nebr., to inspect the Missouri Basin headquarters. Accompanied by Paul L. Cooper, field director, he then proceeded to the Fort Randall Reservoir area near Chamber- lain, S. Dak., and visited a number of archeological sites that were being tested by one of the field parties. From Chamberlain he went to Pierre, S. Dak., and inspected the investigations being carried on in the area of the Oahe Dam. Dr. Roberts also went to several other sites that will be flooded by the Oahe Reservoir and discussed with Mr. Cooper plans for excavation projects at those locations when field work got under way in the spring months. After returning to the headquarters at Lincoln, Dr. Roberts went to Colorado where early in November he spent two days at the Lindenmeier site seeking char- coal that could be used for carbon-14 dating. He also spent two days testing a rock shelter near Livermore, which had been reported to contain materials belonging to the Folsom complex. Dr. Roberts found considerable evidence of occupancy of the shelter by recent In- dians but saw nothing to indicate the older horizon. In April he went to Clarksville, Va., where excavations were under way in sites that will be flooded by the Buggs Island Reservoir. In May he went to Evanston, Ill., to attend the annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, of which he was President, and then pro- ceeded to Lincoln, Nebr., where he assisted in the preparation of plans for the summer field season in the Missouri Basin. From Lincoln he went to Oklahoma and spent several days visiting sites in the Tenkiller Ferry Reservoir and observing the excavations that were being made by a River Basin Surveys’ party near Tahlequah. At the beginning of the fiscal year Dr. Henry B. Collins, anthropolo- gist, left for a second season of field work on Cornwallis Island in the Canadian Arctic. As in the two preceding years the work was con- ducted under the joint auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum of Canada. Dr. Collins and his assistant, Walter KE. Taylor, anthropology student at the University of Toronto, were flown by the Royal Canadian Air Force from Montreal to the Reso- lute Bay weather station on Cornwallis Island, stopping en route at Churchill on Hudson Bay. The excavations yielded a large collection of the Thule culture material, most of it from in and around an unusually large stone and whalebone house at the site designated as M 1, a mile from the weather station. Just to the rear of this house was a small and inconspicuous house ruin, indicated only by a shal- 58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 low depression in the ground, which turned out to be the oldest Thule structure thus far found in the central or eastern Arctic. The artifacts from this house were identical with those from the earliest Thule sites in Alaska. The house had evidently been occupied very briefly, for perhaps only one or two years, by some of the first Thule migrants from Alaska, who in all likelihood had then continued on their way to northwest Greenland. A similar shallow depression nearby yielded Dorset objects, the first indication that this early but little-known Eskimo culture had reached Cornwallis Island. Three culture stages are thus represented at Resolute—Dorset, early Thule, and developed Thule. The first two were probably represented by only a few families who lived there for very short periods. The last stage was of much longer duration, probably a century or more, during which time the population was probably to be numbered in the hundreds. In June 1951 Mr. Taylor returned to Resolute to complete some of the excava- tions that had to be left unfinished the preceding August. Dr. Collins was reelected to the board of governors of the Arctic Institute for a 3-year term, and also for a 1-year term as treasurer of the organization. He continued to serve as chairman of the directing committee that planned and supervised the bibliography and roster projects on which the Arctic Institute has been engaged for the past four years under contract with the Office of Naval Research. The Roster of Arctic Specialists, containing biographical data on Amer- ican and Canadian citizens having expert knowledge of the Arctic regions, was completed and turned over to the agencies that had spon- sored and financed the work—U. S. Departments of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Defense Research Board of Canada. The first five vol- umes of the Arctic Bibliography were also completed and delivered to the Government Printing Office through the Department of the Army, which had contributed additional funds for its publication. Prepared under the direction of Miss Marie Tremaine with a staff including expert bibliographers, translators, and scientists working at the Li- brary of Congress and other libraries in the United States and Canada, the Arctic Bibliography is one of the most comprehensive regional bibliographies ever assembled and should be a useful research tool for scientists and others interested in the North. At the beginning of the fiscal year, Dr. John P. Harrington was on the Crow Indian Reservation in southern Montana conducting lin- guistic studies. Dr. Harrington found in connection with his studies that the word Missouri, formerly thought to mean “large canoe” or “wooden canoe,” means simply “canoe” and, as applied since aboriginal times to the Missouri River, means by implication the navigated river. Dr. Harrington also obtained detailed information concerning the Mandan coracle or bull boat from Crowsheart, an Indian 94 years of age. An article was completed on this subject. On December 19, SECRETARY'S REPORT 59 Dr. Harrington returned to Washington, D. C., and spent the time until March 9 writing reports on his field work. On this date he left for México in order to resume his studies on the Maya language. At the end of the fiscal year he was in Mexico City continuing this work. Commencing July 1, Dr. William N. Fenton, having completed an assignment for the Indian Service at Taos Pueblo, conducted a survey of manuscripts relating to the ethnohistory of eastern Indians in the Henry E. Huntington Library at San Marino, Calif. The latter re- search, carried out with the aid of grants from the research funds of the American Philosophical Society, was published in the Proceed- ings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 95, No. 3. Factions are a peculiar feature of American Indian political organi- zation that has yet to be worked out for the country as a whole. Some ideas about political structure and methods of field work, which Dr. Fenton developed over a long period of field and library study among the Six Nations, were this past year transferred to the study of Indian self-government, which is riddled with factional disputes, in three divergent tribal cultures—Taos, Klamath, and Blackfeet. Each field situation was unique and required adjusting techniques, but the main principles hold. Field work was completed at Klamath Indian Agency in August, and the situation at Blackfeet Agency in Montana was explored during September. On returning to Washington late in September, at the request of the Indian Bureau Dr. Fenton drafted a comprehensive plan for the study of the Blackfeet problem by a team of social-science specialists who would be drawn from several disciplines including anthropology. RIVER BASIN SURVEYS (Report prepared by Franx H. H. Roserts, Jr.) Instituted in the fall of 1945 as a unit of the Bureau of American Ethnology, the River Basin Surveys were organized to carry into effect a memorandum of understanding between the National Park Service and the Smithsonian Institution. The memorandum per- tains to the salvage of archeological and paleontological remains that would otherwise be lost as a result of numerous projects for flood control and irrigation, hydroelectric installations, and navigation improvements in the river basins of the United States. The field work was started in July 1946 and has continued since that date. During the entire period of operations the investigations have been conducted as an interagency program with full cooperation on the part of the Smithsonian Institution, the National Park Service, and the Bureau of Reclamation of the Interior Department, and the Corps of Engineers of the Department of the Army. In addition, numerous non-Federal institutions scattered throughout the various States have 60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 aided in the work. The program in the last fiscal year was financed by a transfer of $174,375 to the Smithsonian Institution by the Na- tional Park Service. Those funds were derived in part from the National Park Service and in part from the Bureau of Reclamation. The money from the Bureau of Reclamation was for use in the Mis- souri Basin, while that from the National Park Service was for use in all other areas throughout the United States. Because the appro- priations for the previous year became available so late in the field season, a substantial carry-over ($185,574) increased the 1951 funds so that a much larger series of investigations was possible than would otherwise have been the case. Activities during the year consisted of reconnaissance or surveys for the purpose of locating archeological sites or paleontological deposits that will be flooded or otherwise destroyed by construction work and in the excavation of sites located by previous surveys. In all, 45 reservoir basins located in 13 States and scattered over 8 river basins were visited by survey parties. In addition one lock project and four canal areas were examined. Excavations were completed or were under way at the end of the fiscal year in 20 reservoir areas in 10 States. During the course of the year there were 26 excavating parties in the field. Eight of the excavation projects were in areas where digging was done in previous years, but the remainder were new undertakings. When the fiscal year closed, the total of the res- ervoir areas where surveys had been made or excavations carried on since the beginning of actual field work in July 1946 was 225 located in 25 States. During the course of the work 2,894 archeological sites have been located and recorded, and of that number 545 have been recommended for excavation or additional testing. Preliminary appraisal reports were completed for all the reservoirs surveyed, and 14 reports were mimeographed for limited distribution to the co- operating agencies. This makes a total of 134 such reports issued since the start of the program. In some cases a series of reservoirs is included in a single report covering a subbasin, and for that reason the total number of reports is Jess than that of the reservoirs. The excavations made during the fiscal year brought the total for areas where such work has been done to 33. The results of some of that work have been published as technical reports in various scientific journals, and one Bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology con- taining eight such papers is now in press. That Bulletin inaugurates a new series, to be called “River Basin Surveys Papers” and designed as an outlet for the reports resulting from the interagency archeologi- cal salvage program. Paleontological surveys have been made in 115 reservoir areas, 70 being those where archeological work has also been done. The remaining 45 in due course will be investigated by SECRETARY’S REPORT 61 archeological parties. The over-all total of reservoirs visited, includ- ing those where archeological work still needs to be done, is 270. The reservoirs investigated for archeological remains as of June 30, 1951, have the following distribution by States: California, 20; Colo- rado, 24; Georgia, 4; Idaho, 11; Illinois, 2; Iowa, 3; Kansas, 7; Ken- tucky, 1; Louisiana, 1; Minnesota, 1; Montana, 14; Nebraska, 27; New Mexico, 1; North Dakota, 13; Ohio, 2; Oklahoma, 7; Oregon, 26; Penn- sylvania, 2; South Dakota, 9; Tennessee, 1; Texas, 15; Virginia, 2; Washington, 11; West Virginia, 2; Wyoming, 19. Excavations since the start of the program have been made in: California, 5; Colorado, 1; Georgia, 1; Kansas, 1; Montana, 1; Nebraska, 1; New Mexico, 1; North Dakota, 4; Oklahoma, 2; Oregon, 3; South Dakota, 5; Texas, 7; Virginia, 1; Washington, 8; Wyoming, 38. The River Basin Surveys received extensive cooperation during the year from the National Park Service, the Bureau of Reclamation, the Corps of Engineers, and numerous State and local institutions. Guides and transportation were furnished staff men in the field at a number of projects, while at others office and laboratory space was provided. In several cases labor and mechanical equipment were con- tributed by the construction agency. Had it not been for the assist- ance provided in that way, it would not have been possible for the River Basin Surveys’ men to accomplish as much as they did. Asin past years, the National Park Service served as the liaison between the various agencies and provided the Smithsonian Institution with the necessary information concerning the locations of the proposed dams and reservoirs and also their priorities. In addition, the Na- tional Park Service carried the responsibility for budgeting the costs of the program and for procuring the funds. General supervision and direction of the work in California, Geor- cia, Kentucky, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and Virginia were from the main office in Washington. The program in the Columbia Basin was directed from a field headquarters and laboratory at Eugene, Oreg.; that in the Missouri Basin was under the supervision of a field office and laboratory at Lincoln, Nebr.; and that in Texas was under the field office at Austin. All the materials collected by the survey and excavation parties in those three areas were processed at the field lab- oratories. In addition, the collections made in Georgia were processed at a laboratory at Athens. Washington office—The main headquarters of the River Basin Sur- veys continued under the direction of Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr. Joseph R. Caldwell, Carl F. Miller, and Ralph §. Solecki, archeolo- gists, were based on that office, although Caldwell spent the entire year in Georgia, and Solecki took leave of absence to join an expedition going to the Near East. Dr. Theodore E. White, paleontologist, di- 62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 vided his time between the Washington office, the Missouri Basin, and the Texas area. Mr. Caldwell spent the early months of the fiscal year working on his report on the results of the excavations completed during the pre- vious year at the Allatoona Reservoir. In November he proceeded to the Buford Reservoir area on the Chattahoochee River northeast of Atlanta where he carried on a survey until April 6. In the latter part of April Mr. Caldwell made an investigation at the site of Fort Char- lotte in McCormick County, S. C., to determine what work might be necessary to obtain full information about it before it is flooded by the waters of the Clark Hill Reservoir. From Fort Charlotte Mr. Cald- well returned to his field base at Athens where he prepared a manu- script “The Booger Bottom Mound: A Forsyth Period Site in Hall County, Georgia.” At the beginning of the year, Carl F. Miller was carrying on ex- cavations at a site on the east bank of the Roanoke River near Clarks- ville, Va. He continued operations there until August 4, when he returned to Washington. During the months spent in the office, Mr. Miller worked on his section of the report on the excavations at the Allatoona Reservoir in Georgia. On February 28 he returned to Clarksville and resumed investigations in the Buggs Island Reservoir area. Those operations continued until June 20, when he proceeded to Bassett, Va., and made a survey at the Philpott Reservoir on the Smith River. He returned to Washington on June 30. During such times as the Director was absent from the Washington office, Mr. Miller served as Acting Director of the River Basin Surveys. Ralph 8S. Solecki devoted the early months of the year to the com- pletion of reports on work done previously. In October he made a brief investigation of the area at Morgantown, W. Va., where a new navigation lock was under construction. From there he proceeded to the Conemaugh Reservoir on the Conemaugh River in western Penn- sylvania, where he made a reconnaissance of the area that will be flooded. From the Conemaugh project he proceeded to the East Branch Reservoir basin on the Clarion River, also in Pennsylvania. After completing the survey of that area, he returned to Washington and completed his report on the field investigations. Dr. Theodore E. White spent the winter and early spring months in Washington studying the materials he had collected during the summer field season and in the preparation of a manuscript “Prelim- inary Analysis of the Fossil Vertebrates of the Canyon Ferry Reser- voir Area.” In April he went to Texas where he collected fossils from the Lavon Reservoir on the East Fork of the Trinity River in Tarrant County and from the Garza-Little Elm Reservoir on the Elm Fork of the same river in Denton County. In June Dr. White proceeded from SECRETARY’S REPORT 63 Texas to Lincoln, Nebr., and resumed his activities in the Missouri Basin. California.—At the beginning of the fiscal year a party under the direction of Franklin Fenenga was excavating a site in the Terminus Reservoir area on the Kaweah River, in Tulare County. That work was continued until August 1, and upon its completion detailed in- formation had been obtained about a small village consisting of 14 houses and 3 distinct milling places. The site was important be- cause it provided an opportunity to study the remains left by a group of people who occupied the region in historic times and concerning whom there is an extraordinarily complete ethnographic record. The lower end of the Kaweah Canyon was formerly occupied by a small band of the Yokut Indians known as the Wukchumne or Wickchamni. Correlations of the data from both the ethnological and archeological sources of information will make it possible to prepare an archeolog- ical report containing an almost unique amount of information on the function and significance of the artifacts and the various features of the site. Many items of the material culture previously known only through tradition are now represented by actual objects recovered during the archeological researches. Upon the completion of the digging at the Terminus Reservoir, Mr. Fenenga moved his party to the Folsom Reservoir located on the American River, in Eldorado County, where excavations were carried on from August 3 to September 16. About 75 percent of the site was investigated. The returns were small in that only a single burial and 214 artifacts were found. The burial was that of a child about 12 years old and had no accompanying offerings. The artifacts con- sist for the most part of stone and, as most of them are unspecialized forms making functional identifications or comparisons with objects from other sites difficult, they are not particularly significant. A small series of arrow points, about half of which were made from a native opal, will be useful in the matter of correlation with other sites, but at present there is so little material available for study from that particular region that conclusions are not warranted. Until more data are obtained, it will not be possible to give a reasonably complete picture of the material culture of the people who occupied the site. Two field parties excavated at the Cachuma Reservoir on the Santa Ynez River, in Santa Barbara County. One of them, under Albert D. Mohr, worked from August 1 to September 12, while the other, under Martin Baumhoff, worked from April 8 until May 18. The first party excavated in a site that contained evidence of three cultures previously described by David Banks Rogers. They are the Oak Grove, Hunting, and “Chumash.” The evidence obtained there substantiated the re- 64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 ported sequence for the Santa Barbara area. It also indicated that two phases each of the last two periods might be defined as the result of further work. The same party also did some testing in another site which apparently represents a single late period that extended into early historic times. The party under Mr. Baumhoff concentrated its efforts at the second site where Mr. Mohr worked and obtained considerable additional information from it. Preliminary study of the artifacts indicates that the occupation is attributable to the Canaliio. There is evidence of trading activities in the form of tubular beads from the San Joaquin Valley and potsherds similar to the pottery made by the Yokuts of that region and the western Paiutes. No house remains were found, but there were scattered piles of stones that appear to have been inten- tiona) rather than accidental, and in one case there was a pear-shaped pit 12 feet 8 inches long, 6 feet 3 inches wide, and 1 foot 3 inches in depth, which had been lined with slabs of shale and was filled with rocks of all sizes. The function of the pit has not been determined. It was at first thought that the feature may have been a sweat house, but the nature of the shale lining was such that it probably would not have withstood the heating necessary for sweat-house purposes. Additional work is needed at the Cachuma Reservoir in order to gain a better understanding of the aboriginal history of the area. Columbia Basin.—W ork in the Columbia Basin was continued under the supervision of the field headquarters at Eugene, Oreg., where laboratory and office space were provided by the University of Oregon. Joel L. Shiner served as acting field director throughout the year. Activities in that area consisted of a survey of six reservoir projects and excavations in four areas where preliminary reconnaissance work had already been completed. The John Day Reservoir basin on the John Day River, in Oregon,’ was examined by Robert Farrell and Stuart Peck during the first two weeks in July. The party found 88 sites and recommended testing or more extended excavations for 8 of them. From the John Day Reservoir, Peck and Farrell proceeded to the Hells Canyon Reservoir on the Snake River, in Oregon-Idaho, where they found 22 sites, of which 4 were recommended for investiga- tion. The latter survey was completed the middle of August. During July George L. Coale and Octavio Romano surveyed the area to be flooded by the Albeni Falls Reservoir on the Pend Oreille River, in northern Idaho. They found 13 sites and recommended the testing of 5. Construction work on the dam has progressed to such an extent that the indicated work may not be possible at that location. From the Albeni Falls area, Coale and Romano proceeded to the Katka and Libby Reservoir projects on the Kootenai River, in Idaho and Montana, where they made a preliminary reconnaissance. The Katka Dam is located in Idaho, but the reservoir will extend upstream into SECRETARY'S REPORT 65 Montana. The survey of the Katka area located and recorded 14 sites, of which one was recommended for excavation. Three others, however, were found to be worthy of testing. The Libby area contains 11 archeological sites, and because so little is known of the archeology of the Kootenai Indians, 6 of the 11 were recommended for further study. Extensive excavation would not be required at any of them, however. John M. Campbell spent July and August making a survey of the Priest Rapids Reservoir basin. The Priest Rapids Dam is to be built in the Columbia River just below the rapids and will create a pool area 56 miles long. The district to be flooded is an important one from the standpoint of the aboriginal occupation of the area, and 74 sites were found there. Of that number, 29 are considered to be of high archeological significance. The sites consist of those with well-preserved house pits, the remains of open camps, cave shel- ters, burial grounds, and various groups of pictographs. The region is one that was occupied by several different Indian groups, and know]l- edge from it should have an important bearing on a large section of the Plateau Culture area. At the start of the fiscal year a party under the direction of Douglas Osborne, consulting archeologist, was continuing excavations at a site on the Washington side of the Columbia River near Mottinger in the McNary Reservoir basin. The site was that of a postcontact village and probably was the location of that visited by Robert Stuart in 1812. During the course of the digging three house pits and one mat lodge were uncovered, and three additional house pits were tested. The house pits were circular, and if the identification of the village is correct it would indicate that the circular earth lodge was in use in that area at a later date than most anthropologists have believed. The artifacts obtained were not numerous, which is a condition found at most of the places worked in the McNary basin. In addition to abo- riginal stone and bone implements and shell ornaments, a variety of European goods was obtained. Several of the house pits gave evi- dence of several separate occupations, which may indicate that the village was not lived in continuously but was revisited from time to time, perhaps by the same group of people. The remains of the long narrow mat house, which was a popular form of multifamily dwelling during the historical period in that area, agree closely with the de- scriptions of such houses given by the Umatilla Indians to ethnological investigators in previous years. One complete burial was recovered at that location. Late in July Mr. Osborne transferred his party to a site near Cold Springs on the Oregon side of the river where he dug four house pits in the remains of a small village. During periods of high water the site appears to be located on an island, as a portion of the river flows through an old channel and separates it from high ground to the south. The village was situated on the side nearest 66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 the main channel and consisted of two distinct groups of houses. The largest group was centered about 500 feet downstream from the smaller one. An almost identical condition had previously been noted at another site where work was done during the summer of 1949, but thus far no explanation for such a division has been found. The pits at. this particular location were also circular in form and indicated a single occupation. The lack of well-developed midden or refuse areas implies that the village must have been short-lived or that par- ticular care was taken to throw refuse into or near the river. Trade goods were scarce at this site, which would seem to indicate that it should be dated as slightly earlier than the time of the first contact with the Whites or just prior to 1800. The Lewis and Clark map shows the “island” but does not indicate the presence of a village or at least the existence of houses. It would appear that the village had been abandoned and had fallen into ruin before 1805. The most important contribution from the excavations at these sites is the verification of data secured at other locations in the McNary, particularly with re- spect to the size and shape of the former houses and their artifact asso- ciations; also, it was indicated that, while fishing was the primary source of subsistence, hunting actually played a larger part in the econ- omy than previously supposed. Mr. Osborne also completed the exca- vation of a house pit at a site 1 mile downstream where work was done the previous summer, and in addition located and removed 17 burials from Sheep Island in the middle of the river about equidistant from the other three sites. Some work had been done previously at that lo- cation by Thomas R. Garth, who was then with the National Park Service. Osborne, who was under a temporary appointment as con- sulting archeologist, completed his investigations the end of August and returned to his regular duties at the Washington State Museum. Richard D. Daugherty and his party continued the excavations started near the end of the previous fiscal year at the O’Sullivan Reser- voir near Ephrata, Wash., and completed the investigations on Sep- tember 2. They spent the summer season at a small village site close to a larger one where Daugherty did some work in the summer of 1948. During the current year two large circular house pits were dug, and the remains of a rectangular mat dwelling were uncovered. A series of cairns that had formerly contained burials was also studied. The graves had been systematically rifled by local collectors, however, and little could be learned other than that the piles of stone had covered the remains of cremations. Information pertaining to the house types agreed with that from the previous digging, and from that data it will be possible to draw a number of conclusions about the dwellings of the area. Not a single item was found suggesting White contact, but the similarity of the artifacts to those from other sites in the region where there was association with contact material suggests that SECRETARY’S REPORT 67 the occupancy was not long prior to the time the first white men reached the area. In general the artifacts consist of projectile points, various types of scrapers, knives, drills, hammerstones, sinkers, pendants, grinding stones and pestles, stone pipes, bone awls and points, bone flaking tools, gaming pieces, and beads. While carrying on his excava- tions, Daugherty also tested a site in the Lind Coulee where materials attributable to the Paleo-Indian occur. The site is outside the reser- voir basin but is along the course of lateral and distribution-system canals, and as Lind Coulee is to be used as a wasteway for them the archeological remains will ultimately be destroyed. A party under the direction of Samuel J. Tobin was excavating in a large rock shelter in the Equalizing Reservoir basin southwest of the town of Grand Coulee, Wash., at the start of the fiscal year. The work was carried on through July. Evidence obtained there was that the shelter was not a regular dwelling place but rather a spot where small parties probably camped from time to time. Three distinct levels of occupation were found, but apparently no great length of time intervened between each level, and the materials suggest that the same cultural group was involved throughout. The chief signifi- cance of the shelter is that a considerable amount of dry material such as is rarely found in open sites was obtained. Included in it are cordage, fragments of bow staves, arrow or spear shafts, textile frag- ments, matting, and pieces of basketry. Nonperishable artifacts are projectile points, bone implements and beads, and shell beads. The rear wall of the shelter was decorated with pictographs, some made with white paint and others in red. Analysis of the dry materials should throw considerable light on that phase of the material culture of the people in the area. Present indications are that the shelter may well have been occupied by either the Nespelem or their eastern neighbors the Sanpoil. Although contact objects were lacking below the surface, it is difficult to assign either a historic or a pre-Columbian age to the site. The beginning of the fiscal year found a party under George A. Cheney digging in village remains along the Columbia River in the basin to be flooded by the Chief Joseph Reservoir. The work con- tinued through July and August and into early September. In August Tobin’s party was shifted to that project to assist in the in- vestigations. The work in September was a cooperative effort, the Washington State Museum providing the necessary labor. At the end of the season 42 house pits located in 7 sites had been dug and accompanying trash mounds examined. Good information was ob- tained concerning the house type, and indications are that there was no particular village pattern. The structures do not seem to have been grouped, but at all the sites were strung along a terrace above the river in sheltered areas well back from the water. The artifacts 68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 recovered consisted in the main of stone projectile points, blades, scrapers, hammers, pestles, pipes, choppers, and bow] fragments. The evidence in general appears to show that a single cultural level was represented at all the sites investigated. The area is one, however, where the river has done considerable scouring and shifting, and it is possible that older materials may have been destroyed. Though many of the data from the Chief Joseph Reservoir supplement those reported by earlier workers for the Upper Columbia-Grand Coulee Reservoir, there are some marked differences in certain artifact cate- gories. Considerable light will be thrown on the archeology of that portion of the Columbia Basin when studies on the materials from the Chief Joseph Reservoir are completed. On April 2 Joel L. Shiner started excavations at a site in the McNary Reservoir where a cultural layer had been discovered underneath a thick stratum of wind-deposited volcanic ash. The site, which was reported to the River Basin Surveys in January by Thomas R. Garth, represented a single occupation by a group of Indians having a simple culture and, except for the projectile points, very crude tools. Some 100 artifacts, including hammerstones and choppers in addition to the points, were found there. Large numbers of animal bones, many of them burned, and mussel shells were present in the midden. There were no indications, however, of any type of habitation. The culture probably represents a fairly early horizon in the Columbia Basin, but its proper place in the sequence for the area cannot be determined definitely until the volcanic ash is correlated with one of the known eruptions in the region or the burned bones have been dated by the carbon-14 method. Typologically the artifacts appear to be of re- spectable age. At the end of April Mr. Shiner moved his party to the site of a former fishing village at the mouth of the Walla Walla River and carried on excavations there until the middle of May. Most of the digging was done in a midden deposit adjacent to the house remains, and a good series of artifacts was obtained. That is one of the few locations where enough material was found to make possible a satis- factory statistical study of the types of artifacts. The village appar- ently was occupied just prior to and during the first coming of the white man. A large number of burials had been present at one time, but the locality had been so thoroughly dug by local collectors that only scattered bones were found by Shiner’s party. During the year seven preliminary reports were completed and mimeographed at the Eugene office. Specimens from the various surveys were processed and cataloged and the photographs taken by the various parties were cataloged and filed. Because of the situation with respect to funds for the following fiscal year, it was necessary to close the Eugene office on June 30, 1951. SECRETARY’S REPORT 69 Georgia.—Field work in Georgia was carried on from a base of operations furnished by the University of Georgia at Athens. The main investigations during the year were of a survey nature. From November 14 to April 6 a reconnaissance was made of the area that will be inundated by the proposed Buford Reservoir on the Chatta- hoochee River. From April 23 to 28 a brief reconnaissance was made in the Clark Hill Reservoir, on the Savannah River, for the purpose of locating the remains of Fort Charlotte. The Buford Reservoir basin occupies a large intermediate section of north-Georgia terrain lying between the Allatoona Reservoir area on the Etowah River and the north-Oconee drainage. The region is one that is virtually unknown archeologically, and it should contain significant data as far as a proper understanding of cultural develop- ments in that part of Georgia is concerned. The preliminary survey located 46 sites in the area to be flooded. Included in the group are 29 that appear to represent a rather early prepottery period. There is some evidence that this group of sites may be somewhat older than the Stallings Island Prepottery Culture. A larger proportion of sites belong to the Woodstock period than was found to be the case during the investigations at the Allatoona Reservoir. The larger number of early sites indicates either that there was a sizable popula- tion in the district or that it was occupied over a long span of time. Extensive investigation of a number of the sites should give an answer in that respect. Two large previously unrecorded mounds were also noted, and some test digging was done in them. One gave evidence of having been erected over a small natural knoll, and the outlines of a small square house with a bench, bed, or throne at one end were found on its summit. The mound appears to represent a rather late and previously unknown complex which probably is pre-Lamar in age. The other mound apparently is one of the oldest artificial struc- tures thus far found in Georgia. It differs from previously recognized types of eastern mounds in that it was not accretional and probably was not intended for burial purposes. Neither does it seem to have been a temple platform or domiciliary mound. Evidence obtained during the course of testing it and adjacent areas suggests that it probably belongs in the Forsyth Period, which falls into the general category known as the Burial Mound I Period. In many ways the mound suggests similarities to the well-known Swift Creek Mound. One postulation as to its function is that it may have been erected for ceremonial purposes even though there are no traces of a structure on its summit. A simple earthen platform without a structure would be the logical beginning in the development of the eastern temple-mound complex. In addition to the pre-Columbian sites, the survey found a number attributable to the historic Cherokee. The latter are located for the 70 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 most part along the course of the old Federal Road, which passed through the Cherokee country to the Tennessee settlements. jterseted teas 204, S55 pts-steees_ 2. Publications received in return for pailiamentary Mocuments:. eset re LEER RAI 220 I oe) eee HONOGo Nec coo ee ee ne 18,175 United States departmental documents sent abroad___- 257 (D490 eee Seen ees 220, 279" | ceeeeneeeS Publications received in return for departmental MLO CTI GG 8 oe 25 Sects ae ag ll dee Be 80188). ae fee 17, 455 Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications BOY OOLOAUs = ancee see cee eo eee ae eae ee ee 154, 9605|22 = te Pan ate LS [eee eee Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from abroad for distribution in the United CEI IE oe, SOME Ee ON Ce Be er ec niente Sirs (areal gems 48480) eee eo 93, 706 lee eas. coke eere tt ee eae oe ee ee 943, 535 67, 465 659, 437 129, 336 rand Potnl sos ssi Pes 2 eh ae 1,011, 000 788, 773 ee een 96 SECRETARY’S REPORT 97 The packages of publications are forwarded to the exchange bureaus of foreign countries by freight or, where shipment by such means is impractical, to the addressees by direct mail. The number of boxes shipped to the foreign exchange bureaus was 2,884, only 5 less than for the previous year. Of these boxes 765 were for depositories of full sets of United States Government documents, these publications being furnished in exchange for the official publications of foreign governments which are received for deposit in the Library of Con- gress. The number of packages forwarded by mail and by means other than freight was 190,690. The reduction in transportation costs, accomplished by exporting through Baltimore rather than New York and first effected in 1947, is being gradually neutralized by steadily increasing transportation rates. The increasing freight and postal rates are primarily respon- sible for the 145,727 pounds of publications that remained unshipped at the end of the fiscal year. No shipments are being made to either China or Rumania. Pub- lications intended for addresses in Formosa and formerly sent through the Chinese Exchange Bureau at Nanking are now forwarded by direct mail. FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS The number of sets of United States official publications received by the Exchange Service for transmission abroad in return for the official publications sent by foreign governments for deposit in the Library of Congress is now 102 (61 full and 41 partial sets), listed below. Changes that occurred during the year are shown in the footnotes. DEPOSITORIES OF FULL SETS ARGENTINA: Divisi6n Biblioteca, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, Buenos Aires.’ AUSTRALIA: Commonwealth Parliament and National Library, Canberra. New SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. Soutuy AusTRALIA: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide. TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart. VicroriA: Publie Library of Victoria, Melbourne. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. Austria: Administrative Library, Federal Chancellery, Vienna. BeLciumM: Bibliothéque Royale, Bruxelles. Braziut: Biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janiero. BuLGARIA: Bulgarian Bibliographical Institute, Sofia. BurMA: Government Book Depot, Rangoon. 1Changed from Direccién de Investigaciones, Archivo, Biblioteca y Legislacién Extran jero. 98 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 CanapA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. ManiTosa: Provincial Library, Winnipeg. OntTarrIo: Legislative Library, Toronto. Quesec: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec. Cryton : Department of Information, Government of Ceylon, Colombo. CHILE: Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago. Cur1na: Ministry of Education, National Library, Nanking, China.” Perrine: National Library of Peiping. Cotometa: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota, Costa Rica: Biblioteca Nacional, San José.’ Cupna: Ministerio de Estado, Canje Internacional, Habana. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bibliothéque de l’Assemblée Nationale, Prague. DenMARK: Institut Danois des Echanges Internationaux, Copenhagen. Eeyrt: Bureau des Publications, Ministére des Finances, Cairo. FINLAND: Parliamentary Library, Helsinki. F’RANcE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. GERMANY: Offentliche Wissenschaftliche Biblothek, Berlin. Parliamentary Library, Bonn. GREAT BRITAIN: ENGLAND: British Museum, London. Lonpon: London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository of the London County Council.) Houneary: Library of Parliament, Budapest. Inp1A: National Library, Calcutta. Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi.‘ INDONESIA: Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Djakarta. IRELAND: National Library of Ireland, Dublin. IsRAEL: Government Archives and Library, Hakirya. ITaLy: Ministerio della Publica Istruzione, Rome. JAPAN: National Diet Library, Tokyo.” Mexico: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Departamento de Informaci6n para el Extranjero, Mexico, D. F. NETHERLANDS: Royal Library, The Hague. NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Nokway: Utenriksdepartmentets Bibliothek, Oslo. Peru: Seccién de Propaganda y Publicaciones, Ministerio de Relaciones Ex- teriores, Lima. PHILIPPINES: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila. PoLAND: Bibliothéque Nationale, Warsaw. PoRTUGAL: Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. Sparn: Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid. SWEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque Centrale Fédérale, Berne. TURKEY: Department of Printing and Engraving, Ministry of Education, Istanbul. Union oF SoutH Arrica: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. Union or Sovier SoclaList REPUBLICS: All-Union Lenin Library, Moscow 115. UnitEp Nations: Library of the United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. Urucuay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. 2 Suspended. * Changed from Oficina de Depésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones. 4 Added during year. 5 Receives two sets, SECRETARY’S REPORT 99 VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. Yucostavia: Bibliografski Institut, Belgrade.® ° DEPOSITORIES OF PARTIAL SETS AFGHANISTAN: Library of the Afghan Academy, Kabul. ANGLO-EaYpTIAN SuDAN: Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum.* Botrv1aA: Biblioteca del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, La Paz. BRAZIL; Minas Gerais: Directoria Geral de Estatistica em Minas, Bello Horizonte. BritisH Guiana: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara. CANADA? ALBERTA: Provincial Library, Edmonton. British CoLumMBIA: Provincial Library, Victoria. New Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton. NEWFOUNDLAND: Department of Provincial Affairs, St. John’s." Nova Scorra: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax. SASKATCHEWAN: Legislative Library, Regina. DoMINICAN REPUBLIC: Biblioteca de la Universidad de Santo Domingo, Ciudad Trujillo. Ecuabor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. Ei SALVADOR: Biblioteca Nacional, San Salvador. Ministerio de Relaciones EXxxteriores, San Salvador. GREECE: National Library, Athens. GUATEMALA: Biblioteca Nacional, Guatemala. Hartt: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. HONDURAS: Biblioteca y Archivo Nacionales, Tegucigalpa. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Tegucigalpa. IcELAND: National Library, Reykjavik. INDIA: Braark AND ORISSA: Revenue Department, Patna. Bompay: Undersecretary to the Government of Bombay, General Depart- ment, Bombay. UNITED PROVINCES OF AGRA AND OUDH: University of Allahabad, Allahabad. Civil Secretariat, Council House, Lucknow. West BENGAL: Library, West Bengal Legislative Secretariat, Assembly House, Calcutta. Iran: Imperial Ministry of Education, Tehran. Iraq: Publie Library, Baghdad. JAMAICA: Colonial Secretary, Kingston. University College of the West Indies, St. Andrews. LizeriA: Department of State, Monrovia. Mataya: Federal Secretariat, Federation of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Matta: Minister for the Treasury, Valleta. NICARAGUA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua. PAKISTAN : Chief Secretary to the Government of Punjab, Lahore. PaNAMA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama. PARAGUAY: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Seccién Biblioteca, Asuncién. *Changed from Ministére de l’Education. 7™Changed from Department of Home Affairs. 100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 ScorLanp: National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. Sram: National Library, Bangkok. SinGAPorE: Chief Secretary, Government Offices, Singapore. VATICAN Ciry: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Italy. INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL There are now being sent abroad 85 copies of the Federal Register and 92 copies of the Congressional Record. This is an increase over the preceding year of 2 copies of the Federal Register and 5 copies of the Congressional Record. The countries to which these journals are being forwarded are given in the following list: DEPOSITORIES OF CONGRESSIONAL RECORD AND FEDERAL REGISTER ARGENTINA ? Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Buenos Aires. Biblioteca del Poder Judicial, Mendoza.* Camara de Diputados, Oficina de Informacion Parliamentaria, Buenos Aires. Boletin Oficial de la Republica Argentina, Ministerio de Justica e Instruc- ciédn Publica, Buenos Aires. AUSTRALIA: Commonwealth Parliament and National Library, Canberra. New SourH WALES: Library of Parliament of New South Wales, Sydney. QUEENSLAND: Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Library of Parliament of Western Australia. BRAZIL: Biblioteca da Camera dos Deputados, Rio de Janeiro. Secretaria de Presidencia, Rio de Janeiro.‘ ° AMAzONAS: Archivo, Biblioteca e Imprensa Publica, Maniéos. Bawia: Governador do Hstado da Bahia, SAo0 Salvador. Espirito SANTO: Presidencia do Hstado do Espirito Santo, Victoria. Rio GRANDE DO Sut: Imprensa Oficial do Estado, Porto Alegre. SERGIPE: Biblioteca Publica do Estado de Sergipe, Aracaju. SAo PavuLo: Imprensa Oficial do Estada, Sio Paulo. Bririsa Honpuras: Colonial Secretary, Belize. CANADA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa. CryLon: Ceylon Ministry of Defense and External Affairs, Colombo.‘ ® CUBA: Biblioteca del Capitolio, Habana. Biblioteca Publica Panamericana, Habana.’ House of Representatives, Habana. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Library of the Czechoslovak National Assembly, Prague.’ Eeypt: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Egyptian Government, Cairo.’ Ei Satvapor: Library, National Assembly, San Salvador. 8 Federal Register only. ® Congressional Record only. SECRETARY'S REPORT 101 IRANCE: Bibliothéque Assemblée Nationale, Paris. Bibliothéque Conseil de la République, Paris. Library, Organization for European Economic Cooperation, Paris.° Publiques de l’Institute de Droit Comparé, Université de Paris, Paris.* Research Department, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.’ Service dé la Documentation Etrangére, Assemblée Nationale, Paris.* GERMANY: Bibliotek der Instituts fiir Weltwirtschaft an der Universitiit Kiel, Kiel-Wik.* Archiv, Deutscher Bundesrat, Bonn.‘ Der Bayrische Landtag, Munich.’ ” Deutscher Bundesrat, Bonn.’ Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn.? GREAT BRITAIN: House of Commons Library, London.’ Printed Library of the Foreign Office, London. Royal Institut of International Affairs, London.‘ ® GREECE: Bibliothéque, Chambre des Députés Hellénique, Athens. GUATEMALA: Biblioteca de la Asamblea Legislativa, Guatemala. Haiti: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. Honpuras: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa. INDIA: Civil Secretariat Library, Lucknow, United Provinces.® Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi.’ Legislative Assembly Library, Lucknow, United Provinces. Legislative Department, Simla. Parliament Library, New Delhi.’ INDONESIA: Provisional Parliament of East-Indonesia, Macassar, Celebes. IRELAND: Dail Hireann, Dublin. TEAIEN Biblioteca Camera dei Deputati, Rome. Biblioteca del Senato della Republica, Rome. European Office, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.* International Institute for the Unification of Private Law, Rome.* JAPAN: Library of the National Diet, Tokyo. MEXICO: Direccién General Informacién, Secretaria de Gobernacién, Mexico, D. F. Biblioteca Benjamin Franklin, Mexico, D. F. AGUASCALIENTES : Gobernador del Estado de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes. CAMPECHE: Gobernador del Estado de Campeche, Campeche. CuraPpas: Gobernador del Estado de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutierrez. CHIHUAHUA: Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua, Chihuahua. COAHUILA: Periddico Oficial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno, Saltillo. Corima: Gobernador del Estado de Colima, Colima. Duranco: Gobernador Constitucional del Estado de Durango, Durango, GuaNnasuaro: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado, Guanajuato. GUERRERO: Gobernador del Estado de Guerrero, Chilpancingo. JALISCO: Biblioteca del Estado, Guadalajara. Lower CALIrorniA: Gobernador del Distrito Norte, Mexicali. 10 Three copies. 102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Mexico—Continued México: Gaceta del Gobierno, Toluca. MrcHoachn: Secretarfa General de Gobierno del Estado de Michoacan, Morelia. MorELos: Palacio de Gobierno, Cuernavaca. Nayarit: Gobernador de Nayarit, Tepic. Nuevo Leon: Biblioteca del Estado, Monterrey. OAxACA: Peridéddico Oficial, Palacia de Gobierno, Oaxaca. Puresia: Secretarfa General de Gobierno, Puebla. QUERETARO: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccién de Archivo, Querétaro. San Luis Potos{: Congreso del Estado, San Luis Potosf. S1nALoA: Gobernador del Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacin. Sonora: Gobernador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo. Tasasco: Secretaria de Gobierno, Sessi6n 3a, Ramo de Prensa, Villahermosa. TAMAULIPAS: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Victoria. TLAXCALA: Secretaria de Gobierno del Estado, Tlaxcala. Veracruz: Gobernador del Estado de Veracruz, Departamento de Gober- nacién y Justicia, Jalapa. YucaTAN : Gobernador del Estado de Yucatin, Mérida. NETHERLANDS: Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague.’ New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Library of the Norwegian Parliament, Oslo. PAKISTAN: Punjab Legislative Assembly Department, Lahore. PERU: Camara de Diputados, Lima. PoLAND: Ministry of Justice, Warsaw.* PorTUGAL: Secretaria de Assembla National, Lisbon.’ SwITzERLAND: Bibliothéque, Bureau International du Travail, Geneva.* Library, United Nations, Geneva. International Labor Office, Geneva.” UNIon oF SouTH AFRICA: CAPE oF Goop Hore: Library of Parliament, Cape Town. TRANSVAAL: State Library, Pretoria. Union oF Sovier Socratist Repustics: Fundamental’niia Biblioteka, Ob- shchestvennykh Nauk, Moscow.’ Urvuevay: Diario. Oficial, Calle Florida 1178, Montevideo. VENEZUELA: Biblioteca del Congreso, Caracas. FOREIGN EXCHANGE AGENCIES Exchange publications for addresses in the countries listed below are forwarded by freight to the exchange agencies of those countries. Exchange publications for addresses in other countries are forwarded directly to the addresses by mail. LIST OF AGENCIES AustTrRIA: Austrian National Library, Vienna. BELGIUM : Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale de Belgique, Bruxelles. CHINA: Bureau of International Exchange, National Central Library, Nanking. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bureau of International Exchanges, National and University Library, Prague. u Two copies. SECRETARY’S REPORT 103 DenMARK: Institut Danois des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale, Copenhagen K, Ecypet: Government Press, Publications Office, Bulaq, Cairo. FINLAND: Delegation of the Scientific Societies of Finland, Kasiirngatan 24, Helsinki. FRANCE: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Biblioth@que Nationale, 58 Rue de Richelieu, Paris. GERMANY: Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft, Bad Godesberg. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND: Wheldon & Wesley, 83/84 Berwick Street, London, W. 1. Hunesary: Hungarian Libraries Board, Ferenciektere 5, Budapest, IV. InpIA: Superintendent of Government Printing and Stationery, Bombay. INDONESIA: Department of Cultural Affairs and Education, Djakarta. ISRAEL: Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem. Itaty: Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionali, Ministero della Publica Instruzione, Rome. JAPAN: Division of International Affairs, National Diet Library, Tokyo. NETHERLANDS: International Exchange Bureau of the Netherlands, Royal Li- brary, The Hague. NEw SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Service Norvégien des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque de l’Uni- versité Royale, Oslo. PHILIPPINES: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila. PoLAND: Service Polonais des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, Warsaw. PortuesaL: Seccio de Trocas Internacionais, Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. QUEENSLAND: Bureau of Exchanges of International Publications, Chief Secre- tary’s Office, Brisbane. RUMANIA: Ministére de la Propagande Nationale, Service des Echanges Inter- nationaux, Bucharest.” SoutH AUSTRALIA: South Australian Government Exchanges Bureau, Govern- ment Printing and Stationery Office, Adelaide. Spain: Junta de Intercambio y Adquisicién de Libros y Revistas para Bibliote- cas Ptiblicas, Ministerio de Educacién Nacional, Avenida Calvo Sotelo 20, Madrid. SWEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. SwiTzERLAND: Service Suisse des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Cen- trale Fédérale, Palais Fédéral, Berne. - TASMANIA: Secretary of the Premier, Hobart. TURKEY: Ministry of Education, Department of Printing and Engraving, Istanbul. UNION or SoutH AFrica: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope. UNION oF Sovier Soctattst Repusrics: Bureau of Book Exchange, State Lenin Library, Moscow 19. Victoria: Publie Library of Victoria, Melbourne. Western AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. YuGostaviA: Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade. Respectfully submitted. Dr. A. WreTmorg, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. D. G. WruraMs, Chief. 981445—52——_8& APPENDIX 7 Report on the National Zoological Park Sim: Transmitted herewith is a report on the operations of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1951. During the year 1,768 individual animals were added to the collec- tion by gifts, deposits, purchases, exchanges, births, and hatchings. Among the accessions were many rare specimens never before shown in this Zoo. The addition of new kinds of animals enhances the value of the collection, which is maintained not only for exhibition, but for research and education, thus fostering the Smithsonian’s established purpose of “the increase and diffusion of knowledge.” Valuable opportunities for research are afforded students of biology, particularly vertebrate zoology, as well as artists, photographers, and writers. Only methods of study that do not endanger the welfare of animals or the safety of the public are permitted. Services of the staff included answering in person or by phone, mail, and telegraph questions regarding animals and their care and trans- portation; furnishing to other zoos and other agencies, public and private, information regarding structures for housing animals; co- operating with other agencies of Federal, State, and municipal gov- ernments in research work; and preparing articles for publication. The stone restaurant building, which was constructed in the Park in 1940, is leased at $23,052 a year. This money is deposited in the general fund of the United States Treasury. The concessionaire serves meals and light refreshments and sells souvenirs. VISITORS The estimated numbet of visitors was 3,460,400, an increase of 22,731 over the previous year. This was the largest attendance in the history of the Zoo and was probably due to a combination of cir- cumstances, such as the continued high employment in the Wash- ington area, increase in travel accompanying the general economic prosperity, and the frequency with which the Zoo was able to announce the addition of interesting specimens to the collection. Before the war, early days of the week had relatively low attend- ance, with an increasing number of visitors the latter portion of the week and very large crowds on Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays. Now the variation in attendance on the different days is much less. There is also a considerable increase in attendance in the mornings. 104 SECRETARY’S REPORT 105 ESTIMATED NUMBER OF VISITORS FOR FISCAL YEAR 1951 July-AG950) wes ss are 452,500) | Fhebruary=so= 4 ee 193, 600 ATI OUISTS = = etree Do beer ders 470 A000l tMarch==. 222-32 22 = tener) 263, 200 September.=22.2. 255-3." 2 = 290 COO s AON = aE en ee 391, 300 October= 22-4 ws eee 2965900 Mavis ee ee 418, 500 November 22 22s Se 15651600) Pune sae ae eee ee 350, 700 PecemberLs = Beet vee 64, 150 —_—_—____ Tehooriay (Gls) 112, 200 Totale 2228 lec ee 3, 460, 400 Groups came to the Zoo from schools in Canada, Cuba, Haiti, and 29 States, some as far away as Maine, Florida, Oklahoma, Kansas, and North Dakota. There was an increase of 167 groups and 138,445 individuals in groups over last year. NUMBER OF GROUPS FROM SCHOOLS Number | Number Number | Number State of groups | in groups State of groups | in groups ee ee | ey AMabamals 22ers eee = 11 SO2N | PVUSsissippile eres ee ere 4 121 AT KANSAS S825 cee ae eee 1 153] AVEISSOURI ee ae oes eee ee 1 18 Canadensis Sa ee ee 2 1S | ING inh ees a ee 17 1, 160 Connecticut: 244. 3st... 12 BallalieNew Mork? 2). sane eee 104 5, 487 {OT OF ee pee pete ea a See 4 Chee \t IN (aoe VCE ea) shots ee 195 7, 125 Delawarove-- ss -ee see Ae 14 GISSleNOLuhyOakoLas ssa = =e ee 1 42 District of Columbia__-.____-- 128 GNGSOM HO hiok pts ieee cee eee Bee 52 5, 784 1 Coy che (ese ie AS A a A re 7 GSP ORE eee 2 36 Georginse se ae Seesen eee 36 CROLA RTE letsrobata a hgiott ye ea 241 12, 993 1 GMA RS eee a ee 1 OS} |) Isto hieL 1 182 Dlingiseee 2a Pe ee ae 2 64 }| South Carolina____._-.._--- as 78 2, 379 Tigra e B as es De ee ped 10 OTS ti Mennessee es 2-2 2 f= 2 2 41 1, 699 KANSAS seen deena ae ae oan? 4 OOF Nal patotl ee es ee ee 512 26, 09 Kentucky's te5 202 ewe eee 10 BS 14 | eWestavirpinia= 222. + 63 3, 556 IMS ING eta in Bd BS ee 6 SOLsl | mWisconsin@====2=2=o-= == =aeo 4 135 Maryland! 2-53) 2° 042) doe 541 31, 839 SSeS SS SS Massachusettss-----__ 2 = 12 656 Total- seat Sees 2, 140 115, 998 Michigan=s~-2 4%. 4s bets 23 1, 515 About 2 p. m. each day the cars then parked in the Zoo are counted by the Zoo police and listed according to the State, Territory, or country from which they came. ‘This is, of course, not a census of the cars coming to the Zoo but is valuable in showing the percentage of attendance, by States, of people in private automobiles. Many of the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia cars come to the Zoo to bring guests from other States. The tabulation for the fiscal year 1951 is as follows: Percent Percent WY Erg Eh 0G (eee eR bel Oe oR I Oo ONTO ss ee ee oe 1.9 Washincton@by ©2522... = 237 inWest Varsinia== =. 1.5 Wat Sin iy S425 oot a OALEG BN a eee eee ee 1.4 Pennsylyaninwess = eee Ee Op sR On a ee ee ee eee eee 1.0 New.) Yorkie 22 ORs EE id 2. Massachusetts tela oes 1.0 7 North

; . er ee i a i cae The New Chemical Elements’ By Saut DusHMAN aoe Research Consultant, General Electric Research Laboratory, Schenectady, N.Y. | Aut matter, mineral and organic, is made up of combinations or mixtures of elementary substances known as chemical elements. Before 1937 about 88 such elements had been found. About 30 of these elements occur on the earth, in the free or chemically uncombined state. Examples of such elements are: the gases hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and argon, which occur in the atmosphere; the metals gold, platinum, silver, copper, and mercury; and the nonmetals carbon and sulfur. Each chemical element is made up of infinitesimally small corpuscles, which were originally designated atoms, because they were assumed to be indivisible. The atoms of any one element are the same in size, mass, and chemical properties. If we assign to the atom of the lightest element (that is, hydrogen) the atomic weight 1, then the atomic weight of uranium—until 1940 the heaviest known element— is 238. The diameters of atoms of the different elements vary from about one hundred-millionth of an inch to about three times that value. About 50 years ago it was discovered that white-hot metals, when negatively charged, emit electrons. These have been shown to be extremely small particles each of which carries a unit charge of negative electricity and has a mass about 2,000 times smaller than that of the hydrogen atom. The diameter of the electron is about one hundred-thousandth of that of an atom. Also, at about the same time, the phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered; that is, 1t was observed that certain high-atomic-weight elements disintegrate spontaneously into elements of lower atomic weight. ‘Thus it was recognized during the first decade of the present century that the atom is not a simple, spherically shaped little mass, without structure, but must be composed of still more elementary particles, which govern the observed chemical and physical properties of the different chemical elements. 1Talk presented at the General Electric Science Forum broadcast on December 27, 1950. Reprinted by permission from General Electric Review, vol. 54, No. 4, April 1951, with some revision by the author, 245 246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 A first approximation to the solution of the problem regarding the structure of the atom was given, in 1911, by the late Sir Ernest Rutherford. As a result of a brilliant series of investigations, he reached the conclusion that the atom consists of a positively charged nucleus (or core) surrounded by as many electrons as the number of unit positive charges on the nucleus. This number is known as the atomic number of an element, and an element of atomic number X will be referred to in this article as element X. This number varies in value from 1 for hydrogen to 92 for uranium. Thus the uranium atom consists of a nucleus having 92 units of positive electricity and 92 electrons, revolving in orbits about the nucleus. Since the mass of even 92 electrons is about one-fiftieth of 1 percent of the mass of the uranium atom, it follows that nearly the whole mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. And yet, since the diameter of the nucleus is only about one hundred-thousandth of that of the atom, we must conceive of the atom as an extremely miniature solarlike system in which most of the volume is just empty space. The electrons external to the nucleus are arranged in shells or groups in a manner somewhat similar to the concentric crystal spheres in which, according to the medieval astronomers, the stars, sun, and planets were supposed to revolve about the earth as the center of the universe. With increase in atomic number, that is the charge on the nucleus, the electrons fill up first the innermost shells, and then the outer shells. There is a periodicity with increasing atomic number in the distribution of the electrons which corresponds to the perio- dicity in chemical and physical properties of the elements that had been previously observed in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Thus hydrogen consists of a nucleus of unit +ve charge and an electron located in the innermost shell. When one more +ve charge is added to the nucleus, the second electron which is required to neutralize the added +ve charge on the nucleus goes into the same shell as that occupied by the electron in the hydrogen atom and thus forms the atom of helium. With the addition of a third unit of positive charge to the nucleus the third electron enters into a second shell and we have the atom of lithium which is atomic number 38. As more positive charges are added to the nucleus the corresponding number of electrons enter into the same shell until we reach the atom of atomic number 10. This element is neon, which is chemically inert like He. This atom has two electrons in the innermost shell and eight electrons in the next outer shell. If we add eight more pos- itive units to the nucleus the added eight electrons fill up a third shell, and the element of atomic number 18 is argon, which is a chem- ically inert gas similar to neon and helium. This periodicity of eight leads to groups of chemically similar elements. Thus the NEW CHEMICAL ELEMENTS—DUSHMAN 247 elements lithium (atomic number 3), sodium (atomic number 11), and potassium (atomic number 19) all belong to the alkali metal group. The next members of the group of inert gases are krypton (atomic number 36) and xenon (atomic number 54). Cesium of atomic number 55 (that is, 87+18) is a member of the alkali metals group. The periodicity of 18 is succeeded by a period of 382 elements, so that radon (radium emanation) of atomic number 86 is the next and last member of the group of inert gases. reo [9 oe base Period 6/55 Au 79 fered eS fe Os Ir (S 74 (607 “ * pp Rn 86 Bh eas [sal- --(i03) La Ce re oesee a8 eglro 7 165 85/67/6869) 70 ZI Ficure 1.—Perodic arrangement of elements. Th |90_ LANTHANIDE SERIES: (RARE EARTHS) This periodicity in the distribution of the electrons in shells corre- sponds to a periodicity in chemicals and physical properties of the elements when these elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, as shown in the periodic arrangement of elements, figure 1.2_ Thus we find that the elements fall into eight groups, with chemically similar elements in each group. Such an arrangement was first suggested in 1870 by the Russian chemist Mendeléeff and was based on the arrangement of the elements in order of increasing atomic weight. With further discovery of new elements and more accurate determinations of atomic weights ?From Fundamentals of Atomic Physics, by S. Dushman. New York, 1951. 981445—52 17 2A8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 it became evident that for some of the elements the order based on atomic weights did not agree with the order predicted on the basis of chemical properties. The reason for this discrepancy came after Rutherford’s suggestion of the nuclear structure of the atom and as a result of a series of investigations by Moseley and others on the X-ray spectra of the elements. Turning now to a consideration of the structure of the nucleus, it was discovered, in 1934, that besides the electron, and the proton, which is the nucleus of the hydrogen atom, there also exists in all the nuclei another elementary particle, the neutron. This particle has zero charge and a very slightly higher mass than that of the proton. Our present view, therefore, based on this discovery and a larger number of observations, is that the nucleus contains both neu- trons and protons. The number of protons is the same as the atomic number (that is, the number of extranuclear electrons) and the num- ber of neutrons is equal to the difference between the atomic mass and the number of protons. Since the chemical properties of an element are governed solely by the atomic number (that is, the number of protons), it is possible to have two or more kinds of atoms which are chemically inseparable, but which have different atomic masses. This is because of differences in the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Such atoms are known as isotopes. Thus, the nucleus of ordinary hydrogen is designated the proton; but there is also an isotope of hydrogen of mass 2, the nucleus of which consists of a proton and a neutron. This nucleus is designated the deuteron; and while it has the same charge as the proton, it has about twice the mass of the proton. A large number of the elements have two or more isotopes, and in the case of the heavier nuclei, these are radioactive; that is, they decay spontaneously with emission of high-speed electrons, or gamma rays, or a particles. The latter are the nuclei of helium atoms and consists of two protons and two neutrons. Now the very important discovery has been made that it is possible to transmute nuclei of a radioactive element number X into nuclei of an element number X+1 or X+2 by bombardment with protons, deuterons, or helium ions. Since protons and deuterons have a nuclear charge of one positive unit and alpha particles have a nuclear charge of two positive units, these particles may be acceler- ated to very high velocities by means of high voltage in much the same manner as electrons are speeded up by high voltage in an X-ray tube. The velocities thus acquired by the positively charged particles are of the order of one-tenth to one-half of the velocity of light. Under these conditions, the particles gain sufficient energy to enable them to penetrate and combine with the nucleus of a bombarded atom of element number X. The result is an atom of element number X+1 or element number X+2, depending upon whether singly-charged NEW CHEMICAL ELEMENTS—DUSHMAN 949 particles or doubly-charged particles are used as bombarding pro- jectiles. That is, an atom of the bombarded element (number X) is transmitted into an atom of a totally different chemical element, of higher atomic number. It is in this manner that the four elements previously missing below uranium, and also elements of higher atomic number than uranium, have been synthesized in recent years. The first of the elements to be synthesized in this manner (in 1937) was number 48. Molybdenum is number 42, and by bombarding this element in a cyclotron with deuterons, the new element, number 43, was obtained. Since it was the first element produced artificially or technically, it was designated technetium (Tc). Chemical tests showed it to be an element chemically similar to manganese, as had been expected. In 1938, element number 61 was produced by bombarding neo- dymium, element number 60, with deuterons. It corresponds to a long-sought-for element, hitherto missing in the series of 15 rare- earth elements which occur in the periodic arrangement between barium (number 56) and hafnium (number 72). This newly dis- covered element has been designated promethium (Pm). In 1940, element 85 was produced by bombardment of bismuth, which is number 83, with high-speed helium ions. The new element was identified as a member of the same chemical group as chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Accordingly, it was designated astatine (At), signifying “unstable.” Francium (Fr, atomic number 87) was discovered in 1939, as a short- lived radioactive form that occurs in the decay of other radioactive elements such as uranium and radium. It corresponds, chemically, to the long-sought-for element “eka-cesium,” which belongs to the same alkali group as cesium. With the synthesis of these four elements all the 92 places in the periodic arrangement of the elements, beginning with hydrogen and ending with uranium, were completed. But in the course of the investigations on the fission of uranium, four new transuranic elements (that is, elements beyond number 92) were discovered. The first of these, number 93, was produced in 1940 by irradiating uranium with deuterons and was designated neptunium (Np), by analogy with the planet Neptune, which is beyond Uranus. Element 94 was produced, later in 1940, by bombarding uranium with « particles. Again, by analogy with Pluto, the outermost of the planets, this new element was designated plutonium (Pu). Both neptunium and plutonium are produced in the atomic pile as a result of the emission of neutrons by the isotope of uranium, of mass 250. By irradiating plutonium with helium ions, element 96 was syn- thesized in 1944 and designated curium (Cm). In 1945 the element 250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 95 was discovered by a group of investgators engaged on the Plu- tonium Project and designated americium (Am), by analogy with europium, number 63, which is a member of the rare-earth series. Theoretically, this new element could be synthesized by bombarding plutonium with deuterons. Finally, early in 1950, it was announced by a group associated with Dr. Seaborg, working at the University of California, in Berkeley, that two elements of still higher atomic numbers had been synthesized. Element 97 was produced by bom- barding americium, number 95, with 30- to 35-million-volt energy helium ions. To this element the name berkelium (Bk) has been assigned. Element 98 was synthesized, in the same manner, by bom- barding curium (number 96) with high-speed helium ions, and this new transmutation product has been designated californium (Cf). A list of the elements discovered since 1901 is given in the accom- panying table.* Elements discovered since 1901 hem- 1D) Name ie | Atomie | Bate or symbol number ery 1 50 HCE 105 00 ee ane ar a at Wap Se el we Lu 71 | 1907-08 IP TOPACELNIUNA So ote, SMe U eh eb Aah Rae Oe ee ASP ee SRR mea | Pa 91 | 1917-18 EL Stirincirmen ae See, Seg Sane ASR Sener ern Seer’ Let Re oY Hf 72 1922 Fuh emimats): Mae Se RS UY OSO Re 75 1925 (ETM ehaaY sxe) OW) ON 00 ees cee token eens Dre eeteene Spann uc Wy pe Mee Sb Pm 61 1937 AST a pine? (2 Npedigs we yO oo ge OER ey PU At 85 1940 UPA CHLRe eas one ine Ae ae er eens Fr 87 1940 RCI ES eee ee is eae ett, ee eee ee Np 93 1940 PL COMPUETINAS Ea es oat AS eA BRR ee Oy Rey: Ren AS Pu 94 1940 Carluim 22500206 JIA IR BSUS TOTTI Cm 96 1944 PTI OTT CUUIT ot 2 le Aa eae Sh a gs oa nelpees Am 95 1945 IBenke uum 2. 35 eee ee oe ee Bk 97 1950 (OPA Toy gay Ki ban vngeipete. ai) aaa SS ct er a hee Cf 98 1950 In the periodic arrangement of elements (fig. 1) it will be observed that between Ba (atomic number 56) and Hf (atomic number 72) there is interposed a group of elements, which are chemically very similar and are known as the “rare earths” or lanthanide series. The reason for the occurrence of 15 such chemically similar elements was deduced from a study of the permissible electron configurations of the elements. The same reasoning also leads to the prediction of the existence of the actinide series consisting of elements of atomic numbers 89 to 103, inclusive. That is, we should discover elements chemically similar to Bk and Cf of still higher atomic number. 3 From Fundamentals of Atomic Physics, loc. cit. NEW CHEMICAL ELEMENTS—DUSHMAN 951 Whether any such elements will be discovered of still higher atomic number is problematical, since all the elements beyond uranium are unstable—that is, they disintegrate rapidly. The main fact revealed by the syntheses of the new chemical elements is that the atoms of the different elements are not really the elemental particles of nature. Rather, the atoms themselves are constituted of three still more elementary particles, namely, electrons, protons, and neutrons. We know, in fact, that in the hottest stars, in which the temperature near the center is about 100,000,000° C., some of the atoms themselves have been decomposed into these three elementary particles. Of course, other particles have been observed, but whether they are essentially elementary remains to be discovered. This is certainly not the last word on the whole subject. However, whatever the future may reveal, we believe that we have made one more step forward in acquiring some knowledge of that great universe about us, of which we can be only reverent observers and humble interpreters. cee Bat Al ape naling psc bet: i . ‘. eh ~ ’ Aa} MITRE pg te mmscerien xy ot tery La Gd opbel won anos qaieiapalett Drewiot qode eroit, cath ts traranioctmrnes duet ehveonee dois 4 to eu ) > ; : ; 1 - a , ‘ i Nad wet 4 ve a ies" 4 if ‘ é 4 F ‘ es ee ee fee eee Bias ywewes ne ta re mermert at F del 4) A ru P Luh Pes hi 5 ale ¥ an maT | ‘ aes Bi E, ‘ ved © igh try roe eet f ae hee The Insides of Metals’ By Car A. ZAPFFE Metallurgist, Baltimore, Md. [With 4 plates] Lost in antiquity are the origins of many methods used for examin- ing metals, but the epochal discovery of the optical microscope a few hundred years ago originated the study of metals at high magnifica- tion. In its early stages, investigation with the microscope was limited to an exploration of surfaces. This was uninstructive because the principle service of metals lies in their strength, hence in their in- ternal constitution. The French scientist de Réaumur in 1722 and Sweden’s Swedenborg in 1734 advanced the application of the micro- scope somewhat by studying the surfaces of fractures of metals, which disclosed some information regarding the manner in which metals are constituted. However, the difficulty of bringing the microscope lens close to the jagged surface of a fracture discouraged, for more than two centuries, these and all later scientists from developing such an application. Among students of minerals, the microscope became a tool—and a great one—principally through the discovery in 1849 by Henry Clifton Sorby that minerals could be examined by transmitted light if they were sliced sufficiently thin. This introduced the thin-section tech- nique, which is the bulwark of the science of petrography and min- eralogy today. Metals, in considerable contrast to most minerals, are completely opaque and do not submit to such thin-section study. Gold leaf has been beaten so thin that it transmits some light, but this is an excep- tion which contributes nothing to the problem. It was at the close of the last century that metallurgists in Europe discovered the method of polishing and etching the surface of sections cut through metals to disclose their inner structure, and this has been the means of provid- ing almost the entire body of technical information on the microscopic constitution of metals to date. 1 Reprinted by permission from Physies Today, vol. 3, No. 9, September 1950. 253 254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 POLISH-ETCH METHOD According to this method, a metal or alloy is simply cut with a saw through some section intended for study. The saw-cut surface is then ground flat and further polished with increasingly fine emery papers and buffing cloths until the polishing scratches are so minute as to be no longer visible at even relatively high magnification. Such treat- ment produces, of course, a superficial layer of highly distorted metal which completely conceals the true internal formations. This layer is then removed by carefully selected chemical reagents, determined through much research to provide certain characteristic effects depend- ing upon the microscopic structure of the metal. The reagent eats off the thin and disorganized superficial layer and then attacks the underlying metal—but to a degree dependent upon subtle differences in composition and structure. The result is a differ- entiated mottling, whose pattern is characteristic for the condition and hence is metallurgically informative. This is shown in plate 1, figure 1, for an alloy of equal parts of bismuth and antimony, at a magnifica- tion of 225 diameters. The specimen was cut with a saw, ground, polished, and etched with a solution of iron chloride in hydrochloric acid. The superficial layer was entirely removed, and the underlying metal was attacked in the elaborate manner shown. The peculiar light-colored skeletons are known as dendrites because of their tree- like form, the word coming from the Greek “dendron,” meaning tree. Dendrites express a uniform peculiarity in the growth of crystals which causes them to grow from the fluid state in the form of branch- ing growths. When an alloy—which is a mixture of two or more metals—solidifies from its liquid, the first solid to construct the den- drite is richer in the metal having the higher melting point. The remaining liquid is relatively rich in the metal of low melting point, and it is this that fills in between the branches of the dendrite. When an etching reagent is chosen which attacks one of the metals more than the other, the difference between the trunk and the interbranch material of the dendrite is made visible by the difference in chemical attack. FRACTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE While the polish-etch method has yielded a tremendous amount of information on the constitution of metals, it also has important limi- tations. For example, the remarks that have just been given will make it clear that the polish-etch technique would supply relatively little information for a pure metal. No constitutional differences exist, and attack by a chemical reagent would accordingly be uniform. About the only exception is a preferential attack at the boundaries of the individual grains and the fact that the separate grains are distin- INSIDES OF METALS—ZAPFFE 255 guished. Pecularities existing within the grain itself, however, be- come for the most part unobservable. About 10 years ago, the centuries-old method of de Réaumur and Swedenborg was tried again, this time with a fresh attack and with the benefit of modern improvements in the construction of the micro- scope. A special fractographic stage was designed which allowed the investigator to study nascent fracture surfaces, although this time not by exploring the general appearance of the fracture, but by exploring detail within the individual fractured grain. Metals are vast com- posites of minute crystals, called grains, and the older technique had done little other than view the surface of the entire assemblage. With modern fractography it is not the forest but the individual tree that is being observed. For the past 4 years fractography has been the subject of a special study in the author’s laboratory, principally under the sponsorship of the Office of Naval Research, and the research from which this review stems has been largely conducted by F. K. Landgraf and C. O. Worden. Many fascinating new features of metals, also other crystals, have been discovered. Just a few of these will now be given to show the astonish- ing elaboration to be found within the boundaries of the microscopic grain itself, and the many significant research fields inviting further exploration with this new tool. In plate 1, figure 2, a fractograph of pure metallic bismuth is shown. The entire field of the photograph belongs to a single grain, as is proved by the fact that its markings have a common geometric rela- tionship. If this specimen had been polished and etched, nothing would appear but a more or less blank surface, the grain boundary lying outside the field of observation. On the other hand, one finds in the fractograph a wide assortment of markings. The most prominent of these are bands which are placed at exactly 60° with one another, forming equilateral triangles where all three directions appear. These are now known to be “twins,” which means that the atoms throughout the region of the twin band have been forced into a certain special relationship with one another by the impact which fractured the metal. The fact that these twin bands lie at exactly 60° to one another is highly significant, for it re- veals that the fracture has traveled along a special plane in the bismuth crystal—a crystal face that is the weakest link. This plane is the so-called basal plane, and is similar to the prominent cleavage plane that characterizes crystalline graphite, also mica. It has further been determined that the twin bands are intersections of three sloping erystallographic planes that form a low pyramid on the basal cleavage plane. 256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Lastly, close observation will show some sharp cleavage edges, representing profiles of fractures on other crystal planes. ‘The most prominent of these has been found to be a set also forming a pyramid, like the twins, but about twice as high. The story of deformation and fracture for this metal is thus written into the subtle markings on its fracture facets. THE FRACTURE OF STEEL SHIPS From such observations of the path of fracture through the individ- ual grains in a metal all these deductions can be made, and many more. A particularly important instance has to do with a problem involving both the loss of material and human lives. During the recent war, more than 40 of the welded steel ships made in this country fractured completely in two, and there were more than 4,000 reported cases of lesser fractures. The problem is one of an elusive property, simply called toughness, whose identification remains a great challenge in current metallurgical research. Two steels, identical in virtually every respect so far as common analysis is concerned, will behave so differently when placed in service, such as that of deck plate, as to cause shipwreck in one case and no trouble whatsoever in the other. Extensive researches conducted in many laboratories about the country, principally under sponsorship of the United States Navy, are now showing that the temperature range in which this change occurs is radically different for different steels. The fundamental reason for this difference remains unknown. Nevertheless, fractographic study—as a new tool applied to the problem—has recently been shown to disclose a clear distinction between steel that will fail and steel that will not fail in service in a given range of temperature. Plate 2, figure 1, is a fractograph of a steel that is known to be tough. At a magnification of 1,000 diam- eters, an individual grain shows a pattern reminiscent of coral. The grain itself is very small—only a tiny fraction of the size of the bismuth crystal in the previous plate 1, figure 2—and there is no flatness anywhere in the fracture field. When this steel fractured, here due to a hammer blow at —196° C., the separation was continu- ally impeded by the observed minute roughness as it traveled through the metal. The fractograph shows this pattern of roughness visually, which can therefore be interpreted as a pattern of toughness. A sharply contrasting fracture facet is shown in plate 2, figure 2, for steel that is of similar composition to that shown in the previous figure, but is known by much mechanical testing to be inferior with respect to toughness. The magnification is the same as before, 1,000 diameters; and the facets are seen to be about equal in size. A marked difference, however, lies in the comparative smoothness of INSIDES OF METALS ZAPFFE 257 the pattern in plate 2, figure 2, which gives visual evidence for the fact that fracture has traversed the grains in this steel without the consistent interruption experienced in the tougher steel. While it is too early to point to useful application of this dis- covery with respect to the ship-plate problem, the contribution still being in the research stage, its promise is indicated by the fact that the contrast between plate 2, figure 1, and plate 2, figure 2, is outstand- ing, whereas previous microscopic methods have revealed no detectable changes. In addition, the application of mechanical testing to this problem has involved the construction of huge testing machines at great cost, and much of the steel is destroyed in its testing. Frac- tography requires only a fractured chip and a microscope, and there is good reason to believe that the information obtained from the chip serves as well for the entire heat of perhaps 100 tons of steel. METALS FOR SERVICE AT HIGH TEMPERATURES In the new and important field of metals for service at very high temperatures—gas turbines, rockets—there is an application of frac- tography that can already be described. A pattern appears in plate 3, figure 1, which has some aspects of a good detective story, and has proved of great importance in the production of molybdenum metal. Molybdenum has one of the high- est known melting points for any metal in the periodic system. At temperatures of white heat, where the strongest steel has not only melted, but begins to boil, molybdenum scarcely begins to melt. This fact simultaneously makes the metal a very attractive one for special services at high temperature, but one difficult to produce. A special furnace was finally designed a few years ago which melted molyb- denum in vacuum by means of an electric are. Castings of promising size and solidity resulted, but when they were subjected to the diffi- cult forging operations they would often fracture. To shorten a long research story, the metallurgists at the Climax Molybdenum Corp. in Detroit found that fractographic examination of a small chip broken from the casting with a hammer always re- flected one of two characteristic patterns. The first was feathery in its appearance and connoted forgeable metal. The second was pearly and granular and always meant nonforgeable metal. De- pending upon the presence of one or the other of these patterns, de- termined by a brief and simple fractographic examination, the proc- essing of the ingots was directed either toward forging or remelting. In the upper portion of the field in plate 3, figure 1, the “feathery” constituent is clearly visible. These small markings, resembling oat- heads, are now known to be molybdenum carbide. In the lower half of this same field is a weedy-looking growth of the fine granular 258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 material now known to be molybdenum oxide. Both of these intrud- ing constituents form in the boundaries of the individual grains— the carbide increasing cohesion, and the oxide destroying it. Here one is accordingly looking, as a special case, at the external surface of an individual internal grain—not its internal surface as in previous figures—and under the remarkable circumstance of finding both of the counteractive phases present. The carbide and oxide react, of course, to form carbon oxide gas, which is removed by the vacuum treatment. Here one can actually visualize the oxide caught in the act of invading a region of carbide feathers, destroying them as it advances. THE MICELLAR THEORY While such discoveries as the preceding readily lead to practical applications, a matter of far greater scope and interest is highlighted by fractographic patterns. A century and a half ago, a great French mineralogist and crystal- lographer, Haiiy, established what is now known as the Law of Ra- tional Indices in crystallography and laid down a description for the physical constitution of crystals which endured for many years. Haitiy spoke of the “molécules intégrantes,” which were presumed to be minute building blocks—perfect microscopic crystals—which fitted together to comprise the macroscopic crystal. Virtually every scien- tist of that period accepted the theory that crystals were built of tiny crystallite units. The impact of atomic theory and space-lattice theory in the latter nineteenth century, and particularly X-ray diffraction in 1912, temporarily shattered this picture to replace it with a con- ventional concept of regular atomic structure extending from the atom individual up to the boundary of the crystal or grain. Nevertheless, in the past several decades, this picture of the homoge- neous atomic lattice has come under sharp criticism from many angles of research in which crystalline substances persist in showing a mark- edly subdivided structure on a scale far more minute than the indi- vidual grain, yet much greater than the atom. Many theories have been advanced to explain this anomaly, and these can be reviewed in most current textbooks on physics. It is now becoming widely agreed that most crystals, if not all, have a finely subdivided structure. The nature and the origin of that structure, however, constitute one of the most hotly argued problems in metallurgy and physics today. Briefly, the principal contention rests upon the question whether the subdivision results from imperfections and accidental submicro- scopic cracking, or whether it is a fundamental result of the surfaces of previous submicroscopic units that come together at the time of freezing to form the solid. INSIDES OF METALS—ZAPFFE 259 For the first concept, “dislocations” currently provide the most, pop- ular picture. These are the result of vacant or improperly filled atomic positions in an otherwise regular lattice; and their propagation and motion throughout the body of the crystal are believed to develop the observed subdivided structure. For both concepts, the term “mosaic” has been widely used, ex- pressing a picture of a gross form built from small fragments, the misfits of the mosaic blocks creating the subdivisions in question. The mosaic block is usually pictured as the result of microcracking, but it has also been related to a preexistence in the liquid. Recently a theory has been proposed by the author in which the mosaic block is described as a micelle specifically originating in the liquid and having fundamental thermodynamic reasons for its sepa- rate existence. This word is borrowed from the organic chemists, and means a small repetitive arrangement of a given atomic or mo- lecular species, having the form of a tiny crystallite. Such clusters are believed to be present, according to the micellar theory, in the liquid and even in the gaseous phase prior to solidification. The theory particularly postulates their existence within single homoge- neous phases, such as that of a pure metal. A phenomenon of this type is known in colloid chemistry, the liquid being called an isocolloid. As early as 1907, one of the founding scientists of colloid chemistry, P. P. von Weimarn, proposed a somewhat similar concept, and it has since been discussed by Alexander in America, Klyatchko in Russia, and Yoshida in Japan. The present micellar theory, published in 1949, differs in certain respects from those earlier described. It was designed specifically to explain the problem of imperfection structure in the solid state. Without going into any of its technical details, the theory can be described as postulating the formation of clusters of atoms (or mole- cules) in the homogeneous liquid state as the result of a balance among four principal thermodynamic variables: 1, temperature; 2, pressure; 3, composition; and 4, surface tension. ‘The net result is the produc- tion of a liquid which in effect is a mass of tiny solid particles swim- ming in their own debris. The size and form of the particles are determined by thermodynamic and crystallographic factors. When the temperature is reduced to what is known as the freezing point, these minute crystallites attach to one another, orienting their own atomic alignments with respect to one another as far as allowed by the freezing conditions, and thus form the solid. The mosaic block is now the micelle; and the subdivisional structure is the result of the persisting micelle boundaries. Returning to fractography, plate 3, figure 2, shows the pattern of a fracture which passed through a grain of cast molybdenum—in 260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 contrast to plate 3, figure 1, where it traversed the boundary. This elaborate pattern is believed to represent a frozen record of the growth pattern during the time that the micelles of the liquid state were orienting and transfixing to form the solid. The roughly parallel bands are believed to result from pulsations in the solidifying front. This metal was cast—it will be recalled from earlier description— under the conditions of an electric arc at extremely high temperature, and it solidified in a water-cooled copper crucible. These are violent freezing conditions for a metal melting near 2620° C. (4750° F.). The story of solidification read from the fractograph in plate 3, figure 2, would show this grain to have formed from the upper left corner toward the lower right, the micelles rotating and orienting with one another sufficiently to produce a single crystal, but remaining slightly displaced from one another and misfitted sufficiently to set up a special pattern of weakness, which then showed itself fracto- graphically by deflection of the fracture traverse in accord with the pattern misfit. Finally, in plate 4, a pair of fractographs adds further description to the micellar concept, and in addition shows an unusual application of the fractographic technique. A specimen of plain iron (Armco ingot iron) was annealed at 1250° C. for 2 hours and slowly cooled in the furnace to remove effects of previous mechanical strain and to increase the grain size. The metal was then embrittled by forcing atomic hydrogen into its structure. This was accomplished by making the specimen the cathode (negative electrode) in an electrolytic cell. Iron absorbs hydrogen, but only atomic hydrogen; and, on the sur- face of the cathode, protonic or atomic hydrogen is deposited by the electric current passing through the solution—here 10 percent sodium hydroxide. It is known from extensive research that this atomic hydrogen enters among the atoms of the iron, probably diffusing through interatomic interstices, and then later precipitates at certain well-defined places within the body of the grain—the intermicellar boundaries, according to the micellar theory. The result is a marked loss of ductility; and it is said that the metal is suffering from hydrogen embrittlement. The iron in plate 4 was fractured while embrittled with hydrogen. The two fractured halves of the metal were separately mounted on the microscope, and a fractograph was taken of the same facet on the two matching halves of the fracture. These two fractographs are mounted facing each other in plate 4, constituting obverse and reverse views of the fracture traverse through the single grain. Thus, one can follow the various markings as they appear to either side of the fracture. Most markings appear on both sides, but some do not; and there are provided some informative differences. INSIDES OF METALS—ZAPFFE 261 However, particular attention is called here to other matters. First is the fact that the outstanding markings are at exactly 90° to one another. This is because iron fractures on a crystal plane that can be described as the face of acube. Just as the hexagonal-rhombohedral bismuth crystal in plate 1, figure 2, displayed equilateral triangles, so the cubic iron shows squares and rectangles. Here intersecting cleavages provide the cubic symmetry, rather than twins. Even the meandering markings will break down on close observation to show themselves as minute stepwise composites of 90° markings. The whole pattern, and particularly these tiny stepwise markings, give strong expression to an elaborate architecture existing within a single grain; and they certainly stand as impressive evidence in the favor of a general micellar theory. Little wonder that Haiiy hypothecated his “molécules intégrantes.” The grain is visually composed of tiny sub- grains, or micelles, and without them it would be difficult to explain the pattern. A NEW ERA OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS? Many things must be left unsaid in a brief review of so vast a sub- ject; but one particular issue follows from all this work which holds extravagant promise for future developments in engineering and hence in civilization itself. This is the fact that calculations, using many different approaches, all agree that the atoms of metals actually cohere with strengths of the order of several millions of pounds per square inch. Today the greatest achievement in engineering materials is of the order of two or three hundred thousand pounds per square inch. The reason that the observed strengths of materials are so vastly inferior to the theoretical atomic cohesion is generally agreed to be the subdivisional structure within the grain. The only thing not yet agreed upon is the nature and the origin of that substructure. The type of microscopic study here described greatly increases the infor- mation on this prize problem of solid-state physics. For a better understanding of the problem, the micellar theory has been offered. Right or wrong, the solution is certainly nearer; and, when the answer is found, it will bring with it a definite possibility of utilizing a new order of cohesive forces in developing the full theoretical strength of metals and perhaps other engineering materials. o> gy pose Fey a 1 noe IDS che can bo eat aati) oath 1 not ee r. : oF pul filein pean a “- atb 2 otal ok é j 3 i> *X { s : ‘ y ? 4 . Sie ‘ Smithsonian Report. 1951.—Zapffe PLATE 1. Photomicrograph of 50:50 antimony-bismuth alloy after sawing, polishi with a chloride solution. The white skeletonlike forms are dendrites, representing < phenomenon of growth generally characteristic of all organized matter, from cryst plant and animal life. They contain excess antimony and resist chemical attacl nified 225 times. 2. Fractograph—or photomicrograph of an unpolis tor metallic bismuth, showing geome tric marking and fracture. Magnified 35 times. Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Zapffe PLATE 2 1. Fractograph of a tough steel suitable for such construction as ship plate. The indi- vidual grain is very small, causing fracture to change its path much more frequently as it jumps from grain to grain; and the microscopic path through the grain itself is rough and tortuous, as illustrated visually by this coral-like pattern of toughness. Magnified 1,000 times. 2. Fractograph of a steel which, in contrast to that in figure 1 above, lacks toughness and is unsuited for such applications as ship plate. ‘The facet of this individual grain is com- paratively smooth, showing much less interruption of the progress of fracture than in the previous figure. Magnified 1,000 times. PLATE 3 Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Zapffe Ree = 2 _* tee SOL re a Oo vhich str metal showing SroOwt h .) graph of fracto ( 1 ] J J 2 Ss f - = a2 cS -o) "oO Y Paes =O) oo; a tS & Sas Dp =) e caught in tl ide ( f Ox forms Se © * o 0 7rains *“Ssoully OOT poyusey\y “OAT BULIOFUI o1P SOIBJINS ayisoddo 94} uo SUOTJRIIVA 4Itoyy pue ‘urei3 oyy UIYIIM 91nd} 1YI1e 9} e10qela ue Avyjdsip SSUIyIvU 2 L ‘OSBAROID SIQno B 9q 0} sIyy aaoid sojaue o06 dieys ey “uo jo ulei3 9|5uIs e ysnoiyy ISIOAP IY dINIOe IY e fo SOOT SUTYOI PUL qyqioq SuIMOYS sydeisojoe1y ISIOAII pure AS1IAQ() v ALV1d ayde7—" | c6| *yaodayy ueIUosYy IWC Atomic Weapons Against Cancer' By E. N. Lockarp Aut over the United States today there is the feeling that the dread disease of cancer may not remain dreadful much longer, that in 5, 10, 20, or 50 years the ever-increasing number of projects engaged in cancer research will win the war that has been waged for centuries. The encouraging signs are many—large budgets, enlistment of civilians, discoveries, publicity, special buildings, pooling or coordi- nation of resources, new techniques, and devoted research. The fighters on this front, like resourceful warriors on the battlefield, recognize that they cannot safely place sole reliance upon any one device, but that they must attack with every possible weapon at every possible point, that now and at every other moment they must work with every approach that looks even a little promising. But though they continue to explore all possible means of control, the one factor that has done most to inspire new hopes of success is the use of radio- active isotopes. By means of these, atomic energy is being brought into action as a new weapon in what has been hitherto a losing battle. We can understand the potential use of radioactive isotopes best if first we recall some of the things we know about cancer. It now ranks second only to heart disease as a killer of men and and on the basis of present mortality rates could be expected to kill 19 million Americans now alive—or 13 out of 100. Yet when we attempt to explain the causes of cancer, we are forced to admit that we do not know why, when, or how the cancer cells staré multiplying out of or among other cells. Radiation, irritation, chem- ical compounds, viruses, parasites, and heredity are all concerned; yet we do not quite know how. But on the affirmative side we do know that cancer is a growth, and we know that the units of this erowth are cancer cells, which retain many of the characteristics of normal cells. We know further that cancer is wild, luxuriant, and proliferating in its growth, not subject to the mechanism of increase that regulates the multiplication of normal cells, that it invades with- 1 Reprinted by permission from The Yale Review, vol. 40, No. 1, Autumn 1950 (copyright Yale University Press), with minor revisions by Dr. Seymour Wollman, National Cancer Institute. 9814455218 263 264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 out warning or permission, and that it enjoys an irresponsible, black- sheep existence among the other cells. Also we know that cancer is metastatic (changing in its location)—perhaps the most dreadful fact of all; it is local at first but it spreads; a surgeon may cut it out in one place and years later find it in half a dozen other places, metastases of the original site. The elusiveness of the cancer cell itself, the difficulty of determining where it resides in the body, and the inability of scientists to detect what substances of the body are necessary to its growth are factors that have so far prevented successful control. Moreover, the seeming impossibility of destroying malignant cells without also destroying normal cells has obstructed effective treatment of cancer where it is known to exist. It is precisely in connection with these factors that the use of radioactive isotopes—radioisotopes—is so important and encouraging. The word “isotope” means having the same place, and its use in this discussion comes from the fact that there are two kinds of atoms which have the same place in the periodic table used by chemists. One kind of atom is stable, the other is radioactive. In order to understand the difference between the two, one must know a little about present-day nuclear theory. According to this theory, an atom of an element is like the solar system; it is composed of a sun (the nucleus) and a group of planets (electrons). But the nucleus is not quite so simple as the analogy to the sun would suggest, for it, in turn, is made up of protons and neutrons. So the atom is composed of— I, the nucleus (sun), containing (Ia), protons (which bear a positive electrical charge), and (Ib), neutrons (which bear no electrical charge), and II, the electrons (planets) , which bear a negative electrical charge. In all atoms the number of electrons (II) equals the number of protons (Ia). This number determines the place of the atom on the periodic table and is referred to as the “atomic number” of the element. Where one isotope differs from another is in the number of neutrons (Ib). Since variation in the number of neutrons results in variation in the weight of the atom, isotopes of the same element have different atomic weights, though always having the same atomic number. Carbon provides a good example. There are five known isotopes of carbon, but the atomic number for all is the same: 6: This means that each contains six protons in the nucleus (Ia) and six electrons outside (II) and that they are all found in the same place in the periodic table. They differ only in the number of neutrons (Ib) and consequently in atomic weight. They are written C*, C¥, C?, C%, and C“. Here the atomic number is omitted as being understood ; ATOMIC WEAPONS AGAINST CANCER—LOCKARD 265 otherwise we would write ,C, ;C", and so on. The first isotope has 4 neutrons (the difference between 6 and 10), the second 5 , and so on. Of these 5 isotopes 2 happen to be stable (C” and C**) and 3 radio- active—that is, constantly disintegrating by giving off rays or particles. (As it happens, C™ is so useful that when one speaks of radioactive carbon one means C™ and not C” or C™.) The radioisotopes are chiefly useful in cancer research and diagnosis because of the way they can be detected in the body. As they decay, their radiation ionizes gases, changes the charge on electrodes, or creates electrical pulses. These pulses, to take one example, can be counted by a Geiger counter or other kinds of counters. Thus, radio- isotopes can be used to tag a substance before it is introduced into the body, and when the substance is tagged it can be traced. This tracer use of radioisotopes has become so famous that it has been called the most useful research tool since the microscope. As tracers, the radioisotopes permit both qualitative and quanti- tative biological analysis. In the former, the compound containing the radioisotope can be followed wherever it goes no matter what chemical form it takes; in the latter, the amount of the tagged com- pound can be measured. One of the most important problems in cancer research is to deter- mine what substances of the body are necessary to the growth of malignant tissue. In this research various compounds are being tagged with radioisotopes and their uptake by the several kinds of tumors measured and studied. For example, after radioactive carbon has been synthesized with cancer-producing hydrocarbons its route can be traced, by means of the carbon 14, as it creates cancer in the body of a laboratory animal. Such tracing experiments make use not only of the detectability of radioisotopes but also of two other characteristics. One of these is that a little of a radioisotope goes a long way, so its use involves no danger of injurious radiation. One gram of carbon 14, for example, can be diluted one million million times before it is impossible to de- tect; and one million billionth of an ounce of radiophosphorus is detectable. Laboratory studies are nevertheless being made to dis- cover the limits of safe dosage for radioisotopes both in tracing and in therapy. The other characteristic is that, since the radioisotope is chemically like the stable isotope, the body accepts the one with the other. The study of the uptake of tracer doses of radioiodine by the thyroid gland, for example, is possible because neither animal nor human organism can tell the isotopes of iodine apart; so the radio- isotope enters and leaves the thyroid gland just as the stable isotope does. By adding radioactive iodine to stable iodine, consequently, and using a Geiger counter against the skin to count the pulses from 266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 the gamma rays emitted by it, research workers have found that iodine is concentrated by the thyroid gland. They have also found how much iodine is absorbed and excreted and at what rate. Radioisotopes can also produce cancer. This is turned to account in cancer research by using some of them, strontium 89, for example, to induce cancer in experimental animals for studies that may throw light upon cancer in human beings. In addition to their usefulness in research directed toward. increas- ing our knowledge of cancer and the tissues it destroys, radioisotopes are being employed in diagnosis, to detect and locate cancer. It has been difficult, in the past, to estimate the exact location of a brain tumor by means of external signs on the patient’s body or by X-ray studies. Now, by injecting radioactive phosphorus in tracer amounts and relying on the tumor in its rapid growth to take up more of it than the slow-growing normal tissues surrounding it do, a physician, using a counter, can compare the radioactivity in different parts of the brain and locate the tumor more precisely than. before. The final use of radioisotopes is in therapy, to inhibit or destroy cancer. A somewhat complex case at the Montefiore Hospital, New York, involving the use of radioactive iodine, will illustrate both diagnosis and therapy. In 1923 the patient had his cancerous thyroid gland removed by surgery. For the 16 years following he was well. Then he reported to Montefiore with a tumor in his back which, after surgical removal, turned out to be a metastatic cancer of the thyroid. The cancerous thyroid gland that had been removed 16 years before had spread before its removal and was now showing up in another locality. In the next 4 years it showed up in still other places, metas- tases that X-ray therapy could not control. By means of tracer doses of radioiodine, the metastases in skull, lung, ribs, spine, pelvis, and femur were revealed to be getting worse. Therapeutic doses of radio- iodine were then resorted to. The patient got better and is still well today, 5 years after the first radioactive therapy. The radioiodine saved, or at least prolonged, the patient’s life; it is only fair to add that most cases are not so fortunate. In this case, as in all the previous ones mentioned, radioisotopes were used because of their characteristic behavior as tracers. But in the therapy of this case, two other characteristics come into play. One is that radiation has uneven effects upon various kinds of tissue, and cancerous tissue is generally more susceptible to radiation than normal tissue. The other is a characteristic which radioisotopes share with stable isotopes; certain ones have, as elements, an affinity for certain tissues—phosphorus for bone and iodine for thyroid are ex- amples. These traits have led to the hope of finding a substance that will have such an affinity for cancerous tissue that enough of it, radio- actively impregnated, can be deposited in the cancer to kill it. So ATOMIC WEAPONS AGAINST CANCER—LOCKARD 967 far no substance with true specific localization in cancerous tissue has been discovered, but the localization with radioisotopes is so much greater than with the older sources of radiation, X-rays, and radiam which is dangerous to deposit internally, that the administration, orally or directly into the cancerous tissue, of radioisotopes is now a recognized method of radiotherapy—and in some few instances, the most efficacious one. Today, radioiodine and radiophosphorus have been proved effective in treating the noneancerous conditions of hyperthyroidism and poly- eythemia (abnormality of the blood-forming tissues), respectively ; less effective in treating cancer of the thyroid and leukemia (cancer of the blood-forming tissues), also respectively. Nor are these the only elements that can be used; therapy is also possible with radio- cobalt and radiogold. The chief value of radiocobalt results from the fact that it resembles radium, the old standby in the treatment of cancer by radiation, in that it emits gamma rays; but at the same time it has several advan- tageous qualities that radium lacks. One important advantage is price. Whereas radium is so expensive (it costs between $15,000 and $20,000 a gram) that smaller hospitals borrow it from larger ones, cobalt 60 is manufactured abundantly enough for free supply to cancer-research workers and for sale at a low price to paying patients. Another advantage is application; while radium is contained in non- pliable tubes, radiocobalt can be made up in pliable shapes. ‘The most interesting advantage is the ease with which radiocobalt can be manufactured and stored: ordinary cobalt can be fabricated, before irradiation, into cobalt wire; after irradiation it can be stored like thread on a spool; and like thread it can be snipped off in any length needed. In addition, radiocobalt, if accidentally set free in the body, does not lodge in the bone as radium does but is quickly excreted. It can, finally, be handled more safely and with less shielding than radium. Radiogold, like radiocobalt, has several advantages over the tradi- tional types of radiation. In the first place, radiogold can be injected directly into the malignant tissue; X-rays cannot. And second, be- cause of a half-life of only 2.7 days, radiogold need not be removed, as radium needles must. In order to improve therapy with radioisotopes, scientists are study- ing the selective pick-up by cancerous tissues of various compounds that can be synthesized with the radioisotopes of a number of ele- ments. Cancer is frequent in the organs controlled by sex hormones— the uterus, the breast, and the prostate gland. Since these organs de- pend upon known chemical compounds, some sex hormones containing radioisotopes have been synthesized. Unfortunately, so far no target 268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 organs have shown sufficient concentrating power to make radioactive hormones look promising. Where does medical science get these radioisotopes on which it increasingly relies? The first source was the cyclotron, or atom- smashing machine, but this source has now been reduced to a very minor position by the nuclear reactor, or pile. In certain very limited respects, the cyclotron can do things which the pile cannot do. It can use different types of bombarding particles, and because of this variety in projectiles and diversity in energy, it can make some radio- isotopes that the pile cannot (sodium 22 and arsenic 74 are examples), and it can also produce a few radioisotopes better than the pile can produce them—radioisotopes with a higher specific activity, which is the ratio of the radioactive atoms to the stable isotopic atoms with which they are mixed, and carrier-free radioisotopes (isolated from the stable isotopes). But some of its products are inferior to those of the pile. For instance, where the pile produces iodine 131 with a half-life of 8 days, the cyclotron produced iodine 130 with a half-life of only 12 hours. In terms of research this meant that unless the research laboratory was near the cyclotron, the iodine 130 would have radiated away by the time it arrived. But this deficiency was negli- gible as compared with the one great drawback of the cyclotron—its limited capacity for production. Atom-smashing cyclotrons have always been few and far between, and their products few and expen- sive. A great deal of research which was being planned by medical and biological men throughout the country had to be held up until something came along that could produce the desired isotopes in sufficient abundance to make them cheap enough to buy and available to all who could use them. On December 2, 1942, this something appeared when the first self- sustaining chain reaction was achieved at the University of Chicago and nuclear fission became a reality. Nuclear reactors were built, of course, not to produce isotopes, but to provide fissionable material for the atom bomb and related research. For a time, therefore, cancer research men could not draw on this potential source of isotopes. But since the end of World War II, the Atomic Energy Commission has moved to make its facilities available and has created for the first time an adequate supply of isotopes. Today, 70 percent of the radioisotope production schedule at Oak Ridge is directed toward the study of cancer, with more than 250 research groups using the prod- ucts. The reason for the excellent production is that the nuclear reactor has proved to be capable of turning out radioisotopes abun- dantly and cheaply. The emphasis is on abundantly; the cheapness follows from that. The abundance is well illustrated by the fact that only about 1 kilogram of radium had been produced from its discovery ATOMIC WEAPONS AGAINST CANCER—LOCKARD 2969 in 1896 to 1941, whereas since atomic energy was developed we have had the equivalent in radioactivity of thousands of tons of it. It so happens, fortunately, that not only can the pile produce in great quantity but it can also make all the most important radio- isotopes, including those most helpful in cancer, though the cyclotron still retains important secondary values as a producer. The pile can produce a thousand to a million times as great a quantity of isotopes as the cyclotron can; in contrast to the cyclotron, which uses different types of bombarding particles, even neutrons, the pile is exclusively a neutron machine. It uses neutrons in two ways to manufacture radioactive isotopes. The first way is nuclear fission— the actual splitting of nuclei. Each nucleus of the target element, uranium, that is hit by one of the bombarding slow neutrons splits (fissions) into two or more fragments, in many different ways; thus many different fission products result. They are radioactive (un- stable), which means that they will give off energy by the emission of one kind of particle or another until they reach a stable isotope or are used up. Strontium 89 is produced in this way and so is iodine 131. But another practical way of producing iodine 131 is by causing non- fissionable nuclei to absorb additional neutrons, and this is the second way of making radioisotopes. There are three kinds of neutron absorption—simple absorption, absorption followed by decay into a daughter element, and transmuta- tion. In all three, special target material is inserted into the nuclear reactor, which is already in operation with fission of uranium by neutrons. If, for example, ordinary cobalt (.;Co*®) is inserted into the pile, it absorbs one of the neutrons flying about and, while re- maining cobalt (the number of protons and electrons does not change), becomes cobalt 60, which is radioactive. This is simple neutron ab- sorption. The product realized is always isotopic with the target material. In the second kind of neutron absorption, the material put into the reactor to be irradiated is not isotopic with the product wanted in the result, but a different element. A practical method of producing radioiodine comes here. A stable isotope of tellurium (;.Te*°) is inserted into the reactor; when it absorbs a neutron it becomes s2le™, which, being unstable, decays by emitting a beta ray; the emission of the beta ray involves first the conversion of a neutron into a proton and an electron and second the ejection of the electron (beta ray and electron mean the same thing) with the proton staying in the nucleus; thus the atomic number changes from 52 to 53 (since there is a gain of the proton) and the atomic weight stays the same (since the loss of the neutron is balanced by the gain of the proton; and so 52Te by beta decay becomes ,;I', a daughter element. 270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 In the third kind of neutron absorption, called neutron transmuta- tion, again a target element nonisotopic to the radioactive element desired is inserted into the operating reactor. A good example is carbon 14, which is produced in practical quantities by neutron trans- mutation. Ordinary nitrogen (;N**) is the target material; absorbing a neutron, it emits a proton; the loss of the proton drops the atomic number one place and therefore changes the element; the gain of the neutron keeps the atomic weight the same; thus ;N% is transmuted into ;C'*.. Similar transmutations are possible with the emission of alpha particles instead of protons. This is not the whole story of the production of radioisotopes in the nuclear reactor by means of neutron bombardment. How the radioisotope desired is separated from the other fission products or from stable isotopes is also, to name one aspect, a part of the complete story. Additional points to remember, however, are that any com- mon element can be irradiated in the reactor, that what radioisotopes the reactor cannot make the cyclotron can, and that between them they account for more than 500 induced radioactivities—every one of the 96 elements has at least one known radioisotope. One point more and an important one for cancer research is that both the cyclotron and the reactor, because they use different means and therefore accom- plish different ends, are needed in the constant experiments being carried on for new isotopes and for isotopes of varying specific activi- ties, half-lives, and energies. The facilities which need to be brought together in order to provide maximum effectiveness in cancer research are varied indeed. In the research center itself many kinds of experts are needed—radiological physicists, biologists, and medical experts who know the effect. of radioactivity on living things and how to safeguard health; chemists who can separate cancer-useful products from the other products of the reactors and can synthesize radioactive chemicals and drugs into chemically useful compounds; and experimental nuclear physicists who can select materials for insertion into the reactors. The equip- ment for producing radioisotopes should also be near at hand, so that the laboratories will receive quickly those radioisotopes that are so short-lived that transportation over a distance is impractical. Such equipment must, of course, include a cyclotron, for the sake of its distinctive products, and a nuclear reactor or pile. Here the Atomic Energy Commission is vitally involved, for the pile is primarily a producer of fissionable materials, and in the words of the Atomic Energy Act, “all right, title, and interest within or under the jurisdiction of the United States, in or to any fissionable material, now or hereafter produced, shall be the property of the Commission” and “the Commission * * * shall be the exclusive ATOMIC WEAPONS AGAINST CANCER—LOCKARD 271 owner of all facilities for the production of fissionable material * * * ” Since all fissionable material is produced at the Com- mission’s national laboratories (Oak Ridge, Brookhaven, and the Argonne Laboratory in Chicago) or at other laboratories that exe- cute the program of the Commission (e. g., Los Alamos and the Uni- versity of California), the availability of isotopes depends upon the policy of the Commission. There is, furthermore, the explicit injunction in the Atomic Energy Act that the Commission “exercise its powers in such manner as to insure the continued conduct of re- search and development activities” in, among several fields, the “utili- zation of fissionable and radioactive materials for medical, biological, health, or military purposes.” In obedience to this provision and in recognition of the scientific need for its products, the Atomic Energy Commission is engaged in a cancer program, one part of a huge program in biology and medicine that is costing several mil- lions of dollars a year. This cancer program in general can be divided into four activities. In the first place, there is free distribution by the AEC of radio- isotopes to hospitals, medical schools, and clinics. Because the cost of radioisotopes has held back cancer research, the AEC is making available to qualified cancer-research workers in this country with- out cost, save for a small handling charge, all radioisotopes on the public market. At first the Commission made a free distribution of three radioisotopes for cancer work: radioactive iodine (I**), radioactive phosphorus (P%), and radioactive sodium (Na*), the first two especially valuable. Among the radioisotopes recently de- clared free, those most valuable in cancer research or therapy are radioactive carbon (C"*), radioactive cobalt (Co), and radioactive gold (Au’®®). Secondly, the Commission gives financial and scientific support to certain research projects outside its own laboratories. In April of 1949 there were 78 such research studies in biology and medicine. In the third place, the Commission, through one of its agencies, is studying the incidence and types of cancer in the survivors of the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. So far the studies have not shown any increase in cancer or in abnormal children, stillbirths, or miscarriages. And fourth, the Commission is committed to providing facilities at its own installations for clinical research in cancer. One such facility, now being established at the University of Chicago, is part of what may be described as the first complete and self-sufficing cen- ter for cancer research. Never until recently have all these necessary elements—the re- search laboratory, the cyclotron, and the pile—been brought into 272 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 their ideal relationship, but the Chicago development will unite them all, and will constitute a unique combination of weapons to increase the assault on cancer. Physically, four buildings will make up this center. One of these is the Ion Accelerator Building, which contains the university’s new 170-inch synchrocyclotron. A second is the Goldblatt Hospital, named for one of the department-store Goldblatt brothers who died of cancer; it will make use of, among many things, the products turned out by the university’s cyclotron. The other two buildings are to be government-owned but university-operated, and they are the Argonne National Laboratory (located just outside Chicago), which contains nuclear reactors, and the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, which will make use of the products turned out by the Laboratory. But the important point is that since the uni- versity will operate all four, since three of them are on the university campus and the fourth only 40 minutes away, since two of them are exclusively concerned with cancer, and since the staff members of all four will help each other on common problems, the University of Chicago and the Atomic Energy Commission in combination will have an installation for attacking cancer such as exists nowhere else in the world. Today cancer is being fought on longer fronts and more fronts than ever before. No one knows by whom or in what research project the discoveries so long sought after will be made; no one knows even that they will be made. But men and women all over the country, in biology, in physics, in chemistry, in medicine, in surgery, in atomic energy, and in nontechnical capacities, are devoting their time and money to the chance that they will be made. It hardly seems too much to hope that in this fight atomic weapons will play an important—perhaps a decisive—part. Enzymes: Machine Tools of the Cellular Factory * By B. A. KiLBy Department of Biochemistry, The School of Medicine, University of Leeds, England [With 1 plate] Tue first half of the present century has seen biochemistry develop from a humble servant of physiology into a master science in its own right. Its vast field of study is the chemistry of all forms of life, from the simplest bacteria to the higher plants and animals, and in this study it calls upon the services of almost every other branch of science. Much attention has been paid to the elucidation of the structure of the compounds which make up the living cell, and in recent years an increasing emphasis has been placed on studying how the cell func- tions. Much is known of the nature of the raw material entering the factory of the cell and of the products made there, and now the interest has switched to finding out more about the intricate machinery and processes which take place inside the factory. The machine tools of the cell are its enzymes or ferments which enable it to carry out the remarkable range of chemical reactions that make life possible. There was a very vigorous discussion during the nineteenth century concerning the nature of fermentation. Why, it was asked, did insipid grape juice turn apparently spontaneously into wine—why did wort change into beer? What was the nature of the scum or sediment, the yeast, which appeared at the same time? In France, a prize equal in value to a kilogram of gold was offered in 1800 for the best answer to the question “What distinguishes substances which act as ferments from the materials they are capable of fermenting?” Although the prize was never awarded, its offer did much to stimulate discussion and controversy, as yeast was considered at that time to be a chemical byproduct of fermentation, and it was widely believed that it played no essential part in the process. About 1837, three workers claimed independently to have shown that yeast. was a living organism and was responsible for fermenta- 1 Reprinted by permission from Discovery, March 1951. 273 274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 tion. This revolutionary view was received with scorn by orthodox chemists. Berzelius, the outstanding chemist of the day, reviewed this work scathingly in his chemical journal, while Wohler wrote a sarcastic skit on the whole business which was published by Liebig in his Annalen. In this, yeast was described as consisting of eggs which hatched out into minute animals shaped like a distillation apparatus, into which sugar was taken as food and converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide, and the whole process could be observed quite easily under the microscope!Soon after this, Liebig set out his views on the nature of fermentation. Yeast played no part in his purely chemical theory which came to be widely held and was taught for many years afterward. According to Liebig, the nitrogenous material in fruit juice was a ferment, unstable in the presence of air, which caused it to undergo a progressive change. While this change was in progress, the ferment communicated its instability to the sugar, which then broke down into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Liebig was able to produce chemical analogies for this; for example. silver is dissolved readily by nitric acid, but platinum is quite un- affected, yet an alloy of the two dissolved quite easily and completely. This was, he said, because the silver, in dissolving, communicated its instability to the platinum. Louis Pasteur, on the other hand, strongly opposed these nonvitalistic ideas, and developed his thesis of no fer- mentation without life. He said that alcoholic fermentation never occurred “without the simultaneous organization, development, mul- tiplication of cells or the continued life of cells already formed.” It was true that Pasteur had to distinguish between what he called the “organized ferments” as in yeast, and the “unorganized ferments” (such as pepsin which is secreted into the stomach or ptyalin of saliva, which breaks down starch), since such unorganized ferments could be shown to act in a test tube. After prolonged discussion, during which no new decisive experi- mental evidence was obtained, the Pasteur-Liebig controversy was suddenly settled by a fortuitous and lucky observation of Hans and Eduard Buchner in 1897. This discovery is one of the notable mile- stones in the long path of physiological chemistry, and many regard it as marking the beginning of modern biochemistry. The Buchners had previously found that the cells of bacteria could be disrupted by grinding with sand, and they extended their technique to yeast cells. The macerated product obtained in this manner contained much cell debris and it was very difficult to separate liquid from it, so they modified the method by adding kieselguhr, an inert and porous earth, to the yeast cells and sand. After grinding, a mass that had the consistency of dough was obtained; this was wrapped in cloth and submitted to a pressure of about 1,500 pounds to the ENZYMES—KILBY 275 square inch in a hydraulic press. An opalescent brownish-yellow Juice was obtained which was free from yeast cells, and this was used for a number of animal experiments. It was not altogether satis- factory, for it soon putrefied. The nature of the experiments excluded the addition of the usual antiseptics, and so the Buchners decided to add sugar as a preservative. To their surprise, fermentation began immediately, the sugar being converted into alcohol in spite of the complete absence of living yeast cells. Pasteur’s thesis was thus disproved. But closer consideration shows that both Pasteur and Liebig were partly right and partly wrong. Fermentation could take place in the absence of living organisms, and it was chemical in nature but not in the way Liebig had thought. Certain ferments were produced by the living yeast and normally functioned inside the cell to cause the breakdown of the sugar which was serving as a food for the yeast. The nature of the yeast used in making active juice is rather important. Some strains, such as Munich “bottom” yeast (which rapidly settles to the bottom of fer- mentation vats) gives active juices, whereas others, including some Parisian and English “top” yeasts (which form a thick scum on the surface), give quite inactive juices. It is possible that Pasteur may have experimented with such a “top” yeast and been unable to prepare any active extracts. A more fortunate selection might have enabled him to anticipate the Buchners by more than 80 years. The production of this active juice meant that it was no longer necessary to consider the possibility of some mysterious vital force as being concerned in fermentation. The mystery should be explicable in purely chemical terms. The juice could be easily made in quantity, and an immense amount of work has since been done on its properties. Its activity was originally ascribed to the presence of a ferment called zymase, but it is now known that the break-down of sugar into alcohol involves at least 15 separate and successive stages, and almost as many ferments or enzymes. The unraveling of the intricacies of alcoholic fermentation and the isolation of many of the intermediate compounds and separate enzymes are among the great triumphs of biochemistry. In 1925, Meyerhof published a method for preparing a juice from muscle which would convert in a test tube glycogen (the animal analog of starch) into lactic acid, a change that is known to occur in living muscle and to provide the energy for contraction. This conversion also has been found to take place in about 15 stages, which, except for the initial and final ones, are identical with those in yeast. This is a good example of the essential unity of biochemistry, where living organisms of widely different character are found to involve the same biochemical processes, with slight modifications to suit their particular needs. 276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 When evidence has been obtained for the existence of some interest- ing new natural product, one of the first aims of the research worker is to try and isolate it in the pure state. Stage by stage, inert matter is removed from the crude product, and the progress of purification can often be followed by observing an increase in a particular biological activity per unit weight. If the worker is lucky, he may eventually obtain the pure material which shows a constant and maximum bio- logical activity, unchanged after going through the motions of a fur- ther purification. The research worker is most happy if his product turns out to be a crystalline solid, as purification by recrystallization is often one of the easiest techniques, especially if it becomes necessary to work on a small scale because of scarcity of material. Crystals usu- ally have well-defined physical properties which are valuable criteria of purity. As soon as it was realized that biological material, such as yeast juice or gastric juice from the stomach, probably owed its activi- ties to the presence of specific enzymes, efforts were made to isolate these for precise examination. For many years, the final products ob- tained were noncrystalline solids, and it was suspected that they were still impure, in spite of showing very high enzymatic activity. These products consisted largely of protein material, and it has always been rather difficult to resolve mixtures that contain proteins into pure com- ponents. However, so consistently was high enzymatic activity in these final products associated with protein material, that many work- ers believed that the enzymes were themselves proteins. A German school, on the other hand, held that the enzyme was really a relatively simple chemical substance which was absorbed onto the protein mate- rial which acted as an inert carrier. However, in 1926, the first enzyme was obtained as crystals and found to be a pure protein. The method used in this particular case was remarkably simple. There is an enzyme, urease, which breaks down urea into ammonia, water, and carbon dioxide. This enzyme is fairly widespread in nature; soya beans are quite a good source, but the best is the seeds of the jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis). The ground beans from which the fat has been extracted are available commercially as a source of urease, under the name of jack-bean meal. The American chemist Sumner ex- tracted the meal with 31.6 percent aqueous acetone and filtered the so- lution in a cold room. After standing overnight, very small octahe- dral crystals separated out, which were about 730 times as active as the original meal in splitting urea. CRYSTALLINE ENZYMES Since that time about 20 other enzymes have been obtained in crys- talline form by various workers, but usually only by more elaborate and more lengthy methods. Attempts to crystallize many other en- ENZYMES—KILBY 277 zymes have not yet been successful, but this is not a serious handicap to the biochemist, as he can obtain a great deal of information about the properties of an enzyme without having the pure material. A solu- tion or suspension containing a particular enzyme can often be made quite readily from a suitable source and used to investigate what changes the enzyme can bring about, how it is affected by heat, different acidities, poisons, and so on. The biochemist has a wide range of biological material from which to select a convenient and rich source of the particular enzyme which interests him; typical examples of the materials employed are red blood cells, meal worms, mushrooms, bac- teria, pigeon breast muscle, rat liver, beef pancreas, and horseradish. All the enzymes that have been obtained pure and crystalline have shown the properties of proteins, and it would appear that each pure enzyme is a quite definite chemical compound, a protein with charac- teristic and constant properties. Some enzymes have a purely protein structure, but others have, in addition, some relatively simple unit of a different nature built into the structure as an essential part. CO-ENZYMES Other enzymes can function only if certain compounds, called co- enzymes, are also present. If yeast juice, for example, is placed in a cellophane bag and washed in a current of water, the co-enzyme passes through the cellophane because it has a small molecule and is washed away, while the large protein enzymes are left in the bag. This resid- ual juice will be found to have lost its power to cause fermentation. If another sample of yeast juice is boiled, the enzymes are destroyed but not the heat-stable co-enzyme. This solution is also inactive, but if the two preparations are mixed, then the combination shows biological activity again as both enzyme and co-enzyme are present. A slightly different co-enzyme has been found in red blood cells, and in 1935 both co-enzymes were shown to contain the substance nicotinamide built into their structures. Almost exactly at the same time, Elvehjem and his associates discovered that nicotin- amide was the vitamin present in diets that would prevent and cure human pellagra. Thus a memorable link-up occurred between two of the major lines of biochemical study—of vitamins and nutrition on the one hand and of enzymology on the other—to their mutual advantage. It became possible to ascribe a definite biochemical func- tion to a vitamin, and new light could be thrown on possible chemi- cal mechanisms of enzyme systems by a study of the chemical prop- erties of the vitamins. Another example of a vitamin associated with an enzyme is afforded by vitamin B,, or aneurin, which prevents beri-beri. In combination with phosphoric acid this vitamin acts as the co-enzyme for an oxidase, 278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 an enzyme which breaks down pyruvic acid. If this vitamin is deficient in the diet, the oxidase cannot function and pyruvic acid accumulates in the tissues, a change which can be used in the clinical diagnosis of vitamin B, deficiency. If the vitamin is supplied in the diet, the pyruvic acid soon disappears. Several other vitamins have now been identified as parts of the structure of different co-enzymes or of the nonprotein part of en- zymes, but not all vitamins have yet been associated with specific enzyme systems and it is probable that some may function in other ways. A LITTLE GOES A LONG WAY A little enzyme goes a long way—for instance, one part of rennin is capable of clotting 10 million times its weight of milk—so that the absolute amounts of enzymes required for the smooth running of the body may be quite small, and only small amounts of vitamins will be required for building new enzymes and co-enzymes to make good the small but continuous loss through general wear and tear. The body cannot make the vitamins itself and without them some enzyme systems cannot function. The requirements of vitamins are thus small but essential, and if not met, the machinery of the whole body may get disorganized and death may eventually take place. The substance that is transformed in the presence of an enzyme is called the substrate. Some enzymes can bring about changes with a large range of different but related compounds; some lipases, for example, will bring about the splitting of many different fats. Other enzymes, such as urease, may be so selective that they will transform only a single kind of substrate. It is believed that in general before an enzyme can bring about a reaction, a complex must first be formed between the enzyme and the substrate. This theory is based largely upon mathematical analysis of the shapes of reaction-time curves, but in a few cases, direct experimental evidence to support it has been obtained. The enzyme peroxidase brings about the oxidation of certain compounds by hydrogen peroxide. A sharp change in color of peroxidase occurs when hydrogen peroxide is added to it indicating the formation of a complex; if a suitable substrate is now added, oxidation takes place, the hydrogen peroxide is used up, and the original color of the peroxidase reappears. It is generally accepted also that this combination with the substrate can only take place at a special point in the enzyme structure, called the active center. Suc- cessful formation of a complex may depend on the degree to which the shapes of the active center and substrate are complementary. Emil Fischer used the analogy of a lock and key to illustrate this point. Many substances exist in two forms whose molecular struc- tures are mirror images of each other (rather like a pair of gloves), ENZYMES—KILBY 279 and in such cases it is nearly always found that only one form will work with the enzyme. The two forms of lactic acid are shown in figure 1, and the enzyme lactic dehydrogenase which removes two hydrogen atoms to convert lactic acid into pyruvic acid will func- tion with the naturally occurring form, but not with the other, its mirror image. The active center might be thought of as a hand and the lactic acid as a glove, when only one glove of the pair will fit the hand. When an enzyme reaction takes place, one may picture the sub- strate molecule colliding with the active center, forming a complex, reaction occurring and the products then leaving the center which is then free for another cycle to take place. The enzyme molecule (if it has a single active center) can thus deal only with a single Wie Eemic (eee p Ficure 1.—Models of the two forms of lactic acid, CH;CH(OH)COOH, which are mirror images. These models give the best representation that is possible of the actual shape of molecules. (From Organic Chemistry, by L. F. and M. Fieser.) molecule of substrate at a time, but the cycle may be repeated very rapidly; a single molecule of catalase, for instance, can break up at least 5 million molecules of hydrogen peroxide in a minute. When measurements are made of the speed of an enzyme reaction in the presence of increasing amounts of substrate, a curve of the type shown in figure 2 is usually obtained. This has the form of a ree- tangular hyperbola. If there is ample substrate, the enzyme is work- ing full out all the time and increasing the concentration of substrate has little effect as at A. At low concentrations of substrate, as at B, the active centers are unoccupied for much of the time, and so increasing the amount of substrate has a direct and proportional effect on the speed. As an analogy, one might consider a crowd of football fans wait- ing to enter a football ground. The individual fans are the mole- 9814455219 280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 cules of the substrate, and the turnstiles are the active centers of the enzyme which transform fans into spectators one at a time. As long as there are enough people to keep the turnstiles going at full speed, the rate of change of fans into spectators will be constant and inde- pendent of the length of the queues; but if only a few people ap- proach, they will go in without waiting and the rate of conversion of fans will be directly proportional to the number arriving at the ground. One might extend the analogy by comparing certain vita- mins to the oil necessary to lubricate the turnstile mechanism. If this is lacking, the turnstile will seize up and chaos result. The number of different enzymes already known is very large, and new ones are constantly being found. The discovery of penicillin CONVERSION OF FANS INTO SPEC- SPEED OF ENZYME REACTION OR OF TATORS. CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTRATE OR NUMBER OF FANS ARRIVING PER MINUTE AT THE GROUND. Ficure 2.—Relationship between rate of enzymatic reaction and the substrate concentra- tion. A similar curve would be obtained by plotting the rate of the “football crowd” reaction and rate of arrival of fans mentioned in the text. was followed very quickly by the discovery of penicillinase, the en- zyme which destroys it. Every species of plant and animal seems to possess its own set of enzymes which do not correspond exactly to similar enzymes present in other species, so that the total number of individual enzymes may run into many millions. Innumerable compounds occur naturally in plants and animals and for each there must exist enzymes which can make and break it down. Enzymes enable living organisms to carry out a great variety of reactions in dilute aqueous solution at temperatures between freezing point and blood heat; there is no need for extremes of acidity or alkalinity. Without using enzymes, the organic chemist can carry out only some of these changes, and then often he may have to use higher temperatures, corrosive reagents and concentrated reagents, and sometimes to exclude water completely. ENZYMES—KILBY 281 THEORIES OF ENZYME ACTION In short, life as we know it could not exist without enzymes. Various theories have been proposed to try and explain how en- zymes can so modify chemical reactions that they will occur under such mild conditions. The general idea of the most widely held theory is as follows: Suppose a molecule, say A-B, is too firmly bound together for breakage of the bond between A and B to occur easily, then if complex formation takes place with an enzyme, the forces holding the complex together may lead to a redistribution of forces within A-B such that the linkage is so weakened that fission can occur and A and B are formed. This idea is shown pic- torially in figure 3, but it must not be taken too literally. The substrate molecule approaches the active center on the enzyme surface. An enzyme-substrate complex is formed, ifthe shapes and reactivities of the two parts are favorable. The binding forces lead to the weakening of a chem- ical bond in the substrate molecule. Fission occurs, and the two fragments leave the ac- tive center which is free for another cycle to occur. The fragments may be highly reactive, and may com- bine with other substances. Ficure 3. 282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Anything that can inhibit or stop vital enzymes from functioning smoothly in the organism may lead to its death. The absence of certain vitamins is one example already mentioned. Heat and ultra- violet light may produce irreversible changes in the protein mole- cule, and if this protein is an enzyme, loss of activity results. Another way in which an enzyme may be inhibited is by some com- pound reacting chemically with it or forming a stable complex at the active center, which is then blocked and cannot fulfill its normal role any longer. One fat man firmly wedged in the turnstile might stop the “football crowd” reaction. The highly poisonous nature of some compounds has been correlated with their ability to “knock out” certain important enzymes, so that only a small amount of such poisons may be necessary to produce very serious effects on the well-being of the whole organism. One part of mercuric chloride in 200 million parts of solution will reduce by half the efficiency of the enzyme catalase. Cyanide is very efficient at stop- ping the working of some of the enzymes concerned with oxidation while some of the highly toxic phosphorus insecticides are extremely potent inhibitors of cholinesterases (enzymes that play an essential part in the working of the nervous system of higher animals, and probably also of insects). The existence of antienzymes in living systems has been demon- strated. One of the best examples is shown by the roundworm, Ascaris, which lives in the animal intestine and escapes being digested by the enzymes present by producing specific enzymes that neutralize the effect of specific digestive enzymes. However, if the worms are placed in dilute solutions of digestive enzymes from plants (such as ficin from the latex of certain fig trees) , they are digested alive as they lack specific inhibitors to these unfamiliar enzymes. An intriguing problem is why digestive enzymes do not attack and digest the glands producing them, or the intestinal tract into which they are secreted. One reason may be that such enzymes are usually secreted in an inactive form, and the active center is “uncovered” later. The pancreas secretes trypsinogen, which is inactive but is converted into active trypsin in the intestines. The stomach secretes a mucilage that coats its walls and probably protects them from the action of the digestive juice. When biochemical processes are examined in detail, it is often found that a change, such as the fermentation of sugar or the oxidation of acetic acid to carbon dioxide and water, is not achieved by a single enzyme but by a whole battery of them. There may be a dozen or more stages, each brought about by a separate enzyme. The substrate has therefore to move from one enzyme to another, and at each stage ENZYMES—KILBY 983 some modification in structure occurs. It is difficult to see how this could take place smoothly and efficiently in the cell if all the enzymes in a battery were scattered throughout the volume of a cell. One might suspect that they would be found to be arranged in an orderly sequence, like the machine tools along the production line of a factory, so that the material undergoing transformation can pass easily from one enzyme in the series to the next. Recent discoveries have indi- cated that this may sometimes be the case. Various small granules called mitochondria exist in the cytoplasm of cells (the cytoplasm is the part of a cell outside the nucleus) and most of the enzymes con- cerned with oxidation appear to be concentrated in these granules, which may be thought of as the powerhouses of the cell, since the prin- cipal purpose of oxidation is to release energy. Not a great deal is known yet about the structure of mitochondria, or how they are reproduced or of the arrangement of enzymes in them, Handcuffed together, as it were, the enzymes act as a group and their collective behavior may differ from the sum of that previously observed for the individual enzymes that the biochemist has obtained after destruction of the unit. The study of enzymes began with the living cell and then progressed to the isolated enzyme. The main aim of this phase, the classical period of enzyme biochemistry, has been to separate an enzyme from all others that accompany it; the isolation of crystalline enzymes marks the triumph of this technique. This phase is so pro- ductive of results that it will be developed for a long time yet, but at the same time another approach is being fostered. The aim of this is not the separation of enzymes from each other but the avoidance of this in order to obtain intact teams of enzymes and study the activity of the team. The activities of enzymes are not the concern merely of the aca- demic biochemist or the brewer, for enzymes are involved in many aspects of everyday life. The housewife makes junkets by using rennet, a preparation containing rennin which converts caseinogen, a soluble protein of milk, into casein, whose insoluble calcium salts separate out as the curds. The natural function of this enzyme (which occurs naturally in the fourth stomach of the calf) is prob- ably to delay the emptying of the stomach by converting liquid milk into a jellylike mass. Meat is hung to make it tender, as animal tissues after death under- go self-digestion owing to the presence of enzymes which partly degrade some of the structural material of the tissues. The oxidiz- ing agents added by millers to flour as “improvers” and in order to bleach it, inhibit the proteinases of the wheat which, if left active, would alter the proteins present in the flour and give rise to a less 284 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 satisfactory bread. The rising of dough is due to the action of en- zymes in the flour and added yeast; these cause break-down of starch into sugars which the yeast ferments to produce carbon dioxide, the gas which makes the dough rise, as well as a little alcohol, some or- ganic acids and materials with pleasing flavors. It is enzymes that make apples and potatoes go brown after cutting, a change due to the enzymatic oxidation in air of certain colorless compounds pres- ent to form pigmented substances. Many industrial processes are based on enzymatic action; usually living organisms such as yeast, molds or fungi, are used, as, for example, in the manufacture of malt vinegar, penicillin, citric acid, and so on} a discussion of these is rather outside the scope of the present article. Two examples can, however, be mentioned of industrial processes that use special enzyme preparations, as opposed to living organisms. When fruit juices are being manufactured, pectins, which form a part of the structure of plant cells, may separate out from solution as gelatinous precipitates and make filtration difficult or spoil the appearance of the product. (If pectins are present in sufficient amount, a fairly rigid jelly may result, as in successful jam making.) Clarification of fruit-juice drinks is now achieved usually by adding pectinases, enzymes that degrade pectins to soluble products. The enzyme preparations used are made from certain molds grown for the purpose. At one stage in leather manufacture, it is necessary to remove degraded products of hair, glands, and certain tissue proteins from the hides. This used to be a secret process that involved soak- ing the hides in a warm suspension of dog dung. The same result is now achieved more pleasantly by using enzymes prepared from large-scale cultures of suitable strains of bacteria. Human life begins with an enzymatic reaction. Spermatozoa lib- erate hyaluronidase, an enzyme that attacks the envelope around the egg and allows a single spermatozoon to enter and fertilize it. En- zymes keep the flame of life burning until death, when enzymatic decomposition returns the building material to the great store from which fresh life can draw its raw materials to be assimilated and re- built into new life forms. The living cell may be pictured as a remarkable factory, which not only makes a vast range of different products simultaneously, but also builds its own extensions, does its own repairs and makes its own machine tools. Changes in the nature of the raw materials available or sudden demands for material for new tissue building do not change the smooth-running efficiency of this factory. An elaborate control system must be operating that regulates the speed at which the different machine tools are working and thus which departments ENZYMES—KILBY I85 must speed up production, and which slow it down. The chemical regulators of the body are its hormones, and these must almost cer- tainly act by controlling key enzyme reactions. The first indications that this may be so have been obtained, and it may well be that the major development in biochemistry during the next half century will be a greater understanding of the mechanism of hormone action in terms of enzyme reactions. Much has been achieved in enzymol- ogy, but very much yet remains to be done. It would be an over- confident biochemist who would consider himself worthy of the kilogram of gold. cee Ppantincser eer 9 spegte “estimad | » ‘Moltameddentad: ti cwainadopaod tho withers | a ol URED nt bowing, arcent ancl && Ait exioibsnaw ork YRS = Lar ee ries sed blvow $4 agob od-os edtinan et slevaats ae vino. Ase pith di. aghi seaman Diver zd ne ea uate des Bey a ‘hh Thaae n tise er hy Saupe a Cha < ’ Pe + * in a das bee Qpeaginy: — » + / i> \ . te ¥ 7 als ie : ark mn ¥ ° r J oh Nl Sin pine Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Kilby PLATE 1 1. Photomicrograph of pepsin crystals, X 80. 2. Photomicrograph of trypsin crystals, X (From Enzymes, by Sumner and Somers.) 250. (From Crystalline Enzymes, bv Northrop, Kunitz, and Herriott.) 3. Photomicrograph of trypsinogen, 250. This is the inactive precursor of the digest ive enzyme trypsin. (From Crystalline ned as crystals Enzymes, by Northrop, Kunitz, and Her Sumner and Somers.) riott.) The Fauna of America’ By Austin H. CLARK Associate in Zoology, U. S. National Museum [With 8 plates] Euroreans seeing North America for the first time when the forests were untouched and game was plentiful found many types of animals familiar to them in Europe, together with others wholly new and strange. In the South, and especially the Southwest, they saw fewer familiar creatures and many more unfamiliar ones. To the early Spanish and Portuguese explorers and conquistadores South America was a wonderland in every way. The wealth of silver and gold in the western mountains was matched by the incredible wealth of strange mammals, queer fishes, and unusual and brilliantly colored birds and butterflies. Sloths, armadillos, anteaters, opossums, tapirs, hum- mingbirds, toucans, the giant condor, macaws, the large vivid blue morpho butterflies, the domesticated llama, alpaca, guinea pig, and Muscovy duck, and many other types were wholly different from any- thing they had seen in Europe or in Africa. GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA The characteristic features of the American fauna can be under- stood and appreciated only in the light of its geological and geographi- cal background. Many millions of years ago in Cretaceous time North America was broadly connected with northeastern Asia, and in the south it was joined through Central America with northwestern South America. A narrow sea extended from the region of the Mackenzie River Delta in the north to the Gulf of Mexico in the south, covering Yucatan, most of the Gulf States, southern Georgia, northern Florida, and the Coastal Plain as far as Cape Cod. Early in the Eocene the connection with South America was interrupted, and the sea connect- ing the Gulf of Mexico with the Arctic Ocean disappeared. In the Miocene, North America became separated from Asia. Later, in the Pliocene, the connection with South America was reestablished. In 1 Reprinted in somewhat extended form, by permission of the editors, from three articles published (in Hebrew) in the Encyclopaedia Hebraica, Jerusalem, 1951. 287 288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 the late Pliocene conditions were essentially as they are today, but Newfoundland was still united with North America and most of Florida was submerged. In the Pleistocene, Alaska was again broadly connected with Asia, and Newfoundland became separated from the mainland. In spite of relatively minor changes in the relation of sea and land, North America has always been essentially an integral part of the great permanent land mass of the Northern Hemisphere, the nursery of the world’s land fauna from which at various times in the past the different animal types spread southward. There is no geological evidence of any fundamental changes in the relation between the oceans and the land masses. A glance at a physical map of the Americas shows that from Guate- mala to northern Venezuela, including the West Indies, the general trend of the highlands is east and west in marked contrast to the moun- tains of North and South America, which run approximately north and south. Judged solely on the basis of the Recent fauna, Central America may be defined as the region from the southern end of the Mexican Plateau to northern Venezuela, including the West Indies. But there is no geological or paleontological evidence that Central America was ever a geographical entity apart from tropical America as a whole. The concept of a hypothetical Antilia including the Central or Middle American area which, in one form or another, has been widely used to explain the differentiation and distribution of animal life in this region has no foundation in fact. Islands now separate were joined with each other, or with the mainland, but there was never a large and continuous land mass in the region between North and South America. From the uniqueness of its fauna, it is evident that South America was for a long time wholly or in part isolated from the rest of the world, and this isolation is emphasized especially by the abundance in the past of large and bizarre mammals now known only as fossils. It is generally agreed that the eastern highlands of the Guianas and Brazil have been above the sea since the Trias, and that at some time or other in the Tertiary there was an oceanic interconnection along the Amazon Valley, or a long gulf extending inward from the Atlantic or Pacific, probably the latter. It is believed that Chile and the Pata- gonian Andes, which are quite distinct from the more northern Andes, have been land since very early times, and most students agree that southern South America was joined through Antarctica with New Zealand and Australia, at least until the Cretaceous. In the early Eocene, South America was cut off from North America. Between the late Eocene and the Pliocene there were various islands between the two. In the late Pliocene they were again joined, and a considerable interchange of faunas followed. FAUNA OF AMERICA—CLARK 289 GEOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY These geological changes were accompanied by more or less exten- sive changes in climate over the areas affected. Most important of these changes were the climatic variations in North America. Before and during the Tertiary a large part of North America was subtrop- ical or tropical, and the southern part remained tropical until at least the late Tertiary. This gradual change from a subtropical and tropical to a temperate climate had the effect of restricting to the south, or eliminating completely, many of the elements in the original North American fauna, a number of which are now found only in tropical America. With the geographical and climatic changes, various major and minor centers of evolution appeared throughout the Americas, giv- ing rise to more or less distinctive types which spread to other areas, became progressively restricted in their distribution, or disappeared. The geological history of the different vertebrate groups must be considered in connection with their present distribution. First to appear were the fishes, known from the Ordovician; amphibians are first found in the Upper Devonian, reptiles in the Pennsylvanian, and mammals probably in the Upper Triassic. The first known birds are from the Jurassic. Although the genetic rate of evolution may be independent of environment, an important factor in the evolution of animal types is the relative stability or instability of the habitat and its effect on natural selection. The basic ecology of the several vertebrate groups varies to a greater or lesser degree, though there is much overlapping, particularly in specilaized forms. Aquatic habitats are the least variable, and so the fresh-water fishes, especially in the Tropics, have the most generalized distribution with the nearest approach to their distribution in the far-distant past. The distribu- tion of the amphibians is, in general, parallel with that of the fishes. As a result of the great variability of terrestrial conditions—diurnal and seasonal—at different times in the past, the distribution of the reptiles and especially of the mammals reflects present conditions much more closely than does that of the aquatic and amphibious groups. In the reptiles, birds, and mammals those types that feed entirely, or almost entirely, in water are in general more widely and generally distributed than those that are entirely terrestrial. Worthy of special mention in the present fauna of America are such very ancient types as the ganoid fishes of North America, the lungfishes and osteoglossids of South America, various frogs of South America, and the ribbed or tailed frog (Ascaphus) of our Northwest related to Liopelma of New Zealand, and among invertebrates the onycho- phores (Peripatus and its relatives) of Central and South America and the West Indies. In North America the paddlefish (Polyodon) and the alligator, each with a single relative in China; the hellbender 290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 (Cryptobranchus) related to the giant salamander of Japan; the shovel-nosed sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus) with relatives in central Asia; and the mud puppies (Vectwrus) and mud minnows (Umbra) with relatives in southeastern Europe are localized remnants of types that in the distant past were widely and generally distributed. As examples of an animal type abundant and widespread but now greatly reduced in range and numbers, the camels may be men- tioned. Camels originated in western North America where they were formerly abundant and diversified. From this center they spread to South America and Asia. They have now disappeared except for four forms in South America and two in Asia, one of which has been introduced into Africa. Two of the South American species and both the Asiatic are known only as domesticated animals. PRESENT-DAY GEOGRAPHY In Alaska the Arctic barrens of Asia are continued and range eastward to Ungava and Labrador, increasing in extent eastward, beyond the mouth of the Mackenzie River, and reaching Churchill on the western shore of Hudson Bay and nearly to James Bay on the southeastern shore. The mountains of Alaska run east and west continuing those of northeastern Asia (the Anadyr and Kolyma ranges), but in southeastern Alaska and Yukon they turn southeast- ward, maintaining the same direction to the Guatemalan highlands. The eastern highlands of North America run from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to northern Georgia in a southwesterly direction. In the western mountains arctic, or at least boreal, conditions occur at increasingly high altitudes to southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico. In the east less extreme but still northern conditions range southward in the mountains to northeastern Georgia. From the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico the central part of North America is low with no natural barriers, so the grasslands, and in the west the deserts, extend from Mexico and the Gulf far north- ward into Canada. This absence of barriers facilitates the northern or southern extension of the ranges of animals so that the distribu- tional picture over most of the area in certain respects suggests that of Africa or Australia rather than that of Europe or Asia. Except for the Rio Grande, the rivers and lakes of North America are all cold, or at least cool. Nearly all are northern. The Mississippi River with its tributaries drain an area that is cool to very cold in winter so that its waters are not suitable for the types of fishes inhabiting the warm low- land rivers of southern Asia or the fresh waters of Africa or South America. Continental Central America is remarkable for the diversity of its physical conditions. The land includes extensive low areas near sea FAUNA OF AMERICA—CLARK 291 level and diversified highlands up to 14,000 feet in Guatemala. Arid regions with cactus grade into dense tropical forests, and these into pine forests. The islands also are greatly diversified. Some, like the Bahamas, Antigua, and Barbados, are low and flat, chiefly of coral formation, but most of the others consist largely or mainly of heavily forested mountains rising to 9,000 feet in Haiti and more than 7,000 feet in Jamaica. Most of South America islow. The great chain of the Andes, with an average height of 11,000 to 12,000 feet, runs close to the western border with an eastward spur along the Caribbean coast. The Guiana high- lands separate most of the Orinoco Valley from that of the Amazon, and in eastern Brazil are the extensive Brazilian highlands. The lowlands vary from dry and partly barren through areas covered with rank herbage, permanently or seasonally, to the dense forests of the Amazon Valley, especially the western half. These forests are unique in being canopy forests consisting of vast masses of vegetation tied together with vines and supported by tree trunks, with sparse under- growth, in many areas flooded during the rainy season. FAUNA OF NORTH AMERICA In the treeless high Arctic zone, the southern limits of which are sometimes north and sometimes south of the Arctic Circle, the animals of North America are almost wholly circumpolar, as the caribou (rein- deer), polar bear, Arctic wolf, fox, hare, lemmings, and weasels. Most characteristic of the mammals of the American Arctic is the musk ox, now extinct in the Old World, living in the far north from east of the Mackenzie River to northern Greenland. Of the 65 genera of birds 60 are circumpolar, including the ptarmigan, gyrfalcon, snowy owl, snow bunting, and many others. Fresh-water fishes are few— only some trout; the three-spined stickleback; and the Alaska black- fish (Dallia) of Alaska and Siberia, which is frozen in the ice for a considerable part of each year. There are no reptiles or amphibians. The insects are mostly circumpolar, and as in all regions where con- ditions are unfavorable for animal life, the Diptera, or two-winged flies, predominate. Biting flies, especially mosquitoes and black flies (Simulium), are especially abundant. The butterflies are all familiar Old World types. Farther south in the region of the forests there is a marked increase in animal life. Distinctively American types now appear, there is a considerable difference between east and west, and in the western mountains there is a continuation into America of Old World mountain or alpine forms. Old World animals of general distribution are repre- sented by the moose, caribou, wolf, foxes, bears, lynxes, wolverines, martens, weasels, otters, the varying hare, squirrels, and other rodents, 292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 and shrews, and by the widespread swallowtail butterfly Papilio machaon. In the western mountains there are wild sheep, the mountain goat, bears, and the conspicuous large white butterfly Parnassius. Among American types are the puma, raccoon, skunks, tree porcupines, American squirrels and other rodents, and the American (Virginia) type of deer, and, among strictly North American animals, the coyote. Among the birds of Old World affinities there are in the boreal region, of general distribution, many ducks, loons, the golden eagle, raven, crow, Canada jay, hawk-owl, several hawks and falcons, cross- bills, nuthatches, the magpie, the Bohemian waxwing, and various smaller species. Among the birds confined to the far northwest, in Alaska, Cassin’s bullfinch, the red-spotted bluethroat, yellow wagtail, and willow warbler migrate south in winter through Asia, not through America. Distinctively American types of general distribution are the Canada goose and its varieties, snow geese, the blue goose, ruddy and other ducks, the little brown crane, several owls, the bald eagle, and many small birds. Confined to the west are the emperor goose, black brant, bristle-thighed curlew, wandering tatler, surfbird, and many small birds. In the central part of the continent are the whooping crane, Wilson’s phalarope, and some other species. Special mention must be made of two large families of birds peculiar to America that reach the boreal region, the American warblers (Parulidae), many of which breed in the northern forests, and the hummingbirds (Trochil- idae), of which one, the rufous hummingbird, reaches Alaska, and another, the ruby-throated hummingbird, is found from Saskatche- wan to Cape Breton and southward. Many of these strictly American birds breed far to the northward, but all migrate south in winter. On Newfoundland many of the animals differ more or less widely from those on the continent, and some of the characteristic continental types, such as the moose, elk, and many smaller species, are lacking. A number of animals on the Labrador peninsula differ from their relatives west of Hudson Bay or farther south. Frogs and toads are represented from Alaska to Hudson Bay. A few snakes, turtles (including the soft-shelled turtle), and salaman- ders reach the boreal region in southern Canada. Fishes are abun- dant, though not very diversified, with a number of Old World types such as trout, grayling (Thymallus), whitefish (Coregonus), and pike (sow), and some American such as the black bass (Mtcropterus), darters (Etheostomidae), and suckers (Catostomidae). In the streams of the north Atlantic coast lives the Atlantic salmon, now becoming rare, and in those of the Pacific coast (and of eastern Asia as well) occur the five species of Pacific salmon (Onchorhynchus), which, in contrast to the Atlantic salmon, breed only once and die. FAUNA OF AMERICA—CLARK 293 The insects have increased greatly in variety. Many are from the Old World, but many are typically American, particularly toward the south. These last include two types of swallowtail butterflies of strictly North American groups, Papilio glaucus and its relatives, and P. troilus. South of southeastern Canada, the Great Lakes region, and New England many additional animal types appear. With Old World affinities are the pikas and badgers in the west and the generally distributed moles; strictly American are the opossum and various small hares in the east, the large jack rabbits, prairie dogs, ground squirrels, kangaroo rats, and other rodents in the west. Strictly North American are the pronghorn (Antilocapra) of the Western Plains, the gray fox (Urocyon), and in the northwestern United States the sewellel (Aplodontia). Still farther south are the generally dis- tributed spotted skunks, and in the Southwest the tropical armadillo, peceary, jaguar, ocelot, and cacomixl (Bassariscus), in addition to most of the types found farther north. Among the birds a number of northern kinds range down to Georgia in the mountains in the east and to Mexico in the west, and some in the lowlands to Florida and the Gulf. Many other bird types appear, chiefly in the lowlands, such as various rails, the white pelican (in the west), egrets, herons, doves and pigeons, burrowing owls, pileated and other woodpeckers, cuckoos, including the western roadrunner (Geococcyx), numerous wrens, the cardinal, towhee, grosbeaks, the indigobird and other finches, some brillia:.tly colored, swifts, whip- poorwills and other goatsuckers, and especially representatives of the exclusively American families Odontophoridae (American quails), Meleagrididae (turkeys), Cathartidae (American vultures, including the giant California condor), Icteridae (American orioles and black- birds and the meadowlarks, bobolink, and parasitic cowbirds), Thraupidae (tanagers), Vireonidae (vireos), Mimidae (mockingbird, thrashers, and catbird), and Tyrannidae (American kingbirds and flycatchers). Farther south are additional types—the wood ibis (Mycteria), the only American stork, snakebird (Anhinga), brown pelican, more finches; in the west several hummingbirds; and the American family Aramidae (wood rails or courlans). In the extreme south are a few tropical types such as the white ibis, roseate spoonbill, caracaras, kites, and some tropical terns. Toward the south the reptiles increase rapidly in number, first the snakes and the turtles, later the lizards, the last especially in the west. The reptiles are quite different from those of Europe and northern Asia and largely different from those of South America. Most note- worthy are the snapping turtles, the common snapper reaching 75 pounds and the more southern alligator snapper 150 pounds; the rattle- 294 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 snakes, one of which, the southern diamondback, reaches more than 8 feet in length; the coral snakes of the south; and the iguanoid lizards, including the curiously flat and broad horned toads, which squirt a drop of blood from above the eye when alarmed. In the southeast lives the alligator, and in the extreme south the American crocodile. Amphibians, especially frogs, tree frogs, toads, and in the moun- tains salamanders, become abundant. Worthy of mention are the bull frog, 8 inches long; among the salamanders in the east the hellbender, 2 feet long; several mud puppies, also up to 2 feet long; the congo snakes (Amphiuma) with rudimentary legs, up to 3 feet long; and the mud eels (Stren) with no hind legs, also 3 feet long. North America is the richest part of the world in salamanders, as South America is in frogs. Fishes are very numerous, largely of endemic types such as the nest- building Centrarchidae, the gars (Lepidosteus), and the bowfin (Amia). Especially interesting are the cave fishes (Amblyopsidae), of which four genera with seven blind and colorless species occur in the subterranean waters in the eastern half of the Mississippi Valley, and one genus with two normally colored species with fully developed eyes inhabits the coastal swamps from Virginia to Georgia. These are evidently the remnants of a once numerous and widespread group. The North American catfishes (Ameiuridae) and the suckers (Cato- stomidae) are almost wholly North American, but both families have a representative or two in eastern Asia. Insects are exceedingly numerous and diversified; many are of tropical American types, though some are endemic. There are about 700 different kinds of butterflies, many of which are large and hand- some. One small butterfly (Feniseca) with African and Asiatic rel- atives is carnivorous in the early stages. Of other invertebrates, the fresh-water mussels (Unionidae) are more numerous and diversified in North America than elsewhere. FAUNA OF CENTRAL AMERICA The fauna of the mainland of Central America is predominantly South American with an admixture of North American types, espe- cially in the highlands, and a few Antilleam forms. It reflects the diversity of the geographical features, and minor local variants of both South and North American animals are abundant. The fauna of the West Indies is scanty and is composed of types at present largely unrepresented, or but poorly represented, on the mainland. Among the mammals of Central America are two species of tapirs that are quite distinct from all other living tapirs though related to fossils found in North America, one ranging from Panama to Mexico, the other found in Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Spider Smithsonian Report, 195].—Clark PLATE 1 a aa 1. TWO YOUNG BULL ELKS ON REFUGE, JACKSON, Wyo. 2. TWO BUCK MULE DEER, NATIONAL BISO! RANGE, MOIESE, MONT. Photographs by E. P. Haddon, courtesy U. S. Fish ame Wildlife Service. Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Clark PLATE 2 peer Fy : an? Jima * aden Fg 3 we, ae on | 1. MOUNTAIN SHEEP, YELLOWSTONE PARK, WYO, Photograph by M. P. Skinner, courtesy U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. s se 7 2. MOUNTAIN GOAT (OREAMNOS AMERICANUS), ALASKA This is really a mountain antelope, closely related to the European chamois. It occurs from Alaska south to Montana and Idaho in the Rockies and the Coast Range. Photograph by C. Rhode, courtesy U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Clark MOOSE, HARVEY LAKE, ALASKA S. Fish and Wildlife Ser Photograph by J. Malcolm Greany, courtesy U. ‘IAIN OJI[P[LMA pue ysl “Sg ‘A Asoqinoo ‘uoppry “gq “AY Aq ydessoi0y4g ‘LNOW ‘S3SSIOW ‘AS 11VA NOISSIW ‘NOSIG ONIETVY GNV NOSIG YO1O9-1VWWHON oo ai _. 7 AG fmy! v al A -f WY, Vi i ff rf vy 31W1d FLO —" 166] ‘Oday ueruosyqwg Smithsonian Report, 195].—Clark PLATE 5 1 Ee 1. WILD TURKEY GOBBLER, WICHITA MOUNTAINS WILDLIFE REFUGE, OKLA. Photograph by Leo K. Couch, courtesy U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2. CANADA GEESE, LOWER SOURIS MIGRATORY WATERFOWL REFUGE, N. DAK Photograph by C. J. Henry, courtesy U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. “IDAIOS OfI[P[I[AA pue Yysty “Ss “Q Asaqyinos ‘ysuA'T *[ uyof Aq ydeis0joug *SpUNOIS BSUIJSOU INOIW Joy. OF Asuinol uinjosl yi ies Ady] uUsyM Ye] JO IsI oy} Jnoqe [uN aay} UleWal Ad], “IO]UIM YO¥O SBXOT, UloIsea puv BULISINOT JO svOd J[NL) ay} UO 93¥IJUIIUOD 98993 MOUS PUP aS908 aN{q JO spuRsNoY) Jo speipuNnyy 9 ALW1d PELD—" 166] “WoOdey ueruosyarug PLATE Clark Smithsonian Report, 1951. ARMADILLO Nation ie rk. a al Zoological P Ci urtesy MANED WOLF 2s Sec [B15 0[007 jeuoneN Asoqino07 YIdVL NVITNZVaq 8 3ALV1d 4AP[Q—'|66| ‘40day urtuosyywG FAUNA OF AMERICA—CLARK 295 monkeys range north to Mexico, howlers to Guatemala, and several other types, including marmosets, to Costa Rica. Sloths range north to Mexico. Other mammals now characteristic of South America are the jaguar, ocelot and other cats, peccary, armadillo, coati, kinkajou, prehensile-tailed porcupine, agouti and numerous other rodents, and many bats, including the small blood-feeding vampires. Of very wide distribution are the puma and otter. Mammals of northern af- finities, chiefly in Mexico, are the wolf, coyote, deer, raccoon, badger, hare, squirrel, cacomixl, pouched rat (gopher or quachil) and some other rodents, and insectivores. Among the interesting fossil mammals of the West Indies are a ground sloth (Megalonyx), as large as a small bear, from Cuba, and a very large rodent of the same size (Amblyrhiza) from the very small islands of Anguilla and St. Martins. These indicate a connection at some time with continental Central or South America. There are no fossil mammals known from the West Indies of greater age than the Pleistocene. Most interesting of the living mammals of the West Indies are the two species of Solenodon, one on Cuba and one on Haiti. These are large insectivores with the body about a foot long with fossil relatives in the Oligocene of North America and living relatives chiefly in Madagascar, with a few in west Africa. Confined to the Greater Antilles are the large ratlike mammals called hutias. The genus Plagiodontia lives only on Haiti. Species of Capromys with short tails are found in the Bahamas, on Jamaica, and on Swan Island north of Honduras. Three species with long tails live on Cuba. A related but distinct type (Procapromys) is said to occur in the mountains of northern Venezuela. Raccoons occur, or did occur until recently, on New Providence, Bahamas, Guadeloupe, and Barbados. ‘The rice rat of Jamaica (Orizomys) is an island rep- resentative of one on the Honduras Peninsula. Of the 31 genera of bats living in the West Indies no less than 10 are peculiar to the islands, 7 confined to the Greater Antilles, including the Bahamas, and 3 of general distribution. Very distinct from the fauna of the Greater Antilles with its Central and North American affinities is that of the Lesser Antilles, related most closely to that of South America. The fauna of Trinidad is that of adjacent Venezuela. The fauna of Tobago resembles that of Trini- dad and includes a peccary, opossum, mouse opossum (Afarmosa), small armadillo, paca, agouti, squirrel, spiny rat, and muskrat (J/ega- lomys). On Grenada, the southernmost of the Lesser Antilles prop- erly speaking, there is only the opossum (extensively introduced into the northern islands), mouse opossum (which ranges into the Grena- dines), agouti, and the small armadillo. There is an introduced African monkey on Grenada, and another African species on Barbados 981445—52 20 296 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 and St. Kitts. Agoutis occur, or did until recently, on practically all the islands as far as St. Thomas. Musk rats (Megalomys) are found only on Tobago, St. Lucia, and Martinique, with a fossil species on Barbados. The rice rat in the Lesser Antilles is related to one in adjacent South America. There is a spiny rat (Loncheres) on Marti- nique. Manatees, once common in suitable localities along the coasts and about the larger islands, including Guadeloupe, are now rare. The West Indian seal, a close relative of the Mediterranean seal, for- merly common and widely distributed, is now found only on some small islands off Yucatéin. Many West Indian mammals have wholly dis- appeared since the settlement of the islands by Europeans. The birds of Central America are very numerous. Nearly all are of types now found in South America, but there is an extraordinary number of endemic genera in almost all groups, especially in the hum- mingbirds, finches, and flycatchers. The best-known bird confined to Central America and found chiefly in Costa Rica is the quetzal, the most magnificent of all the colorful trogons. There is a marked zonal distribution in Central America and, chiefly at the higher alti- tudes, several North American birds occur, such as evening grosbeaks, crossbills, goldfinches, and others. Very many North American species pass the winter in Central America and the West Indies and farther south. In the West Indies there are 32 genera of birds confined to the Greater Antilles and 8 to the Lesser. Two distinct families are wholly West Indian, the palm chats (Dulidae) of Haiti and the todies (Todi- dae) of Cuba, Isle of Pines, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and Haiti. Zonal distribution is found only on Haiti where the white-winged crossbill, Andean sparrow, and Antillean goldfinch occur at the higher altitudes. Some characteristic West Indian birds live on the islands off the Yuca- tan coast, on Curacao, Aruba, and Bonaire, and on Tobago. Among the more interesting West Indian birds are Princess Helen’s humming- bird of Cuba, smallest of all birds, 23% inches in total length; two genera of Lesser Antillean hummingbirds (Lulampis and Sericotes) in which both sexes are similarly colored and equally brilliant; a co- tinga on Jamaica; endemic types of trogons on Cuba and Haiti; and very distinctive large parrots on St. Vincent and Dominica; other parrots live on St. Lucia, Dominica, and in the Greater Antilles. In former times distinctive macaws occurred on Cuba, Jamaica, Guade- loupe, Dominica, and Martinique, and probably on Haiti. In addition to these, other West Indian birds have disappeared since the coming of Europeans. The reptiles of Central America and the West Indies are numerous. The turtles are all North American. The family Dermatemydidae, now confined to Guatemala and adjacent areas, is found as a fossil in FAUNA OF AMERICA—CLARK 297 North America. Snapping turtles occur in Mexico, Guatemala, and Ecuador. The large crocodile found in the extreme south of North America lives on the Central American coast and about the larger West Indian islands, and there is a small one in Cuba and another in Central America where caimans also occur in the rivers. Lizards are numer- ous and diversified with a number of local genera, especially in the Greater Antilles. Most of them belong to the family Iguanidae. Some of the herbivorous iguanas reach a length of 5 feet or more. Snakes are numerous and diversified, with a number of endemic types. The very poisonous fer-de-lance is found on Martinique and St. Lucia. Largest of the Central American snakes is the boa constrictor, up to 12 feet long, though seldom more than 7 feet. Frogs are numerous and varied with several endemic types. Salamanders are found in Central America and one lives on Haiti. There are no coecilians. The fishes of Central America are mainly South American, but several characteristic South American types are absent. Trout range south to Durango, Mexico, and a few other North American fishes extend to Guatemala. Among the more interesting fishes are three ganoids, the North American Lepzdosteus osseus in northeastern Mexico, LZ. tropicus ranging from Mexico to Panama, and ZL. tristoe- chus, the great alligator gar, found in Mexico and Cuba as well as in the southern United States. Ofthe more than 100 species of Cichlidae 17 are confined to Lakes Nicaragua and Managua, 6 to Cuba, and 1 to Barbados. In Lake Nicaragua there are a shark and a sawlish (P7%s- tis). In the caves of Cuba there are two blindfishes (Lucifuga) be- longing to a family (Brotulidae) chiefly represented in the oceanic abysses. Land snails are extremely varied, and their abundance is one of the main features of the West Indian fauna. Many endemic types occur, especially in the Greater Antilles. Those of Cuba are unexcelled for variety and beauty. The very numerous butterflies are mostly South American with some familiar northern types, especially in the Central American highlands. There are several endemic genera, some confined to the Greater Antil- les. One genus of curious large butterflies (Anelia) is confined to Haiti, Cuba, and Central America. The Onychophora are well represented, with four genera and seven species in Panama. One genus (Peripatus) occurs on almost every island from St. Vincent and Barbados to the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Haiti, and Jamaica, and also in northern Venezuela, Panama, and Costa Rica. Plicatoperipatus is confined to Jamaica. The South and Central American genus /'piperipatus lives on Trinidad, Tobago, and Grenada; and Afacroperipatus, which ranges north to Veracruz, Mexico, is represented on Trinidad and Haiti. The Andean Oroperi- 298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 patus occurs at Panama and ranges northward to Tepic, Mexico. There are no Onychophora on Cuba. These curious wormlike animals belong to a very ancient group known as fossils in the Middle Cam- brian of British Columbia. THE FAUNA OF SOUTH AMERICA The fauna of South America reflects its very early connection with North America, its later long isolation during which many strange endemic types developed, now largely extinct, and its reunion with North America in the Pliocene, permitting the introduction of North American types of relatively recent origin. In the south it retains many animal types, especially in the fresh-water fishes and inverte- brates, that are relics of a very old connection with New Zealand and Australia and are quite different from any found farther north. The fauna of South America has essentially the appearance of the fauna of a large tropical island, the long isolation of which resulted in the development from generalized stock of a large number of en- demic types, merged with the fauna of a southern land mass including New Zealand and Australia, with an intrusion of animal forms that have arrived from North America since the Pliocene. In spite of very marked affinities with Africa seen in the aquatic and amphibious ani- mals especially, there is no necessity for assuming a direct union with Africa at any time, though there may have been such a union. The similarity to Africa is most probably due to the conservation of ancient types once generally distributed which in the northern land masses have been superseded by others better suited to present conditions that have been prevented by certain barriers from reaching the southern continents. Also it is probable that in Africa and especially South America climatic and meteorological changes have been less extreme, particularly in the fresh waters, than in the great land masses of the north, which would favor the persistence of many ancient types. Perhaps the most characteristic feature of South America is the canopy forest. Here animals live largely high above the ground. To keep from falling from the canopy many mammals of widely different kinds, as opossums, an anteater, porcupines, kinkajous, and some monkeys, have developed prehensile tails, and the sloths have cnormous claws. There are no gliding animals, such as we see in the northern and Old World forests, in Australia, and especially in the Malayan region. Birds and butterflies are especially numerous and varied. In the deep shade of the forests live many butterflies with largely transparent wings and others with vivid colors on the under side but dull above. A striking feature of the birds and but- terflies is the extraordinary prevalence of brilliant and often flashing colors, especially blue. Some of the numerous frogs are also brightly colored. FAUNA OF AMERICA—CLARK 299 It is in the western Amazonian region and the eastern Andes that animal life is most highly diversified. The lowlands are curious in lacking the herds of large herbivorous mammals so characteristic of Europe, Asia, North America, and especially Africa. There are no grazing mammals, and the terrestrial browsers are represented only by a few small deer. The place of the hoofed animals is taken iby a great variety of rodents, as it is in Australia by kangaroos, Except in the northwest, bears and insectivores are absent. The place of arboreal insectivores is taken chiefly by marmosets, and that of terrestrial insectivores, as in Australia, by opossums and mice. Unique among living mammals and confined to tropical America are the three types of sloths; the uncommon terrestrial giant ant- eater 4 feet long, the smaller terrestrial anteater, and the arboreal anteaters; and the various armadillos ranging in size from the little woolly armadillo (Chlamydophorus) 5 inches long to the rare giant armadillo (Priodontes) 3 feet long. Exclusively tropical American except for one species in southern North America are the opossums, varying from the size of a mouse to that of a large cat. One has webbed feet and is aquatic. Quite a different type of marsupial is Caenolestes of Ecuador and adjacent Colombia related to the Aus- tralian phalangers. The American monkeys, especially numerous in PSustl are quite different from the Old World monkeys. They are less diversified and smaller. Some have prehensile tails. The chief types are the spider monkeys, woolly monkeys, sapajous, and the slugg gish howlers, largest of American monkeys with a stupendous voice; sakis, short- led monkeys, night monkeys with enormous eyes, sapere monkeys, and marmosets, smallest of monkeys—some smaller than a rat. One of the howlers is curious in having the males black, the females straw yellow. Very characteristic of South America are the four camels, the guanaco, vicuiia, llama, and alpaca, the two last known only as domestic animals. As a group they range from the extreme south to, in the Andes, Peru and Ecuador. Nearly as characteristic as the camels are the two tapirs, one in the forests and lowlands of Brazil and Paraguay, the other in the Andes. These are related to another in the Malay region, Sumatra, and Borneo. Largest of the American cats, with a body length of about 4 to 5 feet, is the jaguar, thick-set, powerful, and dangerous, which ranges from Patagonia to Texas. Nearly as large, but with longer limbs, not so heavy, and generally tawny in color without distinctive mark- ings, is the puma, found from Tierra del Fuego to latitude 60° N. in Canada. ‘There are various smaller cats, some handsomely spotted or striped, others plain, but no lynxes. 300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Dogs are represented by several wolflike foxes, one very large, and the curious little bush dogs with short legs and tail. The raccoon family is represented by a raccoon, the coati, and the kinkajou, and the pigs by the collared and white-lipped peccaries. The deer are all of the American (Virginia deer) type, mostly small with simple antlers. One, the pudu of Ecuador, is no larger than a big hare and has spikelike antlers. The spectacled bear ranges in the Andes from Colombia to northwestern Argentina. It is more closely related to the Malayan bear than to any of those now living in North America. Mustelids (weasels, otters, skunks, and others) are num- erous. In addition to many insectivorous and fruit-eating types the bats include the blood-feeding vampires and the fish-catching bats, largest of American bats, with an expanse of 26 inches or more. The fish-eating bats have the toes and claws on the hind feet greatly compressed laterally so as to minimize the resistance of the water when scooping up small fishes. Especially characteristic of South America are the extraordinarily numerous and diversified rodents, including many types not found elsewhere. Worthy of special mention are the prehensile-tailed porcupines, cavies (guinea pigs), chinchillas, coypus, pacas, agoutis, the subterranean tucutucus, squirrels, the capybara, largest of living rodents, about 4 feet long weighing more than 100 pounds, and others. Of aquatic mammals the most interesting are the manatees of the large rivers (also in Africa) and the river dolphins of the upper Amazon and the estuary of the La Plata (other species occur in China and India). Unusually numerous and varied are the birds, of about 2,500 species, including, besides representatives of families of wide distribution, about 30 families confined to America, mostly to the Tropics. Among these are the hummingbirds, toucans, jacamars, woodhewers, cotingas, manikins, plant-cutters, tanagers, screamers, New World vultures, including the king vulture and the great Andean condor, curassows and guans, hoatzins, trumpeters, cariamas, oilbirds, motmots, rheas, and tinamous. The tinamous are related to the rheas but are very much smaller and have fully developed wings. Besides these there are many interesting species in other groups, such as the macaws and many brightly colored parrots, the powerful harpy eagle, the black- necked swan, the Muscovy duck, and the flightless steamer duck. Among the reptiles there are five caimans and three crocodiles. Most of these are small, but one caiman reaches 20 feet in length and one crocodile 25 feet. ‘Turtles are represented by snake-necked turtles (elsewhere only in Australia) of which the most noteworthy is the curious matamata; the family Pelomedusidae (elsewhere only in Africa) including the economically important river turtle (Pod- FAUNA OF AMERICA—CLARK 301 ocnemis), two land tortoises, a snapping turtle in the northwest, and a few others. There are no soft-shelled turtles. Lizards are numerous and varied, most of them belonging to the family Iguanidae, wholly American except for one iguana in Fiji and two in Madagascar. One of the iguanas, living on the Galapagos Islands, spends most of the time on land but feeds in the sea on seaweeds. Snakes are numer- ous and diversified, about as many as in the Indian region though less varied. Largest are the anacondas, some of which reach nearly or quite 40 feet in length, and the smaller boas. The poisonous snakes are the pit vipers, including the rattlesnakes and the dreaded bush- master, up to 10 feet long, and the brilliant coral snakes related to the Old World cobras. Burrowing snakes are also found. The frogs outnumber those of any other region; their affinities are mainly African. Like the birds they include many bizarre types such as the horned frogs (Ceratophrys), the Surinam toad (Pipa) which raises its young in the skin of its back, and many brightly colored tree frogs, some of which are poisonous, with curious repro- ductive habits. Salamanders occur only in the northwest. Snake- like burrowing coecilians are found, chiefly in Ecuador. Toads are common. One, the giant toad (Bufo marinus), reaches 5 pounds in weight. I have seen this toad, which looks somewhat like a large stone, snap up young chickens as smaller toads do insects. As far as fishes are concerned, no two regions could be more un- like than South and North America. In number of species the South American fish fauna is the richest in the world although less than a quarter of the fresh-water groups are represented. The aflinities are predominantly with Africa. As in Ipdia there is a specialized al- pine fish fauna. The extreme south agrees with New Zealand and Tasmania. Among the endemic South American types are the Gym- notidae, including the dreaded electric eel up to 6 feet long, the most powerful of electric fishes. The only other electric fish in fresh water is a catfish in Africa. The lungfish of the swamps (ZLepidosiren) is related to others in Africa, and more remotely to two in Australia. There are two osteoglossids, one of which, the arapaima, is said to reach 15 feet in length with a weight of 400 pounds. This is the largest fresh-water fish in America and, with the possible exception of the European catfish and a Chinese fish (Psephurus), the largest in the world. It is unusual among fishes in being a vegetarian. The characinids, otherwise African, are numerous and diversified. Among these are the ferocious piranhas or cannibal fishes (Serra- salmo), perhaps the most dangerous of all fishes. Catfishes are abun- dant and varied, and many are heavily armored. The largest reach 9 feet in length. Some very small species, scarcely an inch long, live as parasites in the gill chambers of larger ones. One urinophilous 302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 species sometimes causes trouble by crawling into the urethra of bathers. The curious four-eyed fishes have the eyes divided into an upper and a lower half for simultaneous vision in the air and under water. There are twosmall fresh-water flyingfishes, not related to the marine flyingfishes, and in the rivers formidable sting rays. The insects and other invertebrates are as diversified as the verte- brates. Rather more than a third of all known butterflies, including many endemic groups, are tropical American. Among these an extraordinarily large number are vividly colored, the most spectacular being the great metallic blue morphos; but the largest morphos are dull in color. Then there are the huge owl butterflies (Caligo) and the noisy whip-crackers (Hamadryas or Ageronia). In the southern Andes there is a satyrid or wood nymph almost wholly metallic silver on both surfaces, and a skipper brilliant gold on the under side. Among other invertebrates the giant bird-catching spider 8 inches across should be mentioned, together with the giant wasps (Pepszs) that feed on it and its relatives. The curious onychophores are especially numerous in Central and South America. Those in the Tropics belong to a group elsewhere represented only in tropical Africa, while those in southern South America are related to others in New Zealand and Australia. There are many other interesting features connected with the fauna of the Americas—its origin, diversification at different periods in the past and in response to present conditions, and the fundamental changes that have come about since the settlement by Europeans, and are continuing today with increasing speed. This brief survey, how- ever, will suffice to bring out the similarities to, and contrasts with, the corresponding faunas of Eurasia and Africa. The Mechanics of Snakes’ By ALFRED LEUTSCHER British Museum (Natural History) [With 3 plates] A FRIEND of mine once tried to get through the customs a snake he was bringing back with him from the Continent. Four-footed ani- mals, such as the rabbit and squirrel which he also had with his bag- gage, were passed by the customs officer without comment. But no matter how my friend attempted to trace the ancestry of his reptile pet in terms of lost legs, it had none just then, so that was that. That serpents are of quadruped descent is not an easy matter to prove. Their lack of legs was formerly sufficient, even among scientific circles, to link them with other limbless creatures, such as those amphib- ians with scales in their skins, called coecilians, and certain limbless lizards like our native slowworm. There is even no tangible evidence to show that they ever possessed functional limbs. Snakes have been claimed from Cretaceous rocks, but such occur- rence is doubtful. Later fossils from the lower Eocene in America approach the lizard type in bone structure. Viperlike snakes are known from the Miocene of France and Germany. More recent snakes from Egypt are boalike and appear to have been monsters, probably growing to 60 feet in length. All the above were snakes—that is, without functional limbs. There is no “story of the horse” flavor to show for a snake’s evolu- tion, which is understandable since the skeletons of these creatures are too delicate and brittle to fossilize well, and the full story of how the snakes evolved may remain forever a secret. Circumstantial evidence and comparative anatomy of snakes, how- ever, indicate that they are undoubted reptiles which, as a class, are derived from land quadrupeds. A faint clue to the origin of snakes may be seen in the skeleton of the largest living species, which are of the more primitive kind. One familiar member of this family (the Boi- dae), the python, retains a curious relic of the past in the shape of cer- tain bones lying near the base of the tail. They consist of what are 1 Reprinted by permission from Discovery, December 1950. 303 304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 thought to be traces of a pelvis and hind limbs. Attached to each fe- mur there is on the surface of the body a conical, clawlike spur. ‘These spurs are larger in the male python and no longer function as limbs but serve as excitor organs when scraped against the female during the act of mating. Wesee a somewhat similar parallel in the vestigial hind limbs of certain whales, undoubted mammals which live entirely in water and whose quadruped ancestors are as much a mystery as those of snakes. Serpents superficially resemble worms, for which they may be mis- taken, but a true worm has no bony jaws, tongue, or well-developed eyes and is classed with the animals that have no backbone. The wormlike snakes vary greatly in length, from a 4-inch species like Glauconia dissimilis to a 30-foot giant like the Malay python (Python reticulatus). 'Their body may be long and slender, or short and fat, according to the species. The backbone of a snake is composed of numerous vertebrae which are of two kinds—those of the body, which carry each a pair of ribs, and those of the short tail, which have instead long transverse proc- esses. The vertebrae are connected by “ball-and-socket” joints which allow for great flexibility. At the same time, because of certain pro- jections on each vertebra that lock with the adjacent ones in a kind of dovetailed joint, a snake’s body possesses a rigidity that is re- markable for such a delicate mechanism. The slightest blow will fracture or dislocate a snake’s backbone, yet the animal can twist and rear into positions impossible in other vertebrates. Many a pet snake owes its escape from captivity to the strength and suppleness of its backbone. The dovetailed jointing to some extent limits the body movements in the vertical plane but does not interfere with the extensive lateral play typical of a snake in movement. Illustrations by early natural- ists and modern cartoonists often depict the progress of snakes and “sea serpents” in vertical undulations. Such movement is entirely foreign to snakes and to reptiles in general; it is, in fact, quite impos- sible, because of the way the backbone is constructed. The numerous curved ribs which are joined in pairs to the trunk vertebrae are capable of certain movements. Lateral movement is seen under certain circumstances, as when the snake is flattening the body in the sunning attitude or when allowing passage of a meal, which can be detected as a bulge along the body. No breastbone exists in snakes to hamper their movements. The movement of the ribs back- ward and forward was at one time thought to play an important part in locomotion, but this has recently been questioned. Locomotion is now thought to operate under muscle action which is visible to the eye in the movement of the body surface, especially on the lower side. MECHANICS OF SNAKES—LEUTSCHER 305 In climbing or creeping at a slow pace some snakes are capable of moving forward in a perfectly straight line. A wave action on the lower sides of the body, which moves forward in a series of steps, is caused by successive contractions and relaxations of the muscles underneath. Attached to the ribs, these muscles operate on the lower body surface, which in most snakes is covered by a series of broad, transverse scales, known as shields. ‘These shields correspond in num- ber to the vertebrae and overlap like roofing slates along their hind edges. The free borders of the shields grip onto any rough surface or irregularity over which the snake happens to be passing, and this action is most apparent along those parts of the body that are in contact with the ground, rock, or branch. This rectilinear movement has been compared with that of an earthworm and has often been described as “a snake walking on its ribs.” Actually, one gets a better analogy when one visualizes the rowing of a boat. The oar blade which grips the water corresponds to the ventral shield, the oar is the lever of rib and muscle, and the ground is the fulerum. Such movement is in common use in ground snakes, such as our native adder, and arboreal snakes such as the Aesculapian snake (laphe longisstma) of south Europe (pl. 1, fig.1). This latter, like many of its relatives, has over- lapping belly shields which bend at a sharp angle along their shorter sides. This forms a sharp keel which gives an extra grip on the smallest irregularities on bark or rock over which it climbs. The feats of climbing displayed by a pet Aesculapian snake in my collection reveal the high degree of specialization achieved by snakes. This specimen will climb over the furniture or crawl along the picture rail in my study, never missing its hold or making a false move. It can cling by its tail or any part of the body to the buttons of one’s waistcoat, or hang from a projecting pen fixed into a pocket. When seeking a new perch it will stretch out its slender body in a horizontal plane to a third of its length, unsupported in the air, as it reaches over a gap to secure a fresh hold. The rest of the body, and in particular the prehensile tail, meanwhile retains a secure grip which it refuses to relax until the next foothold is secured. If I attempt to pull it free the grip is tightened. If I stand nearby it may attempt to bridge the gap in order to reach an arm or shoulder. Should I move slightly it draws back, remaining on its former perch. This is strongly reminis- cent of an experienced mountaineer who always makes sure of his next step before he releases a previous foothold. Along a tightened rope this snake will hang its body in loops over each side, edging itself along slowly in a remarkable display of coordi- nated muscle action in order to maintain its balance. Its “star turn” is the grip it can maintain when hanging onto an electric-light switch set into a wall. Here, on the only projection, less than half an inch, 306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 on a flat, vertical surface of many square feet, it will remain for over an hour, never relaxing its grip. A similar grip is used by this pet snake in constricting prey, a habit best known among boas and pythons. (It is indeed possible for a large boa or python to constrict and even kill a man, but there is no cause for alarm when a tamed python is coiled around one’s neck or arm and commences to exert pressure; it is merely securing a firmer hold in order to prevent a fall.) Rectilinear movement takes place at leisurely speed. At moderate or high speed a snake displays the typical serpentine movement, as it is called, wherein the body undulates in lateral curves and can thereby brace itself against projecting obstacles in its path. Without such projections a snake cannot proceed, as may be shown by placing it on a highly polished surface. Where the flow of curves is restricted, as in a narrow tunnel, a snake may resort to yet a third locomotion called the concertina move- ment. At intervals along its body are stationary curves that press firmly against the sides of the tunnel acting as anchors toward which and away from which the parts in between can be moved. In this way B Sida « Pane, S Ficure 1.—Stages, from top to bottom, of concertina movement in a snake moving along atunnel. A, Body at rest where it touches the tunnel walls. B, Body in front moy- ing forward. C, Body behind being drawn up. it progresses in steps along the tunnel (fig. 1). Frequently a mixture of both this and rectilineal movement takes place in which the belly shields at the stationary points along the body grip the underlying surface. In some snakes, especially certain vipers and rattlesnakes, a curious sideways progression occurs. One North American rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes), in fact, is named after this peculiarity. It is called the sidewinder. When side winding a snake proceeds in a direc- MECHANICS OF SNAKES—LEUTSCHER 307 tion that is at an angle to that in which it is facing. The body does not follow the course of the head but, as it were, tacks away from a base line. In burrowing snakes, of which 7'yphlops is a typical example, there are no broad belly shields, and the body is uniformly covered with polished and closely united scales of more or less equal size. This is also found in the slowworm, a legless lizard that,is fond of burrow- ing. There is no risk of earth particles becoming caught up in the skin, and the scales play no part in locomotion. Instead, the body twists and turns in all directions, pushing its curves against resisting bodies, such as stones, plants, and the walls of burrows to propel itself forward. In some burrowing snakes (e. g., Vropeltis) the short tail ends abruptly in a broadened oblique surface, which is covered with large scales, and this operates somewhat like a digging implement. The highly poisonous sea snakes, which constitute the subfamily Hydrophiinae (these are the only “sea serpents” at present recognized by science), are entirely divorced from the land, being viviparous and adapted for swimming. They have strongly compressed bodies and oarlike tails which present a broad surface to the water as they progress with lateral undulations. This compares with the move- ment of fishes and is thought to be a relic of their fish ancestry. Even a land snake, such as the grass snake, will swim in this manner over a pond—and for that matter “swim” through the grass. Yet another remarkable feat of some serpents is to be seen in the action of a “flying” snake. This is much more in the nature of a glide but is nonetheless extraordinary. The ventral surface can be pulled in to form a deep concavity, accompanied by a slight flattening of the body, the kind of flattening one would find if the body were squashed by a pressure applied above and below. The hollow under surface gives the snake the necessary buoyancy in the air for its parachutelike descent into a lower branch, in a glide of some considerable distance. In general, snakes that are well able to take care of themselves, such as the poisonous kinds and the large constrictors, are by nature sluggish, and many have squat clumsy bodies. They may even possess peculiar mechanical devices that are used to warn away enemies. There is, for instance the “hood” of certain cobras produced by the flattening of the ribs behind the head when the animal is annoyed. Then there is the warning “rattle” of the American pit viper, or rattlesnake; the rattle is composed of a series of rounded, horny sheaths at the end of the tail which is added to with each successive molt of the skin, and vibrates at high speeds to produce a whirring sound intimidating to its enemies. 308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Defenseless snakes, burrowers and tree-climbers, on the other hand, are usually slender and built for speed. The record is probably held by the American black racer (Coluber constrictor), which is said to attain the speed of a running man. . The fastest of all snake movements, however, may be claimed by the vipers. Otherwise sluggish, and apt to stand their ground when attacked, they strike at lightning speed. When time permits, the rattlesnake or viper will coil the forequarters into the shape of a watch spring with the head in the center. This can then be shot forward for about a third, even a half, the length of the body to produce one of the fastest movements in the reptile world. Only a few animals, such as the mongoose and some birds, are able to avoid it, and even these are not always quick enough to avoid the strike (pl. 1, fig. 2). This brings us to another part of the snake’s unique machinery, the jaws. In birds and mammals, man included, there is only one articulation of the skull bones, the point at which the lower jaw hinges onto the cranium. In a snake’s skull the bones of the jaws function as prehensile organs and do not masticate the food. They are attached to one another and to the cranium by elastic igamentous tissue, which permits much distortion and wide expansion of the mouth. This, together with the expansion of ribs and body wall, allows for the passage of a prey that far exceeds in cross section the size of the head. The focal point of the jaw action is at the point where, at the back of the skull, the two bones called the quadrate and pterygoid meet the lower jaw (see pl. 2). As the quadrate bone is levered for- ward by muscle action a thrust is transmitted to both the upper and lower series of jawbones which possess teeth. These slide over the meal, hooking on farther forward as the prey is worked down the gullet. The most noticeable movement is in the lower jaw, the two halves of which can separate widely at the tips, where normally they are held in place by elastic ligament. This allows for enormous expansion of a mouth with normally wide gape that extends to well beyond the eyes. Each half of the jaw has independent movement and is pushed forward alternately to its neighbor in a chewing action as the owner literally pulls itself over its prey. A copious flow of saliva in the mouth helps to lubricate the passage of the prey along the gullet. It is a slow and laborious process, painful to watch. Once the prey is past the teeth, swallowing is speeded up as the muscles in the body wall take over, and the meal travels as a visible bulge into the stom- ach. Prey of large size is usually swallowed head first. By the mechanized means described above, which is peculiar to snakes, a MECHANICS OF SNAKES—LEUTSCHER 309 python can swallow a fair-sized deer and a grass snake can engulf a frog that is twice the diameter of its own head (pl. 3). The egg-eating snake (Dasypeltis) is capable of tackling a hen’s egg, which is eaten whole. Certain of its vertebrae have enameled tips projecting into the gullet. These crush the egg in its passage toward the stomach. ‘The contents are swallowed and the eggshell regurgitated as a pellet. A typical snake’s tooth in its layer of enamel is recurved and sharply pointed. It is used only for gripping food. Having no socket, an ordinary tooth is easily broken off but soon replaced; re- serve teeth grow from the gums lining the inner side of the jaw and move into position after each accident. In some serpents certain teeth are modified into poison fangs. These are larger than the normal teeth but retain the general pat- tern of prehensile teeth. They are used, however, for injecting the poison, which is produced in one or other of the modified salivary glands. As with normal teeth they easily break off, and one method of defanging a snake is to allow it to strike at a cloth, which is then jerked away from the closed mouth. But again, a reserve tooth can grow into position and replace a fang that has been lost. In the venomous snakes of the large family Colubridae, in which the long maxillary bone is fixed, the fangs may lie at the rear end of this; hence the name of their division, the Opisthoglypha. The fangs are usually too far back in the mouth and the poison too weak to make these snakes a real danger to man. The Montpellier snake (Malpolon monspessulanus) is of this kind. A specimen that once bit me on the bare arm caused no further discomfort than the pain of the lacerated skin. On the other hand, one of similar length, about 2 feet, bit and killed a grass snake in my reptiliary. It is among their cousins, the division Proteroglypha, or front- fanged snakes, that we meet the killers. Such are the cobras, kraits, and mambas. Many of them bite with a bull-dog tenacity; they tend to hang on and force their fangs into the flesh with a chewing action. The result is often a severe laceration, and this may be accompanied by much loss of poison as it leaks out of the wound. Both groups, front-fanged or back-fanged, have permanently erect fangs in the fixed maxillary bones. The whole operation is in many cases a clumsy affair and not always as swift as one imagines. A rearing cobra may look a fear- some sight, yet some people will approach and tease it with impunity. Far more efficient and less wasteful is the poison mechanism of the family Viperidae, which include the Old World vipers and the New World rattlesnakes. Here the maxillary bones are short and so placed that they can rotate on their front axes where they join the prefrontal 310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 PREFRONTAL SQUAMOSAL QUADRATE MAXILLA RESERVE FANG OPERATIVE FANG LOWER JAW Ficure 2.—Skull of rattlesnake, showing the mechanism of the jaw bones in operating the poison fangs. bones of the cranium (see fig.2). At rest the maxillaries are so placed that the fangs, which are firmly fixed to them, point backward and he along the roof of the mouth. Protected in this way when not in use, they may grow to considerable length, sometimes not far short of 3 inches, as in the Gabun viper of Africa. With the mouth open the viper or rattlesnake brings into operation a set of muscles that puts the highly mobile jawbones through a series of lever actions, in such a way that the short maxillary bones are ro- tated through an angle of about 90°. This brings the fangs into posi- tion for the lightning thrust that follows (fig. 4). - The erection of a viper’s fangs is an independent action, not neces- sarily used only during striking. I have watched an adder yawn to ease its facial muscles, slowly raising each fang in turn, where no POISON DUCT Ficure 3.—Sketch of partly dissected head of rattlesnake, showing the poison apparatus. (After Boulenger.) Smithsonian Report, 195].—Leutscher PLATE 1 1. The Aesculapian snake, named after Aesculapius, the Greek god of healing. A tree- climbing constrictor, it is at rest along a branch. ‘This specimen is 3 feet long, but the species can attain a length of 6 feet. The keels at the edges of the ventral shields are clearly shown. (Photograph by Lionel Day, F. R. P. S.) 2. Northern viper or adder in a defensive attitude preparatory to striking at an object waved above its head. (Photograph by Lionel Day, F. R. P. S.) Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Leutscher PLATE 2 fa | RANSPALATINE SQUAMOSAL PTERYGOID QUADRATE TRANSPALATINE. PTERYGOID BONE QUADRATE SQUAMOSAL Side (upper) and under view of skull of an anaconda. (Photographs by Lionel Day, ded Ua ey) Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Leutscher PLATE 3 A toad in process of being swallowed by a green grass snake (otherwise known as the green keelback, Macropisthodon plumbicolor). The snake alternately advances the right and left sides of its upper jaw, obtains a purchase with its teeth and draws the toad into itself, or, rather, slips itself over the toad. The swallowing occupies about an hour, and di gestion has probably begun on the head before the hind legs disappear. (Photographs by O. C. Edwards, A. R. P. S.) MECHANICS OF SNAKES—LEUTSCHER 311 attempt was made to strike. It once took and swallowed a lizard alive, in which act the fangs remained in the resting position. The groove along the front edge of the fang, as seen in cobras, is completed into an internal canal in the Viperidae. In such a canalized tooth there is an inner opening which appears as a slit at the base of the fang on the posterior side. This communicates with a duct lead- ing to the poison sac, which in the viper is a modified salivary gland lying in the roof of the mouth just below the eye. The outer opening SQUAMOSAL eens PTERYGOID FANG ATTACHED TO MAXILLA Ficure 4.—Erection of fang caused ,by rotation of the maxilla and the chain of bones connected to it. of the fang is set just behind the tip, whose needle sharpness is thereby not impaired. Venom is stored in the spaces within the sac, upon which pressure is brought to bear by the flexion of the facial muscles. These are in close relation with the venom sac, which is squeezed by the muscles in a kind of wringing action. Venom passes via the duct that lies over the maxillary bone, into the hollow fang which is pro- tected by a thick, mucous sheath, and so into the wound. Not a single drop need be wasted (fig. 3). In some cases poison is actually thrown from the fang some distance from its target. In some of the “spitting cobras” the poison may be 9814455221 312 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 ejected with considerable accuracy to a distance of up to 8 feet. Whether the aim is deliberate is not fully understood. Boulenger makes the suggestion that the poison is mixed with the snake’s normal saliva and squirted through an opening in the membranes lining the mouth which act as lips. If so, then this action would entitle this cobra to its popular name. A snake’s fang is a mechanical masterpiece and nature’s parallel to the hypodermic needle. Like the surgical instrument it is only used when necessary, for most snakes strike only as a means of defense or to kill prey. Hair-raising stories of vicious serpents that pursue and leap at their victims, in other words make a deliberate onslaught, are usually figments of the imagination. Deliberate attack as opposed to defense is a rare thing. The above remarks will make it appear that the life of the lowly serpent is a matter for compensation, for “what it loses on the round- abouts it gains on the swings.” It cannot masticate its food, so it swallows it whole; in this it can put a healthy human appetite to shame, yet it can, if forced to, starve for over a year. Limbs as such are missing, so it “walks” on its ribs, swims and grips with its tail, and climbs on its scales. The outer skin does not grow, so from time to time is peeled off neatly, even to the scales over the eyes. ‘Taste is poor, but this is compensated for by a strong sense of smell, in which the harmless tongue assists by catching the smell particles from the air. In hearing it is proverbially deaf, but may receive ample warning of danger from vibrations through solid objects, which reach its sensitive skin more swiftly than sound can travel through air. Prey it can tackle and kill with a choice of two methods, poisoning or constriction, or it can merely swallow it alive. The customs official, indeed many of us, may well puzzle over this “Jimbless quadruped” of the herpetologist, but would no doubt agree with all the fame and notoriety that it enjoys. It holds a position unique among animals in being able to attract yet at the same time repel the observer. Symbol of healing or of evil, feared in one place and worshiped in another, it is steeped in legend and folklore. Enemy of man and persecuted unmercifully, the serpent may yet hold its own in a hostile world for many years to come, owing its survival to the unique machinery of its skeleton with which, as Sir Richard Owen once said, “it can out-climb the monkey, out-swim the fish, out-leap the jerboa, and out-wrestle the athlete.” Hormones and the Metamorphosis of Insects’ By V. B. WiccLeswortH Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, England [With 4 plates] “Those strange and mystical transmigrations that I have observed in Silk-worms,’ wrote Sir Thomas Browne, “turned my Philosophy into Divinity. There is in these works of nature, which seem to puzzle reason, something Divine, and hath more in it than the eye of a common spectator doth discover.” Who, indeed, he says, can fail to wonder “at the operation of two Souls in those little Bodies?” THe contemplation of the metamorphosis of insects has always evoked feelings of mystery. When regarded more closely through the eyes of the anatomist and the experimental biologist, the super- ficial mystery is dispelled—to be replaced by deeper mysteries. Even in that extreme example, metamorphosis in the Lepidoptera, where the caterpillar is transformed into the chrysalis and the butter- fly, the rudiments of the organs of the adult or imago—the wings and legs and so forth—are already present in the young larva as clusters of undifferentiated cells, the so-called imaginal disks. Throughout the larval life of these insects (the “endopterygote” insects) the wing germs grow inward and do not become apparent until they are everted at pupation. The fact remains, however, that the strictly adult structures play no functional part in larval life. Whereas the form of the caterpillar becomes fully differentiated before it hatches from the egg, the adult insect persists in an embryonic state until the growth of the caterpillar is complete and metamorphosis takes place. Indeed, the caterpillar is not a walking embryo, as some authors have contended, but a fully differentiated organism which contains within it, in an embryonic state, the adult butterfly. Metamorphosis consists in the dissolution of 1 Reprinted by permission from Endeavour, vol. 10, No. 37, January 1951. 313 314 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 the organism of the caterpillar and the simultaneous differentiation and realization of the latent organism of the butterfly which super- sedes it. In the development of animals, the stage of visible differentiation of the parts is preceded by a stage of “determination,” at which, although all parts outwardly look alike, each is in fact already com- mitted or determined to form some particular component of the organism that is to be produced. Development is then said to have reached the mosaic stage. Determination of the main parts of the insect body occurs very early in the development of the egg. In some insects, the fruit fly Drosophila (4)? for example, the mosaic state is already attained in the germ plasma on the surface of the egg at the time of laying; that is, before the single nucleus of the egg has even started to divide. In other insects this may not happen until after the germ band has formed. If, when the mosaic state is reached, a part of the determined area is destroyed by burning or by irradiation with ultraviolet light, the corresponding part of the insect will be lacking when visible differentiation and development are complete. The interesting fact about these insects is that, even at this early stage of development, the larval organism and the adult organisin are distinct. Elimination of restricted areas of the newly laid egg of Drosophila results in corresponding deficiencies in the resulting larva—but the adult fly, when it appears, is perfectly normal. At this stage the egg is a mosaic in respect of larval characters, but is still undetermined in respect of the adult characters. But within 7 hours after laying, imaginal determination has taken place; the egg is now a mosaic in respect of adult characters also, and injuries to restricted areas at this time become apparent in the adult fly. Indeed, if they affect organs, such as legs or wings, that are not present in the larva, the results of these injuries are not visible at all until after metamorphosis. The same thing is seen in the clothes moth 7’tneola (5) ; by irradiation at the appropriate moment it is sometimes possible to obtain a clothes moth with normal limbs developing from a larva in which one or more legs were completely absent. Thus, metamorphosis consists in the realization of all those adult or imaginal characters that remain latent throughout larval life; the physiological study of metamorphosis consists in the analysis of the factors by which the manifestation of these imaginal characters is controlled. Many diverse hypotheses have been put forward in the past; but in recent years evidence has accumulated that control is exercised by means of hormones. For the purpose of experiment it proved convenient, in the first instance, to use a hemimetabolic insect; that 2 Numbers in parentheses indicate references at end of article. HORMONES AND INSECTS—WIGGLESWORTH 315 is, an insect which does not show the extreme degree of transforma- tion from caterpillar to butterfly, but one in which the young stages are not very unlike the adult, and in which metamorphosis consists in the development of wings and genital organs and other structural changes, accomplished without the necessity for an intermediate pupal stage. The blood-sucking South American bug Rhodnius, a creature about 2 centimeters in length when fully grown, has proved a most useful experimental animal (8, 9, 10,11). All insects grow by under- going a series of molts, during which the epidermis detaches itself from the old cuticle, lays down a new and larger cuticle, and then casts off the old. Like the small bedbug Cimex, Rhodnius molts five times; in each of its molting stages it requires only one gigantic meal of blood. It is at the fifth molt that it undergoes metamorphosis and becomes adult (pl. 1, figs. 1-3). Molting in Rhodnius is preceded by growth, reorganization, and the deposition of the cuticle for the next stage. This whole elaborate process is set in motion by a secretion from certain large modified nerve cells (neurosecretory cells) situated in the dorsal surface of the brain. If the bug is decapitated within one day after its great meal of blood, it fails to molt—although such headless bugs have remained alive for more than a year (pl. 1, fig. 4). If, however, the region of the brain containing the secretory cells is transplanted into the abdomen of one of these decapitated insects it will duly molt; and surprisingly enough, even if it is a young insect at an early stage of development, it will undergo metamorphosis and develop into a diminutive adult. We shall come back to this matter later. Thus the brain appears to secrete a molting hormone. In Rhodnius this was believed supposed to act directly upon the growing organs, but in the caterpillars and chrysalids of moths the process is more com- plicated. The pupal brain of the silkmoth (14) contains two groups of cells, apparently producing two different secretions, both of which must be present if molting is to occur. These secretions do not act directly upon the tissues but upon another secretory organ, the pro- thoracic gland, which in turn produces the secretion that is neces- sary for growth and molting. A similar gland activated by the secre- tion from the brain has recently been found in Rhodnius (13). The nature of these substances is not known. There are demonstrable changes in the blood of insects at the time of molting and pupation, e. g., increases in the amounts of cytochrome oxidase and cythochrome C in the pupae of the large silkmoths (14), and the activation of tyrosinase in the blood of pupating larve of blowflies (2). Whether any of these substances is to be identified with the hormone itself, or whether they are merely to be counted among the consequences of its activity, remains to be decided. 316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 The implantation of the cells of the brain, which produce the molt- ing hormone, into the abdomen of the decapitated Rhodnius, results, as we have seen, in the occurrence of metamorphosis—even in the young insect whose growth is far from complete. This result sug- gests that the head produces a second factor which normally prevents metamorphosis in the young stages. That such a factor exists has been proved. It has been termed the juvenile hormone, and it is secreted by a special gland of internal secretion named the corpus allatum. The corpus allatum lies just behind the brain; it shows some remarkable resemblances to the glandular part of the pituitary gland in mammals. Rhodnius, as we have seen, has five larval stages before it becomes adult. If the corpus allatum is removed from one of the young stages and implanted into the abdomen of a fifth-stage larva, when this molts it turns into a giant or sixth-stage larva instead of under- going metamorphosis to an adult (pl. 2, fig. 3). Even a seventh- stage larva has been produced in this way, and some of the sixth- stage larvae have transformed successfully into giant adults (pl. 2, fig. 1, and cf. pl. 2, fig. 2). Conversely, removal of the head of a young Rhodnius when molt- ing is just beginning causes the body to undergo a precocious meta- morphosis. It has not been possible to remove the corpus allatum in the living Rhodnius without undue injury to the head and brain. This has, however, proved possible in other insects, and the results obtained in Rhodnius have been amply confirmed. Stick insects, Diwippus (6), treated in this way begin to lay eggs while still quite small. Cockroaches (7) become prematurely adult. Silkworms (1, 8) turn into tiny pupae which will give rise to tiny moths (pl. 3, figs. 1-3). The juvenile hormone is secreted throughout the first four larval stages of Rhodnius. During the fifth stage it is no longer secreted; the corpus allatum of the fifth stage implanted into the abdomen of another fifth stage does not prevent metamorphosis. In the adult in- sect, however, this hormone is once more produced. Here it is neces- sary for the ripening of the eggs. If the adult female is decapitated after feeding, no eggs are developed; they are developed normally if the corpus allatum is implanted in the abdomen. Ifthe corpus allatum of the mature adult is transferred to the abdomen of the fifth-stage larva, metamorphosis is prevented and a sixth stage is produced. It is evident that these hormones serve only to control] the manifesta- tion of characters that are latent within the cells. It is therefore not surprising to find that they are not limited in their action to the insect species from which they have been derived. The blood of a molting Rhodnius will induce molting in a decapitated larva of the related HORMONES AND INSECTS—WIGGLESWORTH 317 genus 7'riatoma (pl. 4, fig. 1, and cf. pl. 2, fig. 4), or even in the bedbug Cimex. The fifth-stage larva of the bedbug can be prevented from becoming adult if it is transfused with the blood from a young larva of Rhodnius containing the juvenile hormone. Normal development of an insect, with the restraint of metamor- phosis until growth is complete, and then, at the appropriate moment, the activation of imaginal differentiation, clearly demands a very nice timing of events. Thé hormones must be released at the correct time and in the correct amounts. If these conditions are not satisfied, as may happen, for example, in some experiments when a corpus allatum from a young Rhodnius is transplanted into a fifth-stage larva, and the amount of juvenile hormone present is too small or is produced too late, metamorphosis is incomplete, and creatures intermediate between lar- vae and adults are produced (pl. 4, figs. 2,3). Errors of this kind are not uncommon in nature. Caterpillars with wing lobes and an- tennae like half-formed pupae may occur; or pupae may have parts of the body resembling larvae. Such abnormalities are most liable to appear in hybrids resulting from the crossing of different species. There can be little doubt that they result from errors in the timing or the concentration of hormone secretions. It would seem that the cells of the young insect contain two systems, one capable of producing the adult insect, the other producing the lar- val insect. In the presence of the molting hormone alone, the adult system is activated and metamorphosis occurs. In the presence of both molting hormone and juvenile hormone, the larval system is activated and metamorphosis is suppressed. Or perhaps we have to do with a single system whose activities are modified in alternative directions depending on the presence or absence of the juvenile hormone. In the last analysis, the nature of the constituent elements, and the mode of interaction between the hormones and the potential organism latent in the tissue cells, are biochemical problems. For the moment we can de- fine them only in biological terms. Once the insect has reached the adult state it does not molt again, save in the most primitive forms. The adult Rhodnius can be induced to do so if it is joined to a young molting insect so that the blood flows from one to the other. If at the same time it is provided with a supply of juvenile hormone by the implantation of corpora allata, it develops on its abdomen a type of cuticle which shows unmistakable larval characters. There has been a partial reversal of metamorphosis, a partial recovery of youth. The future of this subject, which is being actively studied in institu- tions in many parts of the world, clearly lies with the chemist. It should not prove an insuperable task to discover the nature of the growth-controlling hormones of insects, and to define the conditions 318 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 of their action. To discover the nature of the substrate upon which they act, the integrated germ of the organism carried by the living cells (12), is a problem that touches upon the nature of life itself, and may well tax the ingenuity of the biochemist for some time to come. bt SHOMANARAARWDHH jak jad ho et . WIGGLESWorRTH, V. . WIGGLESWorTH, V. . WILLrAMs, C. M. He bt i 09 iB: B. B. B B. B. Growth Symposium, vol. 12, p. 61, 1948. REFERENCES . Bounuror, J. J. Biol. Bull., Suppl., vol. 24, p. 1, 1938. . DENNELL, R. Proc. Roy. Soc., ser. B, vol. 136, p. 94, 1949. . Fukupa, 8. Journ. Fac. Sci. Tokyo Imp. Univ., 4, vol. 6, p. 477, 1944. Griay, R. Rey. Suisse Zool., vol. 48, p. 483, 1941. . LuEscHeR, M. Rev. Suisse Zool., vol. 51, p. 531, 1944. PFLUGFELDER, O. Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., vol. 149, p. 477, 1937. . ScHarrReR, B. Endochrinology, vol. 38, p. 35, 1946. WIGGLESWORTH, V. . WIGGLESWoRTH, V. . WIGGLESWoRTH, V. . WIGGLESWORTH, V. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. 77, p. 191, 1934. Ibid., vol. 79, p. 91, 1936. Journ. Exp. Biol., vol. 17, p. 201, 1940. Ibid., vol. 25, p. 1, 1948. Symposia Soc. Exp. Biol., vol. 2, p. 1, 1948. Nature, vol. 168, p. 558, 1951. Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Wigglesworth PLATE 1 Ficure 1.—Rhodnius larva in the 4th Ficure 2.—Rhodnius larva in the 5th stage, X 4. Stare: Ficure 3.—Rhodnius adult with fully Ficure 4.—Sth-stage larva of Rhodnius developed wings after metamorphosis still alive more than 11 months after from the 5th-stage larva, X 2.5. decapitation, X 2. Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Wigglesworth Figure 1.—Giant adult of Rhodnius re- sulting from the metamorphosis of a 6th-stage larva, X 2. Figure 3.—Giant or 6th-stage larva of Rhodnius resulting from implantation of the corpus allatum of a young larva (secreting juvenile hormone). ‘The site of implantation appears as a scar on the abdomen. 12.5: PLATE 2 Ficure 2.—Ist-stage Rhodnius joined by neck to 5th-stage larva, causing dwarf acute oe Ficure 4.—Rhodnius larva in 4th stage decapitated 1 week after feeding and connected by means of a capillary tube with another 4th-stage larva decapi- tated 24 hours after feeding. ‘The molting hormone from the first insect causes the second to molt. XX 3. Smithsonian Report, 195!.—Wigglesworth PLATE a b ( Frcure 1.—Pupae of the silkworm. a, From larvae in which the corpora allata were extirpated in the 3d stage; b, from larvae similarly treated in the 4th stage; c, from norm: larvae pupating after the 5th stage. XX 1.5. (After Fukuda.) Ficure 2.—Cocoons of silk containing the three pupae shown in figure | (above) Ls (After Fukuda.) Figure 3.—Silkmoths derived from the three pupae shown in figure 1 (above). Natural size (After Fukuda.) Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Wigglesworth PLATE 4 Ficure 1—Young larva of Triatoma Ficure 2.—Rhodnius with characters in- (above) decapitated 24 hours after termediate between larva and adult feeding and caused to molt by joining produced by implanting corpus allatum it to a 5th-stage larva of Rhodnius de- of young larva into abdomen of Sth- capitated 10 days after feeding. 3. stage larva (cf. pl. 2, fig. 3). % 2.5. 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S of the Hankanyt 3 tt a | AT) reser { seatrpates} pee snk phe mA ie ‘alld lh ett nD sontee Togo Viaeimiloss.. id “4 ovthy follow: Thy ghonta SMSTSL.ag S, an, il foro pUah . ent Powe rte Sunmery artichw aboot the evideses fonnd at soine of te et Simo . ute Miseveri and oer Basing; in Cah hort, Texas, Geotping Pict ae hve aletady-appeared ii soley, 4 tiie Joti tas rt apers ‘soitst tibn tang ca Bulletin’ ue et Artificial Lighting in America: 1830-1860 By C. Matcoitm WarkIns Associate Curator, Division of Ethnology, United States National Museum [With 8 plates] THE THREE decades from 1830 to 1860 are of special significance in the history of artificial lighting in America. It was during this period that radical departures were made from tradition, and profuse invention paved the way to modern lighting. It was an era of trial and error, of the search for cheaper fuel and light. It bridged the gap between the primitive lamp and the mass-produced lighting de- vice and ended with the adoption of the first refined petroleum fuel. In its limited sphere this development reflected the larger design taking shape over the country as a whole. During these years traditional colonial patterns began to be disrupted by novel forces whose effects marked the emergence of modern America. Railroads, factories, cities, and population shifts were the outward indications, and causes as well, of enormous transformations. The boiling up- surge of the era impressed foreign visitors to America. Lady Em- meline Stuart Wortley observed in 1850: Everything in nature and art almost seems to flourish here. Schools, uni- versities, manufactories, societies, institutions, appear spreading over the length and breadth of the land, and all seem on such a gigantie scale, too! Lakes, forests, rivers, electric telegraphs, hotels, conflagrations, inundations, rows, roads, accidents, tobacco, Juleps, bowie knives, beards, pistols, &c.! moderation or littleness appear not to belong to America, where Nature herself leads the way and seems to abhor both, showing an example of leviathanism in every- thing, which the people appear well inclined to follow. [Wortley, 1851, p. 33.] Frederika Bremer observed at about the same time that “to hurl mountains out of the way, to bore through them and build tunnels, to move hills into the water as a foundation for roads in places where this is necessary—all this the Americans regard as nothing at all. They have indeed the faith to move mountains.” (Benson, 1924, p. 20.) Dynamic innovation, however, was silhouetted against a background of enduring habit. Change, indeed, was as conspicuous in its absence as in its presence. The static feudal economy of the South, for exam- 385 386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 ple, emphasized the opposing dynamics of the North’s industrialism. Let the visiting stranger “pass into Virginia,” wrote Alexander Mackay in 1847, “and the transition is as great as is the change from the activity of Lancashire, to the languor and inertness of Bavaria” (Mackay, 1849, p. 67). In New England, the Western Railroad, boldly conquering the barrier of the Berkshires, brought modern en- gineering techniques and industrial commerce to the very backyards of rural traditionalism. In Pennsylvania, Mennonite farmers lighted their houses with the medieval-style lamps of their Palatine ancestors, while a few miles away in Philadelphia the latest advances in house- hold illumination were in daily use. At every hand there were evi- dences of two contrasting worlds. In artificial lighting, generally, this duality was as apparent as in the larger picture. On the one hand were brilliant concentrations of gas light in theaters and music halls and museums. ‘There were improved fuels and principles of combustion developed by scientific experiment in learned institutions. In urban homes new inventions made the household lamp a vivid contrast to its predecessors. On the other hand were steadfast marks of enduring habit, which only gradually were to yield to change and achievement. ‘These were most evident in those places where isolation, poverty, and ignorance com- bined to exclude even the simplest improvements. On the frontier and in cultural backwaters the means for artificial lighting were little better than what had been available to aboriginal man. In some in- stances, indeed, these primitive circumstances have survived until recent times. There are persons living today who can recall seeing kitchen fat used in a saucer, with a rag for a wick, in backward sections of the country. Vance Randolph, in his study of the Ozarks, stated as late as 1931 (p. 27): “Not long ago, however, I visited a home in which the only artificial light was a ‘slut-—simply a dish full of grease, with a twisted rag stuck in to serve as a wick.” During the years we are considering, the Ohio settlers used crude open lamps of iron and pottery, and in parts of Alabama simple iron lamps were in use that reportedly still continue their function today. This negative side of the characteristic duality of the period is best illustrated in remote parts of the deep South. In 1853 and 1854 Frederick Law Olmsted traveled through that region and recorded his impressions in valuable detail. Not even a “slut” was in evidence in the Tennessee slave cabin that he observed on a comparatively prosperous farm: The negro cabins were small, dilapidated and dingy, the walls were not chinked, and there were no windows—which, indeed, would have been a superfluous luxury, for there were spaces of several inches between the logs, through which there was unobstructed vision. The furniture in the cabins was of the simplest and rudest imaginable kind, two or three beds with dirty clothing upon them, a ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA—WATKINS 387 chest, a wooden stool or two, made with an axe, and some earthenware and cooking apparatus. Everything within the cabins was colored black by smoke . . . During the evening all the cabins were illuminated by great fires, and, looking into one of them, I saw a very picturesque family group; a man sat on the ground making a basket, a woman lounged on a chest in the chimney corner smoking a pipe, and a boy and two girls sat in a bed which had been drawn up opposite to her, completing the fireside circle. [Olmsted, 1907, p. 153.] Such a setting was not restricted to Negroes, however. Allen Eaton, describing the early cabins of the Tennessee and North Caro- lina highlands (1937, p. 49) says: “The usual light for the interior of the house would be firelight from the hearth, supplemented in fair weather by daylight from the opened door or in rare cases from the so- called window.” Olmsted, stopping at one meagerly furnished Ala- bama farmhouse, stated that his host went to bed immediately after supper and left him alone without a candle. Elsewhere, he found that candles were the usual source of light. Candlesticks to put them in, however, were apparently nonexistent. In an Alabama house of more than the usual appointments he sat in the well-furnished parlor, “alone in the evening, straining my eyes to read a wretchedly printed newspaper, till I was offered a bed . . . My host, holding a candle for me to undress by (there was no candlestick in the house), called to a boy on the outside to fasten the doors” (Olmsted, 1907, p. 188). This situation was repeated several times at subsequent stopping places. “The same Negro was called to serve me as a candlestick at bedtime. He held the candle until I got into bed,” and later, “The master held a candle for me while I undressed.” Even in the rural areas of eastern Virginia, in places that had earlier known higher standards of luxury, there were instances of exactly similar conditions. Olmsted, in “A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States” (1856, pp. 77, 79, 85-86), described a remote farmhouse in the vicinity of Petersburg, where he spent the night: “It was a simple, two-story house, very much like those built by the wealthier class of people in New England villages, from fifty to a hundred years ago, except that the chimneys were carried up outside the walls.” The large room on the first floor was wainscoted and had a carved mantelpiece. “The house had evidently been built for a family of some wealth, and, after having been deserted by them, had been bought at a bargain by the present resident, who either had not the capital or the inclination to furnish and occupy it appropriately.” He was finally led to his bedroom to retire. He continues: Into a large room, again, with six windows, with a fire-place, in which a few brands were smoking, with some wool spread thinly upon the floor in a corner; with a dozen small bundles of tobacco leaves; with a lady’s saddle; with a deep feather-bed, covered with a bright patchwork quilt, on a maple bedstead, and without a single item of other furniture whatever. Mr. Newman asked if I wanted a candle to undress by, I said yes, if he pleased, and waited a moment 388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 for him to set it down: as he did not do so I walked towards him, lifting my hand to take it. “No—I’ll hold it,’ said he, and then I perceived that he had no candle-stick, but held the lean little dip in his hand: I remembered also that no eandle had been brought into the “sitting-room,” and that while we were at supper only one candle had stood upon the table, which had been immediately extinguished when we rose, the room being lighted only from the fire. In these surroundings candles were, of course, homemade. In a one-room cabin in Tennessee Olmsted saw “bunches of candles [hang- ing] from the rafters” in the manner customary in New England farm kitchens of a century and more earlier. Insufficiency of artificial light was not altogether confined to rural farms in the South, however. Olmsted, in the work just quoted (1856, pp. 334-836), recounts an amusing episode that occurred in a stagecoach inn at Fayetteville, N. C. It suggests that the absence of light may have been related in some cases to the general nature of things in the old South’s economy and social organization, rather than to lack of access to the means of good light. I followed the negro up to number eleven, which was a large back room, in the upper story, with four beds in it. “Peter,” said I, “I want a fire made here.” “Want a fire, sar?’ “Yes, I want you to make a fire.” “Want a fire, master, this time o’ night?” “Why, yes! I want a fire! Where are you going with the lamp?” “Want a lamp, massa?” “Want alamp? Certainly, I do.” After about ten minutes, I heard a man splitting wood in the yard, and, in ten more, Peter brought in three sticks of green wood, and some chips; then, the little bed-lamp having burned out, he went into an adjoining room, where I heard him talking to some one, evidently awakened by his entrance to get a match; that failing, he went for another. By one o’clock, my fire was made. “Peter,” said I, “are you going to wait on me, while I stay here?’ “Yes, sar; I ’tends to dis room.” “Very well; take this, and when I leave, I’ll give you another, if you take good eare of me. Now, I want you to get me some water.” “T’ll get you some water in de morning, sar.” “IT want some to-night—some water and some towels; don’t you think you can get them for me?” “T reckon so, massa, if you wants ’em. Want ’em ’fore you go to bed?’ “Yes; and get another lamp.”’ “Want a lamp?” “Yes, of course.” “Won’t the fire do you?” “No; bring a lamp. That one won’t burn without filling; you need not try it.” The water and the lamp came, after a long time. The following evening, as it grew too cold to write in my room, I went down, and found Peter, and told him I wanted a fire again, and that he might get me a couple of candles. When he came up, he brought one of the little bed- lamps, with a capacity of oil for fifteen minutes’ use. I sent him down again to the office, with a request to the proprietor that I might be furnished with ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA—WATKINS 389 candles. He returned, and reported that there were no candles in the house. “Then, get me a larger lamp.” “Ain’t no larger lamps, nuther, sar ;—none to spare.” “Then go out, and see if you can’t buy me some candles, somewhere.” “Ain’t no stores open, Sunday, massa, and I don’t know where I can buy ’em.” “Then go down, and tell the bar-keeper, with my compliments, that I wish to write in my room, and I would be obliged to him if he would send me a light, of some sort; something that will last longer, and give more light, than these little lamps.” “He won't give you none, massa—not if you hab a fire. Can’t you see by da light of da fire? When a gentleman hab a fire in his room, dey don’t count he wants no more light ’n dat.” “Well, make the fire, and I’ll go down and see about it.” As I reached the foot of the stairs, the bell rung, and I went in to tea. The tea-table was moderately well lighted with candles. I waited till the company had generally left it, and then said to one of the waiters: “Here are two dimes: I want you to bring me, as soon as you can, two of these candles to number eleven; do you understand?” “Yes, sar; I'll fotch ’em, sar.” And he did. Most often, rude conditions in the South were attributable to geo- graphical isolation, rather than other causes. In Pennsylvania, how- ever, we find a different kind of isolation that likewise enforced the survival of primitive forms of lighting. This was the barrier of language, religion, and culture, all differing from that which pre- vailed elsewhere. There was a deep-seated traditionalism among the Pennsylvania Germans, which made the continued use of ancient forms of copper and iron crusies a congenial habit. In Germany and Switzerland, at the time of the first German migra- tions to America, the prevailing lighting devices among the common people were either simple hanging lamps with slanting metal troughs to hold the wicks, or merely shallow pans for burning fat or lard. In Pennsylvania the former came to be called “betty” lamps, or “judies,” or “kays,” or “frog lamps.” The latter, of Alpine origin, either hung from hooks or had elaborate wrought-iron standards, in which case the pans themselves took on a variety of shapes. From these proto- types the “Dutch” metalsmiths in America developed their own char- acteristic versions. In collections today there are many examples bearing the names of such Pennsylvania lamp makers as Peter Derr, Joseph S. Schmitz, J. Eby, Hurxthal & Co., or J. Boker. So solidly entrenched was the custom in Pennsylvania of using these ancient lamp forms that there are numerous instances of their employment late in the nineteenth century. Henry C. Mercer (1898, p. 7), indi- cating that the “betty” lamp had sometimes survived up to his day, gave the following directions for its use: Thrust the point horizontally into a beam or catch the barb upon a hook, nail or log crevice, then filling the vessel with lard, light the twisted tow (later 390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 cotton) wick, laid along the internal trough, so tilted as to allow the oil oozing from the flame to flow back into the vessel. By the light, brighter than a candle, work at the loom after dark or fry potatoes at night on the open fire, as David Getter still does (October 1897), in his log cabin in the hill country of Spring- field township. The “betty” lamp was to be found not only in Pennsylvania, but all along the course of German emigration. Among the Germans of Ohio it was probably as commonly used in the 1830-60 period as in Pennsylvania. A lamp in the United States National Museum collection of heating and lighting devices (No. 345938) is a typical Pennsylvania example but was used in Arkansas in the early days of the settlement. Other illustrations of the employment of these devices in the newly settled areas of the Midwest frequently occur. In rural regions, not only in the South.and West, but in isolated parts of the East as well, it is probable that candles more often held a foremost place. Made of tallow, they were sometimes dipped and sometimes cast in molds. Hough (1928, p. 18), stated: In reality the molds represent a method of economy among our ancestors in that small amounts of fat could be worked up into candles with the molds when required. Generally on the plantations, where a great many candles were necessary, sufficient were made for the whole year by dipping, which was far more expeditious than by molds. Candle dipping was usually coincident with the butchering of the winter stores of meat, at which time much fat was accumulated. Candle dipping was accomplished on a large scale by the use of revolving candle driers. These devices were especially popular in Pennsylvania, but they occurred elsewhere, as among the New England Shakers, where large quantities were produced at one time. They consisted in each instance of a series of horizontal spokes, like a rim- less wheel, which revolved on an upright spindle supported on a waist-high stand. From the end of each spoke was suspended a wooden disk or square. On the bottom of this were numerous small hooks to which the candle wicks were tied. When the molten tallow or wax was prepared by heating it on the surface of a kettle of hot water, a disk was removed from the drier, the wicks were dipped in the tallow and withdrawn, and the disk hung back on the drier. The process was repeated with each drier. By the time the entire series had been dipped once, the first wicks were sufficiently hard to be dipped again. Thus, repeated coatings of tallow were allowed to accumulate until the candles reached the desired size. Another simpler method of dipping was used in New England. Here, the wicks were suspended and dipped from long sticks or “broaches.” Each stick, with a dozen or more wicks, was placed across a pur of long poles supported at the ends on the backs of two chairs. The wicks were then dipped successively and repeatedly as with the revolving drier (Earle, 1898, pp. 35-86). It was necessary, for the Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Watkins PLATE 1 Three 19th-century iron “betty” lamps: Left, Stamped “FE. Brown” and “1835,” used in Washington, D. C. Middle, A typical Pennsylvania-style lamp of the midcentury, from Newkirk, Okla. Right, Lamp found in the stock of a Philadelphia hardware store in 1898. The harpoonlike hooks were hung on chair backs or from nails or thrust into chinks in fireplaces. Left, Iron “hogscraper” candlestick of late 18th or early 19th century. The sharp-edged base was convenient for scraping bristles from newly slaughtered hogs. Middle, Patent model for “‘hogscraper” candlestick. Patented by Merriam, Harris, Wheeler & Merriam, of Poultney, Vt., in 1853. Right, Brass candlestick of style used about 1825-1840. dure] Jaquieys “y31y “SZ8I-S TR] noge ‘sdurr] [ajueu jo sed ‘9seq po}YysI9OM ¥ UI po]UNOU pol UOT ue UO BJO 2UQ ‘appLyy §‘OLSI-OO8I 2Noge ‘dur pury 7fa7 : (410A19 umop pur dn apljs 0} pausisap dure] uly, yay = *AuNOD syong ‘puis -sa1 pasopoue yum dure] ,.o(qeise ,,ue 10J /8/] Joquaied ysipsuy uspoom pouin} uo duiyy ,.Aj0q,, UOI] ‘aypprpy = “IIOAIOSO1 SulsutMs S$ Sa]IJ UO paseq) Ainqusd yIST Ajiva fo sdury] jlo-sjeym ssvig yum dure] pie, uoiy “fa7 :sduiey evlueajAsuusg Ainjud9-Y16[-pIy 4 —— Z@ ALV 1d suryqeA\—" 1 661 *‘qaodayy uRTUOsYy WIG Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Watkins Glass whale-oil lamps with enclosed reservoirs and tight-fitting bu innovation. ‘The earliest (like that shown at far right) were simy After the mechanical pressing ol blown fonts and pressed bases. Second lamp front rig] t rlass was introduced in 1826, ibout 1830; the others are somewhat later Glass lamps of about 1830-1860 Emerson, fitted with « )per-ty} with fluid or camphene burner, probably oil lamp with pewter screw-type whale-oi *Ainquas 61 yelp 9] postolout ‘s pues1y fO UOIYBAOUUT UL ‘sAou Ajieyy “BuIsstur 10}D9]a1 ul pue Aouuttud ssey3 fosn uoUTWIOD -UITY9 sse "OSV IOUING YO JO asKq 1¥ S}OTS USNOIYI pojiUrpe Teaco Iss! , i : nu | 1 y J | [Ss ¥ : Joy odAq-][em uly, ‘/y¥s2y “uUMOYS JOU AdUWITYD ssvys S(¢FRT ‘9 SUM ITY “SUR JoYOVA ot YSNo1y] siauing 0} pay pur MOAIsaI judy ‘wy ‘O Aq pequeied) [lo prey] uing 0} pousisap dur] [equs. ul pjay sem Ayddns jlo sy], ‘uo IBulyseAA V3109KE) Aq puesiy jo japowl qusieg Yfa7 :dwie] pursiy ayi Jo sucisi9A OMT, peuMo AT[eUIsIIO ‘“aseq ssev[s-jnd uo pajunow ‘dwe] puesiy I9A]IS vp ALV 1d SUIYIEA\ —"|C6| WOday uRtUOsYyWIG Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Watkins PLATE 5 “sinumbra,” lamps. These embody the Argand burner in combination Three astral, or with ring-shaped reservoirs (shown at right), designed to minimize amount of shadow. They were used with chimneys and glass shades of varying shapes, of which the one at left is most typical. American, about 1830-1840. SENT LEMENS | CABIN = Transfer-printed scene from Staffordshire platter of the “Boston Mails Series,” made by J. and T. Edwards of Burslem in 1841. A suspension-type astral lamp hangs above the table in the “‘gentlemen’s cabin.” (Courtesy Mrs. Arthur M. Greenwood.) (ouy ‘doys iug plo eT, Jo Asolinod) “smOpuUIM ay} UsdMJ0q 9]qQR1 dy UO due] [ese Ue SMOYS 9WOY YIOX MON Op-O}-]]9M ¥v ul JOjied v jo [eke »d jenqoey Al[Njored sip, “OSgy inoqe poluied ‘o1ime] Jopurxely Aq A LI9]U] YIOX MON V,, rere Bi ee . il ] { 9 3LWid SUIPIEM—"[G6] ‘Oday uerUosyqUIG Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Watkins PLATE 7 Four solar lamps. Usually designed to burn lard oil, these used a modified Argand burner with a device to shade the flame into a column of light. ‘The shades were often globular, with engraved designs. ‘The solar lamp was economical and efficient and was especially popular in the 1840's. Three patent models of tin lard-burning lamps: Left, Harvey Temlinson’s patent, Geneva N. Y., September 1, 1843, embodying an Argand burner with copper air tube. Middle Zebulon Warroll’s patent, Chester Hill, Ohio, February 7, 1842, depending upon gravity for flow of fuel, the heat from the flame warming the lard in the reservoir. Right, One of several patents by Robert Cornelius, of Philadelphia, this one dated April 6, 1843. A ribbon wick with copper conductor strip is the working principle. Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Watkins PLATE 8 Patent models illustrating inventive ingenuity: Left, Rosin lamp, with heater underneath to keep the rosin fluid, patented by Prentice Sargent, Newburyport, Mass., March 4, 1856. Middle, Lard lamp patented by Silas B. Terry, Plymouth, Conn., February 24, 1843. Right, Fluid vapor lamp patented by C. A. Green, Philadelphia, April 21, 1857. The small burner seen at right superheated the volatile fuel in the large burner, causing it to vaporize and burn as a gas. Patent models of lard lamps using pressure to feed fuel to wicks: Left, Tin lard lamp pat- ented by John Grannis, Oberlin, Ohio, August 25, 1842. A plunger drives lard from secondary reservoir to primary reservoir and wick. Middle, Maltby and Neal’s lard lamp patented by Benjamin K. Maltby, Rootstown, Ohio, May 4, 1842. The patented feature is a pair of perforated copper wick tubes to assure equal distribution of lard into wicks when pressure is applied, preventing wicks from being displaced. Right, Lard lamp patented by Thomas Sewell, New York, October 2, 1847. Turning the inner portion of the base forces the lard upward. ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA—WATKINS 391 most satisfactory and economical performance, to allow the candles to dry and harden for many weeks. Bundles were suspended from the beams of the kitchen, as described by Olmsted above, or in the attic. Candle molds were usually made of tin in a variety of sizes and combinations. Molds were easier to use, since fewer operations were involved. That they are to be found on each side of the Mississippi, in areas settled by people of both German and Anglo-Saxon stock, indicates that candles were used generally. Their continued use is attested by the fact that there were occasional inventions of candle molds during the period under discussion. In 1837 the following notice was given of a mold exhibited at the Mechanic’s Fair in Boston: BH). Haywood, of Boston, has produced candie moulds, which open lengthwise, in halves, and can be curved or cast upon figured moulds, so as to yield spermaceti or wax candles of beautiful ornamented patterns. (Boston Daily Sentinel and Gazette, Sept. 25, 1837.) It is apparent from this that not only the tallow candles of the rural areas but also the expensive spermaceti candles we usually associate with aristocratic eighteenth-century surroundings were still in fashion. Spermaceti is the crystalline wax from the head of the sperm whale and, though expensive, was unsurpassed as a candle illuminant. Candlesticks ranged from crude holders of tin and iron, and even pottery, to those of pewter, brass, and silver. Elaborate electroplated examples with embossed designs were popular in “elegant” settings after 1850, while the turned types of brass sticks (essentially like their eighteenth-century predecessors, except for greater mass and less re- straint) were for common use. Devices for expelling the stubs of candles were common by 1830. A popular barn and kitchen candle- stick with a slide-style expeller was called a “hog-scraper” because of its sharp-edged base, adaptable to scraping bristles from newly slaugh- tered hogs. This remained in use throughout the century and within recent years has been sold by a large mail-order house with the candle socket omitted, its adopted function having become its primary pur- pose. The United States National Museum exhibits a heavy brass stick with internal expeller which is a patent model of 1840 (No. 251- 722). The Franklin Institute commended an iron candlestick, ex- hibited in the 1832 Exhibition, as being one that “will compare with the English both in quality and price.” It is significant that there were as many as 18 candlesticks patented between 1830 and 1860, as well as one design for snuffers. In an apparently characteristic up-State New York farmhouse, brass candlesticks formed part of the decorative scheme in the best parlor. Susan Fenimore Cooper described this room in 1851 (“A Lady,” pp. 157-158) : 981445—52———_26 392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 It was both parlor and guest chamber at the same time. In one corner stood a maple bedstead, with a large, plump feather bed on it, and two tiny pillows in well-bleached cases at the head. The walls of the room were whitewashed, the wood-work was unpainted, but so thoroughly scoured, that it had acquired a sort of polish and oak color. Before the windows hung colored paper blinds. Between the windows was a table, and over it hung a small looking-glass, and a green and yellow drawing in water colors, the gift of a friend. On one side stood a cherry bureau.... The mantel-piece was ornamented with peacock’s feathers, and brass candlesticks, bright as gold; in the fireplace were fresh sprigs of asparagus. An open cupboard stood on one side, containing the cups and saucers in neat array, a pretty salt cellar, with several pieces of cracked and broken crockery, of a superior quality, preserved for ornament rather than use. But if we are to see the other side of the picture and observe the achievements of invention in lighting and that spirit of “leviathanism” which so impressed Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley, we must remain in the cities and urbanized areas of the seaboard. Here important im- provements had been introduced before the close of the eighteenth century, and some had been widely adopted in America. Contributing as much as any one individual to the development of lighting, a Swiss chemist, Ami Argand, in 1783 had invented the first lamp to be con- structed on scientific principles of combustion. This embodied a hollow tube, open at both ends, which extended upward through the center of the burner. A cylindrical woven wick was fitted tightly around the tube, and an outer cylinder was placed around this. Oil from the reservoir was fed into the side of the cylindrical chamber containing the wick. The hollow tube in the center served to admit air to the center of the flame, thus increasing combustion and the amount of light as heat from the flame acted automatically to create a draft. The draft was further increased by the addition of a glass chimney. Argand is credited with the first practical use of the lamp chimney. Well-to-do Americans, among them Washington and Jefferson, had installed Argand lamps before 1800, and after that year several modi- fications and adaptations of Argand’s idea were adopted by city folk who could afford them. Their greatly superior light, amounting to as much as 9 candlepower, was considered revolutionary, as we shall see. More significant from a cultural and economic standpoint, if not from a technological one, was the widespread adoption of an English weaver’s invention, John Miles’s “agitable” lamp, patented in England in 1787. Although apparently but little concerned with scientific principle, Miles succeeded in designing an eminently simple device consisting of a container with a hole at the top into which a burner with one or more vertical wick tubes could be screwed or tightly fitted. Sperm oil or even common whale oil could be drawn up into the vertical wicks, and the stopper-type burners minimized the spilling ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA—WATKINS 393 of oil. The symmetrical design permitted making handsome lamps of tin, pewter, brass, and glass, and their simplicity made them eco- nomical and easy to clean. The whaling industry, already well established, was able to provide the necessary fuel for these devices, particularly in the Northeast, their increasing popularity after 1800 having been a basic reason for the expansion of whaling. By 1830 the “common” or whale-oil lamp (as Miles’s lamp came to be called) had become a standard household device in the East. A large part of the output of the glass factories in Pittsburgh, Sandwich, and Cam- bridge consisted of glass whale-oil lamps, while pewterers and tin- smiths welcomed the new form so admirably adapted to their skills. However, the light emitted from a whale-oil lamp with a single wick was not much greater than that of a candle. This lamp had a solid wick and rarely included a chimney. Its popular appeal was there- fore attributable to economy, simplicity, and satisfactory appearance. It is initially surprising that the most radical innovation of all, though introduced before 1830, was not widely accepted until after the Civil War. This was illuminating gas, first used for domestic light- ing by David Melville, of Newport, R. I., in 1806. Although Melville’s enthusiasm for gas light led him to install it in a nearby textile mill as well as in street lamps outside his house, it remained for a long time anovelty. As early as 1799 or 1800 one Mr. Henfry had demonstrated gas light in Baltimore, and in 1816 Rembrandt Peale used gas to light his museum in that city. So successful was it there that the first com- mercial installation of gas street lights was urged and adopted by the Baltimore citizenry within the following year. Except for street lighting in most of the larger cities, gas illumination was confined prin- cipally to theaters, museums, and other public gathering places. Elaborate technical requirements and installation problems remained as hurdles that were difficult to overcome. Gas lighting was still uncommon in 1843, when the Franklin Institute conducted experiments to prove its utility. It was concluded that gas could be credited with giving “bright and continuous light,” cleanliness, and freedom from variation, smell, smoke, or care, yet “its disadvantage is that it is a fixed light, and can be used only at points previously determined upon” (Journal, 1843, ser. 3, vol. 5, p. 105). The fixtures then used for gas ranged from simple brackets project- ing from the wall to very elaborate chandeliers. The predominantly public use of gas during the 1830-60 period accounts largely for the latter, which are both illustrated and commented upon in contem- porary literature. The Report on Lamp and Gas Fixtures in the 13th Annual Exhibit of the Franklin Institute in 1844 describes “the richly ornamented gas pendants and chandeliers finished in ormolu, the workmanship of which is exceedingly beautiful, the color faultless, and the whole such as to satisfy the most fastidious taste, and in com- 394 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 bination with the judicious arrangements of the glass ornaments pro- duce a very brilliant effect” (Journal, ser. 3, vol. 6, p. 402). The Cornelius firm of Philadelphia, the largest manufacturer of lighting devices in America at the time, exhibited two gas chandeliers at the London International Exhibition of 1851. The Art Journal’s catalogue of the display comments as follows: “They stood about fifteen feet and a half high, by six feet wide, having fifteen burners with plain glass globes, and are rich brass lacquered. The design is very rich in ornament, and possesses some novelty in the succession of curves ingeniously and tastefully united: the gas keys represent bunches of fruit, thus combining beauty with utility” (1851, p. 212). Such dubious marriages between beauty and utility were to become increasingly frequent in American lighting devices as the century wore on. Gas street lights were simple inverted truncated pyramids of glass and tin, mounted on posts and enclosing gas jets. Charles Dickens remarked upon the lights of Broadway in 1842 (p. 103) : “As the eye travels down the long thoroughfare, dotted with bright jets of gas, it is reminded of Oxford Street or Piccadilly. Here and there a flight of broad stone cellar-steps appears, a painted lamp directs you to the Bowling Saloon, or Ten-Pin Alley ... At other downward flights of steps, are other lamps, marking the whereabouts of oyster-cellars.” Public illuminations of a celebrative nature were frequent urban occurrences in the exuberant years we are considering, and the possi- bilities of gas light were exploited to the utmost on those occasions. Gas pipes were sometimes bent to odd shapes, and when perforated with holes for jets, were mounted on buildings and lighted with im- pressive effects. At the Railroad Jubilee held in Boston in 1851 to commemorate the completion of the railroad between Boston and Montreal, an illumi- nation “emblematic, not only of present joy, but of bright hope for the future . . . irradiated the scene,” according to the official account. “The Tremont House,” it was narrated, “is especially worthy of notice for the extent and splendor of its illumination. The columns of the portico were like pillars of flame. Two thousand lights were placed in the windows, besides which there were two dazzling rosettes of gas in front. The exhibition called forth the warmest encomiums of thousands.” The Boston Gas Light Co. naturally made the most of its product, and we find that “in front of the office of this Com- pany was seen the word ‘Union,’ in ‘letters of living light,’ supported by four vines, above all which blazed a single star of dazzling bril- liancy” (Railroad Jubilee, 1852, p. 188 ff.). Such public demonstrations were all the more wondrous because they were unfamiliar. In the ordinary household a meager amount ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA—WATKINS 395 of light was the expected thing, and a greater concentration was often regarded with disfavor under normal circumstances. As early as 1804 the Domestic Encyclopedia had commented on the “superior utility of lamps,” but “as the light emitted from them is frequently too vivid for weak or irritable eyes, we would recommend the use of a small screen” (Mease, 1804, vol. 3, p. 432). Presumably the Argand lamp, with its unprecedented candlepower, was the basis for this caution. Count Rumford had stated in 1811 that “no decayed beauty ought ever to expose her face to the direct rays of an Argand lamp.” By 1847 this hostility to unusual brilliance was still expressed. The Franklin Institute Journal in that year (ser. 3, vol. 14, p. 410) re- marked that “the unpleasant, and to many sights, painful effects of the naked flame of a candle, lamp or gas-burner, have long been known and felt.” At almost the same date (August 21, 1847), the Scientific American observed some extraordinary precautions taken against glare: “The introduction of gas lights into private houses has been taken advantage of by the ladies, who under protest against the glare and uncomfortableness of such bright lights, deliberately spread para- sols in evening soiree .. . A pink parasol judiciously held between a lady’s face and a gas burner throws a tender, roseate hue over the complexion.” In commonplace surroundings, particularly outdoors, the light af- forded on ordinary occasions was seldom sufficient to damage one’s eyesight, all fears to the contrary notwithstanding. Alexander Mac- kay (1849, pp. 129, 162), looking across the Delaware River, found the lights of Philadelphia “as few and far between as are those of London and the Thames.” On the “cold moist platform” of the Wash- ington railroad station “we stood shivering by the light of one wretched lamp,” while in front of his hotel there “the solitary lamp which burned over the door only made darkness visible.” Dickens remarked upon the “feeble lights” of Harrisburg, which “reflected dis- mally from the wet ground” (1842, p. 170). For those who traveled at night, illumination in public conveyances must have been even more dismal. John S. Kendall in “The Con- necticut and Passumpsic Rivers Railroad” (1932), states: “Sperm candles were used at first for lighting the cars, giving way to oil lamps later. They gave just about light enough to keep passengers with good eyesight from falling over the seats.” Mackay (1849, p. 36), traveling from Worcester to Norwich, stated, “A solitary lamp burned at one end of the car.” When the Western Railroad was com- pleted between Worcester and Springfield, Mass., in 1839, the new passenger car was equipped with a glass-encased boxlike frame beside each seat. Passengers placed their own candles in these frames at first, but because one’s candles did not always fit the socket, the railroad later furnished them (Ayers, 1944). 396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 As might be expected, the stagecoach traveler had the ultimate minimum of light. Mackay (1849, p. 213), about to ride from Mill- edgeville to Macon, Ga., attempted to examine the vehicle which was to take him “by the glimmering light of a tin lantern, which had the peculiarity of never being precisely where it was wanted.” Steamship lighting was glamorous by contrast. Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley (1851, p. 25) voyaged up the Hudson in “a floating island of painting, marble, gilding, stained glass, velvet hangings, satin draperies, mirrors in richly carved frames, and sculptured orna- ments with beautiful vases of flowers, Chinese lamps of various in- describable forms, arabesques, chandeliers—in short, you might fancy yourself in Haroun Alraschid’s palace.” The lighting of churches was usually austere. Many churches had no lights at all, while others merely had a minimum of light in the form of simple sconces. The Wells Collection at Old Sturbridge Village (Sturbridge, Mass.) includes a chandelier from a Baptist meetinghouse, near Brunswick, Maine, that dates from about 1820. This consists of a turned wooden central section, radiating spidery arms of heavy iron wire which support tin candle saucers and are dec- orated with tin leaves. The same collection exhibits four candelabra, two in the form of a cross and two in the form of an ellipse, from a Mennonite church in Pennsylvania. The Rocky Hill Meetinghouse in Salisbury, Mass., still has three astral lamps suspended from over- head. These were probably installed about 1830, or slightly earlier. No other means of artificial light have since disturbed them. Domestic lighting was seldom brilliant. Harriet Martineau (1838, vol. 1, p. 37), landing in New York from England in 1838, complained that in her Broadway boardinghouse bedroom the four bed posts looked “as if meant to hang gowns and bonnets upon, for there was no tester. The washstand was without tumbler, glass, soap, or brush tray. The candlestick had no snuffers.” It is to be concluded that one candle was supposed to light a whole room. The refinement of city houses was, of course, in striking contrast to the crude cabins of the frontier. Mrs. Felton (1842, pp. 36-87), said that in New York “the number of superb houses is very great. ... They appear all to be built upon one plan; the chief feature of which is, that the dining and drawing rooms are situated on the lower floor, and so arranged, as by throwing open a large pair of folding doors, to form one splendid apartment. Their furniture is magnificent in the extreme.” The lighting for so elaborate a home as these was usually on an appropriate scale from the standpoint of the appearance of the fix- tures. In function, however, even the more expensive gas or oil-burn- ing devices left something to be desired, although they were vastly ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA—WATKINS 397 superior to candles and whale-oil lamps. Frederika Bremer in 1849 described the evenings she spent in New York City in the well-fur- nished home of her American friends, Mr. and Mrs. Downing. Among her happiest hours, she said, were “those passed in the evening with my host and hostess, sitting in the little darkened parlor with book- cases and busts around us, and the fire glimmering in the large fire- place. There by the evening lamp, Downing and his wife read to me by turns from their most esteemed American poets” (Benson, 1924, p. 11). Here is a vivid picture from the home of cultured persons, where the light of one lamp was sufficient for one individual to read by, but still so dim as to leave the room “darkened.” The lamps thus used for parlor tables were commonly “astral” lamps, fitted with ground-glass shades resting on ring-shaped, or “annular,” reservoirs. Designed to minimize the amount of shadow cast by the reservoir, these were modifications of the Argand lamp. They were made of brass or bronze, as a rule, though sometimes their bases were of pressed glass. Like the “common” lamps that were used in the less important parts of the house, astral lamps burned sperm oil. Miss Leslie in 1840 defined in great detail the types of lamps used in a well-to-do home, with instructions concerning their use and care. She pointed out that “lamp shades painted in bright colors are now considered in very bad taste” and also advised that a separate oil can should be used for the parlor lamps. Besides the astral lamps, there were other types that gained favor for parlor use as inventive activity increased. One was the Carcel, or “Mechanical,” lamp, invented in France in 1800 but not until con- siderably later adopted here. The Carcel lamp embodied an elaborate clockwork which activated a pump that in turn flooded its Argand burner with oil. It was surely very costly in comparison with other lamps, but it was by far the most efficient lamp that had yet been devised for burning viscous fuels. The Franklin Institute conducted various tests with the Carcel lamp, and the findings must have been in- fluential in stimulating its use. Among other things, it was found that the Carcel lamp using fall-strained sperm oils burned with an intensity of more than twice that of a gas burner, and at only slightly higher cost. The Journal (1848, ser. 3, vol. 5, p. 105 ff.) observed: “The Carcel lamps, although from their construction, expensive, give an exceedingly steady long enduring, and bright light, and are char- acterized by beauty of form, and total absence of shadow.” Although the breaking of conventional shackles on illumination was not always recognizable in terms of increased light, it was manifested by a growing spate of inventions, which served progress by the trial- and-error method. Bred in the new atmosphere of mechanical and scientific advancement, approximately 500 patented inventions were 398 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 recorded in the United States Patent Office between 1830 and 1860 for lighting devices alone. Scarcely 50 had been listed between 1790 and 1830 (Hubbard, 1935). It is true that improvement upon what was already in existence was a leading motive for this inventive activity; but there were also underlying economic reasons, of which one was the state of the whaling industry. Even before the demand for whale oils had reached its height in the middle 1840’s the whaling industry, while seeking to supply a growing demand, had found itself faced with diminishing returns. Whales became scarcer, voyages in search of them grew longer, and the risks of both the owners and the crews increased with each voyage. Hohman states (1928, pp. 273, 302, 330), “It was estimated that during the middle years of the nineteenth century approximately ten percent of all American whaling vessels made voyages which resulted in a net loss to their owners.” Between 1846 and 1861 the whole fleet declined from 735 to 514 ships. Meanwhile, the wholesale price of sperm oil fluctuated upward in increasing peaks. In 1848, to cite an extreme contrast, the dockside price in New Bedford was 95 cents a gallon, while in 1855 it was $1.70. Earlier than this, however, whale oils had been expensive, although they could be burned comparatively cheaply in the simple common lamp. As early as 1821 winter-strained sperm oil had cost the city of Boston $1.07 a gallon on a contract basis. In 1843 the price of fall-strained oil was quoted by the Franklin Institute Journal (ser. 3, vol. 5, p. 105 ff.) at 90 cents a gallon, and the winter- strained variety at $1. It is easy to see why farm folk preferred to rely on lard and tallow from their own animals. A few of the inventors sought to improve the efficiency of lamps in- tended to burn sperm oil. Samuel Rust, of New York, took out several patents involving the use of ribbon wicks and chimneys to increase combustion, wick raisers to permit finer adjustments, and other modifications of the common lamp which sought to improve its function. In 1831 William Lawrence designed a hanging lamp with a reservoir in the shape of a hollow truncated cone and with slanting ribbon-wick burners enclosed in a glass shade. This pro- vided, in theory at least, proper draft-fed combustion and a good central light. Closely related in form was Couch & Frary’s lamp patented two years later. It remained for Isaiah Jennings in 1830 to patent a new fuel and thereby make the outstanding contribution to the development of lighting prior to the discovery of kerosene. His “burning fluid” combined alcohol and spirits of turpentine in a proportion of eight to one. It was the first chemically made, volatile illuminating fuel. The Franklin Institute Journal, a regular commentator and fre- quently severe critic of new inventions, was enthusiastic: “We have ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA—-WATKINS 399 seen the above mixture in combination in an Argand’s lamp. The flame was clear, dense, and brilliant. The light may be made greatly to exceed that from oil, without the escape of any smoke, and there is not the slightest odor of turpentine. The patentee says the mixture is as cheap as spermaceti oil, and that he is making arrangements which will enable him to afford it at less cost considerably below that material.” It concluded with an afterthought: “The friends of temperance will not object to the burning of alcohol” (1831, ser. 2, vol. 7, pp. 75-76). The Journal did not then foresee the dangers inherent in the use of so explosive an agent in a common, or even an Argand, lamp. By 1834 they had reason, as we shall see, to comment on Samuel Casey’s patented burning compound (one of several variants of Jennings’s fluid) : “The late fatal accidents resulting from the use of such ingredients in Jamps will, however, probably put a final stop to the use of these mixtures, and we have no doubt that a court of law would now decide that they are not useful, within the meaning of the statute” (1834, ser. 2, vol. 14, p. 247). Nevertheless, the cheapness of these fluids and the comparative ex- cellence of the light afforded by them led to their gradual adoption. There were several followers in Jennings’s footsteps, among them Henry Porter, of Bangor, Maine, who added camphor, rosin, and tincture of curcuma to the formula in 1835. Finally, in 1839, Augus- tus V. X. Webb of New York began to manufacture distilled turpen- tine under the name “camphine.” Later (when usually spelled cam- phene) that became a generic term applied loosely to all the fluids. The use of undiluted turpentine was not new with Webb, however, for only a year earlier Luther Jones had patented a lamp for burning this substance. The lamp was advertised in the Boston Transcript (November 27, 1839) : A New and Superior Lamp. Jones’s Patent Reverse Lamp, for burning the oil of turpentine. For light, this lamp is without a parallel, producing more light from the same width of wick than any other. The material used in them is per- fectly harmless. The lamp can be filled at any time without the least danger ; it costs less than oil, and the lamp is a very excellent one for Stores, Factories, Work Shops, &e,&e ... The claims made here for its safety are not supported by the Frank- lin Institute Journal’s commentator: “So far as experience may serve as a guide, the lamps for burning spirits of turpentine are not likely to supersede those for burning oil; there are serious objections to the use of the former, and amongst them is the inflammability of the fluid” (1888, ser. 2, vol. 24, p. 323). The inflammability of the fluid was a factor that came to be reck- oned with in ever-increasing degrees as these fuels grew in use. Am- ple evidence can be found in the periodicals of the day. The follow- ing was printed in the Scientific American for June 19, 1847: “Miss 400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Mary Watson was burned to death in Philadelphia last week, while attempting to fill a fluid lamp when it was burning, and the liquid taking fire caused the catastrophe. Her mother and brother, who were in the room, were also badly burned in attempting to save her.” The same periodical reported on April 27, 1850, “A serious fire took place at a camphene distillery in our city on last Friday, by which several of the hands were severely burned. There is scarcely a week passes over our heads without a number of accidents from the use of camphene.” The next year this state of affairs was still continuing. “Two daughters of Alderman Ramass of New Orleans were burned to death by the explosion of a camphene lamp; two others were also shockingly burned by the accident” (Gleason’s Drawing Room Com- panion, July 7, 1851). On September 17, 1853, the Scientific Ameri- can again commented with some astonishing statistics: “According to a record kept by Mrs. F. Merriam, there were, during the year ending September 1st, 1853, some thirty-three fatal explosions, mostly in the cities of New York, Brooklyn, Williamsburgh, and vicinity, in which nineteen persons were killed, twenty-three persons fatally or severely injured, three persons slightly wounded, and some three or four buildings fired. The preparations alluded to are burning fluid, camphene, spirit gas, rosin oil, etc.” Probably the first effort to obviate these dangers was to design a new burner less dangerous to use than the common whale-oil burner. This was made so that its wick tubes extended upward, away from the fuel, instead of downward. Thus less heat was conducted into the reservoir from the flame, and the flame itself was a greater dis- tance from the fluid. Extinguisher caps obviated the dangerous necessity of blowing out the light. This burner was widely adopted, as its frequent survival in collections and antique shops indicates. It was designed to fit the same lamps that had burned whale oil, so that the difference between a whale-oil lamp and a so-called “cam- phene” lamp is often distinguishable only by its burner. An undated advertising card of Marsh & Company’s Patent Oil Manufactory of Boston, probably printed in the 1840’s, announces “New tubes fitted to Common Whale Oil Lamps, from 614 to 1214 Cents.” It may be concluded that the fluid burner was only a relative im- provement in safety, for most of the recorded accidents occurred after the burner was in common use. The next moves were therefore to- ward designing a “safety” lamp that would not explode. This hoped- for goal was probably never achieved, but the efforts to do so were numerous. Perhaps the most satisfactory was the one patented by John Newell, in 1853, consisting of a cylinder of fine wire-gauze screen, which encased the wick inside the reservoir. Evidently inspired by the Davy miner’s safety lamp, this was supposed to keep the flame ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA—WATKINS 401 from backing into the fuel supply. It was exhibited at the New York Crystal Palace Exposition in 1854 and was acclaimed by such notable scientists of the day as Benjamin Silliman. Another, consisting of a glass reservoir enclosing a metal lining, was patented by Prof. E. N. Horsford, a Harvard archeologist, and James R. Nichols. Other improvements in the use of camphene and fluids were designed to make the flame burn more brightly. One was patented by “Doctor” Michael Boyd Dyott, a flamboyant Philadelphia manufacturer of glass, patent medicines, and a burning fluid he called “pine oil.” In his lamp the fluid was vaporized and burned as a gas. This was fol- lowed by several other designs which were in effect gas lamps using vaporized fuel. The Franklin Institute’s experiments of 1843, already several times alluded to, led to the conclusion that “camphene possesses a remarkable intensity and higher lighting power, with a brilliant white flame, and from its cheapness presents strong claims, on the score of economy, upon public notice. Its disadvantages are, the great inflammability of the material, the liability to annoyance from its disagreeable smell, and the injurious and unendurable smoke which proceeds from the lamp when out of order, or not properly regulated” (1843, ser. 3, vol. 5, p. 108 ff.). The brilliance attributed to camphene was, of course, a matter of comparison and degree. To one used to the single-candle- power light of a whale-oil burner the light from a fluid burner was a vast improvement. That the fluids were widely adopted, both (we may assume) on the basis of their “high lighting power” and “on the score of economy,” is evident from the large number of surviving examples. To what extent the rural population, with its conservatism re- enforced by a healthy fear of fire, may have taken up the burning fluids is open to surmise. Certainly most country residents were pre- pared to welcome a safer substitute than camphene for traditional lighting devices. Such a substitute was provided by lard from their own hogs, used in combination with any of the scores of newly in- vented lard lamps. Most of the lamps designed for burning lard were crude in appearance and bizarre in function. Few were based on scientific knowledge, but almost all were concerned with over- coming the difficulties of burning a semisolid fuel. There were three basic principles employed in the lamps: (1) Conduction of heat from the flame to the fuel supply; (2) gravity, usually in combination with conduction devices; and (3) mechanical pressure. In 1830 Stephen P. Moorehead sought a patent on a lard lamp hav- ing copper wires wound around the wick tubes and leading down into the reservoir. Thus heat from the flame would, in theory, at least, be carried down to the lard. Moorehead was not the originator of 402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 this idea, as the Franklin Institute Journal rather waspishly pointed out. “The task is not an agreeable one,” it commented, “to inform a person who believes he has drawn a prize, that a small mistake has been made in his number” (18380, ser. 2, vol. 6, p. 15). It went on to explain that a lamp made in Philadelphia 20 years earlier had em- ployed the conduction principle and that another had followed. What these lamps may have been cannot now be conjectured. Notwithstanding its lack of originality, the conduction device was used over and over again, even though the patent claim in each case was ostensibly for some other feature. Southworth’s patent of 1842 is a case in point, where both a copper wick tube and copper conductor strip were employed. Even as late as the following year, a chemist named Campbell Morfit had seen fit publicly to recommend the substi- tution of copper wick tubes for those of tin. In 1834 Samuel Davis designed a lard lamp that similarly included copper parts in the burner. Davis’s directions made it clear that something more than a copper conductor was needed, however. “If the lard lamp be cold, and there be no warm lard to start it, hold the lamp upside down, and with a match let it burn until the burner gets hot, then set the lamp down and put a little cold lard in the lid around the wick.” The implications of hardship and difficulty in the simple act of lighting a lamp—an “improved” one, at that—are most interest- ing to reflect upon. Delamar Kinnear, of Circleville, Ohio, patented a lamp in 1850 on the basis of its shape. In addition to having a wide flat wick for giving light, it included also a pilot burner from which a conductor wire descended into the fuel supply. Many of Kinnear’s lamps have survived, indicating that they enjoyed some degree of success. The second group of lard lamps depended upon gravity as well as heat conduction. Dexter S. Chamberlain’s patent of 1854 prescribed a tilting reservoir in which the oil supply was kept at a constant level with the wick. The patent model is in the United States National Museum collection (No. 251802). Moses Woodward’s earlier patent of 1842 also utilized this principle. Its functioning was described by the Franklin Institute Journal (1844, ser. 3, vol. 7, p. 252): “The lard can be burned until it is nearly exhausted, for by the tilting of the body of the lamp, the lard can be brought near to the ignited part of the wick.” The lamps of the third category were probably the least attractive but the most effective. These employed mechanical pressure devices to force the lard into the wick. An early and evidently popular ver- sion was patented by Maltby & Neal, of Middlebury, Ohio, in 1842. Their handsome patent model of brass with silver name plate (No. 251795) is illustrated in plate 8. Other examples of this lamp in tin ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA—WATKINS 403 and brass also are represented in the United States National Museum. John Grannis’s patent of the same year claimed the application of a “forcing” pump, or hand plunger, “to the construction and use of lard Jamps.” Very similar, but embodying a key-propelled worm shaft with piston instead of a force pump, was Smith & Stonesifer’s patent of 1854. Another mechanical piston lamp had been previously patented by Williams & Tew. Most of the foregoing were crude looking and were more suitable for use in the farm kitchen than in the city parlor. LON FLOAT L GP PEO EDGE DEO I I eto LGV \ Marque aes SS SSS ESE Ficure 1.—Woodcut advertisement from the Illustrated American Biography, by A. D. Jones, vol. I, Boston, 1853. bition of Domestic Manufacturers, sponsored by the Franklin Insti- tute, the Committee of Judges on Lamps commented that in the mantel lamps of Cornelius & Company “the brass castings are grace- ful and durable, and exhibit a great richness of hue... The astral lamps of the same artists are remarkable for new, original, and deli- cate forms.” The word “original” is here significant. In the same ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA—WATKINS 405 report there is reference to an almost comic example of the outré: “The Committee were not less pleased with lamps of anthracite coal from the factory of J. W. and F. Kirk ... The quantity of this article sold by the makers, indicates the public suffrage in its favour, and a confidence in its durability, which we were not prepared to expect” (1833, ser. 2, vol. 13, pp. 92-93). In 1844, at the Thirteenth Exhibition, there was an increasing em- phasis on fixtures such as “richly ornamented gas pendants in ormolu” and “silvered chandeliers and candelabra” (1844, ser. 3, vol. 6, p. 402). At about this time mantelpiece girandole candelabra were fashion- able, and Starr & Co. of New York advertised a 3-unit set consisting of cast-brass human figures on marble bases supporting candle hold- ers from which cut crystal drops were suspended. The judges at the Thirteenth Exhibition gave due credit, however, to some of the simpler devices: “The humbler solar and lard lamps deserve more than the passing notice which they receive at the hands of the committee, and will, no doubt, serve to gratify the good taste, and aid the vision of a far greater number of our fellow citizens, than will the more showy and expensive chandeliers.” Like a tidal wave, however, a new discovery in lighting swept aside everything before it, both in form and function, at the close of the 1830-60 period. The coup de grace had actually fallen 6 years earlier, when Abraham Gesner of Williamsburg, N. Y., had patented his “new liquid hydrocarbon, which I denominate ‘kero- sene’.” The blow was not then immediately felt, for Gesner’s “kero- sene” was regarded at first as merely another burning fluid. But the opening up of the Pennsylvania petroleum fields in 1859 marked the turning point by releasing an abundant source of cheap and superior fuel. Special burners were developed, and before a decade had passed the kerosene lamp, in dramatic fashion, had virtually displaced all its predecessors, except those that burned gas. With the adoption of kerosene, as well as the increased urban use of gas, industrialism took command in the field of lighting, just as it did in so many phases of human activity. The period of 1830-60 had been one of transition between handicraft economy and mass production and distribution. It had been an era when the individual tinkerer applied his talents to inventing the mechanisms of a system which was soon to dispense with his services. Viewed from afar it appears today fresh and picturesque, with its tortuously conceived lard lamps being “teased” along in farmhouse kitchens and its naively “elegant” solar lamps symbolizing artistic progress in countless parlors. But it had been in fact an earth-shaking era, for it effected the final transition to a new material environment, not the least part of which was the conquering of darkness. 406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 “What miraculous progress and improvement is visible on every side of the U. S.,” Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley had exclaimed. This expressed well the spirit of advance in the art of illumination, as well as of material progress in general. Every inventive step, however faltering or unguided, was in the direction of new tech- niques and discoveries. Kvery new embellishment in the decoration of lighting devices, however awful to modern eyes, represented progress in a growing estheticism. Thus the lamps of this era shone upon a stirring scene and were themselves symbols of the times, reflecting and illuminating a dynamic society. BIBLIOGRAPHY “A Lapy”’ [SuSAN FENIMORE CooPER]. 1851. Rural hours. New York. ART JOURNAL, THE. 1851. The industry of all nations. Tllustrated catalogue. London. AYERS, CHARLES HE. 1944. A brief history of railroad passenger car lighting. Rushlight, vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 55-57. Benson, ApouteH P. (editor). 1924. America of the fifties: Letters of Frederika Bremer. London. Boston DatIty SENTINEL AND GAZETTE. 1837. [Issue of September 25.] Boston TRANSCRIPT. 1839. [Issue of November 27.] Bryson, FRANCES. 1950. From the days of iron lamps. Antiques Journ., vol. 6, No. 10, p. 26. Davis, SAMUEL. 1934, Directions with Davis lard lamp. Rushlight, vol. 1, No. 2. DICKENS, CHARLES. 1842. American notes. Leipzig. EARLE, ALICE MORSE. 1898. Homelife in Colonial days. New York. HaTOoN, ALLEN H. 1937. Handicrafts of the southern highlands. New York. FELTON, MRs. 1842. American life: A narrative of two years city and country residence in the U. S. London. FORWARD, ALEXANDER. 1929. Gas supply in the United States. Encycl. Brit., 14th ed., vol. 10, pp. 49-50. FRANKLIN INSTITUTE. 1830. Journal, ser. 2, vol. 6, p. 15. 1831. Ibid., vol. 7, pp. 75—76. 1838. Ibid., vol. 13, pp. 92-93. 1834. Ibid., vol. 14, p. 247. 1838. Ibid., vol. 24, p. 323. 1843. Ibid., ser. 8, vol. 5, p. 105 ff. 1844a. Ibid., vol. 6, p. 402. 1844b. Ibid., vol. 7, p. 252. 1847. Ibid., vol. 14, p. 410. ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA—WATKINS 407 GLEASON’s DRAWING Room CoMPANION, 1851. [Issue of July 7.] HoHMAN, ELMo PAUL. 1928. The American whaleman. New York. HouGH, WALTER. 1928. Collection of heating and lighting utensils in the United States National Museum. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 141. HuspparD, Howarp G. 1935. A complete check list of household lights patented in the United States, 1792-1862. KENDALL, JOHN S. 1932. The Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers Railroad. Railway and Locomotive Hist. Soc. Bull. 49. MACKAY, ALEXANDER. 1849. The western world, or travels in the U. S. in 1846-47. Ed. 2. London. MARTINEAU, HARRIET, 1838. Restrospect of western travel. Vol. 1. New York. MEASE, JAMES. 1804. The domestic encyclopaedia. 1st American ed.; with additions by A. F. M. Willich. Mercer, HENRY C. 1898. Light and fire making. Doylestown, Pa. OLMSTED, FREDERICK LAW. 1856. A journey in the seaboard slave States. New York. 1907. A journey in the back country in the winter of 1853-1854, Ed. 2, vol. 1. New York. RAILROAD JUBILEE, THE. 1852. An account of the celebration commemorative of the opening of rail- road communication between Boston and Canada. Boston. RANDOLPH, VANCE. 1931. The Ozarks, an American survival of primitive society. New York. WatTKINS, C. MALCOLM. 1935. The whale-oil burner; its invention and development. Mag. Antiques, vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 148-149. 1936. A lamp dealer illustrates his wares. Mag. Antiques, vol. 35, No. 6, pp. 297-299. WatTKINS, LURA WOODSIDE. 1943. Development of gas lighting. Rushlight, vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 5-8. WorTLey, LADY EMMELINE STUART. 1851. Travels in the U. S.... during 1849 and 1850. New York. Wyant, Mag. L. B. 1840. The etiquette of nineteenth century lamps. (Quoting from Miss Les- lie’s Housebook.) Mag. Antiques, vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 113-117. 26 981445—52 anias seireanbits fe mor aes ot! ho) Dy ie - es the Shes expired real Se aoe! tt nt nt ee Yok sraetigs Re oie re, ie shane | se ue al: a % sieving: ana needs! ‘siete ‘ienlonpile joe Binoy hitven is . iheiddave stave tiatt & banc Sev) giepuitaaatialyhw, izoltssaded) ane S00 ; ae Pima ie smionaas) a rar i i at Bret lis ¥ daar hxash S Mebane 2.ba- PPOs ah Th ath nt av as’ peat specs ott oar i a Sue tiokese roi feel, Aad wareraaM — ‘2 BS, Rispit aba vind Pow tows raiaisge YO nee Qtr iiswas. Pom 14: ol wer 1B adios Aiba ‘sie, eet SARI, SCAB HVE 20 EA sree FA ie aor bigunrg of raliewad Spams! sat Nes i ae 3 ; 7 | $0: Me, Be. a ear TaWoneplyout pageant 2 a Dewee, Ainase-Y. 1 SGthar gy S TS ae oa 4at'n Re eh Ges Deere poe a. 7 bib fae a is . Ot wow. aks hed “4 4 peg eri # nosroth nn misd, golrarlumtharor batty hs | Bee BTR etm, fee ‘Eiht Late Laue aR) fot, ae ek ae 3 “alalons wy itlnitag bo Telhte Lae oie ari eae x Xe fone toes UU: she elbiglh 5 4 | q : oo: Co Bae HN es dos sien! ied: teen aie ei) pepper Te The Development of the Halftone Screen’ By JAcoB KAINEN Curator of Graphic Arts, U. S. National Museum [With 12 plates] Tue tremendous increase in the printing of pictures during the past half-century constitutes one of the most important chapters in the history of the graphic arts. While this phenomenal development in picture printing came about as a result of public demand, the fact remains that this appetite for pictures could never have been satisfied had not certain mechanical instruments of reproduction first been provided. And one of the most indispensable of such instruments was the halftone screen. The halftone screen made it possible to translate the tonal values and gradations of a photograph into dots of varying sizes so that a plate could be prepared that would reproduce the original by relief (letterpress) printing. Carried over into lithography and gravure, the halftone screen made important contributions to these processes and played a key part in transforming them into giant industries. The halftone screen, as it has been universally used since about 1895, is made up of two sheets of glass, each glass being ruled with parallel lines etched and filled with black pigment and cemented together at right angles so that the resulting single sheet of glass shows a series of black lines crossing each other, with transparent square openings like a fine version of a wire-mesh screen. When placed before a sensitive plate in a camera the transparent openings permit the light to pass through in proportion to the light and dark areas of the object being photographed. Where the light reflected from the object is low a small amount of light will pass through the openings, which act like a pinhole camera, and where the illumination is intense a larger number of rays will reach the sensitive plate. In this manner the tones of the object to be printed are translated into dots of varying sizes. 1 Revised and expanded, by permission, from an article entitled ‘“‘The Halftone Screen,” published as a brochure by R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co., Chicago, Ill. 409 410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 The halftone screen, however, did not achieve perfection overnight. Like most mechanical devices it grew slowly from the original idea, and a long series of trials and errors over a period of four decades was necessary to bring it up the ladder to practical success. It is with the more interesting of these efforts that this article is concerned. The letterpress industry, it should be remembered, produced prac- tically all reading matter until recent years. Yet as late as the 1880’s, despite the fact that photogravure and collotype (as well as lithography to a less reliable degree) could reproduce photographs beautifully by photomechanical means, the letterpress printer still required the wood engraver to translate photographs and other toned pictures into engraved blocks. Results were slow, costly, and unre- liable. They were, moreover, marked by the stylistic idiosyncrasies of the engraver. Here was letterpress, the most widely used method of printing, producing all the newspapers, books, and magazines, yet lacking any good method for producing toned pictures photomechan- ically to set up in the same form with type. There was good reason for inventors to work feverishly to satisfy the insistent demand for a reliable photomechanical relief halftone process. Basing their work on all that had gone before, they gradually evolved the modern halftone screen, which was perfected in principle in 1885. By 1891 the difficult business of manufacturing accurate screens was finally worked out. In the matter of creating graduated tones, relief printing lagged considerably behind gravure from the historical standpoint. From the fifteenth century up to the latter part of the eighteenth, the old- fashioned woodcut provided the only means by which an illustration could be printed in the same form with type. This was strictly a line process, with only a rudimentary suggestion of tone. There was the chiaroscuro woodcut, of course, which employed separate blocks for tones, with a key block in line. This method, however, required several printings and moreover had but a few simple gradations of tone. Numerous methods existed in gravure, however, for creating fine lines, dots, cross-hatches, and reticulations which produced the illusion of tone. These processes, which included line- engraving, etching, mezzotint, and aquatint, involved the engraving or etching of sunken lines and dots which were filled with ink, after which the surface was wiped clean and the plates were printed on a special engravers’ press which forced the dampened paper into the sunken ink-holding lines and dots. No type could be used in these processes. Consequently, when tonal pictures were required for book purposes, the only solution was to tip in plates printed by gravure. This was a costly and time-consuming procedure. In 1784 Thomas Bewick, in England, published his illustrations in “Select Fables” and demonstrated the practicality of creating tonal HALFTONE SCREEN—KAINEN 411 effects by engraving on the end-grain of a hard, dense wood, such as boxwood. With this innovation wood engraving came into univer- sal use for relief printing, reaching its culmination in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. At that time, the demand for pictorial matter in books, magazines, and newspapers reached higher levels than ever before. It had been increased by developments in photogravure and collotype—and in lithography, which Alois Senefelder discovered in Germany in 1798. This process made use of slabs of Bavarian limestone, which had the property of being sensitive to both grease and water. The drawing was made on the stone with a crayon or ink containing grease and pigment and chemically treated to fix the greasy image and desensitize the remainder of the stone to grease. The stone was then covered with a thin film of water, which was rejected by the greasy image but retained by the porous stone. A greasy ink was applied by a roller and was accepted by the greasy image but rejected by the damp areas. The original drawing was therefore reconstituted in printers’ ink and was susceptible of printing under a slight scrap- ing pressure. Lithography proved to be a versatile process that of- fered the simplest and most direct method for printing toned pictures before the advent of photomechanical printing. The modern halftone would not have been possible, of course, with- out the invention of photography. In 1839 Daguerre, in Paris, con- tinuing the work of Niepce, announced the invention of the daguerreo- type. A little later in the same year Fox Talbot in England reported on the calotype. Of the two inventions Daguerre’s was the more im- mediately successful, although Talbot’s unquestionably was the more important in the long run, since it introduced the use of transparent negatives. The daguerreotype produced only a single final silver image on a copper plate. Numerous experimenters immediately be- gan to etch daguerreotype plates and to use electrodeposition in an effort to turn them into printable surfaces. Although these attempts produced interesting results they were basically unsatisfactory and were soon abandoned. In 1852 Fox Talbot made another contribution of fundamental im- portance. It was known, from the observations of Ponton and Bee- querel, that gelatin, when sensitized with a bichromate salt, has a propensity to harden under the action of light. Talbot was the first to make practical use of this phenomenon in patenting the photo- gravure process, or, as he called it, “photoglyphic engraving.” His 1852 patent, at the same time, laid the basis for practically all future developments in printing from a photographic image. The earliest form of the Talbot process involved coating a steel plate with a mixture of gelatin and bichromate of potash, exposing it under a positive, washing away the unhardened gelatin, and etching 412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 with bichloride of platinum. @ JO sIaABl [BIBAVS JO pasodwio0d UsVaJOS BUOJ[BVY B JO 9Sh 9Yyy YsnoIYGy spe “JJ9[ jo }UDSTIIS1B] Ud LOSWL KOA AG SYNAVYSDOLOHd eres >". e “ee % "2 Le eee 4» oO. 4% KASD 0 @ sng @ eb. Oe < Olbea X— - co PLATE 2 Smithsonian Report, 1951.--Kainen "PERl ‘UOpuoT Ul YoszoIg pu’ ony *B] op Aq poonpold , ‘UoIsO[dxy oy} 10yJw BBO UI GUdDg ,, HOSLAYd NVd AG ANOLSAIVH SSRITEY Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Kainen PLATE 3 PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY BY LEMERCIER ec ae ” Gate of a Romanesque Church,” photographed on stone by Lemercier, Lerebours, Barreswil, and Davanne and printed by Lemercier in Paris, 1852-53, using his asphaltum process. PLATE 4 Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Kainen “1GQ1 Ul Jelo1euleT 04 ssad0id sty PIOS UIAazIOg ‘ssedoid usuINq[*¥ S,uIAejI0g ssuoyd,y Aq poyurid yoAydiay pornydnog ‘ SS3908d S.NIASBZLIOd ONISN ‘YAIONYAWSA] AG AHdVYHYSDOHLIIOLOHd Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Kainen PLATE 5 a) gloffstein through a Ton E 4nd horizontal screens in 18€ ‘ < ” made by V PHOTOGRAVURE BY FREDERICK VON EGLOFFSTEIN combination of wavy-line ‘‘Diseased Bone, mM n £ W Sed ~ io oe =". Process itn Ives Philadelphia Photographer, J HALFTONE BY FREDERICK E. 1EF Wilson,” L. RE! tA il i be. ili | Mi il HN Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Kainen PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY BY WILLIAM A. LEGGO ‘View of a Church,” made about 1873 through a cross-line screen. PLATE 6 4 PLATE 7 1.—Kainen 5 Smithsonian Report, 19 "E88I “8% JaquIsAON ‘aopuoT ‘smaay otydnsbojoyg 0}4 juemajddns wrory ‘uopuoT “og youquoasiosyy ‘ {q e@uoP BY oUI[-SsO1D ,.“QpaBvyUuIEg Yee ‘ HOVENASIFW 39NO3ND AS ANOLSAIVH S3SIT39Y ayy Ysnoly) gs “UWdd TOS Ysoul-d1 IM jo a QT Ul opBuI odAjOoxNyT jo [lejap pase OD 7138 8 SSNYVGA NMOYG AS ANOLSATVH 33I7135M rs “3 PP cbal eain Be PLATE 8 Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Kainen WoL ‘Q6SL ‘QT AsvnuBe ‘vajD 44, puv puvT oO} yusuetddns ‘uopuoyT “OD Suyulg OsezUT JpUBIqUIOY sy} Aq oUOPTRY O1[FBJUT oUT[-SSOIO ,,‘OUBIOTD ,, DINM WVM AG FYNAVYHSDOLOHd AYVLOY Oo) Wl = < =| aX Sop ft , LAGE ed +4 4 Detail of plate ein. Frederick von E Photogravure by I. Smithsonian Report, 195!—Kainen Smithsonian Report, 195!.—Kainen PLATE 10: “=e ©¢ © @©@ © © # & * ° Maisnebdeat ciaiwees. oo oe 1. Relief halftone by Frederick E. Ives. Detail of plate 5, figure 1, greatly enlarged. in» a: °* e a°s"e eoeee840 6 o,¢ Ay #996", 26 / 2 @ ‘ i a's a 6 La % an “a. we A KAO %, Pd » o * 2. Photolithography by William A. Leggo. Detail of plate 6, greatly enlarged. Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Kainen Detail of plate 12, greatly enlarged, showing dots of differe sizes but even intensity of color. 2. Rotary photogravure by Karl Klig. D square dots of equal size but varying depths of ink. darker areas, which contributes to contit ] : “OSGI “19AT]Q sucisduayzy YIIWS AQ «, WNasnyjy [BUOTIEN AIO) ‘BZULID9UIZUY fo UOISTATC] 9q} jo UOTIII]]O") aPPADIOOT\Y pue 9[Iqowo ny out JO S0/PIL),, “Q6] UIIT[Ng wasn jeUCHeN “SG "AQ WOI "¢Q6] ‘>]Iqowoine duT[Oses DeTTIPeD “auo}]eY Jorfal Uapoy] < : Beg BRE OY here él aLW1d UaUlesJ—"|C6| ‘140deyy UBiUOsyyIWIC HALFTONE SCREEN—KAINEN 493 continuous tone of ink, running from transparency to opacity de- pending upon the amount of ink in the wells, except for the fine lines of the screen, which remain without ink, having provided a surface for the “doctor” blade to wipe. During the first quarter of the twentieth century numerous screens were suggested and developed, and many were designed to produce unusual line patterns and textural effects, but the overwhelming ma- jority were the cross-lined halftone and rotogravure screens. Another type of screen that was popular for some years after the turn of the century was the mezzograph screen, patented by James Wheeler in England in 1897. This screen contained no pigment and resembled a sheet of frosted glass. It was made by coating a glass plate with minute drops of liquid resin, which acted as an acid resist, and etch- ing with hydrofluoric acid. When the resin was removed the glass was uniformly pitted and composed of levels of transparency. Used as a screen in photoengraving, this glass produced a granular struc- ture in the final printing, which, while sometimes too evident, was well suited to certain types of subjects. In 1928 A. Ronald Trist, of England, inventor of the bimetallic Pantone process of lithographic printing, patented a screen which in principle anticipated the present variable-opacity or contact screen developed by Kodak. Trist used an electrically rotated disk in con- junction with standard screens. By this means he could produce vignetted densities in transparent celluloid-process films. The re- sulting screens could then be used for contact printing, being particu- larly serviceable in his lithographic process. The variable-opacity or contact screen was developed to correct some of the shortcomings of the conventional cross-line screen. Con- trast is often difficult to control, and tone reproduction, consequently, is often uncertain. Variable-opacity screens are intended to correct this uncertainty and in addition to take less camera time. Problems of focal length are overcome since the screens are placed in contact with the sensitized film. Gradations of light are managed by vari- ations in dot intensity, the most opaque points being the centers of the dots, which fade out gradually to translucency at the peripheries. Several proposed variable-opacity screens led up to the Kodagraph screens, the first of which was patented in 1942 and 1943. ‘This earlier Kodagraph screen, orange in color, was used with a continuous-tone magenta negative placed in contact with Kodalith film. The positives obtained were composed of dots—like those produced by the Levy screen—and contrast control was secured by variation in relative amounts of orange and red light during exposure. The later improved screen, magenta in color, produced negatives rather than positives. The screen was used primarily in lithography, but screens for photo- engraving are now used commercially. 981445—52——28 424 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 The halftone plate now used in letterpress printing begins with a screen placed in the camera at a proper distance from the sensi- tized film. The image is photographed through the screen, the light passing through the clear squares so that the original image is broken up into minute dots of varying sizes depending upon the fineness of the screen and the amount of light reflected from the copy. The film negative is then stripped from its celluloid or glass base, placed upon a piece of clear glass, and exposed to strong light over a copper plate coated with a solution of bichromated gelatin. Light hardens the portion of the plate which will eventually become the raised or print- ing surface. The unhardened gelatin is washed off, exposing the bare copper for etching. The plate is then etched in several stages with perchloride of iron, the sides of the dots being dusted with an acid resist, dragon’s blood, at each stage. The dots in relief, when inked and printed, recreate the original. This brief summary merely touches upon some of the most important operations in platemaking and gives no indication of the skill and care required. Many important developments, particularily in recent times, have been omitted because of the necessity for condensation. Nevertheless, we have touched upon the high points in the growth of the halftone process, and noted how the development of a reliable screen was the main factor in finally removing the barriers to cheap, rapid, and faith- ful reproduction of continuous-tone pictures. The achievements were not confined to letterpress, as we have seen, but were carried over into lithography and gravure as well. It was letterpress, however, the last major process to obtain photomechanical halftones, that began the era of modern high-speed printing of halftone subjects. From this beginning sprang great industries, trades, more rapid means of communication, clearer and more efficient means of education, and other technical advances that have done so much to give our civili- zation its distinctive character. Our modern conception of advertis- ing, for example, with its stimulus to business, leans very heavily upon the use of the halftone screen. ‘The present wide use of color printing, with its added attractiveness and veracity, would not have been pos- sible without the perfection of the halftone screen. It has made possible the popular and widely circulated picture magazines through which much entertainment and educational matter is given mass cir- culation. It serves as an indispensable tool in recording scenes and events for immediate use in newspapers and in news periodicals. It is indispensable in preparing such printed advertising as mail-order catalogs, which serve the public as pictorial department stores. Tech- nical books, art books, children’s books, posters, calendars, greeting cards, house organs, fiction and home magazines—these and publica- tions of a hundred other kinds all derive a great part of their beauty and effectiveness from the use of halftones. HALFTONE SCREEN—KAINEN 425 It is possible that the halftone screen will eventually be superseded by other, more efficient, instrumentalities for obtaining toned pictures in the printing press. ‘The rise of electronics is already responsible for a device, in successful although limited commercial use, for ob- taining coarse and moderately fine halftones without the use of a screen. The Fairchild Photo-Electric Engraver, the Fairchild bro- chure states, “is an electro-mechanical device for producing halftone engravings on plastic material without recourse to photography or the use of chemicals.” It makes use of an amplifier system by means of which the tonal details of the photograph to be reproduced are trans- mitted from the electronic scanning assembly to the engraving assem- bly. Fine dots are burned into the plastic plate by a heated stylus. Halftones can be made corresponding to 65-, 85-, and 120-line screens. At present the Fairchild machine is used chiefly in newspaper work, where the comparative speed and simplicity of the process is a great advantage. In any case, whatever the future may hold, the halftone screen has played and is playing its part in creating a ceaseless flow of pictorial material for a worldwide public. This piece of glass marked by intersecting lines—this delicate screen to which the half- tone owes its existence—has proved to be one of the truly important contributions to industry and culture in the modern world. Le Nite ee we ay - v , i J y m ; ¥ a are md. cab fling ene cook * Pi ; i aii npleea 2 O Reiss = ai pacers eho ids. ak red ois whet + a . #, le, sont alt Srecul ties ies al ahiee i Rap; 92 : ord, plidonin odd, gantensall sh al tLotorlss, big Eaial ; ee 1d; atti qty eh, ‘ot esinals ina sult Epes, Xo} es he oxi ydq a! uotoil 7 41F SLOT she hr baits af Aunt achat. & ia: pit ut x, aries 2 ‘wiikey ie ‘to. a ash pre it ae kavie = . ; saatinan demoscene 9 ot dg wrgoinde ok 20, stintab. Crip) oth sayin - + leegaig scrap remy Osh xt ane ie ith wie pompiegcrstoele,o(l-qnoay, bald : hen bs + . Ca te 5 We ‘4 ~ r - ia 4 _f | af tog es | “ lt y ‘ j i ; y. me AULIR DOHA {At SOG hath Of 4 pi ise sip pm iy : i 4 ‘ : ra a rr, g 7 iO “4¢ ‘ a ‘ee oo nii as 8-H s JE) Ruts arta echt? % raf Dra w Ps A * , ~ geal Re tie en, PL ALE Che: DORI. hs outs ft ie? i tad et ALS tub pivecniae sf meniervner Os tg aehiot Let citt ban higaepa.aridet recaAGe gt ‘ ae foot 2A, = 1 ’ ; eee ee ee ne ee ie oes : ‘ ” ies * : anxott ioc art + eee i r, ie wails te AE. ws aaa Tee La OER iA ibetig ihe See fh, areal: c sl ieerty OT Ap, assnalt Ditte® ae is oo * ° . id ; ; : ce aah, Womaigh, BEN atte. oe tialaa gee 3% EEA. oily: Uperlyy cht fiers HB SIS silo , ‘eu ieee bass f e557 1OU) thir a1 f1 14, Lit acd at bie LR ead~r , vi ? ny ‘ f. a bitose mistxntm le 0 qs: usthae ) bis zu ¥ k he : . 4 res Deis : 4 - : a q i 4 _ ble Neat wg ft ei } - , ae j ‘ i 4 ‘ wo ’ . Rue 4 a , ~ " ‘' € 4 } : 2 ; ‘ ws iG — > : : 4 , a -, ! : oe ; a) H ; a. q ‘ " = -_ ‘ e. * poset Be \. a ‘ - ’ : & ey q e* at a > Titi » 2 4 ’ * ' f . \ : ‘ | > “0 at ak S mat tenn ce WJ / i iad ¥ tain ' Wers tg : ft a be Se Sihauiste yeries ita: Ny eats: te Spare eee, OFT caver ning - Wy it ; a CSOT Fo 7% ‘ : ; oY] sbi ‘ oe By ar ‘ = i e j rs = jt wth é } 4 1 ey (at ye) r ° oe wy , ; Oo) AO Cat ne e Pr (bre The Artist and the Atom’ By PETER BLANC Art Department, American University [With 5 plates] Ir 1s a commonplace of contemporary thought that the period of the last hundred years has been preeminently an age of science. All fields of intellectual endeavor exhibit signs of the infiltration and influence of the scientific attitude, and all display scars, indeed open and still bleeding wounds, inflicted by the penetration of the new and shocking discoveries, theories, and conceptions of modern science. The plastic arts have been no exception, and critics and art historians are at one in perceiving a connection between science and modern art from the impressionists to date. But the particular aspects of scientific thought which appear in modern painting and sculpture have not been analyzed. It is the purpose of this article to establish that the connection between modern science and modern art les pre- dominantly in that field of scientific thought which is the most dis- turbing, and by the same token the most enlightening, to the philo- sophical thinker : the field of research into the basic composition of the universe and all that it contains—the theory of atomic matter. In the early years of the nineteenth century the scientific center of the world was Paris. In France during the eighteenth century science had permeated literature—Fontenelle, Voltaire, Buffon—and this con- nection between science and literature was maintained during the early nineteenth century largely owing to the constitution of the Académie des Sciences as part of the Institut. In Germany, on the other hand, science was merely the handmaiden of philosophy, and science courses at the universities were taught on the basis of doubtful philosophic theories. The situation in Germany was more typical of the period than was that in France, for on the whole the scientists were then working in obscurity in the laboratory, conducting experiments and accumulating the mass of data which in the main was not to be synthe- sized into general principles and disclosed to the public till the last half of the century. 1 Reprinted by permission from Magazine of Art, vol. 44, No. 4, April 1951. Copyright by the American Federation of Arts. 427 428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 But at the midcentury the situation changed. The scientists came out of the laboratory and took to their writing desks. The period from 1850 to 1870 saw few new discoveries but witnessed the develop- ment and clarification of general laws and principles drawn from the data accumulated during the preceding 50 years. The principles of the conservation of matter, the law of the dissipation of energy, Dal- ton’s atomic theory, the theory of evolution, all achieved acceptance and popularization as scientific books poured from the presses. These new and revolutionary concepts seized the imagination of the intel- lectuals, and the new gospel of science spread thoughout Europe, breaking down the old intellectual isolation of the nations. The new spirit manifested itself immediately in the form of “real- ism.” In literature, the scientific method of documentation and ac- cumulation of evidence found its reflection in the works of Zola and the Goncourts and in such books as Flaubert’s “Madame Bovary” (1856). Much the same dispassionate statement of contemporary facts appears in the painting of Courbet, while the sociological inten- tion of these writers is paralleled by the more dramatic works of Daumier. But these artists demonstrate merely the turning point of artistic expression. Their innovations were in subject matter rather than in the structural elements of composition or the manner of laying the paint on the canvas. The impact of scientific developments in these respects first appears in the work of the impressionists. One of the main characteristics of impressionism is the laying on of the paint in small, clearly visible blobs, dots, or curlicues through- out the entire surface of the canvas. It is this continuous subdivision of the canvas surface into innumerable tiny dots and particles of paint, more than any other feature, that distinguishes impressionist painting from previous styles and it is this characteristic which most closely concerns us. One of the few novel scientific theories that had been voiced during the first half of the nineteenth century was the theory that all forms of matter—gaseous, liquid, or solid—are composed of innumerable tiny particles of indestructible, solid, concrete matter. In gases, these particles were conceived as loosely associated, much like a swarm of bees, capable of independent movement, collision, and flight; in liquids they were more closely united, acting much in the manner of grain pouring down a chute; in solids they were linked together in the man- ner of a crowd of people holding hands, capable of jostling about to some degree but incapable of seriously altering their relative positions. Although numerous scientists of differing nationalities contributed to this conception, the Englishman John Dalton is generally ac- knowledged as the father of the theory. In his “New System of Chem- ical Philosophy” (1808) Dalton first advanced his theory, saying: THE ARTIST AND THE ATOM—BLANC 4929 There are three distinctions in the kinds of bodies, or three states, which have more specifically claimed the attention of philosophical chemists, namely, those which are marked by the term elastic fluids, liquids, and solids. A very famous instance is exhibited to us in water, of a body, which, in certain circumstances, is capable of assuming all three states. In steam we recognize a perfectly elastic fluid, in water a perfect liquid, and in ice a complete solid. These obser- vations have tacitly led us to the conclusion which seems universally adopted, that all bodies of sensible magnitude, whether liquid or solid, are constituted of a vast number of extremely small particles, or atoms of matter bound together by a force of attraction, which is more or less powerful according to circumstances. .. . Dalton was somewhat overoptimistic about the universal adoption of his atomic theory of matter. The lack of distinction between the chemical atom (the smallest particle of matter which can enter into combination) and the physical molecule (the smallest particle which can exist in a free state and which may consist of one or more atoms) caused dire confusion and conflict among scientists until the inter- national convention of chemists held at Karlsruhe in 1860. Only then, after a debate of fifty-odd years, did Dalton’s atomic theory achieve universal recognition. It seems more than a coincidence that during the very decade in which the scientific world recognized that the universe and all that it contained was composed of tiny dots and dabs of matter, the impressionists first painted pictures composed solely of tiny dots and dabs of pigment. The writer is not suggesting that the impressionists consciously and deliberately sought to imitate the dance of the atoms when they painted canvases composed of vibrating particles. Ostensibly their interest was in light, in the reflections of light, and even in the “reflec- tions of reflections.” But it cannot be denied that in pursuing this objective they succeeded in producing paintings which did, in fact, poetically evoke the image of the world which the scientists had created, and that they produced these paintings immediately after that image had been finally accepted by science as factually correct and had been given widespread publicity in books, articles, and lec- tures throughout the world. It is more than possible that a less con- scious and deeper motivation joined with their consciously assumed purpose to develop the impressionist style of painting. As Pissarro wrote in 1895: Impressionist art is still too misunderstood to be able to realize a complete synthesis .. . I remember that, although I was full of ardor, I didn’t conceive, even at forty, the deeper side of the movement we followed instinctively. It was in the air! [Letters to His Son Lucien, New York, 1943. ] What was in the air in the 1860’s was the atomic theory, and it can- not be seriously doubted that the impressionist painters were familiar with it, for their interest in science and their scientific studies would inevitably have brought this new development to their attention. 430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 The scientific attitude with which the impressionists approached their art is well known; they themselves did not hesitate to acknowl- edge their debt to science. Their spokesman, Pissarro, in answer to a letter from de Bellio arguing that scientific research into the nature — of color and light, anatomy, and the laws of optics could not help the artist, replied: Now everything depends on how this knowledge is to be used. But surely it is clear that we could not pursue our studies of light with much assurance if we did not have as a guide the discoveries of Chevreul and other scientists. I would not have distinguished between local color and light if science had not given us the hint; the same holds true for complementary colors, ete. The neoimpressionists, Seurat and Signac, devoted themselves to scientific research, studying Maxwell’s experiments, Charles Henry’s treatises, the analyses of light and color made by the American scientist N. O. Rood, and Chevreul’s color theories. Until he severed his con- nection with the neoimpressionists, Pissarro used to refer to this group as the “scientific impressionists” as opposed to Monet, Renoir, and Sisley whom he scornfully termed the “romantic impressionists.” Romantic or not, these painters were scientifically minded, too, for Monet as well as Seurat had studied the optical discoveries of Helm- holtz and Chevreul. Helmholtz, who was an exponent of Dalton’s atomic theory, pointed out in a work entitled “On the Relation of Optics to Painting” a relationship between the atomic theory and the appearance of certain effects of light. After stating that the turbid appearance of the earth’s atmosphere is caused by fine transparent particles of varying density and refrangibility which fill the air, Helmholtz says: But science can as yet give no explanation of the turbidity in the higher regions of the atmosphere which produces the blue of the sky; we do not know whether it arises from suspended particles of foreign substances, or whether the mole- cules of air themselves may not act as turbid particles in the luminous ether. It is hard to believe that this passage could have escaped the eyes of a painter interested in Helmholtz’s writings. Thus it is altogether possible that a conscious interest in the effects of light and air joined forces with a deeper and less conscious reaction to the startling facts of the atomic structure of the universe to produce the impressionist manner of painting. And indeed, when we examine the works of the impressionists, we must admit that in fact they are less expressive of light and air than they are of a world composed throughout of dense, vibrating, and homogeneous particles of matter. At the end of the century painting began to move away from im- pressionism and, in fact, away from the scientific spirit generally. Gauguin, indeed, led a one-man crusade against the scientific attitude. In a letter to Charles Morice dated April 1903, he says: ‘uazepy “HT auAe AA ° "OS6I ‘Alay[ey) suosieg Ayjog Asajinoy 6F6I “UoJsouLIg “saishyd ‘URNIN “Di4ao yy VpJap L4aistpy “Ipjeuy “H WINN, sueHy Aq ydeisojoyg *YosInaq ‘AJawMOs{UoTAY wo; ‘IgaMOYs UOI}Da]9 woig “shei-xy Aq de Jo sanoajoul wos; pa pleyory “sd {wor2aI[02 soyoul %49¢ ajotyied-¢ jo ydeisojoyd Joqwieys-pnojy *¢ -Joafa Al[eotsqda;90}0Yyd suo1{d9]9 JO sadv1T, “7 XC9'IIO ..OS6I ‘OL ON,, “UO uosyse( *T |} 31iv1d queIg—"}66| ‘Wodey ueiuosyzwic ‘og eoIYD Jo aININsuy Wy ‘aul[eseig “Wy plemMpy JO uorda][05 ‘sayoul FEE xX 37h ‘TIO “CI6T «OF “ON UwoNestaoidwy,, ‘Aysurpuey AjisseA *Z ‘sayout %6l X %b7 ‘TO “6061 . enbeig,, ‘osseorg oqeg ‘| ec 31W1d ouR|q— [6] ‘oday ueruosy Ug Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Blanc 1. Naum Gabo, ‘“‘Head of a Woman,” c. 1926. Plastic, 24%5 x 1914 inches. Collection of Museum of Modern Art. 2. Jack Tworkov, ‘‘Green Landscape,” 1949. Oil, 36x 42 inches. Courtesy Egan Smithsonian Report, 1951.—Blanc PLATE 4 1. Matta. “The Vertigo of Eros,” 1944. Oil, 77 x 99 inches. Museum of Modern Art. 2. Alexander Calder, “Mobile,” 1939-1940. Steel wire and sheet aluminum, height 60 inches. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 6F6l ¥ “Yd ) AOd W “Mh IDVV *SUOI{ NOU 1joO sea 9 19|[VQ) asshieyfy o1Jo1g {sojino7 uOs UOT WOlY { } Ul poulIOf IeIs VW °Z ‘SOYDUL Y IT XBIF O “OG ¢¢ DSIIUNG, ,“OLIPYY UPOl *T] JO DDUSPIAD SUIMOUS Taquieyo pho] d« G§ 31V1d ou] gq —"|C6| ‘WoOday ueruosyqiuSG THE ARTIST AND THE ATOM—BLANC 431 Artists have hopelessly lost their Way in recent years due to physics, chemistry, mechanics and the study of nature. Having lost their primitive force, and being out of touch with their instincts, one might say with their imaginations, they have pursued a hundred paths in search of productive elements which they lacked the strength to create themselves. But this rebellion was doomed to failure, for already by 1903 science was well on the way to developing new “productive elements” to fire the artist’s imagination. The new development began with the work of Henri Becquerel in France in 1895. Becquerel, and later the Curies, discovered that uranium, radium, and certain other minerals emitted invisible rays which could move through space and penetrate various materials, even affecting and destroying living tissues. Experiments with these alpha, beta, and gamma rays led to the conclusion that they were actually particles of some kind, a stream of infinitesimally tiny bullets shooting through space. Further experiments led to the discovery that radiation of this sort ultimately caused the element radium to transmute itself in a series of stages to the element lead. Now to transform an element is to transform its components, 1. e., its atoms. Consequently the physicists were forced to the revolutionary con- clusion that the atom was not the imperishable, indivisible billiard ball, which the nineteenth century had supposed it to be, but was actually composed of multiple and divisible constituents. Another line of research simultaneously being pursued by other scientists related to the effects of passing electrical discharges through gases. The famous X-ray was discovered by Konrad Rontgen in Germany in 1895, and during the next few years the Englishman J. J. Thompson conducted a series of experiments with cathode tubes, finally reaching the conclusion that electricity itself consisted of infini- tesimal particles (now known as electrons) 1,840 times lighter than the lightest known atom, that of the element hydrogen. In 1899 Thompson published his conclusions, saying : I regard the atom as containing a large number of smaller bodies which I will call corpuscles. ... In the normal atom, this assemblage of corpuscles forms a system which is electrically neutral. . . . Electrification of a gas I regard as due to the splitting up of some of the atoms of the gas resulting in the detach- ment of a corpuscle from some of the atoms. .. . On this view, electrification essentially involves the splitting up of the atom, a part of the mass of the atom getting free and becoming detached from the original atom. [Philosophical Magazine, ser. 5, vol. 68, p. 565. ] Thus by the end of the nineteenth century these two lines of experi- ment had independently resulted in the conclusion that the atom was not the ultimate form of matter but was itself composed of smaller subatomic particles, although the manner in which the constituent parts of the atom were associated was still unknown. 432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Investigation of this problem was immediately undertaken by nu- merous scientists, and by 1903 Lenard in Germany had proved to his own satisfaction that cathode rays could pass through thousands of atoms without disturbing their internal organization. The conclu- sion he reached was that the greater part of the atom must be empty space, only about 1,000 millionths of the whole being solid matter. Lenard’s experiments, however, were not accepted as conclusive, and the investigations were continued by others, finally culminating in 1911 when Rutherford published his well-supported findings that the atom was in effect constituted on a solar-system basis—tiny electrons revolving around a nucleus as the planets revolve around the sun, with the empty spaces between these elements proportionately as huge as the empty spaces of the solar system. These dramatic and revolutionary discoveries not only shook natural science to its foundations but also aroused the greatest interest outside the narrow world of the physicists. As Eddington has expressed it in “The Nature of the Physical World”: When we compare the universe as it is now supposed to be with the universe as we had ordinarily preconceived it, the most arresting change is not the re- arrangement of space and time by Einstein but the dissolution of all that we regard as most solid into tiny specks floating in void. That gives an abrupt jar to those who think that things are more or less what they seem. The revela- tion by modern physics of the void within the atom is more disturbing than the revelation by astronomy of the immense void of interstellar space. The atom is as porous as the solar system. If we eliminated all the unfilled space in a man’s body and collected his protons and electrons into one mass, the man would be reduced to a speck just visible with a magnifying glass, The repercussions in the field of the plastic arts were immediate, the first parallel artistic development being analytical cubism. In 1907, following Lenard’s announcement and while Rutherford was still engaged in experimental work, Picasso painted his famous “Demoiselles d’A vignon,” in which for the first time he portrayed parts of forms and objects as irregular receding and protruding angular planes. This development was continued in 1908 and 1909 by Picasso himself, and by Braque with paintings composed largely of the facets of blocklike forms. In 1908 the name “cubism” was first applied to this new manner wherein angular planes definitely suggest the project- ing facets of solid sculptural cubes partially embedded in the canvas. In the portrait of Braque painted toward the end of 1909, however, this sense of solidity begins to give way. To quote Alfred Barr in “Picasso” (1946), “not only the surface is broken into facets but the facets themselves begin to slip so that the sense of solid sculptural form so clearly preserved in the ‘Fernande’ seems on the point of disinte- eration. For the first time the integrity, the unity, of the object is seriously threatened.” In the “Portrait of Kahnweiler” and the “Nude” of 1910, this tendency has enormously increased. The facets THE ARTIST AND THE ATOM—BLANC 433 have “slipped” very definitely, opening up a complex of hollows and spaces within the object. By 1911—the year in which Rutherford announced his conclusion that the atom is in fact almost completely a void—Picasso was painting objects which, though still recognizable as familiar solids, were represented as largely composed of empty space. Again, it is not the writer’s intent to establish that the cubists de- liberately and consciously sought to exploit or adapt the findings of contemporary science to their painting. Indeed Picasso has hotly denied any such intention. But the parallelism of their vision of matter and the image evoked by contemporary scientific findings, and the extraordinarily exact chronological coincidence of the develop- ments, speak for themselves. No man can assert with assurance that his conscious actions have not been in part provoked by unconscious considerations, and it is natural to believe that sensitive artists living in the first decade of the twentieth century were at least subconsciously influenced by the profoundly disturbing revelations of contemporary science, provided that they were aware of them. And there is evi- dence to establish this awareness. It is the testimony of Guillaume Apollinaire, spokesman of the cubists, that current scientific develop- ments preoccupied these artists, and that some members of the group, at any rate, pored over scientific works. Writing in 1913, while the cubist movement was still strong, Apollinaire said: Today, scientists no longer limit themselves to the three dimensions of Euclid. The painters have been led quite naturally, one might say by intuition, to pre- occupy themselves with the new possibilities of spatial measurement which, in the language of the modern studios, are designated by the term: the fourth dimension. The criterion of pure painting: abstract space. Regarded from the plastie point of view, the fourth dimension appears to spring from the three known dimensions: it represents the immensity of space eternalizing itself in all di- rections at any given moment. It is space itself, the dimension of the infinite. ... Finally, I must point out that the fourth dimension—this utopian expression should be analyzed and explained, so that nothing more than historical interest may be attached to it—has come to stand for the aspirations and premonitions of the many young artists who contemplate Egyptian, Negro, and Oceanic sculptures, meditate on various scientific works, and live in the anticipation of sublime art. [The Cubist Painters: Aesthetic Meditations. ] This preoccupation with space seems very natural in a world whose inhabitants have just been informed that all the familiar objects which they have habitually considered to be concrete and solid—including even their own persons—are chiefly constituted of empty space. But cubism was not the only new art form to develop in this critical period. The development of nonobjective painting dates from 1912. The Russian painter Wassily Kandinsky was the first artist who de- liberately sought to eliminate recognizable objects from the contents 434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 of his paintings. Kandinsky started life as an economist and stat- istician. The change-over from what he called “the sciences” to art was a long and painful process. His first abstract painting appeared in 1911; a series of nonobjective etchings followed in 1912. His paint- ing took various directions during his life, but the vast majority of his works are suggestive of objects suspended in space, reminiscent of Eddington’s “specks floating in the void.” In his autobiography, written in 1918 and revised and republished in Moscow in 1918, Kandinsky gives a full account of the role played in his development by the atomic discoveries of modern science. After discussing his work at the University of Moscow in the fields of political economy, law, and ethnology, and the unsatisfied yearning to paint that plagued him during this period, he writes: But in those early days, my artistic powers seemed to me too weak and insignificant to entitle me to abandon my other studies and lead the life of an artist... And at that time, when the Russian social picture was particu- larly somber, my studies were appreciated by many and I decided to train for a scientist. ... It was around that time that two events took place, both of which were to influence me strongly in my future life. The first was the exhibition of French Impressionists that was held in Moscow, one of the pictures being The Stack of Hay by Claude Monet. The second was the production of Wagner’s Lohen- grin at the Grand Theatre. Up to this time I was familiar with the realistic school of painting, and— at that—chiefly with the work of the Russian painters. ... And then suddenly, for the first time in my life, I found myself looking at a real painting. It seemed to me that, without a catalogue in my hand, it would have been impossible to recognize what the painting was meant to represent. This irked me, and I kept thinking that no artist has the right to paint in such a manner. But at the same time, and to my surprise and confusion, I dis- covered that it captivated and troubled me, imprinting itself indelibly on my mind and memory down to its smallest detail. But, on the whole, I could make neither head nor tail of it, and was, therefore, quite incapable of arriv- ing at the conclusions which later appeared so simple. But what did become clear to me, was the previously unimagined, unrevealed and all-surpassing power of the palette. Painting showed itself to me in all its fantasy and enchantment. And deep inside of me, there was born the first faint doubt as to the importance of an object as the necessary element in a painting.... It was in Lohengrin that I felt the supreme incarnation and interpretation of this vision through music. ... I could see all my colors, as they came to life before my eyes. Madly, in raging profusion, they drew themselves in my mind . . . it became totally clear to me that art in general possessed a far greater power than I ever had imagined. I also realized that painting possesses the same power as music. It was then that the impossibility of devoting myself to the seeking of these powers be- came an even greater torment. The temptation to do so was overwhelming. ... And just then, one of the most formidable obstacles on the way to the realiza- tion of my wishes, crumbled and vanished by itself, all thanks to a purely scientific event. This was the disintegration of the atom. THE ARTIST AND THE ATOM—BLANC 435 This discovery struck me with terriffic impact, comparable to that of the end of the world. In the twinkling of an eye, the mighty arches of science lay shattered before me. All things became flimsy, with no strength or certainty. I would hardly have been surprised if the stones would have risen in the air and disappeared. ‘To me, science had been destroyed. [Quoted by Hilla Rebay, In Memory of Wassily Kandinsky, p. 538, New York, 1945.] And so Kandinsky, impelled by discoveries concerning the atom, became the father of nonobjective painting. Thus we find the two great developments of twentieth-century painting, abstraction and nonobjectivism, coming into being almost simultaneously with science’s revelation of the void within the atom— abstraction achieving its first flower in the work of the analytical cubists in 1911, the very year of Rutherford’s disclosures, and non- objective painting making its first appearance in the work of Kan- dinsky in 1912. It is hardly surprising to find that a third development, this time in the field of sculpture, followed hard upon the others. It is generally considered that the constructivist movement in sculpture, characterized by the substitution of openwork forms in place of the closed monolithic form of the sculpture of the past, began in 1918. Boccioni, Italian painter and sculptor, declared in the futurist manifesto of 1914: “The circumscribed lines of the ordinary enclosed statue should be abolished. The figure must be opened up and fused in space.” Naum Gabo, one of the earliest and best-known constructivists, has stated this even more simply: “Older sculpture was created in terms of solids; the new departure was to create in terms of space.” Although the new conception of sculpture lagged somewhat behind painting and unquestionably was derived at least in part from the cubists, whose work was familiar to both Gabo and his brother, Pevs- ner, another of the constructivist leaders, Gabo’s own interests lay in science as well as art. He had studied mathematics, physics, chem- istry, and engineering at the University of Munich in the years 1909 to 1912. Consequently there can be no doubt that he was well ac- quainted with the developments in atomic theory that occurred in this period. Thus it would appear that the constructivist movement in sculpture, like cubism and nonobjective painting, was carried out by artists who had access to and were interested in current scientific discoveries. Under these circumstances, even in the absence of such direct testimony as Kandinsky’s, the coincidence of three most im- portant innovations of modern art with the revelation of the Ruther- ford atom cannot be passed over as accidental. The theory of atomic matter was not to stand on Rutherford’s con- clusions, however, for by 1925 the Rutherford solar-system atom had broken down in the light of observed phenomena. In its place 436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Schrédinger, Heisenberg, Dirac, Bohr, and others advanced theories supported by mathematical and experimental data which reduced even the tiny floating specks of matter left by Rutherford to insub- stantiality. Their conclusion was that what the world still conceived to be material points were in fact nothing but wave systems, “storm centers of waves or ripples in an imaginary sub-ether.” Matter had become synonymous with energy. ‘Thus, after a hundred years, the last trace of Dalton’s hard, solid, indestructible atom disappeared, and in the scientific world the concept of substance ceased to exist. Even more puzzling, by 1927 it was found that although the velocity or momentum of one of the centers of energy to which the electron had been reduced could be experimentally established, and its position separately determined in independent experiments, no method of simultaneously determining position and velocity was available, nor was any method of accomplishing this conceivable. After a quarter century, science has still made no advance toward the solution of this problem. Indeed, scientists have come to believe that the association of exact position with exact momentum can never be discovered be- cause there is no such thing in nature; and this result has been accepted as the “Principle of Uncertainty.” The electron, the minutest of the old material particles, has become merely “something unknown doing we don’t know what.” A similar impasse has been reached by way of Einstein’s theory of relativity, in which the only meaning of matter is a region in the space-time continuum where the paths through space are curved. Today science informs us that we live in a world of shadows so abstract as to make it impossible to form any mental picture of what is really happening. Indeed, as Harvey-Gibson says in “Two Thou- sand Years of Science,” “The further science probes into the hidden recesses of the atomic world, the more obscure and shadowy does ob- jective reality seem, the less material and tangible does Nature appear to be.” Consequently it seems altogether natural that contemporary paint- ing should depict a shadowy and insubstantial world in which amorphous objects hang suspended in a state of watchful expectation and uncertainty. Miro, Gorky, Baziotes, Stamos, the early Matta, Rothko, and others exhibit quite consistently an extreme state of sus- pension, and even in sculpture this quality is evident in such work as Calder’s mobiles. Indeed, suspension in some degree is a chief char- acteristic of twentieth-century painting, for the solidity of the ground under one’s feet is a sensation which science has proved meretricious. The only certainty left to man is that in this universe there exists some kind of mysterious activity and some even more mysterious equilibrium. In contrast to those who float and contemplate, others THE ARTIST AND THE ATOM—BLANC 437 resort to action, searching the void: De Kooning, Pollock, Tomlin, and Tworkov, to name but a few among many. In the works of all these painters we find a network of lines, black or white, which give the impression of darting about the canvas. They are not contours of objects, they do not model form, they are not mere decoration. Their quality is movement. More than anything they suggest the track of some moving object—the wake of a ship, the path of a rocket, the vapor trails left by an airplane. In sculpture, Lassaw’s “Milky Way” is roughly analogous. There are not many such phenomena in nature. But one man-made product of the twentieth century seems closer in appearance and in spirit to these paintings than any other. It leads us back to the atom. No man has ever seen an atom, much less an electron or any other subatomic “particle.” But the movements of the “particles” through space, their collision with atoms or parts of atoms, and the explosive disintegration of the atom when a head-on collision occurs have been observed and photographed thousands and thousands of times by means of an apparatus developed by C. T. R. Wilson. This device, commonly known as the cloud chamber, is simply a box filled with moisture-saturated air and provided with a glass panel through which the interior of the box may be observed. When a stream of alpha rays or other subatomic “particles” is shot into the chamber, sooner or later one of them is bound to collide with an electron or with the nucleus of one of the millions of atoms of which the air inside the chamber is composed. The passage of the “particles” through the chamber and the consequent fragmentation of the atom produces trails of gaseous ions on which the excess moisture in the chamber deposits as a result of condensation. The paths of the “particles” and the constituents of the shattered atoms are thus defined by chains of microscopic drops, much as a cannon ball fired through a field of wheat, though never visible itself, will leave a plainly visible track. The variety and intricacy of the cloud-chamber tracks are inde- scribable and far surpass any display of fireworks or any natural phenomenon of this type, and the closeness of their resemblance to the paintings of the artists mentioned above speaks for itself. The same darting quality, the same intricacy of movement and surface confu- sion, and the same underlying suggestion of pattern and organization appear in both. The Wilson cloud chamber and the photographs obtained by its use have received widespread publicity for several decades, for it is perhaps the most important aid to the investigation of the atomic structure of matter that the twentieth century has developed. Such chambers were demonstrated in elementary physics courses at leading universities at least as early as 1930, and sample photographs 4388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 of cloud-chamber collisions are to be found in many modern physics textbooks. The dramatic quality of these investigations has caught the public interest, and only a few months ago the discovery of still another type of subatomic “particle” was publicized by Life magazine in an article that included numerous large-scale reproductions of cloud-chamber photographs. Under the circumstances, there is a reasonable presumption that some of the artists mentioned above were already familiar with the effects observable in the cloud-chamber when they began painting in this manner. Again, it is not suggested that the paintings are a deliberate imita- tion of the photographs. On the contrary, they are by and large even more intricate and are freighted with a burden of human emotion totally lacking in the cloud-chamber views. But the surface simi- larity is far too great to be lightly dismissed, and the emotional im- plications in these paintings of the human mind groping for some state of equilibrium and order in a mysterious, strange, and insub- stantial universe is too obviously analogous to the state of modern science to be dismissed. It is not too much to assume that an intuitive perception of the analogy between the efforts of the scientist on the physical plane to find order in his shattered world, and the perennial effort of the artist to find the spiritual order and unity which charac- terize the work of art, has led the artist to subconscious exploitation of remembered impressions of cloud-chamber photographs as the common symbol of this search. Thus it appears that during the past hundred years the majority of the important innovations in the plastic arts have occurred simul- taneously with, or shortly after, revolutionary changes in man’s con- cept of the constitution of matter. In some cases the artists them- selves have admitted that the new theories established by the scientists contributed to their development; others have denied any such con- scious influence. But the chronological parallelism and the mutuality of concept and image form overwhelming evidence of the closeness of the relationship. Whether science influenced art or art influenced science makes very little difference; for in neither case was the in- fluence accepted in slavish fashion. The scientist has not become an artist nor the artist a scientist. They simply share a mutual pre- occupation—today, a mutual problem; and each approaches it in his habitual way and from his habitual point of view. The facts suggest that science was first to establish the new truths about the universe which were then taken into consideration by the artists. But it is well to remember that the scientists of each decade built upon the facts elaborated by their predecessors. In this sense the influences that led Rutherford to his famous conclusions were identical with the influ- ences that led the cubists to develop their new expressions of reality. THE ARTIST AND THE ATOM—BLANC 439 Indeed, in the final analysis, the truth may well be that forces com- mon to the age and still too close to permit precise identification in- fluenced scientist and artist alike and led both in independence of each other to conceptions of the universe that have a startling correspondence. Today some complain that modern art is incomprehensible and confusing, cold and detached, devoid of human warmth and as clin- ically aloof as the laboratory. This is to attribute to the artist ex- clusively qualities that man has in fact learned to be intrinsic in the universe. Art has become abstract only to the extent to which the world itself has become abstract. By comparison, the material uni- verse of the nineteenth century was a comfortable and cozy environ- ment for man. But this security did not last. The concept of the limitless space of the atom was only the first of a series of shocks which twentieth-century man was to endure. Today nothing is left of matter, and every aspect of solidity seems to have become illusion. Rocks, trees, houses, men and women, all are mere ghosts of their former selves. All that is left is energy and the void. It is not spirit- ual confusion, lack of humanity, or morbid preoccupation that leads the artist to face these facts of life and produce works of art that take them into account. On the contrary, it would be a cowardly evasion to ignore them and turn blindly to the past for more reassuring sub- ject matter. It is the paradox of art today that what is still known as realism is actually an escape from reality. The artists, like the scientists, are seeking to find the hidden order and equilibrium that must exist in this new and ominous world— different though it may be from our previous comfortable concep- tions. Man may never be restored to his old position of central im- portance and security. His relationship with the universe may never be more intimate than the austere and semireligious acceptance of mystery which characterizes the thought of so many artists and scientists today. But scientist and artist alike must continue to scrutinize and evaluate this awesome spectacle, the one with his measurements and mathematics, the other with his intuition and imag- ination, until a solution has been reached. 981445—52——_29 oe We a Ley 4 7 (ida efecto pdbel whit — hi ak anit bes arti : Heh old gol Sesh agioarg. 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Ifeitl «+4960 ay e12.¢ ae ’ i‘ . - ’ r ad 8 , « y a aw } a | ‘ { ; Phone 4981 USVI : Mi 2BEL3, Li rongiog : BD Pag Q RATT nengaye ha wont. cha eae. los 3 v6. teenie, soubou beset do sine) eaorlt a sh rap — mh BYsLOS. Juie, Wath Aid ba teige dear dal auodiiten an | ut PR - BYE a, (Hist ons Day ra . . ° . =: ; r 7 ‘ adinrr riped end avi INDEX A Abbot, Charles G., ix, 119 Abbott, R. Tucker, vi Accessions, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 27, 42, 43, 49, 94, 106, 125, 131, 144, 146 Bureau of American Ethnology, 94 Freer Gallery of Art, 49 Library, 12, 144, 146 National Air Museum, 125, 131 National Collection of Fine Arts, 42, 43 National Gallery of Art, 8, 27 National Museum, 7, 14 National Zoological Park, 10, 106 Acheson, Dean C., Secretary of State, member of the Institution, v, viii Adams, Richard N., 90 Adams-Clement collection, opening of, 6 Air Museum. seum.) Aldrich, Loyal B., Director, Astrophysi- cal Observatory, ix, 117, 122 Aldrich, William T., 41 Allen, W. T., vii, 19, 22 American Ethnology. (See Bureau of.) Anderson, Clinton P., regent of the In- stitution, v, 4 Andrews, A. J., Vi Appropriations, 5, 26, 60, 88, 142, 153, 159 Canal Zone Biological Area, 142 Institute of Social Anthropology, 88, 159 National Gallery of Art, 26 National Zoological Park, 159 Printing and binding, 153 River Basin Surveys, 60, 159 Arctowski, Henryk, 119 Arms, John Taylor, 41 Arthur lecture on the sun, Highteenth annual, 6, 163 Artist and the atom, The (Peter Blanc), 427 (See National Air Mu- Astrophysical Observatory, ix, 10, 117 Division of Astrophysical Research, a GUr¢ Division of Radiation and Organ- isms, 120 Report, 117 Atom, The artist and the (Peter Blanc), 427 Atomic energy, The industrial applica- tions of (M. L. Oliphant), 223 Atomic weapons against cancer (BE. N. Lockard), 263 Avery, E. A., vii Awl, Mrs. Aime M., vi B Bailey, Edward, 22 Barkley, Alben W., Vice President of the United States, member of the Institution, v, 4 Barney, Alice Pike, loan collection, 43 Memorial fund, 44 Baroja, Julio Caro, 91 Bartsch, Paul, vi Bassler, R. S., vii Baumbhoff, Martin, 638, 64 Bayer, Frederick M., vi Beach, Jessie G., vii Beal, Gifford, 41 Beckman, Harry, 136 Beers, Stephen L., 131 Beggs, Thomas M., Director, National Collection of Fine Arts, viii, 41, 48 Benn, J. H., vii Bent, Arthur C., vi Belin, Ferdinand Lammot, Vice Presi- dent, National Gallery of Art, viii, 25, 26 Bell, Lawrence D., 125 Bell, Robert E., 81 Bequests, 124 Stephenson, George H., 124 Biery, Don, 140 Blackwelder, R. E., vi 441 442 Blaker, Mrs. M. C., vi Blane, Peter (The artist and the atom), 427 Bleakley, Andrew, Jr., 134 Bliss, Robert Woods, 41 Boving, A. G., vi Bowsher, Arthur L., vii, 24 Brannan, Charles F., Secretary of Agri- culture, member of the Institution, v Bridges, William E., vii Bridgman, P. W. (Some results in the field of high-pressure physics), 199 Brot, M. C., Mme., 139 Brown, John Nicholas, 41 Brown, Margaret W., viii Brown, W. L., vi Bruns, Franklin R., Jr., viii, 24 Buchanan, L. L., vi Burcaw, G. Hillis, 74, 76, 78 Bureau of American Ethnology, viii, 9, 56, 151 Archives, 93 Collections, 94 Editorial work and publications, 91, 151 Institute of Social Anthropology, 87 Library, 93 Report, 56 River Basin Surveys, 59 Staff, viii Systematic researches, 56 Burgoyne, William, 141 Burton, Lt. Comdr. John, 129 Bush, Vannevar, regent of the Institu- tion, v, 4, 160 Byas, W. J., vi C Cairns, Huntington, Secretary-Treas- urer and General Counsel, National Gallery of Art, viii, 25, 40 Caldwell, Joseph R., 61, 62 Campbell, John M., 65 Canal Zone Biological Area, ix, 11, 134, 159 Buildings, 134 Fiscal report, 142 Improvements, 134 Rainfall, 141 Report, 134 Scientists and their studies, 135 Visitors, 140 Cancer, Atomic weapons against (E. N. Lockard), 263 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Cannon, Clarence, regent of the Institu- tion, v, 4, 160 Carbon-14 method of age determination, The (Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr.), 335 Carey, Charles, 24 Carpenter, Col. Standley, 140 Carriker; Mi Aj, dn., 15, 21 Cartwright, O. L., vi, 21 Chace, F. A., Jr., vi Chadwick, John B., 140 Chancellor of the Institution (Fred M. Vinson, Chief Justice of the United States), v, 4 Chapin, Edward A., vi Chapman, Osear, Secretary of the Inte- rior, member of the Institution, v Chase, Agnes, vii Chemical elements, Dushman), 245 Cheney, George A., 67 Chickering, A. M., 1386 Clark, Austin H., vi, 23 (The fauna of America), 287 Clark, Mrs. Leila F., Librarian of the Institution, v, 147 Clark, R. S., vi Clark, Thomas F., administrative ac- countant of the Institution, v, 139 Clark, Walter F., 139 Clarke, Gilmore D., 41 Cloud seeding as a means of increasing precipitation, An appraisal of (Henry G. Houghton), 175 Coale, George L., 64 Cochran, Doris M., vi Collias, Nicholas E., 137 Collins, H. B., Jr., viii, 9, 57, 58 Combs, Rear Adm. Thomas &., ix, 124 Commerford, L. E., chief, Division of Publications, v Compton, Arthur H., regent of the In- stitution, v, 4 Conger, Paul S., vii Cooper, B. N., 22 Cooper, Gustav A., vii, 19, 22 Cooper, Paul L., 57, 71, 76 Cox, E. E., regent of the Institution, v, 4 Cox, Larry, 134 Crile, George, Jr., 23 Crockett, W. D., vii Cumming, Robert B., Jr., 71, 74, 77 Cumming, Robert Lewis, 138 Cushman, Robert A., vi The new (Saul INDEX D Dale, Chester, viii, 25, 26 Daugherty, Richard D., 66, 67 Davis, Harvey N., regent of the Insti- tution, v, 4 Davis, John H., 188 Davis, Monett, 140 Deignan, H. G., vi Delaney, John, 134 Densmore, Frances, viii, 95 Donaldson, Jesse M., Postmaster Gen- eral, member of the Institution, v Dunkle, D. H., vii, 19, 22 Dushman, Saul (The new chemical ele- ments), 245 E Edgell, George H., 41 Editorial Division, chief (Paul H. Oeh- ser), v, 153 Edmond-Biane, Francois, 139 Hinstein’s new theory, On (Leopold In- feld), 189 Hisenmann, Eugene, 136 Hider, R. A., Jr., vi Electronics, Some prospects in the field of (V. K. Zworykin), 235 Ellis, Hazel R., 137 Ellis, Max M., vi Histad, V. B., ix Elton, Norman, 140 Enger, W. D., 75 Enger, Walter D., Jr., 77 Enzymes: Machine tools of the cellular factory (B. A. Kilby), 278 Erasmus, Charles J., 89, 90 Ettinghausen, Richard, viii, 54, 55 Evans, Clifford, Jr., vi, 23 Ewers, J. C., vi Executive Committee of the Board of Regents, v, 160 Report, 154 Appropriations, 159 Assets, 157 Audit, 159 Cash balances, receipts, and disbursements, 156 Classification of investments, 156 Freer Gallery of Art fund, 155 Gifts, 158 Smithsonian endowment fund, 154 Summary of endowments, 156 443 Exhibitions, 33, 47 National Collection of Fine Arts, 47 National Gallery of Art, 33 vy Fairchild, David, vii Farrell, Robert, 64 Fauna of America, The (Austin H. Clark), 287 Fenenga, Franklin, 63, 71, 77 Fenton, W. N., viii, 9, 59 Field, W. D., vi Finances, 4, 154 Appropriations, 5 Report of Executive Committee of the Board of Regents, 154 Finlayson, John and Richard, 51 Finley, David E., Director, National Gallery of Art, viii, 25, 26, 41 Fisher, W. K., vi Fite, BE. J., vii Fleming, Robert V., regent of the In- stitution, v, 4, 160 Forsythe, W. E., 118 Foshag, W. F., vii Foster, G. M., Jr., Director, Institute of Social Anthropology, viii, 87, 91 Freer Gallery of Art, viii, 9, 49, 152, 155 Attendance, 9, 53 Changes in exhibitions, 51 Collections, 49 Endowment fund, 155 Herzfeld Archive, 53 Library, 51 Publications, 152 Repairs to the collection, 51 Report, 49 Staff, vili Staff activities, 53 Friedmann, Herbert, vi, 16, 21 G Garber, Paul E., ix, 124, 131 Gardner, Paul V., viii, 41, 42 Garth, Thomas R., 74, 77 Gazin, C. L., vii, 19, 22 Gazin, Mrs. Elisabeth H., vi George, Walter F., regent of the In- stitution, v, 4 Gibson, R. E., 125 Glance, Grace E., vi Goodrich, Lloyd, 41 Goss, Wilbur H., 125 Goubaud-Carrera, Antonio, 90 ttt ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Graf, John E., Assistant Secretary of | International Exchange Service, ix, 10, the Institution, v, 41, 139 Graham, D. C., vi Grant, Maj. Gen. U. S., 3d, 7 Greene, Charles T., vi Guest, Grace Dunhan, viii H Halftone screen, The development of the (Jacob Kainen), 409 Handley, Charles O., Jr., vi, 23 Harrington, John P., viii, 9, 58, 59 Harrison, J. H., ix Hartle, Donald D., 75, 78, 83 Hartman, Frank A., 136 Hartmann, Armageddon, 136 Hartmann, Ratibor, 136 Henderson, E. P., vii Hermle, Paul, 139 Hess, Frank L., vii High-pressure physics, Some results in the field of (P. W. Bridgman), 199 Hiller, Stanley, 128 Holden, F. E., vii Hoover, William H., ix, 118, 119 Hormones and the metamorphosis of insects (V. B. Wigglesworth), 313 Horowitz, Emanuel, ix Houghton, Henry G. (An appraisal of cloud seeding as a means of increas- ing precipitation, 175 Howard, J. D., Treasurer of the Insti- tution, v Howell, A. Brazier, vi Hughes, Howard, 128 Humphreys, Robert H., 84 Hunsaker, Jerome C., regent of the Institution, v, 4 Wigs Poi vin Ue Index of American Design, 38 Infeld, Leopold (On LEinstein’s new theory), 189 Insects, Hormones and the metamor- phosis of (V. B. Wigglesworth), 313 Institute of Social Anthropology, viii, 9; 87, 152, 159 Appropriation, 88, 159 Field work, 89 Publications, 152 Report, 87 Washington office, 91 96 Foreign depositories of govern- mental documents, 97 Foreign exchange agencies, 102 Interparliamentary exchange of the official journal, 100 Packages received and sent, 96 Report, 96 J James, Macgill, Assistant Director, Na- tional Gallery of Art, viii, 25 Jelks, Edward B., 82, 84 Jellison, W. L., vi Johnson, David H., vi, 21 Johnson, Irving, 140 Johnson, Leonard G., 80, 81 Judd, Neil M., vi K Kainen, Jacob, vii (The development of the halftone sereen), 409 Kanazawa, Robert H., vi Keally and Patterson, 53 Keddy, J. L., Assistant Secretary of the Institution, v Keenan, Marvin, 140 Kellogg, A. Remington, Director, Na- tional Museum, vi, 7, 24 Kelly, Isabel T., 90 Kestner, FI. B., photographer of the Institution, v Ketchum, Miriam B., viii Kilby, B. A. (Enzymes: Machine tools of the cellular factory), 273 Killip, E. P., vii, 23 Knight, J. Brookes, vii, 17 Kknox, Mrs. Katherine McCook, 7 Koford, Carl, and Mrs. Koford, 138 Korff, Serge, and Mrs. Korff, 138 Kramer, Andrew, ix Kress, Samuel H., President, National Gallery of Art, viii, 25, 26 Krieger, H. W., vi, 20 Kunze, Marjorie R., ix L Lachner, E. A., vi Laufer, Arthur R. (Ultrasonics), 213 Laughlin, Ledlie I., 138 Laughlin, Robert M., 138 Lawrence, Lovell, Jr., 125 INDEX Lea, John S., vi, 150 Leapley, W. T., vi Lee, George O., 141 Lehmer, Donald J., 72, 73, 78, 81 Leonard, E. C., vii Leutscher, Alfred (The mechanics of snakes), 303 Lewton, F. L., vii Libby, W. F., 72 Library, 12, 144 Bureau of American Ethnology, 93 Freer Gallery of Art, 51 National Collection of Fine Arts, 47 National Gallery of Art, 37 Smithsonian, 12, 144 Accessions, 12, 144, 146 Report, 144 Summarized statistics, 146 Lighting, Artificial, in America: 1830— 1860 (C. Malcolm Watkins), 385 Link, Anna M., viii Llano, George A., 24 Lockard, E. N. (Atomic weapons against eancer), 263 Loeblich, A. R., Jr., vii, 22 Loening, Grover, ix Lowe, Frank O., ix Lowy, Bernard, 136 Lundy, William E., 140 Lyon, Rowland, viii M Male, W. M., ix, 128 Mann, William M., Directer, National Zoological Park, vi, ix, 116 Manning, Mrs. Catherine L., 24 Manship, Paul, 41 Marble, J. P., vii Mariani, Ambassador, of Italy, 141 Marshall, George C., Secretary of De- fense, member of the Institution, v Marshall, W. B., vi Martin, G. J., viii Masland, Frank B., Jr., 140 Mattes, M. J., 79 Mattison, R. H., 79 McBride, Harry A., Administrator, Na- tional Gallery of Art, viii, 25 McClure, F. A., vii McGrath, J. Howard, Attorney General, member of the Institution, v Mellon, Paul, viii, 25, 26 Members of the Institution, v Memorial gifts, 7 445 Metals, The insides of (Carl A. Zapffe), 253 Metamorphosis of insects, Hormones and the (V. B. Wigglesworth), 313 Metcalf, George, 71, 78 Miller, Carl F., 61, 62, 85 — Miller, E. O., 83, 85 Miller, Gerrit S., Jr., vi Milne, Lorus J., 1387 Milne, Margery, 137 Mitman, Carl W., ix, 125, 133 Mohr, Albert D., 63, 64 Moore, J. Perey, vi Moorman, EK. H., 83, 85 Morrison, Joseph P. E., vi Morton C. V., vii, 17, 21, 22 Mosher, S. M., viii Murray, A. C., vii Myer, Catherine Walden, fund, 43 Myers, George Hewitt, 41 N National Air Museum, ix, 11, 123 Accessions, list of, 131 Accessions and events, 125 Advisory Board, ix, 123 Cooperative projects and informa- tional services, 128 Curatorial activities, 124 Highlights, 123 Report, 123 Staff, ix Stephenson bequest, 124 Storage, 127 Survey, 131 National Collection of Fine Arts, viii, 8, 41 Accessions, 42, 43 Alice Pike Barney loan collection, 43 Alice Pike Barney memorial fund, 4 Catherine Walden Myer fund, 43 Henry Ward Ranger fund, 46 Information service, 47 Library, 47 Loans, 44, 45, 46 Report, 41 Smithsonian Art Commission, 8, 41 Special exhibitions, 47 Staff, viii Study collection, 43 Transfers, 44 Withdrawals by owners, 45 446 National Gallery of Art, viii, 8, 25 Accessions, 8, 27 Acquisitions committee, 26 Appropriations, 26 Attendance, 8, 27 Audit of private funds of the Gal- lery, 40 Care and maintenance of the build- ing, 38 Construction of new galleries and offices, 38 Construction of storage facilities, 39 Curatorial activities, 35 Decorative arts, 27 Educational program, 37 Exchange of works of art, 28 Executive committee, 25 Exhibitions, 33 Finance committee, 26 Index of American Design, 38 Library, 37 Loans, 28, 32, 33 Officials, viii, 25 Organization, 25 Paintings, 27 Prints and drawings, 28 Publications, 36 Report, 25 Restoration and repair of works of art, 36 Tenth anniversary celebration, 27 Traveling exhibition, 34 Trustees, viii, 25 National Museum, U. S., vi, 7, 14, 150 Accessions, 7, 14 Buildings and equipment, 14 Changes in organization and staff, 23 Collections, 14 Exploration and field work, 20 Publications, 150 Report, 14 Staff, vi Visitors, 23 National Zoological Park, ix, 10, 104, 159 Accessions, 10, 106 Appropriation, 159 Births and hatchings, 114 Depositors and donors and their gifts, 108 Exhibits, 106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 National Zoological Park—Cont. Maintenance and improvements, 115 Needs, 116 Report, 104 Staff, ix Visitors, 10, 104 Neuman, R. B., 22 Newman, Jack B., personnel officer of the Institution, v Newman, M. T., vi Nicol, David, vii Nobel, Rear Adm. A. G., 125 O Oberg, Kalervo, 89 Oehser, Paul H., chief, Editorial Divi- sion, v, 153 Oliphant, M. L. (The industrial applica- tion of atomic energy), 223 Olivares, Ismael, 139 Oliver, L. L., superintendent of build- ings and labor, v Oliver, S. H., vii Osborne, Douglas, 65, 66 iy Palmer, M. Helen, viii, 151 Palmer, T. S., vi Parfin, Sophy, vi Payne, Max B., 22 Pearce, Franklin L., vii, 12, 22 Pearson, Mrs. Louise M., administrative assistant to the Secretary, v Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., 160 Peck, Stuart, 64 Perry, K. M., vii Perry, Stuart H., vii, 18 Perrygo, W. M., 15, 20, 139 Peterson, Mrs. L. W., vi Peterson, Mendel I., viii, 23 Phillips, Duncan, viii, 25, 26 Physics, Some results in the field of high-pressure (P. W. Bridgman), 199 Pierson, Donald, 89 Pope, John A., viii, 53, 54, 55 Potter, David, 141 Price, Leonard, ix Price, Waterhouse & Co., 40 Pride, Rear Adm. A. M., 124 Publications, 11, 36, 91, 148 American Historical Association, Report, 152 INDEX 447 Publications—Cont. logical and Paleontological Salvage Appropriation for printing and Program (Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr.), binding, 153 351 Bureau of American Ethnology, $1, | Robbins, Ross, 138 151 Roberts, Frank H. H., Jr., Associate Di- Annual Report, 152 rector, Bureau of American Ethnol- Bulletins, 152 ogy; Director, River Basin Surveys, Institute of Social Anthro- viii, 9, 57, 59, 61 pology, publications, 152 (The carbon-14 method of age de- Daughters of the American Revolu- termination), 335 tion, Report, 152 (River Basin Surveys: The first Distribution, 148 five years of the Inter-Agency Freer Gallery of Art, 152 Archeological and Paleontological Occasional Papers, 152 Salvage Program), 351 Special publications, 152 | Roberts, Walter Orr, 6 National Gallery of Art, 36 (Stormy weather on the sun), 163 National Museum, 150 Rogers, Grace L., vii Annual Report, 150 Romano, Octavio, 64 Bulletins, 151 Rudd, Velva E., vii Contributions from the United | Russell, J. Townsend, Jr., vi States National Herbarium, | Ryan, Francis J., and Mrs. Ryan, 138 151 Ss Proceedings, 150 a Sita a a Salter, Robert M. (Utilizing our soil Hn Hee scat 11. 148 resources for greater production), 319 Annual Report, 149 Saltonstall, Leverett, regent of the In- Miscellaneous Collections, 148 g ee ae Sante Pa oes Special publications, 150 pawl BITES: cRECEO AY merce, member of the Institution, v Tables, 12 Schall W. T. vii Publications, Division of, chief (L. B.| 2008) 8 Ws 9 VE Commerford), v Sehmitt, Waldo L., vi p Scholes, R. T., and Mrs. Scholes, 139 Maj. : ald L., ix, eet : Putt, Maj. Gen. Donald ix, 124 Senate, Leshan Schumacher, HE. G., viii Schwartz, Benjamin, vi Rands, Robert, 57 Schwartz, Douglas W » 10 ; Searle, Mrs. Harriet Richardson, vi Ranger, Henry Ward, fund, 46 a Pike Secretary of the Institution (Alexander meee ee et Wet v, Vili, 4, 7, 13,,15, 20, 25 Reeside, J. B., Ir., vil PUM One) 9 fa Ga oer ni Br Regents, Board of, v, 3 °. 42, 125, 189 R : Report, 1 Seles mene E Adams-Clement Collection, Executive Committee, v, 160 nee Members, v, 160 , ys ek , : Report, 154 Arthur lecture, Establishment, The, 3 Finances, 4 Appropritions, 5 General statement, 1 Members, v, 4 Rehder, Harald A., vi River Basin Surveys, viii, 9, 59, 159 Appropriation, 60, 159 Library, 12 Cooperating institutions, 86 Memorial gifts, 7 Field work, 63 Publications, 11 Report, 59 Regents, Board of, 3 Washington office, 61 Summary of the year’s activi- River Basin Surveys: The first five ties, 7 years of the Inter-Agency Archeo- Visitors, 5 448 Setzer, Henry W., vi, 21 Setzler, Frank M., vi Shalkop, Robert L., 71 Shaw, Winthrop S., ix Shepard, Donald D., 25 Shiner, Joel L., 64, 68 Shippee, James M., 72, 78 Shoemaker, C. R., vi Simmons, Ozzie G., 89, 91 Sinclair, Charles C., assistant super- intendent of buildings and labor, v Sirlouis, J. R., viii Skinner, Morris, 80 Smith, A. C., vii Smith, Don, Jr., 134 Smith, George H., 75, 79 Smith, J. Russell, 140 Smith, James G., 80, 81 Smith, Lyman B., vii Smith, Ray, 42 Smithsonian Art Commission, 8, 41 Snakes, The mechanics of (Alfred Leutscher), 303 Snyder, John W., Secretary of the Treasury, member of the Institution, Vv, Viii, 26 Sohns, Ernest R., vii, 24 Soil resources, Utilizing our, for greater production (Robert M. Salter), 319 Solecki, Ralph S., 61, 62, 82 Soper, C. C., 139 Southwick, Charles, 137 Stanton, T. W., vii Stephenson, Robert L., 82, 88, 84 Stern, Harold P., viii Stevenson, John A., vii Stewart, T. Dale, vi Stirling, Matthew W., Director, Bureau of American Ethnology, viii, 9, 56, 95 Stout, William B., ix Strobell, Robert ©., ix, 131 Stubbs, Burns A., viii Sun, Stormy weather on the (Walter Orr Roberts), 163 Swallen, Jason R., vii, 23 Swanton, John R., viii, 95 Swingle, W. T., vii Switzer, George S., vii, 22 r Talbert, D. G., ix Taylor, Frank A., vii Taylor, Walter E., 57, 58 Taylor, W. W., Jr., vi ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1951 Thomas, G. §., vii Tobin, Maurice, Secretary of Labor, member of the Institution, v Tobin, Samuel J., 67 Truman, Harry §&., President of the United States, Presiding Officer ex officio of the Institution, v Tucker, Mae W., viii U Ultrasonics (Arthur R. Laufer), 213 v Vandenberg, Gen. Hoyt S., 125 Vaughan, T. W., vii Vinson, Fred M., Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor of the In- stitution, v, viii, 4, 25 Visitors, 5, 8, 9, 10, 27, 58, 104, 140 Canal Zone Biological Area, 140 Freer Gallery of Art, 9, 53 National Gallery of Art, 8, 27 National Zoological Park, 10, 104 Smithsonian buildings, 5 Vorys, John M., regent of the Institu- tion, v, 4, 140 Ww Walker, E. H., vii, 22 Walker, Ernest P., ix Walker, John, Chief Curator, National Gallery of Art, viii, 25 Waring, Antonio J., Jr., viii, 95 Watkins, C. Malcolm, vi (Artificial lighting in America: 18380-1860), 385 Watkins, W. N., vii Webb, William S., 70 Wedderburn, A. J., Jr., vii Wedel, Waldo R., vi, 20, 73 Weiss, Helena M., vi Wenley, A. G., Director, Freer Gallery of Art, viii, 41, 54, 55 Wetmore, Alexander, Secretary of the Institution, v, vi, viii, ix, 4, 7, 18, 15, 20, 25, 41, 125, 139 Wheeler, Richard Page, 71, 72, 78, 79 White, Lawrence Grant, 41 White, Theodore E., 61, 62, 75, 79, 80, 84 Wigglesworth, V. B. (Hormones and the metamorphosis of insects), 313 INDEX 449 Wilding, Anthony W., property, supply, ay, and purchasing officer of the Institu-| yeager, Capt. Charles B., 125 tion, Vv Willey, Gordon R., 91 Z Williams, D. G., Chief, International Zapft 1 A. (The insides of enone ceaiea ie 103 apffe, Car (The insides of metals), Wilson, Mrs. Mildred S., vi aoe Withrow, Alice P., ix Zetek, James, Resident Manager, Canal Withrow, R. B., ix, 117, 120 Zone Biological Area, ix, 17, 189, 148 Wolfe, Lt. Gen. K. B., 124 Zoological Park. (See National Zoolog- Wonderly, William, 90 ical Park.) Wulf, Oliver R., 119 Zworykin, V. K. (Some prospects in the Wyeth, Andrew, 41 field of electronics), 235 O Ch ' ¥. rag a if tei tai. > Pee Be evap aN aia lo Robey Say LA fast) ihe ; . Onn ioe think SR GiL jnshWOH paral, gietek Eel ie wad XL abadds lantao(uitd sank Mu S48 nD ’ dad ta Sar 2 ; wage | {Aga bins Of AL eipogone eee) NM astaerows | ' Pesitchs a lagtieynis fg see) fptait iat A. 4 Ke ‘ <) i ; ‘ a) ere @ Font , rf Lie Ur vep Be LATE L ETS : Weg ve Roo ae i y i 4 Pid, € i pee rf 7 ) 7 : Lay mt Sb ta tae rie Li ’ { - t SURE, aon ip pot eAS Baa ee swritual ott coolio, patent oe bisa, a | irhht tin, & eee . do yee DE whl wottoD ppolG pod sett. Weide) 49.) eo Bik, Xd lye, someon ov, 4 Babin Sain rie 3 aoe Kit PALA rote D Vids ti uel eros Par Sh rh BORD AD Moy Of OH he buget | OLE Lab sot. Se, j } De prota ey ie oe i), { “~ ' : , A ~ ‘ ’ “a e out. r ‘ ye | ‘ ; ’ d P j a | ; , °* * 7 . ce sit Th), Se nwrews tire ty ) Vhitw, (ueodre fy 0 OS 25 7R ee a erica de ae (TTorraened frat. 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