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PINS SYED c TION 


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Annual Report of the Board of Regents 


of the 
SMITHSONIAN 
INSTITUTION 


PUBLICATION 4518 


Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the 


Institution for the Year Ended June 30 


1962 


U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
WASHINGTON : 1963 


For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 
Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price $4.75 (Cloth) 


LETEER OF TRANSMIEDPAL 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
Washington, December 28, 1962. 


To the Congress of the United States: 

In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the 
United States, I have the honor, on behalf of the Board of Regents, 
to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- 
tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended 
June 30, 1962. 

Respectfully, 
Lronarp CarMICHAEL, Secretary. 
I 


CONTENTS 


Niistrowmomcials= == 2 ee ae eee ee ere hal ae, Ses ek FE aE Be 
General statement 


PREV OATOIORNCPCNtS=s"> . 53 mes be ble Tes od eee gore 
ART ENT GS pete ese tgs re She hyn Sa er os en oa ee ee nn a 
SUSUR SR eee OMT aE EL 
Reports of branches of the Insitution: 
United States National Museum 
Bureau of American Ethnology 
IASSrOphYsical, ObSeLVatorys= == so = a eee kat eee ee ee ee eee 
National Collection of Fine Arts 
HreerGallermorArhoss sso. oats ee ae EE de Srey eal a 
Nations Air Museum. == 20505 er el es ar ee ee Bab se ee 
National Zo0locical Park. 2 th eta ies a Se Rae Bal 
Canail-Zone, Biological Area J ater 2 eae Sk etiee vie teaaend > 
International Exchange Service 
National Gallery of Art 
RepOLMON Ne prary 222 = Sees ee heen oe Ly a eee a Smt 30 
Report on publications 
Other activities: 
Rectures ase ae eae eet Riana 2 oleh aoe Soe) Poa! Tab oe 
Science Information Exchange 
Smithsonian Museum Service 


me = = = ee en ee ee ee ee ee ee 


GENERAL APPENDIX 


Aircraft propulsion: A review of the evolution of aircraft powerplants, by 

CMB AVebUC HL ayOl= Sa ae <= Bae eee pe SRN Ne ie eee ee 
Racket propulsion, by /halphis..Cooperss 22252-2202 sce) 8 ee 
The early history of radar, by R. M. Page 
Modern glass; by 53; Donald: Stookey. 222-2 2255 se. ce eeceee lee 
The great earthquakes of May 1960 in Chile, by Pierre Saint-Amand_ ___ 
ithe rmof.che Teeraby ii. Vales Dawsons =< Js2e25 0 2 oe ce ee 
What’s happening to water? by Charles J. Robinove_________________-- 
The opening of the Arctic Ocean, by Lt. Comdr. James T. Strong 
The place of genetics in modern biology, by George W. Beadle 
The shark that hibernates, by L. Harrison Matthews 
Man in a world of insects, by Dwight M. DeLong 
mbropical fruit-fly menace, by ls D: Curistenson= —-=2=2--.-.25-..--2.=- 
The soil as a habitat for life, by Sir John Russell____.._..__._._._______-- 
The evolution of the echinoderms, by H. Barraclough Fell_________-__-_- 
Mangroves: Trees that make land, by William M. Stephens 


IV ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Page 

The history and relationships of the world’s cottons, by Sir Joseph 
Hutchinson_2. = 222222 2- 2S eee ee eee eee ee eee nee 497 
Some mysteries of life and existence, by R. E. Snodgrass___-_---------- 5Y7 
Civilization and the landscape, by Sylvia Crowe.._...-.-_------------- 537 
How many people have ever lived on earth? by Annabelle Desmond ----- 545 

Bows and arrows: A chapter in the evolution of archery in America, by 
Paul EB; Wlopsteg: <2 2222) ee ee a ee ee eee eee 567 

Scientific methods in the examination and conservation of antiquities, by 
A. B.A. Wernersos 2225. 225eb ccece sos esse saessasesaSe=see eee es 593 

LIST OF PLATES 

Secretary’s Report: Following Page 
Plates: 222222 2424 oss eo 52 See sea at eee ee ee Se eee eae 54 
‘Plates! $=6.220 2 sees ses Se ee ene a eee ee eee 118 
Plates (7=l0u22225ceckce cet eee as ee ee ee ae ae ee eee 134 
Plates M=16: 22-3 2525 55552 2s Sees ae ee ae ee eee eee ee eae 198 
Aireratt propulsion: (Taylor): Plates 2/o =e see eee ee 298 
Rocket propulsion (Cooper): Plate 12222222 - = 222 5 Se aes eee See 310 
Barly history. of radar (Page) :Plates 1=12 2 3s see ee seen a ae eee 318 
Modern:glass (Stookey) Plates 1-322) 2222222 eee ee eee eee ee 326 
Earthquakes in Chile (Saint-Amand): Plates 1-10__-__---------------- 358 
RimyoL themeeh CDawSOm) obo) a tes lS meee ee 366 
What’s happening to water? (Robinove): Plate 1____------------------ 382 
Opening of the Arctic Ocean (Strong): Plates t—4°52=2 2 2222 = eae 394 
Place of genetics in modern biology (Beadle): Plate 1___--------------- 406 
Tropical fruit-fly menace (Christenson): Plates 1-6_._..--.------------ 446 
Soiltas a habitation lite (Russell) Plates: l—jasesa= sass == === eee eee 454 
EB volutionlof the echinoderms) (ell) /-sblatessl—see seen ease eee eee eee 470 
Mangroves: Trees that make land (Stephens): Plates 1-4___-__--------- 494 
Civilization and the landscape (Crowe): Plates 1-4____---------------- 542 
Bows andsarrows, (Glopsteg) cube lates il 5 ee eee eee 582 


Methods in the conservation of antiquities (Werner): Plates 1-4_-___-_-_- 598 


THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
June 30, 1962 


Presiding Officer ex officio —JoHN F. KENNEDY, President of the United States. 
Chancellor.—EArL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States. 
Members of the Institution: 
JOHN I’. KENNEDY, President of the United States. 
LyNpDoN B. JoHNSON, Vice President of the United States. 
EARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States. 
DeEAN Rusk, Secretary of State. 
DovuGLas DIt1Lon, Secretary of the Treasury. 
RosBerT S. McNAMaraA, Secretary of Defense. 
Rosert FF’. Kennepy, Attorney General. 
J. EDwaArD Day, Postmaster General. 
Stewart L. UDALL, Secretary of the Interior. 
ORVILLE L. FREEMAN, Secretary of Agriculture. 
LUTHER H. Hopgss, Secretary of Commerce. 
ARTHUR J. GOLDBERG, Secretary of Labor. 
ABRAHAM A. Rrsgicorr, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. 
Regents of the Institution: 
EARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. 
LyNDON B. JoHNSON, Vice President of the United States. 
CiintTon P, ANDERSON, Member of the Senate. 
J. WILLIAM FULBRIGHT, Member of the Senate. 
LEVERETT SALTONSTALL, Member of the Senate. 
FRANK T. Bow, Member of the House of Representatives. 
CLARENCE CANNON, Member of the House of Representatives. 
MICHAEL J. KInRwAN, Member of the House of Representatives. 
JOHN NICHOLAS Brown, citizen of Rhode Island. 
Rosert V. FLEMING, citizen of Washington, D.C. 
CRAWFORD H. GREENEWALT, citizen of Delaware. 
Caryl P. HASKINS, citizen of Washington, D.C. 
JEROME C. HUNSAKER, citizen of Massachusetts. 
Executive Committee—Rosert V. FiLemMine, Chairman, CLARENCE CANNON, 
CaryYL P. HASKINS. 
Secretary.— LEONARD CARMICHAEL. 
Assistant Secretaries.—A. REMINGTON KELLOGG, JAMES C. BRADLEY. 
Assistant to the Secretary.—THEODORE W. TAYLOR. 
Administrative assistant to the Secretary.—Mrs. LouIsE M. PEARSON. 
Treasurer.—Epcar L. Roy. 
Chief, editorial and publications division— PAUL H. OEHSER. 
Librarian.—RvutH BH. BLANCHARD. 
Curator, Smithsonian Museum Service.—G. CARROLL LINDSAY. 
Buildings Manager.—ANDREW F.. MICHAELS, JR. 
Director of Personnel.—J. A. KENNEDY. 
Chief, supply division.—A. W. WILDING. 
Chief, photographic service division.—O. H. GREESON. 


vi ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM 


Director.—A, Remington Kellogg. 
Registrar.—Helena M. Weiss. 


MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 


Director.—A. C. Smith. 
Administrative officer—Mrs. Mabel A. Byrd. 
DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY: T. Dale Stewart, head curator; A. J. Andrews, 
exhibits specialist. 
Division of Archeology: W. R. Wedel, curator; Clifford Evans, Jr., G. W. 
Van Beek, associate curators. 
Division of Ethnology: S. H. Riesenberg, curator; G. D. Gibson, E. I. Knez, 
W. H. Crocker, associate curators; R. A. Elder, Jr., assistant curator. 
Division of Physical Anthropology: T. D. Stewart, acting curator; M. T. 
Newman, associate curator. 
DEPARTMENT OF ZooLoey : H. H. Hobbs, Jr., head curator. 
Division of Mammals: D. H. Johnson, curator; C. O. Handley, Jr., H. W. 
Setzer, associate curators. 
Division of Birds: P. 8S. Humphrey, curator. 
Division of Reptiles and Amphibians: Doris M. Cochran, curator. 
Division of Fishes: L. P. Schultz, curator; E. A. Lachner, W. R. Taylor, 
associate curators. 
Division of Insects: J. F. G. Clarke, curator; O. L. Cartwright, R. BE. Cra- 
bill, Jr., W. D. Field, O. S. Flint, Jr., D. R. Davis, associate curators. 
Division of Marine Invertebrates: F. A. Chace, Jr., curator; T. E. Bowman, 
C. E. Cutress, Jr., D. F. Squires, associate curators. 
Division of Mollusks: H. A. Rehder, curator; J. P. E. Morrison, Joseph 
Rosewater, associate curators. 
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY (NATIONAL HERBARIUM) : J. R. Swallen, head curator. 
Division of Phanerogams: L. B. Smith, curator: R. 8. Cowan, Velva E. 
Rudd, J. J. Wurdack, associate curators. 
Division of Ferns: C. V. Morton, curator. 
Division of Grasses: J. R. Swallen, acting curator: T. R. Soderstrom, as- 
sociate curator. 
Division of Cryptogams: M. BH. Hale, Jr., curator; P. S. Conger, associate 
curator. 
Division of Woods: W. UL. Stern, curator. 
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY: G. A. Cooper, head curator. 
Division of Mineralogy and Petrology: G. S. Switzer, curator; P. E. Desau- 
tels, E. P. Henderson, associate curators; R. S. Clarke, Jr., chemist. 
Division of Invertebrate Paleontology and Paleobotany: R. S. Boardman, 
curator; P. M. Kier, Richard Cifelli, E. G. Kauffman, associate curators. 
Division of Vertebrate Paleontology: C. L. Gazin, curator; Nicholas Hotton 
III, associate curator; F. L. Pearce, exhibits specialist. 


MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 


Director.—¥. A. Taylor. 

Assistant Director.—J. C. Ewers. 
Administrative officer.—W. EH. Boyle. 
Chief exhibits specialist —J. H. Anglim. 
In charge of tazidermy.—W. M. Perrygo. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT vil 


Assistant chief exhibits specialists—B. S. Bory, B. W. Lawless, Jr., J ulius 
Tretick. 

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: R. P. Multhauf, head curator: Joseph 
BE. Rudmann, assistant curator. 

Division of Physical Sciences: L. C. Lewis, curator; W. F. Cannon, associate 
curator. 

Division of Mechanical and Civil Engineering: S. A. Bedini, curator; H. A. 
Battison, R. M. Vogel, associate curators. 

Division of Transportation: H. I. Chapelle, curator; K. M. Perry, J. H. 
White, Jr., associate curators. 

Division of Electricity: R. P. Multhauf, acting curator. 

Division of Medical Sciences: S. K. Hamarneh, associate curator in charge. 

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES: P. W. Bishop, head curator. 

Division of Textiles: Mrs. Grace R. Cooper, curator. 

Division of Ceramics and Glass: P. V. Gardner, curator. 

Division of Graphic Arts: Jacob Kainen, curator; F. O. Griffith, Eugene 
Ostroff, associate curators. 

Division of Manufactures and Heavy Industries: P. W. Bishop, acting cura- 
tor ; C. O. Houston, Jr., associate curator. 

Division of Agriculture and Forest Products: B®. C. Kendall, associate cura- 
tor in charge. 

DEPARTMENT OF CrviL History: Richard H. Howland, head curator; P. C. Welsh, 
associate curator; Doris A. Esch, assistant curator; Ellen J. Finnegan, junior 
curator. 

Division of Political History: W. ©. Washburn, curator; Mrs. Margaret 
Brown Klapthor, associate curator; Mrs. Anne W. Murray, H. R. Collins, 
K. E. Melder, assistant curators. 

Division of Cultural History: C. Malcolm Watkins, curator; Rodris C. Roth, 
associate curator; Anthony W. Hathaway, J. N. Pearce, Cynthia L. Adams, 
assistant curators. 

Division of Philately and Postal History: Richard H. Howland, acting cura- 
tor; G. T. Turner, F. J. McCall, associate curators; C. H. Scheele, assist- 
ant curator. 

Division of Numismatics: Vladimir Clain-Stefanelli, curator; Mrs. Elvira 
Clain-Stefanelli, associate curator. 

DEPARTMENT OF ARMED Forces History: M. L. Peterson, head curator. 

Division of Military History: BH. M. Howell, curator; C. R. Goins, Jr., 
associate curator. 

Division of Naval History: P. K. Lundeberg, curator; M. H. Jackson, 
associate curator. 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


Director.—k. H. H. Roberts, Jr. 

Anthropologist.—H. B. Collins, Jr. 

Ethnologists —W. C. Sturtevant, W. L. Chafe. 

River Basin Surveys.—F. H. H. Roberts, Jr., Director; R. L. Stephenson, 
Chief, Missouri Basin Project. 


ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY 


Director.—¥. L. Whipple. 

Assistant Director.—C. W. Tillinghast. 

Astronomers.—G. Colombo, lL. Goldberg, S. Hamid, I. G. Izsak, Y. Kozai, 
J. Slowey, F. W. Wright, P. E. Zadunaisky. 


vu ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Mathematicians. —R, B, Briggs, D. A. Lautman, 

Physicists. —B. Avrett, A. FL Cook, R. J. Davis, J. DeFelice, BE, L, Fireman, 
BK. Franklin, O. Gingerich, M. Grossi, P. W. Hodge, L. G. Jacchia, W. Kalkofen, 
M. Krook, R. BR. McCrosky, H. Mitler, T. W. Noonan, R. B. Riggs, Jr, O. P. 
Rustgi, A, Skalafuris, R. B. Southworth, D. Tilles, C, A. Whitney. 

Geodesisis,—T. Roll, G. Veils, 

Geologists. —V. B. Marvin, J. Wood, 


Diviston oF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS} 

Chief. —W. H. Nein. 

Plan? physiologists —P. J. A. L. deLint, J. L. Edwards, V. B. Elstad, K. 
Mitrakos, L. Price. 

Riophysicis?,—W. Shropshire. 

Biochemist—M. Margulies. 

Cutogeneticist—R, L. Latterell. 

Niectronic Nugineer.—IJ. H. Harrison, 

Tretrument engineering technician —D. G. Talbert. 


NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS 


Director —T. M. Beggs. 
Associate curator —Rowland Lyon. 
Sxcrresontan Travertine Exarrercron Service.—Mrs. Annemarie H. Pope, Chief. 


FREER GALLERY OF ART 


Director —Jonn A. Pops, 

Acting Assistent Director —Harold P. Stern. 

Head ewrator, Neer Nastern Arit—Richard Bttinghausen. 
Associate curator, Chinese Ariéi—Tames F. Cahill. 
Head cvrater, Lederatery.—Rutherford J. Gettens. 


NATIONAL ATR MUSEUM 


Advisory Board: 
Leonard Carmichael, Chairman. 
Maj. Gen. Brooke FE, Allen, U.S. ra Force, 
Rear Adm, P. D. Stroop, U.S. Na 
Lt Gen. James H. Doolittle (U ry 2 F. Ret.) 
Grover Loening. 
Direeior—P. S. Hopkins. 
Head curator and Aistorien—P. E. Garber. 
Cerreters.—L. S, Casey, K. E. Newland. 
Cwrater—R.,. B. Meyer. 


NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK 


Directer—T. H. Reed. 

Asseciate Director —J. L. Grimmer. 
General Curator—Waldtried T. Roth. 
Foologist—Marion McCrane. 
Veterinerian—James F. Wright. 


CANAL ZONE BIOLOGICAL AREA 


Resident Nataralisi—M. H. Moynihan. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT IX 


INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE 


Chief —J. A. Collins. 
NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART 
Trustees: 
Ear. Waxrzen, Chief Justice of the United States, Chairman. 
Dean Rusk, Secretary of State. 
Doverss Ditton, Secretary of the Treasury. 
Lreonarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 
CHESTER DALE. 
PAUL MELLON. 
Rusu H. Kress. 
Joumn Hay WHITNEY. 
Joun N. Jewtn II. 
President —Cuester DALE. 
Vice President —PAvL MELLON. 
Secretary-Treasurer.—UUnNTINcion CAIBZNS. 
Director.—JoHN WALKER. 
Administrator —Exnnest R. Femez. 
General Counsel—HvUntincton CAIRNS. 
Chief Curator—Pernzy B. Corr. 


= * * * 
Honorary Research Associates, Collaborators, and Fellows 


OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY 
John HB. Graf 
Unitep States NATIONAL Museum 


MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 


Anthropology 
J. M. Campbell, Archeology. Betty J. Meggers, Archeology. 
G. H. Cole, Archeology. F. M. Setzler, Anthropology. 
Albert Jarame, Archeology. H. Morgan Smith, Archeology. 
N. M. Judd, Archeology. W. W. Taylor, Jr., Archeology. 
H. W. Krieger, Ethnology. W. J. Tobin, Physical Anthropology. 
Zoology 
Mrs. Doris H. Blake, Insects. Allen McIntosh, Mollusks. 
J. Bruce Bredin. Biology. J. P. Moore, Marine Invertebrates. 
M. A. Carriker, Insects. C. F. W. Muesebeck, Insects. 
Ailsa M. Clark, Marine Invertebrates. W. L. Schmitt, Marine Invertebrates. 
H. G. Deignan. Birds. Benjamin Schwartz, Helminthology. 
C. J. Drake, Insects. R. E. Snodgrass, Insects, 
Herbert Friedmann, Birds. T. E. Suyder, Insects. 
F. M. Hull, Insects. Alexander Wetmore, Birds. 
Laurence Irving, Birds. Mrs. Mildred 8S. Wilson, 


W. L. Jellison, Insects. Copepod Crustacea. 


x ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Botany 
C. R. Benjamin, Fungi. F. A. McClure, Grasses. 
Mrs. Agnes Chase, Grasses. Kittie F. Parker, Phanerogams. 
E. P. Killip, Phanerogams. J. A. Stevenson, Fungi. 
HH). C. Leonard, Phanerogams. W.N. Watkins, Woods. 
Geology 


©. W. Cooke, Invertebrate Paleontology. 
W. T. Schaller, Mineralogy. 


W. P. Woodring, 
Invertebrate Paleontology. 


MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 


History 


Mrs. Arthur M. Greenwood, I. N. Hume, Cultural History. 
Cultural History. F. W. MacKay, Numismatics. 
E. C. Herber, History. 


Science and Technology 
D. J. Price. 
Exhibits 
W. L. Brown, Taxidermy. 
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


Sister M. Inez Hilger. A. J. Waring, Jr. 
M. W. Stirling. 


ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY 
C. G. Abbot. 


FREER GALLERY OF ART 


Max Loehr. 
Katherine N. Rhoades. 


Oleg Grabar. 
Grace Dunham Guest. 


NATIONAL AiR MusEUM 


Frederick C. Crawford. Alfred V. Verville 
John J. Ide. 


NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK 
E. P. Walker. 
Cana Zone BroLtocicaL AREA 


©. ©. Soper. 


Report of the Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution 


LEONARD CARMICHAEL 
For the Year Ended June 30, 1962 


To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: 

GENTLEMEN : I have the honor to submit a report showing the activi- 
ties and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for 
the fiscal year ended June 30, 1962. 


GENERAL STATEMENT 


The writer of any annual report can well be accused of a want of 
originality if each year he begins by saying, “The twelve months 
covered by this report have been characterized by progress and con- 
structive activity.” Lacking in novelty as it is, this statement, how- 
ever, must be made with strong emphasis about the Smithsonian In- 
stitution for the period between July 1, 1961, and June 30, 1962, for 
this year has indeed seen outstanding advances in many areas of the 
Institution’s work. 

There is one aspect of this year’s accomplishment that is of primary 
importance but that cannot easily be reduced to statistics or presented 
onagraph. This pertains to the strengthening of the staff. During 
the months covered by this Report, there have been a number of retire- 
ments for age and for other reasons from the professional staff of the 
Institution. A number of these losses were of very distinguished 
scholars who can never be exactly replaced; but, on the other hand, 
a number of outstanding new scientists and academic specialists have 
come to the Institution, some of them already widely known because 
of their previous scholarly contributions. For many years the pro- 
fessional or, as it may be termed, the academic staff of the Institution 
has enjoyed world-wide respect because of the individual distinction 
of many of its members. The year’s new appointments will, I am 
confident, strengthen this great Smithsonian tradition. It is surely 
important that Smithsonian experts be leaders in their varied fields 
if the Institution is to perform in the best possible way the specialized 
and in some ways unique functions assigned to it by its founder and 
by the Congress. 


7 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


James Smithson, in leaving what was for his time a large estate to 
the United States, directed in his will, written almost a century and 
a half ago, that the institution that was always to bear his name 
should be devoted to “the increase and diffusion of knowledge among 
men.” The basic legislation that created the Smithsonian was passed 
by the Congress and signed by President James K. Polk 116 years 
ago. One of the most important provisions of the act is the direction 
that the Institution should be faithful in the execution of the trust of 
James Smithson “according to the will of the liberal and enlightened 
donor.” 

The first Smithsonian Board of Regents wisely chose Joseph Henry, 
then possibly the greatest student of experimental science in America, 
as the first Secretary of the Institution. The group of men who were 
assembled and who worked in the then new Smithsonian Building 
constituted the first research organization with a full-time staff of 
investigators in a wide variety of scientific fields ever assembled on 
this continent. Particularly during the Institution’s first half century, 
under the effective administration of Henry and of his successor, 
Spencer F. Baird, a staff of broad-gauge, distinguished scientists was 
built up. Such names come to mind as George Brown Goode, John 
Wesley Powell, William Healey Dall, Robert Ridgway, Frank Hamil- 
ton Cushing, W J McGee, William Henry Holmes, and Leonard 
Stejneger—principally naturalists, ethnologists, and explorers who 
brought distinction to the Smithsonian through the notable contribu- 
tions to science that they made each in his field. 

Since Henry’s and Baird’s time there has been no deviation from 
the policy of naming to the staff individuals who have won a recog- 
nized place as leaders in the various fields of science and scholarship 
that are dealt with at the Institution. The high title of “curator” 
at the Smithsonian thus becomes the equivalent of a research 
professorship in any great university. 

Last year the Smithsonian published 85 titles, making available 
to the world the results of Smithsonian research. This brings the total 
number of scholarly publications of the Smithsonian to at least 10,000 
since its first scientific monograph appeared in 1848. Besides these 
formal publications the staff of the Institution also answered over 
325,000 specific requests for information during the period covered by 
this report. 

One who knows the staff of the Institution in detail can go through 
the names of those who work in its bureaus and laboratories with a 
feeling of deep pride at the distinction of the men and women who 
are spending their professional lives at the Smithsonian. 

In the Museum of Natural History, which is part of the United 
States National Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, there are 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 3 


many very highly regarded scientists. For example, in the field of 
anthropology the Institution has distinguished archeologists, ethnolo- 
gists, and students of cultural and physical anthropology. In the 
area of zoology there are experts on mammals, birds, reptiles, amphib- 
ians, fishes, insects, marine invertebrates, mollusks, and other fauna. 
In all the principal branches of botany the Institution has experts 
who work with the millions of specimens of plants in the United 
States National Herbarium of the Smithsonian Institution. The same 
may be said of the Smithsonian’s department of geology, where 
scholars with expert knowledge in such fields as mineralogy, inverte- 
brate and vertebrate paleontology, and paleobotany are at work. 

The Museum of History and Technology, which also is a part of the 
United States National Museum, has on its staff experts in the history 
of the physical sciences, mechanical, electrical, civil, and other fields 
of engineering, and the history of transportation and of the medical 
sciences. Under the general heading of arts and manufactures, the 
Institution has experts in textiles, ceramics, glass, agricultural imple- 
ments, and the processes and equipment of the so-called heavy indus- 
tries. In the department of civil history the Institution has scholars 
who are specialists in political history, cultural history, as well as in 
philately and numismatics. The research staff of the Division of 
Military and Naval History deals in an expert way with the facts 
and especially of museum objects that are related to the development 
of the Armed Forces of the Nation. 

The Bureau of American Ethnology and the Astrophysical Observa- 
tory of the Smithsonian both have staffs of distinguished scientists. 
In the field of art, the National Gallery of Art, the National Collection 
of Fine Arts, and the Freer Gallery of Art all are represented by 
scholarly staffs. The same may be said of the staff of the National 
Air Museum, the National Zoological Park, and the Canal Zone Bio- 
logical Area. 

This outline enumeration of these fields of expert knowledge repre- 
sented at the Smithsonian demonstrates how important it is for the 
Institution at all times to devote its best energies to the securing of in- 
dividuals for its staff who have outstanding qualifications. Today, be- 
cause of increasing competition with large governmental organizations 
and research oriented universities, obtaining men and women 
of high distinction for what may be called the research faculty of the 
Smithsonian is not easy. The current year has, however, been one in 
which some truly outstanding scholars have elected to join the family 
of experts who make up the modern Smithsonian. 

In last year’s report a summary was given of the progress that had 
taken place in recent years in the renovation of exhibits at the Smith- 
sonian. Work on this great program continued in an active way dur- 


4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


ing the present year. Once again it may be pointed out that as a 
result of the new educationally significant exhibits now on view the 
total attendance at the Smithsonian again reached an all-time record. 
In the old Smithsonian Institution buildings on the Mall, exclusive of 
the National Gallery of Art and the National Zoological Park, at- 
tendance this year reached 8,923,131. This is an increase of 1,819,657 
visitors over the previous year. This year’s attendance becomes even 
more dramatic when it is remembered that only 10 years ago the total 
attendance at these same buildings was 8,108,651. 

It is important for all who are interested in the work of the Smith- 
sonian to remember that in spite of its outstanding new exhibits the 
total collections of the Smithsonian contain many more objects than 
are on exhibition. These great study collections are utilized by 
hundreds of research workers from other government bureaus and 
from universities all over the United States each year. The total 
number of cataloged objects at the Smithsonian Institution now 
numbers nearly 56 million. 

When the east and west wings of the Natural History Building are 
completed and opened for use and when the great new Museum of His- 
tory and Technology is open, the effectiveness of the whole pattern 
of public display and of the use of study collections will be greatly 
Increased. 

To all who are interested in the active present programs of the In- 
stitution, it is important to point out that the high caliber of its staff, 
the new Smithsonian buildings, the improvements in the display of 
objects, and the increase of collections are all directly and indirectly 
related to the leadership of the Institution provided by its dis- 
tinguished Board of Regents. The Secretary and all the staff mem- 
bers of the Institution can never express in an adequate way their 
deep debt of gratitude to the members of the Board of Regents for all 
that they do each year for the welfare of the Smithsonian Institution. 


THE ESTABLISHMENT 


The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 
1846, in accordance with the terms of the will of James Smithson, of 
England, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States 
of America “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of 
knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and accepting 
the trust, Congress determined that the Federal Government was 
without authority to administer the trust directly, and, therefore, 
constituted an “establishment,” whose statutory members are “the 
President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the 
executive departments.” 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 5 


THE BOARD OF REGENTS 


The Institution suffered a deep loss during the year in the deaths of 
two of its Regents: Representative Overton Brooks on September 16, 
1961; and Dr. Arthur H. Compton on March 15, 1962. Mr. Brooks 
had served as a Regent for over 614 years, and Dr. Compton’s length 
of service as a Regent (over 23 years) is exceeded by only one member 
of the present Board. The wisdom and counsel of these eminent and 
distinguished members will be greatly missed. Representative 
Michael J. Kirwan of Ohio was appointed by the Speaker of the 
House of Representatives to fill the vacancy in the congressional] mem- 
bership. The appointment to the vacancy in the class of Citizen 
Regents was pending at the end of the fiscal year covered by this 
report. 

The roll of Regents at the close of the fiscal year was as follows: 
Chief Justice of the United States Earl Warren, Chancellor; Vice 
President Lyndon B. Johnson; members from the Senate: Clinton P. 
Anderson, J. William Fulbright, Leverett Saltonstall; members from 
the House of Representatives: Frank T. Bow, Clarence Cannon, 
Michael J. Kirwan; citizen members: John Nicholas Brown, Robert 
V. Fleming, Crawford H. Greenewalt, Cary] P. Haskins, and Jerome 
C. Hunsaker. 

An informal dinner meeting, preceding the annual meeting, was 
held on the evening of January 24, 1962, in the main hall of the Smith- 
sonian Building. Exhibits were arranged at this time from the var- 
lous divisions showing some of the most recent developments in the 
work of the Smithsonian bureaus. Dr. Nicholas Hotton III spoke 
on “Mammal-like Reptiles of South Africa”; Dr. Philip K. Lunde- 
berg on “The Revolutionary War Gunboat Philadelphia”; Dr. 
Harold P. Stern on “Research and Contrast—Japanese Art in Euro- 
pean Collections”; and Dr. Fred L. Whipple on “Dust in Space.” 

The annual meeting was held on January 25, 1962. The Secretary 
presented his published annual report on the activities of the Institu- 
tion. The financial report for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961, 
was presented. 

Tn addition to the annual meeting, the Board of Regents met again 
on May 18, 1962. A brief report was presented on the new Museum 
of History and Technology Building, and the chairman of the execu- 
tive and permanent committees of the Board presented a financial 
report. The Regents then adjourned to inspect the Air and Space 
Building. 

FINANCES 


A statement on finances, dealing particularly with Smithsonian 
private funds, will be found in the report of the executive committee 
of the Board of Regents, page 227. Funds appropriated to the Insti- 


6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


tution for its regular operations for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1962, 
totaled $9,125,000. Besides this direct appropriation, the Institution 
received funds by transfer from other Government agencies as follows: 
From the District of Columbia for the National Zoological Park, 
$1,887,600; from the National Park Service, Department of the In- 
terior, for the River Basin Surveys, $231,705. 


VISITORS 


Visitors to the Smithsonian group of buildings on the Mall reached 
a total of 8,923,131, an all-time high and 1,819,657 more than for the 
previous year. April 1962, with 1,490,262, was the month of largest 
attendance; August 1961 second, with 1,335,189; May 1962 third, with 
1,160,980. Table 1 gives a summary of the attendance records for the 
five buildings; table 2, groups of school children. The figures are all 
actual counts and are not estimates. No fully satisfactory plan for 
an actual count of visitors to the National Zoological Park has been 
developed. Under the new plan of estimating, the number of visitors 
during the year covered by this report indicates an attendance at the 
Zoo of 2,035,000. When this figure is added to the figure for at- 
tendance in the Institution’s buildings on the Mall, and to the 1,332,506 
recorded at the National Gallery of Art, the total Smithsonian at- 
tendance for 1962 may be set at 12,290,637. 


TABLE 1.—Visitors to certain Smithsonian buildings during the year ended 
June 80, 1962 


Smithsonian Arts and Natural Air and Freer 
Year and month Building Industries History Space Building Total 
Building Building Building 

1961 
Vwi eeea ea] Ia 7B: 540, 436 250 oS 161, 542 | 18, 803 |1, 180, 312 
Augusta ss== 161, 689 647, 184 304, 306 208, 486 | 18, 524 |1, 335, 189 
September_ - 49, 403 186, 702 109, 433 58, 295 6, 008 409, 841 
October___-_-_ 51, 248 17AS SMS 120, 201 70, 705 7, 456 431, 195 
November -_ 56, 467 157, 901 135, 748 87, 687 7, 589 445, 392 
December-_-.- 30, 480 77, 897 75, 354 51, 919 5, 625 241, 275 

1962 
January ____- 28, 268 73, 554 77, 397 48, 434 | 5,430 | 233, 083 
February - - - 44, 842 109, 370 105, 047 84, 112 6, 289 349, 660 
Marches =— 70, 750 164, 641 142, 139 163, 651 | 11, 220 552, 401 
Apr aaa ae 210, 408 521, 962 302, 351 433, 612 | 21, 929 |1, 490, 262 
Minivans see 165, 161 424, 154 252, 709 304, 785 | 14,171 |1, 160, 980 
Une =e 194, 603 392, 734 225, 560 3135 O91 |) 17,553) 15 1435 541 


——— Oe Oe Oe Oe eee 


Total___|1, 222, 112 |3, 471, 050 |2, 113, 053 |1, 986, 319 |130, 597 |8, 923, 131 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 7; 


TaBLE 2.—Groups of school children visiting the Smithsonian Institution during the 
year ended June 30, 1962 


Year and month Number of | Number of Year and month Number of | Number of 
children groups children groups 
1961 1962 

Julyasas= S225 7, 441 2595 || PP aNUALy =o 2s === 9, 186 296 
ANIGUSts eee eee ee 4, 506 zs} ||| W@ormMeAy soo -o5k 15, 010 445 
September__-____-_ 2, 521 Odea Nar ches ce sie 2 are 39, 490 972 
Octobersesesees2 15, 906 S84 Aprile Sa ere en 89, 516 i, Waxes 
November -_-_-_--- 27, 689 GGZPl| Mayes ania a 172, 665 3, 508 
December____-_--- 10, 335 Pats} ||| dwlae ose ses—e 66, 587 1, 579 
ANAM 460, 852 10, 460 


672-174—63——_2 


Report on the United States 
National Museum 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the condi- 
tion and operations of the U.S. National Museum for the fiscal year 
ended June 30, 1962: 

COLLECTIONS 


During the year 854,185 specimens were added to the national col- 
lections and distributed among the eight departments as follows: 
Anthropology, 18,556; zoology, 480,003; botany, 32,236; geology, 
115,387; science and technology, 2,363; arts and manufactures, 3,155; 
civil history, 205,358; and armed forces history, 2,077. The largest 
divisional acquisition was in the division of insects, which accessioned 
a total of 417,279 specimens. Most of this year’s accessions were ac- 
quired as gifts from individuals or as transfers from Government de- 
partments and agencies. The complete report on the Museum, 
published as a separate document, includes a detailed list of the year’s 
acquisitions, of which the more important are summarized below. 
Catalog entries in all departments now total 55,817,940. 

Anthropology—rThe division of archeology received by transfer 
from the River Basin Surveys 11,334 artifacts, mainly of mid-19th- 
century white man’s manufacture, from the site of Fort Berthold, 
N. Dak. The following important additions to the divisional Latin 
American collections were also received : 24 pre-Spanish textiles from 
Peru, presented by the International Business Machines Corp.; a rep- 
resentative group of 42 stone and bone artifacts from the early cultures 
of the Lagoa Santa area in Minas Gerais, Brazil, presented by H. V. 
Walter, of Belo Horizonte; and a type collection of 290 pottery and 
stone artifacts from various cultural levels on the islands at the mouth 
of the Amazon River, collected and donated by Drs. Clifford Evans 
and Betty Meggers. 

As a gift from the Government of India, the division of ethnology 
received 292 ethnological objects, including a complete assemblage of 
dance costumes of the Kathakali religious drama of South India, tex- 
tiles of unusual quality, and representing a wide range of techniques 
and designs. Another fine ethnological collection, comprising native 
musical instruments and a large number of shadow-theater puppets, 
was donated by the Federation of Malaya through its National Mu- 


8 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 9 


seum in Kuala Lumpur. Obtained from Rev. Francis Lambrecht, 
of Baguio, Philippine Islands, and from Dr. Harold C. Conklin, of 
Columbia University, are 51 cultural objects of the Ifugao, one of the 
mountain peoples of the Philippines. Approximately 854 ethnological 
specimens from India, Pakistan, Northern Rhodesia, the eastern 
Congo, the Cook Islands, and the Solomon Islands were procured 
from various sources under the exhibits modernization program. 

The division of physical anthropology received for the first time a 
good collection of prehistoric skeletal remains. The collection, as- 
sembled by Dr. Samuel K. Lothrop and donated by the Peabody Mu- 
seum, Harvard University, comes from the Venado Beach site located 
at the Pacific end of the Panama Canal Zone. An important feature 
of this collection is the presence of a type of cranial deformity here- 
tofore known mainly from Mexico. A donation of 15 prehistoric 
Indian skeletons from the W. R. Winslow site on the Potomac River 
in Montgomery County, Md., was received from the Southwestern 
Chapter of the Archeological Society of Maryland. Dr. Dan Morse 
of Peoria, I]., added two specimens from that State to the division’s 
outstanding collection of skeletal evidence bearing on the history of 
tuberculosis among the earlier American Indians. 

Zoology.—Most of the accessions received in the division of mam- 
mals represent established programs of collecting and research in 
various parts of the world. Approximately 450 specimens were ob- 
tained by Bernard R. Feinstein from Viet Nam and Cambodia, in 
cooperation with the Army Medical Research and Development Com- 
mand and the Bernice P. Bishop Museum. The Smithsonian Insti- 
tution-Alan Collins Expedition of 1961 contributed 163 mammals 
from previously unworked areas in Libya and Chad, collected by 
Dr. Henry W. Setzer. From Panama and the Canal Zone, about 750 
mammals were sent to the Museum by Vernon J. Tipton, C. M. 
Keenan, Carl M. Johnson, Pedro Galindo, Conrad E. Yunker, and 
other contributors representing agencies cooperating in the major 
project being conducted by Dr. C. O. Handley, Jr. Several accessions 
from localities in the eastern United States include specimens collected 
by Kyle R. Barbehenn in Maryland and New York; by John T. Banks 
in Virginia; by C. O. Handley, Jr., in Virginia, Georgia, and Florida; 
by Richard and Daniel Peacock in North Carolina and Virginia; by 
Daniel I. Rhymer in Virginia; and by Merlin D. Tuttle in Tennessee. 
Specimens of outstanding interest are 102 bats from Drotzky’s Cave 
and vicinity, Bechuanaland Protectorate, presented by Laurence K. 
Marshall, and five rare dolphins, Stenella microps, from the west 
coast of Mexico, received from Dr. R. R. Whitney, of the U.S. Fish 
and Wildlife Service, and Dr. W. L. Klawe, of the Inter-American 
Tropical Tuna Commission. 


10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Among the 1,454 specimens received in the division of birds is a 
series of 583 bird skins, 27 skeletons, 3 alcoholic specimens, and 14 
eggs contributed by Dr. Alexander Wetmore, retired Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution. From the Republic of Panama Gorgas 
Memorial Laboratory, 100 bird skins were received, and by transfer 
from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 419 bird skins, 47 skeletons, 
1 alcoholic specimen, and 10 eggs were added to the national 
collections. 

In the division of reptiles and amphibians, several accessions are 
noteworthy. Procured from Dr. Fred Medem, Instituto de Ciencias 
Naturales, Bogota, Colombia, were 226 Colombian frogs. A gift from 
Dr. Coleman J. Goin, of the University of Florida, of 116 Colombian 
frogs, an exchange involving the receipt of 9 South American frogs, 
including a cotype of a Colombian arrow-poison frog, from the British 
Museum of Natural History, and a gift of 105 South American frogs 
from Dr. James R. Tamsitt, University of the Andes, Bogota, 
Colombia, constitute outstanding additions to the Museum’s South 
American holdings. By transfer from the U.S. Naval Medical Re- 
search Unit No. 2, 41 snakes from Taiwan add to the already excellent 
collection from that island. 

The majority of the specimens received in the division of fishes 
was contributed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This co- 
operation of another Government agency in building up the Smith- 
sonian research collections should be credited to the following 
individuals: Elbert H. Ahlstrom, W. W. Anderson, Harvey R. Bullis, 
John R. Clark, Daniel M. Cohen, Eugene Cypert, George F. Kelly, 
Craig Phillips, James G. Ragan, Donald W. Strasburg, and Paul J. 
Struhsaker. Dr. Edward C. Raney and Dr. Bruce B. Collette gave 
2,500 fishes collected by the latter in Cuba, and Dr. Robert E. Kuntz 
and Lt. W. H. Wells transferred 1,412 fishes collected at Taiwan by 
the U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 2. 

The largest and perhaps most important accession received in the 
division of insects is the A. L. Melander collection of Diptera, con- 
sisting of approximately 250,000 specimens, including 1,200 types. 
Through Dr. Alfred Brauer, the W. D. Funkhouser collection of 
Membracidae (Hemiptera) consisting of 23,855 specimens was re- 
ceived from the University of Kentucky. The Connecticut Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station donated, through Dr. James B. Kring, 346 
type specimens, including 130 holotypes. Most of these types are 
Hymenoptera not previously represented in the national collections. 
Dr. A. Earl Pritchard presented his collection of 12,142 Diptera. 
N. L. H. Krauss again made a substantial gift in donating 11,572 
specimens principally from the Neotropical Region. Col. Robert 
Traub presented more than 10,000 mites from Malaya and Thailand. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT ial 


The Graham Heid collection of 2,248 specimens, chiefly Lycaenidae, 
from Atlanta, Ga., was also obtained. The Boyce Thompson Institute 
for Plant Research presented 7,966 miscellaneous insects through 
Dr. Albert Hartzell; O. L. Cartwright donated 7,500 Scarabaeidae 
from his personal collection; and Dr. C. M. Biezanko added 621 
Brazilian insects. Dr. Nell B. Causey, University of Arkansas, do- 
nated 415 centipedes, most of which were collected in the southern 
United States. Received by transfer from the Insect Identification 
and Parasite Introduction Research Branch, U.S. Department of 
Agriculture, were 59,678 specimens retained in the course of identifica- 
tions made by the combined staffs. 

Outstanding among the accessions acquired by the division of ma- 
rine invertebrates were 1,461 identified copepod crustaceans, including 
2 holotypes, 2 allotypes, and 672 paratypes of 14 species, donated by 
Dr. Arthur G. Humes, of Boston University. Received from Mrs. 
Will Hutchins, Washington, D.C., were 2,000 slides of bryozoans 
representing the personal collection of her son, the late Dr. Louis W. 
Hutchins. Dr. Paul L. Illg, University of Washington, added 22 
specimens of 10 species of notodelphyid copepod crustaceans, includ- 
ing holotypes of all 10 species, allotypes of 2, and paratypes of 6. 
From C. E. Dawson, Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, 620 miscellan- 
eous marine invertebrates collected in the Persian Gulf were received. 
Dr. Arthur Loveridge, St. Helena Island, added 334 miscellaneous 
marine invertebrates. A gift of 208 amphipod crustaceans collected 
during a voyage in the Okhotsk Sea of the training ship Hokusei Maru 
was made by Dr. Sigeru Motoda, Hokkaido University. Received 
from the Carnegie Institution of Washington were 1,800 lots of plank- 
ton from the cruises of the Carnegie. Received by transfer from the 
U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office, through William H. Littlewood, were 
360 miscellaneous marine invertebrates collected in the Ross Sea by 
J. Q. Tierney, from the U.S.S. Staten Island during the U.S. Navy 
Deep Freeze Expedition of 1960-61. Collections made for the Smith- 
sonian include 1,165 miscellaneous marine invertebrates from Puerto 
Rico by Dr. Thomas FE. Bowman and 1,512 crayfishes from Alabama, 
Georgia, North Carolina, Kentucky, and Tennessee by Dr. Horton H. 
Hobbs, Jr. 

A total of 127 accessions, comprising 1,923 lots and 20,621 speci- 
mens, was received by the division of mollusks. In addition, 1,597 
lots, totaling 14,980 specimens, from previously recorded accessions 
were added. A number of important collections of marine mollusks 
from areas in the Indo-Pacific region poorly represented in the study 
collection were received from various sources. Purchased through 
the Chamberlain fund was a marine collection of 702 lots containing 
2,165 specimens from the Kudat area, North Borneo. Two collections 


12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


of marine mollusks from the Seychelles, totaling 195 lots, 1,041 speci- 
mens, were received as gifts from Mrs. Margot B. Banks and Barry 
Grogan. By exchange from the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
Philadelphia, 92 lots, 920 specimens, of marine mollusks from Mada- 
gascar were received. The holotypes of six species of nudibranchs 
were donated by the Marine Laboratory of the University of Miami 
through Dr. Gilbert L. Voss. 

Botany—The Gray Herbarium of Harvard University sent in ex- 
change 873 plant specimens, largely from North America. The Her- 
barium Bogoriense, Bogor, Indonesia, forwarded in exchange 2,417 
specimens of Indonesia. Also received in exchange were 950 plants 
of New Guinea and Australia from the Commonwealth Scientific and 
Industrial Research Organization, Canberra, Australia; 515 speci- 
mens collected in Alaska by J. E. Cantlon from Michigan State Uni- 
versity; 300 specimens from Africa from the Istituto Botanico, 
Firenze, Italy ; and 840 plants collected by R. M. King in Mexico from 
the University of Texas. 

The division of woods received the Archie F. Wilson collection, 
comprising 4,637 wood specimens and constituting a more critically 
chosen group of specimens from a greater number of species than 
existed in the division prior to 1960. Mr. Wilson, a business executive 
with a keen interest in woody plants, was a research associate of the 
Chicago Natural History Museum for many years. In exchange 727 
wood specimens from Netherlands New Guinea were received from 
the Division of Forest Products of the Australian Commonwealth 
Scientific and Industrial Research Organization. Important pollen 
slides received were 309 from Duke University and 642 from the Pan 
American Petroleum Corp., Tulsa, Okla. Dr. William L. Stern made 
a collection of 136 wood samples of the highly peculiar flora of the 
Hawauan Islands. 

Field collecting by staff members yielded the following for the 
department: 1,091 specimens, mostly grasses, collected in Mexico, by 
Dr. T. R. Soderstrom, and 1,423 specimens, collected in Oregon, Colo- 
rado, Hawaii, and the Florida Keys, by Dr. W. L. Stern. From the 
U.S. Geological Survey were transferred 593 specimens collected by 
Dr. F. R. Fosberg on the Pacific Islands, and 766 specimens from 
Alaska collected by H. T. Shacklette; from the Agricultural Research 
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 325 specimens of South 
Africa collected by H. S. Gentry and A. S. Barclay; and from the 
U.S. Forest Service, 415 specimens from Puerto Rico, collected by 
E. L. Little. 

Geology.—aA total of 3,252 specimens was received in the division 
of mineralogy and petrology. An important gift is a very fine gem- 
quality crystal of emerald weighing 176.66 carats, from Muzo, Co- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 13 


lombia, from Fred C. Kennedy. New mineral species received as 
gifts were: chambersite, Texas, from Frank R. Beck; orthopinakiolite, 
Sweden, from the Naturhistoriska Riksmuseets, Stockholm, Sweden; 
and ferriphengite, Japan, from the University of Tokyo. Outstanding 
among specimens received in exchange is an extraordinary crystal 
of kunzite (the lavender gem variety of spodumene) weighing 5 kilo- 
grams. New species received in exchange were: birnessite, Massa- 
chusetts; rooseveltite, sigloite, and farallonite, Bolivia; kahlerite, 
Austria; yoshimuraite, Japan; cheralite, Malaya; sharpite and wyart- 
ite, Congo; and fleishcherite, South West Africa. 

Outstanding specimens added by purchase from the Roebling fund 
or by exchange are two groups of very large stibnite crystals com- 
pletely altered to stibiconite, Mexico; four fine amethyst geodes, 
Brazil; a large single crystal of amethyst, Korea; two groups of un- 
usually large axinite crystals, Japan; and a collection of 40 very 
fine wulfenite specimens from various localities in Arizona. Acquired 
by purchase from the Canfield fund is a very large single crystal of 
danburite, Mexico, and a large tourmaline crystal from Baja 
California. 

New acquisitions to the gem collection are the following: a 423- 
carat sapphire, one of the largest and finest in the world, from Mrs. 
John Logan (the former Mrs. Rebecca Guggenheim) ; a large wine 
pourer carved in white jade, formerly a part of the Vetlesen jade col- 
lection, donated by Mrs. Mildred Taber Keally; and a female head 
sculptured in pink tourmaline by Oskar J. W. Hansen, given by Ray 
A. Graham. Gem specimens acquired by purchase from the Chamber- 
lain fund for the Isaac Lea collection include a 45.9-carat sphalerite, 
Spain; a kornerupine weighing 21.58 carats, Ceylon; smoky quartz, 
Brazil, weighing 1,695.5 carats; a 71.05-carat brownish yellow spodu- 
mene, Madagascar; two scheelites, one weighing 37 carats from Cali- 
fornia, and the other 7.35 carats from Mexico; and a fine kunzite from 
Brazil weighing 63.30 carats. 

A number of outstanding gems were received in exchange, includ- 
ing a very fine 287-carat peridot, an extraordinary 330-carat blue star 
sapphire, and a fine ruby spinel weighing 36.10 carats, all from Burma; 
and an excellent 187-carat aquamarine from Brazil. 

During the year 25 different meteorites were added to the meteorite 
collection, including 15 new to the collection. Obtained as gifts were 
the following: four specimens of the Murray, Ky., meteorite having 
a total weight of 163 grams, donated by Dyer Observatory, Vander- 
bilt University; a complete stone which fell in her yard was given 
by Mrs. Jay Law, Garland, Utah; and a piece of a new Carbonaceous 
chondrite from Belle, Tex., donated by Oscar Monnig, Fort Worth, 
Tex. 


14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Fourteen meteorites were obtained by exchange with the following 
institutions: Geological Survey of India; Committee on Meteorites, 
Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R.; Universitets Mineralogiske Museum, 
Copenhagen, Denmark; Geological Survey of South Africa; and 
Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand. Two recent falls, 
Ras Tamur, Saudi Arabia, and Ehole, Angola, were obtained by trans- 
fer from the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. 

Several large and important collections of fossil plants and in- 
vertebrates were acquired this year by the division of invertebrate 
paleontology and paleobotany. Funds from the income of the Walcott 
bequest were used to purchase the incomparable Bones collection 
of Eocene seeds, nuts, fruits, and wood from Oregon, consisting of 
over 5,000 specimens of remarkable preservation collected and pre- 
pared by Thomas J. Bones, of Vancouver, Wash., over a period of 20 
years. The Walcott bequest also made possible field work which 
yielded 10,000 Cretaceous mollusks and 500 Foraminifera samples, 
collected by associate curator Erle G. Kauffman and Dr. Norman F. 
Sohl; and 10,000 specimens of Ordovician and Silurian invertebrates 
from those respective formations of Great Britain, Norway, and 
Sweden collected by curator Richard S. Boardman. 

Donations from collectors outside of the Museum accounted for the 
following gifts: 1,500 Lower Paleozoic fossils from areas including 
Nova Scotia, Maine, Germany, and Gotland from Dr. Arthur J. 
Boucot, of the California Institute of Technology ; 345 type specimens 
of Foraminifera from California and the Mississippi Delta regions 
from Miss Frances L. Parker, of Scripps Institution of Oceanogra- 
phy; 175 type specimens of planktonic Foraminifera from the Carib- 
bean region from Dr. Pedro J. Bermudez, of Venezuela; 87 ostracod 
types from the early Middle Ordovician of eastern United States and 
146 types from the Gubic formation of northern Alaska from Dr. 
F. M. Swain, Jr., University of Minnesota; 300 specimens from the 
Ripley formation received from the Mid-South Earth Science Club 
of Tennessee ; 350 specimens from the Devonian of the Spanish Sahara 
from the Pan American Hispano Oil Co.; and 332 Mesozoic specimens 
from Saudi Arabia donated by the American Arabian Oil Co. 

Transfer of collections from the U.S. Geological Survey includes 
the Hass collection of conodonts, numbering an estimated 40,000 speci- 
mens and several hundred types; 168 Middle and Upper Devonian 
cephalopods collected by Dr. Mackenzie Gordon in Morocco; an esti- 
mated 35,600 Bryozoa from the Lower Paleozoic of New York, West 
Virginia, Virginia, and Tennessee, collected by Dr. Boardman. 

A collection of 189 specimens of fossil mammal-like reptiles from 
the Karroo, Republic of South Africa, was accessioned in the division 
of vertebrate paleontology. These specimens are representative of 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 15 


all levels of the Beaufort series (Permo-Triassic) and document the 
therapsid adaptive radiation of that time and also the strong trend 
toward mammalian organization for which these animals are noted. 
The therapsids illustrate an important phase in vertebrate evolution, 
which has heretofore been unrepresented in the national collections. 
The fossils are of high quality, consisting of about 40 complete or par- 
tial skeletons with the remainder being skulls. The collection was 
made by associate curator Nicholas Hotton III and by James W. 
Kitching, of the Bernard Price Institute for Paleontological Research, 
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. Noteworthy of 
mention also are the skulls of about 200 individuals of the Permian 
amphibian Diplocaulus collected by Dr. Sergius H. Mamay, of the U.S. 
Geological Survey, and Dr. Walter W. Dalquest, of Midwestern Uni- 
versity, in terrestrial deposits of the Vale formation in Texas. An- 
other outstanding addition to the collections is a 4-ton shipment of 
skeletal remains, almost all of the mammoth Mammuthus columbt, 
from a spring deposit on the ranch of Charles I. Lamb near Littleton, 
Colo. These were collected by a joint archeological-paleontological 
party under the supervision of Dr. Waldo R. Wedel and Dr. C. L. 
Gazin. Particular mention may be made of stratigraphically im- 
portant accessions of Eocene and Paleocene mammals from new locali- 
ties in the Fossil, Wind River, and Green River basins of Wyoming, 
and of early Oligocene mammal jaws and teeth from Pipestone 
Springs in Jefferson County, Mont., collected by curator C. L. Gazin 
and Franklin L. Pearce. 

Science and technology. Examples of the rotating mirrors used by 
A. A. Michelson in his experiments in the determination of the velocity 
of light were obtained in the division of physical sciences from Preston 
Bassett and from Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories. Dr. 
Henry E. Paul donated telescopes representing the work of Alvan 
Clark and Sons and John Brashear. Two of the earliest extant ex- 
amples of photographs of the sun and moon, made by the pioneer 
scientist and photographer John W. Draper, were obtained from New 
York University. A group of 12 globes painted to illustrate as many 
geophysical phenomena, from Prof. Rhodes W. Fairbridge, of Co- 
lumbia University, was added to the geophysical collections. Gulf 
Research & Development Co. contributed the pendulum apparatus for 
relative gravity determination which was developed by them in 1929. 
John Kusner contributed a repeating circle of the type used in the 
1830’s in the first geodetic surveys in this country. 

A reproduction of the celebrated clock of Giovanni de Dondi, con- 
structed from contemporary 14th-century manuscript descriptions, 
was acquired in the division of mechanical and civil engineering. The 
original clock, which disappeared from historical account over 400 


16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


years ago, was built in Padua between 1348 and 1364. It is the earliest 
mechanical clock of which details survive but is in no way a primitive 
clock. The calendar and astronomical dials surpass by a wide margin 
any other known pre-Renaissance mechanism. An astronomical clock 
with torsion pendulum by the American inventor Aaron D. Crane was 
added to the timekeeping collection. This was the basis of the 400-day 
or anniversary clocks of modern times. An experimental model of the 
cesium beam atomic clock, developed at the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology in 1956 by Dr. J. R. Zacharias, was also received. 

A simple condensing mill steam engine built in 1819 by Thomas Hol- 
loway, of Philadelphia, was added to the collection of heavy machin- 
ery. This severely simple machine, the earliest stationary steam 
engine in the collection, contrasts markedly with the refinement of the 
Mathias Baldwin engine built in the same city only 10 years later. 
A model of one of the Allis-Chalmers- Westinghouse engine generators 
of the type built in 1904 to power New York’s first subway was also 
added to this collection. One of the most important acquisitions of the 
section of tools was a multiple-spindle drill used from 1905 for the pro- 
duction of cash-register frames, donated by the manufacturer, the 
National Automatic Tool Co. Another important accession com- 
prised a collection of tools, instruments, and documents representing 
the pioneering experiments in the 1920’s of Prof. Orlan W. Boston, of 
the University of Michigan, in the investigation of metal-cutting 
processes. 

Through the courtesy of the University of California, the division 
of transportation received seven important builder’s half models of 
West coast steamers and sailing vessels built by the Dickie Yard in 
San Francisco. Outstanding models received were those of the Mis- 
sissippi River stern-wheel steamer Greenbrier, the Chesapeake bay 
steamers Pocomoke and President Warfield, a Letter-of-Marque 
schooner of 1815, the ferryboat Jersey, South Sea Island trader Tahiti, 
Alaskan trader Ounalaska, a Florida shrimp trawler, and a North 
Carolina Sounds schooner. The two last named were received, 
respectively, from the Diesel Engine Sales Co. and from W. C. 
Matthews. The section of land transportation passed a landmark with 
acquisition of a full-sized example of a modern steam locomotive, No. 
1401 of the Southern Railway System, which was generously donated 
by that company. Two important carriages were also added to the 
collection, a landau of 1879, from Chauncey D. Stillman, and a buck- 
board of 1890, from Edwin H. Arnold. 

The division of electricity received from the University of Michigan 
11 examples of H. N. Williams’ work with the magnetron, a high- 
frequency oscillator, dating from the 1930’s. Obtained from the 
Radio Corp. of America is a group of cathode-ray tubes used in the 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 74 


development of television. The color television system developed 
in 1951 by J. M. Lafferty, of the General Electric Research Laboratory, 
is represented by a tube received from that company. 

Individual items of importance added to the electrical collections 
were printing telegraphs, received from the Western Union Tele- 
graph Co. and the Netherlands Postal Museum; a set of Pupin loading 
coils arranged to simulate the telephone circuit from New York to Bos- 
ton, from the Armstrong Memorial Research Foundation; the Soren- 
sen vacuum switch for power circuits, from Prof. R. W. Sorensen; 
and the radio sextant developed by the Collins Radio Co., transferred 
by the U.S. Department of the Navy. 

The division of medical sciences acquired from the University of 
Illinois the remarkable Edward H. Angle collection of dental instru- 
ments and related material, and from Dr. Julius Lempert a collection 
of otological instruments representing Dr. Lempert’s well-known work 
in that field. 

Arts and manufactures.—The division of textiles received an ex- 
cellent collection of 10 examples of buratto and drawnwork lace of 
the 16th through the 19th century, presented by Miss Harriet Wins- 
low. Mrs. Beatrice E. Baker added a group of beautiful costume 
laces to this collection. Mrs. W. A. Pickens presented a “Feathered 
Star” quilt made by the wife of Gen. Mordicai Gist. Dr. and Mrs. 
Leonard Carmichael donated several interesting examples of silk 
embroidery on wool, used for infant wear. Three excellent needle- 
point pictures, lent to the division several years ago, were bequeathed 
to the Museum by the late Crystal Palmer. These fine examples were 
made by Miss Palmer’s grandmother in the mid-19th century. An in- 
teresting sewing machine, an 1859 West and Willson model, a type 
not previously represented, was donated by Mr. and Mrs. L. E. 
Isaacson. 

The division of ceramics and glass received a collection of rare 18th- 
century porcelain, donated by Dr. and Mrs. Hans Syz, of Westport, 
Conn. Important pieces in this group include a Boettger tankard of 
red stoneware, 1712-15; a Boettger white porcelain bow] with applied 
decoration of rose buds and leaves, 1715; and a Viennese porcelain 
trembleuse cup and saucer, 1730-35. To her previous gift Mrs. W. A. 
Sutherland has added 25 pieces of fine porcelains, including 2 rare 
Bow mugs, 1760, and an unusual Chelsea dish, 1752. 

A magnificent example of printing, 7he Works of Geoffrey Chaucer, 
printed in 1896, was presented to the division of graphic arts by the 
Honorable Clinton P. Anderson, a Regent of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution. Known as the Kelmscott Chaucer, the book is the handiwork 
of William Morris, whose concern with fine craftsmanship resulted 
in a revival of high standards in industrial design. Another impor- 


18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


tant accession is a lithograph, Divertissement d’Espagne, by the 
Spanish artist Francisco Goya. The gift of Albert H. Gordon, of 
New York City, through E. Weyhe, Inc., this rare and valuable print 
is one of a set of four bullfight subjects that is considered the first 
great product of lithography. 

Among the important prints obtained were two separate states of 
the lithograph JZ tombe dans Vabime, by the French artist Odilon 
Redon; three lithographs from Campaign Sketches by Winslow 
Homer, the American artist who documented the Civil War, A Pass 
Time (Cavalry at Rest), Foraging, and The Baggage Train; two 
color aquatints, Juggler and Ballerina, by Georges Rouault; five 
rare lithographs by outstanding American contemporaries, Brown 
Moons by Helen Frankenthaler, Poet J by Robert Motherwell, Last 
Civil War Veteran by Larry Rivers, Speaker by Robert Goodnough, 
and Coathanger by Jasper Johns; two chiaroscuro woodcuts, The Visi- 
tation after Annibale Carracci and Statuette of Neptune after Gio- 
vanni da Bologna, by John Baptist Jackson, the 18th-century master 
of the color woodcut. 

Among the fine examples of photographic equipment and prints 
acquired by the section of photography was a Cinematographe, in- 
vented in 1895 by Auguste and Louis Lumiére of France. This was 
one of the earliest devices to take and project (perforated) motion- 
picture film. The section also acquired an important collection of 
apparatus invented by Frederic Eugene Ives, of Philadephia, a pio- 
neer in color photography. This group includes an Ives Lantern 
Kromskop, made about 1890, the first practical device to use 3-color 
separation positives for projecting full color on a screen; a group of 
slides for this projector; an 1894 Ives photochromoscope Kromskop 
stereo camera and viewer, and a large number of Kromogram slides 
for use in the viewer. The Kromskop System offered a method for 
taking color separation stereo pictures and viewing them in full color. 

Of particular interest among specimens received in the division of 
manufactures and heavy industries are some of the first stampings of 
aluminum made from the first commercial production of the Hall 
process. These, presented by the Scovill Manufacturing Co., will 
shortly be shown in a special exhibit which will include the first glob- 
ules of aluminum produced by Charles Martin Hall in February 
1886. Another important acquisition isa Winsted machine which was 
built prior to 1873 and which was in active use at the American Brass 
Co.’s plant at Waterbury until 1961. Dr. W. L. Libby donated to the 
section of nuclear energy the experimental equipment used in his pio- 
neer work to establish the dates of archeological material by carbon-14 
dating. Two of the first X-ray tubes to be made in America were 
donated by the Catholic University of America. The section of iron 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 19 


and steel obtained the first steam hammer erected in the United States, 
built by Nasmyth between 1851 and 1856 and in use at Taylor-Wharton 
Tron & Steel Co., High Ridge, N.J., until 1935. The first wide-flange 
universal beam mill to be erected in the United States was presented 
by the Bethlehem Steel Co. The United States Steel Corp. donated 
the pilot model of a Lorig aligner, an important innovation which 
speeded up the handling of strips of metal in continuous mills. 

The division of agriculture and forest products acquired a water- 
powered sawmill including the building, waterwheel, shafting, and 
gearing. The mill, a fine representative of 18th- and 19th-century 
sawmills, operated an up-and-down saw and moved a 30-foot-long car- 
riage against the saw. The New Holland Machine Co. gave a small 
portable gasoline engine of the early 20th century, used to drive 
machines such as grinding mills, saws, etc. 

Ciwil history.—The division of political history received the per- 
sonal memorabilia of President and Mrs. Woodrow Wilson. <A black 
satin dress, worn by Edith Bolling Wilson the first time she dined at 
the White House and a white silk dress she wore at a diplomatic 
reception in 1916, her first appearance at a state occasion at the White 
House after her marriage, were among the items received from Mrs. 
Wilson’s estate through her personal secretary, Mrs. Margaret C. 
Brown. Mrs. Joseph P. Kennedy donated a white silk gown decorated 
with gold and silver sequins worn by her when she was presented at 
the Court of St. James when her husband was Ambassador to Great 
Britain. The dress was worn again in 1961 at the Inaugural Ball 
of her son, President John F. Kennedy. Ralph E. Becker continued 
his donations from his important campaign collection. The most 
significant of these is a painted banner, bearing a portrait of Thomas 
Jefferson, celebrating his victory in 1801. An exciting silk campaign 
banner carried by the “Downers Grove Plough Boys,” a Republican 
marching club of 1860, was given by Elbert A. Rogers, Downers Grove, 
Il]. A 3-sided transparency, containing a portrait of Abraham Lin- 
coln and campaign mottoes of 1860, was donated by Mrs. Robert A. 
Hubbard, Walpole, N.H. Made of cloth and wrapped around a 
wooden frame, the transparency, with torch inside, was carried on a 
pole in political parades. Another significant acquisition was the 
Adelaide Johnson Collection donated by Mrs. Elizabeth Johnson Cris- 
tal, a niece of Mrs. Johnson. Adelaide Johnson, a devoted feminist, 
was best known as the sculptress of the Women’s Rights movement. 
The robe worn by Charles Evans Hughes as Chief Justice of the 
Supreme Court was received from the New Canaan Historical Society 
through Dorothy Cocks, New Canaan, Conn. 

Noteworthy donations to the collections of the division of cultural 
history include two early-19th-century blown-glass whale-oil lamps, 


20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


a 17th-century brass cowvre-feu, and other domestic objects, from 
Preston R. Bassett; a set of champfered oak bed posts of a hitherto un- 
identified type of 17th-century Massachusetts bedstead, the gift of 
Virginia Beets; five paintings, 19th-century American, by E. L. Henry 
and Eastman Johnson, given by Mrs. Francis P. Garvan; and five 
diorite door and marker stones with primitive carved designs and 
dates, from the site of a mansion built by Lt. Gov. William Dummer 
of Massachusetts in Byfield in that State, donated by Mr. and Mrs. 
Stephen Twaddell. 

The division of philately and postal history received a specialized 
collection of the famous La Guaira local stamp. These issues, author- 
ized by the Venezuelan Government, were prepared by Waterlow & 
Sons for the mail carried by steamship between La Guaira, Puerto 
Cabello, and St. Thomas beginning in 1864. L. W. Christenson, of 
Cleveland Heights, Ohio, gave a collection of the issues of Manchukuo 
and of the Ryukyu Islands, which include postal stationery, booklets, 
covers, and a number of reference books. James A. Farley, former 
Postmaster General, donated a number of new covers. Dr. Joseph H. 
Kler, of New Brunswick, N.J., gave an initial portion of his prize- 
winning topical collection of stamps pertaining to Rotary Interna- 
tional and placed the balance on loan. In eight albums are mounted 
many full sheets, singles, blocks, and many covers bearing appropriate 
cancels and cachets. Included also are several preliminary artist’s 
drawings, some printer’s proofs, and the Monaco color-error essay. 

The most outstanding additions to the numismatic collections are 
the original obverse and reverse dies prepared in 1861 by Robert 
Lovett, Jr., of Philadelphia, for the proposed striking by the Con- 
federacy of a copper cent, an issue which never materialized. The 
dies, two hubs made from the original dies, and other material in 
connection with the restrike of the Confederate cent in 1962 were 
received from Robert Bashlow, of New York. A rare 1916 pattern 
half dollar, a gift of Benjamin M. Douglas, and a silver ingot put 
out by the Nevada Silver Co. in 1876, a gift of Harvey Stack, of New 
York City, are also notable. A collection of 436 Polish gold, silver, and 
copper coins and medals was donated by Christian Zabriskie, of New 
York. This remarkable collection was started in the 1870’s by the 
donor’s father, Andrew Zabriskie, a noted United States numismatist. 
To his previous donations of Russian coins and medals coming from 
the famous Grand Duke Mikhailovitch collection, Willis H. duPont 
added another significant group of 860 specimens, including many 
exceedingly rare pieces issued during the reigns of Czar Ivan IIT 
and Czarina Elizabeth (1740-62). An interesting group of Babylo- 
nian and Sumerian clay tablets recording commercial transactions was 
given by I. Snyderman, of New York. Pietro Giampaoli, chief en- 


SECRETARY'S REPORT Pall 


graver at the Rome Mint and one of the foremost medal engravers in 
the world, donated a select group of his own medals exemplifying var- 
ious stages in his artistic evolution. A modern silver medal of excep- 
tional artistic merit, issued by the Maison Carrée of Nimes in 1961, 
was given by the Honorable Claiborne Pell, Senator from Rhode 
Island. 

Armed Forces history—A unique 1842 pattern musket and set of 
Ordnance Department inspectors’ verifying gauges were received in 
the division of military history from William H. Guthman. A rare 
13-inch bomb fired by the British fleet at the time of its attack on 
Alexandria in 1814 was received from the Department of the Army. 
Through the courtesy of Adm. Sir John Moore, the Victoria Cross 
and associated service medals awarded Private John McGovern for 
gallantry during the Indian Mutiny were deposited as a long-term 
loan from the Royal United Service Institution. Also received on 
loan, from David N. Rust, was a rare cavalry saber made by John 
Potter and formerly owned by Col. George Baylor, aide-de-camp to 
George Washington. 

A significant addition to the Museum’s extensive flag collections 
is the 48-star national ensign that served as the official flag of the 1960— 
61 Antarctic Expedition on its traverse from Byrd Station to the 
South Pole, presented by Rear Adm. David M. Tyree through Rear 
Adm. William Rea Furlong. 

An important collection of objects recovered from Bermuda ship- 
wreck sites dating from about 1621 to 1914 was added to the collec- 
tions through the field work of head curator Mende] L. Peterson, 
in cooperation with EK. B. Tucker and the Government of Bermuda. 

The year’s most important accession in the division of naval history 
is the Continental gundelo Philadelphia. The oldest major American 
naval relic of the Revolutionary War, the gundelo reached final moor- 
ings early in December 1961, when it was moved into the new Museum 
of History and Technology. A shot-scarred survivor of Benedict 
Arnold’s gallant flotilla that opposed superior British invasion forces 
on Lake Champlain, this flat-bottomed gunboat was sunk at the Battle 
of Valcour Island on October 11, 1776. For nearly 159 years the 
Philadelphia lay on the muddy bottom of Valcour Bay, before it was 
located and raised intact in 1935 through the skillful efforts of Col. 
Lorenzo F. Hagglund, of New York, who donated the historic war- 
ship. Over 700 objects were recovered from the 54-foot gundelo, in- 
cluding her entire main battery of 9’’ and 12-pound guns, with their 
original carriages, as well as numerous other items of ship’s equipage 
and the crew’s gear. Brought to Washington with the generous as- 
sistance of the United States Coast Guard and the United States Navy, 
the oaken-hulled Philadelphia will shortly enter another episode in 


22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


her long career, that of transporting the Smithsonian Institution’s 
visitors vividly and intimately to that precise moment in the nation’s 
history when this shattered warship, having fired her last shot in our 
struggle for independence, slid quietly beneath the waters of Lake 
Champlain. 

Notable among early 19th-century naval accessions is an oil painting 
by Michele Felice Corne, depicting the engagement in 1812 between 
the Constitution and the Java, donated by Mrs. Mabel P. Garvan. 
The Department of the Navy provided two early boarding pikes and 
a pair of mid-century gangway headboards, on indefinite loan. Valu- 
able light on the emergence of the steam Navy and its Corps of En- 
gineers is provided in the professional correspondence (1847-67) of 
Chief Engineer James M. Adams, USN, donated by his great grand- 
son, James Adams Knowles. Submarine operations during the Civil 
War are represented by a superb model of the Confederate submers- 
ible H. L. Hunley, constructed and presented by Floyd D. Houston, of 
New Suffolk, N.Y. 


EXPLORATION AND FIELDWORK 


Dr. T. Dale Stewart, head curator of anthropology, participated in 
a conference on “Anthropology and the Conditions of Individual and 
Social Freedom,” held at Glognitz, Austria, in August, and also 
studied specimens of particular interest to him at the Paleontological- 
Geological Museum at Zagreb, Yugoslavia. 

A late Pleistocene bone bed with possible human associations, near 
Littleton, Colo., was under study last year by Dr. Waldo R. Wedel, 
curator of archeology, and Dr. C. Lewis Gazin, curator of vertebrate 
paleontology. This study was resumed in the summer of 1962. Arti- 
facts have been found to a depth of about 40 inches, in association with 
bison bones. None has yet been found in the lower level where bones 
of camel and mammoth are more plentiful, indicating that these 
species may have been the characteristic fauna. The hints of strati- 
fication in the faunal remains raised the hope that some sort of cul- 
tural stratification will eventually turn up as well. The field party, 
in charge of George S. Metcalf, museum aide, will continue its work 
through the summer of 1962. 

En route to a site for field work in Ecuador, Dr. Clifford Evans, 
associate curator of archeology, and his wife, Dr. Betty J. Meggers, 
honorary research associate, attended a training conference in arche- 
ological techniques at Barranquilla, Colombia, in June and early July 
1961. The conference had been planned and organized in cooperation 
with the Pan American Union and was conducted at the Universidad 
del Atlantico. Young, qualified archeologists came from Argentina, 
Brazil, Chile, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Uruguay, and Vene- 


SECRETARY'S REPORT yA) 


zuela to participate, and a highly successful interchange of knowledge 
resulted. 

Continuing to Ecuador, Drs. Evans and Meggers spent nearly 3 
months in a continuing field study being conducted in collaboration 
with Emilio Estrada. Aspects of archeology investigated included 
pre-ceramic horizons, Valdivia culture, Jambelli culture, Mexican 
cultures in Ecuador, Manteno culture, and Milagro Period burials. 
The Smithsonian archeologists brought back 59 large boxes of speci- 
mens in addition to many notes and data on classified pottery for at 
least eight stratum cuts of material. Numerous developed and cata- 
loged photographs, both black and white and in color, will be invalu- 
able in working up the results of this expedition. 

For a period of nearly 6 months, Dr. Gus W. Van Beek, associate 
curator of archeology, conducted archeological field work in Wadi 
Hadhramaut, East Aden Protectorate. He was accompanied by Dr. 
Glen H. Cole and Dr. Albert Jamme, and Dr. Henry W. Setzer, of the 
Museum’s division of mammals, joined the group for 1 month to col- 
lect mammals in the Wadi Hadhramaut region. For 314 months 
without interruptions the field party conducted its survey in Hadhra- 
maut, systematically surveying the main wadi from Terim to Shibam 
(this portion of the wadi is approximately 40 miles long and from 
114 to 4 miles wide) and, more superficially, an additional 40 miles of 
the western part of the main wadi, from Shibam to Qarn Qaimah be- 
yond Henin; they covered the major portions of all tributary wadies 
in the region. 

Dr. Cole’s work on prehistoric sites proved to be highly significant. 
His was the first systematic work in prehistory ever done anywhere in 
the Arabian Peninsula, and he should be able to provide a framework 
for Arabian prehistory and to draw tentative conclusions regarding 
the affinities of the Arabian industries with those of surrounding re- 
gions in Africa and Asia. 

Dr. Van Beek discovered and recorded approximately 50 sites, of 
which 23 are pre-Islamic and 27 Islamic. The pre-Islamic sites range 
in date from about the 11th or 10th century B.C. to the 7th century 
A.D., and the Islamic sites from the 7th century A.D. to the present. 
Some of the pre-Islamic sites are extremely impressive, measuring 
as much as half a mile long by a quarter of a mile wide. For the most 
part they consist of good stone masonry, and many structures still 
have mud-brick walls on masonry podia. On the eroded surface of 
the sites are vast quantities of potsherds and many fragments of 
architecture, sculpture, and ancient South Arabic inscriptions in stone. 
Previous to the work of the expedition, the earliest known occupation 
of Hadhramaut was the 5th century B.C.; by discovering sites going 
back to the 11th or 10th centuries B.C., the party has pushed back 

672-174 63 3 


24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


the date of human occupation some five or six centuries in the 
Hadhramaut. 

Dr. Jamme copied more than 1,000 graffiti in the main wadi and in 
tributary wadies. Before his work, no more than 60 or 70 graffiti 
were known in this entire area and these were on only two rocks. The 
information thus gained will add enormously to our knowledge of 
the history of Hadhramaut in pre-Islamic times. 

The material collected by Dr. Setzer is the first of its kind from 
Arabia in the National Museum collections. From an archeological 
point of view, this collection of mammals will be extremely useful for 
identifying bones recovered in excavations in this region. 

Dr. Van Beek and other members of his party were delighted by 
the warm reception and excellent relations they enjoyed in Aden and 
Wadi Hadhramaut. The American Consulate, the British Director of 
Antiquities for the Colony, the Royal Air Force, the Protectorate 
Secretary, the Residency Staff in Mukalla and Seiyun, and the officials 
of the Kathiri State in Seiyun and the Qu’aiti State in Hadhramaut 
were all extremely cooperative. 

En route to and from Aden, Dr. Van Beek visited several institu- 
tions and met archeological colleagues in England, Italy, Sudan, 
Ethiopia, and Jordan. Discussions were very profitable along the 
lines of mutual research and also in connection with the exhibits pro- 
gram of the Smithsonian, where a new hall of Old World archeology 
is in the planning stage. 

For 2 months of the summer of 1961, Dr. Marshall T. Newman, 
associate curator of physical anthropology, continued his now nearly 
completed nutritional study of more than 100 schoolboys of Vicos, 
Peru. He was accompanied by Dr. William J. Tobin, collaborator of 
the Smithsonian Institution, and Mrs. Tobin. For several years Dr. 
Newman and Dr. Tobin have been collaborating with staff members 
of the Instituto de Nutricién of Lima in this project. Analyses of 
the data obtained are necessarily complicated, but in a preliminary 
way the following conclusions are now apparent: Mean weight gains 
as viewed longitudinally have increased 19-53 percent, depending on 
the school year, since the school-lunch program started. Stature in- 
creases do not appear to be similarly affected. Clinical signs of vita- 
min and mineral deficiencies declined grossly from 1956 to 1961, and 
mean hemoglobin levels are up from 13.16 to 14.24 gm/100 ml. AI- 
most all the Vicos boys are within the normal serum calcium limits, but 
21 percent are still low in vitamin A and 8 percent are low in serum 
carotene. An analysis of the detailed metric data is proceeding, and 
the bone density figures from the X-rays are expected to be available 
in the near future. 

In April Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., head curator of zoology, under- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 25 


took a collecting trip through parts of northwestern Georgia, northern 
Alabama, and Tennessee. While assembling more than 1,500 speci- 
mens of crayfishes, Dr. Hobbs intensively surveyed the Hiwassee 
drainage system in North Carolina and Georgia, the Tennessee River 
system in northern Alabama, and the Cumberland in northern Ten- 
nessee. It is hoped that the materials collected in these areas will be 
helpful in clarifying several problems in the genus Cambarus that 
have puzzled students of crayfishes for some 60 years. 

In October Dr. Henry W. Setzer, associate curator of mammals, 
accompanied by museum aide Gary L. Ranck, traveled to Benghazi, 
Libya, to begin field work on the mammals of Libya. With the aid 
of every courtesy and cooperation from the 64th Engineer Battalion 
(Base Topographic Survey), the Smithsonian field party made sub- 
stantial collections in Libya. Toward the end of November Dr. 
Setzer went to Aden to join Dr. Van Beek in the Wadi Hadhramaut, 
leaving Mr. Ranck to carry on studies of the mammals of Libya, 
which he continued throughout the fiscal year. In Aden, Dr. Setzer 
spent 4 weeks collecting small mammals and attempting to obtain 
skeletons of larger mammals for comparative purposes, in connection 
with the archeological research conducted by Dr. Van Beek. 

For 3 months, between January and April, Dr. Charles O. Handley, 
Jr., associate curator of mammals, continued his long-term study of 
the mammals of Panama. During this period nearly 2,000 mammals, 
together with their ectoparasites, as well as several hundred specimens 
of birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, and snails, were preserved. Two 
previously unsampled faunas were studied: in the high mountains at 
the southern tip of the Azuero Peninsula and in the islands off the 
coast of Bocas del Toro. In addition a good high-elevation collection 
was made in Chiriqui, and previous collections at Cerro Azul were 
supplemented. During this field study Dr. Handley was assisted by 
F. M. Greenwell, of the Smithsonian’s office of exhibits. Invaluable 
local assistance in Panama was furnished by the Gorgas Memorial 
Laboratory and by military services that provided transportation 
facilities. 

In June Dr. Handley spent a few days collecting small mammals 
in extreme southwestern Virginia. His particular intent was to search 
for the northern limits in the Appalachian region of some rodents of 
the Mississippi Valley which have been shown in other areas to be 
expanding their ranges. As an example, a specimen of the cotton-rat 
Sigmodon hispidus was collected at Ewing, Va., well north of the 
previously known limit of its range in Tennessee. 

Field work on the survey of the geographic distribution and varia- 
tion of the birdlife of the Isthmus of Panama, under Dr. Alexander 
Wetmore, honorary research associate and retired Secretary of the 


26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Smithsonian Institution, covered the period from January 8 to April 
5, 1962. The month of January was devoted to the valley of the Rio 
Guanico at the southern end of the Azuero Peninsula, a region pre- 
viously not studied, with shorter trips to the marsh areas in the 
savannas east of Pacora, and to an area between the Trans-Isthmian 
Highway and the eastern boundary of the Canal Zone. Early in 
February work continued in the lower valley of the Rio Bayano, with 
interesting results. Following this the party moved to the Province 
of Coclé near the Veraguas boundary. In addition to work in the 
lowlands and the foothill region, one camp was made in rain forest on 
the Caribbean slope of the continental divide. Three hours distant 
by trail to the south the vegetation was brown and dry, as is normal 
on the Pacific slope in the height of the dry season, while at the Tigre 
camp rain fell daily and the forests were dense and green. Specimens 
taken here included a number of birds that are little known. Other 
collections in this region were made during a survey by Jeep of the 
savannas near the sea, and trips in a dugout canoe to the mangroves 
in the extensive swamp lands at the mouth of the Rio Poeri. 

Dr. Wetmore’s final field trip of the season, in the latter half of 
March, was a survey of the islands that lie between Isla Coiba (visited 
in 1956) and the Pacific coast of Veraguas and Chiriqui. The party 
traveled and lived on the launch Barbara JT, handled expertly in these 
rough waters by Capt. George Edgington and his companion William 
Bailey. On this expedition it was finally possible to identify the sooty 
terns that come to nest on the rocky islets Frailes del Sur off Punta 
Mala. Collections were made also on the islands Canal de Afuera and 
Afuerita, and on Brincanco in the Contreras group. AII are forested, 
rock-bound, and uninhabited, with landings possible only on a few 
tiny beaches. The final specimens were taken on the western end of 
Isla Cebaco, from an anchorage in the sheltered bay Caleta Cayman. 
Affinities of the few resident land birds of these islands appear to be 
with the peculiar forms of Isla Coiba farther at sea, rather than with 
the adjacent mainland. Throughout this travel Dr. Wetmore had as 
assistant Rudolfo Hinds, technician from the Gorgas Memorial Lab- 
oratory, who made blood smears from all specimens taken, to be 
checked for incidence of tropical disease. 

Bernard R. Feinstein, museum aide in the division of birds, com- 
pleted in September 1961 the field work that he had begun in August 
1960, under the auspices of the U.S. Army Medical Research and 
Development Command and the Bernice P. Bishop Museum. 
During the period of his operations, Mr. Feinstein obtained speci- 
mens of 1,070 mammals and 1,300 birds, in addition to a number of 
reptiles. The vertebrate collections include much topotypical mate- 
rial. Areas visited included regions in Viet Nam and Cambodia. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 27h 


After attending the Tenth Pacific Science Congress in Honolulu, 
Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes, spent a few days in Septem- 
ber on the island of Hawaii, where he made ichthyological observa- 
tions of the offshore waters. He was impressed by the paucity of reef 
fishes here in comparison with similar areas in the Pacific. 

In May and June Dr. J. A. F. Garrick, research associate in the 
division of fishes, spent a week in the Bahamas at the invitation of 
the International Oceanographic Foundation examining sharks dur- 
ing a cooperative operation with the anglers in the Grand Bahama 
Bluefin Tuna Tournament. Several sharks were taken, including an 
adult of Carcharhinus springeri, which is of considerable interest be- 
cause presently only juveniles of this species are available in museum 
collections. A complete set of measurements and vertebral counts 
were made on this and other specimens. 

In September and October Dr. J. F. Gates Clarke, curator of in- 
sects, after attending the Tenth Pacific Science Congress in Honolulu, 
conducted entomological field work in the South Pacific. Although it 
proved impossible for Dr. Clarke to reach his principal objective, the 
island of Rapa, because of adverse weather conditions, he made col- 
lections of insects and other arthropods on the islands of Tahiti and 
Huahine. In the material thus acquired, there seem to be many species 
of Microlepidoptera which are new to the national collections and 
some of which are doubtless undescribed. 

In August William D. Field, associate curator of insects, spent 2 
weeks in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park primarily to 
obtain specimens of the genus ’hopalocera. Forty species of butter- 
flies were collected, of which several were unusual and rare, including 
Speyeria diana and Lerodea neamathla. At the close of the fiscal year 
Mr. Field was engaged in field work in Maine, collecting specimens 
of Rhopalocera for the Museum and conferring with several local 
collectors with regard to future contributions to the Smithsonian’s 
entomological materials. 

Dr. Oliver S. Flint, Jr., associate curator of insects, made a suc- 
cessful collecting trip to Puerto Rico in August. Asa result, the Mu- 
seum collections now possess the immature stages of all species of 
caddisflies known to occur on the island. In addition, the lengths of 
the adult series were increased and several species previously unknown 
were collected. The trichopteran material, which contains at least 
2 new genera and over 12 new species, will be studied and reported 
upon. A considerable collection of Odonata, both adults and naiads, 
was made. 

At the end of the fiscal year, Dr. Donald F. Squires, associate curator 
of marine invertebrates, and Thomas G. Baker, of the oflice of exhibits, 
were still engaged in field work in New Caledonia. The Smithsonian 


28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


party began its work on that island early in May, continuing the ac- 
quisition of specimens and data for a coral-reef group being planned 
for the new Hall of Oceanic Life. They were successful in obtaining 
an adequate supply and variety of corals to reconstruct a typical New 
Caledonian reef. Other representative elements of the fauna were 
also obtained and shipped back to the Museum. 

For approximately 9 weeks between January and April, a Smith- 
sonian Institution party conducted field work in the interior of 
British Guiana for the purpose of obtaining data, specimens, and 
models for the construction of a rain-forest life group in the proposed 
Hall of Plant Life. Dr. Richard S. Cowan, associate curator of 
phanerogams, served as leader of the expedition and technical adviser 
to the group, which consisted of Dr. Thomas R. Soderstrom, associate 
curator of grasses; Reginald J. Sayre, of the office of exhibits; and 
Paul Marchand, modelmaker. In addition to a large number of col- 
lections of plant materials, 2,500 color slides were made and 5,000 feet 
of 16-mm. film were exposed by Dr. Soderstrom. Mr. Marchand pre- 
pared numerous life-size models of different species of plants which 
can be duplicated as desired for use in the life group. Mr. Sayre made 
field sketches and paintings of many of the items that will be used in 
the exhibit, as well as a scale painting of Kaieteur Falls that will serve 
as a guide in preparing the background of the group. Numerous plant 
materials were preserved to serve as specimens from which to make 
additional models. In the time that was available from the exhibit 
functions of the trip, Dr. Cowan and Dr. Soderstrom obtained ample 
material of about 500 species of plants for scientific purposes. 

In April and May Dr. Velva E. Rudd, associate curator of phanero- 
gams, visited museums in Trinidad, Venezuela, and Panama, in con- 
tinuation of her studies of Ormosia and other Leguminosae. She 
conducted field studies at certain interesting botanical localities, in- 
cluding Colonia Tovar, El Avila, and Parque Nacional Henri Pittier 
in Venezuela, as well as the Canal Zone Biological Area in Panama. 

In April Dr. John J. Wurdack, associate curator of phanerogams, 
began extended botanical field work in Peru. After assembling his 
supplies and equipment in Lima he traveled to Chachapoyas in north- 
ern Peru, headquarters for the first part of the trip. At the end of 
the fiscal year Dr. Wurdack reported that his work was progressing 
satisfactorily and that he was amassing large collections for the 
Smithsonian’s department of botany. One of his objectives is to re- 
collect some of the species very inadequately known through the pio- 
neering collection of the British botanist Mathews nearly a century 
ago. Many species obtained at that time have not been rediscovered, 
primarily because travel in the mountains of northern Peru is difficult. 
Dr. Wurdack will particularly emphasize research collections of his 
own specialty, the family Melastomataceae. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 29 


In October and November Dr. Thomas R. Soderstrom, associate 
curator of grasses, made extensive collections of plants in the state of 
Michoacan, Mexico, in collaboration with Robert King, of Texas, who 
is spending a large part of this year at the Smithsonian Institution. 
Thorough collections of the flora were made in six diverse localities in 
Michoacan. Special emphasis was placed on study of the grasses, and 
the material obtained will be incorporated in a taxonomic revision of 
the grasses of Mexico, upon which Dr. Soderstrom is now embarking. 

In August, prior to attending the Tenth Pacific Science Congress 
in Honolulu, Dr. William L. Stern, curator of woods, collected wood 
samples and herbarium material mostly in the mountain forests of 
Kauai, Hawaii. It was possible to visit the poorly collected Na Pali 
Kona coast of Kauai, where Dr. Stern and Dr. Sherwin Carlquist, of 
the Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden, gathered specimens of the 
monotypic lobeloid Brighaméia insignis, as well as other rare plants. 
On his return trip, Dr. Stern visited colleagues in Oregon and Colo- 
rado and spent several days in the field making collections of wood 
samples and herbarium vouchers. In continuation of his study of 
the flora of the Florida Keys, Dr. Stern spent 2 weeks in December 
and January making collections of wood specimens and herbarium 
material at Key Largo, Big Pine Key, Grassy Key, and Crawl Key. 

In June and July 1961 Dr. G. Arthur Cooper, head curator of geol- 
ogy, and Dr. Richard E. Grant, of the U.S. Geological Survey, con- 
tinued their field studies in Texas and New Mexico. In the vicinity 
of Marathon, Tex., much of their time was devoted to examining the 
lower limestone of the Word formation, which proved to be a key bed 
in their studies, and collecting from it at about 20 localities. Subse- 
quently the field party spent some days at Van Horn working in the 
Lower Permian Huaco formation, where they collected from the 
Capitan limestone and its equivalents, their objective being to obtain 
a good representation of this fauna to use in comparative studies with 
their Glass Mountains fossils. This field season essentially completed 
the coverage of the Glass Mountains area for collecting purposes by 
Dr. Cooper and Dr. Grant. 

In October Edward P. Henderson, associate curator of mineralogy 
and petrology, went to the vicinity of Henagar, Ala., to prospect for a 
meteorite which had first been discovered in 1959. Although the main 
mass of this meteorite had been removed, Mr. Henderson, using a 
sensitive metal detector, prospected 5 acres of ground and located one 
sizable piece and several smaller fragments. A second trip took Mr. 
Henderson to Fort Worth, Tex., to investigate reports about a mete- 
orite that fell there on September 9, 1961. With the aid of Oscar 
Monnig, field work was organized, and after many hours’ search the 
party located a small piece of the meteorite, which is now on deposit 
in the national collections. 


30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


In April Dr. Richard S. Boardman, curator of invertebrate paleon- 
tology and paleobotany, spent several weeks collecting bryozoans from 
the Simpson group of lower Middle Ordovician age in the Arbuckle 
Mountains of Oklahoma. The fauna of this region is largely un- 
studied and has the advantage of starting with the earliest known 
bryozoans in this country and continuing through a long period of 
time. This sequence should reveal evolutionary details and the origins 
of several genera. The faunas are abundantly represented through- 
out and will support many detailed population studies. 

Dr. Porter M. Kier, associate curator of invertebrate paleontology 
and paleobotany, accompanied by Dr. Druid Wilson, of the U.S. 
Geological Survey, over a period of several weeks in Florida in Novem- 
ber and December, collected fossils from formations of probable Mio- 
cene and Pliocene age. The collecting was spectacular, providing a 
much larger fauna than anticipated. Over 2,000 specimens were 
found, representing approximately 25 species, most of which are new. 
The results of the study of these specimens should be most helpful in 
determining the age of the formations. Subsequently, Dr. Kier col- 
lected and studied living sea-urchins and sea-biscuits in the vicinity 
of Miami. Using aqualung equipment, he spent many hours on the 
sea floor observing the behavior of nine species of echinoids, anticipat- 
ing that these studies will permit a better understanding of the ecology 
of the fossil forms that are his particular interest. 

In February Dr. Kier and Dr. Erle G. Kauffman, associate curator 
of invertebrate paleontology and paleobotany, spent several weeks in 
Saudi Arabia collecting fossils under the sponsorship of the Arabian 
American Oil Co. With the aid of officials of this company, they 
made extensive collections in central Saudi Arabia, where three camps 
especially erected for the expedition gave access to fossiliferous Lower 
Cretaceous, Upper Cretaceous, and Jurassic areas. The operations 
were extremely successful, and the Smithsonian party obtained over 
a ton of well-preserved Mesozoic fossils, including approximately 
8,000 brachiopods, 30,000 mollusks, 1,500 echinoids, and numerous 
corals and sponges, many of them new to science. The material col- 
lected from carefully measured stratigraphic sections will be invalu- 
able to Middle East biostratigraphic work and an excellent source for 
evolutionary studies. 

In June Dr. Kier, in company with Dr. Druid Wilson, worked for a 
few days in the Miocene formation near Cape Fear, N.C. The scien- 
tists were fortunate in collecting sufficient echinoids and mollusks to 
enable them to date these beds and in turn to date the Caloosahatchee 
formation. 

In the summer of 1961 Dr. Kauffman conducted field work in Mon- 
tana, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. He collected 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 31 


large suites of fossil mollusks and worked out a refined biostrati- 
graphic zonation of the Upper Cretaceous rocks in these areas. ‘The 
ultimate purpose of the project is widespread regional correlation, 
based on mollusk zones, of Upper Cretaceous deposits throughout 
the Western Interior of North America, with special emphasis placed 
on the role of pelecypods as time-zonal indicators. The success of 
the summer field season far exceeded Dr. Kauffman’s expectations. 
Collections superior to any previously made were obtained at numer- 
ous localities and include a wealth of new species and new faunas. 
Refined biostratigraphic zonation of key Upper Cretaceous sections 
was accomplished. Regional studies in central and eastern Colorado 
are now near completion, making possible future expansion to Kansas, 
New Mexico, western and northern Colorado, and Wyoming. 

In April Dr. Richard Cifelli, associate curator of invertebrate 
paleontology and paleobotany, joined the oceanographic vessel 7. V. 
Chain of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. The vessel 
cruised to the Nova Scotia shelf at longitude 65° W., and then pro- 
ceeded due south to St. Thomas. Stations were occupied at each 
degree of latitude and the Gulf Stream. Collections of Foraminifera 
from oblique, 200-meter plankton tows were made at each station. 
A total of 24 samples were collected, representing excellent coverage 
for the western Sargasso Sea and adjoining waters. 

Between July and September Dr. C. Lewis Gazin, curator of ver- 
tebrate paleontology, accompanied by Franklin L. Pearce, chief of 
the laboratory of vertebrate paleontology, made an extended collect- 
ing trip through several Western States. Their first stop was at 
Littleton, Colo., where they joined the Smithsonian group carrying 
on a combined paleontological-archeological excavation in a quarry 
south of Littleton. In subsequent field work near Shoshoni, Wyo., 
they made collections at Paleocene, Lysite lower Eocene, Badwater 
upper Eocene, and Cameron Springs lower Oligocene localities in the 
Wind River Basin. Also in Wyoming near Kemmerer, their work 
had excellent results at a new locality for Paleocene mammals in the 
Evanston formation, as well as at the previously discovered locality 
in this formation near Fossil Butte. Continuing into Montana, the 
party spent a fruitful period at the well-known lower Oligocene 
locality at Pipestone Springs. At the conclusion of this field season, 
Dr. Gazin and Mr. Pearce returned to Littleton, Colo., to assist in 
the packing and shipping to Washington of some 4 tons of fossil 
materials, mostly mammoth, obtained by the party working on the 
Littleton project. 

Between February and May Dr. Gazin conducted research in Guate- 
mala, Nicaragua, Argentina, and Brazil. In Guatemala, at the 
request of and with the support of the Government of Guatemala, 


32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


he visited several localities where fossil vertebrate remains had been 
found. Undoubtedly the most significant of these was a rather ex- 
tensive area, evidently of lake-deposited volcanic ash, in and around 
the town of Estanzuela, near Zacapa in eastern Guatemala. Remains 
of mastodon and giant sloth were observed in place. During his 
short stay in Nicaragua Dr. Gazin examined a locality on the banks 
of the Rio Viejo, to the north of Lake Managua, where Pleistocene 
mammal remains were encountered. These included teeth of horse, 
bison, and mastodon, and a pair of toxodon jaws. While in South 
America, Dr. Gazin spent extended periods at Buenos Aires, La Plata, 
and Rio de Janeiro, pursuing his studies of early Tertiary mammals. 

Dr. Nicholas Hotton III, associate curator of vertebrate paleontol- 
ogy, left in February 1961 for South Africa for a collecting season 
in the famous Permian Karroo beds. His work extended through 
July 1961 and proved to be extremely successful. Accompanied by 
J. W. Kitching, of the Bernard Price Institute for Paleontological 
Research, University of the Witwatersrand, he covered more than 
4,000 miles in the Karroo area. Starting from Johannesburg, the 
party spent some weeks on the east flank of the Drakensberg Moun- 
tains, collecting fossils from the upper part of the Beaufort series. 
From there they went to the classic area of the uppermost Beaufort, 
around Burgersdorp and Lady Frere, where they completed another 
2 weeks of successful collecting. Gradually they worked their way 
westward across the Karroo, a course that took them downward 
stratigraphically. The collection consists of nearly 200 specimens, 
which will be added to the material of the National Museum. Many 
of the specimens are of exhibit quality. 

The greatest importance of the collection lies in its being repre- 
sentative of the Permo-Triassic synapsid fauna of Africa and in its 
high proportion of good anatomical specimens. It is believed that 
excellent coverage of the Beaufort series was achieved both hori- 
zontally and vertically. The collection of Cynognathus zone material 
is particularly complete, and there are a number of relatively rare 
upper Lystrosaurus-zone theriodonts. In addition, the genera 
Lystrosaurus and Diademodon are represented by several individ- 
uals from a variety of stratigraphic levels and geographic locations. 
Further progress in understanding taxonomic and ecological rela- 
tionships of the Beaufort synapids depends upon more accurate strati- 
graphic data than are currently available in the literature. However, 
it is expected that the data obtained by Dr. Hotton and Dr. A. S. 
Brink, scientific officer of the Bernard Price Institute, from various 
sources will be valuable in marking out approaches to an ultimate 
solution. 

In September Dr. Hotton worked several days in the vicinity of 
Wichita Falls, Tex., examining collections of Permian amphibians 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 33 


discovered by Dr. Sergius H. Mamay, of the U.S. Geological Survey. 
The material in this vicinity probably represents the last vestiges of 
a drying pond or river waterhole, in which the amphibians were 
trapped and preserved. It consists of about 214 tons of siltstone 
matrix containing perhaps 150 skulls and scattered postcranial re- 
mains; the bones range all the way from impressions to complete ele- 
ments. Although preservation of some of the specimens leaves 
something to be desired, the collection as a whole is remarkable. For 
obtaining much of this valuable material and shipping it to the Smith- 
sonian Institution, credit must go to Dr. Walter W. Dalquest, of 
Midwestern University. The fossil locality itself is in Haskell 
County, about 150 miles from Wichita Falls. 

During the year staff members of the Museum of History and 
Technology and the Office of Exhibits made many short and a few 
extended field trips in order to examine collections of potential use- 
fulness in developing the new exhibit halls of the Museum. During 
field work of this sort, the staff members carry out essential assign- 
ments of appraising the potential of objects to the research programs 
in history and technology, as well as their possible value to the ex- 
hibits program. While all such trips are of importance to the de- 
velopment of the Museum, only a few visits to institutions outside the 
United States are here discussed. 

In August Dr. Wilcomb E. Washburn, curator of political history, 
visited numerous museums and historic buildings in and near Athens, 
Vienna, Paris, and Rome, to familiarize himself with the latest museum 
exhibition techniques and the extent of the collections in these areas. 
He was pleased to note that some of the institutions visited have in- 
spired a renaissance of temporary craftsmanship in their regions. 

In the summer of 1961 Miss Rodris C. Roth, associate curator of 
cultural history, visited many museums and historic houses in Eng- 
land, including some in Cambridge and Brighton, in addition to the 
better-known institutions in and near London. She studied collec- 
tions specifically in relation to research projects and problems, and 
generally in relation to museum practices and attitudes. 

In September and October Dr. Vladimir Clain-Stefanelli, curator 
of numismatics, and Mrs. Clain-Stefanelli, associate curator, visited 
numismatic collections housed in museums in Portugal, Spain, Italy, 
Austria, Germany, France, Sweden, and Denmark. They were much 
impressed by the excellence of many of these collections. The in- 
crease in interest in numismatics is noticeable all over the western 
world, as evidenced by the new exhibits observed in various stages of 
completion. The extensive series of numismatic exhibit halls in prep- 
aration in Madrid is a good example. These will provide the world’s 
largest display of its kind and, together with the six planned exhibit 


34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


halls in the Catalan numismatic museum in Barcelona, will give Spain 
a leading position in this field so far as sheer exhibit area is concerned. 

Donald E. Kloster, museum aide in the division of military history, 
visited several military museums in Oslo, Norway, and Copenhagen, 
Denmark, during July and August. He studied the display tech- 
niques, conservation measures and experiments, storage systems, and 
reference collections of each museum and obtained considerable in- 
formation on experiments and practices in preservation, especially in 
the fields of leather, metal, and silk. 


EXHIBITIONS 


On June 28, 1962, the modernized hall of the cultures of the Pacific 
and Asia was formally opened in the presence of ambassadors and 
other official representatives of several Pacific and Southeast Asian 
countries. In this hall 50 special exhibit units depict aspects of past 
and present life in the Pacific Islands, Australia, New Zealand, and 
the great arc of southern Asia from the Philippines to Pakistan. The 
cultures represented range from the Stone Age to the highly ad- 
vanced cultures of India, Pakistan, Malaya, and Indonesia. The 
peoples of Hawaii and New Zealand are portrayed as they existed 
when discovered by Europeans over a century ago. Included among 
the exhibits are a large stone head from Easter Island, a 614-foot piece 
of stone money from Yap, royal feather capes from Hawaii, and recent 
gifts of material culture from India and Malaya. Life groups de- 
picting living conditions of New Guinea pygmies, an Ifugao rice 
harvest in the Philippines, and domestic scenes among the Maori of 
New Zealand and the Samoans are installed in the hall. 

Construction in the adjacent hall, which will contain additional 
Asian exhibits and also interpret the cultures of Africa, was nearing 
completion at the year’s end. 

At the close of the year two-thirds of the exhibits in the second of 
two hails of North American archeology had been designed and in- 
stallation was proceeding in anticipation of a fall opening. This hall 
will display exhibits which will interpret archeological methods and 
objectives and the prehistoric cultures of the United States east of the 
Rocky Mountains. 

Staff members of the department of anthropology collaborated with 
the division of cultural history in the selection of musical instruments 
from the Congo, Polynesia, China, and Thailand for an exhibit assem- 
bled for the Eighth Congress of the International Musicological So- 
ciety which met in Washington. A selection of weapons and armor 
from the John Oliver La Gorce collection was displayed from Novem- 
ber 1961 to March 1962. In December 1961 and January 1962 the 
division of ethnology offered a special exhibition, of 80 newly cleaned 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 35 


and restored oil paintings of American Indians by the artist George 
Catlin, which was installed in the foyer of the Natural History 
Building. 

By the year’s end the major construction of the hall of fossil reptiles 
was completed and several wall displays were partially or completely 
installed by the staff of the division of vertebrate paleontology. This 
hall will interpret the biological relationships among the reptiles 
through time and the various ways in which they met environmental 
demands. J. H. Matternes completed the large mural depicting an 
early Miocene assemblage of terrestrial mammals. 

Many new and outstanding gems, including a 300-carat blue star 
sapphire from Burma, were added to the gem exhibit. On November 
9, 1961, the 245.35-carat Jubilee diamond, the third largest in existence, 
was received on loan from its owner, Paul-Louis Weiller, and placed 
on exhibition for approximately 8 months. 

Curatorial activity in the development of the hall of oceanic life, 
including field collecting of specimens for exhibition, the specification 
of models, and the writing of detailed exhibits scripts, was coordi- 
nated by Dr. Fenner A. Chace, Jr., curator of marine invertebrates. 
Detailed specifications for models of marine invertebrates were pre- 
pared during the year for the guidance of highly skilled modelmakers. 

Construction of the new hall of cold-blooded vertebrates began early 
in May 1962. Displayed in this hall when completed will be repre- 
sentative types of fishes, amphibians, and reptiles, and exhibits inter- 
preting their life activities, anatomical adaptations, breeding 
behavior, distribution, and developmental history. 

Planning of the exhibits for the new hall of osteology was advanced 
during the year. Skeletons of mammals, birds, fishes, reptiles, and 
amphibians have been carefully selected to illustrate relationships, 
variations, specializations, and adaptations. General topics, such as 
the nature of bones and the interrelationships of skeletal parts, also 
will be presented in this hall. 

The temporary exhibit of mollusks in the west hall of the second 
floor was removed to provide space for construction activities in the 
adjacent exhibit hall. 

Curatorial efforts in the department of science and technology were 
directed toward the acquisition of specimens, the specification of 
models to be built, and the writing of exhibits scripts. Exhibits for 
five halls to be installed in the new Museum of History and Tech- 
nology Building were in production during the year. Twelve new 
exhibits on health education and the history of medicine, pharmacy, 
and dentistry were installed in the gallery of medical sciences in the 
Arts and Industries Building. They illustrate child health, the use of 
X-rays in medicine, hearing aids and surgery of the ear, inhalers, 


36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


masks and machines used in anesthesia, the development of electro- 
cardiographs, early pharmaceutical mortars and pestles, and dental 
drilling. 

A fine collection of original machine tools was obtained and a dozen 
models illustrating the development of tools for mass production were 
completed. One of the exhibits in the hall of tools will be a reproduc- 
tion of a 13th-century staimed-glass panel from the Cathedral of 
Chartres depicting a wood turner at work. 

A special case was built to exhibit a reproduction of the DeDondi 
clock, the earliest known mechanical clock about which details have 
survived. This will be one of the featured exhibits in the hall of light 
machinery. Construction of a series of enlarged escapement models 
illustrating significant clock and watch mechanisms was in progress. 
Designs and specifications for a full-size operating tower clock, to be 
installed in the horology section of the light machinery hall, have been 
developed. 

For the hall of civil engineering eight scale models illustrating the 
historic development of soft-ground and hard-rock tunneling in 
Europe and America were completed. In the refrigeration section of 
the hall of heavy machinery, a number of demonstrations of the prin- 
cipally employed refrigeration cycles will be featured with examples 
of refrigeration machinery. Exhibits interpreting early physical 
science were completed, and additional units in both classical and 
applied physics were prepared. 

In December 1961, the 92-foot, 280-ton Pacific-type locomotive 
“1401,” a gift of the Southern Railway System, was the first exhibit 
to be installed in the new Museum of History and Technology 
Building. 

Three vehicles which will be exhibited in the hall of automobiles and 
coaches in the new museum were restored. The Lawrence coach, a 
gift of Mrs. Richard Saltonstall, was placed on display in the Arts 
and Industries Building in May 1962. The Winton Bullet and Haynes 
automobiles were restored and returned to exhibition in the hall. 

During the year an Edison incandescent lamp collection, previously 
in storage, and a color television set, presented by the General Electric 
Research Laboratory, were placed on exhibition in the Arts and In- 
dustries Building. 

A change in the mechanism of the automatic quilt case was necessi- 
tated by unexpectedly heavy use by visitors. The dial electronic sys- 
tem of operation was replaced by a much simpler direct mechanical 
means of selecting quilts. Temporary exhibits of large color photo- 
graphs lent by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service were continued in 
the farm machinery hall. 

The Kelmscott Chaucer, a beautiful and important book printed by 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 37 


William Morris, was placed on permanent display in May 1962. 
Housed in a specially designed case, this book is a gift of Senator 
Clinton P. Anderson, a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution. 

The appointment by the American Petroleum Institute of a special 
subcommittee to assist in the location of historical material and to de- 
velop appropriate exhibits has provided a valuable means of commu- 
nication with the production side of the petroleum industry. A large 
number of typical machines have been acquired for the hall of general 
manufacturing. 

The division of political history installed small temporary exhibits 
dealing with the political campaigns of 1840 and 1896, and an exhi- 
bition of commemorative objects associated with the three assassinated 
presidents. The Women’s Rights exhibition is being developed gradu- 
ally to reflect more completely and with greater accuracy the develop- 
ment of this movement in the United States during the 19th and 20th 
centuries. 

An exceptional collection of marked 17th- and 18th-century Ameri- 
can pewter lent by Dr. Joseph H. Kler, and a New York repoussé silver 
2-handled bow], made in the early 18th century by Benjamin Wynkoop 
for Nicholas and Hiletje Roosevelt and lent by Mrs. Jack R. Hovey, 
were placed on exhibition in the present hall of everyday life in early 
America in the Natural History Building. 

A special exhibition of rare and seldom shown musical instruments 
was assembled from the museum collections on the occasion of the 
Eighth Congress of the International Musicological Society in Sep- 
tember 1961. On view through October, this attractive display of in- 
struments associated with the traditional music of Europe and 
America, as well as instruments from Asia, Africa, and Oceania, 
proved of interest to the public as well as to students of music. 

The cooperation of the British Crown Agents enabled the Museum 
to prepare a special exhibition featuring new stamps issued by Sey- 
chelles, Fiji, Tanganyika, Swaziland, and the Postal Centenary issue 
for the West Indies. Also displayed were original drawings and de- 
sign subjects for these stamps, items seldom seen outside the British 
Isles. 

In the numismatics hall a specially designed semiautomatic case 
which can display an average of 800 coins was installed on an experi- 
mental basis. It contains 40 trays, each measuring 2.5’’ x 44’’, sus- 
pended between continuous chain devices. The visitor may select for 
viewing any tray in which he may be interested. 

Highlight of the completely restored series of World War I naval 
vessels was a strikingly camouflaged model of the cruiser St. Louis. 
Prominent among new Civil War models were the Union gunboat 
Carondelet, the Confederate ironclad Fredericksburg, and the Con- 


38 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


federate submarine H. Z. Hunley. <A full-scale replica of the Cur- 
tiss A-1, first aircraft purchased by the United States Navy, was 
placed on exhibition with the cooperation of the National Air Museum. 

A special exhibition of marine paintings and ship portraits by 
John W. Schmidt was shown in the rotunda of the Arts and Indus- 
tries Building during December 1961 and January 1962. The divi- 
sion of naval history also cooperated with the Naval Historical Foun- 
dation in providing half models and other memorabilia for exhibits, 
on naval aviation and naval aspects of the Civil War, held in the Trux- 
ton Decatur Museum. During the annual meeting of the Company of 
Military Collectors and Historians, a special display of rare naval 
uniforms and flags of the Civil War period was exhibited. 

Under the chairmanship of museum director Albert C. Smith, the 
committee coordinating and supervising the modernization of natural- 
history exhibits reviewed the planning of six additional halls in 
earlier stages of development. 

Assistant director John C. Ewers continued to coordinate the activi- 
ties of the curators and the exhibits staff engaged in planning and 
preparing exhibits for the Museum of History and Technology. 
During the year exhibits units were prepared which will be installed 
in 16 halls of the new building. Although some of these exhibits were 
placed on temporary display in the Arts and Industries Building, 
others were placed in storage until the museum is completed. 

Exhibits chief John E. Anglim provided over-all supervision to the 
exhibits staff engaged in the design, production, and installation of 
permanent exhibits in the U.S. National Museum, and directly super- 
vised the exhibits laboratory in the Museum of Natural History. 
Benjamin W. Lawless continued to supervise the design and prepara- 
tion of exhibits for the Museum of History and Technology, assisted 
by Robert Widder in design, Bela S. Bory in production, and Robert 
Klinger in the model shop. Julius Tretick assisted in supervising the 
production and installation of exhibits in the Natural History Build- 
ing. Joseph G. Weiner, with the assistance of Constance Minkin and 
Edna Wright, continued the editing of the curators’ drafts of exhibits 
scripts and labels. 

The design of the renovated halls in the Natural History Building 
was aided greatly by Richard S. Johnson, design branch chief, and 
John E. Morrissey, architectural branch chief, of the architectural 
and structural division of the Public Buildings Service, General Serv- 
ices Administration, and by Luther H. Flouton and Pasquale Battes- 
telli, design architects of that agency. 


DOCENT SERVICE 


The Junior League of Washington continued its volunteer docent 
program, conducting school classes from the greater Washington area 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 39 


through the Smithsonian museums. The program was carried out 
through the cooperation of curator G. Carroll Lindsay, Smithsonian 
Museum Service, with Mrs. E. Tillman Stirling, chairman of the 
League’s docent committee, and Mrs. Vernon Knight, cochairman. 
Mrs. Knight will serve as chairman for the forthcoming year, with 
Mrs. Dickson R. Loos as cochairman. 

During the 1961-62 school year 20,880 children were conducted on 
720 tours, representing a 24-percent increase over the previous year’s 
participation. 

Tours were conducted in the halls of everyday life in early America, 
Indians of the Americas, and textiles, for grades 3 through 6, and 
in the halls of gems and minerals and power machinery, for grade 5 
through junior high school. Four tours each day, 5 days a week, 
were offered every half hour from 10 through 11:30 a.m. in the 
halls of everyday life in early America and in Indians of the Americas. 
Tours in the hall of gems and minerals were conducted on Monday 
through Friday at 10 and 11 am. To meet the increasing demand 
for docent service in this hall, tours were occasionally offered at noon 
and at 1 p.m., in addition to the tours offered in the morning. Two 
tours daily during school days were offered in the power machinery 
and textile halls. 

Tours were conducted from October 16, 1961, through May 25, 1962, 
with the exception of the month of April 1962, when tours were sus- 
pended because of the exceedingly heavy visitor traffic in all museum 
halls during the Easter and cherry-blossom seasons. The great 
number of visitors to the Smithsonian museums during the early 
spring so overcrowd the exhibition halls that the usual group tours 
cannot be satisfactorily conducted. 

In addition to Mrs. Stirling and Mrs. Knight, the members of the 
League’s docent committee were: Mrs. George Armstrong, Mrs. A. 
Stuart Baldwin, Miss Janet W. Barfield, Mrs. Thad H. Brown, Jr., 
Mrs. Thomas R. Cate, Mrs. Thomas K. Clarke, Mrs. Dean B. Cowie, 
Mrs. William Dixon, Mrs. Rockwood Foster, Mrs. Clark Gearhart, 
Mrs. George Gerber, Mrs. Robert H. Harwood, Mrs. Everett Hutchin- 
son, Mrs. Charles J. Kelly, Jr., Mrs. J. H. Lasley, Mrs. Ralph W. Lee 
ITT, Mrs. Dickson R. Loos, Mrs. John Manfuso, Jr., Mrs. Ernest May, 
Mrs. William McClure, Mrs. Robert McCormick, Mrs. Arnold B. 
McKinnon, Mrs. Peter Macdonald, Mrs. Joseph Metcalf, Mrs. William 
Minshall, Jr., Mrs. L. Edgar Prina, Mrs. Robert EK. Rogers, Mrs. W. 
James Sears, Mrs. Walter Slowinski, Mrs. Joseph Smith, Jr., Mrs. 
James H. Stallings, Jr., Mrs. David Toll, Mrs. John S. Voorhees, Mrs. 
Richard Wallis, and Mrs. Mare A. White. 

The Institution deeply appreciates the able and devoted efforts of 
these volunteers, whose services to the schools of the Washington-area 

672-17463 4 


40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


encourage effective use of Smithsonian museum exhibits by teacher 


and student alike. 
BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT 


At the close of the fiscal year the contract for construction of the 
west wing and completion of renovation of the existing Natural 
History Building of the Smithsonian Institution had not been 
awarded. The west wing when completed will provide laboratories 
and workrooms as well as more adequate storage space for collections 
of the entire department of botany and the divisions of fishes, reptiles 
and amphibians, marine invertebrates, and insects. On June 26, 1962, 
construction of the east wing, which was started on January 3, 1961, 
was about 85 percent complete. 

During the year construction of the building for the Museum of 
History and Technology reached the stage where it was deemed 
advisable to place two of the largest museum objects in the exhibition 
galleries. The large steam locomotive and tender presented by the 
Southern Railway System was placed on the rails in the first-floor 
transportation hall, and the original Revolutionary War gunboat 
Philadelphia was hoisted through a window to its display place in a 
third-floor military history hall. The Public Buildings Service, Gen- 
eral Services Administration, advises that limited areas in the build- 
ing should be available for occupancy commencing in October 1962, 
and that substantial occupancy of the entire building is estimated to be 
possible in March 1963. At the end of the fiscal year the construction 
of the building had reached 81 percent of completion. 


CHANGES IN ORGANIZATION AND STAFF 


In the department of zoology, Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., accepted 
appointment as head curator on February 1, 1962. Dr. Donald R. 
Davis, specialist in microlepidopteran moths, was appointed associate 
curator September 14, 1961, in the division of insects. A vacancy in 
the division of mollusks was filled October 2, 1961, by the appointment 
of Dr. Joseph Rosewater as associate curator. Dr. Donald F. Squires, 
a stony-coral specialist, entered on duty as associate curator in the 
division of marine invertebrates on December 18, 1961. Dr. Philip 
S. Humphrey was appointed curator of birds on June 1, 1962. Dr. 
William H. Crocker was appointed associate curator in ethnology Feb- 
ruary 12, 1962, to provide coverage of South American aboriginal 
material culture. 

Included among the additions to the staff of the Museum of History 
and Technology were the appointments of Dr. Lester Clark Lewis as 
curator of physical sciences on February 19, 1962, and Dr. Walter F. 
Cannon as associate curator on February 5, 1962. In the division of 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 41 


mechanical and civil engineering Silvio A. Bedini accepted an appoint- 
ment of curator in charge of the section of tools on November 27, 1961. 
Joseph Rudmann entered on duty October 30, 1961, as assistant curator 
in the head curator’s office, department of science and technology. 
Miss Doris Ann Esch entered on duty June 13, 1961, as assistant cura- 
tor, and Miss Ellen Joy Finnegan as junior curator August 7, 1961, 
in the head curator’s office, department of civil history. Keith E. 
Melder was appointed assistant curator of political history on Septem- 
ber 5, 1961. In the department of armed forces history, Dr. Melvin 
H. Jackson entered on duty as assistant curator September 14, 1961. 

Herbert G. Deignan, curator of birds, resigned January 31, 1962, 
after 24 years of service in the U.S. National Museum. Mr. Deignan 
intends to reside in Geneva, Switzerland, but plans to engage in Mada- 
gascar field ornithological studies as a member of a Museum expedition. 

Dr. Frederick M. Bayer, associate curator of soft corals, division of 
marine invertebrates, for the past 14 years, resigned December 15, 
1961, to accept the position of research associate professor, Institute of 
Marine Science, University of Miami, Florida. 

Robert R. Ireland, Jr., assistant curator of cryptogams, resigned on 
December 12, 1961, to continue with graduate studies after 4 years’ 
service in the department of botany. 

On January 31, 1962, Emery C. Leonard retired as associate curator 
of phanerogams after 44 years’ service in the department of botany. 
Mr. Leonard’s employment by the Institution began on January 2, 
1918. 

Dr. Ray S. Bassler, research associate in geology since his retirement, 
died at Washington, D.C., on October 3, 1961. Dr. Bassler retired as 
head curator of the department of geology on July 31, 1948, after 47 
years’ service. Dr. David C. Graham, a collaborator in biology since 
October 19, 1931, died at Englewood, Colo., on September 15, 1961. 
Dr. Graham served as a missionary in Szechwan and other parts of 
China for many years and during this service forwarded important 
natural-history collections to the U.S. National Museum. <A. Brazier 
Howell, a collaborator in mammalogy since December 11, 1926, and 
formerly a member of the staff of the department of anatomy of Johns 
Hopkins University, died at Bangor, Maine, on December 23, 1961. 
Dr. Roland W. Brown, a collaborator in paleobotany since December 
27, 1956, died at Lehighton, Pa., on December 12, 1961. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Remineton Kerioce, Director. 

Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL, 

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the 
Bureau of American Ethnology 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the field 
researches, office work, and other operations of the Bureau of Ameri- 
can Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1962, conducted 
in accordance with the act of Congress of April 10, 1928, as amended 
August 22, 1949, which directs the Bureau “to continue independently 
or in cooperation anthropological researches among the American In- 
dians and the natives of lands under the jurisdiction or protection of 
the United States and the excavation and preservation of archeologic 


remains.” 
SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES 


Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., director, devoted a portion of his time 
to office duties and the general supervision of the Bureau and the River 
Basin Surveys. In mid-July in company with Dr. Robert L. Stephen- 
son, chief of the Missouri Basin Project of the River Basin Surveys, 
and Dr. John M. Corbett, archeologist for the National Park Service, 
he made an inspection trip to the River Basin Surveys excavating 
parties in the Missouri Basin and visited several local institutions 
which were conducting excavations in cooperation with the Inter- 
Agency Archeological Salvage Program. He then proceeded to the 
Agate Basin Site in eastern Wyoming where a joint Smithsonian In- 
stitution-National Geographic Society party under his general direc- 
tion was digging in a site attributable to one of the early hunting 
groups in the Plains area. Dr. Roberts remained at the site until the 
work was terminated early in August. The immediate field work was 
under the direction of Dr. William M. Bass. During the course of 
the investigations numerous cut and split animal bones with evidence 
both for a kill and for a camping area were found. Associated with 
them were a variety of stone and bone implements. Most of the ani- 
mal bones have been identified as representing bison of an extinct 
species, Bison antiquus. A few of the bones undoubtedly represent 
one of the Cervidae, but they are not diagnostic of species. Also, 
there were a few jack-rabbit bones. The artifacts in addition to pro- 
jectile points include various forms of scrapers, flake knives, spoke 
shaves, flakes with graver’s points, and a few bone tools. This assem- 
blage of implements represents a definite contribution because it makes 


42 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 43 


possible the establishment of an Agate Basin Complex. At two places 
in the excavated area, objects found at a lower level indicated that 
Folsom Man had at least visited the area prior to the occupation by 
the makers of the Agate Basin type complex. One carbon-14 date 
obtained for the Agate Basin level indicates that the occupation was 
at about 9,350+400 years before the present, and charcoal from the 
Folsom level has given a date of 10875700 years before the present. 
This suggests that the basin was occupied at least at intervals over a 
period of about 1,000 years. 

After returning to Washington from Wyoming, Dr. Roberts went 
to Sio Paulo, Brazil, where he represented the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion and the United States at a conference on the origin and antiquity 
of man in the New World. He made three speeches at the conference 
and was elected one of the two vice presidents for the session. In 
September he went to Mesa Verde National Park in southwestern 
Colorado where he served as a member of the advisory group for the 
Wetherill Mesa Project. In November he participated in the 19th 
Plains Conference for Archeology at Lawton, Okla., and read a paper 
on the 1961 excavations at the Agate Basin Site. Later he went to 
Macon, Ga., as a member of an advisory group for a series of studies 
to be carried on at Ocmulgee National Monument. Early in June he 
visited the offices of the Missouri Basin Project of the River Basin 
Survey at Lincoln, Nebr., and assisted in sending out a number of 
field parties for work in Kansas, South Dakota, Wyoming, and 
Montana. 

Dr. Henry B. Collins, anthropologist, continued his Eskimo studies 
and other Arctic activities. The Russian translation program—An- 
thropology of the North: Translations from Russian Sources—which 
he organized in 1960 continued its operation with the support of a 
second year’s grant from the National Science Foundation. The 
second volume of translations, Studies in Siberian Ethnogenesis, 
edited by Henry N. Michael, was published by the University of 
Toronto Press for the Arctic Institute of North America in April 
1962. This 313-page volume contains 17 articles by Soviet ethnolo- 
gists, anthropologists, historians, and linguists on the origin and re- 
lationships of the Yakut, Tungus, Buryat, Kirgiz, the Amur tribes, 
and Samoyed and other ethnic groups of Siberia. Work is proceeding 
on the translation and editing of additional volumes and papers on 
Siberian archeology, ethnology, and physical anthropology selected by 
the Arctic Institute’s advisory committee, of which Dr. Collins is 
chairman. 

Dr. Collins’ article on Eskimo art appeared in volume 5 of the 
Encyclopaedia of World Art. It traces the development of Eskimo 
art from prehistoric to modern times and describes and illustrates the 


44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


various regional art styles, ancient and modern, in Alaska, Canada, 
and Greenland. He also prepared an article on the relationships of 
the earliest Eskimo cultures to recently discovered pre-Eskimo cul- 
tures in the western Arctic for a volume on early man in the western 
Arctic to be published by the University of Alaska. 

Dr. Collins continued to serve as a member of the Board of Gov- 
ernors of the Arctic Institute of North America and as a member 
of its publications committee responsible for the quarterly journal 
Arctic and the two other Arctic Institute series, echnical Papers 
and Special Publications. He also continued to serve as chairman 
of the directing committee which plans and supervises preparation 
of the Arctic Bibliography, a comprehensive reference work which 
abstracts and indexes the contents of publications in all fields of sci- 
ence, and in all languages, relating to the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions 
of the world. This Arctic Institute project, for which Dr. Collins 
has been primarily responsible since its inception in 1947, is being 
supported by grants and allotments from the Department of Defense, 
National Institutes of Health, Atomic Energy Commission, and De- 
fense Research Board of Canada. The Library of Congress provides 
office space, and most of the work of compilation and editing is done 
there under the direction of Miss Marie Tremaine. In addition to 
the unsurpassed collections of the Library of Congress, those of the 
Smithsonian Library and 80 other large libraries in the United States 
and Canada, as well as of polar research institutes in England, France, 
and Norway, are being utilized in the preparation of the bibliography. 
Volume 10 was issued by the Government Printing Office in December 
1961, and volume 11 is ready for the printer. Volume 10 (1,520 pages) 
abstracts and indexes the contents of 6,570 scientific publications on 
Arctic and sub-Arctic areas and on low temperature conditions; added 
to the abstracts appearing in the previous nine volumes, this makes a 
total of 62,848 such publications abstracted to date. In volume 10, 
for the first time, Russian language material exceeds that in English, 
reflecting expanded research activities of Soviet scientists in their 
Arctic territories; the volume contains abstracts, all in English, of 
3,075 Russian publications, of 2,503 publications in English, 513 Scan- 
dinavian, 212 German, and 267 in other languages. Subjects that 
have received special emphasis in this volume are geology, geophysics, 
mineral resources, meteorology, fisheries, oceanography, transporta- 
tion, construction, economic and social conditions, anthropology and 
acculturation of Eskimos and native Siberian peoples, acclimatization, 
military and public health, diseases, and the environmental effects of 
darkness, humidity, light, and low temperature on animals, man, and 
plants. 

Dr. William C. Sturtevant, ethnologist, continued his research re- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 45 


lated to the ethnology of the Eastern North American Indians. Par- 
ticularly he broadened his Iroquois research, previously concentrated 
on the Seneca of New York, to include the very poorly known Seneca- 
Cayuga of northeastern Oklahoma. During August 1961 he spent 3 
weeks doing field work among this group (including attendance at 
their major annual ceremony, the Green Corn Dance). In January 
and May he spent several days studying Oklahoma Seneca-Cayuga 
specimens in the Museum of the American Indian in New York, and 
in June visited the National Museum of Canada in Ottawa to study 
the large collection made among this group by Marius Barbeau in 1911 
and 1912. ‘These Iroquois are descended from a group which settled in 
Ohio in the 18th century, together with accretions received since then 
from New York and Canada. At present those who speak an 
Indian language speak Cayuga. Although there have been continu- 
ous intermittent contacts with other Iroquois, the culture of this group 
is the most deviant found in any Iroquois community, and its study 
promises to elucidate several aspects of general Iroquois culture— 
particularly some features of the various major ritual complexes. 
Conversations with informants during a brief return visit to the New 
York Seneca in October helped clarify some of these matters. 

While in Oklahoma Dr. Sturtevant spent a day among the Delaware 
inquiring about the last years of their ceremonial structure, the Big 
House. Carved posts from this building were studied in museums 
in Oklahoma, New York, and Toronto during this and previous years, 
and some notes on the subject by F. G. Speck were located in the 
American Philosophical Society Library in Philadelphia. Dr. Sturte- 
vant returned from Oklahoma via Mississippi and North Carolina, 
stopping about 3 days in each State to renew and expand his acquaint- 
ance with the Choctaw and Cherokee. 

During September Dr. Sturtevant prepared a paper on “Spanish- 
Indian Relations in Southeastern North America,” which he delivered 
at the annual meeting of the American Indian Ethnohistoric Con- 
ference in Providence in October. This later appeared in Hthno- 
history (vol. 9, pp. 41-94, 1962). His paper on “Taino Agriculture” 
was published in Antropolégica Supplement Publication No. 2 
(Caracas, 1961). In October Dr. Sturtevant attended an International 
Conference on Iroquois Research, at McMaster University, Hamilton, 
Ontario, where he presented an oral report on his Oklahoma field 
work. In November he attended the annual meetings of the American 
Anthropological Association in Philadelphia. 

Dr. Wallace L. Chafe, linguist, spent July and August in Anadarko, 
Okla., collecting material for a description of the Caddo language. 
He recorded a considerable quantity of linguistic data on this language 
for which almost no information was previously available, and he 


46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


returned to Oklahoma in mid-June 1962 to continue this work. In 
August he spent a few days with Dr. Sturtevant at the Seneca-Cayuga 
Green Corn Dance and was able to locate a few speakers of Wyandot, 
a language that had been thought to be extinct. 

Between September and May Dr. Chafe worked at the Bureau on 
a half-time basis, teaching courses on several linguistic subjects at 
Catholic and Georgetown Universities. At Georgetown he worked 
with a speaker of Winnebago and hopes eventually to prepare some 
descriptive material on that language. Through this study he was 
led to pursue further some facts suggestive of a remote relationship 
between the Siouan, Caddoan, and Iroquoian language families. 
During the fall he continued his survey of the present number of 
speakers of North American Indian languages, the results of which 
are being published in the Jnternational Journal of American 
Linguistics. He read papers at the International Conference on 
Troquoian Studies at Hamilton, Ontario, in October, and at the Annual 
Meeting of the American Anthropological Association in Philadel- 
phia in November. He was program chairman for the spring meeting 
of the American Ethnological Society in Washington in April and 
edited the papers read at the meeting for publication. During the 
late spring he spent several weeks continuing work on a Seneca dic- 
tionary. 

Robert M. Laughlin, ethnologist specializing in the Middle Ameri- 
can area, joined the staff of the Bureau on June 11, 1962. He spent 
the remaining days of the fiscal year in research on the Huastec of 
Veracruz and San Luis Potosi, Mexico, in preparation for an article 
for the Handbook of Middle American Indians, to be published by 
the Middle American Research Institute of Tulane University. 


RIVER BASIN SURVEYS 


During fiscal 1962 the River Basin Surveys unit continued its pro- 
gram for salvage archeology in areas to be flooded or otherwise 
destroyed by the construction of large dams. The work as in previous 
years was carried on in cooperation with the National Park Service 
and the Bureau of Reclamation of the Department of the Interior, the 
Corps of Engineers of the Department of the Army, and a number 
of State and local institutions. An increase in funds that became 
available late in the year made possible an expansion in the program. 
During 1961-62 the investigations were supported by a transfer of 
$231,705 from the National Park Service and a grant of $2,000 from 
the Appalachian Power Co. The funds from the National Park 
Service were for use in the Missouri Basin and along the Chatta- 
hoochee River, Alabama-Georgia. The grant from the Appalachian 
Power Co. was to provide for an archeological survey in the area along 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 47 


the Roanoke River in southern Virginia where its Smith Mountain 
Project is underway. The funds from the National Park Service 
provided $204,500 for the Missouri Basin and $27,205 for the Chatta- 
hoochee Project. A carryover of $7,734 in the Missouri Basin made 
the total for that area $212,234. The grand total of funds available 
in 1961-62 for the River Basin Surveys was $241,439. 

Investigations in the field consisted of surveys and excavations. 
Most of the efforts were concentrated in the digging of sites, but sur- 
veys were made in three new reservoir basins and two watershed proj- 
ect areas. Also, at the end of the year a survey was underway in the 
Missouri River area in Montana, locally known as the Missouri Breaks, 
which is to be set aside as the Lewis and Clark National Wilderness 
Waterway. Two of the new reservoirs were in Virginia and one in 
Nebraska. One of the watershed projects was also in Nebraska and the 
other was in Iowa. At the beginning of the fiscal year three parties 
were in the field in the Missouri Basin. A fourth began operations 
in that area in August, and another party resumed investigations 
along the Chattahoochee River during the same period. At the end 
of April a party returned to the Chattahoochee area and started fur- 
ther excavations in the Walter F. George Reservoir Basin. In May 
two small parties were at work in Nebraska, one in South Dakota, and 
one in Iowa. In June 11 parties moved into the Missouri Basin; one 
of them was working in Kansas, seven were in South Dakota, one 
was in Wyoming, one was in Wyoming-Montana, and one in Montana. 
With the exception of the one in Alabama-Georgia, which terminated 
its activities on June 30, all these parties were continuing their investi- 
gations at the close of the fiscal year. 

As of June 80, 1962, reservoir areas where archeological surveys and 
excavations had been made since the start of the salvage program 
totaled 258, located in 29 States. In addition, two lock projects, four 
canal areas, and two watershed areas had been examined. During the 
years since the program got underway, 4,979 sites have been located 
and recorded, and of that number 1,171 were recommended for exca- 
vation or limited testing. Because complete excavation is rarely 
possible, except in the case of a few small sites, the term “excavation” 
implies digging approximately 10 percent of a site. With the excep- 
tion of those where the work was done during the past year, prelimi- 
nary appraisal reports have been issued for most of the areas surveyed 
and, in cases where additional reconnaissance has resulted in the dis- 
covery of other sites, supplemental reports have been prepared. Where 
no archeological manifestations were noted or where they were too 
meager to be of import, no general report was issued. Manuscripts 
have been completed for two of the surveys made last year, and they 
probably will be issued sometime during the coming fiscal year. 


48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


By the end of the year, 547 sites in 54 reservoir basins and 1 water- 
shed area had either been tested or dug sufficiently to provide good 
information about them. Thus far at least one example of each site 
recorded in the preliminary surveys has been examined. They cover 
the range from camping locations occupied by the early hunting and 
gathering peoples of about 10,000 years ago to village remains left by 
early historic Indians, as well as the remains of frontier Army and 
trading posts of European origin. Reports on the results of the in- 
vestigations have appeared in various scientific journals, in the Bul- 
letins of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and in the Miscellaneous 
Collections of the Smithsonian Institution. Bulletin 179, containing 
River Basin Surveys Papers 21-24, was distributed in December 1961. 
These papers consist of a series of reports on excavations conducted in 
Texas, Iowa, and the Columbia basin, Oregon-Washington. Bulletin 
182, containing River Basin Surveys Paper 25, a report on the exca- 
vations carried on in the John H. Kerr Reservoir basin, Virginia- 
North Carolina, was in press at the end of the year and should be 
ready for distribution early in the coming year. River Basin Sur- 
veys Papers 26-82, comprising Bulletin 185, should be ready for 
distribution early in the coming year. The papers contain data on the 
results of investigations in the Tiber Reservoir basin, Montana, the 
Garrison and Jamestown Reservoir areas in North Dakota, and the 
Lovewell Reservoir area in Kansas. River Basin Surveys Papers 
33-88, which will constitute Bulletin 189, have been turned over to the 
editors and will be sent to the printer early in the next fisca) year. 
The contents pertain to excavations in North Dakota, South Dakota, 
and Kansas. 

Throughout the year the River Basin Surveys continued to receive 
helpful cooperation from the National Park Service, the Bureau of 
Reclamation, the Corps of Engineers, the Geological Survey, and 
various State and local institutions. The field personnel of all the 
cooperating agencies assisted the party leaders in many ways and the 
relationship was excellent in all areas. Transportation and guides 
were furnished in a number of instances, and mechanical equipment 
made available by the construction agency speeded the work at a 
number of locations. Detailed maps of the reservoirs under investi- 
gation were supplied by the agency concerned and helpful informa- 
tion was provided whenever it was needed. The National Park Serv- 
ice continued to serve as liaison between the various agencies, both in 
Washington and in the field. It also was responsible for the prepara- 
tion of estimates and justifications for the funds needed to carry out 
the salvage program. Valuable assistance in numerous ways was pro- 
vided by the commanding officer at Fort Benning in Georgia while 
studies were being made in that portion of the Walter F. George 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 49 


Reservoir basin which is within the boundaries of the Fort Benning 
Reservation. Various local clubs and groups of citizens, both in Ala- 
bama and Georgia, the Georgia Historical Commission, and the Uni- 
versity of Georgia assisted the leader of the River Basin Surveys 
party while he was working along the Chattahoochee River. In the 
Missouri Basin Project engineers and personnel from the Corps of 
Engineers were very helpful in carrying out activities in that area. 
Furthermore, the Corps of Engineers and the Missouri Basin Project 
of the River Basin Surveys cooperated in the preparation of small 
informative pamphlets telling about various reservoirs along the 
Missouri River. The pamphlets were published by the Corps of Eng- 
ineers and are being distributed to visitors at various reservoir 
installations. 

General direction and supervision of the program were continued 
by the main office in Washington. The field headquarters and labora- 
tory at Lincoln, Nebr., was in direct charge of the work in the Mis- 
souri Basin. The activities along the Chattahoochee River and in 
southern Virginia were supervised by the Washington office. 

Washington office—The main headquarters of the River Basin 
Surveys in the Bureau of American Ethnology continued under the 
direction of Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., throughout the year. Carl 
F, Miller and Harold A. Huscher, archeologists, were based at that 
office. Mr. Miller spent a major portion of the year in the Washing- 
ton office working on materials and data he had collected during pre- 
vious seasons in the field. He also corrected the final page proofs for 
his report on the investigations made at the James H. Kerr Reservoir 
on the Roanoke River in southern Virginia. He made a number of 
talks before schools and civic organizations in the metropolitan area 
of Washington and spoke before the Archeological Society of Dela- 
ware at Wilmington. In October he attended the sessions of the East- 
ern States Archeological Federation at Williamsburg, Va. He 
identified numerous artifacts from the southeastern archeological area 
for collectors who either sent them to the office or brought them in 
person and furnished information for replies to letters inquiring about 
archeological problems. On April 3 at Rocky Mount, Va., he began an 
archeological reconnaissance of the Smith Mountain Project of the 
Appalachian Power Co. He completed that assignment and returned 
to Washington on May 11. He then prepared a report on the results 
of his survey, recommending a series of excavations for the two reser- 
voir areas included in the project. On June 11 he left Washington 
for Lincoln, Nebr., to take charge of one of the Missouri Basin field 
parties. His activities during the remainder of the fiscal year are 
covered in the Missouri Basin portion of this report. 

At the beginning of the fiscal year Mr. Huscher was in the Washing- 


50 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


ton office working on records and collections from the previous field 
season. Early in August he established headquarters at Eufaula, 
Ala., for a series of archeological studies in the Walter F. George 
Reservoir basin on the Chattahoochee River. Because of unfavorable 
weather conditions, he ended his field activities there at the end of 
December. In November he participated in the sessions of the Con- 
ference for Plains Archeology, at Lawton, Okla., and on December 1 
and 2 in the Southeastern Archeological Conference held at Ocmulgee 
National Monument at Macon, Ga. After his return to Washington, 
Mr. Huscher devoted his time to the study of data and materials 
which he had collected during the previous months along the Chatta- 
hoochee River. At the end of May he again returned to the Walter F. 
George Reservoir area, Alabama-Georgia, and resumed his investi- 
gations of archeological sites to be flooded by the rising waters of 
the reservoir. He completed his field activities at the end of June. 

Alabama-Georgia.—During the period from August 4 to December 
30, a series of investigations was made in the Walter F. George Res- 
ervoir basin on the Chattahoochee River by a party under the direc- 
tion of Harold A. Huscher. They spent the first 2 weeks of the field 
season checking a series of public-use areas laid out at regular inter- 
vals on both sides of the Chattahoochee River from Columbia, Ala., 
north to the Fort Benning area. Between the Fort Benning Reser- 
vation and Columbus, Ga., a series of harbor developments is con- 
templated, and a further check of sites was made at that location. 
The party found that the recreation-area program would involve 
four important sites on the Alabama side of the river and one on 
the Georgia side. Original plans had called for virtual destruction 
of the great Rood’s Landing mound site on the Georgia side, but as 
a result of conferences with the representatives of the Corps of Engi- 
neers the roads contemplated were shifted so that they would com- 
pletely miss the mounds and adjacent archeological manifestations. 
The new plans also provided for the development of the central 
plaza of the site as a grassed lawn area. This particular site is 
significant because it was an important ceremonial center which 
contained eight mounds. 

Following the study of the public-use area the crew was enlarged 
and the remainder of the field season was devoted to an examination 
of 24 additional sites. Collections were made from 21 of them, 9 
of which had not previously been listed. Actual excavations were 
made at eight sites, of which the two mounds south of Georgetown, 
Ga., were worked most extensively. In every place where digging 
was done, four or more squares were excavated. Each square is 
10’ x 10’ in area and each was excavated in 6’’ levels, the material 
from them being put through power screens. This made possible 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 51 


much more progress than would have been the case had the usual 
hand methods been used throughout. 

The mound sites were particularly important because they contained 
considerable new information pertaining to several cultural periods 
in the region. One of them, known as the Cool Branch Mound site, 
proved to be an unusually fine example of a large burial mound with 
accompanying village, surrounded by a palisade. The large mound 
was in the approximate center and the walls were constructed to 
conform to its orientation. The enclosure was rectilinear, measuring 
about 700 feet on the side, with 10-foot-square bastions or towers 
spaced about 115 feet apart. The data obtained indicate that this 
village conformed quite closely to those which occupied the Gordon 
sites in Tennessee, the New Madrid sites, Aztalan in Wisconsin, and 
even the Huff and Black Partizan sites in the middle Missouri Valley. 
Furthermore, the findings agree closely with the description of the 
town of Mauvila in Alabama which the Spaniards destroyed in 1540. 
The village may well have been occupied at the time of the first pene- 
tration of the Spaniards, but it apparently was abandoned and fell 
into ruin before the Indians had contact with the Europeans, because 
no materials of European manufacture were recovered during the 
course of the excavations. The other locations consisted in the main 
of former villages, and they yielded specimens representative of all 
the cultural periods from Early Archaic to Early Historic Creek. 
The data obtained from them will assist materially in developing 
the aboriginal history of that area. 

In the last week in April Mr. Huscher resumed his activities in 
the Walter F. George area. During most of May he continued fur- 
ther excavations at the Cool Branch site, gathering data on the burial 
pit which lay beneath the main mound and further information about 
the palisade walls and general village features. Attention was then 
turned to an examination of nine sites, one of which had not previ- 
ously been recorded. Actual excavations were conducted at six of 
the sites. In view of the limited time available, only three excava- 
tion squares were dug at most of them, although in one or two cases 
an additional square was opened. Two of the sites have particular 
significance. One of them on the Alabama side of the river in the 
Fort Benning area is presumed to be the location of the last town 
occupied by the Yuchi in that area. It has not definitely been identi- 
fied as to name, but the information from it should help to throw 
considerable light on the length of time that tribe was living that 
far north along the Chattahoochee River after having been driven 
from their Tennessee and Savannah River locations. The second site 
is on the opposite side of the river in Georgia and may well repre- 
sent an extension or continuation of the Yuchi village in Alabama. 


52 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Trade materials are present in the deposits at both locations. Those 
on the Georgia side, however, are much less numerous than those on 
the Alabama side and may indicate an earlier abandonment of that 
part of the village. There is close similarity between the specimens 
from both sites. The Georgia site actually may represent the loca- 
tion of one of the towns called Hlekatchka and also seems to be the 
most promising location for the original Captain Ellich’s (Yuchi) 
town which was settled in the early 18th century. If it was 
Hlekatchka, the latter is reported to have been destroyed in 1814. 
Excavations on the site produced large quantities of debris indicating 
the burning of a house or houses, possibly the entire village, which 
supports the idea that it may have been that particular village. It 
is unfortunate that time and funds did not permit further and more 
extensive excavations on both sides of the river. The other sites 
which were tested during June contributed still more information 
pertaining to several aboriginal periods in the Chattahoochee Valley. 

Missouri Basin.—For the sixteenth consecutive year the Missouri 
Basin Project continued to operate from the field headquarters and 
laboratory in Lincoln, Nebr. Dr. Robert L. Stephenson served as 
chief of the project throughout the year. Activities included surveys, 
excavations, analyses of materials, and reporting on results. During 
the summer months the work consisted mainly of excavations. Analy- 
ses and preparation of reports received the major attention through- 
out the rest of the year. The chronology program, begun in January 
1958, was especially emphasized. 

At the beginning of the fiscal year the permanent staff, in addition 
to the chief, consisted of three archeologists, one administrative assist- 
ant, one administrative clerk, one secretary, one scientific illustrator, 
one photographer, and four museum aides. On the temporary staff 
were two assistant archeologists, one cook, and 25 field crewmen. 
At the end of the year there were five archeologists in addition to 
the chief, one administrative assistant, one administrative clerk, one 
secretary, one clerk typist, one scientific illustrator, one photographer, 
and four museum aides on the permanent staff. The temporary staff 
included 4 archeologists, 5 field assistants, 8 cooks, and 83 field 
crewmen. 

During the year there were 19 Smithsonian River Basin Surveys 
field parties at work in the Missouri Basin. Two of these were 
operating in the Oahe Reservoir area and two in the Big Bend 
Reservoir area of South Dakota during July and August. One 
small party investigated the Salt-Wahoo Watershed area in Nebraska 
in April; one party conducted surveys and excavations in the Pony 
Creek Watershed area in Iowa in May; a small party visited the 
Fort Sully Site in the Oahe Reservoir area in May; a survey of the 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 5S 


Arcadia Reservoir area in Nebraska was also made in May; during 
June one party was at work in the Tuttle Creek Reservoir area in 
Kansas, one in the Missouri Breaks area of Montana, two in the 
Yellowtail Reservoir area of Montana and Wyoming, four in the 
Oahe Reservoir area of South Dakota, and three in the Big Bend 
Reservoir area of South Dakota. 

Other field work in the Missouri Basin included 12 parties from 
State institutions operating under agreements with the National Park 
Service and in cooperation with the Smithsonian Institution in the 
Inter-Agency Archeological Salvage Program. 

Appropriated funds for this fiscal year were materially increased 
over the previous 2 years, thus permitting a substantial increase in 
the amount of salvage that could be accomplished. Most of this new 
activity came at the end of the fiscal year since the field season at the 
beginning was nearly completed before the new money became avail- 
able. The field parties at work at the start of the year were conduct- 
ing intensive excavations of key sites. Toward the end of the year, 
when the 1962 field season began, crews were engaged in intensive 
surveys of new areas, sampling of large numbers of sites in other 
areas, and carrying on intensive excavations at a series of key sites 
in several reservoir basins. 

At the beginning of the year Robert W. Neuman, assisted by 
William G. Buckles, was directing a crew of 10 Indian laborers exca- 
vating a series of 8 prehistoric burial mounds near the Big Bend 
Dam in central South Dakota. Having begun work on June 7 of 
the previous fiscal year, this party continued in the field until Sep- 
tember 8. Three low, dome-shaped, earthen mounds were excavated 
at the Sitting Crow site (89BF225).1. The mounds, ranging from 
2 feet in height and 50 feet in diameter to nearly twice that size, 
contained 10 intrusive historic interments representing at least 3 types 
of burials. These were primary burials in wooden coffins, primary 
burials in pits, and a secondary bundle burial. Some of the coffin 
burials were associated with grave posts and were scattered, singly, 
while others were associated with the pit burials within a circular 
enclosure of vertical posts. Glass, metal, wood, stone, leather, and 
fabric grave goods were recovered from this historic component. 
The burial mound complex proper was represented by single and 
multiple secondary burials. These remains were found scattered 
about on the mound floor or sometimes deposited in shallow, sub- 


1 Site designations used by the River Basin Surveys are trinomial in character, consisting 
of symbols for State, county, and site. The State is indicated by the first number, accord- 
ing to the numerical position of the State name in an alphabetical list of the United States ; 
thus, for example, 32 indicates North Dakota, 39 indicates South Dakota. Counties are 
designated by a two-letter abbreviation; for example, MH for Mercer County, MN for 
Mountrail County, ete. The final number refers to the specific site within the indicated 
State and county. 


o4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


mound pits. Artifact associations consist of small, triangular, side- 
notched points, end scrapers, marine and fresh-water shell beads, and 
a bipointed copper awl. 

Four mounds were excavated at the Side Hill site (89BF223). 
The burial mound component there was essentially the same as at the 
Sitting Crow site, but in addition there was evidence of cremation 
in association with Truman Plain Rim pottery. 

Only one mound was excavated at the Old Quarry site (89BF2384). 
It was found to contain a portion of a wooden log, a bison skull, and 
concentrations of hematite on the mound floor. Two large, subfloor 
pits were located near the mound center and each contained secondary 
burials of seven to nine individuals. A single artifact, a large un- 
diagnostic body sherd, was recovered from one pit. A bison skull 
also was found in the same pit. 

While testing below the mounds at the Sitting Crow and Side 
Hill sites, two, and possibly three, stratified, lithic components were 
located. The deepest component was indicated by a zone of charcoal- 
stained soil containing stone chips. The intermediate component 
was in a light-colored soil zone and contained thin, triangular points 
with concave bases, end scrapers, knives, worked and unworked chips, 
bison bone fragments, and shallow basin-shaped firepits. The upper- 
most lithic component is typologically similar to the McKean complex 
represented at various sites in western South Dakota and eastern 
Wyoming. 

During the last week of the field season, all the 46 mounds between 
Fort Thompson and Campbell Creek were mapped. They range from 
25 to 80 feet in diameter and from 1 to 4 feet in height. The tumuli 
sometimes occur singly and in other instances are in groups. 

The second Smithsonian Institution field party at work at the 
beginning of the year was directed by Dr. Warren W. Caldwell, 
assisted by Richard E. Jensen. With a crew of 11 men, they had 
begun work on June 138 of the preceding year and continued through 
August 22. The entire time was devoted to excavations at the Pretty 
Head site (89L.M232). This site is situated on the right bank of the 
Missouri River in the lower portion of the Big Bend Reservoir area. 
Two houses were completely excavated, a third was excavated except 
for the heavy fill marking one corner, two midden areas were exten- 
sively tested, a defensive moat was sectioned in several places, and 
the old occupation surface between two houses was cleared. 

The site is roughly a rectangular area of hillocks and depressions 
capping the riverward edge of Terrace 1, which stands about 60 feet 
above the summer stage of the Missouri River. A number of oval 
depressions were arranged in irregular rows paralleling the cutbank 
of the river. These proved to be the remains of houses, although 


Secretary's Report, 1962 PLATE 1 


es 
ors 


oF. 


1. Smithsonian River Basin Surveys crew excavating two burial pits at the Old Quarry 
Mound, Big Bend Reservoir, South Dakota. ‘These pits contained bones of both infants 


and adults. 


2. Smithsonian River Basin Surveys crew skimming the floor of a long, rectangular house 
following dragline pass at the Pretty Head site, Big Bend Reservoir. ‘The dragline was 
found very effective in moving large amounts of overburden. 


Secretary's Report, 1962 PLATE 2 


1. Long, rectangular house excavated at the Pretty Head site. Crewman is sitting in the 
remnant of a ditch that extended the length of the house. ‘The floor of the house, except 
where disturbed by the ditch, was covered with a deposit of red ocher. River Basin 
Surveys. 


2. Aerial view of the Potts Village, Oahe Reservoir, South Dakota. The Missouri River is 
in the background. At maximum pool elevation the Oahe Reservoir will be about 15 
feet above this site. ‘The excavations outlined in the fortified area indicate the house 
structure within it. River Basin Surveys. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT BY5) 


the orientation was not consistent and the village pattern was by no 
means as regular as had been anticipated. The village had only one 
extended occupation. It appears that the houses had been arranged 
in streets or blocks but subsequent growth was haphazard and un- 
planned. There is further support of this view in relation to the 
defensive features of the village. The entire occupation area is 
mantled by midden debris and wind-blown silts to such an extent 
that the moat was completely obscured. At least one late house 
(Feature 7) was built athwart the moat, which was already filled with 
refuse and could have had but little usefulness for defensive purposes. 
Feature 7 was smaller and less complex than the other houses. 

Mantling all the houses were several soil zones, the earliest of which 
was particularly evident. It is tempting to equate this with a severe 
drought in the Central Plains during the last quarter of the 13th 
century. Drought conditions may well have been a disruptive factor 
that brought progressive changes and collapse to this village. The 
houses excavated (Features 2, 4, and 7) were uniformly of the long 
rectangular type but differed in details. All were deep, with floors 
excavated 2 to 3 feet below the old occupation surface, which in turn 
was 2 to 4 feet below the present surface. In each the floor had been 
painted with a red, mineral paint and in Feature 4 there were two 
such painted floors separated by 0.2 foot of sterile fill. The entrance 
to each house was a wide ramp from the old surface to the floor. In 
Feature 4, the ramp led across a wide platform and ended in a low 
step. On either side of the ramp was a narrow trench that continued 
across the front of the trench, separating it from the house proper. 
There was a similar trench in Feature 2. 

A large number of bell-shaped cache pits were found beneath the 
floor of Feature 2, but not in the other houses. Features 2 and 4 con- 
tained much bison bone, particularly skulls, lying on the floor and 
within the mantling fill. They were notably absent from Feature 7, 
suggesting a change in cultural emphasis or perhaps in local ecology. 
In each house the firepit was located on the centerline just inside the 
inner end of the ramp. Superstructures of all three houses were 
nearly identical. Posts 2 or 3 feet apart were set at the base of the 
wall excavation and, except for the entrance, continued around the 
entire perimeter. Central posts were absent but were replaced by 
roof supports in two rows, each a short distance from the centerline. 

A large area between Features 2 and 4 was cleared to the old sur- 
face and two thick midden deposits were trenched. The defensive 
moat was located and sectioned in six places, tracing it through Fea- 
ture 7 and around a bastioned corner. Uniformly the moat was 8 to 5 
feet deep with a maximum width of 10 feet. The accompanying 
stockade was not discernible. Artifacts were abundant in the midden 

672-174-6835 


56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


areas and the house fill. Pottery was mainly of the Foreman types, 
but there was also much Over Focus pottery. Probably the cultural 
position of the site is intermediate between the Monroe-Anderson Foci, 
where Foreman Ware is frequent, and the Over Focus. Nonceramic 
artifacts were not distinctive, but a fragment of copper and a long 
bone object resembling an arctic snow beater are notable. These two 
objects suggest trade with the north, and the architecture of the 
houses is remarkably similar to certain examples reported for the 
northern Plateau. It seems suggestive that the Early Village people 
of the Plains may have cultural ties not hitherto recognized. 

The third Smithsonian field party at work at the beginning of the 
year was directed by Dr. Robert L. Stephenson, assisted by Lee G. 
Madison. With a crew of 10 men they had begun excavations on 
June 19 of the previous year and continued work through August 31. 
Most of the season was spent on excavations at the Potts Village site 
(39CO19) on the right bank of the Missouri River, just south of 
Mobridge, S. Dak., in the Oahe Reservoir area. All or parts of seven 
houses were excavated, the fortification ditch was tested in several 
places, middens and cache pits were sampled, the entire stockade was 
uncovered, and the single loop bastion and two bastioned entrances 
were completely excavated. 

This is the site of an early La Roche village that probably dates 
from about the late 15th or early to middle 16th century. It is en- 
tirely precontact, and no items of White origin were found in any 
part of the excavations. The site consisted of the remains of about 
30 circular earthlodges, grouped in a long, oval area along the edge 
of the second terrace above the Missouri River. Within the village 
11 houses, including a large ceremonial lodge, were encircled by a deep, 
narrow fortification ditch and palisade. The ditch was 6 to 8 feet in 
depth and 10 to 20 feet wide. The palisade was composed of upright 
cedar, cottonwood, and oak posts set close together. <A single large 
loop bastion protected the north and west sides of the fortified area 
and a steep bank protected the east and southeast sides (toward the 
river). 

Architectural details of the entrances to these fortified villages along 
the Missouri River have not previously been determined. On the basis 
of some evidence, simple overlapping lines of stockade posts with a 
passageway between have been presumed. At the Potts site two 
examples of a very distinctive entrance were clearly defined. In this 
type of entrance the stockade line curved outward and then back in 
toward the center of the fortified area to form a small loop bastion 
about 10 feet in diameter, but with one side forming a straight line 
of posts extending some 10 to 15 feet into the village. Parallel to the 
straight line of posts was another similar line about 4 feet from it 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 57 


that extended outward from the fortified area and curved around to 
form a small loop bastion about 8 feet in diameter and then recurve 
back to join the regular line of the palisdae posts. Thus the entrance 
consisted of two small, loop bastions with a narrow passageway be- 
tween them that ran some 10 feet back into the fortified area. Opposite 
the narrow passageway was a ramp across the fortification ditch. 
One entrance was to the north, the other to the south. 

Outside the fortified area the two houses that were partially ex- 
cavated appeared of the same structural type and artifact content as 
those that were within the fort. The architecture was of the four 
center post pattern with widely spaced wall posts, leaner posts, and 
short entrances, forming a circular earthlodge of some 28 to 45 feet 
in diameter. Artifacts from the site include abundant pottery, bone, 
stone, and shell objects. The pottery is unusually homogeneous and 
well within the earliest of the La Roche tradition. Elaborate or 
spectacular objects were almost entirely lacking, although a few 
shell ornaments and catlinite pipes were recovered. 

One week was spent in August by this party in excavating a portion 
of the Blue Blanket Island site (39WW9), located on an island in 
the Missouri River just north of the Potts Village site. This was a 
late village of circular earthlodges encircled by a wide, shallow forti- 
fication ditch and palisade. The palisade formed a nearly circular 
pattern enclosing less than 20 houses with no evidence of houses out- 
side it. The ditch was but 2 or 3 feet deep and 20 to 25 feet wide. 
Half of one house was excavated, the ditch and palisade were sampled 
in several places, and a dozen random test squares were dug. 

Stockade posts as well as outer wall posts of the house were split 
timbers set close together with the bark side in. Burning caused good 
preservation of the structural features. Inside the row of split wall 
timbers of the house were large, whole support posts spaced every 
6 or 7 feet to form main roof and wall supports. The four main center 
posts were large, whole posts. The entrance was short but unusually 
well made. Pottery and other artifacts were not abundant but metal 
objects were present. The village apparently is one of those viewed 
by Lewis and Clark as a recent ruin in 1804, and probably dates from 
the last quarter of the 18th century until about 1802 or 1803. Access 
to the site each day was by motorboat from the right bank of the 
river near the Potts Village site. 

The fourth Smithsonian field party at work during the early part 
of the fiscal year consisted of a crew of four men directed by Dr. 
William M. Bass. They worked from August 7 to 18 and excavated 
40 burials from the Sully site (89SL4), some 19 miles northwest of 
Pierre, S. Dak., on the left bank of the Missouri River. Dr. Bass 
spent two previous seasons on burial excavations at that site and has 


58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


recovered a total of 264 interments there. It was thought that the 
brief stay during the 1961 season would exhaust the burial area and 
give a good statistical sample of a single population. However, it 
became evident that more burials are to be found there and plans 
were made to continue the work in the 1962 season. The Sully site 
unquestionably offers a better opportunity than any other to obtain 
a really meaningful sample of the protohistoric Arikara physical 
types in the Missouri Basin. Numerous artifacts were recovered 
with the burials. They include catlinite pipes, wooden pipe stems, a 
whole pottery vessel, glass and copper beads, woven mats, and bone 
tools. 

The 1962 field season began early this year with a brief survey of the 
area to be flooded by the several proposed small reservoirs in the 
Salt-Wahoo Drainage Basin in Lancaster and Seward Counties, 
southeastern Nebraska. Robert W. Neuman, assisted by Lionel A. 
Brown and John W. Garrett, the latter a member of the staff of the 
Nebraska State Historical Society, spent April 5 and 6 investigating 
the areas designated as Dams 4, 8,18, and 17. This initial survey re- 
vealed nothing of archeological interest in proposed flood areas of 
these four reservoirs. Construction activities at these dams should be 
watched, however, when the time comes for building the dams, as 
buried sites of the Archaic and Woodland periods might then be 
discovered. 

The second Missouri Basin Project field party for the new season 
began work in the Pony Creek Drainage area of Mills County, south- 
western Iowa, on May 1. There the Soil Conservation Service is 
building a series of small reservoirs and terracing large areas as 
protection against erosion. Lionel A. Brown, assisted first by Wilfred 
M. Husted, and later by Lee G. Madison, made an intensive survey of 
the area in immediate danger of destruction, and then with a crew of 
3 men tested 7 of the 16 sites located. They completed the season’s 
work on May 25. One house was excavated in each of three sites, 
13ML205, 183ML206, and 13ML216. Extensive tests were made in sites 
18ML201, 183ML204, 13ML208, and 183ML215. This party recom- 
mended further investigations in all of the sites, 13ML201 through 
13ML216 except 13ML201, 18ML213, 13ML214, and 13ML215, which 
will either be out of danger of damage from construction or have no 
promise of yielding useful archeological information. The houses 
excavated were square to rectangular in shape and provided artifacts 
suggestive of the Aksarben Aspect and related materials. 

The third field party, consisting of G. Hubert Smith and Jerry L. 
Livingston, visited the historic site of Fort Sully (39SL45) in Sully 
County, north of Pierre, S. Dak., during the period of May 15-18 for 
the purpose of making a topographic map of the site, but heavy rains 
made this impossible. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 59 


The fourth party, Smith and Livingston, made a survey of the 
area to be flooded by the Arcadia Dam in Custer County, Nebr., on 
May 19 and 20. One site, 25CU202, was located within the reservoir 
area, but it appeared to be of little archeological value. 

On June 12, the fifth and sixth Missouri Basin field parties left for 
the field. Party No. 5, directed by Robert W. Neuman and assisted 
by John J. Hoffman and a crew of 10, began work on the early circular 
house village known as the Mostad site (89DW284) and by the end 
of the year was well along on the excavation of the fortification 
system of that site. Party No. 6, also directed by Neuman but as- 
sisted by James J. Stanek and a crew of 10, began work on the 2 
burial mounds at the Swift Bird site (89DW233). By the end of the 
year this party had cleared a large part of one mound and was ex- 
cavating the burial chamber within it. Both sites are on the right 
bank of the Missouri River some 8 miles south of Mobridge, in Dewey 
County, S. Dak., and will be in the bank-slumping area of the Oahe 
Reservoir. The two parties were camped together in the area between 
the two sites. 

The seventh and eighth Missouri Basin Project field parties left for 
the field on June?. Party No. 7, directed by Dr. Warren W. Caldwell 
and assisted by Richard T. Jensen and a crew of 11, began work on 
the Langdeau site (891.M209) in the neck of the Big Bend in the 
Big Bend Reservoir just above Lower Brule, Lyman County, 8S. Dak. 
By the end of the year this crew was well along with the excavation 
of three houses of long-rectangular pattern. Party No. 8, also directed 
by Dr. Caldwell but assisted by Richard E. Carter and a crew of 
nine, began work on site 89LM2, overlooking Medicine Creek, near 
the neck of the Big Bend in the Big Bend Reservoir, some 8 miles 
above Lower Brule, Lyman County, S. Dak. By the end of the year 
this crew had completed the excavation of one circular house but was 
finding evidence of an earlier occupation of the long-rectangular house 
period. These two parties were camped together at the Crazy Bull 
School House near Lower Brule. 

The ninth Missouri Basin Project field party, under the direction 
of G. Hubert Smith assisted by Lee G. Madison and a crew of eight, 
left for the field on June 12. Based in Pierre, S. Dak., this crew at 
the end of the fiscal year was making progress on the excavations at 
the historic site of Fort George (89ST202) some 15 miles downstream 
from Pierre in Stanley County, in the area to be flooded by the Big 
Bend Reservoir. Prehistoric occupations le beneath the historic fur 
trading post at that site and both historic and prehistoric components 
were being excavated. 

The tenth Missouri Basin Project field party, directed by Dr. Wil- 
liam M. Bass and assisted by Jon Muller and a crew of six, left Lin- 


60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


coln on June 7. Also based in Pierre with the Smith party, this crew, 
with the aid of heavy equipment, by the end of the year had exca- 
vated approximately 89 burials from a new area at the Sully site 
(89SL4) some 23 miles upriver from Pierre in Sully County. The 
rising waters of the Oahe Reservoir were beginning to encroach upon 
the site at that time. So far over 350 burials have been recovered 
from this one protohistoric Arikara site. 

The eleventh Missouri Basin Project field party, directed by Dr. 
Alfred W. Bowers, assisted by William B. Colvin and a crew of 
10, left for the field on June 14. Based in Mobridge, S. Dak., this 
party began excavating at the two adjacent sites, 389CO14 and 39C034, 
at the mouth of the Grand River in Carson County. These sites are 
in the bank-slumping area of the Oahe Reservoir and were substi- 
tuted for others that had become unavailable for excavation owing to 
impoundment of Oahe Reservoir waters. By the end of the year tests 
in middens, excavations of lodges, and samples of the fortification 
system were progressing well. 

The twelfth field party, not scheduled to begin work until early in 
the following fiscal year, was to go to the Big Bend Reservoir. 

The thirteenth Missouri Basin field party, directed by Lionel A. 
Brown with a crew of five, left for the field on June 13, and after a tor- 
tuous trip by pack train down Black Canyon into the Big Horn Can- 
yon made camp at the confluence of the two canyons. The group 
began excavation of site 24BH215, adjacent to the party camp, in the 
bottom of the Big Horn Canyon some 6 miles upstream from the 
location of the Yellowtail Dam, Big Horn County, Mont. The site 
proved to be a large camping area and a few projectile points and pot- 
sherds had been recovered by the end of the year. 

Party No. 14 also left for the field on June 13. It consisted of Wil- 
fred M. Husted with a crew of five. The party established camp near 
the upper end of the Horseshoe Bend of the Big Horn River in Big 
Horn County, Wyo., in the upper reaches of the Yellowtail Reser- 
voir area. They tested one site and partially excavated another but 
the terrain proved to be so rough that work without a boat was im- 
practical. At the end of the year the men were making intensive foot 
surveys of that end of the canyon. There were prospects of obtaining 
a boat so that excavations could be resumed early in the coming fiscal 
year. 

Party No. 15 left for the field on June 13 with Oscar L. Mallory in 
charge of a crew of three. This group began an archeological] survey 
along the Missouri River between Fort Benton, Mont., and the upper 
reaches of the Fort Peck Reservoir. This is known as the Missouri 
Breaks area. Beginning near Fort Benton, the party had surveyed 
some 20 miles of the area by the end of the fiscal year and had located 
19 sites, mostly tipi sites and rock cairns. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 61 


The sixteenth Missouri Basin Project field party, directed by Carl 
F. Miller, with a crew of nine, left for the field on June 15 and estab- 
lished headquarters in the town of Blue Rapids, Kans. By the end 
of the year this party had examined three of the sites in the upper 
reaches of the Tuttle Creek Reservoir in Marshall County, north- 
eastern Kansas, and had begun testing one of them (14MH70). 

Cooperating institutions working in the Missouri River Basin at the 
beginning of the fiscal year included six field parties, representing 
five State agencies in Nebraska, Kansas, South Dakota, and Missouri. 
Dr. Preston Holder, with a crew of students from the University of 
Nebraska, completed work during July on the Leavenworth site 
(89CO9), 10 miles north of Mobridge, S. Dak., in the Oahe Reservoir 
area. Dr. Carl H. Chapman and a crew from the University of Mis- 
souri continued the survey and testing of sites in the Kaysinger Bluff 
Reservoir area on the Osage River in west-central Missouri during the 
period July to September. In addition, Chapman had a University 
of Missouri crew at work on the survey of the Stockton Reservoir in 
a branch of the Osage River in Cedar and Dade Counties, Mo. 
Thomas A. Witty with a group from the Kansas State Historical So- 
ciety was excavating the Woods site (14C Y30) and testing several 
other sites in the Milford Reservoir area on the Republican River in 
Geary County, Kans. Roger T. Grange and a crew from the Ne- 
braska State Historical Society was at work in the Red Willow Reser- 
voir basin in Frontier County, southwestern Nebraska. This reservoir 
is nearly completed and by the end of this field season will begin to 
fill. Dr. Preston Holder, assisted by Dr. Emily Blasingham and a 
crew of students from the University of Nebraska, was at work on 
excavation, testing, and survey of sites in the Norton Reservoir area of 
northwestern Kansas. Dr. Carlyle S. Smith, assisted by Walter 
Birkby and a crew of students from the University of Kansas, began 
work in June excavating two key sites and testing several others in the 
Melvern Reservoir area in Osage County, east-central Kansas. Dr. 
Carl H. Chapman and a crew from the University of Missouri were 
continuing the survey and testing of sites in the Kaysinger Bluff 
Reservoir area in west-central Missouri and, with a second crew, was 
at work sampling sites in the Stockton Reservoir area in Cedar and 
Dade Counties, Mo. All the cooperating institution parties men- 
tioned above were operating under agreements with the National Park 
Service and cooperating with the Smithsonian Institution in the 
Inter-Agency Archeological Salvage Program. 

During the time that the Missouri Basin Project archeologists were 
not in the field, they were engaged in analyses of their materials and in 
laboratory and library research. They also prepared manuscripts of 
technical reports and wrote articles and papers of a more popular 
nature. 


62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The Missouri Basin Chronology Program by the end of the year had 
been in operation 314 years, having been begun by archeologists of the 
Missouri Basin Project in January 1958. Cooperation and continued 
participation by most of the archeologists in the Plains area have been 
most encouraging. Especial emphasis last year was on the dendro- 
chronological section of the program, particularly the master chart 
for the Fort Thompson-to-Cheyenne River area. During the fiscal 
year many wood samples from prehistoric houses were matched 
to this chart and considerable effort was devoted to the refinement of 
the laboratory techniques of tree-ring study being used in the Lincoln 
office. To this end additional equipment was purchased, such as mi- 
croscopes, a De Rouen Dendrochronograph, a power sander, and an 
increment borer. Also, consultations and advice were sought from 
the staff of the laboratory of tree-ring studies at the University of 
Arizona, and much assistance was obtained from these discussions. 

The carbon-14 section of the Chronology Program received major 
attention throughout the year. Seven additional dates were obtained 
from charcoal samples submitted to the University of Michigan 
Memorial Phoenix Laboratory. In addition to this source of C-14 
dates, an agreement was entered into between the Chronology Program 
and Isotopes Incorporated, of Westwood, N.J., under the direction of 
Milton Trautman, to date a series of charcoal specimens. The agree- 
ment with Isotopes Incorporated has resulted in 19 dates so far de- 
rived from the Missouri Basin Chronology Program. 

The laboratory and office staff spent its full effort during the year 
in processing specimen materials for study, photographing and illus- 
trating specimens, preparing specimen records, and typing, filing, and 
illustrating record and manuscript materials. The accomplishments 
of the laboratory and office staff are listed in tables 1 and 2. 

Dr. Rcbert L. Stephenson, chief, when not in charge of field parties, 
devoted a large part of his time to management of the over-all Mis- 
souri Basin Project. His individual archeological research and re- 
port writing were minimal during the year, but he made some further 
progress on the monograph reporting the “Archeological Investiga- 
tions in the Whitney Reservoir, Texas” and on the analyses of speci- 
mens from the Sully site (89SL4) in the Oahe Reservoir. Through- 
out the year he continued to serve as chairman of the Missouri Basin 
Chronology Program, as assistant editor of “Notes and News in the 
Plains Area” for American Antiquity, and as associate editor of the 
Plains Anthropologist. At the 19th Plains Conference for Arche- 
ology, held in Lawton, Okla., on Thanksgiving weekend, he served as 
chairman of the session on “Salvage Archeology in the Plains” and 
presented a paper on “Three Smithsonian Salvage Sites” and also 
one on “Historic Montana Burials.” 

Dr. Stephenson attended the meeting of the “Committee for the 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 63 


Recovery of Archeological Remains” held in Washington, D.C., on 
February 8-9 and reported on the Missouri Basin Project activities 
of the past 2 years and the prospects for the coming year. He at- 
tended the annual meeting of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences in 
Lincoln on April 13. During the period April 15-22 he was in Austin, 
Tex., serving as technical adviser and making studio sequences for a 
motion picture on salvage archeology in the Plains area. From April 
28 to May 8 he attended the Society for American Archeology annual 
meeting at Tucson, Ariz., where he presented a paper on “Administra- 
tive Problems of the River Basin Surveys.” While in Tucson he con- 
ferred with the staff of the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research and of 
the Geochronology Laboratory of the University of Arizona. During 
the year he wrote several book reviews for scientific journals and gave 
talks to various local civic organizations. Among the latter was the 
Omaha, Nebr., Kiwanis Club meeting to honor Dr. Ahmed Fakhry 
and the Tutankhamun exhibit at Joslyn Art Museum on May 9, and 
the meeting of the planning committee for the Heartland Exhibit at 
the New York World’s Fair in 1964-65, held in Omaha on May 17. 
From June 17 to 24 he visited the field parties in Montana and at the 
end of the year was back in the Lincoln office. 

Lionel A. Brown, archeologist, joined the staff on April 2 and spent 
the ensuing month in the Lincoln office learning field and laboratory 
procedures and preparing for the summer’s field work. He was in the 
field from May 1 to 25 conducting surveys and excavations in the 
Pony Creek Drainage area of southwestern Iowa. On June 13 he 
again left for the field, where at the end of the year he was excavating 
in the Yellowtail Reservoir in Montana. 

Dr. Warren W. Caldwell, archeologist, when not in charge of field 
parties, devoted most of his time to analyses of specimen materials he 
had recovered from salvage excavations in previous years. He com- 
pleted two drafts of a monograph entitled “Archeological Investiga- 
tions at the Black Partizan site (89LM218), Big Bend Reservoir, 
South Dakota,” and that is now ready for final revision. He con- 
tinued sporadic work on the revision of his manuscript “The Archeol- 
ogy of Wakemap,” wrote several reviews for various scientific journals, 
and had the following three technical articles and one monograph 
published: “Archeological Excavations at the Coralville Reservoir, 
Iowa,” published in Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 179, 
River Basin Surveys Paper No. 22, 1961; “Tree Ring Investigations 
in Central South Dakota,” published in abstract in the Proceedings of 
the 72d Meeting of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences, 1962; “Tree 
Ring Dating and the Village Cultures of South Dakota,” published 
in Progress of the Interior Missouri Basin Field Committee, 1962; and 
“The Missouri Basin Chronology Program, Statement No. 3,” pub- 
lished by offset in the Missouri Basin Project office, 1962. 


64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Throughout the year he served as collaborator for the Plains area 
on Abstracts of New World Archeology and prepared abstracts of 10 
articles for that publication. In addition, he served as contributing 
editor for Plains literature and reviews for the Plains Anthropologist, 
and (on annual leave) as part-time assistant professor of anthropology 
at the University of Nebraska, as well as continuing his position as 
chairman of the dendrochronology section of the Missouri Basin 
Chronology Program. On April 14 he attended the annual meeting 
of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences where he presented a paper 
entitled “Tree Ring Investigations in Central South Dakota” and 
served as a panel discussant in a symposium on “Modern Research 
Methods in the Field of Ethnohistory.” He attended the 27th annual 
meeting of the Society for American Archeology in Tucson, Ariz., on 
May 3-5, where he participated in a symposium on “Tree Ring Dat- 
ing” and also conferred with the staff members of the Laboratory of 
Tree Ring Research and the Geochronology Laboratory at the Uni- 
versity of Arizona. At the end of the year he was again engaged in 
excavating archeological sites in the Big Bend Reservoir area. 

Wilfred M. Husted, archeologist, joined the staff on April 16 and 
spent the rest of that month in the Lincoln office learning field and 
laboratory procedures and preparing for the summer’s field work. 
During May 1-11 he was in the field with Brown in the Pony Creek 
Drainage area in Iowa. On June 13, he again left for the field where, 
at the end of the year, he was excavating in Yellowtail Reservoir area 
in Wyoming. 

Robert W. Neuman, archeologist, when not in the field conducting 
excavations, was at work analyzing archeological materials he had 
previously excavated in the Big Bend and Oahe Reservoir areas. He 
completed one monograph entitled “The Good Soldier Site, Lyman 
County, South Dakota,” which will appear as River Basin Surveys 
Paper No. 37 in Bulletin 189 of the Bureau of American Ethnology. 
The major portion of his laboratory research time was devoted to an 
analysis of data and the development of a trait list for burial mounds 
in the Middle Missouri and northern Plains areas, the compilation of 
a report on preceramic horizons in the Fort Thompson vicinity, and 
an article on check-stamped pottery in the northern and central Plains. 
Throughout the year he served as chairman of the carbon-14 section 
of the Missouri Basin Chronology Program. Over the Thanksgiving 
weekend he attended the Plains Conference for Archeology at Lawton, 
Okla., where he presented a paper on “The 1961 Missouri Basin Pro}- 
ect Field Season” and another on “Historie Indian Burials near Fort 
Thompson.” On April 13 he attended the annual meeting of the 
Nebraska Academy of Sciences in Lincoln and presented a paper en- 
titled “Check Stamped Pottery on the Central and Northern Plains,” 
which was published in abstract in the proceedings of the meeting. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 65 


On May 4-5 he attended and participated in the annual meeting of 
the Central States Anthropoligical Society in St. Louis. At the 
end of the year he was again in the field conducting archeological 
excavations. 

G. Hubert Smith, archeologist, was on duty at the first of the year 
in the Lincoln office continuing work on the comprehensive report of 
investigations at the site of Like-a-Fishhook Village and Fort Berth- 
old I and II (82ML2), in the Garrison Reservoir, North Dakota. He 
devoted most of his efforts during the year to this report and had 
completed most of a first draft of it by the end of the year. During 
the period July 21-29 he accompanied the chief on a trip to Montana 
and Wyoming, particularly to consult with Bureau of Reclamation 
officials in regard to the salvage and preservation of Fort C. F. Smith 
at the mouth of the Big Horn Canyon in Montana, near the construc- 
tion area of the Yellowtail Dam. He attended the 19th Plains Con- 
ference for Archeology at Lawton, Okla., on Thanksgiving weekend 
and served as chairman of a session on “Historie Sites Archeology and 
Ethnography.” On April 13 he attended the annual meeting of the 
Nebraska Academy of Sciences in Lincoln and participated in a sym- 
posium on “Research Methods in Ethnohistory.” On May 5 he at- 
tended and participated in the annual meeting of the National Trust 
for Historic Preservation held in Omaha, Nebr. Throughout the year 
he served as chairman of the historic documentation section of the 
Missouri Basin Chronology Program and as a member of the edi- 
torial board of the Plains Anthropologist. 

During the period of May 15-20 he was in the field visiting the Fort 
Sully site in the Oahe Reservoir area of central South Dakota and 
making an archeological survey of the Arcadia Reservoir area in 
central Nebraska. On June 12 he returned to the field where he was 
again conducting excavations in the Big Bend Reservoir area at the 
end of the year. 


TABLE 1.—Specimens processed, July 1, 1961-—June 30, 1962 


Number Catalog Number of 

Reservoir of sites numbers specimens 

assigned processed 
ANTORYG IG es es Eh Sele ech ee erp ep a 1 5 29 
Rigg sBend i: ace te Ieee on od aes 9 2, 435 64, 892 
Hontprianc all Siete. eee nee tenes mer ee eee nee 1 5 8 
hewiseands Clarks. 2525252148 See 452. ae 1 4 20 
hn CBee Boe ae ies Sg Sih Se ate 8 Se cae 9 il, Beil 17, 457 

Sites not in a reservoir area______-.--__----_ 5 


325 1, 274 


al Woh ro 1 IA Sep AE Se A ees 26 4, 745 83, 680 


66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


As of June 30, 1962, the Missouri Basin Project had cataloged 
1,339,396 specimens from 2,152 numbered sites and 59 collections not 
assigned site numbers. 


Specimens restored: 5 pottery vessel sections. 
Specimens donated to the Missouri Basin Project for comparative use: 
Thirty-one pot rim sherds representing Fort Rice and Huff wares—State 
Historical Society of North Dakota, courtesy of W. Raymond Wood. 
Thirty-one trade beads—University of Texas, courtesy of Edward B. Jelks. 
Three United States Army buttons dating 1850-70—courtesy of S. J. Olsen, 
Florida Geological Survey. 


TABLE 2.—Record material processed, July 1, 1961-June 20, 1962 


MISSOURI BASIN PROJECT 


Reflexzcopies,otrecords = a eee 3, 809 
Photorraphicsnegatives;made=— = = eee 1, 135 
PHOLOZTApHICHpPLINCS ATT aC Ce ee Sea ee ee a a ee 3, 392 
Photorraphie printssmO Un ted yar el oki] Cc ee ee ee ee 1, 673 
ER TANS PATE CLES) 111 O UE GE Cet ING 1 ak Se eae 564 
Kodachrome picturesstakensiny] a ee ee eee 156 
Carloesrap ht cht ein oS yea Tcl crea vel os eee 55 
Tilustrations= 225 22 3:2: ee SE eee et Bae ean ee 29 
etteringiof plates 225.2%» Seis fe ae he eS ee a 10 
SPOR GS a CPR Ww as 2 SE Pe ee Pde Re 33 
Platedlayoutsemad ey for misc SC rip tse ee ener ees rc 10 


Virginia.—An archeological reconnaissance was made during the 
period from April 3 to May 11 at the Smith Mountain Project on 
the Roanoke River in southern Virginia. That is an Appalachian 
Power Co. undertaking and consists of the construction of two dams— 
Smith Mountain and Leesville—which will provide water for power 
purposes. The two reservoirs they will form will be located in Bed- 
ford, Franklin, and Pittsylvania Counties, Va. The survey was made 
by Carl F. Miller. His work was greatly facilitated by complete 
cooperation on the part of personnel of the Appalachian Power Co. 
and the Nello L. Teer Construction Co. The power company provided 
a helicopter which made possible a study of the reservoir areas from 
the air and also the taking of aerial photographs of the more important 
sites. 

Mr. Miller located and recorded 35 sites in the Smith Mountain basin 
and 17 sites in the Leesville basin. Of the total of 52, only 1 will 
not be endangered by the inundation of the 2 areas. However, 
after careful examination of the surfaces and the testing of some 
sites, Mr. Miller concluded that only four of them merited excavation 
and detailed study. Three are in the Smith Mountain basin, while 
the fourth is in the Leesville basin. The sites cover the Early, Middle, 
and Late Woodland periods, involving a timespan beginning about 
8000 B.C. and lasting to about A.D. 1000. They are significant be- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 67 


cause of the fact that they occur upstream from the James H. Kerr 
Reservoir where extensive archeological studies were made several 
years ago and, while related to the manifestations present there, 
they appear to contain some cultural elements which were not found 
farther downstream. Excavations will be made at Smith Mountain 
during the next fiscal year. 


ARCHIVES 


The Bureau archives continued under the custody of Mrs. Margaret 
C. Blaker, archivist. 

Following the death of Dr. John P. Harrington, extensive series 
of his linguistic and ethnographic notes relating to numerous North 
American Indian tribes were returned from private storage and 
deposited with the Bureau through the courtesy of his daughter, Miss 
Awona W. Harrington. This material is voluminous and has become 
disarranged during years of storage. To serve asa preliminary guide, 
a list of the manuscripts, with particular attention to those dealing 
with Indian languages of California, was prepared by Miss Catherine 
Callaghan, scientific linguist. 

A collection of letters, family records, and photographs from the 
estate of Matilda Coxe Stevenson, relating mainly to Mrs. Stevenson, 
although some pertained to her husband, Col. James Stevenson, was 
received as a gift from Manning Gasch of McLean, Va. 

Two copybooks containing Micmac ideograms and an interlinear 
transcription of the Micmac words written about 1943 by Frank Navin, 
an Indian of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, were lent by the Rev. Father 
Placide, O.F.M., Cap., Ristigouche, Quebec, to be microfilmed for 
the Bureau archives. 

A collection of over 4,000 photographic prints relating to North 
American Indian tribes was transferred from the U.S. National 
Museum. The prints have been sorted and arranged by cultural area 
and tribe, but much remains to be done in tracing the original acces- 
sion data in order to determine actual or terminal dates and other 
relevant background information. 

Forty-two photographs relating to several Hopi pueblos, taken 
by Miss Margaret Brainard in 1929-31, 1938, and 1950, were donated 
by her. 

Thirty-six color transparencies of North Carolina and Oklahoma 
Cherokee, taken by Raymond Fogelson in 1960, were donated by him. 

Thirty-three photographs of persons of Indian descent living in 
Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, Maine, and Quebec, taken by Daniel 
Kennedy in 1960 and 1961, were donated by him. 

Sixteen photographs of Chippewa Indians taken in 1905 at Grand 
Marais and Grand Portage, Minn., by Frances Densmore before she 
became affiliated with the Bureau were donated by Eliot Davis, 


68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


superintendent of Grand Portage National Monument, Grand Marais, 
Minn. 

Seven photographs of western Indians were lent for copying by 
Vernon M. Riley of Chino, Calif. 

As in previous years the manuscript and photographic collections 
were consulted by numerous scholars and members of the general 
public. There were approximately 175 written and personal inquiries 
about manuscripts, including requests for microfilm copies, and ap- 
proximately 600 inquiries about and requests for photographic prints. 
Over 2,450 photographs were prepared and distributed, an increase 
over last year’s figure. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 


The illustrator devoted most of his time to preparing and com- 
pleting a variety of tasks in the fields of archeology, anthropology, 
and ethnology. Work was also prepared for the River Basin Sur- 
veys and for several other branches of the Institution. 


LIBRARY 


A reference librarian was appointed for the Bureau of American 
Ethnology Library in May 1962, to provide library services for the 
staffs of the Bureau and other branches of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, and other qualified scholars. Rearrangement of the library’s 
collection has already been completed, and it is planned to organize 
and maintain the collection so that it will realize its potential 
usefulness. 

In the process of shifting materials, various interesting publications 
have attracted attention, among them what seems to be the original 
Circular in Reference to Degrees of Relationship Among Different 
Nations by Lewis Henry Morgan and a good collection of congres- 
sional reports pertaining to Indian affairs beginning with the 12th 
Congress. Several early editions of encyclopedias, dictionaries, and 
gazetteers have been gathered together and made more accessible for 
the patrons. 

The valuable reprint collection has been organized and an author 
index made with assistance of summer student employees. 

Special emphasis will be placed on the strengthening of this 
library’s collection by filling gaps in important serial runs, reactivat- 
ing and following up on exchange materials, and the acquisition of 
important works, both retrospective and current. 


EDITORIAL WORK AND PUBLICATIONS 


The editorial work of the Bureau continued during the year under 
the immediate direction of Mrs. Eloise B. Edelen. The following 
publications were issued : 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 69 


Seventy-eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1960-61. 
1i+33 pp., 2 pls. 1962. 

Bulletin 175. Mohave ethnopsychiatry and suicide: The psychiatric knowledge 
and the psychie disturbances of an Indian tribe, by George Devereux. 
vi+586 pp., 10 pls. 1961. 

Bulletin 179. River Basin Surveys Papers, Nos. 21-24, Frank H. H. Roberts, 
Jr., editor. xviii+337 pp., 56 pls., 48 figs. 1961. 

No. 21. Excavations at Texarkana Reservoir, Sulphur River, Texas, by 
Edward B. Jelks. 

No. 22. Archeological investigations at the Coralville Reservoir, Iowa, by 
Warren W. Caldwell. 

No. 23. The McNary Reservoir: A study in Plateau archeology, by Joel L. 
Shiner. 

No. 24. The Sheep Island site and the Mid-Columbia Valley, by Douglas 
Osborne, Alan Bryan, and Robert H. Crabtree. 

Bulletin 183. Seneca Thanksgiving rituals, by Wallace L. Chafe. iii+302 pp. 
1961. 


Publications distributed totaled 19,326, as compared with 29,845 
for the fiscal year 1961. 
COLLECTIONS 


The following collections were made by staff members of the River 
Basin Surveys of the Bureau of American Ethnology and transferred 
to the permanent collections of the Department of Anthropology, 
U.S. National Museum: 
Acc. Nos. 

PEAT TAL, Pate eran, Paxe OP 11,560 miscellaneous stone, bone, and shell 


archeological specimens from various 
localities in the United States. 


TSA OT 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Dr. M. W. Stirling, Dr. A. J. Waring, and Sister Inez Hilger con- 
tinued as research associates. Dr. John P. Harrington, linguist on 
the staff of the Bureau from February 20, 1915, until his retirement 
on April 30, 1954, and later research associate, died on October 21, 
1961, in San Diego, Calif., after many months’ illness. 

Dr. Wallace L. Chafe worked part time during the academic year 
1961-62 so that he could teach linguistics in the graduate school at 
Catholic University of America. 

Robert M. Laughlin reported for duty on June 10 as ethnologist 
specializing in the Middle American area. 

The Bureau revised and reissued during the fiscal year the follow- 
ing bibliographies and lists: 

SIL-47, rev., 8/61: Selected bibliography on the Battle of the Little Big Horn. 

5 pp. : 4 
ee rev., 3/62: Bibliography on American Indian medicine and health. 


Compiled by William C. Sturtevant. 39 pp. 
SIL-65, 3d rev., 3/62: Introductory bibliography on the American Indian. 7 pp. 


70 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


SIL-53, rev., 4/62: Photographie collections of the Bureau of American Ethnol- 
ogy. 2 pp. 
SIL-90, rev., 4/62: Some dealers in second-hand anthropological and govern- 
ment publications. 2 pp. 
SIL-50, 4th rev., 6/62: Selected list of portraits of prominent Indians in the 
collections of the Bureau of American Hthnology. 3 pp. 
SIL-81, rev., 6/62: Selected bibliography on stone-chipping methods. 4 pp. 
Although the 3,227 letters received in the director’s office during 
the year indicate a decrease from the previous year, the total is well 
above the average for the past several years. This number, of course, 
does not include semiofficial letters received by staff members from 
colleagues and interested individuals. Because the Bureau does not 
maintain a mailing list for its bibliography series, many college and 
university librarians write in for complete sets and for information 
leaflets. About 8,000 informational items were mailed from the main 
Bureau office in response to requests for such material. The above 
totals do not include Bureau material and publications sent out by 
the Editorial and Publications Division. Many lots of specimens 
were received by mail or brought to the office for identification and for 
such information as could be provided by Bureau specialists. 
Respectfully submitted. 
Frank H. H. Roserts, Jr., Director. 
Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the Astrophysical Observatory 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the op- 
erations of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for the fiscal 
year ended June 30, 1962: 

The Astrophysical Observatory includes two divisions: the division 
of astrophysical research in Cambridge, Mass., for the study of solar 
and other types of energy impinging on the earth; and the division 
of radiation and organisms in Washington, for the investigation of 
radiation as it relates directly or indirectly to biological problems. 
Shops are maintained in Washington for work in metals, woods, and 
optical electronics, and to prepare special equipment for both di- 
visions; and a shop conducted in cooperation with the Harvard College 
Observatory in Cambridge provides high-precision mechanical work. 
The field station at Table Mountain, Calif., was discontinued. Twelve 
satellite-tracking stations are in operation, in Florida, Hawaii, and 
New Mexico in the United States and abroad in Argentina, Australia, 
Curagao, India, Iran, Japan, Peru, South Africa, and Spain. 


DIVISION OF ASTROPHYSICAL RESEARCH 


The Observatory research staff made significant contributions to 
knowledge of solar astrophysics, meteors, meteorites, artificial satel- 
lites, geophysics, and space science. The continuing refinement of 
observational techniques and the development of new analytical meth- 
ods provided valuable data and opened up new areas of astrophysical 
investigation. 

The Observatory continued, with mutual benefit, its close liaison 
with Harvard College Observatory, the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology, Boston University, and other research centers. 

Solar astrophysics—Dr. Leo Goldberg, with Dr. William Liller, is 
directing the design and construction of the ultraviolet scanning 
spectrometer for flight in the S-17 satellite within the framework of 
the program of Orbiting Solar Observatories of the National Aero- 
nautics and Space Administration. The spectral range of the spec- 
trometer will be 500 A. to 1,500 A. and the resolving power will be 
about 1.0 A. Calibration and testing of the instrument packages 
will be carried out in a new laboratory of the Space Science Building. 

The scanning spectrometers are scheduled for rocket flights at the 
end of 1962 and for flight aboard the S-17 satellite during the first 
quarter of 1963. 


672-174— 636 71 


72 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The work of the laboratory also includes a broad program of basic 
research on the vacuum ultraviolet radiation of atoms and molecules 
of astrophysical importance with 1- and 3-meter vacuum spectro- 
graphs and a shock tube and flash tube as sources. 

Trying to account for the effect of solar-radiation pressure on the 
drag of the Explorer IX satellite, Dr. Luigi G. Jacchia, assisted by 
Jack Slowey, found that the computed variations of orbital eccen- 
tricity for that satellite are 3 percent too small when the old value 
of the solar constant, 1.94 ly. min“, is used; the discrepancy disappears 
when use is made of the new value, 2.00 ly. min“, proposed in 1960 by 
F. S. Johnson to account for the excess ultraviolet radiation. This 
experience suggests that artificial satellites, of appropriate construc- 
tion and in appropriate orbits, could be used for a better determination 
of the solar constant, although there remain serious difficulties con- 
nected with the earth’s albedo and with the reflectivity and the spin of 
the satellite. 

Dr. Max Krook proceeds with his theoretical investigations into 
the further development and application of methods for determining 
the structure of nongray atmospheres. He is also applying, in a num- 
ber of cases, methods developed in continuum theories in gas dynamics 
to problems of the flow of rarefied gases; examining various problems 
in the dynamics of ionized gases (e.g., the structure of shock fronts 
in the presence of magnetic fields) ; and studying the exact solution 
of one-dimensional problems in the kinetic theory of gases. 

Dr. Charles A. Whitney has completed several projects related to his 
long-range studies of stellar atmospheres and stellar pulsation. He 
has devised a simple but powerful new computational method for the 
smoothing of spectrophotometric data, a central problem of obser- 
vational astrophysics hitherto dependent on subjective procedures. 
His comparison of theoretical with observed duration of line-splitting 
in the spectrum of a pulsating variable (W Virginis) reveals excellent 
accord with previous observations. His investigation of the reaction 
of a stellar atmosphere to abrupt variations in heat flux from below 
has resulted in a formula that will aid in distinguishing between fluctu- 
ations from variable heating and those from sound waves propagating 
through the atmosphere. From his study of the structure of shock 
fronts in hydrogen he has found, with the aid of Angelo J. Skalafuris, 
that radiation produced by recombination behind the shock heats 
and ionizes the gas ahead of the shock, thus significantly altering the 
flow and temperature patterns. 

With the assistance of Mr. Skalafuris and W. Kalkofen, Dr. Whit- 
ney has studied ionization relaxation with a one-level atom, an essential 
aspect of the general shock problem, and has drawn some significant 
conclusions on temperatures which, with other results, will bear im- 
portantly on the whole program in this area. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 73 


Studies on the structure of stellar atmospheres continues along 
several lines. Dr. Owen F. Gingerich, investigating radiative equi- 
librium, has introduced into his computer program new correctional 
procedures developed by Dr. Krook and Dr. Eugene Avrett and is 
preparing several manuscripts for publication. David W. Latham’s 
work on convective equilibrium will provide a basis for the theoretical 
study of solar granulation, a subject to which Dr. Whitney’s work on 
thermal relaxation (performed with Alan Krasberg) will contribute. 
Dr. Whitney is also carrying out tests to determine the magnitude of 
departures from local thermodynamic equilibrium in stellar atmos- 
pheres; is attempting to interpret the periodicity of small-scale mo- 
tions in terms of cepheid-like pulsation; and has begun a new study of 
the structure of the lunar surface by means of optical, infrared, and 
radio data. 

During this period Miss Sylvia Boyd and Barry Goldstein com- 
pleted measurements of the profiles of 30 absorption lines in 25 spectra 
of pulsating variables. Robert B. Stefanik studied the time-depend- 
ence of hydrogen excitation in a varying electron gas to determine the 
type of atomic model necessary for obtaining realistic shock structures. 

Dr. Paul W. Hodge and Dr. Frances W. Wright have been investi- 
gating the possible presence in the Large Magellanic Cloud of Popu- 
lation II Cepheids, at present not known to exist there. They have 
concentrated on the globular clusters as the most likely location, in 
the vicinity of which previously known and new variables have been 
studied for periods, brightness, and light-curve characteristics. 

Dr. Richard McCrosky made further progress in his observations 
of Raman scattered Lyman a to determine the still unknown percent- 
age of hydrogen molecules in interstellar space. He is using for this 
purpose the infrared sensitive detectors on the Harvard College Ob- 
servatory 61-inch telescope. 

Dr. Henri E. Mitler is making a theoretical and analytical study 
of the possibility of optical cosmic-ray detection, on the assumption 
that information obtained from the Cerenkov light pulse might lessen 
the need for the usual huge counter array. He has nearly completed 
his analysis of the probable amount of He® produced in planetesimals 
and its effect on concurrent element formation, the determination of 
which is crucial for testing the cosmogonic theory of Fowler, Green- 
stein, and Hoyle. Dr. Mitler is also investigating single-particle 
energy levels in nuclei for possible application of the Hartree-Fock 
theory (especially for predictability of low-lying excited states), in 
preference to Brueckner’s ¢-matrix . 

Dr. Thomas W. Noonan is attempting to formulate, and then solve, 
certain problems in cosmology and general relativity, especially in the 
field now being studied at the Harvard College Observatory under the 
direction of Dr. David Layzer. 


74 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Meteoritical studies—Dr. EK. L. Fireman, Dr. David Tilles, and 
J. De Felice continue their measurements of radioactive isotopes in 
recently fallen meteorite and satellite material. Dr. Fireman has 
established that the Ehole meteorite fell August 31,1961. The quanti- 
ties of helium-3, argon-37, and argon-39 present are similar to those 
found in the previously measured Bruderheim and Hamlet meteorites, 
an indication of a similar history of cosmic-ray bombardment. Al- 
most completed are measurements of those isotopes in the separated 
stone and iron phases of the Harleton meteorite, to determine the 
sources of excess argon-37. Dr. Fireman and Mr. De Felice have 
measured helium-3 and argon-29 in the metallic phase of a stony 
(Bruderheim) meteorite. Results of their analysis of uranium, po- 
tassium, argon-40, and krypton-xenon in iron meteorites by neutron 
activation will be important in determining the age and early history 
of the meteorites. 

The most important results from the study of radioactive isotopes in 
recovered satellites were the discoveries that solar flares contain 1 
percent tritium and that Van Allen particles also contain 1 percent 
tritium. The program will continue to provide information on the 
intensity, energy spectra, and isotopic composition of the trapped 
hydrogen nuclei in the Van Allen belts, as well as on the flux of pri- 
mary high-energy cosmic rays in the vicinity of the earth. 

Dr. Ursula B. Marvin, while investigating accessory minerals in 
meteorites, discovered in an iron sample the presence of cristobalite, 
which appears to contradict metallurgical evidence requiring far 
higher pressures of atmospheres than this mineral can theoretically 
tolerate. In association with Professor C. Frondel she has also studied 
the meteoritic phosphate mineral merrilite, apparently having the 
structure of whitlockite. Analysis of both these minerals should 
provide useful information on the geochemical environment of the 
meteorites at the time of formation. 

With Dr. Fireman and Dr. Tilles, she is attempting to aapiedte 
100 mg. mineral samples from stony meteorites to determine the areas 
of noble gas isotopes and trace elements. The study seeks light on 
the early history of the meteorites and the solar system. For such 
analysis and other isotopic measurements, Dr. Tilles continues work 
on the construction of a high sensitivity mass spectrometer, which, 
when completed, should augment present scanty knowledge of pri- 
mordial and radiogenic noble gases in iron meteorites and help eluci- 
date the age, cooling history, and formation of the irons. Dr. Tilles 
has initiated an additional investigation of hydrogen and tritium 
retention in the metal of meteorites as a means of studying their 
temperatures in space and to help explain the widely varying tritium 
content of the metal phase of stony and iron-nickel meteorites. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 75 


Dr. F. Behn Riggs is experimenting further with his design of an 
electron probe microanalyzer, which makes possible a point-by-point 
chemical analysis of polished surfaces of sectioned meteorites without 
destroying the material. Combined with other metallurgical tech- 
niques, it should throw light on the nature, history, and formation of 
meteorites. His analyses so far show the need for a spectrometer, now 
under construction, to scan X-ray wavelengths for the presence of 
elements interfering with best results. 

Dr. John Wood has been studying the composition of chondrules to 
determine whether his hypothesis, that they are hardened droplets of 
liquid silicates which condensed from the vapor phase during the 
origin of the solar system, is compatible with current solar theories. 
Estimating temperatures and pressures in the models of Hoyle and 
Cameron, and comparing them with those at which liquid silicates and 
liquid metallic iron are stable, he concludes that conditions do obtain 
in these models under which the droplets might condense. If, as he 
has postulated, the chondrites should in fact prove to be original 
planetesimals from which both planets and chrondrites accreted, re- 
search into the birth and history of the planets can be greatly advanced. 

Important in this connection is Dr. Wood’s almost completed analy- 
sis of the compositional variation of about 50 chondrules separated 
from the chondrite Bjurbéle. For his quantitative are spectrographic 
study he has used equipment available at the Cabot Spectrographic 
Laboratory at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dr. Wood has 
also extended his investigations to the chondrite Renazzo, probably 
a sample of quite primitive, unaltered planetary material, the detailed 
mineralogy of which should reveal the nature of processes operating 
during the origin of the planets. He is using the services of the Ad- 
vanced Metals Corporation of Cambridge for his microchemical de- 
terminations. From his examination of the probable metamorphism 
of most chondrites, Dr. Wood is offering in a forthcoming paper a 
hypothesis to explain the mineral peculiarities of unmetamorphosed 
(e.g., Renazzo) chondrites. 

Dr. Pedro E. Zadunaisky’s study of the definitive orbit of Comet 
Halley 1910, to test current theories about forces perturbing the el- 
liptic-orbit motion of a comet, has now achieved three written and 
tested computer programs. Interpretation and reporting of results 
will follow further development of these programs. 

Dr. Richard E. McCrosky, in collaboration with the Harvard Col- 
lege Observatory, the United States Air Force, Lincoln Laboratory, 
and NASA, has progressed in his attempt to reproduce meteor phe- 
nomena by injecting into the upper atmosphere, at meteoric velocities, 
bodies of known and sufficient size. His results are of critical im- 
portance in calibrating the mass-luminosity and density scale of na- 
tural meteors in the optical range. 


76 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Dr. McCrosky’s project of seeking recovery of meteorites as soon as 
possible after their fall, to provide data on the intensity of cosmic-ray 
intensity near the earth and throughout the orbit of the meteorite, 
is approaching actual implementation. In the first such large-scale 
use of automatic photography for the purpose, he will direct a net- 
work of 16 camera stations in the Midwest which will record meteors 
in flight and from analysis of the film indicate the probable site of 
meteoritic landing. To this site, from headquarters in Lincoln, Nebr., 
designated searchers will make their quick-recovery trips and forward 
the material for analysis. Field testing of the cameras has been 
carried out, and the first station is expected to begin photographing 
in November, with hopes that the entire program may be in operation 
by the summer of 1963. Results should greatly increase our present 
knowledge of the numbers, masses, and orbits of meteorites. Dr. 
McCrosky is being assisted by Messrs. Tougas, Munn, and Wargo. 

Dr. Salah Hamid has found from his study of the selection effects 
on the orbital elements of short-period photographic meteors that a 
true distribution of the eccentricity and perihelion distance of the 
interplanetary particles corresponds to previous observations, and 
that any comparison between theoretical and observed distributions 
must consider separately meteors meeting the earth at the ascending 
node and those meeting it at the descending node. His examination 
of the age of short-period photographic meteors, though employing a 
different method, confirms the 10 *-year estimate of the director and 
Dr. Luigi Jacchia. 

From his study of the Quadrantids meteor stream, Dr. Hamid con- 
cludes that it originated from a comet captured by Jupiter 3,000 years 
ago and that its inclination, owing to perturbations of the planet, 
changed from 13° to 75°. Investigating the question of a possible 
common origin of this stream with the apparently unrelated 6-Aquarid 
stream, he found that both stem from the same comet, but that their 
differing approaches to Jupiter (and its perturbations) have markedly 
affected their different duration, perihelion distance, and present po- 
sition. This study should be useful for investigation of other meteor- 
itic problems, such as the rest of the Aquarid stream complex and the 
Toroidal groups. 

Dr. R. Southworth’s project of observing faint meteors for data 
basic to meteor studies has involved planning and supervising the 
computations of the trajectory and the previous orbit around the sun 
of meteors observed by the radar system of the Harvard Radio 
Meteor Project near Havana, I]. His observations of fainter meteors 
than have been previously made by this method show excellent results 
in accuracy and homogeneity. He has progressed satisfactorily also 
in his study of the dynamical history of meteor streams, a problem 


SECRETARY'S REPORT res 


both important to the whole subject of meteors and probably helpful 
in the study of other objects and events in interplanetary space. 

Robert E. Briggs completed his study of the space distribution of 
interplanetary dust particles. He found that the light scattered by 
the computed distribution is in good agreement with observed zodia- 
eal light, particularly along the ecliptic, and that most of the particles 
must have diameters of the order of 1 micron and fairly rough surfaces 
of low reflectivity. He is now turning his attention to the velocity 
distribution of interplanetary dust particles. The results of this 
study should be valuable for current and future research on the nature 
of interplanetary space, and perhaps provide new estimates on the 
significance of particle collisions and breakup. 

Dr. Paul W. Hodge and Dr. Frances Wright continue their study of 
the rate of accretion of meteoritic matter by the earth, especially 
that in the form of dust particles collected by jet aircraft at altitudes 
ranging from 30,000 to 90,000 feet. They plan to analyze material 
gathered at even greater heights on the X-15. In addition, they have 
examined dust from very old ice deeply embedded in the Greenland 
and Arctic icecaps. 

The director’s study of the erosion and puncturing of bodies in 
free space continues. The preliminary results obtained have been re- 
ported at three scientific meetings and two publications in press. In 
brief, he has found that space erosion increases from a few angstrom 
units per year for irons to 10 times this rate for stones and nearly 
a thousand times greater rate for fragile material from comets. The 
correlation of erosion rate with brittleness or compressive strength 
indicates cratering by impacts with dust particles in space. A mean 
space density of about 10°? gm/cm# is required, consistent with 
measures of scattered sunlight. Near the earth a higher rate appears 
to prevail, possibly from moon dust, as he has previously suggested. 
The most dangerous place with respect to meteoritic puncture is prob- 
ably the moon’s surface. The project has importance for fundamental 
research on the interplanetary medium and for space engineering 
problems. 

Dr. Fred A. Franklin has completed his dynamical and photometric 
studies of the rings of Saturn. He has obtained for rings A and B 
the values of their optical and physical thicknesses, their masses, and 
the fraction of their volume occupied by particles. He now also has 
a value for the average radius of the individual particles and a 
measure of the roughness of their surfaces. The derived thicknesses 
of the rings are surprisingly small, measured in inches. The rings are 
found to be an enduring feature of the solar system. 

Space studies——Two major projects for Orbiting Astronomical Ob- 
servatories have made satisfactory progress. The director and Dr. 


78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Robert J. Davis, astrophysicist in charge, with other Observatory 
scientists, have concentrated on “Celescope,” the series of telescopes 
intended for orbiting in artificial satellites above the earth’s atmos- 
phere. Equipped to provide television images in four colors of the 
entire celestial sphere, this vital new technique, when completed and 
in operation, will vastly extend astronomical observation to the far ul- 
traviolet region of the spectrum and prepare the way for further 
detailed studies of objects and areas revealed by the surveys. Con- 
tracts have been completed for fabrication of two Aerobee-Hi rocket 
payloads carrying a prototype Celescope of simplified design to test 
critical electronic equipment and the brightness of stars in the ultra- 
violet. These stars, found in recent observations by NASA and others 
to be 10 times fainter than supposed, require more sensitive television 
camera tubes (“uvicons”) and larger optics than were originally 
available for the experimental flight. Now that better uvicons are 
available, the rocket payloads will be rebuilt to accept them. Contract 
for the satellite payload has been awarded, and construction is 
proceeding. 

In connection with this problem Dr. Om P. Rustgi has set up a 
laboratory for absolute calibration of uvicons, a matter of highest im- 
portance to the project for measuring stellar and interstellar radiation. 

Rocket failures and the insufficiently sensitive tubes have delayed 
the program, but successful orbit is expected in 1964. The Celescope 
project is being conducted in cooperation with NASA’s Orbiting 
Astronomical Observatories Program, which provides auxiliary equip- 
ment and support, but the scientific management of the experimental 
payload and analysis of the results remain the Smithsonian’s responsi- 
bility. The long-range plan is for development of even more power- 
ful celescopes and equipment. 

Dr. G. Colombo, professor of theoretical mechanics at the University 
of Padua, Italy, during his 2-year stay at the Observatory has analyzed 
the stabilization of a satellite at the point of equilibrium between the 
earth’s and the moon’s gravitational forces and is exploring the feasi- 
bility of a high sensitivity device for detecting displacement which 
would significantly affect techniques of space navigation and com- 
munication. He has also completed an analysis of the motion of Ex- 
plorer XI (1961 Gamma) around its center of mass and demonstrated 
qualitatively that variations of its angular momentum are explicable 
only by the interaction of the earth’s magnetic field and the body of 
the satellite. 

Dr. Colombo has recently initiated a study of numerical integration 
in the semirestricted three-body problem (including radiation pres- 
sure from a fourth body) to investigate the possible use of such pres- 
sure for transferring earth-around-moon orbits of satellites with large 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 79 


A/m ratios to moon-around-earth orbits. Related research includes 
the effect of lunar orbital eccentricities on moon satellites with large 
semimajor axis, and the problem of the asteroidal belt and the law of 
distribution of apsidal lines. Results should contribute to informa- 
tion about dust particles emanating from the moon, orbits of moon 
satellites, and space navigation and communication. 

G. H. Conant, Jr., began an analysis of techniques of numerical 
integration of orbits to determine the nature of error “buildup” as a 
function of time, and possibly to devise new methods for minimizing 
this factor. The program has special pertinence to satellite and lunar- 
probe research. 

Dr. Mario D. Grossi studied the effect of the ionosphere, the Van 
Allen belts, and the earth’s magnetic field on radio-astronomical ob- 
servations in MF and HF bands. Using the Hamiltonian ray-tracing 
for his analysis, he has written a program for computation on IBM- 
7090. He has demonstrated the existence of a continuous series of 
focal regions produced by the earth’s ionosphere and has applied his 
results with some success to the problem of Jovian decameter radio 
bursts. 

Imre G. Izsak, seeking increased accuracy of geodetic data derived 
from satellite observations, devised a modification of differential orbit 
improvement using residuals of observations along the orbit and in 
the normal direction to it with different, empirically determined 
weights. He constructed a precise theory of the critical inclination 
for more adequate knowledge of satellite motion. He also developed 
a computer program to make satellite orbits with very small eccentri- 
cities useful for the determination of odd zonal harmonics. Using 
precisely reduced Baker-Nunn satellite observation, he finds coefli- 
cients with 0.5 percent standard error, which is the highest accuracy 
achieved yet. For his continuing research into the tesseral harmonics 
of the geopotential, he is developing a computer program more satis- 
factory than that provided by an earlier method. In collaboration 
with Dr. Michael P. Barnett of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
he is also working on the application of computers to the analytical 
development of the planetary disturbing function in the restricted 
problem of three bodies. 

Dr. Luigi G. Jacchia has concluded a significant portion of his study 
of atmospheric drag on artificial satellites, at present the only reliable 
source of information on atmospheric densities above 200 km. His 
analysis confirms the theory of the semiannual effect of interaction 
between the solar wind and the upper atmosphere, its amplitude 
varying with the 11-year solar cycle; reveals the influence of geo- 
magnetic perturbations on the temperature of the upper atmosphere ; 
provides correlations between atmospheric temperatures and the solar 


80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


flux at diametric wavelength, as well as the position of the sun with 
respect to the zenith; and makes possible prediction of atmospheric 
temperatures and densities as a function of solar-activity parameters. 
In continuing this program, which has already made such important 
contributions, he will concentrate especially on atmospheric structure. 
Jack Slowey has been closely associated with Dr. Jacchia in these 
investigations. 

Dr. Yoshihide Kozai, on the basis of recently determined data from 
artificial satellites and other celestial bodies, proceeds with his investi- 
gations of astronomical constants. From his research into the geo- 
detic uses of artificial satellites, he has recently prepared reports on 
results for the tesseral harmonics of the earth’s gravitational field, on 
his second-order theory of oblateness perturbations, and on his rede- 
terminations of coefficients of zonal spherical harmonics to the ninth 
order, derived from analysis of Baker-Nunn observations of 13 satel- 
lites. Dr. Kozai has also begun a new program to investigate secular 
perturbations of asteroids for information on high inclination and 
high eccentric orbits, a problem involving the stability theory of 
asteroids and of the solar system. 

Dr. Don A. Lautman’s study of the distribution of the perihelia of 
the asteroids attempts to determine a possible relationship with effects 
of second-order secular perturbations by Jupiter. His continuing 
numerical integration project to explore possible use of radiation 
pressure on balloon satellites as a means of achieving orbits around 
the moon has resulted in several computer programs which he will 
utilize for this purpose and for the study of other orbital problems 
awaiting investigation. 

Dr. G. Veis continued his work in the geodetic uses of satellites from 
a geometric point of view. He is developing a program to use almost 
simultaneous observations for space triangulations and for absolute 
orientation in space of triangulation nets. He is currently attempting 
to determine the position of the 12 Baker-Nunn cameras by using the 
newest precisely reduced Baker-Nunn observations. 

Satellite-tracking program.—The optical tracking of artificial sat- 
ellites with NASA support continues to furnish important data for 
the prediction of orbits, determination of atmospheric densities, and 
geophysical and geodetic information. The program embraces a 
worldwide organization of 92 Moonwatch teams composed of non- 
professional observers and 12 precision photographic stations in var- 
ious parts of the world, photographic image-reduction, detailed 
analysis by electronic computers, precise reduction of satellite 
positions, and calculation of satellite ephemerides. 

From May 1, 1961, to May 1, 1962, visual observations by Moon- 
watch of 75 objects (satellites and their orbiting components) totaled 


SECRETARY’S REPORT sii 


12,078, furnishing basic data for correcting ephemerides and for ac- 
quiring and reacquiring nonbroadcasting satellites. During the year 
the teams conducted a number of searches for orbiting objects. 

In the same period the Computations Division distributed to the 
12 Baker-Nunn stations 73,466 predictions that yielded 26,446 obser- 
vations reported by cable to Cambridge. ‘This amounts to approx- 
imately twice the activity of the previous year. 

The Photoreduction Center received 25,060 successful films (ares) 
and completed 15,409 reductions of satellite positions. 

Through the Communications Center, 1.5 to 2 million words were 
cleared each month, 95 percent of these representing satellite data 
received or sent throughout the world. This compares with approx- 
imately 1 million words per month in the previous year. 

The Research and Analysis Division has derived valuable conclu- 
sions based on the data drawn from the several tracking activities (see 
Space Science). For example, the variations of density in the high 
atmosphere for altitudes of 200 to 750 km. have been determined 
with respect to solar activity, ultraviolet and corpuscular radiation. 
The data on atmospheric drag obtained by optical observation are now 
used as basic information by most investigators in the field of 
atmospheric studies. 

The geodetic applications of satellite observations continue to be 
studied. Knowledge of station coordinates has been improved by 
means of a program of simultaneous satellite observations from se- 
lected stations. The Baker-Nunn stations are now well equipped for 
this type of observation, and a prediction program for simultaneous 
observations is working satisfactorily. Good results have been ob- 
tained already from the stations in Peru and Argentina working 
simultaneously. 

To further this work, studies are being conducted of the adapta- 
bility of modified aerial reconnaissance cameras for use as semimobile 
cameras for geodetic use, both independently and in conjunction with 
the fixed-position Baker-Nunn network. The Observatory is coop- 
erating with the Department of Defense and NASA in establishing 
an international program for a flashing-light geodetic satellite. 

Following a decision to continue operations of the optical satellite 
tracking program for a number of years, steps are being taken to do 
major maintenance and overhaul work on the cameras. 

This work is complicated by the fact that facilities for handling the 
optical components of the cameras do not exist in most of the countries 
where the cameras are located. 


PUBLICATIONS 


Publications of the Smithsonian Contributions to Astrophysics in- 
cluded numbers 9 through 11 of volume 5. 


82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The following papers by staff members of the Astrophysical Obser- 
vatory appeared in various journals: 


AvreTT, E. H. Particle motion in the equatorial plane of a dipole magnetic 
field. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, pp. 53-58, 1962. 

Cargizr, G. F., and Avrett, E. H. A non-gray radiative-transfer problem. As- 
trophys. Journ., vol. 134, pp. 469-481, 1961. 

CoLtomso, G. Instability of motion at the Lagrangian triangular point in the 
earth-moon system. Nature, vol. 193, p. 10638, 1962. 

Cooxr, A. F.; Hawkins, G. S.; and Stiznon, F. M. Meteor trail widths. Astron. 
Journ., vol. 67, pp. 158-162, 1962. 

Davis, R., and Goprrepson, EH. A. Optimum resolving power for an ultraviolet 
space telescope. Planet. Space Sci., vol. 5, pp. 207-212, 1961. 

Davis, R. J., and Rustei, O. P. Ultraviolet instrumentation for Celescope—an 
astrophysical reconnaissance satellite. Applied Optics, vol. 1, pp. 131-137, 
1962. 

FIREMAN, H. L. The Ehole meteorite, its acquisition and its radioactivity. 
Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, pp. 2592-2594, 1962. 

FIREMAN, BH. L., and DE FeEtice, J. Argon-39, argon-37, and tritium in the re- 
cently fallen Bruderheim meteorite (abstract). Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 
66, p. 2528, 1961. 

Tritium, argon-37, and argon-39 in the Bruderheim meteorite. Journ. 
Geophys. Res., vol. 66, pp. 3547-3551, 1961. 

Fireman, E. L.; DE FELIicr, J.; and Tres, D. Solar flare tritium in a recov- 
ered satellite. Phys. Rev., vol. 123, pp. 1935-1938, 1961. 

FIREMAN, BE. L., and FisHer, D. E. Uranium in the Sikhote-Alin meteorite and its 
relation to the lead method of age determination. Nature, vol. 192, pp. 644- 
645, 1961 

FirEMAN, E. L., and Row.anp, F. 8. An additional measurement of the tritium 
contents of atmospheric hydrogen of 1949. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 66, p. 
4321, 1961. 

GINGERICH, O. Polynomial approximation for the negative hydrogen-ion ab- 
sorption coefficient. Astrophys. Journ., vol. 134, pp. 653-656, 1961. 

A computer program for non-gray stellar atmospheres (abstract). As- 
tron. Journ., vol. 66, p. 285, 1961. 

GoLpBere, L. Project West Ford—properties and analysis. Introduction. As- 
tron. Journ., vol. 66, pp. 105-106, 1961. 

Solar experiments—U.S. plans. Mém. Soc. Roy. Sci. Liége, ser. 5, vol. 

55, pp. 80-388, 1961. 

The Sun. Bull. Atomic Scientists, vol. 17, pp. 210-213, 1961. 

Studying the universe from a space platform. Jn §. Ramo, ed., Peace- 

time uses of outer space, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1961. 

Report of Commission 12 on radiation and structure of the solar at- 
mosphere. Jn D. H. Sadler, ed., Trans. Intern. Astron. Union, Reports on 
astronomy, vol. XIA, pp. 63-89, Academic Press, New York, 1962. 

GOLDBERG, L., and Dyer, E. R., Jr. The Sun. Jn L. V. Berkner and H. Odishaw, 
ed., Science in space, pp. 307-340, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1961. 

Galactic and extragalactic astronomy. Jn L. V. Berkner and H. Odi- 
shaw, ed., Science in space, pp. 341-899, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 
1961. 

Grossl, M. D.; Strom, K. M.; and Srrom, 8S. H. Ionospheric focusing of cosmic 
radio sources. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, pp. 1672-1674, 1962. 

Hacinara, Y. Rotation of an earth satellite in flight along its orbit. Smith- 
sonian Contr. Astrophys., vol. 5, No. 9, pp. 113-143, 1961. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 83 


Hopaz, P. W. Sampling dust from the stratosphere. Smithsonian Contr. As- 
trophys., vol. 5, No. 10, pp. 145-152, 1961. 

Izsak, I. G. A determination of the ellipticity of the earth’s equator from the 
motion of two satellites. Astron. Journ., vol. 66, pp. 226-229, 1961. 

A determination of the ellipticity of the earth’s equator from the motion 
of two satellites. In H. C. van de Hulst, C. de Jager, and A. F. Moore, ed., 
Space Research II, pp. 352-359, North Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 
1961. 

Izsaxk, I. G., and Kozar, Y. Equipotential surfaces of the earth as obtained 
from satellite motions (abstract). Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 66, pp. 2538- 
2539, 1961. 

Jaccuia, L. G. Irregularities in atmospheric densities deduced from satellite 
observations. Ann. Géophys., vol. 17, pp. 52-55, 1961. 

A working model for the upper atmosphere. Nature, vol. 192, pp. 

1147-1148, 1961. 

Satellite drag during the events of November 1960. In H. C. van de 

Hulst, C. de Jager, and A. F. Moore, ed., Space Research II, pp. 747-750, 

North Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1961. 

Interplanetary matter. In H. H. Koelle, ed., Handbook of astro- 
nautical engineering, pp. 2.57—-2.64, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1961. 

Koza, Y. Tesseral harmonics of the gravitational potential of the earth as 
derived from satellite motions. Astron. Journ., vol. 66, pp. 355-358, 1961. 

Potential field of the earth derived from motions of artificial satellites. 
In 8. H. Laurila and W. A. Heiskanen, ed., Proc. Symposium of Geodesy 
in the Space Age, pp. 174-176, Ohio State University, Inst. Geodesy, 
Photogrammetry, and Cartography, Publ. No. 15, 1961. 

Kumar, 8S. S. A method for computing monochromatic fluxes in model stellar 
atmospheres (abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 66, pp. 288-289, 1961. 

On the age of the galaxy. Observatory, vol. 82, pp. 34-86, 1962. 

On the A and @ operators of radiative transfer theory. Smithsonian 
Contr. Astrophys., vol. 5, No. 11, pp. 1538-185, 1962. 

Lassovszky, K. On the accuracy of the measurements made upon films photo- 
graphed by Baker-Nunn satellite tracking cameras (abstract). Astron. 
Journ., vol. 66, p. 289, 1961. 

Lepoux, P., and Wuirney, C. A. Velocity fields and associated thermodynamic 
variations in the external layers of intrinsic variable stars. In R. N. 
Thomas, ed., Aerodynamic phenomena in stellar atmospheres, Proc. 4th 
Symposium on Cosmical Gas Dynamics, I.A.U. Symposium No. 12, pp. 131- 
193, Nuovo Cimento Suppl., ser. 10, vol. 22, No. 1, 1961. 

Mitter, H. E. Electromagnetic potentials in quantum mechanics. Phys. Rev., 
vol. 124, pp. 940-944, 1961. 

SKauaruris, A., and Wuitney, C. A. Radiative cooling behind shock fronts 
in stellar atmospheres. Ann. d’Astrophys., vol. 24, pp. 420-424, 1961. 
SouTtHwortH, R. B. Planetary perturbations and the Perseid meteor stream 

(abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 66, pp. 295-296, 1961. 

Strom, S. E., and Strom, K. M. A possible mechanism for Jovian decameter 
bursts (abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 67, p. 121, 1962. 

TILLeEs, D. Variations of silicon isotope ratios in a zoned pegmatite. Journ. 
Geophys. Res., vol. 66, pp. 3015-3020, 1961. 

Natural variations in isotopic abundances of silicon. Journ. Geophys. 

Res., vol. 66, pp. 3003-3013, 1961. 

Primordial gas in the Washington County meteorite. Journ. Geophys. 

Res., vol. 67, pp. 1687-1689, 1962. 


84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Vris, G., and WHIPPLE, F. L. Pxperience in precision optical tracking of satel- 
lite for geodesy. In H. C. van de Hulst, C. de Jager, and A. F. Moore, ed., 
Space Research II, pp. 17-83, North Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 
1961. 

WuHrrPLe, F. L. Dust halo. Space World, vol. 1, No. 8, pp. 20 ff, 1961. 

Problems of the cometary nucleus. Astron. Journ. vol. 66, pp. 375-380, 


1961. 


On the distribution of semimajor axes among comet orbits. Astron. 

Journ., vol. 67, pp. 1-9, 1962. 

Report of Sub-commission 22a on meteorites. In D. H. Sadler, ed., 
Trans. Intern. Astron. Union, Reports on astronomy, vol. XIA, pp. 213-227, 
Academie Press, New York, 1962. 

WuHitney, C. A. Determination of atmospheric densities from satellite observa- 
tions. Ann. Géophys., vol. 17, pp. 237-244, 1961. 

Woop, J. A. Chondrules and the origin of the terrestrial planets. Nature, vol. 
194, pp. 127-130, 1962. 

ZADUNAISKY, P. H.; SHAprRoO, I. I.; and Jones, H. M. Solar radiation pressure 
effects, gas leakage rates, and air densities inferred from the orbit of Echo I. 
In H. C. van de Hulst, C. de Jager, and A. F. Moore, ed., Space Research II, 
pp. 339-351, North Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1961. 


The Special Reports of the Astrophysical Observatory distribute 
catalogs of satellite observations, orbital data, and preliminary results 
of data analysis prior to journal publication. Thirty-five numbers 


(64 through 98), issued during the year, contain the following 
material: 


Special Report No. 64, July 7, 1961. 

The revised orbit of Satellite 1958 Zeta, by R. C. Nigam. 
Special Report No. 65, July 14, 1961. 

Atmospheric drag on non-spherical artificial satellites, by P. EH. Zadunaisky. 
Special Report No. 66 (C-22), July 17, 1961. 

Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1958 Alpha (Explorer I), 
1958 81 (carrier rocket, Vanguard I), 1958 Epsilon (Explorer IV), 1959 
al (Vanguard II), 1959 a2 (carrier rocket, Vanguard II), 1959 Eta 
Vanguard III), and 1959 .1 (Explorer VII), for Sept. 1—Dec. 31, 1960, by 
D. V. Mechau. 

Special Report No. 67 (C-23), July 17, 1961. 

Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1960 «1 (Echo I), and 1960 

‘2 (carrier rocket, Echo I), for Sept. 1—-Dec. 31, 1960, by D. V. Mechau. 
Special Report No. 68 (C—24), July 17, 1961. 

Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1960 61 (carrier rocket, Tiros 
I), for Sept. 14-21, 1960; 1960 82 (Tiros I), for Sept. 2-Oct. 15, 1960; 
1960 y1 (carrier rocket, Transit 1B), for July 7-27, 1960; 1960 y2 (Transit 
1B), for July 26-Nov. 7, 1960; 1960 71 (Transit 2A), for June 26—Dec. 29, 
1960; 1960 72 (Greb), for June 22—Dec. 23, 1960; 1960 78 (carrier rocket, 
Transit 2A, Greb), for June 23—Dec. 31, 1960; 1960 £1 (Explorer VIII), for 
Nov. 4-Dec. 30, 1960; 1960 £2 (carrier rocket, Explorer VIII), for Nov. 19- 
Dec. 24, 1960; 1960 Omicron (Discoverer XVII), for Nov. 138—Dec. 31, 1960: 
and 1960 Sigma (Discoverer XVIII), for Dec. 8-31, 1960, by D. V. 
Mechau. 

Special Report No. 69, July 17, 1961. 

List of coordinates of stations engaged in the observation of artificial earth 

satellites, by D. V. Mechau. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 85 


Special Report No. 70, July 18, 1961. 
The motion of Satellite 1958 Epsilon around its center of mass, by G. 
Colombo. 
Special Report No. 71, July 24, 1961. 
Elements of the orbit of the Satellite 1959 Eta (Vanguard III) during the 
first year after launching, by P. BH. Zadunaisky and B. Miller. 
Special Report No. 72, August 9, 1961. 
Tesseral harmonics of the potential of the earth as derived from satellite 
motions, by Y. Kozai. 
Special Report No. 73, August 10, 1961. 
Differential orbit improvement with the use of rotated residuals, by I. G. 
Izsak. 
Special Report No. 74, September 18, 1961. 
On the accuracy of measurements made upon films photographed by Baker- 
Nunn satellite tracking cameras, by K. Lassovszky. 
Special Report No. 75, September 19, 1961. 
Density of the heterosphere related to temperature, by M. Nicolet. 
Special Report (unnumbered), September 20, 1961. 
Index to SAO Special Reports Nos. 1-75. 
Special Report No. 76, October 2, 1961. 
Effects of the earth’s ionosphere on HF radio astronomy from artificial satel- 
lites, by M. D. Grossi, K. M. Strom, and §. HE. Strom. 
Special Report No. 77, October 24, 1961. 
Short-periodic oscillations in the drag of Satellite 1958 Alpha, by L. G. 
Jacchia and J. Slowey. 
Special Report No. 78, October 25, 1961. 
Satellite orbital data: Satellites 1958 Alpha, 1958 81 and 1959 11 by B. Miller, 
for May—Dec. 1960, compiled by D. V. Mechau. 
Special Report No. 79, October 30, 1961. 
The analysis of gravity, by H. Jeffreys. 
Special Report No. 80, November 1, 1961. 
The stabilization of an artificial satellite at the inferior conjunction point 
of the earth-moon system, by G. Colombo. 
Special Report No. 81, November 24, 1961. 
The orbits of the Satellites 1959 «1 and 1959 a2 and the perturbations on 
the perigee distance of 1959 al, by R. C. Nigam. 
Special Report No. 82 (P-1), November 30, 1961. 
Catalog of precisely reduced observations: Satellites 1959 a1, for Feb. 17— 
June 30, 1959; and 1959 Eta, for Sept. 18—Dec. 31, 1959, prepared by G. 
Veis. 
Special Report No. 83, January 31, 1962. 
Project Celescope, by R. J. Davis and Celescope staff. 
Special Report No. 84, February 9, 1962. 
Preliminary analysis of the atmospherie drag of the twelve-foot balloon 
satellite (1961 61), by L. G. Jacchia and J. Slowey. 
Special Report No. 85 (P-2), February 12, 1962. 
Catalog of precisely reduced observations: Satellites 1959 «1, for July 
1—Dee. 31, 1959 ; 1959 a2, for Mar. 6—May 31, 1959 ; 1960 .2, for Sept. 10—Deec. 
31, 1960 ; 1960 Omicron, for Nov. 13—Noy. 16, 1960; and 1960 Sigma, for Dec. 
8-Dec. 10, 1960, prepared by G. Veis. 
Special Report No. 86, February 21, 1962. 
Satellite orbital data: Satellites 1958 Alpha, for Jan. 1—July 1, 1961; 1958 
#1, for Jan. 1-July 27, 1961; 1960 £1, for Nov. 4, 1960—-July 3, 1961; 1961 61, 
for Feb. 16-July 2, 1961; and 1961 71, for April 28-Sept. 1, 1961, by B. 


86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Special Report No. 86, February 21, 1962—Continued 
Miller; and 1959 <1, for Dec. 31, 1960—July 1, 1961, by J. Weingarten, com- 
piled by I. G. Izsak. 

Special Report No. 87 (C—25), February 23, 1962. 

Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1958 Alpha (Explorer I), 1958 
81 (carrier rocket, Vanguard I), 1959 1 (Vanguard II), 1959 a2 (carrier 
rocket, Vanguard II), 1959 Eta (Vanguard III), and 1959 .1 (Explorer 
VII), for Jan. 1-June 30, 1961, by D. V. Mechau. 

Special Report No. 88 (C—26), February 23, 1962. 

Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1960 .1 (Echo I) and 1960 .2 

(earrier rocket, Echo I), for Jan. 1—-June 30, 1961, by D. V. Mechau. 
Special Report No. 89 (C-27), February 23, 1962. 

Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1960 £1 (Explorer VIII), for 
Noy. 3, 1960-June 30, 1961; 1961 51 (Explorer IX), for Feb. 16—June 30, 
1961; and 1961 71 (Explorer XI), for April 27-June 30, 1961, by D. V. 
Mechau. 

Special Report No. 90, Mar. 14, 1962. 
On the critical inclination in satellite theory, by I. G. Izsak. 
Special Report No. 91 (P-3), April 20, 1962. 

Catalog of precisely reduced observations: Satellites 1958 52, for Dec. 1-17, 
1958; 1959 a2, for Jan. 1—-Dec. 31, 1960; and 1959 Eta, for Jan. 1-June 30, 
1960. 

Special Report No. 92 (H-1), April 23, 1962. 

Satellite orbital data: Satellites 1958 52, for Dec. 7-14, 1959, by Y. Kozai; 
1959 «1, for Feb. 21-Dec. 30, 1959, by P. Stern and M. Gutierrez; 1959 
«2, for Mar. 19-May 28, 1959, by P. Stern; 1959 Eta, for Sept. 23—Dec. 30, 
1959, by R. Nigam and P. Stern; 1960 «2, for Sept. 11, 1960—Mar. 12, 1961, 
by I. Izsak and J. Weingarten; 1960 Omicron, for Nov. 18-15, 1960, by J. 
Weingarten; and 1960 Sigma, for Dec. 8-10, 1960, by J. Weingarten, 
compiled by I. G. Izsak. 

Special Report No. 93, May 4, 1962. 

Satellite orbital data: Satellites 1958 Alpha, for July 1, 1961-Jan. 1, 1962, 
by B. Miller; 1959 «1, for July 1, 1961—Jan. 1, 1962, by M. Gutierrez; 1960 
£1, for July 1, 1961-Jan. 1, 1962, by M. Hall; and 1961 81, for July 2, 
1961-Jan. 5, 1962, by J. Weingarten, compiled by I. G. Izsak. 

Special Report No. 94, May 23, 1962. 
On the motion of Explorer XI around its center of mass, by G. Colombo. 
Special Report No. 95 (P-4), June 18, 1962. 

Catalog of precisely reduced observations: Satellites 1959 Eta, for July 1- 
Dec. 31, 1960; and 1960 .2, for Jan. 1-June 30, 1961, prepared by K. 
Haramundanis. 

Special Report No. 96 (C—28), June 25, 1962. 

Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1958 Alpha (Explorer I), 
1959 «1 (Vanguard IT), 1959 Eta (Vanguard III), and 1959 :1 (Hxplorer 
VII), for July 1-Dec. 31, 1961; and 1959 a2 (carrier rocket, Vanguard II), 
for July 1-27, 1961, by B. Miller. 

Special Report No. 97 (C—29), June 25, 1962. 

Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1960 11 (Echo I) and 1960 

«2 (carrier rocket, Echo I), for July 1—Dec. 31, 1961, by B. Miller. 
Special Report No. 98 (C-30), June 25, 1962. 

Catalogue of Satellite observations: Satellites £1 (Explorer VIII) and 
1961 51 (Explorer IX), for July 1—Dec. 31, 1961; v1 (Explorer XI), for 
July 1-Sept. 28, 1961; and 1961 o1 (Transit 4a) and 1961 o2 (Injun Solar 
Radiation), for June 29—-Dec. 31, 1961, by B. Miller. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 87 
OTHER ACTIVITIES 


The director and Drs. Gingerich, Goldberg, Jacchia, Kozai, and 
Lassovszky attended the International Astronomical Union meeting 
in Berkeley, Calif. Mr. Izsak addressed the Space Science Symposium 
at Pasadena, Calif. 

In August 1961, more than 50 scientists from 9 different countries 
attended the International Symposium on the Astronomy and Physics 
of Meteors held at the Observatory headquarters, Cambridge, Mass. 
The director, Dr. Hawkins, Dr. McCrosky, Dr. Southworth, and Mr. 
Briggs presented papers at the meeting. Drs. Fireman, Hamid, 
Jacchia, Wright, and Cook also attended. The proceedings of the 
symposium will be published in the Smithsonian Contributions to 
Astrophysics. 

Dr. Whipple addressed the American Rocket Society meeting in 
New York on the concentration of dust around the earth. 

Sir Harold Jeffreys delivered a series of 24 public lectures on figures 
of the earth and moon. He also lectured at the Institute of Geodesy 
at the University of Ohio. 

Dr. Whipple represented the International Astronomical Union at 
a meeting of the International Academy of Astronautics and the 
Twelfth International Astronautical Congress in Washington, D.C. 
He also attended the U.S. Air Force’s North American Air Defense 
Command Optical Space Science Conference in Colorado Springs, 
Colo. 

Dr. Southworth presented a paper at a meeting on the exploration 
of the solar system by radar and radio-astronomy at the International 
Astronautical Congress in Washington, D.C. 

Dr. Kozai attended the USSR conference on Theoretical Astronomy 
in Moscow. 

Dr. Tilles presented a paper “Tritium in Discoverer Satellites” at 
the National meeting of the American Geophysical Union at Los 
Angeles, Calif. 

Dr. Davis and Mr. Strom attended the American Astronomical 
Society Meeting in Denver, Colo. Mr. Strom presented a paper at 
the meeting. 

Dr. Whipple was awarded the American Astronautical Society’s 
Space Flight Award for 1962 at the annual meeting of the Society 
in Washington, D.C. He was elected vice president of the Society 
for 1962. He also spoke before the Subcommittee on Patents of the 
House of Representatives Committee on Science and Astronautics. 
He appeared before the full committee and presented a paper urging 
removal of military secrecy from the planned flashing-light geodetic 
satellite “Project Anna.” 


672-174—63——7 


88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Dr. Davis presented a paper on Project Celescope to the Institute 
of Radio Engineers in Baltimore. 

The director and Dr. Wood attended the National Aeronautics and 
Space Administration Institute of Space Studies Conference on “The 
Origin of the Solar System” in New York. 

The Observatory, together with the Harvard College Observatory, 
were hosts to the 110th annual meeting of the American Astronomical 
Society. Drs. Whipple, Southworth, Fireman, Kozai, Gingerich, 
Whitney and Messrs. Briggs and Zadunaisky presented papers. 

Dr. Kozai attended a symposium on Solar System Constants at the 
Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif. 

Mr. Hagge attended a meeting of Study Group VII, C.C.LR., in 
Geneva, Switzerland, concerning the international distribution of 
standard frequency and time signals. 

Drs. Whipple, Colombo, Fireman, Jacchia, Kozai, Lautman, Tilles, 
Wood, Veis, and Mr. Izsak contributed to the COSPAR Meeting in 
Washington. 

Drs. Jacchia and Kozai attended the International Symposium on 
the Dynamics of Satellites in Paris, France. 

Drs. Whipple and Goldberg were invited to attend the National 
Academy of Sciences, Space Science Board, summer study program 
at the State University of Iowa. The program was directed toward 
an examination of the scope and quality of the national space science 
program and its future objectives. 


STAFF CHANGES 


The following scientists joined the staff: Dr. Thomas Noonan, Dr. 
Henri Mitler, Dr. Ursula Marvin, Dr. Frances Wright, and Dr. Allan 
F. Cook. During this year Sir Harold Jeffreys, Dr. Marcel Nicolet, 
Dr. Salah Hamid, Dr. George Veis, and Dr. G. G. Cillié worked at the 
Observatory. 

Dr. Karoly Lassovszky died on December 20, 1961. 

As of June 30, 1962, 322 persons were employed at the Observatory. 


DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS 
Prepared by W. H. Kuiertn, Chief of the Division 


The research program of the Division has been concerned with 
fundamental studies in the area of radiation biology with emphasis 
on developing systematic concepts of the metabolic mechanisms and 
responses of living organisms as influenced and regulated by radiation. 

In the study of phototropic responses, the tropic response of Phy- 
comyces blakesleeanus to unilateral broad band blue (400-500 mp.) 
light has been found to disappear at intensities greater than 1,300 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 89 


pw/em?. The growth response also has been found to vanish for 
sporangiophores adapted at intensities greater than 1,300 p»pw/cm?. 
As this intensity is approached, the growth rate becomes 30-50 percent 
higher than that observed for sporangiophores adapted in the normal 
range of intensities, and this increased rate is maintained for long 
periods of time (3 or more hours). However, the mechanism control- 
ling the level] of light sensitivity (the range adjustment mechanism) 
appears to function at any intensity and with the same time constant 
of about 4.0 minutes as in the normal range. 

The bending rate in the normal range is about 5-7 degrees/minute 
for continuous unilateral stimuli given at 90° to the long axis of the 
sporangiophore. As the intensity approaches 1300 pw/cm?, the bend- 
ing rate decreases rapidly to zero. Apparently, the gradient across 
the cylindrical growing zone disappears, just as found previously 
for immersion oils with an index of refraction near 1.295. Whether 
this loss of a gradient is due to saturation of the light sensitive system 
or to bleaching of the photoreceptors is not yet known. 

Preliminary action spectra, at 20 mp intervals, for this disappear- 
ance of the tropic response have been completed and found to have 
very nearly the same wavelength dependence as observed previously 
in the normal range tropic response. 

The dimensions of the cytoplasmic layer within the growing zone 
and adjacent regions of the sporangiophore have been measured under 
oilimmersion. On the average, the cytoplasm occupies about 40 per- 
cent of the diameter from the sporangium to 1 mm below. In the 
growing zone itself it is about 25 percent of the diameter, and below 
the growing zone decreases to about 15 percent. The cytoplasm is con- 
tinuously streaming while being observed, and its thickness fluctuates 
as much as 10 percent within a few minutes at any one point. 

The growth promoting effect of cobalt in etiolated leaf tissue is in- 
dependent of growth inhibition by 2,4-dinitrophenol, which uncouples 
oxidative phosphorylation. Cobalt does not raise the adenosine tri- 
phosphate (ATP) concentration of leaf tissue, but does prevent a 
decrease in ATP content in the presence of 2,4-dinitrophenol. In 
order to elucidate the role of cobalt, experiments were performed with 
isolated mitochondria, the subcellular organelles which are the sites 
of oxidative phosphorylation. The results showed that cobalt alone 
had no significant effect on respiration or phosphorylation. However, 
when mitochondria were exposed to both cobalt and 2,4-dinitrophenol, 
phosphorylative activity increased about 10 percent over that of the 
2,4-dinitrophenol control. Mitochondria contain not only enzymes 
that synthesize ATP, but also enzymes that decompose ATP. Since 
the influence of cobalt on the synthesis of ATP was relatively small, 
the possibility of cobalt’s influencing the enzymatic decomposition was 


90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


examined. The results of these experiments showed that cobalt in- 
hibited the destruction of ATP. This effect was observed both in the 
presence and absence of 2,4-dinitrophenol. Thus, it is indicated that 
cobalt exerts its growth-promoting influence by inhibiting the activity 
of the enzyme ATPase. 

Studies on light-dependent chloroplast maturation have been con- 
ducted, using chloramphenicol (antibiotic) to determine the participa- 
tion of protein synthesis in the maturation process. Etiolated plants 
that have been treated with chloramphenicol do not develop photo- 
synthetic activity when irradiated with white light. Synthesis of 
chlorophyll is markedly inhibited and cannot be altered by large 
changes in the intensity of irradiation. In contrast, other light-de- 
pendent responses such as leaf expansion, opening of the hypocotyl 
hook, and anthocyanin formation are not inhibited by the antibiotic. 

Measurements of excitation of chlorophyll fluorescence in intact con- 
trol and treated leaves show that chloramphenicol does not prevent 
development of the ability of carotenoid pigments to transfer energy 
to chlorophyll. Measurements of Hill reaction and photosynthetic 
phosphorylation of chloroplasts of treated and control leaves show 
that antibiotic prevents development of these photosynthetic activities. 
Light-dependent increase of the photosynthetic enzyme TPN-linked 
glyceraldehyde-phosphate dehydrogenase was inhibited by chloram- 
phenicol but that of another, carboxydismutase, was not. Increase in 
leaf protein which is associated with chloroplast maturation was par- 
tially inhibited by chloramphenicol. 

These results indicate that chloramphenicol prevents synthesis of 
substances necessary for dark reactions of photosynthesis. At least 
one of the substances lacking in treated leaves and necessary for 
photosynthesis is associated with chloroplasts. Inhibition of develop- 
ment of photosynthetic activity of leaves can be accounted for by the 
ability of chloramphenicol to inhibit protein synthesis in leaves. 

The physiological basis for changes in sensitivity of maize chromo- 
somes to X-rays during seed germination has been studied, using 
somatic mutation technics. X-ray damage was markedly enhanced 
by oxygen, ie., plants grown from seeds irradiated under anoxia 
(helium) showed a two- to three-fold reduction in sector frequencies 
as compared to plants grown from seed irradiated in air. Oxygen 
enhancement, which was virtually nil for dry seed, attained its initial 
expression after 4-5 hours hydration. Irradiation in two atmospheres 
of pure oxygen, rather than in air, effected no increase in sector fre- 
quencies during these first 4-5 hours. Apparently, the “oxygen effect” 
is not influenced primarily by factors governing availability of oxygen 
to the embryo, but owes its inception to other biochemical or biophysi- 
cal changes during this early period of germination. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 91 


Studies involving the reversal of red light induction by far-red 
radiation at 25° C. show that there must be a time delay interposed be- 
tween red and far-red light treatments before maximum reversal can 
occur in hypocotyl hook of beans, in Arabidopsis seed germination, and 
in leaf disc expansion. Lettuce seed germination and reversal by far- 
red light at 25° C. does not require a time delay between light treat- 
ments to obtain maximum efficiency in reversal. However, when the 
experiments are conducted at 2° C., a requirement for a time delay 
between light treatments is manifested. 

The influence of such exogenous and endogenous factors as substrate, 
age, ionizing radiation, and particularly the red, far-red photomor- 
phogenic pigment system on the development of the chlorophyll-syn- 
thesizing mechanism in etiolated leaf tissue, have all been previously 
demonstrated in this laboratory. The apparent effect of the media- 
tion of a photomorphogenic receptor on chlorophyll synthesis implies 
a radiant energy stimulation of biochemical systems associated with 
either pigment precursor synthesis and/or exo- or endoplastid enzyme 
systems, resulting in observable gross morphological proplastid 
changes. 

Light-microscope examination of corn leaf tissue macerates have 
revealed both biochemical and morphological changes within the de- 
veloping proplastid. In the dark-grown seedling, proplastids con- 
tinue to enlarge slowly and accumulate considerable starch internally 
during the first several days of growth; a short pretreatment with 
white light, on the other hand, induces an observable degradation of 
accumulated starch, as well as considerable enlargement in proplastid 
size. These light-induced proplastid changes can be correlated with 
photomorphogenic leaf responses such as elongation and expansion. 


PUBLICATIONS 


PRICE, LEONARD, and Kirin, WILLIAM H. Red, far-red response and chlorophyll 
Synthesis. Plant Physiol., vol. 36, pp. 733-735, 1961. 

SHROPSHIRE, WALTER, Jr. The lens effect and phototropism of Phycomyces. 
Journ. Gen. Physiol., vol. 45, pp. 949-958, 1962. 

Mareuties, Maurice M. The effect of chloramphenicol on the light dependent 
development of seedlings of Phaseolus vulgaris var. Black Valentine, with 
particular reference to the development of photosynthetie activity. Plant 
Physiol., vol. 37, pp. 473-480, 1962. 


OTHER ACTIVITIES 


The division was represented during this year at various confer- 
ences of scientists and meetings of scientific societies. Drs. L. 
Loercher and W. H. Klein were invited participants in the Gordon 
Research Conferences on Biochemistry and Agriculture, Tilton, N.H., 


92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


where Dr. Loercher presented a paper on “The Influence of Cobalt on 
Leaf Expansion and Yield of Oxidative Phosphorylation.” 

Attending the annual meetings of the American Institute of Bio- 
logical Sciences in August 1961 at Purdue University were L. Price, 
M. Margulies, W. Shropshire, V. B. Elstad, W. H. Klein, L. Loercher, 
and J. L. Edwards. Included among the papers presented to the 
American Society of Plant Physiologists at these meetings were 
“The Effect of Red and Far-Red Radiant Energy and Delta Amino 
Levulinic Acid on the Lag Phase of Chlorophyll Synthesis in Bean 
Seedlings,” by E. C. Sisler, W. H. Klein, and Rebecca Gettens; “The 
Mode of Action of Cobalt in the Expansion of Etiolated Leaf Tissue,” 
by L. Loercher; “The Effect of Chloramphenicol on Chlorophyll 
Formation and on Development of Photosynthetic Activity,” by M. 
Margulies; and “Negative Phototropism of Phycomyces Sporangio- 
phores to Blue Light Stimuli,” by W. Shropshire. Dr. Klein attended 
the Executive Committee sessions of the American Society of Plant 
Physiologists. 

Also in August, J. H. Harrison attended the Seminar for Scientific 
Glassblowers held at the State University of New York. Mr. Harri- 
son and A. H. Busch attended the 8th Annual Symposium of the Amer- 
ican Vacuum Society held in October in Washington. 

Dr. Klein was an invited participant in the Conference on Basic 
Mechanisms in Radiobiology, San Juan, P.R., sponsored by the Atomic 
Energy Commission in November. 

Dr. Shropshire attended the annual meeting of the Biophysical So- 
ciety in Washington in February 1962. In March Dr. Klein visited 
the University of Arizona at Tucson to consult with Dr. Paul Damon 
regarding carbon-dating facilities, and in April he studied newly 
developed carbon-dating technics at Radiochemistry, Inc., at Louis- 
ville, Ky. 

In May 1962, Drs. R. Latterell and Klein attended the 10th Annual 
Meeting of the Radiation Research Society at Colorado Springs, Colo. 

Dr. Shropshire visited Duke University and North Carolina State 
College in June to consult with university scientists in the Depart- 
ments of Biophysics and Plant Physiology. 

Also in June, Mr. Harrison and A. H. Busch attended the 7th 
Annual Symposium of the American Scientific Glassblowers Society, 
held in Washington, where Mr. Harrison participated as chairman of 
the workshop committee. 

The installation of a radio-carbon dating laboratory has been ac- 
complished, and the facility is expected to be operational by August 
1962. Facilities have also been installed for research in the biochem- 
istry and physiology of marine organisms. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 93 


Dr. Pieter J. A. L. de Lint joined the research staff as visiting 
plant physiologist from Wageningen, the Netherlands. Dr. Konstan- 
tinos Mitrakos also joined the Division as visiting physiologist and 
biochemist from the University of Thessalonika, Greece. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Frep L. Wurprrier, Director. 

Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, 

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the National Collection of 
Fine Arts 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the ac- 
tivities of the National Collection of Fine Arts for the fiscal year 
ended June 30, 1962: 


SMITHSONIAN ART COMMISSION 


The 39th annual meeting of the Smithsonian Art Commission was 
held in Washington on Tuesday, December 5, 1961. Members present 
were Paul Manship, chairman; Leonard Carmichael, secretary; Gil- 
more D. Clarke, David E. Finley, Walker Hancock, Bartlett H. Hayes, 
Ogden M. Pleissner, Charles H. Sawyer, Stow Wengenroth, Archibald 
G. Wenley, and Andrew Wyeth. James C. Bradley, Assistant Sec- 
retary; Theodore W. Taylor, Assistant to the Secretary of the Smith- 
sonian Institution; and Thomas M. Beggs, Director, National Collec- 
tion of Fine Arts, were also present. 

The Commission recommended reappointment of Robert Woods 
Bliss, Wilmarth Lewis, Henry P. McIlhenny, and Ogden M. Pleissner 
for the usual 4-year period. 

The following officers were reelected for the ensuing year: Paul 
Manship, chairman; Robert Woods Bliss, vice chairman; and Leonard 
Carmichael, secretary. 

The following were reelected members of the executive committee 
for the ensuing year: David E. Finley, chairman; Robert Woods Bliss, 
Gilmore D. Clarke, Archibald G. Wenley, with Paul Manship and 
Leonard Carmichael, ex officio. 

Dr. Carmichael announced the gift from Mrs. Laura Dreyfus Barney 
of Barney Studio House, 2306 Massachusetts Avenue. One of its 
principal rooms is being redecorated at the suggestion of the donor to 
be used by the Smithsonian Institution for meetings and cultural 
events. 

He informed the Commission that Congress had appropriated plan- 
ning funds to provide detailed plans and specifications for the re- 
modeling of the Patent Office Building, which is expected to be vacated 
by the Civil Service Commission in 1963 and ready for occupancy by 
the National Collection of Fine Arts and the National Portrait Gallery 
during 1965. Dr. Carmichael stated that bills concerning the National 
Portrait Gallery had passed the Senate and had been favorably re- 
ported out of committee in the House. 


94 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 95 


[An act “To provide for a National Portrait Gallery as a bureau of 
the Smithsonian Institution” (Public Law 87-443) was approved on 
April 27, 1962.] 

Mr. Beggs reported briefly that plans for space distribution in the 
Patent Office Building at present allotted approximately 40 percent 
to the National Collection of Fine Arts, 40 percent to the National 
Portrait Gallery, and 20 percent to common services. He stated that 
the National Collection of Fine Arts was looking forward to utilizing 
the space for increasing its temporary exhibition program and for the 
expansion and proper display of permanent collections. Mr. Beggs 
pointed out the following sources from which the National Collection 
of Fine Arts receives its collections: purchases, such as those from the 
Ranger and Myer Funds; gifts and bequests from individuals; trans- 
fers from other Government agencies; and gifts of state. 

The Commission recommended acceptance of the following for the 
National Collection of Fine Arts: 

Two bronzes, The Bear Tamer and Head of Kid, by Paul Bartlett, N.A. (1865— 
1925). Offered by Miss Mary Bowditch, Boston, Mass. 

Bronze, Napoleon I (1769-1821) by Launt Thompson (1883-1894). Offered by 
Dr. Gifford B. Pinchot, Upperco, Md. 

Oil, Mother (Annie Williams Gandy), by Thomas C. Hakins (1844-1916). Be- 
quest of Mrs. Edward Pearson Rodman, through Miss Helen W. Gandy, Wash- 
ington, D.C. 

Oil, Portrait of Isaac Lea (1792-1886) by Bernhard Uhle (1848-1930). Of- 
fered by Mrs. Lea Hudson, New York City. 

Watercolor, Hains Point by William H. Holmes (1846-19383). Offered by 
Lt. Col. C. W. Tazwell, Madeira Beach, Fla. 

Andre Joseph Villard by David Boudon (active 1795-1797), miniature, water- 
color on paper. Offered by Frederick W. Cron, Falls Church, Va. 

Two subjects, Mary and Unidentified Gentleman, miniatures, watercolor on 
ivory, by Nina Nash Cron. Offered by Frederick W. Cron, Falls Church, Va. 

Henry Smith by Undetermined Artist, miniature, watercolor onivory. Offered 
by Mrs. Willis Adams, Arlington, Va. 

Flemish tapestry, The Beheading of St. Paul. Offered by Mrs. Phillip Coffin, 
Hamilton, Mass. 


The Commission recommended that decision concerning an Uniden- 
tified Portrait by Undetermined Artist, 011 on panel, which was trans- 
ferred from the Library of Congress, be deferred until next year. 


THE CATHERINE WALDEN MYER FUND 


The following miniatures, watercolor on ivory, were acquired from 
the fund established through the bequest of the late Catherine Walden 
Myer: 

No. 127. William Thornton (1759-1828) by Robert Field (c. 1769-1819). 
Acquired from Miss Maude 8. Gallup, Springfield, Vt. 


No. 128. Portrait of a Lady attributed to John Cox Dillman Engleheart 
(1783-1862). Acquired from Mr. and Mrs. H. H. Rankin, Laurel, Md. 


96 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


No. 129. Self Portrait by John Wesley Jarvis (1780-1839). Acquired from 
Mrs. Helen Moffatt Langdon, Alexandria, Va. 

No. 130. Portrait of Mustian by E. Bossi. Acquired from Arthur J. Dettmers, 
Jr., Washington, D.C. 

No.1381. J. Maitland attributed to Richard Cosway (1740-1821). 

No. 182. S. Stone, attributed to John Wood Dodge (1807-1893). 

No. 183. Man in Black Coat, White Stock by A. Galloway. 

No. 184. Man in Brown Coat by Nathaniel Hone (1718-1821). 

No. 1385. Man in Dark Blue Coat by Mausion. 

No. 136. Young Woman with Dark Hair by Andrew Plimer (1763-1837). 

No. 137. Man with Black Hair, Blue Coat, by Undetermined Artist. 

No. 188. Man with Powdered Wig, Blue Coat, by Undetermined Artist. 

No. 1389. Young Girlin White by Undetermined Artist. 


Nos. 131 through 189 were acquired from Mrs. Hubert G. King, 


Washington, D.C. 
WITHDRAWALS BY OWNERS 


Silver sugar bowl and cream pitcher by William Thomson, lent 
October 25, 1951, were withdrawn by William Huntington on Novem- 


ber 20, 1961. 
ART WORKS LENT AND RETURNED 
Loans 


Institutions Loans returned 
Baltimore gMirse vim sO be cA ree aa ee 1 1 
Bureausot-the: Bud ge te 2s eee ee 2 2 
Chrysler Art Museum, Provincetown, Mass___________________- a il 
Councilforelhiconomi crAdyiselss= ss ee 
Dallas: Museums Of MinewArts =.= ae ee ee ee 
Defenses Department wots. 2-328 ee se se ee eee 
Generale Services Admini strait] On 
GWAR (Giduca tional VeeS tudi0) 22 ee 
Health, Education, and Welfare, Department of_______________- 22 20 
Indian, Claims); Commission== ==) —) an eee 1 == 
Interior Departmenteoti the! 222s = eee ee 1 
Internal Revenue: S@rvi Cea 4 aa a ee ee eee 1 
Justice Department) Of... aes Be eee ee _ 1 
TINO La VET SOUT ae ee ea eee i og SE Be ee eed 
Municipal Court for the District of Columbia_____----__-__-_-_ 
National Gallery’ of) (Art..42 22 2 ee eee 
IN aval SEnStOri call ONG a GLO ree ee ee 
Peru; Hmbassy0fecs = ees 2s eee ee eee 
Post OfficesDepartment 2-2 2222 2k Se! tee ee ee eee 
Smithsonian’ institution: 222242 eee eee 
State. Department Hot 22s Se ee eee ee eee 
Supreme Courtawnited@ States ees] == eee 
Treasury. Department wot the: 4 ee eee eee 
United States District Court for the District of Columbia__---_ 5 
WnitedsStates: Informations Ag enC ys eee 1 
Virginia, Museum) of bine) Antsa = =n ae ee ra 1 
TheMwhite SElouse=. Sa ee ee ee ee eee ee 1 Be 

1 
3 


Nee HE HY 
es 


! 
i] 
BRN HHEOPE, 


bo 
RHEE DH 


Be Doe Re 
! 
' 


Whitney, Gertrude Vanderbilt, Museum of Western Art______-- Je 
Walliamsport (ea) Community, Arts) Hestival= sees ==— === 13 al 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 97 
SMITHSONIAN LENDING COLLECTION 


The following were added to the lending collection December 5, 
1961: 


Bronze, Head of Cat, by Paul Bartlett, N.A. (1865-1925). Offered by Miss 
Mary O. Bowditch, Boston, Mass. 

Ivory, Statue of Liberty, by Raman Sankar. Offered by the artist, Karala 
State, Trivandrum, India, through the Embassy of India. 

Two oils, Circus People Resting and Side Show, Ticket Seller, by Bernice 
Cross (1912— ). Transferred from the National Zoological Park. 

Three oils, Trout Stream, Top of the Ridge, and The Alcantara, together with 
two watercolors, Cathedral Steps, Cicicastenango, and Castillo de Bagor, 
Gerona, by Albert Sheldon Pennoyer (1888-1957). Offered by the estate of 
Albert Sheldon Pennoyer through the executors. 

Three oils, The Deserted House, The Happy House, and Little White House 
(Holland), by S. Seymour Thomas (1868-1956). Offered by Mrs. Jean Haskell, 
Los Angeles, Calif. 

Five oils, Unidentified Man by M. Shramchenko (1909- ), George Washing- 
ton (1782-1799), by Undetermined Artist, Christopher Columbus (c. 1446 or 
1451-1506) by Undetermined Artist, Undetermined Title, by M. Stolypin, and 
Undetermined Title by G. Villegas. Transferred from the Library of Congress. 

Two soft crayon lithographs, Duchess Charlotte of Northumberland and Duke 
Hugh of Northumberland, by Undetermined Artist. Offered by Mr. and Mrs. 
J. M. Higgie, Durham, England. 


Harold F. Cross restored the following paintings: Alice Barney in 
Brown and White by Troubetzkoy; Albert Clifford Barney by O. W. 
Roederstein; Child by P. L. J. DeConinck; Laura at 16 by Alice Pike 
Barney; and Angel by Undetermined Artist. 

The White Stock by Alice Pike Barney was renovated by Istvan P. 
Pfeiffer. 


ABT WORKS LENT FROM LENDING COLLECTION Woane 

Institutions Loans returned 
District Court for the District of Colunbia== 3 — 
Dutchess County Art Association, New York_-----__--_-___-- i6k 11 
Health, Education, and Welfare, Department of___-__----_-__-- 20 20 
Infernal sReventier servi Cess essa a] eae ee ee eee we al 
Sciencenintornmnationeh: xchange masse eee - 15 
United States District Court for the District of Columbia____~_ xs 3 
34 50 


ALICE PIKE BARNEY MEMORIAL FUND 


Additions to the principal during the year amounting to $2,260.62 
increased the total invested sums in the Alice Pike Barney Memorial 
Fund to $43,358.91. 


THE HENRY WARD RANGER FUND 


According to a provision of the Henry Ward Ranger bequest, that 
paintings purchased by the Council of the National Academy of De- 
sign from the fund provided by the bequest and assigned to American 
art institutions may be claimed during the 5-year period beginning 


98 


10 years after the death of the artist represented, the following paint- 
ings, recalled for action of the Smithsonian Art Commission at its 
meeting December 5, 1961, were returned for permanent accession by 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


the institutions to which they had been assigned. 


No. 34. Captain Taylor’s Sister, by Ernest L. Ipsen, N.A. (1869-1951) ; pur- 
chased in 1923 for $2,000 and assigned to the Dallas Art Association, Dallas, Tex. 
No. 60. Still Life, by Frank W. Benson, N.A. (1862-1951) ; purchased in 
1926 for $10,000 and assigned to the California Palace of the Legion of Honor, 
San Francisco, Calif. 


The following paintings, purchased by the Council of the National 
Academy of Design since the last report, have been assigned as 
follows: 


246. 


Title and artist 
Landscape, Bridgehampton, by Paul 
Resika (1928- ). 


Assignment 
St. Gregory College, Shawnee, Okla. 


247. The Sleeping Porch, by Frank Furn- Smith College Museum of Art, North- 
ham (1926— ). ampton, Mass. 

248. Douarnenez, by Miriam MBroudy Hverhart Museum, Scranton, Pa. 
(1905- ). 

249. Reflections, by Adolf Konrad Assignment pending. 
(1915- ). 

250. Elements of Construction, by Robert Indiana University, Bloomington, 
W. Daley (1922- ). Ind. 

251. City of Churches, by Zoltan Sepeshy Rhode Island School of Design, 
(1898- ). Providence, R.I. 

252. Lake Erie Shore, by Werner Groshaus Davenport Municipal Art Gallery, 
(1918-_). Davenport, Iowa. 

253. Thanksgiving, by Salvatore Lascari Bruce Museum, Greenwich, Conn. 
(1884). 

254. High Pastures (watercolor), by War- Assignment pending. 
ren Baumgartner (1894 ). 

255. Housing Development (watercolor), University of Kansas, Lawrence, 
by E. Ingersoll Maurice (Mrs.) Kans. 
(1901-  ). 

256. Figures in the Sunlight (watercolor), Rochester Memorial Art Gallery, 
by John E. Costigan (1888-  ). Rochester, N.Y. 

257. Thaw (watercolor), by Robert W. T. L. Wright Art Center, Beloit Col- 
Bode lege, Beloit, Wis. 

258. The Fascination of Toledo (water- Assignment pending. 
color), by Carol M. Grant. 

259. Walls of Georgetown (watercolor), Witte Memorial Museum, San An- 
by Ralph Avery (1906- ). tonio, Tex. 

260. Porlock Weir (watercolor), by Don- Mills College, Oakland, Calif. 
ald Teague (1897- ). 

261. Turn Around (watercolor), by Ed Assignment pending. 
Graves (1917- ). 

262. Story Teller (watercolor), by Fred- Assignment pending. 
erick Wong (1929-_ ). 

263. Monday Morning (watercolor), by Assignment pending. 
Herb Olsen (1905- ). 

264. Evening by the Seashore (water- Des Moines Art Center, Des Moines, 


color), by Mong Q. Lee (1923-1960). 


Iowa. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 99 


SMITHSONIAN TRAVELING EXHIBITION SERVICE 


In addition to 108 exhibits held over from previous years as indi- 
cated below, 27 new shows were introduced. The total of 135 shows 
was circulated to 316 museums in the United States. Two exhibitions 
were prepared for circulation abroad. 


EXHIBITS CONTINUED FROM PRIOR YEARS 


1955-56: Chinese Ivories from the Collection of Sir Victor Sassoon. 

1956-57: Japan II by Werner Bischof; and The World of Edward Weston. 

1957-58: The American City in the 19th Century; Recent American Prints; 
Japanese Woodblock Prints; Theatrical Posters of the Gay Nineties; Con- 
temporary Portuguese Architecture ; Nylon Rug Designs ; Burmese Embroid- 
eries; Japanese Dolls; Thai Painting; The Anatomy of Nature; Photographs 
of Sarawak; Glimpses of Switzerland; Drawings by Huropean Children; 
Photographs of Angkor Wat; and Pup, Cub and Kitten. 

1958-59: Advertising in 19th Century America; The Engravings of Pieter 
Brueghel the Elder; Charles Fenderich—Lithographer of American States- 
men: Contemporary Religious Prints from the Sloniker Collection ; Religious 
Subjects in Modern Graphic Arts; Contemporary French Tapestries I; Our 
Town; Stone Rubbings from Angkor Wat; Shaker Craftsmanship; Chil- 
dren’s Paintings from India; and A Child Looks at the Museum. 

1959-60: The Art of Seth Eastman; Contemporary Greek Painting; Early Draw- 
ings of Toulouse-Lautree; Watercolors and Drawings by Thomas Rowland- 
son; Prints and Drawings by Jacques Villon; American Prints Today; 
Brazilian Printmakers; Lithographs of Fantin-Latour; Arts and Cultural 
Centers; Bernard Ralph Maybeck; Enamels; Eskimo Art; Contemporary 
French Tapestries II; Story of American Glass; Bazaar Paintings from 
Caleutta; Gandhara Sculpture; Sardinian Crafts; Arctic Riviera; Photo- 
graphs by Robert Capa I; Photographs by Robert Capa II; Outer Mongolia ; 
Pagan; Portraits of Greatness; Contrasts; Paintings by Young Africans; 
Japan I; and Greek Costumes and Embroideries. 

1960-61: Work by Torres Garcia; Three Swiss Painters; The Technique of 
Fresco Painting; Folk Painters of the Canadian West; Paintings by Ch’i 
Pai-Shih; Birds of Greenland; A Tribute to Grandma Moses; The America 
of Currier and Ives; View 1960; Drawings by Sculptors; The Graphic Art 
of Edvard Munch; German Color Prints; Eskimo Graphic Art; Civil War 
Drawings I; Civil War Drawings II; American Art Nouveau Posters; Ameri- 
ean Industry in the 19th Century ; America on Stone; Designed in Okinawa ; 
Okinawa—Continuing Traditions; Prints by Munakata; Contemporary Jap- 
anese Drawings; Japan: Design Today; The Spirit of the Japanese Print; 
Americans—A View from the East; Swiss Industrial Architecture; Con- 
temporary Swedish Architecture; Mies van der Rohe; Irish Architecture of 
the Georgian Period; One Hundred Years of Colorado Architecture; 
Brasilia—A New Capital; Scenic Designers Offstage; Design in Germany 
Today; Fibers, Tools and Weaves; Designed for Silver; Batiks by Maud 
Rydin; American Textiles; The Seasons, color photographs by Eliot Porter ; 
The World of Werner Bischof; The Image of Physics; Charles Darwin: 
The Evolution of an Evolutionist; The Beginnings of Flight; The Magnifi- 
cent Enterprise—Education Opens the Door; The New Theatre in Germany ; 
Tropical Africa I; Tropical Africa II; Symphony in Color; Paintings and 
Pastels by Children of Tokyo; Children’s Art from Italy; Hawaiian Chil- 


100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


1960-—61—Continued 
dren’s Art; Designs by Children of Ceylon; and Children’s Paintings from 
Chile. 
EXHIBITIONS INITIATED IN 1962 


Archeology 
Title Source 
Tutankhamun’s Treasures____-__---~ Department of Antiquities, United Arab 
Republic; United Arab Republic 
Embassy. 


Paintings and Sculpture 


14 Americans in Mrances === sa American Cultural Center, Paris. 

George Catlin, Paintings and Prints___ Smithsonian Institution. 

PhySicsran Gwe ain Gin oe Index of American Design, National 
Gallery of Art. 

UNESCO Watercolor Reproductions____ UNESCO in Paris; Twentieth Century 
Fund. 


Drawings and Prints 


Belzianwebrawines seas ee ee ee Ministére de JInstruction Publique; 
M. J. van Lerberghe; Belgian 
Embassy. 

The Lithographs of Childe Hassam__-_ Smithsonian Institution; National Gal- 


lery of Art; Boston Public Library; 
Carnegie Institute in Pittsburgh; 
Detroit Institute of Art; Philadelphia 
Museum of Art; and others. 


Contemporary Italian Drawings_-_----- Traveling Exhibition Service, Smith- 
sonian Institution. 
JohneBaprst J aAcksoneasseeee a= Smithsonian Institution, Jacob Kai- 


nen; museums in the United States 
and abroad. 

Contemporary Swedish Prints__------~~- National Museum; Galleri Brinken, 
Stockholm; E. Maurice Bloch, Cu- 
rator, Grunwald Graphic Arts Foun- 
dation, UCLA Galleries. 

Tiepolo eDrawings2222 se Victoria and Albert Museum, London; 
British Government. 


Oriental 
Japanese LOsters==2 == === = eee Collection of Library of Congress. 
ThevKaceiolL Viet. Nam = san2225 22 eae Raymond Cauchetier, photographer, 
Paris. 
Architecture 


Architectural Photography (New Edi- American Institute of Architects; 


tion). Architectural Photographers Asso- 
ciation. 
Le Corbusier—Chapel at Ronchamp-_--__-~ American Institute of Architects. 
The Family, The Neighborhood, The United Neighborhood Houses; Na- 
City. tional Federation of Settlements 


and Neighborhood Centers. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 101 


Design and Crafts 


Title Source 

100 Books from the Grabhorn Press__--- Edwin and Robert Grabhorn Collec- 
tion, private owners. 

Wisconsin Designer-Craftsmen__-_---~-- Milwaukee Art Center, Mrs. Meg Tor- 
bert; Wisconsin Designer-Crafts- 
men. 

Photography 

Caribbean Our Cyne ee Fritz Henle, photographer, New York 
City. 

Theis wedishvhilms2222 222s. Swedish Institute, Stockholm, Dr. 
Tore Tallroth, Director; Embassy of 
Sweden. 

DMO@ SOMAy Oe &, \NAlGA ye Paul Masson Vineyards; Ansel Adams 
and Pirkle Jones, photographers. 

Science 

This Is the American Parth____________ Sierra Club of San Francisco. 

The Hidden World of Crystals___-_______ Merck Sharp & Dohme Research Labo- 
ratories. 

JS hvremeniny NOR) he American Museum of Natural History, 


New York City. 
Children’s Art 


BrazihaneChildrents Artes.) === Alvares Penteada Foundation, Sao 
Paulo; Escolinhas de Arts do Brazil, 
Rio de Janeiro; Brazilian Embassy. 


Children Look at UNESCO_____________ School Art League, New York; Com- 
mercial Museum, Philadelphia. 

Miyeri rien Smee 4. 2 merece eevee eis See Arts and Activities Magazine; Galerie 
St. Etienne. 


STAFF ACTIVITIES 


An increasing amount of staff time is devoted to reorganization and 
planning in preparation for removal to the Old Patent Office Build- 
ing. Adaptation of NCFA collections and functions to the space 
allotted, certain areas of which must be shared jointly with the newly 
authorized National Portrait Gallery, demands much of the director’s 
time. Recommendations of many features essential to modern gal- 
lery operation are required in the conversion of a historic structure 
erected a century ago. Assistance of the staff of the Smithsonian, 
especially in providing the services of consultants, Eugene Kingman 
for exhibition techniques, Dr. Anthony Garvan for historical research 
on the Old Patent Office Building, and Dr. Richard H. Howland for 
architectural character of interior design, has been much appreciated. 
Professional advice from construction specialists and staff members of 
the architectural firm of Faulkner, Kingsbury & Stenhouse, has been 
found most helpful. Guidance of the Public Buildings Service, Gen- 
eral Services Administration, has been indispensable. 


102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The renovation of the Natural History Building and the removal 
and rehanging of between 300 and 400 other items have required relo- 
cation of storage involving packing and shipping large canvases. 
This has been planned and removal operations accomplished with the 
aid of the buildings management department of the Institution. That 
department has also given the NCFA generous shop assistance in moy- 
ing the A. P. Barney Lending Collection to new storage and has pro- 
vided excellent cooperation, often at short notice, in the installation of 
foyer exhibits, such as Okinawa: Textiles and Traditions. The assist- 
ance of Mr. and Mrs. Istvan P. Pfeiffer was helpful in completing this 
special show. Keyes Porter has contracted to cross-index accessions 
and otherwise amplify the usefulness of cataloged information. Until 
illness prevented, George C. Groce was engaged in a study of the col- 
lections to determine most essential needs in future augmentation. 
The staff inventoried Barney Collection pictures on loan to Federal 
agencies, noting condition and obtaining information essential to the 
care of the collection. 

In addition to the approximately 20,000 requests for information 
received by mail and telephone, inquiries made in person at the office 
numbered 1,600. In all, 189 works of art were examined by the di- 
rector and curator. 

Special catalogs were published for the following traveling exhibi- 
tions: Tutankhamun’s Treasures; Tiepolo Drawings; Belgian Draw- 
ings; and Drawings by Sculptors. Informative folders were printed 
for traveling shows in the following categories: Natural History and 
Science; Oriental Art Exhibitions; History Exhibitions; Photography 
Exhibitions; and Children’s Art Exhibitions. <A special catalog of 
Traveling Exhibitions for 1962-63 was also published. 

Contracts were let for the relining and restoring by Harold F. Cross 
of the following: Roses by Walter Shirlaw; Sheepyard, Moonlight, 
by H. L. Walker; Portrait of Dr. Stejneger by Bjorn Egeli; Brother 
and Sister by Abbott H. Thayer; Nymph and Water Babies at Play 
by William Baxter Closson; Angel by Abbott H. Thayer; Autumn 
by Bruce Crane; Rome and the Campagna by Richard Wilson; Visit 
to the Tomb of Washington by Thomas P. Rossiter; A Load of Brush 
by Louis Paul Dessar; 11 paintings by Edmund C. Tarbell entitled 
President Wilson, General George Leman, Mary Reading, Herbert 
Hoover, Self Portrait, Mr. Frick and Daughter Helen, Mrs. Tarbell 
as a Girl, Margery and Little Edmund, Marshal Foch, Roses in Blue 
Vase, and In the Orchard; and Mrs. Elizabeth Boucher attributed to 
John S. Copley. 

Henri G. Courtais contracted for renovation of the following paint- 
ings: Self Portrait by Sir Thomas Lawrence; Archibald Skirving by 
Sir Henry Raeburn; Head of Old Man by Jose de Ribera; Mrs. Towry 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 103 


by Sir Thomas Lawrence; Edmund Waller by Gerard van Soest 
(formerly attributed to Dobson) ; Marine by Richard Parkes Boning- 
ton; Virgin and Child by Bernard Van Orley; Ralph Cross Johnson 
by Ernest Moore; Duke of Sussex by Sir William Beechey; Canal 
Scene by Francesco Guardi; Water Scene by Francesco Guardi; 
Landscape by Thomas Barker; and Young Girl attributed to Drost. 


SPECIAL EXHIBITIONS 


July 1 through 23, 1961. Ninth Interservice Photography Contest, sponsored 
by the Armed Forces of the United States; consisted of photographs by members 
of the armed services. 

July 29 through August 27, 1961. The Magnificent Enterprise: Education 
Opens the Door, sponsored by the Vassar Club of Washington, D.C., and circu- 
lated by the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service; consisted of 200 
photographs, engravings, lithographs, posters, and drawings. 

September 8 through October 18, 1961. The Highth International Exhibition 
of Ceramic Art, sponsored by the Kiln Club of Washington, D.C., and installed 
by the Division of Ceramics and Glass; consisted of 426 items, including 255 
objects from the United States and 171 objects from 16 foreign countries. A 
catalog was privately printed. 

October 21 through November 9, 1961. Sixty-eighth Annual Exhibition of the 
Society of Washington Artists, consisting of 74 paintings and 20 sculptures. A 
catalog was privately printed. 

November 19 through December 7, 1961. Twenty-fourth Metropolitan Art Ex- 
hibition, sponsored by the American Art League; consisted of 184 paintings and 
30 sculptures. A catalog was privately printed. 

December 15, 1961, through January 7, 1962. Paintings by George Catlin, 
Artist and Historian of the American Indian; consisted of 115 items including 
90 paintings (recently restored by Henri G. Courtais), 13 colored lithographs, 
7 photographs, and 3 miniatures from the collections of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, together with 2 photographs loaned by the Gilcrease Institute of American 
History and Art. A multilithed catalog was printed. (Thirty-five paintings 
and 12 lithographs from this exhibition were selected for circulation by the 
Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service.) 

December 16, 1961, through January 7, 1962. Americans—A View from the 
East, circulated by the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service; consisted of 
42 Japanese woodblock prints. 

January 14 through February 4, 1962. Twenty-fourth National Exhibition of 
the Society of Washington Printmakers; consisted of 165 prints. A catalog was 
privately printed. 

January 14 through February 4, 1962. The Character of Korea, sponsored by 
the Embassy of Korea and circulated by the American-Korean Foundation ; con- 
sisted of 55 photographs by Wallace C. Marley. An illustrated catalog and 
explanatory brochure were privately printed. 

February 11 through March 4, 1962. An exhibition of the Ilke and Jacoby 
Lace Collection from St. Gall, Switzerland, sponsored by the Ambassador of 
Switzerland and circulated by the Swiss Fabric and Embroidery Center, New 
York City. An illustrated brochure was privately printed. 

March 11 through 29, 1962. Sixty-fourth Annual National Exhibition of the 
Washington Water Color Association; consisted of 104 watercolors. A catalog 
was privately printed. 


672-174—_ 638 


104 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


March 29 through 31, 1962. An exhibition by Ikebana International, consisting 
of Japanese flower arrangements by Sofu Teshigahara. 

April 8 through 29, 1962. Twenty-first Biennial Art Exhibition sponsored by 
the National League of American Pen Women; consisted of 74 items, including 
paintings, drawings, and graphic arts. A catalog was privately printed. 

April 16 through 29, 1962. The Hidden World of Crystals, circulated by the 
Smithsonian Trayeling Exhibition Service; consisted of 25 microphotographs 
of drugs and chemicals by Jack Kath of Merck Sharp & Dohme Research 
Laboratories. 

May 6 through 27, 1962. Twenty-ninth Annual Exhibition of the Miniature 
Painters, Sculptors and Gravers Society of Washington, D.C.; consisted of 157 
items. A catalog was privately printed. 

May 5 through 27, 1962. Okinawa—Textiles & Traditions, under the auspices 
of the Cultural Properties Committee of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands 
and circulated by the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service; consisted of 
164 items, including scrolls, lacquer, ceramics, toys, inryo and netsuke, and 
textiles (kimonos, tisaji, furoshiki, fabric samples, and bolts). Oriental flower 
displays were arranged daily by members of Ikebana International. 

May 5 through 27, 1962. Birds of Greenland, sponsored by the Ambassador of 
Denmark and Countess Knuth-Winterfeldt and circulated by the Smithsonian 
Traveling Exhibition Service; consisted of 52 watercolors by Gitz-Johansen and 
a book, The Birds of Greenland by Finn Salomonsen, containing reproductions 
of paintings by Gitz-Johansen. A brochure was privately printed. 

June 8 through 21, 1962. Works of Government Artists sponsored by the So- 
ciety of Federal Artists, consisted of 153 items. 

June 3 through 24, 1962. An exhibition of color woodcuts by John Baptist 
Jackson (1701-1780), circulated by the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Serv- 
ice; consisted of 40 woodcuts and a book, John Baptist Jackson: 18th Century 
Master of Color Woodcuts, by Jacob Kainen, U.S. National Museum Bulletin 222. 


Respectfully submitted. 
Tuomas M. Becas, Director. 
Dr. LeonarpD CARMICHAEL, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the Freer Gallery of Art 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the 42d annual report of the Freer 
Gallery of Art, for the year ended June 30, 1962. 

Archibald Gibson Wenley, second director of the Freer Gallery of 
Art, died on February 17, 1962. He was born May 5, 1898, in Ann 
Arbor, Mich., and graduated from the University of Michigan in 
1921, and the Library School of the New York Public Library in 
1923. In that same year, Mr. Wenley joined the staff of the Freer 
Gallery as a trainee sinologist, and participated in the archeological 
surveys conducted in China under the joint sponsorship of the 
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and the Freer Gallery. He studied 
under Freer auspices in Paris for 3 years at the Ecole des Langues 
Orientales Vivantes and the Institut des Hautes Etudes Chinoises; 
and in Kyoto, Japan, for 2 years. 

Mr. Wenley formally joined the staff of the Freer Gallery in 1931 
as associate in research. He possessed a firm foundation in the lan- 
guages, history, and culture of China and Japan; and, when John 
Ellerton Lodge, the first director of the Freer Gallery, died in Decem- 
ber 1942, Mr. Wenley was appointed as director. He served on numer- 
ous committees through the years, including the Smithsonian Art 
Commission; member of the Board of United States Civil Service 
Examiners at Washington, D.C., for the Smithsonian Institution; 
member, the Visiting Committee, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library 
and Collection; research professor of Oriental art, University of 
Michigan; trustee, Textile Museum of the District of Columbia; trus- 
tee, Hermitage Foundation, Norfolk, Va.; chairman of the Louise 
Wallace Hackney Scholarship Committee of the American Oriental 
Society; president, Cosmos Club; and chairman, American Commit- 
tee for the Japanese Government Loan Exhibition, 1953. 

Archibald Wenley was a distinguished scholar and was particularly 
known for his contributions to the study of archaic Chinese bronzes. 
He contributed articles and reviews to many journals, and in 1946, 
in collaboration with Dr. John A. Pope, who now succeeds him as 
director, published A Descriptive and Illustrative Catalogue of 
Chinese Bronzes Acquired during the Administration of John Eller- 
ton Lodge. In 1948 he brought the Freer Fellowship program with 
the University of Michigan into reality and expanded the research 
facilities and publication programs of the Gallery. One result was 
the inauguration of the monograph series Ars Orientalis, a scholarly 
quarto journal of the arts of Islam and the East published jointly 


105 


106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


by the Smithsonian and the university. Altogether, Mr. Wenley was 
associated with the Gallery for more than 30 years, and his construc- 
tive influence on the progress, growth, and administration of the or- 
ganization will be felt for many years to come. 


THE COLLECTIONS 


Under the terms of paragraph 4 of the first codicil of the last will 
and testament of the late Charles Lang Freer, the following five 
objects were presented by Mrs. Eugene Meyer: 


BRONZE 


61.30. Chinese, Chou dynasty. Z'sun; stylized dove; four gold characters on 
crest. Height: 0.265; length: 0.200; width: 0.135. 

61.31. Chinese, Chou dynasty. Yi (or i); snake motif. Height: 0.205; length: 
0.320; width : 0.177. 

61.382. Chinese, Chou dynasty. Hu; inlaid with silver, and malachite. Damaged. 
Height: 0.526; width (with handles) : 0.278; width: 0.255. 

61.83. Chinese, Shang dynasty. Kwang; design incorporates many stylized birds 
and animals. No inscription. Height: 0.314; length: 0.318; width: 
0.142. 

PAINTING 

61.34. Chinese, Sung (Chin) dynasty, late 12th or early 13th century, by Li 
Shan. “Wind and Snow in the Fir Pines.’ Ink and light colors on 
silk; signature, 1 inscription, and 25 seals on painting; label, 5 colo- 
phons, and 50 seals on mount. Makimono (painting): height 0.297; 
width: 0.792; (overall) height: 0.312; width: 10.032. (Illustrated.) 


Twenty-seven objects were added to the collections by purchase as 


follows: 
METALWORK 


62.1. Persian, Sasanian, first half of 6th century A.D. Silver bowl partially gilt, 
showing King Kavadh I hunting ibex and gazelle. Dark purplish gray 
incrustation of silver chloride on silver background; traces of green 
copper corrosion products. Small breaks, with some pieces missing on 
lower left. Height: 0.024; diameter, 0.191. (Illustrated.) 

PAINTING 

62.14. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty, 18th century, by Huang Shen (1687-after 1768). 
Old man gazing at branches of magnolia in a vase. Ink and light red- 
brown color on paper. Inscription and two seals of the artist on the 
painting. Height: 1.020; width: 0.400. 

62.5. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty, dated 1706, by Wang Ytian-chi (1642-1715). 
River landscape; in the manner of Huang Kung-wang. Ink and color 
on paper. Inscription and four seals of the artist on the painting, along 
with seven collectors’ seals. Label, with one seal, on the reverse of the 
mounting. Kakemono: height: 0.977; width: 0.592. 

62.4. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty, dated 1704, by Wu Li (16382-1718). Landscape: 
“Streams and Mountains after Rain”; in the manner of Huang Kung- 
wang. Ink on paper. Inscription and three seals of the artist on the 
painting, along with three collectors’ seals. Label on reverse of the 
mounting. Kakemono: height: 1.810; width: 0.310. 

62.2. Japanese, Kamakura period, 14th century, Buddhist school. Kako Genzai 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 107 


Ingakyo (Sutra of Cause and Effect). Ink and color on paper; frag- 
ment of a handscroll. Makimono: height: 0.269; width: 0.989. 

62.3. Japanese, Kamakura period, 14th century, Yamatoe school. Hodnen Shonin 
Gy0jo Hzu (Illustrated Deeds of the Priest Honen). Ink and color 
on paper; fragment of a handscroll. Makimono: height: 0.406; width: 
0.727. 

62.6— Japanese, Kamakura period, 14th century, Yamatoe school. Three illus- 

62.8. trations from: Shdtoku Taishi Eden (An Illustrated History of Prince 
Shotoku). “The Archery Contest,” “The Flying Tiles,’ and “Shdtoku 
Taishi on Horseback.” Ink and color on paper; fragments from a 
handseroll. Makimono: height: 0.347; average width: 0.460-0.505. 

62.9. Japanese, Kamakura period, 14th century, Yamatoe school. Kdonin Shénin 
Eden (An Illustrated Biography of the Priest Koénin). Ink and color on 
paper; fragment from a handscroll. Makimono: height: 0.336; width: 
0.559. 

62.18. Japanese Namboku-cho period, late 14th century, Yamatoe school. Por- 
trait of Prince Shotoku (aged 14) as the Budhisattva Jizo. Ink and 
eolor on silk. Kakemono: height: 1.247; width: 0.689. 

61.23- Japanese, Ashikaga period, Yamatoe school. A pair of illustrations from: 

61.24. Geppdji Kenritsu Engi (History of the Founding of the Geppdji 
Temple). Text by Kinnatsu; dated 1495. Ink, color and gold on paper. 
Makimono: height: 0.845; average width: 10.660-11.377. 

62.19 Japanese, Edo period, Ukiyoe school, by Shorakusai (18th-19th century). 
Theatre scene from “The Tale of the Brothers Soga” ; man and woman in 
snowy landscape. In color on paper. Makimono: height: 0.254; width: 
0.520. 

61.25 Japanese, Edo period, 18th century, Ukiyoe school, by Tsukioka Settei 
(1710-1786). “Woman with a Puppet.” Ink, color and gold on paper. 
Kakemono: height: 0.989; width: 0.269. (Illustrated.) 

62.10- Japanese, Edo period, early, Unkoku school, by Unkoku Tonin (early 17th 

6212. century). A set of three screens; Birds in Landscape. Ink, color and 
gold leaf; fusuma (sliding doors) now mounted as two-fold screens. 
Average: height: 1.605 ; width: 1.680. 

POTTERY 

61.27. Chinese, T‘ang-Sung dynasty, “gray ware” of yweh type. Tall vase with 
slender neck and wide mouth; loops on shoulder; cover. Clay: hard 
gray porcellaneous stoneware. Glaze: clear. Decoration: none. 
Height: 0.326; diameter: 0.152. 

62.17. Chinese, Ming dynasty, early 16th century. Dish with plain rim. Clay: 
fine white porcelain. Glaze: transparent, glossy. Decoration: dragons 
among lotus scrolls inside and out, painted in underglaze blue. Mark 
of four Mongolian (Phags-pa) characters in blue on base. Height: 
0.047 ; diameter : 0.216. 

62.16. Chinese, Ming dynasty, Chia-ching period (1522-1566). Vase of kuan 
shape. Clay: fine white porcelain. Glaze: transparent, glossy. Deco- 
ration: floral scrolls, and boys playing in a garden, painted in under- 
glaze blue. Six-character Chia-ching mark in blue on base. Height: 
0.267; diameter: 0.320. 

62.20. Japanese, Momoyama period, shino ware. Dish on three feet, so-called 
“cake dish,’ with four-lobed, upturned rim. Clay: coarse buff-gray 
stoneware. Glaze: thick, bubbly, uneven, grayish. Decoration: plum 
blossom sprays in iron brown. Height: 0.055; diameter: 0.169. 


108 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


61.26. Japanese, Edo period (1615-1867), imari ware. Jar of kuan shape. 
Clay : white porcelain. Glaze: clear, slightly bluish. Decoration: three 
plant groups in underglaze blue. Height: 0.237; diameter: 0.220. 

62.15. Japanese, Edo period (late Genroku), imari ware. Dish with ten-lobed 
rim. Clay: white porcelain. Glaze: transparent. Decoration: paulonia 
and diaper pattern painted in underglaze blue, overglaze enamel colors 
and gold; waves and plum blossoms outside Daikon in blue on base. 
Height : 0.057 ; diameter : 0.343. 

62.18. Japanese, Edo period (late Genroku), imari ware. Jar of globular form, 
with cover and small handle on top. Clay: white porcelain. Glaze: 
transparent. Decoration: floral patterns, roundels, and diaper patterns 
in underglaze blue and overglaze enamels and gold. Daikon in overglaze 
red and gold on base. Height: 0.140; diameter: 0.1383. 

61.29 Japanese, Edo period (1615-1867), Kakiemon ware. Deep bowl of decag- 
onal shape with flaring rim and upturned lip. Clay: white porcelain. 
Glaze: clear. Decoration: hydrangeas and phoenixes in overglaze 
enamels; dragon in slip inside; brown rim. Height: 0.101; diameter: 
0.210. 

61.28. Japanese, Edo period (1615-1867), by Kenzan. 'Teabowl; round with 
smooth surface and finely cut thin foot; signed Kenzan. Box. Clay: 
fairly fine grained brownish buff stoneware. Glaze: clear, finely crackled. 
Decoration: pine trees with blue needles on ground of white slip, on 
one side inside, and on the other outside. Height: 0.066; diameter: 
0.183. Box: height: 0.124; length: 0.161; width: 0.161. 


REPAIRS TO THE COLLECTIONS 


Thirty-two Chinese, Japanese, and Indian objects were restored, 
repaired, or remounted by T. Sugiura, Oriental picture mounter. 
F. A. Haentschke, illustrator, remounted 73 Indian, Persian, and 
Arabic paintings. Repairs and regilding of 16 frames for American 
paintings were done outside the Gallery. 


CHANGES IN EXHIBITIONS 


Changes in exhibitions amounted to 523, which were as follows: 


American art: Japanese art: 
Oils yer Sh eee stein AS 55 Golde eae eae tee ees 2 
PUTS poe es See a ecell 34 ha Cquer.. Sa a eee een 12 
Chinese art: Painting sya== = a eee 66 
BTONZOn eee = eer eee 29 IROttery See ee a ees 20 
Cloisonn éys asses 1 Sculpturet2= =v 2 esha s eee 3 
VOR Ya ane rs es a es 4 | Near Eastern art: 
Jade, ease ee ee 40 Bookbinding. === === 5 
WACGUCTs S2 ae tam manent ae 3 Glassi2 22 ee ee eee 6 
PAN tine gees kaa ey oe 25 ad eee re een 2 ee eee 2 
IPOtteTy a= ae ce Se 50 Mais CLI ESPs one aes al 
Christian art: Metal work)=22=-2. 52352222 37 
Ory Stallye ea: Ser street a 2 Paintings oes. oe 20 
Glassen eee ees ee 6 IPOLLELY 2s a3 eee 35 
GOlGEe ee oe 20 
MANUSCEID tS pee eee 43 


Stone sculpture)_22 = = 22 2 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 109 
LIBRARY 


The library is the research unit for study of the cultures which 
produced the objects in the collections. The reading room is open 
to the public Monday through Friday, and 659 college and university 
students as well as specialists made constant use of the reference 
materials. No statistics are kept of the use made by the staff or the 
Freer Fellows and Hackney Scholars who are studying at the Gallery. 
The need for additional space for both librarians and readers is 
increasing constantly. 

During the year 870 acquisitions (by title) were added to the 
library; 248 of these were by purchase and 622 by exchange and 
gift. Outstanding gifts were: 155 titles of books, which supplied 
many reference books difficult to find, from the library of A. G. Wen- 
ley; 36 rare picture books, the gift of Lincoln Kirstein; a copy of 
Chigoku kinseki toji zukan (Old Chinese art), the gift of T. Asano 
and T. Misugi; a rare woodblock print of an 11-headed Kannon of 
the early Kamakura period (18th century), the gift of R. Hosomi of 
Osaka, Japan. The outstanding purchase was a copy of Chieh tzu 
yuan hua chuan (Mustard seed garden painting manual), a Japanese 
recut edition of 1812-17. 

The year’s record of cataloging included a total of 926 entries of 
which 485 analytics were made and 283 new titles of books, pamphlets, 
and microfilms were cataloged. Additions to the continuations of 
sets of books numbered 158, and 4,815 cards were added to the 
catalog. 

The slide collection was transferred to the library in February 1962. 
Mrs. Roberta Handler joined the library staff as slide librarian. New 
equipment for housing the slides was purchased, a manual of pro- 
cedure outlined, and the work of binding, classification, and labeling 
has proceeded. During the year 1,884 slides were bound and labeled, 
and 3,579 were lent. 

There were 202 requests for bibliographic information by telephone 
and letters. Two bibliographies were prepared for publication, and 
a bibliography of the works of each member of the staff. 

Librarians from other museums visited the library for exchange 
of professional knowledge. Mr. Hewson of Gallaudet College, ac- 
companied by his class of 12 library science students, spent some time 
at the Gallery observing library methods. 

The library staff continued active in the professional associations. 
Mrs. Hogenson and Mrs. Handler attended the annual conference 
of the Special Libraries Association in Washington, May 1962. Mrs. 
Usilton attended the American Library Association in Cleveland, 
July 1961, and at Miami Beach, Fla., June 1962. 


110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


PUBLICATIONS 


No publications were issued by the Freer Gallery during this 
fiscal year. 
Publications of staff members were as follows: 


CAHILL, JAMES F. The art of Southern Sung China—Asia House, 1962. New 
York, Asia Society, 1962. 103 pp., illus. 

“The return of the absent servants: Chou Fang’s Double Sizes re- 

stored.” Archives of the Chinese Art Society of America, vol. 15 (1961), 

pp. 26-28 incl. illus. 

Review of “Chinese pictorial art, as viewed by the connoisseur,” by R. H. 
van Gulik. Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 81 (1961), pp. 
448-451. 

ETTINGHAUSEN, RicHarD. Arab painting. Geneva, Skira, 1962. 208 pp. mount. 
illus. (part col.) map. (Treasures of Asia.) 

Review of “Turkish painting,” edited with introduction and notes by 

Emel Hsin. Artibus Asiae, vol. 24 (1961), p. 73. 

. Persian miniatures in the Bernard Berenson collection. Milano, Officine 
Grafiche Ricordi, 1961. 6 pp., 12 pls., each with descriptive letterpress. 

GETTENS, R. J. ‘Mineral alteration products on ancient metal objects,’ in Pro- 
ceedings of the ITC Rome Conference, 1961, pp. 171-174. 

“Proposal for a handbook on analysis of materials of paintings,” in 

Proceedings of the IIC Rome Conference, 1961, pp. 47-50. 

“TIC and ICOM: Conservation meeting in Rome and Barcelona,” in 
Museum News (Washington, D.C.), vol. 40, pp. 36-39. 

Port, JoHN A. Review of “Bronze culture of ancient China,’ by William C. 
White. Ars Orientalis, vol. 4 (1961), pp. 482-440, plate. 


PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY AND SALES DESK 


The photographic laboratory made 11,461 items during the year as 
follows: 8,718 prints, 1,222 negatives, 1,605 color slides, and 76 color 
film sheets. At the sales desk 50,570 items were sold, comprising 
4,496 publications and 46,074 reproductions (including postcards, 
slides, photographs, reproductions in the round, etc.). 


BUILDING AND GROUNDS 


The exterior of the building appears to be sound and in good con- 
dition. Refinishing of the bronze surrounding the court and on the 
exterior of the north door is underway. ‘The roof is scheduled to be 
repaired this summer; also the sidewalk in front of the building is to 
be removed and replaced to conform with the work now being done 
on the 12th Street underpass. 

In the interior, the limestone door frames of the exhibition gal- 
leries are being cleaned. All concrete floors were painted and given 
a protective coat of wax. 

The doors leading from the main office to the library were reworked 
and fitted with glass. 

The sales desk at the north entrance was completely refinished on 
location. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 111 


Three hundred twenty seats were installed in the Auditorium. 

In general, the courtyard planting is doing well. Four small box- 
woods and four azaleas were replaced. Two cotoneasters were replaced 
with Zlex var. globosa. A complete new listing and diagram of all 
plants was made for the Freer Gallery of Art pamphlet. The plant- 
ings at the fountain have been made as usual. Each has made a 
splendid showing in its respective season. Lantana was set out for the 
summer and is beginning to flourish. 


ATTENDANCE 


The Gallery was open to the public from 9 to 4:30 every day except 
Christmas Day. The total number of visitors to come in the main 
entrance was 130,597. The highest monthly attendance was in 
April, 21,929. 

There were 2,589 visitors who came to the Gallery office for various 
purposes—for general information, to submit objects for examina- 
tion, to consult staff members, to take photographs or sketch in the 
galleries, to use the library, to examine objects in storage, etc. 


AUDITORIUM 


The series of illustrated lectures was continued as follows: 


1961 
October 10. Dr. Noel Barnard, Australian National University, Can- 
berra, Australia, “Bronze Casting in Ancient China,” 
Attendance, 145. 
November 7. Dr. Eleanor Consten von Erdberg, Rheinisch-Westphalische 
Technische Hochschule, Aachen, Germany, “The Japa- 
nese House: A Pattern of Simplicity.” Attendance, 294. 
1962 
January 16. Prof. Osvald Sirén, Keeper Emeritus of Pictures and 
Sculptures, National Museum, Stockholm, Sweden, “True 
and False in Chinese Sculpture.” Attendance, 255. 
February 13. Prof. Willy Hartner, Johan Wolfgang Goethe-Universitat, 
Frankfurt, Germany, “Astrology on Persian Metal 
Work.” Attendance, 206. 
March 13. William Watson, British Museum, London, England, “A 
New Find of Chinese Bronzes with Human Figurines.” 
Attendance, 183. 


April 3. Dr. James C. Harle, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, England, 
“The Art and Architecture of South India.” Attendance, 
215. 


Outside organizations used the auditorium as follows: 


The Washington Film Society showed the following films: 
“Ta Retour’ and “Under the Roofs of October 6. Attendance, 150. 
Paris.” 
“Storm over Asia.” October 13. Attendance, 167. 
“Under the Black Mask” and “United Na- October 20. Attendance, 119. 
tions Week.” 


112 


The 


“Berlin, Symphony of a Great City” and 
“Arms and the League.” 

“Cabinet of Dr. Caligari.” 

“Carnival in Flanders.” 

“Vampyr” and “Sunday by the Sea.” 

“Seven Samurai.” 

“Les Mistons,” ‘““Meshes of the Afternoon,” 
and “The Very Hye of Night.” 

“Hl” and “City Lights.” 

“Ten Days that Shook the World.” 

“The Passion of Joan of Arc.” 


“Mother” and “Chess Fever.” 
“Tolerance.” 


“Duck Soup,” ‘Primary,’ and “Musical 
Poster No. One.” 
“Ttalian Straw Hat.” 


“Thunder over Mexico” and “Mexican Bus 
Ride.” 
“Variety” and “The Knockout.” 


“The Gold Rush” and ‘‘Night at the Peking 
Opera.” 
“Eva Wants to Sleep” and “Sunday.” 


October 27. 


November 3. 
November 17. 
November 24. 
December 1. 
December 8. 


December 15. 
December 22. 
Mareh 22. 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Attendance, 155. 


Attendance, 154. 
Attendance, 190. 
Attendance, 158. 
Attendance, 193. 
Attendance, 122. 


Attendance, 112. 
Attendance, 170. 


Attendance, 132. 


155. 


March 23. Attendance, 
April 5. Attendance, 137 
April 6. Attendance, 231. 
May 38. Attendance 153. 
May 4. Attendance, 239. 


May 10. Attendance, 106. 
May 11. Attendance, 179. 
May 17. Attendance, 114. 
May 18. Attendance, 208. 
May 24. Attendance, 96. 

May 25. Attendance, 206. 
June 7. Attendance, 91. 

June 8. Attendance, 127. 

June 21. Attendance, 247. 
June 28. Attendance, 214. 


U.S. Department of Agriculture held meetings as follows: 


Marketing Division. 


Outlook Conference. 


4-H Clubs. 
Farmers’ Cooperative Service. 


Federal Extension Service. 


Agricultural Stabilization and Conserva- 
tion Service. 
Foreign Agricultural Service. 


October 16. Attendance, 176. 
October 17. Attendance, 197. 
October 18. Attendance, 117. 
October 19. Attendance, 129. 


November 14. 


November 15. 
November 16. 
December 11. 
December 12. 
December 18. 


December 14. 


Attendance, 82. 
Attendance, 447. 
Attendance, 177. 
Attendance, 143. 
Attendance, 144. 
Attendance, 131. 
Attendance, 68. 


January 9. Attendance, 185. 


January 10. 
January 12. 
April 4. 


April 9. 

April 12. 
April 25. 
April 26. 
April 27. 


Attendance, 212. 


Attendance, 92. 
Attendance, 194. 


Attendance, 260. 
Attendance, 70. 
Attendance, 117. 
Attendance, 350. 
Attendance, 166. 


May18. Attendance, 82. 
June6. Attendance, 91. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 113 


Junel13. Attendance, 94. 
June 20. Attendance, 127. 
June 27. Attendance, 96. 

The Food and Drug Administration held meetings as follows: 

October18. Attendance, 119. 
November 2. Attendance, 264. 
December 20. Attendance, 91. 
January 17. Attendance, 67. 
March 21. Attendance, 78. 
March 27. Attendance, 66. 
April12. Attendance, 70. 
Mayi16. Attendance, 82. 

The Washington Society, Archeological Institute of America, held illustrated 
lectures as follows: 

Dr. Zakhy Iskander, Department of An- November 9. Attendance, 193. 
tiquities, Cairo, Egypt: ‘“Tutankha- 
mun’s Treasures.” 

Dr. J. O. Brew, Director, Peabody Mu- November 30. Attendance, 143. 
seum, Harvard University: “The 
Drowning Sphinx: Salvage Archeology 
in Advance of Technical Progress in 
Nubia.” 

Japan-America Society, two recitals by Miss December 2. Attendance, 660. 
Miyoko Watanabe, Kabuki dancer, and 
Mr. Kimio Eto, koto player. 

American Chemical Society. February 8. Attendance, 51. 

Washington Society, Archeological Institute February 8. Attendance, 221. 
of America. 

Washington Fashion Group, programs by Marchd. Attendance, 275. 
Eleni Epstein, fashion editor, Washington Marchi12. Attendance, 243. 
Star. March19. Attendance, 197. 

March 26. Attendance, 219. 
April2. Attendance, 198. 

Japan-America Society and Washington Film March30. Attendance, 423. 

Society, two showings of Japanese film, 
“Jochuku” and selected short subject. 

Morgan State College, lecture by Dr. Robert April27. Attendance, 278. 
P. Multhauf, Department of Science and 
Technology, Smithsonian Institution. 


Overall total attendance in the auditorium for the year was 13,417. 
STAFF ACTIVITIES 


The work of the staff members was devoted to the study of new 
accessions, of objects contemplated for purchase, and of objects sub- 
mitted for examination, as well as to individual research projects in 
the fields represented by the collection of Chinese, Japanese, Persian, 
Arabic, and Indian materials. Reports, oral and written, and ex- 
clusive of those made by the technical laboratory (listed below), were 
made on 10,893 objects as follows: For private individuals, 3,269; 


114 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


for dealers, 1,785; for other museums, 5,839. In all, 440 photographs 
were examined, and 920 Oriental language inscriptions were trans- 
lated for outside individuals and institutions. By request, 24 groups 
totaling 489 persons met in the exhibition galleries for docent service 
by the staff members. Five groups totaling 20 persons were given 
docent service by staff members in the storage rooms. 

Among the visitors were 61 distinguished foreign scholars or per- 
sons holding official positions in their own countries who came here 
under the auspices of the Department of State to study museum ad- 
ministration and practices in this country. 

During the year the technical laboratory carried on the following 
activities: 

Objects examined by various methods including microscopic, microchemical, 
X-ray diffraction, ultraviolet light, spectrochemical analysis, and specific grav- 
ity determination: 

Hreer-obyects:examined= 2-222 ee ee 140 
Outside objects: examined: ===. == = ee a eee 113 

The following projects were undertaken by the laboratory during 
the year: 

1. For a period of 2 weeks in October and November 1961, Miss E. West 
worked as a guest of the Conservation Center of the Institute of Fine Arts, 
New York University, where she continued the spectrochemical analyses of in- 
scribed Chinese ceremonial bronzes in the Freer collections. 

2. R. J. Gettens continued as editor and Miss West as assistant editor of IIC 
Abstracts published by the International Institute for Conservation of Historic 
and Artistic Works, London, England. 

3. Continued systematic collection of data on technology of ancient copper 
and bronze in the Far Hast. 

4. Continued analysis by wet chemical methods of Chinese bronzes in the 
Freer collections. 

By invitation the following lectures were given outside the Gallery 
by staff members (illustrated unless otherwise noted) : 


1961 
September 13. Dr. Pope, at the College Art Association, New York City, 
“Collecting Oriental Art in America.” Attendance, 250. 
September 18. Dr. Stern, at the Kunstindustrie Museum, Copenhagen, Den- 
mark, ‘Popular Painting in Tokugawa Japan.” Attend- 
ance, 100. 
September 25. Dr. Cahill, at the Society for Asian Art, San Francisco, 


Calif., “Some Distinctions in Chinese Paintings.” At- 
tendance, 100. 

September 25. Mr. Gettens, at the International Institute for Conservation 
of Historic and Artistic Works, conference in Rome, Italy, 
“Museum Climate.” Attendance, 190. 

September 26. Mr. Gettens, at the International Institute for Conservation 
of Historie and Artistic Works, conference in Rome, 
“Proposal for a Handbook on Painting Material.” At- 
tendance, 190. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT eS 


1961—Continued 


September 27. 


October 4. 


October 5. 


October 6. 


October 17. 


October 20. 


October 26. 


October 27. 


November 6. 


November 7. 


November 7. 


November 13. 


November 20. 


December 1. 


December 5. 


1962 
January 7, 9. 


January 8, 9. 


Dr. Cahill, at the Oakland Art Museum, Colloquium Orien- 
talogicum. University of California, Oakland, Calif., 
“Some Problems in the Dating and Attribution of Chinese 
Paintings.” Attendance, 35. 

Dr. Stern, at the Ethnographic Museum, Miinich, Germany, 
“Popular Painting in Tokugawa Japan.” Attendance, 
25. 

Dr. Stern, at Société Suisse Japon, Ziirich, Switzerland, 
“Popular Painting in Tokugawa Japan.” Attendance, 30. 

Dr. Cahill, at the United States Department of Agriculture 
Overseas Club, Washington, D.C., “Chinese Art.” At- 
tendance, 75. 

Dr. Pope, at the Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Del., 
“Chinese Porcelains at Home and Abroad.” Attendance, 
240. 

Dr. Stern, at the Musée Guimet, Paris, France, for staff 
members only, “Popular Painting in Tokugawa Japan.” 
Attendance, 5. 

Dr. Cahill, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 
City, “Chinese Art Treasures.” Attendance, 400. 

Dr. Stern, at the Museum of Asiatic Studies, Amsterdam, 
Holland, “Popular Painting in Tokugawa Japan.” At- 
tendance, 150. 

Dr. Cahill, at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadel- 
phia, Pa., “Some Distinctions in Chinese Paintings.” At- 
tendance, 200. 

Dr. Stern, at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 
England, “Popular Painting in Tokugawa Japan.” At- 
tendance, 250. 

Mr. Gettens, at the American Embassy, London, England, 
“Technical Studies of Works of Art.” Attendance, 50. 
Dr. Pope, at the Alexandria Association, Alexandria, Va., 
“Chinese Porcelains at Home and Abroad.” Attendance, 

50. 

Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Center of Mid-Eastern Studies, 
Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Mass., “Pictorial Arts of 
the Umayyads.” Attendance, 70. 

Dr. Cahill, at the American University (Seminar Group), 
Washington, D.C., “Chinese Painting and the Contem- 
porary West.” Attendance, 30. 

Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Institute of Fine Arts, New 
York University, New York City, “Opportunities for 
Studies and Careers in Near Eastern Art.” (Not illus- 
trated.) Attendance, 30. 


Dr. Pope, at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass., 
“Chinese Art Treasures.” Attendance, each day, 400; 
total 800. 

Dr. Cahill, at Smith College, Northampton, Mass., “Con- 
temporary Relevance of Chinese Painting to the Modern 
West.” Attendance, each day, 750; total, 1,500. 


116 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


1962—Continued 


January 12. 


January 24. 


February 2. 


February 4. 
February 5. 


February 5. 


February 15. 


February 16. 


March 2. 
March 20. 
March 25. 
March 31. 


April 5. 


April 9. 


April 9, 10. 


April 18. 


May 3. 


May 9. 


May 9. 


May 10. 


Dr. Ettinghausen, at International Student House, Wash- 
ington, D.C., “Western and Eastern Art: A Comparison.” 
Attendance, 40. 

Dr. Stern, at the Regents’ Meeting, Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, ““Research Contrast—Japanese Art in Buropean 
Collections.” Attendance, 26. 

Dr. Stern, at the Norfolk Museum of Art, Norfolk, Va., 
“Popular Painting in Tokugawa Japan.” Attendance, 
150. 

Dr. Cahill, at the Washington County Museum, Hagers- 
town, Md., “Chinese Art.” Attendance, 150. 

Dr. Pope, at the Norfolk Museum of Art, Norfolk, Va., 
“Oriental Pottery.” Attendance, 100. 

Dr. Cahill gave the first of 16 lectures at American Uni- 
versity, Washington, D.C.; there were 25 students in the 
group. 

Dr. Pope, at the Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IIl., 
“Chinese Art Treasures.” Attendance, 500. 

Dr. Pope, at The Orientals, Art Institute of Chicago, gave 
a gallery talk and lecture, “Chinese Art Treasures.” 'To- 
tal attendance, 175. 

Dr. Stern, at the Norton Gallery, Palm Beach, Fla., ‘“Popu- 
lar Painting of Tokugawa Japan.” Attendance, 60. 

Dr. Cahill, at the Cleveland Park Club, Washington, D.C., 
“Chinese Art.” Attendance, 35. 

Dr. Cahill, at Asia House, New York City, “The Art of 
Southern Sung China.” Attendance, 250. 

Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Hajji-Baba Club, New York City, 
“Persian and Mughal Miniatures.” Attendance, 52. 

Dr. Stern, at the American Oriental Society, Harvard Uni- 
versity, Cambridge, Mass., “A Japanese Screen Painting: 
Kamikaze versus Christian.” Attendance, 30. 

Dr. Pope, at the Cosmos Club, Washington, D.C., “Chinese 
Porcelains at Home and Abroad.” Attendance, 175. 

Dr. Ettinghausen, at the 15th Annual Symposium on Art, 
Sarasota, Fla., “Persian Painting” and ‘Persian and In- 
dian Painting.” Attendance, respectively, 325 and 275; 
total, 600. 

Dr. Ettinghausen, at the University of Michigan, Depart- 
ment of the History of Art, Ann Arbor, Mich., ‘Political 
Themes in Harly Muslim Paintings and Mosaics.” At- 
tendance, 100. 

Dr. Stern, at the Japan Society, Asia House, New York 
City, “A Survey of Japanese Art.” Attendance, 175. 
Dr. Cahill, at the De Young Memorial Museum, San 
Francisco, Calif., “Chinese Art Treasures,’ Attend- 

ance, 400. 

Mr. Gettens, at the Abracadabra Club, Washington, D.C., 
“Minerals in Art.” Attendance, 30. 

Dr. Httinghausen, at the Asia Society, New York City, 
“Herat School of Painting.’ Attendance, 180. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 7 


1962—Continued 

May 11. Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Institute of Fine Arts, New York 
University, New York City, “Political Themes in Harly 
Islamie Paintings and Mosaics.” Attendance, 95. 

May 15. Dr. Cahill, at the De Young Memorial Museum, San 
Francisco, Calif., ‘Chinese Art Treasures,’ and 
“Chinese Figure, Bird, Flower and Animal Painting.” 
Attendance, each lecture, 400; total, 800. 

May 16. Mr. Gettens, at the U.S. Department of Health, Education, 
and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration, Washing- 
ton, D.C., “Analytical Problems in Archaeology.” At- 
tendance, 82. 

May 16. Dr. Cahill, at a seminar, Stanford University, Stanford, 
Calif., “Connoisseurship of Chinese Painting,’ and lec- 
ture, “Chinese Art Treasures.” Attendance, respectively, 
15 and 200; total, 215. 

May 17. Dr. Cahill, at the University of California, Berkeley, Calif., 
“Great Paintings in the Chinese Art Treasures Exhibi- 
tion” and “The Contemporary Relevance of Chinese 
Painting.” Attendance, respectively, 250 and 300. 


Members of the staff traveled outside Washington on official busi- 
ness as follows: 


1961 

July 5-8. Dr. Stern, in New York City, examined objects at dealers 
and in museums. 

July 8-10. Dr. Stern, in Boston, Mass., examined objects at dealers 
and in museums. 

July 9-15. Mrs. Usilton, Librarian, in Cleveland, Ohio, attended the 
meetings of the American Library Association. 

July 29. Dr. Hitinghausen, in New York City, examined objects at 
dealers. 

August 25— Dr. Stern, in Europe, examined objects in museums, in pri- 

January 8. vate collections, and at dealers; and consulted with col- 
leagues in various institutions of learning, which in- 
volved travel in Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Switzer- 
land, France, Belgium, Holland, England, Scotland, Italy, 
and Greece. 

September 4-15. Dr. Cahill, in New Haven, Conn., and New York City, 


examined objects at dealers, and in private collections. 
He attended the International Congress of Art His- 
torians at Columbia University, a session of the College 
Art Association, Biltmore Hotel, and a reception of that 
group at the Institute of Fine Arts, New York Univer- 
sity. He also attended the dinner and opening of the 
Chinese Art Treasures Exhibition at the Metropolitan 
Museum of Art, and saw the exhibition of Peasant and 
Nomad Carpets of Asia at Asia House. 

September 13-15. Dr. Pope, in New York City, attended the dinner and 
opening of the Chinese Art Treasures Exhibition at the 
Metropolitan Museum of Art, and examined objects at 
dealers. 


118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


1961—Continued 
September 9- Mr. Gettens, in Europe, attended meetings of conference 


November 25. 


October 17-18. 


October 20-25. 


October 23-29. 


October 23- 


November 3. 


October 30. 


November 7. 


November 15. 


November 15-21. 


November 19. 


December 14-21. 


1962 
January 10-12. 


January 11. 


of the International Institute for Conservation of His- 
toric and Artistic Works, in Rome, Italy; and meetings 
of the International Council of Museums, in Barcelona, 
Spain, where he read a paper, “Report on the Study of 
Metallie Antiquities.” He traveled extensively in Italy, 
Spain, Greece, Turkey, Switzerland, France, Belgium, 
and England, where he examined antiquities in various 
museums and private collections; visited various arche- 
ological sites, and historical locations and monuments. 

Dr. Pope conducted a seminar on Chinese Trade Porcelains, 
at Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Del. Attendance, 
87. 

Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, attended the Social 
Science Research Council Conference on Muslim Self and 
Image; he also examined objects at various dealers. 

Dr. Pope, in Boston, examined objects in the Morse Collec- 
tion at the Museum of Fine Arts, and Japanese ceramics 
at the Fogg Art Museum. He also attended a meeting 
of the Committee to Visit Department of Far Eastern 
Civilizations, Harvard University. 

Miss West worked as a guest of the Conservation Center 
of the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, carry- 
ing out spectrographic analyses of Chinese bronzes and 
glazes from the Freer collections. 

Dr. Pope, in New York City, examined objects at various 
dealers. 

Dr. Pope, in Baltimore, examined objects at the Baltimore 
Museum of Art and at the Walters Art Gallery. 

Miss West, Dr. Cahill, and Mr. Sugiura, in New York City, 
attended a Symposium on ‘Paper and Textile Supported 
Art Objects.” 

Dr. Ettinghausen attended the Annual Conference of 
American Research Center in Egypt, at the Boston 
Museum of Fine Arts, as a trustee. He also examined 
objects at various dealers and in one private collection 
in New York City. 

Dr. Pope, in Philadelphia, appeared as a panelist on the 
University of Pennsylvania TV program, “What in the 
World,” over WCAU-TV. 

Dr. Ettinghausen, in Paris, France, attended the exhibition 
of “Seven Thousand Years of Iranian Art,” held at the 
Petit Palais; he also examined objects at various 
dealers. 


Dr. Pope, in New York City, examined objects at various 
dealers. 

Dr. Cahill, in Boston, visited the Chinese Art Treasures 
Exhibition at the Museum of Fine Arts, where he gave 
several gallery talks, and examined Chinese paintings in 
the permanent collection. 


Secretary's Report, 1962 PLATE 3 


61.25. Japanese painting, Edo period, Ukiyoe school; ‘Woman with a Puppet” by Tsukioka 
Settei. Freer Gallery of Art. 


Secretary’s Report, 1962 PLATE 4 


61.33. Chinese bronze kuang, Shang dynasty. Freer Gallery of Art. 


Secretary's Report, 1962 PLATE 5 


Freer Gallery of Art. 


by Li Shan 


? 


dynasty 


oC 
pe 


g, Suny 


Chinese paintin 


61.34. 


PLATE 6 


Secretary's Report, 1962 


Wy jo Areq[ey) Joi 


‘aV AIQ]Usd YQ [MO JOATIS (uvluvses) UvIsIog 


‘1°79 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 119 


1962—Continued 


January 18. 


February 24. 


March 2. 


March 28. 


March 23. 


March 25. 
April 2-4. 
April 6. 


May 3-4. 


May 7-10. 


May 8-18. 


May 15. 


May 25. 


June 1. 


June 1, 2. 


June 4-7. 


June 5-8. 


672-174— 63 


Dr. Cahill, in New York City, visited the Chinese painting 
exhibition at the Mi Chou Galleries; and examined ob- 
jects for a dealer and in a private collection. 

Dr. Pope, in New York City, attended a meeting at the 
American Council of Learned Societies as Chairman of 
ACLS-SSRC Joint Committee on Grants for Research on 
Asia. 

Dr. Stern, in Palm Beach, Fla., examined objects for a num- 
ber of private individuals, and at the Norton Gallery. 

Dr. Stern and Mr. Gettens, in New York City, attended a 
meeting with representatives of New York University and 
Mr. McLane of the Rockefeller Foundation re: plans for 
setting up a course in conservation of art objects. 

Dr. Cahill, in New York City, met with Mr. Compton of the 
Rockefeller Foundation re: plans for photographing the 
Chinese collections of art objects in Taiwan. 

Dr. Pope, in Baltimore, examined objects at the Baltimore 
Museum of Art. 

Dr. Pope and Dr. Stern, in Boston, attended meetings of 
the American Oriental Society. 

Dr. Stern, in New York City, attended a training program 
meeting at the New York Conservation Center. 

Mrs. L. O. West attended the meetings of the Museum 
Sales Association at the Munson-Williams Proctor In- 
stitute, Utica, N.Y., and the Corning Glass Works, Corn- 
ing, N.Y. 

Dr. Pope, in New York City, examined objects at various 
dealers. 

Dr. Cahill, in California, was a member of a panel discus- 
sion on a radio broadcast from Station KPFA, Berkeley ; 
was interviewed regarding the Chinese Art Treasures 
Hxhibition, Station KPIX—-TV, San Francisco; and made 
tape recordings for future broadcasts, of an interview on 
The Chinese Art Treasures, and the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, Station KCBS, San Francisco. 

Dr. Pope, in Ann Arbor, attended a meeting of the Freer 
Fund Committee at the University of Michigan. 

Dr. Stern and Mr. Sugiura visited the Philadelphia Museum 
of Art, where they examined Far Eastern paintings in 
need of repair. 

Dr. Cahill, in New York City, attended a conference at the 
Rockefeller Foundation re: his proposed trip to Taiwan. 
Dr. Pope and Dr. Cahill, in New York City, attended a con- 
ference on the Study of Chinese Civilization at the Ameri- 

can Council of Learned Societies. 

Mr. Gettens and Miss HE. West, at Williamsburg, Va., at- 
tended meetings of the American Association of Museums, 
and the IiC-American Group, where Miss West served as 
Chairman of the Art Technical Section. 

Dr. Pope, at Williamsburg, Va., attended meetings of the 
American Association of Museums. 


9 


120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


1962—Continued 


June 14. 


June 14-15. 


June 15. 


June 18-22. 


June 21. 


June 29-30. 


Dr. Pope and Dr. Cahill, at Mt. Kisco, N.Y., visited the home 
of Mrs. Eugene Meyer, where they examined Far Hastern 
objects. 

Dr. Stern, in Philadelphia, visited the collections in the 
Philadelphia Museum of Art and examined objects in a 
private collection. 

Dr. Cahill, in New York City, examined objects at various 
dealers. 

Mrs. Bertha Usilton, in Miami, Fla., attended meetings of 
the American Library Association. 

Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined objects at 
dealers. 

Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, attended a dinner 
meeting of the Iran Foundation, Inc.; examined objects 
at one dealer’s, and visited the collections at the Metro- 
politan Museum of Art and the Jewish Museum. 


As in former years, members of the staff undertook a wide variety 
of peripheral duties outside the Gallery, served on committees, held 
honorary posts, and received recognitions. 

Respectfully submitted, 


JoHN A. Porn, Director. 


Dr. Leonard CARMICHAEL, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the National Air Museum 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- 
ties of the National Air Museum for the fiscal year ended June 30, 
1962: 

Staff studies and planning for the new National Air Museum Build- 
ing and exhibit continued, pending the appropriation of planning 
funds. 

All records for visitors in the Air and Space Building were broken 
during the year with a total of 1,986,319. This was more than double 
the count of 987,858 for fiscal year 1961 and reflects the growing 
interest in the historic relics of air and space flight. Although this 
old (1917) building contains but 17,400 square feet and houses less 
than 5 percent of the National Aeronautics and Space Collection, it had 
the third largest visitor count of the Smithsonian museum buildings. 
The largest single day’s count exceeded 31,000. One aircraft had to 
be removed to make room for people! 

The Museum received many historically significant accessions dur- 
ing the year. Here are a few examples: the Air Force-Douglas C-54 
“Sacred Cow,” first Presidential aircraft, and an F-86A North Amer- 
ican Fighter aircraft, from the U.S. Air Force; a Bellanca CF air- 
plane and an Anzani three-cylinder air-cooled radial engine, from 
Mrs. Guiseppi Bellanca; instrumented duplicates of Pioneer IV, 
Lunar Space Probe and the Explorer I, America’s first orbiting satel- 
lite, from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory; the General Thomas D. 
White Air Force Space Trophy from Dr. Thomas W. McKnew; As- 
tronaut Alan B. Shepard’s Mercury Spacecraft “Freedom 7,” from 
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; a Polaris rocket 
from the U.S. Navy; and the original “Journal des Marches et Op- 
erations” kept by Capt. Georges Thenault, French Commander of 
the Lafayette Escadrille, from Madame Thenault. 

One of the most active and increasing functions of the Museum 
continues tc be information service. During the year the Museum 
averaged more than 600 letters per month, furnishing historical, 
technical, and biographical information on air and space flight to 
authors, researchers, schools, Government agencies, students, and the 
public. 

ADVISORY BOARD 


A meeting of the Advisory Board was held on March 21, 1962, with 
all members present. Among the actions taken by the Board were 


121 


122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


the following: Approval of the appointment of Alfred V. Verville as 
an honorary fellow of the National Air Museum; approval of the 
inauguration of a series of publications called “Smithsonian Annals 
of Flight”; and approval of the preliminary floor arrangement and 
interior concept of the proposed new National Air Museum Building, 
planning funds for the building to be included in the 1964 budget. 


SPECIAL EVENTS 


Many distinguished visitors came to the Museum during the year. 
Among these were U.S. Astronauts Shepard, Glenn, and Grissom 
and Soviet Union Cosmonaut Titov. 

Among the special presentation and commemorative ceremonies held 
were: The Polaris rocket, presented by the Honorable Paul B. Fay, 
Jr., Under Secretary of the Navy; “Freedom 7,” presented by the 
Honorable James E. Webb, NASA Administrator; “Sacred Cow,” 
presented by Maj. Gen. Brooke E. Allen, U.S. Air Force; Whittle 
Engine Anniversary Commemoration, with his Excellency Sir David 
Ormsby Gore, British Ambassador; reproduction of the A-~1, the 
Navy’s first airplane, by Adm. James S. Russell, U.S. Navy; “Boedy’s 
Album,” a collection of some 12,000 autographed photographs of 
people in aviation, by Kenneth Boedecker ; portrait of Amelia Earhart, 
by Blanche Noyes, Zonta Club of Washington. 

The director attended a number of the annual meetings of aviation, 
aerospace, and educational organizations and societies. He also visited 
a number of Air Force and Navy bases, NASA centers, and major 
contractors of these agencies in the aerospace flight program. He 
spoke frequently on these visits, emphasizing the importance of the 
proper preservation and recording of the space flight history currently 
being made. This has resulted in an increased flow of historical 
material and information to the museum. 

Paul E. Garber, head curator and historian, and Curators Louis S. 
Casey and Kenneth E. Newland represented the Museum at a number 
of aviation and aerospace meetings during the year and spoke on the 
work of the Museum. Mr. Garber delivered 42 lectures. 


IMPROVEMENTS IN EXHIBITS 


Continued experiments with means and methods of display in the 
Air and Space Building provide valuable experience in planning the 
exhibits for the new building. 


REPAIR, PRESERVATION, AND RESTORATION 


The acquisition of surplus machines, parts, and tools for the pres- 
ervation and restoration division at Silver Hill, Md., has improved 
this facility. Storage, restoration, preservation, and the preparation 
of aircraft and engines for display are full-time activities of the staff. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 123 


ASSISTANCE TO GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS 


The Museum continued its service to various Government depart- 
ments during the year. Included were the Federal Aviation Agency, 
NASA, Library of Congress, Department of Justice, U.S. Navy, and 
U.S. Air Force. 


REFERENCE MATERIAL AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


The library, reference files, and photographic files of the Museum 
have been greatly enriched during the year with new materials. These 
are very valuable to staff and visitor researchers in providing informa- 
tion, authenticating historical data. 

The cooperation of the following persons and organizations in pro- 
viding this material is sincerely appreciated and acknowledged: 


ACADEMY OF AERONAUTICS, INC., Flushing, N.Y.: Six boxes of periodicals. 

AIRCRAFT OWNERS AND Pinots ASSOCIATION, J. B. HARTRANFT, JR., Bethesda, Md.: 
Two cabinets each with 20 drawers for IBM ecard files; 37 of the drawers have 
IBM ecards filed by aircraft registration numbers. 

ALTHIN, Dr. Torsten, Stockholm, Sweden: Book titled “Moderna Luftfartyg,” 
in Swedish and published in 1910. 

ARMSTRONG, ROBERT, AIRCRAFT OWNERS AND PILoTs AssocraTION, Bethesda, Md.: 
AOP’s Yellow Guide to Aircraft Listings. 

ATWELL, LT. Compr. Rosert B., USN, Norfolk, Va.: An aeronautical map of the 
United States, Canada, Cuba, and Mexico, made by James T. Igoe Co., copy- 
right 1930. 

AzBeE, Victor J., AzBE Corp., St. Louis, Mo.: Original letter written by Major 
Parseval ; photograph of Major Parseval. 

BEAtrD, HENRY G., JR., SWISS AMERICAN AVIATION CorpP., St. Gallen, Switzerland : 
Photos of SAAC-23\%4) scale model; three-view and longitudinal drawings; 
preliminary specifications list. 

BERLINER, Cot. HENRY, Washington, D.C.: Photograph of Emile Berliner, two 
scrapbooks. 

BRAND, HARRISON, JR., AEROSPACE INDUSTRIES ASSOCIATION, Washington, D.C.: 
Three books, “American Heroes of the War in the Air,” by Howard Mingos 
and inscribed by the author; “The Birth of an Air Industry”; “Air Power for 
Peace.” 

Bryant, Mag. Rosert L., USAF, Drrecror, Atk Force Museum, Wright-Patterson 
AFB, Ohio: Approximately 1,500 linear feet of documents on foreign aircraft ; 
photos and drawings on commercial aircraft and others on the theory, history, 
and development of aviation. 

CocHran, Miss JACQUELINE, Washington, D.C.: A dossier requesting the homolo- 
gation of two world records by Alan B. Shepard in “Freedom 7.” 

CooKE, Davin C., Valley Stream, N.Y.: Books, “Racing Planes That Made His- 
tory”; “Flights That Made History”; “Jet and Rocket Planes That Made 
History”—all by David C. Cooke. 

Day, Curtiss L., Elkhart, Ind.: 25 Photographs of early planes and flyers. 
Cirea 1910-11. 

Dopp, Mrap & Co. Inc., New York, N.Y.: A book, “Wonders of Flight,” by 
Robert Wells. 

DoouittLe, Lr. GEN. JAMES H., Redondo Beach, Calif.: 36 black and white aerial 
photos, unmounted; 4 mounted black and white aerial photos; 2 mounted 


124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


color aerial photos; 1 print, “The First Carriage, The Ariel”; 1 drawing, 
“Tut-ankh-amen’s Battleplane”’; 1 drawing color, “British Schneider Trophy 
Team, 1929”; 2 sets of photographs of J. H. Doolittle tablecloth, 6 photographs 
to a set. 

Drain, Capt. NicHotas A. USN (Ret.), Ventura, Calif.: Original patent for 
low-drag, metal aircraft rivet joint. 

Driaes, IVAN H., Washington, D.C.: Assorted photographs, Mr. Driggs’ proof copy 
of article written by Mr. Driggs and Mr. Lancaster on “Gas Turbines for 
Aircraft.” Brochure on Luscome Airplane Development Corp., newspaper 
clippings. 

EnGstrum, Pau, Arlington, Va.: Pamphlet, photograph, and clippings illus- 
trating and describing the Slate all-metal dirigible airship SMD-100, pro- 
posed as a cargo-handling long-range versatile vehicle especially for airlifting 
parts of space vehicles. One large mounted photograph of the Slate airship 
of 1928; one photograph of proposed Slate airship; two copies of article from 
“Aeronautical World” for September 1928 describing Slate airship. 

Hvans, A. W., McDoNNELL AIRCRAFT CorpP., St. Louis, Mo.: Twelve 11’’ x 14’’ 
color photographs of F4H—1 aircraft. 

FAIRBANK, Murry N., Belmont, Mass.: 5 paintings of early aircraft; 3 photos 
of Burgess airplanes; 4 photos of Harvard-Boston Meet, 1911; 6 Burgess Aero- 
plane brochures; 1 folder containing newspaper clippings and magazine 
articles; 1 folder of transcripts from G. 8. Curtiss diaries and interviews; 
18 blueprints, pencil drawings, and an original tracing of Burgess Navy Hyro- 
aeroplane, Twin Float, March 1919. 

FLIEDNER, C. S., Chevy Chase, Md.: About 14 file cases of books, photographs, 
and other material. 

FRANK, Mag. Gren. W. H., Washington, D.C.: Hight photograph albums, 
historical set of aeronautical photographs, 1906-17. 

FRIEDMAN, MITCHELL, Belleville, N.J.: Cross-section view of a Warner “Scarab” 
engine. General information about the Lambert R-266 air-cooled radial 
engine. General information plus a picture and a drawing of the Wright- 
Hispano 8-eylinder V-type water-cooled engine. The Waco Model “EF” airplane 
booklet. 21 tracings of models A, BH, I, and H Hispano-Suiza engines. 

FRITSscHeE, Cart B., Alexandria, Va.: Pamphlets, “The Metalclad Airship,” “Some 
Economie Aspects of the Rigid Airship,’ all by Carl B. Fritsche; book, “The 
Metalclad Airship ZMC-2.” 

GILLESPIE, GEORGE M., Miami, Fla. : Copy of poem “Prayer Becomes Our Shepard’s 
Rainbow” written by George M. Gillespie. Copy of letter from Commander 
Shepard to Mr. Gillespie. 

GLovER, GEORGE, Northwood, Mass.: Book, “Huropean Sporting Activities Amster- 
dam-Cologne,” by Kiesel & Hulek. 

Gorr, Cou. BE. A., Edgewater, Md.: Book, “First Transcontinental Flight,” by 
Charles 8. Wiggin. 

Gray, Capt. A. A.,. USNR, McLean, Va.: Photocopies of following: one certificate, 
attesting to crossing by air of international date line; one photo, 7’’ x 5’’, 
of crew who made first commercial flight to Suva, Fiji Island, photographed 
with Fiji chiefs; one framed photo, 8’’ x 10’’, of the S-42 arriving at Diamond 
Head, Hawaii, on first flight, April 7, 1985; one postcard, 514’’ x 314’’, Cali- 
fornia Clipper at Cavite, P.I.; one photo, 5’’ x 7’’ Boeing 314 at Honolulu, 
February 1939; one photo 91%4’’ x 7’’, China Clipper leaving San Francisco; 
one framed photo, 8’’ x 10’’, of Capt. Ed Musick. 

HartLow, Max B., Pasadena, Calif.: Brochure and 3-view drawing on the Atlas 
Model H-10 airplane; brochure, photograph, and 3-view drawing of the 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 125 


Harlow PJC-2 airplane; photograph and two 3-view drawings of the Harlow 
PC-5 airplane. 

HAtTcH, DENISON, Franklin Watts, Inc., New York, N.Y.: Book, ‘Early Air 
Pioneers, 1862-1935,” by Maj. James F. Sunderman. 

HENRY ForpD MuseuM, Dearborn, Mich.: 8’’ x 10’’ photograph showing left front 
view of Packard diesel-powered Stinson ‘Detroiter’ Model SM-1B. On the 
side of the fuselage are painted the words, “This airplane powered with 
original Packard diesel aircraft engine made world’s first diesel powered 
flight, September 19, 1928.” 

HigHAM, Dr. Rosin, Chapel Hill, N.C.: Book, ‘Rolls-Royce Dart Aero-Engine 
Maintenance Manual.” 

Hinson, Mr. AND Mrs. JouHn A., New York, N.Y.: Insurance policy issued to 
Harry Houdini in 1909 for his aeroplane; photo of aeroplane (Farman). 

IrvIN, Lestie L.: Newspaper clippings, magazine articles, Parachute Manual 
by Engineering Division Air Service. 

JENSEN, VOLMER, Volmer Aircraft, Burbank, Calif.: Three-view drawing of the 
VJ-22 airplane. 

KERLEY, Ropert V., Ethyl Corp., Detroit, Mich.: Book, ‘History of the Aircraft 
Piston Engine,” by S. D. Heron, subtitle, “A Brief Outline,’ preface by Lt. 
Gen. James H. Doolittle, USAF, published by the Ethyl Corp., Research and 
Development Department. 

Korn, EpwarpD A., Hast Orange, N.J.: Two 8’’ x 10’’ photographs of Mr. Korn. 

LARKINS, WILLIAM T., Concord, Calif.: Book, “U.S. Navy Aircraft 1921-1941,” 
by William T. Larkins. 

LivpIncort, Harvey H., Connecticut Historical Society, Hartford, Conn.: Cross 
section drawing of Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Hngine No. 1 Wasp Model A. 

LARSEN, Doueias, A., General Dynamics Corp., Washington, D.C.: Book, 
“Dynamic America.” 

Lirxis, Leon G., Los Angeles, Calif.: Book, ‘The 541st Bomb Squadron.” 

MAOKENzIE£, Roy JAy, Cranston, R.I.: Texaco house organ, vol. 24, No. 2, “The 
Texaco Star Aviation Number”; Rhode Island Review, vol. 1, No. 3; 17 avia- 
tion photographs. 

Masstn, ALEx, Ontario, Canada: 6 magazines, 21 commemorative envelopes. 

McDOoNNELL, AIRCRAFT Corp., St. Louis, Mo: Three copies of “Report No. 8422, 
October 9, 1961; Freedom 7, May 5, 1961’; a 67-page illustrated report of the 
capsule used in the first Mercury manned space flight and the renovations made 
to it prior to its being placed in the National Air Museum; line drawings, col- 
ored charts, picture of “Freedom 7” on cover, size 11%’’ x 8%4’’. 

McGowAN, JOHN, FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, Philadelphia, Pa.: Microfilm of Wright 
Brothers material containing a series of laboratory notebooks, data sheets, 
notes on various wind tunnel tests, sketches and original drawings of the 
1903, 1904, 1905, 1907, and 1910 biplanes. 

MEANS, Dr. J. H., Boston, Mass.: Three books edited by James Means: “The 
Aeronautical Annual 1897,” No. 3; “The Aeronautical Annual 1895,” No. 1; 
“Epitome of the Aeronautical Annual 1910.” 

Meyer, Roser B., Jr., Potomac, Md.: Nine 5-view drawings by E. F. Schmidt. 

MiKkesuH, Cart. Rosert C., USAF, Washington, D.C.: One 8’’ x 10’’ photo, one 
4’’ x 5’’ transparency, one sheet of operational history of the C-54 “Sacred 
Cow.” 

Mo son, K. M., NATIONAL AVIATION MusEuM, Ottawa, Canada: Transcript of the 
clippings from J. A. 8. McCurdy scrapbook. 

Moopy, Jay H., Oklahoma City, Okla.: Book, “Aircraft and Engine Code Book.” 

MorEHOUSE, Harotp #., Williamsport, Pa.: 44 illustrated biographies which 
appeared in various issues of the ‘American Aviation Historical Society 


126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Journal”; two copies of biography of his life; one copy of description of the 
Kettering Aeriai Torpedo (1917-18) titled “The Dayton-Wright World War 
I ‘Bug’ Story,’ and a photograph of himself; eight 3’’ x 4’’ photographs of 
persons connected with the Kettering “Bug” Aerial Torpedo project of World 
War I and one 5’’ x 7’’ photograph of the type of “Bug” constructed during 
the 1930's. 

Movurry, RIcHARD D., KAMAN AtrcraArr Corp., Bloomfield, Conn.: Eleven 8’’ x 
10’’ photographs of Kaman helicopters. 

MoYERMAN, SAMUEL, Philadelphia, Pa.: 15 pilots’ logbooks covering period 1917- 
39. 

NAvy, DEPARTMENT OF THE, BUREAU OF AERONAUTICS LiprRARy, Washington, D.C.: 
83 volumes of aviation books. 

NAvy, DEPARTMENT OF THE, NAVAL PHOTOGRAPHIC CENTER, Washington, D.C.: 
Five 16-mm movie films, MN-1539Z—“K”’ Type Airship Take-off Operation; 
MN-15389A A—“K” Type Airship, L.T.A. Landings; MN-2722A—History of 
Balloons; MN-61385—Lighter Than Air Training; MN-6830—The Airship 
Fundamental Principles and Operation. 

Navy, DEPARTMENT OF THE, DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL PROJECTS, Washington, D.C.: 
Book, “Polaris.” 

NAvy, DEPARTMENT OF THE, BUREAU OF WEAPONS, Washington, D.C.: One volume 
entitled “Seaplane and Flying Boats—Line and Test Data for Early Aero- 
nautical Models, 1336 to 2234.” 

NATIONAL AVIATION Museum, Ottawa, Canada: Five 5’’ x 7’’ photographs of 
Curtiss Model L airplane engine of 1910-11. 

PETERSON, JOHN J., NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION, Langley 
AFB, Va.: Booklet, “Results of the First U.S. Manned Suborbital Space 
Flight.” 

POBEREZNY, PAUL H., HXPERIMENTAL ATRCRAFT ASSOCIATION, Hales Corners, Wis. : 
A set of Health Parasol drawings, 14 sheets; set of EAA Biplane drawings, 
15 sheets. 

PFEIFER, JOE, Porterville, Calif.: Framed photograph. 

RAMSEY, Mrs. DeWirt C., Washington, D.C.: A collection of 149 books from 
Admiral DeWitt C. Ramsey. 

REYNOLDS, Bruce, Santa Barbara, Calif.: Hight 5’’ x 7’’ photographs, two 
314’’ x 6’’ photographs, one 4’’ x 6’’ photographs, 19 8’’ x 10’’ photographs 
from Frank Bryant. 

Ringe, GRanT A., UNITED ArRcRAFT Corp., Hast Hartford, Conn.: 9 annual reports 
and 8 pieces of literature dealing with company growth. 

Scearce, W. R., Caprran AIRLINES, Washington, D.C.: Airline schedules and 
chronological history of Capital Airlines Service; 17 8’’ x 10’’ photographs; 
book, “Biography of a Pioneer.” 

ScHOENE, ARTHUR L., CHANCE VouGuHT Corp., Dallas, Tex.: 26 8’’ x 10’’ photo- 
graphs of the “V” type Vought aircraft. 

SHaw, W. H., QAnTAsS ArtRLINE, London, England: Research report on Lawrence 
Hargrave, “The Aeronautical Work of Lawrence Hargrave (1850-1915).” 
Scoenr, R., CHANCE VoucuHtT ATRcrAFT, Dallas, Tex.: 41 8’’ x 10’’ photos; 1 
genealogy chart; 1 Corsair Outline F4U; 1 reprint of the “Flying Pancake” 
from Air Pictorial, February 1959; 1 chronological history of Corsair; 1 
biography of Chance Milton Vought; 1 historical Data Production Airplanes 
made by Chance Vought Aircraft; 1 list of Chance Vought “Firsts”; 1 his- 

torical sketch on F4U ; 1 reprint from Naval Aviation News, March 1957. 

SPEIZMAN, WILLIAM J., Silver Spring, Md.: Book, “Instructions for the Care 

and Operation of Model A-I and E Hispano-Suiza Aeronautical Engines.” 


SECRETARY’S REPORT P74 


SrerTror, THOMAS E., Estate or, Fontana, Calif.: Two albums; one airmail 
and one Harly Birds; one file folder on Harly Birds. 

Stirs, RayMonpD, Riverside, Calif.: SA-7D “Skycoupe,” 30 sheets, 1 photo; SA- 
8B “Playboy,” 12 sheets, 7 photos; SA-3A “Playboy,” 12 sheets, 6 photos, SA-— 
6B, “Flut-R-Bug,” 18 sheets, 5 photos; 7 8’’ x 10’’ photos, 1 general arrange- 
ment of Stits aircraft, Model SA-9A plan. 

Sruper, Mrs. Ciara, West Medford, Mass.: A recorded tape, pastel portrait, 
photographs, copies of letters, news clippings, and other texts pertaining to 
Amelia Earhart; two texts relative to airmail history and philately. 

TILLMAN, RAy, Mercury ArrcraFrt, INc., Hammondsport, N.Y.: Duplicate and 
copies of Howard Shaver collection of air-mail photographs. 

Truck, Lr. Compr. W. J., Science Museum, London, England: Two sets of 2 
true-to-scale prints of the full-size and half-scale drawings of the W.1.A. 
engine. 

UHL, Cuartes C.: A folder of newspaper clippings on Carl Ben Eielson. 

VERVILLE, ALFRED V., San Diego, Calif.: Blueprint of Curtiss TS-1, one sheet, 
plan view only, scale 114’’ to the foot, made by the Navy Department, Bureau 
of Construction and Repair. 

Von MeEtsterR, F. W., MAysacH Motor Co., New York, N.Y.: 13 original photos 
of the LZ-127 Graf Zeppelin. 

WATERMAN, WALDO D., San Diego, Calif.: 1 file folder of biographical and Early 
Bird material: 21 blueprints of Waterman W—4 airplane; 13 original tracings; 
1 set of erection drawings for JN4D; 19 miscellaneous photos of W—4 airplane; 
1 wire bracing diagram of JN4D from Payne Field. 

WERTHEIM ADVERTISING ASSOCIATION, New York, N.Y.: Print, black and white, 
816’ x 11’’, titled “Emanuel Swedenborg,” showing that Swedish philosopher 
seated and holding a quill pen in act of writing. 

WIEGMAN, C. H., Lycomine Divison or Avco MANUFACTURING CorpP., Williams- 
port, Pa.: Test of Diesel Power, Inc., diesel conversion of the Lycoming 
0-290-1 engine (December 1948). 

WricHt, Dr. THEODORE P., Ithaca, N.Y.: 3-volume set of articles and addresses 
of Dr. Wright. 

ZONTA INTERNATIONAL, Chicago, Ill.: A poster, reprint of biographical article, 
and a copy of “The Zontian,” describing the Amelia Earhart scholarships 
established by this organization of executive and professional women. 


ACCESSIONS 


Additions to the National Aeronautical and Space collections re- 
ceived and recorded during the fiscal year 1962 totaled 137 specimens 
in 81 separate accessions, as listed below. Those from Government 
departments are entered as transfers unless otherwise indicated ; others 
were received as gifts or loans. 


Axsgort, Dr. Ira H., Washington, D.C.: Oil portrait of Dr. Joseph S. Ames. 
(N.A.M. 1294.) 

Arr Force, DEPARTMENT OF THE, BottIne Arr Force Base, Washington, D.C.: 
Air Force Douglas C—54 “Sacred Cow,” Presidential aircraft (N.A.M. 1285). 

Arr Force Museum, Dayton, Ohio: Group of six aerial cameras; four 
American, one German, and one Japanese (N.A.M. 1809) ; North American 
F-86A Fighter aircraft (N.A.M. 1296). 

Avco MANUFACTURING CorpP., Lycomine Division, Stratford, Conn.: T-53-L-1, 
Shaft-turbine helicopter engine. (N.A.M. 1826.) 


128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Brece Argcorarr Core., Wichita, Kans.: Models of the Beech 65 and L-238D air- 
craft. (N.A.M. 1265.) 

BeLLtanca, Mrs. GiuserPi, Galena, Md.: Bellanca CF airplane and an Anzani 
3-cylinder aircooled radial engine. (N.A.M. 1259.) 

BiopGert, CHarLtes L.: Sample of RPI rocket fuel taken from Thor missile 
just before launch of first Pioneer space probe. (N.A.M. 1295.) 

Boyp, G. N., Brielle, N.J.: A 6-cylinder 1911 Kirkham aircraft engine which was 
used to fiy at least 5 different airplanes in 1911 and 1912. (N.A.M. 1282.) 
BuRNELLI, V. J., Washington, D.C.: Wind-tunnel model of Burnelli Loadmaster, 

1:12 size. (N.A.M. 13812.) 

Capy, Dr. GroraE, Seattle, Wash.: Tube of helium from Navy’s first helium- 
filled airship and one tube of gas from well in Kansas where helium was dis- 
covered in 1905. (N.A.M. 1311.) 

CHENNAULT, Mrs. CLAIRE, Washington, D.C.: Oil portrait of Gen. Claire Chen- 
nault painted by Y. T. Lin of Taipei, Taiwan. (N.A.M. 1297.) 

Corryn, Mrs. FraNK T., Palo Alto, Calif.: Pilot’s license No. 26 issued by 
Aero Club of America to Frank T. Coffyn and Helicopter certificate No. 3. 
(N.A.M. 1329.) 

Cote, Marcu G., Merrimac, Mass.: Stock certificates and circulars issued by 
Aerial Navigation Co. in 1851. (N.A.M. 1269.) 

CRAUN, Bernarp, Arlington, Va.: Radio receiving set for use in aircraft during 
WW-I, complete with leather helmet and built-in headset. (N.A.M. 1517.) 

CRELLY, Mr. AND Mrs. H. J., College Park, Md.: Two Wright airplane wheels, 
one Paragon propeller, and one book of airmail covers—all associated with the 
donor’s personal acquaintance with early aviation history at the College Park 
airfield. (N.A.M. 13806.) 

Custer, W. R., Hagerstown, Md.: Prototype of the Custer Channel-wing aircraft. 
(N.A.M. 1261.) 

Driccs, Mrs. Ivan, Washington, D.C.: Model of Driggs Dart and computer. 
(N.A.M. 13828.) 

DITTENBERGER, RicHaRD, Parma, Ohio: Model of the Lockheed U-2 Recon- 
naissance aircraft. (N.A.M. 1293.) 

Harty Birvs, Tue, Fairfield, Conn.: Bronze plaque commemorating Glenn 
Curtiss first solo (N.A.M. 1333) ; bronze plaque containing the names of all 
members, past and present, of the donating organization (N.A.M. 1822). 

Ecxer, Herman A., Fort Lauderdale, Fla.: Curtiss-type flying boat built and 
flown by donor. (N.A.M. 1818.) 

Finierr, Bernarp P., Baltimore, Md.: Pastel portrait of Charles A. Lindbergh 
painted in 1956 by Rosemary Mahoney. (N.A.M. 13802.) 

FLamMMeER, Capt. Pump M., Colorado Springs, Colo.: Helmet which was taken 
from dead body of Raoul Lufbery after his tragic death in combat in WW-I. 
(N.A.M. 1267.) 

FLeet, Mas. Reosen H., San Diego, Calif.: Scale model of Consolidated NY-2 
as flown by James Doolittle in his famous “under the hood” blind flight, Sept. 
29, 1929. (N.A.M. 1307.) 

FRANKEL, ARTHUR G., Little Rock, Ark.: Letter and envelope sent to donor on 
first air mail, May 15,1918. (N.A.M. 1320.) 

GAFFNEY, JAMES F., Cleveland, Ohio: Scale model of the Japanese Army “Nick,” 
Kawasaki two-place twin-engined long-range day and night fighter, used in 
WW-II. (N.A.M. 13832.) 

GmNERAL DyNAMIcS CorpP., Washington, D.C.: One scale model of a Convair 
Atlas-E satellite launching vehicle. (N.A.M. 1330.) 

GENERAL Morors, ALLISON Division, Indianapolis, Ind.: Cutaway specimen of 
the Allison 501 Turboprop engine mounted for display (N.A.M. 1303) ; OLpDs- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 129 


MOBILE Division, Lansing, Mich.: Rotor assembly for the J 65-B-3 Sap- 
phire turbojet engine. (N.A.M. 1283.) 

GueEIcK, J. T., Morton Grove, ill.: Stabilizer brace wire fitting whose failure 
caused termination of world endurance flight of Jackson and O’Brine in 1929. 
(N.A.M. 1824.) 

GROENHOFF, Hans, Miami Beach, Fla.: Purchase of photo negative collection. 
(N.A.M. 1300.) 

GRUMMAN AzrrcRAFT Co., Bethpage, N.Y.: Models of Grumman Aircraft F—11-F, 
WH-2, and S2F-1. (N.A.M. 1316.) 

Harianpek, A. C., Oakland, Calif.: WW-I memorabilia including navigation 
chart, fur-lined goggles, carrier pigeon message capsule, Very signal pistol, and 
two rolls of aerial gunnery film. (N.A.M. 1281.) 

Hartwick, Hersert D., La Crescenta, Calif.: Model of Ford 4AT-B Trimotor 
(purchase). (N.A.M. 1315.) 

Haywarp, JOHN B., Washington, D.C.: Original letter written by Orville 
Wright to Otto T. Mallery, Nov. 9, 1933. (N.A.M. 1289.) 

Hern, ARNotD: Skeletonized model of the Fokker D VII World War I single 
seat fighter. (N.A.M. 1292.) 

Huu, C. R., Grafton, Ohio: Carburetor for Curtis OX-5 engine. (N.A.M. 1286.) 

Hock, CuHartes F., Allentown, Pa.: Falcon propeller used on early Navy 
trainers. (N.A.M. 13804.) 

Jacogs, Mrs. Rutu A., Dayton, Ohio: Early 4cylinder Wright Brothers en- 
gine. (N.A.M. 1273.) 

JET PROPULSION LABORATORY, Pasadena, Calif.: Instrument duplicates of the 
Pioneer IV, Lunar Space Probe, and the Explorer I, America’s first satellite 
(N.A.M. 1262) ; fully instrumented flight-spares of the satellite Explorer I. 
(N.A.M. 1271.) 

Kerrwoop, Cot. CHARLES, Washington, D.C.: Trophy of the Ligue Internationale 
des Aviateurs, founded in 1926 by Col. Clifford Burke Harmon, pioneer Ameri- 
can balloonist and aviator. (N.A.M. 1287.) 

Marr, Capt. GIFFEN A., Fort Leonard Wood, Mo.: Three flight instruments re- 
covered from the B—24 Bomber “Lady Be Good” after 16 years. (N.A.M. 1270.) 

MARTIN-MARIETTA Corp., Baltimore, Md.: Models of Martin aircraft and experi- 
mental projected aircraft of the Martin Co. (N.A.M. 1299.) 

McKnew, Dr. THomAS W., Washington, D.C.: The General Thomas D. White 
Air Force Space Trophy. (N.A.M. 1280.) 

Meyer, Corp, New York, N.Y.: Portion of side fuselage fabric from the DH-4, 
the first American-built DH to see combat in WW-I. (N.A.M. 1284.) 

Moort, Mas. GEOFFREY, Bath, England: WW-I Anti-zeppelin explosive dart. 
(N.A.M. 1274.) 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION, Washington, D.C.: “Free- 
dom 7” Mercury Spacecraft which carried Alan Shepard on U.S. First Space 
Flight and an astronaut space suit. (N.A.M. 1264.) 

NAsH, Miss CAroLtyn, Washington, D.C.: Fragment of a parachute reported to 
be associated with the 1925 expedition of Roald Amundsen and his compan- 
ions who endeavored to fly to the North Pole in two Dornier flying boats, 
departing Spitzbergen May 21,1925. (N.A.M. 1334.) 

NATIONAL HisTorRIcCAL WAx MusruM, Washington, D.C.: Plastic display head 
of Comdr. Alan B. Shepard made to fit into the Space Helmet and Suit to be 
displayed with the “Freedom 7” Mercury Capsule. (N.A.M. 1266.) 

Navy, DEPARTMENT OF THE, Washington, D.C.: Polaris, the Nation’s first large 
solid propellant ballistic missile, and the first designed to be fired by ships 
at sea. (N.A.M. 1260.) Navan AcapeMy, Annapolis, Md.: Engine from 


130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Japanese Ota kamikaze attack plane. (N.A.M. 1277.) NAvan RESEARCH 
Lagoratory, Washington, D.C.: 16-mm. movie camera which took pictures of 
the earth from 100 miles altitude in 1954; also a copy of the film and a mosaic 
picture, using 180 frames from the film. (N.A.M. 1276.) Bureau or WEAPONS, 
Washington, D.C.: Full-size replica of Curtiss A-1, the Navy’s first aircraft 
(N.A.M. 1275) ; Mitsubishi Airplane, A6M5 “Zero” (N.A.M. 13805.) U.S. MARInE 
Corps, Quantico, Va.: Ordnance materiel for installation on Museum speci- 
mens. (N.A.M. 1263.) 

NEUMANN, CHARLES L., Tulsa, Okla.: A complete Mark I Sperry Automatic 
Direction Finder unit, one of the first to be used by the airlines in the 1930’s. 
(N.A.M. 1298.) 

NEvIN, Rosert S., Denver, Colo.: Scale model of the Curtiss twin-tractor flying 
boat of 1912 (purchase). (N.A.M. 1201.) 

PARSONS, Rear ApM. Hpwin C., Osprey, Fla.: Fragment of first American flag 
to be flown over German lines on day America entered WW-I. (N.A.M. 1278.) 

PIONIERI DELL ’AERONAUTIOA, Rome, Italy: Life-size bronze busts of the pioneer 
Italian flyers Mario Calderara and Umberto Savoia. (N.A.M. 1321.) 

PopuLarR MECHANICS MAGAZINE, CLIFFORD Hicks, Eprror, Chicago, Ill.: 12 water- 
color paintings by Korta, of the “Twelve Most Significant Aircraft of All Time.” 
(N.A.M. 1827.) 

Proctor, Etpert W., Takoma Park, Md.: Pilot’s flight gear used by donor as a 
pilot for National Air Transport in late 1920’s. (N.A.M. 1255.) 

RANDALL, W. D., Jr., Orlando, Fla.: Duplicate of hand-wrought knife carried in 
“Freedom 7” Mercury spacecraft on its famous flight. (N.A.M. 1254.) 

ROcEWELL, Cor. Pau A., Asheville, N.C.: French uniform worn by the donor’s 
brother, Kiffin Rockwell, as a pilot in the WW-I Lafayette Hscadrille, together 
with copies of the eight medals awarded to the deceased. (N.A.M. 1323.) 

Scate Crarr Mopers, Massillon, Ohio: Model of a Curtiss HS2L Flying Boat, 
Ww-l, U.S. Navy patrol craft (purchase). (N.A.M. 1810.) 

Srmpson, Cor. Donatp P., Teheran, Iran: German WW-II Navigation I[it. 
(N.A.M. 1279.) 

Srx, Rosert F., Denver, Colo.: Original watercolor painting entitled ‘Beech 
Aircraft in Flight,” by Alfred Owles. (N.A.M. 1318.) 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, D.C.: Original letter written by Wilbur 
Wright to the Smithsonian on May 30, 1899, requesting available information 
on flight (N.A.M. 1301); flag taken from L-49 German Zeppelin and frag- 
ments of outer and inner bag of craft (N.A.M. 1268). 

SouBIRAN, Mrs. Rosert, Washington, D.C.: Memorabilia of donor’s husband’s 
service in the Lafayette Escadrille. (N.A.M. 1256.) 

Stemp, Mr. AND Mrs. Ronaup F., Annapolis, Md.: Wooden aireraft propeller of 
the middle 1920's presented to donor by Col. A. A. Anderson, a partner in the 
Bellanca Airplane Co. (N.A.M. 1308.) 

SWEDENBORG FOUNDATION, INc., New York, N.Y.: A scale model of the concept 
of an aircraft by Emanuel Swedenborg, Swedish philosopher, engineer, and 
theologian who conceived this aircraft about 1714. (N.A.M. 1290.) 

THENAULT, Mme. Groraes, Paris, France: Two-volume diaries “Journal des 
Marches et Operations” kept by Capt. Georges Thenault, the French Com- 
mander of the Lafayette Escadrille. (N.A.M. 1272.) 

Tracy, DAnrEeL, Lakewood, Ohio: Model of Curtiss R-1 Pulitzer Prize winner of 
1921 aircraft (purchase) (N.A.M. 1257) ; scale model of the French Nieuport- 
Delage—29 airplane, the final winner of the James Gordon Bennett Trophy, 
1920 (purchase) (N.A.M. 13381). 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 130 


Unitep Arrcorarr Corp., Hartford, Conn.: The Igor Sikorsky International 
Trophy awarded for outstanding achievement in the helicopter field (N.A.M. 
1325). Prarr & WHITNEY Division : Two-throw crankshaft for Pratt & Whit- 
ney R—2800 engine (N.A.M. 1258). 

Unitep AIRLINES, Chicago, Il.: Models of Douglas DC-6, DC-7 and Boeing 
Stratocruiser 277. (N.A.M. 1814.) 


Weems, Capt. P. B. H., Annapolis, Md.: A Japanese cargo WW-II parachute. 
(N.A.M. 1288.) 


ZONTA CLUB OF WASHINGTON, Washington, D.C.: Oil painting of Amelia Harhart 
by Arthur Laronda. (N.A.M. 1319.) 
Respectfully submitted. 
Puiuie 8. Horxins, Director. 
Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the National Zoological Park 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- 
ties of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ended June 30, 


1962: 
BIRTHS 


The major zoological event at the National Zoological Park during 
the past year was the birth of a male lowland gorilla on September 9, 
1961. The parents, Nikumba and Moka, were brought from French 
Equatorial Africa (now Congo) by the Arundel Expedition in Feb- 
ruary 1955; at that time their age was estimated to be 18 months for 
the male and 20 months for the female. During the last weeks of the 
9-month pregnancy an hourly check was made on the gorilla cage, but 
the actual birth was not observed. The baby was discovered by a night 
keeper at 6:58 am. As Moka showed no maternal interest in her 
infant, it was removed from the cage and taken to the home of Bernard 
Gallagher, supervisory keeper of great apes, where Mrs. Gallagher 
reared it along with a 5-month-old chimpanzee. On April 24, after 
more than 7 months with the Gallaghers, Tomoka and his chimpanzee 
companion, Lulu, were brought to the Zoo and put on exhibition 
April 24. 

Radio Station WAVA, Arlington, Va., owned by Arthur Arundel, 
who had originally escorted Nikumba and Moka from Brazzaville to 
Washington, held a contest to select a name for the baby, and the nam- 
ing ceremony was broadcast on April 24. 

Tomoka is the second gorilla born in captivity in the United States 
and the fourth bred, born, and raised in captivity in the world. Com- 
paring the development of this gorilla with the statistics available of 
those born elsewhere (Columbus, Ohio, and Basel, Switzerland), the 
most outstanding difference appears to be the early date at which 
upper and lower incisors erupted. In Goma, the female gorilla reared 
in the home by Dr. Lang in Basel, under similar conditions to ours, the 
first breakthrough of the incisors was observed at the age of 2 months, 
and at the age of 6 months four lower and two upper incisors were 
reported. As indicated in the accompanying table, Tomoka’s lower 
median left incisor broke through on October 3, 25 days after birth, 
and the lower median right on October 5, 27 days after birth. Both 
median upper incisions were showing 35 days after birth, and at the 
end of 66 days all eight incisors had erupted. 


132 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 133 


ERUPTION OF DECIDUOUS TEETH 


[in days] 

Average 

chimpanzee*_-___—- 308 126 122° 110 Mazilla 
Average human*____-_ 839 486 SIG Pare 
Goma ese enone 68} 74 
MoMOKa ss) see ee bzdsye ileal 61 51) 55 61 ie valiz(s5 

mM, PMz pm; C ie iy i ab © pm; pm, m, 

DROMO kao as ae 183 145 68 25) 27 79 141 183 
Gomes eae 2 os ae 907 G0} 559) 90 
Average human*____- 787 492 395 222 
Average 

chimpanzee*_..___- 247 150 124 95 Mandibula 


*Ref: E. Boyd, L. B. Higley, E. H. Hixon, V. O. Hurme, M. Massler, H. V. Meredith, A. H, Riesen, 
A. H. Schultz (Zurich). 


Tomoka’s weight curve appears to ascend a little more rapidly than 
that of Goma, while Tomoka’s growth curve levels off at an earlier 
date than Goma’s. 

iixcept for an early rhinal and bronchial cold and occasional diar- 
rheas, mostly during dentition periods, no major upsets occurred in 
Tomoka’s early life, and the baby at present gives all indications of 
being sound, healthy, and both mentally and physically well developed. 
Special mention should be made of the ceaseless effort of Mrs. Louise 
Gallagher, who proved to be an extremely reliable, conscientious, and 
dedicated foster mother. 

Among other important births at the Zoo was that of an F2 Dorcas 
gazelle fawn, as well as a male fawn from the mother originally 
donated by President Bourguiba of Tunisia in 1960, bringing the num- 
ber of this little herd up to five. 

The birth of a male ring-tailed lemur (Zemur catta) on April 21, 
1962, appears to be the first in this country since 1914 when the Phila- 
delphia Zoo recorded a Lemur catta born, but did not note whether it 
was bred in captivity. 

For the first time in this Zoo, lesser pandas were born—twins, a male 
and a female, on June 20. They were approximately 4 inches long, 
weighed about 4 ounces, and were nursed by the mother. 

The Australian kookaburra laid a total of six eggs in two clutches, 
and five young were successfully raised. 

The exchange of the old black swan cob for a new one resulted in 
two clutches of eggs, four and six, respectively. Out of the first, one 
cygnet was hatched in the incubator, while in the second clutch all six 
cygnets were hatched and brooded by the mother. 

Following the procedure of previous years, all births and hatchings 
are listed below, whether or not the young were successfully raised. 


134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Average human weight 


soscecoeee Weight of Tomoka 


Growth of Tomoka 


=mcmemem Weight of Goma (Basel) 


Ficure 1.—Growth and weight graph of Tomoka compared with the average human 
weight and the weight of Goma. 


In many instances the record of animals having bred in captivity is of 
importance. 


MAMMALS 

Oommon name Scientific name Number 
Australianisugareliders= === aes IPCtOUTUSOREUICED Se eee al 
Ratikancarqo22s.2 522s eee POLOTOUS Sp oe ee Dae eee 2 
Huropeanthed echoes. a2 eae Erinaceous europaeus_________ Lak 4 
PR =a ce) ryt GCMUTACG LL ee ener ee al 
Golagoes 2.2222 =e ee oe ee Galago crassicaudatus_______-___ 1 
IBLOWNICADUCHINe == tes. eet eens CEDUSISD nee ane Seno eeh Cane il 
iBlackispider monkey=s— 02) aa FALCLESHO CON NOY se ee ee 1 
Blacksspider monkeyao === eee VAVECLESMA[ US CLOCD Sa a ee *] 
Pyemyenarm OSetee = ee COecbucla nomic 1 
Je hyo lorena = oe ee Macaca philippinensis Xx UM. il 

irus. 

Barbary ape2s. eee le ee MGCACH SYLUCNUS 3 


*Stillborn. 


Secretary's Report, 1962 PLATE 7 


Tomoka, male lowland gorilla, when 4 days old. National Zoological Park. 


Secretary’s Report 1962 PLATE 8 


Tomoka at 11 months, playing in his cage. National Zoological Park. 


Photograph by T. W. Roth. 


Secretary's Report, 1962 PLATE 9 


1. Baby lesser pandas bred and born in the National Zoological Park. 


Photograph by T. W. Roth. 


edi. 


2. Baby Lemur catta, bred and born in the National Zoological Park, with its mother 


Photograph by T. W. Roth. 


PLATE 10 


Secretary's Report, 1962 


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SECRETARY’S REPORT 


Common name Scientific name Number 
Sootymangabeysase se eee Cercocebus fuliginosus__________ 1 
Ey brideeibboneee eee oe See ee Hylobates agilis X* 4H. lar 1 

pileatus. 
@himpanzeevoste as oe eke ee PANU SOtYTUS Ss. eee ee ee *] 
lowland! orila=s=ane ae aa. GOR CEG OF == ee fl 
Two-toed'slothzo—2) ee ee Choloepus didactylus____._______ sf 
IPPaiT C-0 0 Gee ee eae eee eee ea. Cynomys ludovicianus._________ 5 
iPatagonianicayy= ooo eee Dolichotis patagona____-_-_ 2 
AIM ETwio fee ee ee ee ee ae eee Canis lupus nubilus._— =~ *1 
Capedhuntine( og==2 == eee LEY CROP EDICTUSES Seri a siti iit ae 4 
Korean bear se Sse ees Selenarctos thibetanus ussuricus— 1 
Huropean brown bear-—---_-----—____-. UT8U8 (OR ClOSe ss = ete a a oboe 2 
ELV brid Dear et eee ee Thalarctos maritimus X Ursus *2 
middendorffi. 
Gani zzliya air te ae ea ee CUSUSHROTTIDIL S === ee *1 
Messerapand dasa oe See a Se PAUALTTES BI ULLG G1US en 2 
INeumann’s#gene aaa sa eee Genetta genetia newmannii_____ 2 
Mormosantspoued ichvete as Wivernicularindg(ca==== a ae 1 
AGTICAMIW LCT CVC Ge Atilaw paludinosus______________ 2 
Black COpaATg 2a eee ee JHAQUUGRE WOOT *] 
yaaa nn Ge ee a eee TERE INGRE UBD 4 
Grantisezeb ran ee ee Equus burchelli boehmi________- 2 
Collared’ pecca ry eee PECOMLOT OCU Es = ae eee ee 3 
Nie Rb Ip POO TAT T Saas ene Hippopotamus amphibius_______ ail 
SG) ery ea pe a a a Pe J EGR ARO COUGH EN a 2 
Witenes elo Oa IDX OO) CHUN al 
SASSI SN OC Temata ere ee epee eee ADS ODS Eas wenn te Sela See ee 3 
RYO hn CG VSCy gs Se SE Ee Oh eS et es OGRVNS QIAN DUI 1 
DUE mae Sah aE ak DS yl SB Ld ae A De CeTUUSKCONQUENSISan ee eee il 
Nikard cereee. See beer ee CORUUSHLDD Of aa ee 6 
Mirginiay@cerstos tees ete 2 Odocoileus virginianus__________ 2 
Reindeer: 2 ese oka 2 le Se CON OU CTALORG ILLS 2 2 
IDOTCAS 2 OZell Gis 2 sss os ee GOCCILGmC OT COS== = 2 
AOU ys te i Ammotragus lervia___.__________ *] 
Big-hornedisnee pss ssa eee Ovisicanadensic= = 1 
BIRDS 
Bla ckyS want oe = 2 eR Be ee Chenopi stat. 7 
WOO Cg Oil Chas eee ee ts FAULOESD O18 0 eee ee ere ae 15 
Mallard s de kita ee ee ee Anas platyrhynchos________-___ 25 
Whey ba, Chic Dendronessa galericulata_______ al 
Redeyjunelefowles= os es ele Gols als=——— eee il 
Beato wise 5s ete 5 ee eee ee ee ACU OGTASTCU LS 4 
Indian emerald-winged tree dove______ Chalcophaps indica_-_-________- 1 
Leadbeater’s cockatoo________________ Kakotoe leadbeateri____________ ail 
Crassuiparalkee t-te ee Melopsittacus undulata_________ 2 
Kookalbunray= seen fans ee eee ee TD) OCOLON GU CS a ee ee 6 
REPTILES 
IB Op CUP EGS ee = Pet ih ee ay ST Terrapene caroling_—- 2-222 1 
Painted turtles Sees sae 2 Chinysemys pict se eee ee 4 
VEG lined att] em ee Pseudemys scripta callirostris___ 2 


672-174—63——_10 


L3G ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Common name Scientific name Number 
Vellow-bellicd) tun! eee Pseudemys scripta scripta_____-- 5 
Red-eared’ turtle:2- 222445232 Pseudemys scripta elegans_____- 4 
med-bellied. turtle. ee Pseudemys rubriventris_______-- 2 
Cook’sitree) boas = eee BOGseny ans C002 18 
Hastern garter snakes] Thamnophis sirtalis____________ 30 
HasterneribboOn Sukie sea aes TRAUMNNODIMSNSOUnItUS= === 6 
IBlacksracer==23-= eee ee ee ee Ootuber constrictor 2 24 
Cor snakess eens eee Elaphe obsoleta guttata_____--- 6 
Northern copperhead Ancistrodon contortrig_______--- 8 
Western diamondback rattlesnake____~_ Crotau3st 00 ii 

FISHES 
Hgyptian mouthbreeder_____--________ Haplochromis mutiticolor______-- 30 
GIFTS 


Gifts from foreign dignitaries again enriched the National collec- 
tion. President William V. S. Tubman of Liberia, making an official 
visit to Washington, spent 2 hours in the Zoo on September 13 and 
presented a leopard. President Ibrahim Abboud of Sudan came to 
the Zoo on October 5 and donated four demoiselle cranes and two 
migratory cranes, which were welcome additions to the collection. 

“Ambika,” the Indian elephant which was a gift from the “Share 
Your Birthday Foundation” and the Maharajah of Mysore, came to 
the Zoo on deposit April 14, 1961. After touring the country and 
making appearances at schools and playgrounds, she was formally 
presented to the Zoo on January 5, 1962. A. K. Ray, first secretary 
of the Indian Embassy, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 
and Mrs. Ira J. Heller, president of the Share Your Birthday Foun- 
dation, were all present at the ceremony. 

Tn return for a pygmy hippopotamus, given last year by President 
Tubman of Liberia, the National Zoological Park sent a trio of Amer- 
ican bison to the zoo in Monrovia. The shipment was accompanied 
by Charles Thomas, senior keeper. 

Dr. R. E. Kuntz sent a valuable collection of reptiles (listed below), 
and J. E. Joy, who has sent interesting specimens in the past, gave 
his entire collection of western reptiles. 

Space does not permit listing all gifts received in the course of the 
year, but the following are of special interest : 

Brown, Comdr. L. L., Takoma Park, M4d., hill mynah. 
Browne, Mrs. Elwyn, Seat Pleasant, Md., kinkajou. 
Cline, Martin J., Bethesda, Md., 4 alligators. 

DePrato, Mario, Kensington, Md., coral snake, sand boa. 
Keeard, Elliott, Bethesda, Md., Petz’s parakeet. 

Evans, Wallace L., Richmond, Va., boa constrictor. 


Fish and Wildlife Service: through Dr. A. S. Mosby, Blacksburg, Va., broad- 
winged hawk; Cambridge, Md., 2 whistling swans; through Dr. Gordon Clark, 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 137 


Chincoteague, Va., 4 snowy egrets, 4 little blue herons, herring gull, 4 common 
terns, 14 American egrets, 6 laughing gulls, 5 Louisiana herons, 6 skimmers, 
4 ospreys, 2 eastern green herons; Wildlife Refuge, Patuxent, Md., 2 ovenbirds, 
2 Acadian flycatchers, red-eyed vireo, 3 cardinals, 20 wood thrushes, 5 scarlet 
tanagers, 2 Kentucky warblers, redstart; through R. Halstead, Washington, 
N.C., 8 pintail ducks, 3 black ducks, 4 mallard ducks, 6 wood ducks, green- 
winged teal, 3 whistling swans. 

Franklin Park Zoo, Boston, Mass., 3 pygmy goats. 

French Creek Game Farm, French Creek, W. Va., 2 American black bears, 2 
southern fox squirrels, 8 timber rattlesnakes. 

Hoffman, Charles R., Washington, D.C., American bittern. 

Holmes, Mrs. Dorothy, Arlington, Va., Petz’s parakeet. 

Hood, Capt. G. H., U.S.S. Hermitage, African ball python, Nile crocodile. 

Hower, Lt. 8. H., Washington, D.C., mute swan. 

Johnson, Alex R., San José, Costa Rica, ocelot. 

Jones, Thomas R., Arlington, Va., 3 timber rattlesnakes. 

Joy, J. E., San Angelo, Tex., 3 crevice spiny lizards, 2 flat-headed snakes, western 
hog-nosed snake, 2 rough green snakes, 2 Sonoran king snakes, 2 bull snakes, 
Lindheimer’s rat snake, 2 Great Plains rat snakes, 3 Texas long-nosed snakes, 
Texas soft-shelled turtle, broad-banded copperhead, northern copperhead, 7 
Western diamondback rattlesnakes, 14 Texas horned lizards, 10 collared lizards, 
5 Texas spiny lizards, diamondback water snake, 2 race runners, 3 Western 
coachwhips, 2 Brazos water snakes, 5 short-lined skinks, 2 water snakes, 
black-necked garter snake. 

Kuntz, Dr. R. E., Taipei, Taiwan, 2 Asiatic crested porcupines, 5 lesser Indian rat 
snakes, 3 Formosan green snakes, 32 palm vipers (of 2 species), 4 Taiwan 
habus, 4 Formosan rat snakes, 2 Russell’s vipers, 9 many-banded kraits, 5 
Taiwan cobras, 5 greater Indian rat snakes, 5 Formosan striped rat snakes, 
6 striped keel-backed water snakes, Oshima rat snake, 4 Philippine monitors, 
3 regal pythons, 10 Tokay geckos. 

Latham, Mrs. Inez, Washington, D.C., 2 Bengalee finches, 2 cut-throat finches, 
2 Indian silverbills. 

Lewis, Dr. T. H., Bethesda, Md., 5 teeid lizards. 

Montana State Game Commission, Helena, Mont., 2 Rocky Mountain goats. 

Mullinax, Mrs. Lois, Takoma Park, Md., green monkey. 

National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md., 10 deer mice (including 2 albinos), 
meadow vole, 6 Egyptian spiny mice, 9 African grass mice, 2 Egyptian gerbils. 

Owens, Charles H., Woodbridge, Va., 3 green guenons. 

Pesacane, A., Silver Hill, Md., toucan. 

Ratliff, Lester, Washington, D.C., regal python, alligator. 

Roth, T. H., Washington, D.C., 14 hinged-back tortoises (of 2 species), gelada 
baboon, green guenon, leopard tortoise, 12 vitelline masked weavers. 

Rothrock, Mrs. Grace E., Washington, D.C., double yellow-headed parrot. 

Schein, Steven, Silver Spring, Md., Cook’s tree boa, boa constrictor, Florida king 
snake, spectacled caiman. 

Setzer, Dr. Henry, Washington, D.C., desert hedgehog. 

Sinclair, Miss Glenn, Hampton, Va., 3 gray foxes. 

Skeels, Reginald V., Alexandria, Va., lesser hill mynah. 

Van Doren, F. 8., Manassas, Va., lesser hill mynah. 

Voorhees, Alan, Bethesda, Md., mute swan. 

Walter, Garvin J., Jr., Washington, D.C., keel-billed toucan. 

Zander, Mrs. R. V., Alexandria, Va., cockatiel. 


138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 
PURCHASES 


Among important purchases of the year were a female African 
rhinoceros obtained as a mate for the male acquired last year, two 
female Masai giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi), the rare 
(in captivity) East African golden cat (Felis (Profelis) aurata pal- 
lida), a magnificent specimen of honey badger or ratel (Mellivora 
capensis), four saiga antelopes, and a trio of African jumping hares 
well adjusted to captivity and very rarely exhibited in zoos. 

A shipment from Thailand yielded two open-billed storks (Anasto- 
mas lamelligerus) and one Feilden’s faleonet (Veohyrax cinereiceps), 
believed to be the only one at present in captivity in the United 
States. 

The reptile collection was increased by two magnificent specimens 
of king cobra, the larger of which measures a good 16 feet. When 
word was received that these snakes had arrived at Idlewild Airport 
on a cold February day, senior keeper Mario DePrato made a quick 
trip to New York to receive them and bring them back to the Zoo. 
They were put in a safe place for the night and unpacked the follow- 
ing day. 

Dr. W. T. Roth, general curator, while in India purchased an in- 
teresting collection of small birds; and J. Lear Grimmer, associate 
director, during his field trip in British Guiana purchased four white- 
faced saki monkeys and an assortment of small mammals, birds, and 
reptiles. 

Other purchases of interest were: 


Clouded leopard Hoopoe 

Martial eagle 2 Gaboon vipers 
Hooded vulture 4 African clawed frogs 
White-backed vulture 2 Blumberg’s toads 
Long-crested hawk eagle 18 Tokay geckos 

38 pygmy cormorants 2 Kori’s bustards 


4 African gray parrots 
EXCHANGES 


An arrangement with the British Guiana Zoo, Georgetown, B.G., 
resulted in an exchange in which a surplus lion cub belonging to the 
National Zoological Park was offered for 56 birds indigenous to South 
America, 14 mammals, and 2 snakes. 

During the course of his studies of the hoatzin in British Guiana 
Mr. Grimmer collected 63 birds and 34 reptiles for the Zoo. Among 
the birds was a small parrot (Conurus solstitialis). 'There are no rec- 
ords of this species ever having previously been in captivity in zoos 
of the United States. 

Other animals obtained through exchange were: 


Barcelona Zoo, Barcelona, Spain, 2 Goliath frogs. 
Catskill Game Farm, Catskill, N.Y., llama. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 139 


Franklin Park Zoo, Boston, Mass., 2 Abyssinian ground hornbills. 

George’s Pet Shop, Bladensburg, Md., 2 spiny-tailed iguanas, 2 emerald tree boas, 
2 razor-billed toucanets. 

Gorsuch, George W., New Windsor, Md., 2 Egyptian geese. 

Hanson, Charles, Athens, Ohio, Texas gopher snake, desert tortoise, 2 island 
water snakes, 3 garter snakes (melanistic phase), 6 gray tree frogs. 

McCrossin, B., Washington, D.C., Egyptian goose. 

Norfolk Zoo, Norfolk, Va., 4 coatimundis, 2 American bison. 

Portland (Oreg.) Zoo, 2 siamangs, 3 Columbian ground squirrels. 

Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, Edinburgh, 2 gannets. 

San Antonio Zoo, San Antonio, Tex., jungle eat, tassel-eared squirrel. 

Southwick Game Farm, Blackstone, Mass., 2 saddle-billed storks, mute swan, 2 
tricolored squirrels. 

Thomas, Charles, Washington, D.C., 2 Huropean songthroats, 2 European bunt- 
ings, 8 Huropean linnets. 

Tote-em-In Zoo, Wilmington, N.C., 4 European red squirrels, 2 murine opossums, 
2 pygmy marmosets, chicken turtle, chicken snake, 2 South African spiny liz- 
ards, 2 plated lizards, 2 Ameiva lizards, 4 crested basilisks, 4 South American 
tortoises, 4 Florida box turtles, 2 Texas tortoises, African mud turtle, 12 day 
geckos (3 species of Phelsuma), mabuya, 4 lizards (Hoplurus sazvicola), skink 
(Zonosaurus aeneus), 3 skinks (4. madagascariensis). 

Zinner, Hermann, Vienna, Austria, 7 Aesculapian snakes, 3 European racers, 4 
European grass snakes, 6 tessellated water snakes, 14 water terrapins, 10 tree 
frogs, 4 spadefoot toads, 21 green lizards, 2 malpolons, 4 European vipers. 

Zoological Society of Trinidad, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, South American racer, 
rainbow boa, 10 Ameiva lizards, boa constrictor, 2 boat-billed herons, 6 searlet 
ibis, 4 maroon tanagers, 2 palm tanagers, 6 blue tanagers, 6 kiskadee fly- 
eatchers. 


The following animals were sent to other zoos and to private col- 
lectors in exchange: 


Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, N.Y., tree boa. 

Calgary Zoo, Calgary, Alberta, European brown bear. 

Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield, Ill., Dall sheep (traded a female for a 
male; sent female for breeding). 

Cincinnati Zoo, Cincinnati, Ohio, llama. 

Fort Worth Zoo, Fort Worth, Tex., harpy eagle. 

Franklin Park Zoo, Boston, Mass., serval kitten, black-backed jackal, black spider 
monkey, 3 fat-tailed gerbils. 

George’s Pet Shop, Bladensburg, Md., 2 yellow-necked parrots. 

Hanson, Charles, Athens, Ohio, corn snake, American alligator. 

Houston Zoo, Houston, Tex., 2 woodchucks, 3 Egyptian spiny mice, 2 fat-tailed 
gerbils, 2 Meriones, 3 Neumann’s genets, 2 water civets, night monkey, hybrid 
gibbon, 3 brown-throated conures, 4 tawny-bellied seedeaters. 

McCrossin, B., Washington, D.C., 2 onogadori chickens, ring-necked dove. 

Norfolk Zoo, Norfolk, Va., llama, African porcupine. 

Oakie, W. A., Winston-Salem, N.C., 4 mute swan cygnets, 2 whooper swan cygnets. 

Philadelphia Zoo, Philadelphia, Pa., American crocodile. 

San Antonio Zoo, San Antonio, Tex., African crowned crane, raccoon dog, jungle 
eat, spider monkey, 2 sooty monkeys, gelada baboon, 4 black squirrels, 4 fat- 
tailed gerbils. 

Southwick Wild Animal Farm, Blackstone, Mass., emu, black swan, 2 wild 
turkeys. 


140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Steinhart Aquarium, San Francisco, Calif., 2 Surinam toads. 

Thomas, Charles, Washington, D.C., 2 cockatiels. 

Toledo Zoo, Toledo, Ohio, 2 Cape hunting dogs. 

Tote-em-In Zoo, Wilmington, N.C., 4 Virginia deer, collared peccary, 4 American 
black bears, 3 olive baboons, 2 leopards, 5 Sika deer. 

Werber, 8S. F., Silver Spring, Md., 1 Canada goose. 

The associate director, J. Lear Grimmer, and Mrs. Grimmer re- 
turned to British Guiana to continue investigation into the ecology 
of the hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoatzin). Certain observations of the 
bird in former years made it desirable to have a morphologist-anato- 
mist on the expedition, and Dr. Wilhelm Marinelli, professor of zo- 
ology and director of graduate biology, University of Vienna, was 
invited to participate in view of his longstanding interest in the species. 
After spending 10 weeks in field work throughout British Guiana, 
Mr. Grimmer and Dr. Marinelli assembled and studied their findings 
for 2 months at the University of Vienna, correlating behavior pat- 
terns and anatomical aspects of the bird. 

One of the hoatzins brought to the National Zoo established an 
important longevity record. Captured July 10, 1961, it lived until 
January 25, 1962—long enough to make close-range daily observations 
possible. Much was learned of its adaptability to cage environment 
and food requirements. The field work will continue with an ultimate 
goal of establishing an integrated breeding colony of this extraordi- 
nary bird in the National Zoological Park. 

The expeditions have been sponsored by the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, the National Geographic Society, the Mitch Miller Foundation, 
and the Jewett Foundation. An article on the work done in British 
Guiana will be published in the October 1962 National Geographic 
Magazine. 

General improvements and innovations in the animal] department 
included experimental reversed daylight setups. Also an attempt was 
made to winter more animals outdoors than previously. By provid- 
ing a minimal amount of heat, through overhead lamps or under- 
ground heating cables in their shelters or sleeping boxes, gazelles and 
macaques were successfully wintered outdoors. Cockatoos and para- 
keets were given “hot-foot” perches made of pipe, through which an 
electric heating wire was run, controlled by a thermostat. 

In the large mammal division an elephant training program was 
initiated in May in order to keep the young male African elephant, 
“Dzimbo,” under control and to provide “Nancy,” “Ambika,” and 
“Shanti” with more exercise. 

The commissary division increased the raising of food animals such 
as waxworms, crickets, mealworms, chickens, rabbits, and guinea pigs, 
and thereby provided a valuable addition to the diet of the animals. 

The night-keepers program, while not yet completely staffed, has 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 141 


proved to be a valuable development; night-time feeding and atten- 
tion have contributed greatly to the number of baby animals and birds 
successfully raised at the Zoo. 

The importance of a zoological collection rests, to a large extent, 
upon its diversity and scope. The National Zoological Park has en- 
joyed some measure of success in its efforts to add representative 
species belonging to little-known or absent families. 

The total number of accessions for the year was 1,340. This in- 
cludes gifts, purchases, exchanges, deposits, births, and hatchings. 


STATUS OF THE COLLECTION 


Class Orders Families | Species or | Individuals 
subspecies 

Vitara] sae oe ee eye ee 14 48 244 665 
BILGE sasetanaetae sen ae ae SL Set 22 78 415 1, 209 
PRC tiles serexsaty ars tees ear es Ree TE 2 4 26 206 809 
Amp hIDIANS sae ee Se ee 2 11 23 109 
LYE cVets pe al AL con a eee ey Le lp ead 4 9 21 80 
AEDT OBOOS yaieie ce = sae eee eee 3 5 5 57 
MOMUSKS@ tee ate sa ee Se MEN oy 1 1 1 30 
Ro talyeeyeer oe Oe ee Os eee 50 178 914 2, 959 


ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION ON JUNE 30, 1962 


MAMMALS 
MONOTREMATA 
Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Tachyglossidae: 
Echidna, or spiny anteater_____._____ Tachyglossus aculeatus_________ 1 
MARSUPIALIA 
Didelphidae: 
Murine sOpossiimess=s= = == aoe n aaa WMGTANO SAIS) ae ee 1 
Didelphis marsupialis__________ il 
Dasyuridae: 
Avngintyaukhn Chea Sarcophilus harristi__-_-__--___ il 
Phalangeridae: 
Suga ee] eras -s ewes eee ee Petaunws 07evicepssas se) 3 
Squirreliglid crs aes ee eee Petaurus norfoltcensis__._________ tf 
Phascolomidae: 
Hairy-nosed wombat__.____________ Lasiorhinus latifrons___.._______ 2 
Wiesel \yyowa oye Womobatus hirsutws--—— al 
Macropodidae: 
Treey KAN gATOO=s = 28 Se es ee Dendrolagus matschiei______-__- 1 


eat eeAangaroosss= eee eee ‘POCOTOUSR SD saan ae ee 3 


142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


INSECTIVORA 
Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Hrinaceidae: 
Huropean hedgehogaa ===) === Hrinaceus europaeus____________ 4 
African desert hedgehog__-____-___- Paraechinus aethiopicus________ 1 
Shorictailedashre we Blarine brevicauda_—_ ) 
PRIMATES 
Lemuridae: 
Ring-talled cent ee Lemuncetla. = = ae eee 4 
Lorisidae: 
Greativalagos2_ 2 2esee oe ee eee Galago crassicaudaius___________ 2 
Dwartgalagos=2228 sess Galago senegalensis zanzibaricus— Pe 
Common) potto eee PCT OCLCUCUSMDOLLO === al 
Cebidae: 
Nightmonkey--= 2222. 2-22 2 AGUS TUNG Cte eee 2 
Brown capuchin monkey 
White-throated capuchin } __--_--_-_- OCebUSTCODUCIIN Gee eee 10 
Capuchin 
Weeping capuchin monkey__-------- OCOUSORISCIS== = il 
White-faced saki monkey__--------- Pithecia pithecia_—_ 1 
Squirrel monkey2soe= = == sae Saimiri sciureus. = ee 6 
Black spider monkey_---------_--_~ ALCLESITUUSCLCC DS ea ee ee 4 
Spiderumonkey= =.= eae AN CLESIOCOlLOUts ae ee 6 
NVoollysmonke y= === eae PAagouwides pos eee 1 
Callithricidae: 
IBY omiysmarmosetee= see eee Cebuellanyomaca2 2 
Cottontopamarmoset==..———— === === SOGUMUSHOCULD ILS ae 1 
Red-handed marmoset__----------__ SCGUINUSENNA See eee 1 
Cercopithecidae: 
Toque, or bonnet monkey__---------~_ Macaca sinc. 8 
JAVA INaCs (UC === ae eee Macaca irus mordav________---- 2 
Crab-eatinge smacaquela=22-)—n.————— COLI S e 1 
Philippineimacaque=2==-———=- === Macaca philippinensis__________- 2 
Macaque: hybrid= Macaca philippinensis X M. irus— 1 
Rhesus smMonkey22a225e2 5 =a e eae ae MaCckcamuUlattaas. 4 
Mormosanimonkeyo2= 2 == een MCCOCUNCYClLODIS == aa 2 
Red-facedimacaque=]==222e———s=———= IMGCOCERSDCCLOSO == il 
Barbary, ape: =2=2--2 22S Soe WIGGRED, GODT Se 14 
Moorsmacaques—- MCE nits. dl 
Gray-cheeked mangabey_----------- OCercocebus albigena___________— 1 
Agilesmangabey 22222255 25-2 oes eas Cercocebus galeritus agilis__._-- il 
Golden-bellied mangabey_---------- Cercocebus galeritus chrysogas- 1 
ter. 
Red-crowned mangabey__----------- Cercocebus torquatus_________-~ 2 
Sooty mangabey 222223 eso eee eee Cercocebus fuliginosus____-_----~ 3 
Crested manvabey=—— Cercocebus aterrimus opdenbo- 1 
schii. 
Black-crested mangabey____---_---- Oercocebus aterrimus___________ 2 
@haeniaeb alia ore eee ee Paniocomatis== =e iL 
Olivembahoons2 22 2 eee PGDIOL ONO G Se 3 
Geladasbaboonesss2 222. ee Theropithecus gelada__________- 4 
WVervet, cuenoneso- eee Cercopithecus aethiops pygery- 1 


thrus. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 143 


Family and common name Scientijic name Number 
Cercopithecidae—Continued 
Green gienons a2 sesce Se Se See Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus__ 5 
Grivet guenon (color variation) _____ Cercopithecus aethiops aethiops— il 
Moustached=snonkeyses==—.-——— == Cercopithecus cephus_____-_____ 3 
Diana monkey====+--+=+ =.= =e Cercopithecus diana -.-_______ 1 
ROLOWAyAMONK CY aoe nee eae eee Cercopithecus diana roloway____ 1 
Preuss sig ecnonees eee Cercopithecus Vhoesti preussi___ 1 
DeBrazza-s) SuenuON esa. ae Cercopithecus mneglectus________ 2 
Wihite-nosed guenon====—-=~ = == Cercopithecus nictitans___._____ 1 
Lesser white-nosed guenon____--_-__ Cercopithecus nictitans petaur- 1 
ista. 
Allen’s swamp monkey__-_-----__-~-- Allenopithecus nigroviridis___-__ 2 
Spectacled, or Phayre’s, langur_____~ PVrCSOyMS DNGYT Cte ee 1 
Entellus, or Hanuman monkey__---- IPRESUULISICTULELUUS aan ene 1 
GUN SUT ee alae a oe Se PS Se IPrESUY LISS ee = Se 1 
Pongidae: 
White-handed gibbon________--_-_._ LEGOWIEGS UTR 5 
Wal-walloibboness.===s == aaa TELOMERES. POOUCD ee lt 
Gibbon hybrid Hylobates agilis X H. lar pileatus_ iL 
Gibbonsihybrid===2 = Hylobtates tar XH. sp_—_—-- aL 
Siamangtcibbon= Symphalangus syndactylus______ 1 
Sumatran orangutean]===---——— Pongo pygmaeus abelii__________ 2 
IBorneaniorangutan===s——— eee Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus______ al 
Chimpanzee j=2222- = eee IPUNNSOLYTUS2 2s eee + 
Gorilla a = ae ees ee Gonliago ee 8 
EDENTATA 
Myrmecophagidae: 
Giantganteaters2=2- 3422-2 = =e Myrmecophaga tridactyla_______ 1 
Bradypodidae: 
Two-toedsloth= 22-2 =) =- =. s-— ee Choloepus didactylus___.________ 8 
Dasypodidae: 
Nine-banded armadillo____.___._____ Dasypus novemcinctus__________ 1 
LAGOMORPHA 
Leporidae: 
Momnestic.rabbit ee Oryctolagus cuniculus__________ 7 
RODENTIA 
Sciuridae: 
Tassel-eared squirrel________-__-___ Sciurus aberti aberti____________ al 
Gray squirrels (albing) 2s." — sees Sciurus carolinensis2—-— == 2 
Sciuridae: 
Southern} foxssquirre === SCUUU STATI 0 C1 ann ee 3 
Huropean! red squirrela===—- IS CULIALSRUILLG C1: 1g 4 
indians palmysquirrelas==————=—===ae Funambulus palmarum______--- il 
Giant Indian squirrel_______________ LR OR CISD a 1 
Tricolored, or Prevost’s, squirrel____ Callosciurus prevosti__._________ il 
Aa iate, Soutien Callosciurus nigrovittatus_______ al 
Formosan tree squirrel_____________ Callosciurus erythraeus________- ll 
Woodchuck, or groundhog___________ Marmota, mont 3 
IPTaibie-d Om 2 8 seen tee Cynomys ludovicianus_________- 8 
California ground squirrel__________ Citellus beecheyi___________-___ 4 


144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


Family and common name Scientific name 
Sciuridae—Continued 
Washington ground squirrel_________ Citellus washingtoni__ 
Golden-mantled ground squirrel_____ Citellus lateralis_____ 
Hasternechipmunks=2=—==—=.——=———s Tamias striatus______ 
Eastern chipmunk (albino) —---_____ Tamias striatus 
Yellow: pineiehipmunk=22222 ee Hutamias amoenius__- 
Hormosan flying /squirrelas=222 S222 Petaurista grandis____ 
Hastern fying, squirrelas = Glaucomys volans____ 
Castoridae: 
Beavers een Met Sh re a Castor canadensis____ 
Leporidae: 
Capenumpinay hares a= e = ae IKGUIGIES. COYGRo 
Cricetidae: 
Wihite-footed mouse! Peromyscus Speas2—=— 
Goldenghamsters22 == == aaa ears Mesocricetus auratus_ 
HasteArrican maned tages ssa Lophiomys ibeanus___ 
‘Pine 7 VOle= 20s ee eee ee Pitymys pinetorum___ 
Gerbil 222 = a a eee Gerbillus pyramidum_— 
Hat-tailledsecerbils= = ae eee Pachyuromys duprasi_ 
Jit 2 ee ee ee MeCTIONCSE Sp eae 
Eairy-tailed ind = see ee Sekeetamys calurus___ 
Muridae; 
Multimammatesra t= ee Mastomys natalensis__ 
Slender-tailed cloud rat_____________ Phloeomys cumingii__ 
Heyptian spiny, mouses22 22-222 2a Acomys cahirinus_——- 
Hgyptian spiny mouse_____-------__ Acomys dimidiatus___ 
Hystricidae: 
Malayer pOrecup lac sa ee ee Acanthion brachyura_ 
Atricans porcupines=—s)) = =e Hystria galeata___-__ 
Asiatie erested porcupine_____-__--_ 13 URUG) a) Ue= 
Caviidae: 
Patazoniann CaVyyaoo es eee Dolichotis australis___ 
Dasyproctidae: 
Redwacout === ae eee Dasyprocta sp__------ 
AGU GIy tee a sere ce ne Dasyprocta acuchy___ 
Chinchillidae: 
Peruvian) viseaeGi tess aaa Lagidium viscaccia__- 
CARNIVORA 
Canidae: 
1B HAY 290 ge a aie ls ee Canis familiaris dingo 
COON C0) 1 2 ee cae A Ie es Se et Oanis tatrans==222— 
Commont jackass ee Canis aureus________- 
STM eI wWiOl fesse eee ee ee Canis lupus nubilus___ 
Texas Tred iwolte 2-2.) ee ee Canis niger rufus_____ 
ANSE CGH Geek Rese sen a Alopexr lagopus__-__--- 
USN) cl oY 2x cota aero GN ao OEE SH Ee Fennecus zerda______- 
Grayatoxse oe mene Seen eee Urocyon cinereoargent 
Raccoon 0g. 22 a ee ee Nyctereutes procyonoi 
Capehuntingdo0g2a aa eee Lycaon pictus——.__-_- 


Big-eared st Oxa= se. ae ee eee Otocyon megalotis___-_ 


1962 


Cush ae 
eee ee 


ae - - 


RFPNNwWNNwWREN bh Fe O&O 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 145 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Ursidae: 
Spectacled(bear=sas2ssse—s ss ssana=. Tremarctos ornatuse === 22 — 2 1 
Em allay an peanes ee ae eee Selenarctos thibetanus_________ iL 
Japanese blacksbears === s as Selenarctos thibetanus japonicus— al 
Iorean bear a= as sate eee er Selenarctos thibetanus ussuricus— 2 
European brown bear_-------------- UnsUsianclos= ee = ee ees 3 
kranrene Drown Dears eee Ursus arctos occidentalis________ 2, 
Alaskan Peninsula bear____________- UTnsusigyas- == ee 1 
Grizzlyabearees as s= Sse ke see (RSIS LOO POD 2 
iIpiacksbear eee eae ee ee Huarctos americanus. == 1 
IP Olan bea aes ee ee Thalarctos maritimus___________ 2 
JERy opel [eee aa ee ee ee ee Thalarctos maritimus X Ursus 4 
middendorffi. 
Mall avasuint be aise eee eee Helarctos malayanus______-____ 2 
Slothabea tess ake ee eee ee eer MM CLUTSUSTUTSUNUS See 2 
Procyonidae: 
Cacomistle, or ring-tailed cat-___--_ Bassariscus astutus—.———--—___ 5 
RACCOON a ee eee ee ee OCU ONMLOLO Tae ee ee 5 
RaAceoonm (al bin 0) Se eee 0 CUONMLOL OT === 1 
Coatimund i= en eee INOSSUGINGT ACO Sa ae ee 4 
Peruvian coatimundi_______________ Nasua nasua dorsalis_____._____ 1 
CIN a] O Wee ee ee a 'POlOsslaviugeee sea ae 4 
Oi 7 0p as a eh Bassaricyon gabbi___--_--______ 2 
WeSseraypan @ ase er eee ASTUTUS HUG CNS === 5 
Mustelidae: 
VES Er Se ae Pat ie a or Mustela eversmanni___.._______ al 
Vilar yy meee ree eine Seater Se ee een Martes americana______-_______ iL 
AIS OVet po Ay) SD eee eee eee Maries pennenti==_— il 
South American tayras- eee Tayra barbara barbara_________ al 
IBTIGISheG Gian ae te yee ee Tayra barbara poliocephala_____ 2 
Grisonmeseese Sate a tee 2 eee GOULICTISTULLL LO afl 
Zorilla, or striped weasel___________ NCLONYOESTTIGCUS See 2 
LWiOlVerinen 22a ae ea reer (COTTA) UG TR 1 
TB 1 (2) beer a a I a DD ie Mellivora capensis___________-__ all 
ANSTTERNCTIT LONG er HO DIA CH LOCOS aa iL 
Golden-bellied ferret-badger______-__ Helictis moschata subaurantiaca_ 3 
COMMIGTIEES KUT Kae ee Mephitis mephitis=_ = = 2 
California spotted skunk____________- Spilogale putorius phenav_______ iL 
Viverridae: 
GGT CE er a ae ee cee eames et Sea Genetta genetta newmannii______ ai 
Genet (black phase) e222 Genellaacenei == 1 
Formosan spotted civet_____________ Viverricul@ indica_=--=- 2 
Thin San gy aee e eee ee eeeer eee Prionodon, Wnsanges2=2-- =~ iL 
PNA ya, PLE Cah Nandinia binotata_.---.--______ 2 
Formosan masked civet_____________ Paguma larvata taivana________ 1 
INCU EO Ne eee ee eee Arctictis, binturong=---—____ al 
African gray mongoose_____________ Herpestes ichneumon____-_--_-- il 
Africanwwater Civete-22 oo Atilas paludinosus_____________ 4 
Striped African mongoose___________. Crossarchus fasciatus___-______-~ 2 
Black-footed mongoose______________ Bdcog ales spre ese eae ee 2 
White-tailed mongoose______________. Ichneumia albicauda__-_-------- 1 


146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Hyaenidae: 
Striped:-hyenas-—- == eee Hy Cen Gay CONG =a ee 2 
Felidae: 
BobCaites22354 ee a eee LYNG MIU USS = ee ae ee Ne es 2 
DGynXs ese See ee See ee LORD COMMA See il 
Caracal’. 42. So. hee ee Se ILO CUAUCTH) GU RTH bo 1 
Jungle cat: 222222 522 WiCluSEChQuUsena=. ee 2 
Pallas: Cateye ee ee CUSHION == ee ee eee 2 
Servalvcatso 2) 22246. So eee ee: Helis. SCrvudl=- 22 ee ee 3 
Ocelotee ee Re ae ee ey JOUQGS (CRT Ga il 
Mareay catloe 2 sees eo eet HEUS SAO TCO Ua tee ear ene ee 5 
Goldentca ta aa ee ee eee MeCUSICUL OG = eee 1 
PU ys oe eS ee EGUSMCONCOLOT == =e i 
neopand = 22228 eee ee eae IA PGORE: (NOTE 4 
Blackleopard&:2442 22 35s) 2 = IEC BUNEFO) TORUS = a a 2) 
TOT eee ee ee ee ee ONE CT. OI CO ee ee 6 
1S sake lli nt 7s) pa ae Oe ee IGEQUOGRE UN See 2 
Bengal tiger (white phase) ---------- Panthera tigris_________________ 1 
Dap iay ee = 2a0 Bee ee See IRURURGRL OW Gta ae il 
Cloudedileopard= = = INCOLCUSINEDILLOS Cae a ee it 
Snow leopards] 22 ee OI GUON OGL 2 
@hectah=-2-. ==. = ee eae AICINONYD {UU =e 2 
PINNIPEDIA 
Otariidae: 
C@alitornia sea-one== === Zalophus californianus__________ 6 
Patasonian sea-lions===————=— === Otarianilavescens=— 1 
Phocidae: 
Eiarbor/seala > a eS ee PROCGROULN =e 2 
TUBULIDENTATA 
Orycteropodidae: 
Aardvyarksonantbeates =a ssa ORUCLELODUSH OC, Cia ae al 
PROBOSCIDEA 
Plephantidae: 
Airicanveleph antes ==——— eee Lovodonta african@22— === al 
Morestielephants= 2222232228 Soe Lowodonta cyclotiss—=—— = 1 
iIndianielephantess= == 2-22 ee ee Hlephas mawvimus______----_--_- 2 
HYRACOIDEA 
Procaviidae: 
18 Bisg aps, ape a peng an es epee seen ge PLOCOUIGES Dae ee 1 
PERISSODACTYLA 
Equidae: 
Mongolian wild horse_____________-_ Hquus przewalskii_.____________ il 
IBULTOVOLICONK CY === = ee HOWL Gao. = eee al 
Grontisczeb ra ae ee eee Equus burcheili boehmi__-_-__-_-_- 4 
Grevy’sizebra soe ot 2 ee Hquusgrevyt--22- ee 34 
Tapiridae: 


Braz ilianetay ieee ee ane Tapirus terrestris..__--- —--- == 2 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


147 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Rhinocerotidae : 
Great one-horned Indian rhinoceros__ Rhinoceros wnicornis__---------- Al 
White, or square-lipped, rhinoceros__ Ceratotherium simum-_--------- Pe 
African black rhinoceros_._—--~---- IDEGEHROS WKGO Oe 2 
ARTIODACTYLA 
Tayassuidae: 
Collared ipeccary=——— === === — IAGQUFC, WO) HCT 4 
Hippopotamidae : 
ELIPPOPOLAMUS eee eee Hippopotamus amphibius__-__---- 3 
Pygmy hippopotamus___---~------- Choeropsis liberiensis_____-_____ 4 
Camelidae: 
Nila yes ee ee eee IG EDO (UDO) 6 
Guanacorss ss ean = Lama glama guanicoe____------- 3 
PANTO Cop: eee ee Le ae Se IDOLE WCCO 4 
IRAGHabhe Chel Camelus bactrianus___.-------- 1 
Cervidae: 
IWihitertallowaGe@er=- ==. 25—————— === = DAM CUNO =e ee ee Se 4 
IASKIS (GGT = eee es eee ALIS ALIS eee oe ee ee eee 6 
Rede Cerne ae a eee eee Cervus claphis=2 SSS SSS 5 
American Clk 22S ee eee Cervus conadensis==—- il 
Sikaud Ceres se = ee ee ee Cervus nip pon asses id! 
Pere avidisid cera =e Elaphurus davidianus___------- 1 
Wireinig)- deere2-=-- 22222235 eee Odocoileus virginianus___------- q 
IRCING CC Tan ee re ee ee ONO CT ALOT ONO NLS eae 12 
Norestycarniboue— se ee HONG UCT: COlM00Ua—aa eae 1 
Giraffidae: 
Inulin Gabeia Giraffa camelopardalis camelo- 1 
pardalis. 
Masaiggiratient= sss aaa sans ose Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskir- 2 
chi. 
Antilocapridae: 
PrOn eh ORN eas ae ee eee Antilocapra americana____-_-----~ aft 
Bovidae: 
Sitatuncae sas ee ee es Tragelaphus spekti_._--------_— iL 
Brindled gnu, or blue wildebeest____-~ Connochaetes taurinus_____----- 3 
DINGO ioe sean aS pe eget eat alee pie oe Anoa depressicornis.________._-- 2 
VEN Ob he sei pr a a ie a gd ee ae eee iBOSMINGiCs == eee 1 
GEN case ge al ES ne oe as SE eee Poephagus grunniens____------~ 3 
(CUT oS a den pe I ot led ee NN oat eR otra IBUDOSINO CULTS eee 2 
Cane buttalo= == 2 eee SUMCETU SCO Cee 4 
ANTI NENION [WO BAISONTIOLS 01a ee 2 
ID ORCAST 12.0 lll Cee eee (ChE UOROTG er 5 
Salcacantelopees aa ae SBIR: COORG Ba ee 4 
lebhinMbnaia (tip Hemitragus jemlahicus___------ 1 
ROCK ya MOU no Oa ee Oreamnos americanus____------ 1 
JTAVRIA, TORFATONY FROM ba OOD CUS ee ee 3 
dD YS git ee aa seh A co tea Pep ities, Sepa ao COD W0CUn at ene aaa ee nen al 
PNCOYOUG IY Le ee A a a re Ammotragus lervia_________--—~ 3 
BI SHOLMESN ECC) See ee ners Ovis canadensis____________.-—— 2 
IESE Ba nee eee ee OOS GANS. CAN 3 = ae ee il 


148 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Family and common name 
Spheniscidae: 


Kine’ penewinas =a 
Adélie penguins. 2—-—e se 


Struthionidae: 


Ostrich 212 ee eee 


Rheidae: 


Casuariidae: 


Double-wattled cassowary_--— 


Dromiceidae: 


Tinamidae: 


Pilested tinamous 22 = 


Diomedeidae: 


Black-footed albatross____--~ 


Pelecanidae: 


Rose-colored pelican___---~- 
Wihite pelicans === aa== 
Browlspelicanses2o=— === 


Dalmatian pelican_—____-~— 


Sulidae: 


Ganne te eee 


Phalacrocoracidae: 


Double-crested cormorant__- 
Farallon cormorant_______~ 


European cormorant__-_--- 


Ardeidae: 


iReddishiegrets =e 
Reddish egret (white phase) 


Cattle ecret=2222 = 2a 22 se 
American egret = - 
Snowyaceret =a 
Great white heron_________ 


BIRDS 
SPHENISCIFORMES 


Scientific name Number 


sere me Aptenodytes patagonica___-----_ 
ete Lee Pygoscelis \adeices = 


STRUTHIONIFORMES 


PELECANIFORMES 


ce eee al Pelecanis onocrotatus_____—______ 
ae ee eee Pelecanus erythrorhynchos______ 
ae See Pelecanus occidentalis occiden- 


talis. 


er ee ClLECORUSICHIS DUS ee 


eae erate Phalacrocorasz auritus auritus___ 
ee eae Phalacrocoraxz auritus albocilia- 


tus. 


bes Sie Phalacrocorag carbo____________ 


CICONIIFORMES 


ae Dichromanassa rufescens rufes- 


cens. 


ae Dichromanassa rufescens rufes- 


cens. 


nt IBUUULCUSAOLS ae ee ee ee 


ee a WCUCODNOUD MCI 2a 
See Ardea occidentalisa—— === 


wh 


aa) 


wmwon 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


149 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Ardeidae—Continued 
Hastern green’ heron-=--==-=-- =— === BUtOnideSrvineSCCnS === 3 
THO UIST ANTM e 0 lene Hydranassa tricolor__________-- 4 
Black-crowned night heron__------~-- Nycticoranw nycticoraxr___________ 12 
MitilembluehenOn sesso eee eee Florida caerulea caerulea_______ 4 
American Diltbennae === ee Botaurus lentiginosus____-_---~- il 
heast bittern]==— eee ee eee Taobrychus exilis ewilis_—2—-—2 == 1 
Ric er piven Tigrisoma lineatum=————— = Dy 
Cochleariidae: 
iBoat-billed heron] Cochlearius cochlearius______-_ iL 
Balaenicipitidae : 
Shoe ill Se ees TEXTE UIBE DS: TG) a 1 
Ciconiidae: 
AmericanmwOOd) ibis=a==sseeees=aaa= Mycteria americana____-------- 2 
Huropean: white stork2222—==-==—=2= Cicona.cicon¢ = 4 
Indiansadjutantistork===2222————— TEPtOPUlOs  CU0UWS aan eee 1 
White-bellredstork= = Abdimia sphenorhyncha __------ Dy 
@Open-billed(stork== === aes ANASLON WSs OSCLLONS= == 2 
Saddle-billed=stork Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis__ i 
Threskiornithidae: 
Wihitesibis#—22 Ss ea eee EU COCUNUS MQU0US aaa 2 
Scarletaibis=—— = PRUCOCUTUS ET CT eee ee 8 
iBlack-facedteibis=—— =. ee Theristicus melanopis_____-_---~ al 
iBlack-headed@ibisae=e ===. aes Threskiornis melanocephala____- 1 
White-faced glossy ibis________----_ JIGS GOR SOD ee il 
Hastermeclossysibise====—=—- = Plegadis jalteinetluse == +t 
Roseatem spoonbills=..— AVG C1010 eee 6 
Phoenicopteridae: 
Chilecanwstanins === Phoenicopterus chilensis___.__-__ 2 
Cubaneiamins === eee Phoenicopterus ruber_________--_ 1 
Olds Worldshamingo==2222a2es ee Phoenicopterus antiquorum___—-— 1 
ANSERIFORMES 
Anhimidae: 
Crestedmiscream erase eee Chaund torque 4 
Anatidae: 
COoScOLOpalS Wales sae se eae Coscoroba coscoroba____________ 4 
Mute iSWal 2-222 325 oo ee CYONUSHOLOT Sue ee 3 
Black-necked swan_——.—_._-..-..._— Cygnus melanocoriphus________- 2 
WiDooperis wallessn == ae 2 ee OLOGY Onis eee 2 
Wihistliness wenn ae ae (QUOyP COUT ODETTE OTS 18 
EEUU PECCTIS Wiehe ee UEP WCET OR aa 2 
Blacks wallasaae cee Se a Chenopissc.. = 9 
Hy bane OOSC Be eee Alopochen aegyptiacus_________~ A 
White-fronted goose____..-___-__—__. ANSCHIGLOU TONS == eee 3 
Indian bar-headed goose____________- ANS Er INGI CUS eae see 5 
FIM PCL OLeS OOS Ck sae eee ne es es ANS CT ECONCGI CUS See ee 2 
IBIUG SOOO Lie a a eee ee Anser caerulescens caerulescens__ 6 
Lesser snow goose (color phase)____ Anser caerulescens caerulescens__ 2 
Greatersnow,200SC= == eee ee, Anser caerulescens atlanticus____ 5 
IROSS/S|ZO0S Ci = ee a ok VAIS CAN. OS 8 Ute ae ee ee a 4 
Red-breasted goose_________________. RUD, POY GOW 4 
Canad aie 008@ 22 ae ae es Branta canadensis____________-- 24 


150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Anatidae—Continued 
lesser Canada) 2zo0se = ee Branta canadensis leucopareia__ 5 
Cackling/200se2 == EEE Branta canadensis minima___--- 4 
White-cheeked goose______----____--~- Branta canadensis occidentalis___ 3 
Canada goose X blue goose, hybrid__ Branta canadensis X Anser cae- Pe 


rulescens. 


Ruddy:shelduc eS Casarca jernuginer———__ 2 
Wood: duck 22322 3as wie ae eee ee ALG ISPONSA= ae aoe ees ae ee ee val 
Winkeababa hive ic Alia (QleniCulatdsa ase ae ne eee 2 
Indianicottoniteal]==3222— 22> = Nettapus coromandelianus_____- oS 
Pintaill duck2s22===22=2— 2 eo AMNGS. C€CUl0. 25-2 sso need 5 
Green-winged tedles= 222.) ANOS CheCCU se eee ee 1 
Chestnut-breasted teal____-________-. Anas castanca=2 =e 1 
Godwall. 22222223234" ee Anas strepera streperda--——- == 4 
Huropeaniwif cones. === ANAS DCNECLODC == ee 2 
Mallardiduck. == 2S ae eee ee Anas platyrhynchos_______----- 45 
Mallard duck X American pintail Anas platyrhynchos X A. acuta- 1 
duck, hybrid. 
Indian spotted-billed duck__-____-___ Anas poecilorhyncha__._..._____— il 
Black) duck22 =>. 2222 522 ae ANCE TULUTAD CS ae eee ee 8 
Greater. scaup duck PAYER OS OTe ee eee 5 
lesser scaup duck Aythya ays = 5 
Red-headedkduck== eae Aythya americana____.-.-----.. 7 
Ring-neckedsduc. EE PAUP OICOUCT Se ene 1 
Canvasback duck#22-=22.—2..—————5 Aythya valisineria__________---- 5 
Rosy-billedspochard====———-—- Metopiana peposaca_________-_- al 
Red-crested pochard_-_-___-_-----__ NCO TUNG 2a2 2 ees ee aL 
BuilehesdeduC = Bucephala atveotas 2 22.-—-— = a 
American goldeneye duck_____-----_ Bucephala clangula americana__- al 
Baldpate’ 2 222= 2-8 ae oe Mareca americang== 2-2 === 10 
FALCONIFORMES 

Cathartidae: 
And eantcond 0OT= sees see eee VALE OUD U8 ee ee il 
Minowultures2s2= eee oe eee Sarcoramphus papa_____-------- 1 
Blacksvultures=—= ee ee eee Conagyps atratius 2 
Hooded Svultures]22-4— eee Necrosyrtes monachus___--_--__ 1 
Griffone vultures ses seen eae GUS uloUus =e ee al 
RuUppells vulouressss= = Gaps nine 3 
TrkeysvUltULes = eee Chutes. 8 

Sagittariidae: 
Secretary pind essen ee eee Sagittarius serpentarius_______-- 2 

Accipitridae : 
African yellow-billed kite___________ MAUS INGTON Soe nee 2 
SPAM ys el ee es ee ee EIGER QP CHOU a 1 
Black-faced Nawk= esse s=asaa an aae Leucopternis melanops______----~ al 
Red-winged) hawki 2222) 222s Heterospizias meridionalis_____- 1 
Red-tailed’ hawk ee IBUtCO {QMO CeNn sts ae =e ee 4 
Red-shouldered hawk ______________ BALe COMULUIVE CLUES ae es 2 
Sywainsonjs hawk ee eee BUC C Oe SIOCINS ON ae al 
Mauduyt’s hawk eagle______________ Spizaetus ornatws__—- == 2 il 
Long-crested hawk eagle____________ Lophaétus occipitalis___._.___..__ al 


SECRETARY’S REPORT fil 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Accipitridae—Continued 
Greathblackwhawkeeeee. =e eee Ictinaetus malayensis_____--___- al 
Goldenteacl ches aes ate aee en eee ae= AULD CUR SCCLO See ee 8 
imperialvescless==seeee= se eeeene = Aquila WhClGCQasa sea 2 
White-breasted sea eagle____----~-- Haliaeetus leucogaster_____----- il 
Paillasiseacle= = 2-5 2222-2 eee Haliaeetus leucoryphus___------ 1 
Bald eaglesse a= eee eee eee Haliaeetus leucocephalus___-_---- 2 
Buzzard Cavers =e tae eee Buteo poecilochrous_______----- ak 
Harpy eagles 2-2 senses essao = HOR piGehOnpyj Cassese ee 1 
Guianan crested eagle_____-___--__- Morphnus guianensis____------- il 
Monkey-eating eagle-_._______---___ Pithecophaga jefferyi._------_—— 1 
Martial@eadrles2s222 =a eee Polemaetus bellicosus_______-_-~ 1 
Bateleur: eacleii22 2-8 se oo eee Terathopius ecaudatus____-----~ 2 
Beardedevilllture=.==2 == Gypaéctus barbatus_____-_-____- 1 
Pandionidae: 
IAIMeOTICAMMOSD LC Vee ee ee Pandion haliaetus carolinensis___ 2 
Faleonidae: 
Sparrow NaWkee seo ene n eee GLICO S DOUG a 3 
Duckehawk lees 22 eee eae ee Falco peregrinus anatum___----- 1 
iNellden’sstalconetes= === sees. Neohieraa cinereiceps—_-___------ a 
Red-footed falcon, or crane hawk___. Falco vespertinus____----------- al 
marze-pilledttalcone2s==— as GL COMDIOCTINI CUS See il 
Morest tal CON== =e ane se eee es Micrastur semitorquatus___----- Be 
Chimangos] == a Sees Milvago: chimangoz——=_—_- === il 
Chimachimashawke=-==-..-.——- Milwago chimachima___—_—-------- 2 
ATICUDONSeCaracana===2ese. ee Polvorus chericay-—-------_-——— 2; 
White-throated caracara_______---_- Phalcoboenus albogularis_____--- 2 
GALLIFORMES 
Megapodiidae: 
Brushsturkey=- 22 eee eee. FA eCtUL Calan G i= if 
Cracidae: 
Watiledtcurassowseo-- Creag 2 
Crested curasso0 ween =o seen ae eee ORR) UAC IO Raa o 
INGcburnaltcurassOWeeen soe Nothocras urumutum___--------~ it 
White-headed piping guan_-_____--_~_- PipilenCumanensisaaee sane aL 
Phasianidae: 
BOD White ro rye Ua] see ee Colinus virginianus=——_— =~ il 
@huckar7qual| === eee ING QUCPUS: REGO all 
Gambelsiquall@22222 222 Lophortyx gambeli_____---___-- 2 
Valleyiquall======ss222s—e—20e2=— Lophortyz vallicola_______.-_--- 6 
ATouS pneasante=ss=——— === === eas AT OMSLONU SONG US see a 
Goldenipneasant====22==— === COhrysoltophus (pictus2=—— == 3 
Redsjungletowlses22 = sss eee Gis Ee 6 
Black-backed kaleege pheasant___-_~-. Gennaeus melanonotus____------~ 2; 
Silver pheasant222 22-2052 4 — Gennaeus nycthemerus___------- al 
Peatowlet estes ee eee THAD GFUSETTO ae ee tf 
Indianepluespeacock==—————— Pawo cristatuss eee ee il 
Ring-necked pheasant____--_-_-___-- Phasianus cotchicus-_--- == === = 4 
Ring-necked pheasant (albino) ----~ Phasianus colchicus____._____._- 2 
Ring-necked pheasant XX _ green Phasianus colchicus X P. versi- al 
pheasant, hybrid. color. 
Bhutan, or gray peacock pheasant__._ Polyplectron bicalcaratum__-_---- 2 


672-174 63——_11 


152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 

Numididae: 

Vulturnines cuineafowl==s=esaseee——s Acryllium vulturinum___-------- 3 
Meleagrididae: 

Ocellatedsturkey=== = ae Agnocharis ocellataz==== === 2 

Wild: iturkey2223 22S ee ee Meleagris gailopavol = =— = at 

GRUIFORMES 

Gruidae: 

Siberiangeran@s see ee GrusmlenCogenanuse =e of 

Huropéean crane] GUST ORUS2 Se ae ae 2 

Saris yeranGs<= sens eee a Antigone antigone-——____ = 2 

African crowned crane-—_---------- BGlearica, DAvONING==2=— = 5 
Psophiidae: 

Trumpeter ==s— 2-2 Sees. e ese Psopma crepians==— 2 
Rallidae: 

Cayennelwoods rails Aramides, cajaned@a2==-==== === 2 

Viroinia, rail sees toe Sk ee Ralius limicolai=_-===-==- = = al 

Purples? allinnless== sees eee Tonornis martinica_______---___- 2, 

White-breasted waterhen___________ Amaurornis phoenicurus________ 1 

South Pacific swamp-hen_______--~- Porphyrio poliocephalus________ if 
Turypygidae: 

Sunvbittern=2 2-2. Sat eee eee LOE AV ONY, (WA af 
Cariamidae: 

Canigm as Or esertan qe eee Caniamancrisict( =e 1 
Otididae: 

Korigjbustard)=2.. as eee ee THOPVOQUDHS (KO a 2 

Senegalihustard == ee eee Hupodotis senegalensis__________ il 

CHARADRIIFORMES 

Jacanidae: 

Common jacana 2) eee ACCONCAST UNOS Ce 3 
Haematopodidae: 

Oystercatcher===== 52 ss eee Haematopus ostralegus__.______- 1 
Charadriidae: 

Australian banded plover___________ ZOU CTA COLOT = a 2 

IDI ema EH Owavnye— ManeliuSeDaneliils= === === 3 

South American lapwing____________ Belonopterus cayennensis_______ 4 

Crocodilembind 22222222226 2ae. sea PRUClOnNUs, Gegypiiws2= == 1G 
Recurvirostridae: 

Black-necked stilt] = Himantopus mexicanus__._______ if! 
Burhinidae: 

South American thick-knee_________ BUrhinus OIStTiatus—— 1 
Stercorariidae: 

MacCormicks!skuades= = =e Catharacta skua maccormicki___ 
Laridae: 

Ring-pilled louse te eee ee Larus delawarensis____ == 3 

Kelp eels ete ea eee ee ae LG CAUS MOONY CONUS =e 3 

rar hin oon) eee ee GGUS) GUGINO ee 3 

Herring gulls es ee WG ORUSHOLO CUCUILS = a a 1 

Great black-backed gull_____________ OUNSUN OTN Soa 2 

Silvery i ees Baie ea eS a Larus novaehollandiae___.______ 6 

INOd dy stern 2222 ee paar  S ee ALLOWS AS COULLALS eee 1 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 153 


COLUMBIFORMES 
Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Columbidae: 
Band-talledapigecone sss aes ae, Colimoanasci age 2 
High-flying Budapest pigeon________. Columoqgnvigae =e il 
iBlack-billedtpizconea sae = =a aan Columba nigrirostrigs____________ il 
Triangular spotted pigeon__________. Columba guineas. ) 
@rownedspigeon 2a t en eee anes GOUTZOROLCLOT C= 1 
Blueiegroundid oversees === eee CLOT CUISTDTeti0sas ee 4 
Ruddyseroundi doves Chamaepelia rufipennis_________ al 
Indian emerald-winged tree dove____- Chalcophaps indica_____________ 8 
Bleeding-heart Govelo-———— == == = = Gallicolumba luzonica___________ itt 
Diamonds OV ele a a ee eee Geopeha cuncae== 1 
Plain-breasted ground dove___-_---~_-. Columbigallina minuta__________ 8 
Groundudove ssa a ss ee ee ee Columbigallina passerina________ 2 
Ring-necked. dovess=—— =e Streptopelia decaocto___________ 5 
Blue-headed ring dove___-_-------_~-. Streptopelia tranquebarica______ 24 
White-winged dove_______------___- LCN CLO SUMELC (a 1 
ROOT RESO OV G2 === Zenaidura macroura___--------- 1 
PSITTACIFORMES 
Psittacidae: 

Kea parrote=--s-- a eee INIEStOT NOD OI Sea ee 2 
Redwlonryesens = o= sss eee eee Domicetla, garrulajon = 1 
Banksiangcockatooes== = eee Calyptorhynchus magnificus_____ 1 
Wihitemcockatootes=222222 eee COLO CM GCLOG ee 1 
Solomon Islands cockatoo_______-_--~ TXOUAOG UBGRO 03 pre 1 
Sulphur-crested cockatoo____-_-_--- Kakatoe, galenita- 2 3 
IBALe-CVediCOCKaA TOO me ane Kakatoe sanguinea___._-_--____- 3 
Great red-crested cockatoo________-_ Kakatoe moluccensis____________ 1 
Leadbeater’s cockatoo_____________- Kakatoe leadbeateri____________ 6 
Cockatieles 222s Bea rears ee Nymphicus hollandicus_._______ 6 
Yellow-and-blue macaw __-_-----__-- PAU CALT. CULL TC 5 
Red-and-blue macaw —---.----.._-__ FAT: Um CLOT. O DLC Cm 4 
Red-blue-and-yellow macaw __------_- AU. CEN COG see Te 2 
Wig ermsmMaciwles2= =e sas ee ee INORG RLU os 2 
Brown-throated conure_____________ Conurus aeruginosus__________- 11 
Wellowe COnUPes2 skeen ee Conurus solstitiatis=. 1 
PeLzise parakeets anes en see ee Aratinga canicularis____________ 2 
Rusty-cheeked parrot_.-_._---_-.___ Aratinga pertinam_____________- 2 
TOVieSDATAKCeE lee wee 2 Brotogeris jugularis____________ 1 
Yellow-naped parrot__._.__._.-..___._ Amazona auropalliata__________ 2 
IN SGHIS span O tase ee AMO@ZONG fiNsChiza—==2— 1 
Bilue=tronted sparno tess = aes Amazona aestiva_______________ 5 
Red-fronted@parnot ss eee AINGZONG NO OCLs 1 
Double yellow-headed parrot________ ATLOZONGMOLULT NG a ee 4 
Black-headed, or Nanday, parrot____ Nandayus nanday_--_-__-______ 7 
bineolateds parakeei=as.-] == Bolborhynchus lineolatus__.____ 2 
White-winged parakeet______.______ Brotogeris versicolorus________- al 
PAL CANEST AVA DET te PsitiacuserithaCcus= =) 4 
Blossom-headed parakeet___________ Psittacula cyanocephala________ 9 
Greater ring-necked parakeet______~ Psittacula eupatria_____________ 2 
Rose-breasted parakeet_____________ Psitiacula alerandri____________ 1 
Moustached parakeet_______________ Psittacula fasciata_——_--— === = 1 


154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Psittacidae—Continued 
Lesser ring-necked parakeet_----___ Psittacula krameri____------_-— 4 
Barraband:s, parakeet===—=——===-=—— IPOUsLEISNS ICUS ONi== ee 1 
Quakers parakect=s== =e =a Myiopsitta monacha__---------- 15 
Grass: parakect-=22.2= =: Se ee Melopsittacus undulatus__-_---- 4 
Rosy-taced) 1ovebird==— = Agapornis roseicollis___________- 2 
Masked slovebird2= === Agapornis personata____________ 1 
Black-headed caique, or seven-color 
DAtrOts 2 saa eee ee Pionites melanocephala____----- 2 
Yellow-thighed caique-____-__~_--.- Pionites leucogaster canthomeria_ 1 
CUCULIFORMES 
Musophagidae: 
Purple-headed®= turacoes 2-2 eeee ee Gallirex porphyreolophus__—_—--- il 
SOUCHRAET Cangtila CO mes ee TEOULCCOTCOnYLR Daa a! 
White-bellied go-away bird__--__-- Corythaixoides leucogaster_____ 1 
Plantain-eaters sso Saaeeeee Crinife aici al 
Cuculidae: 
DEQ 0y 3) ls Se apenas gS ak ay eek Hudynamys scolopacea_____--.-~ all 
Roadrunner) 2a. ee ee Geococcyxr californianus____-_-- 2 
Coucal, or crow-pheasant__________ Centropws sinensis______________ al 
STRIGIFORMES 
Tytonidae: 
BAT Ov eee eee TYECORGLO Gan a a eee eee 2 
Strigidae: 
Greathorned (owl BWOO Ings a ee 2 
Sereech Owl 2 See eee en OtUs (08i0 =e eee ae 3 
Spectacled nowy] seen eee Pulsatriz perspicillata__________ al 
Mal anysti Sin 210 vy eae en INOS TIAN = ae 1 
SNOWY: sO Wis = See ee se TOL LOD TOOK AN ae 4 
Barred owls shes ees so ee SUC CONG COG 9 
IBULLOWINe OWle =a ee eee Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea__ 2 
Nepal brown wood owl__.-_-~~---~- Sime newarnensis=--___ = 1 
Short-eaned eo wiles ee INSIDIOUS 2 
COLIIFORMES 
Coliidae: 
MoOuseD Ind == 22 = 2s=== 255-2 oe eee Coliussstrictus= = 1 
TROGONIFORMES 
Trogonidae: 
Cuban ero gones=222 22 eee Proteus temnirus= ea 
CORACIIFORMES 
Alcedinidae: 
Kookaburre 22 = eee ID ACClOR GLO CS =a ee 13 
Coraciidae: 
nilacsbreastedtrollers2==. essa Coraciasicauda( 2 
indiantrolier =.= a eee Coracias benghalensis________--_ 2, 
Bucerotidae: 
Jeera. Weve yea OUD Le ee Anthracoceros malabaricus_____- al 
Coneave-casqued hornbill___________ ‘BULGER OS MULCONN TS 1 
Abyssinian ground hornbill____._____ Bucorvus abyssinicus__._.____--_~ 2 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 155 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Bucerotidae—Continued 
meadhbeater:shornbilleeee Bucorvus leadbeateri___- 11 
Grayshornbil ieee see ea ee TOCKUSROLTOSUGLS = ee al 
Great black-casgued hornbill________ Ceratogymna atrata___________— il 
Malay anihorn| pil] Seas = ene eee ACCROSMINGULIGUS === aan eee 1 
Crowned horn pil eee eens Tockus alboterminatus__________ 1 
Yellow-billedthornhl = Tockus flavirostris_____________ = il 
PICIFORMES 
Capitonidae: 
ASIA Ce Tealtab aye tae eee Megatainva vinensa- = 1 
Crimson-breasted, or coppersmith, 
Danbeteec sees ee so eee a Megalaima haemacephala_______ itt 
Toucan hanbe te eee Semnornis ramphastinus________ 1 
Ramphastidae: 
Keel-billed toucan=_______-__-_______ Ramphastos culminatus_________ 2 
Sulphur-and-white-breasted toucan__ Ramphasios vitellinus__________ 1 
(ATE CLUE OT Cal = = eee eee ee Ramphastos ariet___-— 4 
(Chimes owrermn Ramphastos cuvierit_____________ 2 
Razor-pilleditoucanet=ss. =e Pteroglossus castanotis_________ 2; 
Picidae: 
Golden-backed woodpecker__________ Brachypternus benghalensis_____ 2 
PASSERIFORMES 
Tyrannidae: 
Kiskadeefivedteh ere == a ae Pitangus sulphuratus___________ 4 
Acadianttiy. catch Cra === a= aaa Hmpidonan virescens___________ 2 
IDES Sa MN Iabaeey opie RYT ONNUS CYNONNIUS = ee al 
Pittidae: 
NTA LE bees ee ee ACC OMOLEA CTU LT. Ce al 
Alaudidae: 
Hornedlark= sss a ee Hremophila alpestrig____________ 2 
Corvidae: 
Maio pic hee wee eee ee ene PCOS (CO oe ee ee eee 4 
Yellow-billedimaspic==—— == PACORNULL OL See 1 
ASIA tI CHree DlG@2 2 a= ae ae eee Crypsirina formosae____________ 2 
MAS pIC: [ay = tee eres ee eek ee ek Calocitia formosa-————_ === 1 
IBIUICs Aye ae ee earn 5 ere Cyan Cristi 1 
HUT O DCA ayes ee eee ees Gorrulus glandenius== 2 
African white-necked crow__________. ODPONS UDN Ose 2 
PANINIC Tol CAT CTO We Corvus brachyrhynchos_________ 3 
TER EUV, C1 oe rer rr ree ee Re ee ODRDIS: COR Maasai Ye 
EN Gay CLO We eee Se es ODRGES SELIG) ——— al 
Formosan red-billed pie_____________ CiSSOmCQertleg= === 5 
Occipitaliblue piece CiSS020CCIDILO SS al 
Chinese cissa, or hunting crow______ Oissauchinens see 3 
TIC aE | aye sed See sO 6 Xanthoura ynoas______________- 1 
Paridae: 
GP Be Gi ee ae ea la ee (RONUSSING) 07S ee ee eee 1 
Green-backediti te ee ee POT SE MLONEICOULS =e ee a 
uted ititmousess sss eee ees eee JERE TIS KEQUON a 1 
Sittidae: 
Chestnut-bellied nuthatch___________ ISRETORCOSTON CC ee 1 


156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Timaliidae: 
Red-eyedibabblers====—==———=—===—— Chrysomma sinense__.--.------~ 4 
Scimitar babblers22---)—) === Pomatorhinus schisticeps_-_-_---- al 
White-crested laughing thrush__-__-- Garrulaxy bicolor- === === 4 
Black-headedsibia== === === === === ——— Heterophasia capistrata-_-_----~ 2 
Silver-eared| MeSid==—e==—=—==—————— WIGSIOD CRUE TO Ma 3 
Pekin’ robin’ 222222222 eee TiCLOLRTADNUUL CUS 9 
@rested yuhina=== 2222 a eee Yuhing flavicollisz === 2 
Pycnonotidae: 
Red-cared bulbul=2 22h eS Pycnonotus jocosus_________-___ il 
Black-headed) bulbul=22—- 2 Pycnonotus atriceps_—- 3 
Red-vented)biulbul ee IPYCHONOUUSECO Cl 5 
White-cheeked bulbul --=---___--_--- Pycnonotus leucogenys__________ 5 
Wihite-eared bulbul==== === Pycnonotugs teuwcotis____—-—- == fl 
Mimidae: 
Mockingbird y=22===—=—-= eee Minus polyglottosn22 2 1 
@athirdl 2222s eee eee ee Dumetella carolinensis________-_ 3: 
Turdidae: 
Wood!) sthrush 25 ss Ae eee Hylocichla mustelina________-__ 20 
iRobines (albino) 222= === eee TLUPGuSemAiginaclonusaee ee 1 
Huropean song. thrush’ =22=———————— TAT US) MCRLCC LOT a ee 2 
Blackbird e222. See ee TUT OU SHLC TL = 2 
Clift chats= = =22 3 ae eee Thamnolaea cinnamomeiventris_ aft 
White-capped redstart_____-_________ Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus___ i 
Muscicapidae: 
Veriter=flycateher===) 2s) 22esaes22= Muscicapa thalassina_____-__-__ if 
Bombycillidae: 
Cedar waxwinss== sees eee Bomobycilla cedrorum____------~ 2 
Sturnidae: 
Rose-colored pastor===2=2= === IP AStOTALOS CUS =e ee al 
Purplenstarling= =e Lamprocolius purpureus________ 3 
Burchell’s long-tailed starling_______ Lamprotornis caudatus_________ 1 
AMethyStStarling === a= = Cinnyricinclus leucogaster______ 1 
iEeri-colored starlings eee IS DECONSUDCT UU See 1 
Starling s2e>4 235 See ee ee SCULNUSS CULD OTIS a2 eee 2 
Afiebaved rey “sedhyniys le eee A Cridothernesntiistis=. aes ae 1 
GES ee avd som aNe NN Gracula religiosa indica_________ 3 
Greater Indian hill mynah______-_~_- Gracula religiosa intermedia____ 2 
Nectariniidae: 
Searlet-chested sunbird______--_---_ Chalecomitra rubescens____--_____ 1 
Variable:sunhird === Cinnyris venustus raceis________ 2 
Scarlet-tufted malachite sunbird____~ Nectarinia johnstoni____________ 2 
Beautitulssunhird =e Nectarinia nuichetla-——_——_ iL 
Purplesunbird= 2222 Nectarmia asiatica22———— J 
Tecasse “sunbird=-2— = Nectarimia tacazzez==— al 
Zosteropidae: 
Wihite-eye 22-2 2s oo ee Zosterops palpebrosa________--~ 6 
Vireonidae: 
Red-evedevireoss ses eee eee Vinee OUUACEUSEae == eee il 
Chloropseidae: 


Blue-winged fruit-sucker__________~ Chloropsis hardwickei_______--- 2 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


Family and common name 
Coerebidae : 
Black-headed sugarbird-----_------ 
Purp lewSU Lae Dice ee 
Blue, or yellow-winged, sugarbird__~_ 
Bananaquit 
Parulidae: 
Kentuckywarplersas.--- 
Redstart 
Ovenbird 
Ploceidae: 
Red-naped widowbird______________ 
Giant why daht=222 ae 
Bayan weaviel esses eee 
Vitelline masked weaver_____-_____-_ 
Manhalisweavers2=-.2-s=- sens ee 
Red bishop hweaverssss= a= ase 
White-headedmintin === sas eens 
Ibaysheyal “SwhyeveepO Re 
Bengaleseatinch=—ss2- eae 
Cut-throat weaver finch___________- 
havenderstinch= == = eee 
Strawberry finch 
Red-eared wax) ee 
Common ewaxbil ase ee ee 


UNE). SURI eae ee 
Icteridae: 
Yellow-headed marshbird___________ 
ICED STACK! Chan ee nae ees 
Purpleseracki Gee. 2 eee eee 
Swainson: seera ck) Gass aaa ee 
Boat talledverackle ss sas eae 
GJOSSyaCOW DIT === =e 
Brown-headed cowbird__-__________. 
QVCO Ding =a aeeeeees | Se SE 
Colombian red-eyed cowbird_________ 
Red-winged blackbird______________. 
Red-breasted marshbird_____________ 
Thraupidae: 
Palmpbann cere. 22 see wate 
Bluestanagers==2 sew 
White-edged tanager_______________ 
Yellow-rumped tanager_____________ 
IPasserinis tang Ceres eee 
Maroon, or silver-beaked, tanager____ 
Scarletitanagertes. seen 
Redttang sere iain en ee, 
Fringillidae: 
TRrOpIGHlESee Metin Ghee eens 
ICON STOSD ECB ese eer ee ee oe 
HVeningserOsbeake == ese ae 


Scientific name 


COhlorophanes) spizg22 2s = = 
Cyanerpes coerulea ii -___ -— 
Cyanerpes: cyancis. 
Coereta flaveola— 


OPOTOrnis) fOTMOSUS2 2 =a 
SCLOPLAGO Tn Ctl aa 
Seiurus aurocapilius____________ 


Coliuspasser laticauda_____----~ 
Diathropura procne_-_----- = 
LOCCU SOC] ee ee eee 
Ploceus viutelinus== == 
Rloceipassen, mata 
EAL DUCCT CSO M0 ee 
TG ORCH AUG ATIL) ee 
Lonchura malabarica__________- 
LONCLUL GES Die eee 
AMAdindg faseiutda=----—- 
Hstmida coerulescens______ = _— 
HStrildadaamand dude 
StL COAGS TIAL = ee 
Stride atOglodytes= ae 
Poephila castanotisaa2 2-2 
POCDINGNGOULCICeE =e ee 
TELCO ORVEUO TR ee 


Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus— 
Psomocolagx oryziwora__—-_-----— 
Oumscalus, Quiscula—. 
Holoquiscalus lugubris________- 
Megaquiscalus major__________- 
Molothrus bonariensis__________ 
MOLOLILTALSRALET === = ee 


Tangavws anrmenti—_2-=— =a ee 
Agelaius phoeniceus 22-22 222s 
IWEISUGD! CLIO US ae 


Ranagrea palmarnim 22 
UM DRUIOH DOS COI a ee 
LU ROH URC NAR 
Ramphocelus icteronotus____-__~ 
Ramphocelus passerinii______--- 
Ramphocelus jacapa_____------~ 
TEER, QUEUE RU ——— 
PATONG OG S07 C= eens 


Oryzoborus angpiensis___------~- 
Oryzoborus crassirostris___-_-_--- 
Hesperiphona vespertina___---- 


157 


Number 


BPRPHENNOHPPRHRHFOWH 


10 


ORR NNNHF RP RHP 


are SC = at Ol CY CY 


0 


158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Fringillidae—Continued 
Black-throated cardinal_---------_—_- TEM ROOER IOS (YI 5 
Black-eared! cardinal== Paroaria gularis nigro-—_--_--__ fl 
Cardinal_-22 eee Richmondena cardinalis___----- 3 
Buropean linnetsee=2 === Carduelis cannabina___----~-_- 4 
Huropean goldfinch====-42222-222=2— Carduelis carduelis-________---- 3 
European goldfinch X canary (hy- Carduelis carduelis X Serinus al 
brid). canarius. 
Canaty. =. = eee NELUVUSCONOTLS =a 2 
Green fin Chae eee Chiorisnchio;s= ae 1 
lessersyellowsanch== =.=. SLCOUSTULLC OL =a 2 
Safironinche 2.2) een eee SicaliseaceolC = 5 
Wihite lined inches ee Spermophila lineola______-____-- 5 
nuropeanebull finch ass ss— =e Pyrrhula pyrrhula_____---__--__ fl 
IMelodioussgrassquitees=——=——=—— == TOT CONOT W220 2 oe al 
@haftiincht2.224 2 eee Hringuula COCle0 saa ee 1 
Slate-colored juncOse seen ULACOMLU CIAL S =a ne 1 
iButt-throated) saltatoc=—— == Saltator macuniuss222 il 
Tawny-bellied seedeater______--__-- Sporophila minuta___-_-_------- 9 
Songuspaltowaess see ee Melospiza melodia______----_--- 1 
Dickeissel-=~— 2-22 = Sees se See SPIZUUMNemiCAnG sae e ae 5 
White-throated sparrow------~------ Zonotnichia albicoliisz== === === == il 
White-crowned sparrow------------ Zonotrichia leucophrys____-____- 2 
Yellowhammer 222 Sesssesesae ee Hmbveriza citrinetlgs2a2 2 =-e-=ee 1 
Huropeans bunting === a Hmberiza catandra—_——----=--— 2 
Jacarini inch! =— saan eee Volatinia jacarini_________-_._— 5 
REPTILES 
LORICATA 
Alligatoridae: 
Caiman 22 a eee ee eee COUNGNESClCLONS =e 3 
Blackicalimane = sae. = ss eee MClONOSUCHUS MIG Chana e eee 8 
PAIN Eri Camel labo ee ee ee eee Alligator mississipiensis_______- 16 
Chinesealhicatorse==2.—— = ALG ALOTYSINCNSI Saas 2 
Crocodilidae: 
Broad-nosed crocodile________------- Osteolaemus tetraspis_______-_--~ Pe 
Africanicrocodiles=== === Crocodylus niloticus_________.__ 8 
Narrow-nosed crocodile____________-. Crocodylus cataphractus___----- il 
Salt-water crocodiles saan ae Crocodylis 0.031 1 
AMeri Canicrocodlleaase == === aaa Cr ocodylisnacuits= = al 
Gavialidae: 
Indiana Mean So ee Gavialis gangeticus____=_——=-=—— 1 
CHELONIA 
Chelydridae: 
Snappinesturtle== ee Chelydra serpentina___._____.-~- 20 
Alligator snapping turtle____________ Macrochelys temminckii___------ al 
Kinosternidae: 
Musktturtles 222 eae ia eco Sternotherus odoratus_______-__ 4 
Mr Hr GT Ot a eee Kinosternon subrubrum____----- 5 


South American mud turtle_________- Kinosternon creuntatum__-—---- | 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 159 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Emydidae: 
Box tuLblessesen see eS eT TRerrapene COnOUNG = 2 91 
Mhree-toeds boxturtles.= === ane. Terrapene carolina___--—---_____ 2 
Ornate hoxahuntlee eee LUT RIG NGL C1 UHI al! 
HloridaboxaGunt)] eleaees se a LUGE RUNG (WOU 5 
CoAT Oxau UTE) Omen Cuora amboinensis_____________ 2 
Diamondhbackiburtles== = ee Mataclemys terrapin____________ 4 
IM a Gist Ge eer een ee Graptemys geographica_________ 2 
Hay Sern aps Urs bl Cees eee ree Graptemys pseudogeographica___ 2 
Barbours map turtles ee Graptemys barbouri___________— 4 
Paintedituntles=s=22= eee CREUSCNUYSIDICL Os eee 10 
Western painted turtle__.___________ Chrysemys picta beli___________ 13 
Cumberlanditurtiles=— ee Pseudemys scripta troostii______ 7 
South American red-lined turtle______ Pseudemys scripta callirostris___ 2 
Yellow-bellied turtle________________ Pseudemys scripta scripta_______ 15 
Red-pelliedturile Pseudemys rubriventris_________ 9 
Red-earediturtle==2-- == ee Pseudemys scripta elegans______ 34 
Southern water turtlel=--===----=-—— Pseudemys floridana____________ tf 
Florida red-bellied turtle____________ Pseudemys nelsoni________ 2 
Central American turtle____________- PSCUCCINYS OC1NCtt2 eee 2 
Cubaniwateriturtlie===——.——=———— =a Pseudemys decussata__._________ al 
Chicken:turtle==2=230) 2 ee Deirochelys reticularia__________ 2 
Spottediturtless2 es eee Clem mys Guill. ee 3 
iWooditurtlelias = oa eee eee Clemmys insculpta______________ 5 
tberian pond turtle==———— = ClemniySRLCDTOS Cae 2 
European water terrapin_-_-_________ Clemmys caspica rivulata_______ 14 
Huropean wong turtle see EY SROTGULCULOT LS ee 3 
iBlandines turtlesssse=ss esas ena YY SADLONOUNG Ue 2 
Reeves !sturtl estas = =a see eo Chinemys reevesti______________ 4 
Testudinidae: 
GiantAldabraltortoises=s== ae === Testudo elephantina___________- 2 
Galapagosstortoisesea === ee eee SMEGSUCIIO. CUCU WD 2 
Duncan Island tortoise-____________ Testudo ephipptum_____________ 2 
South American tortoise_______-___- Testudo denticutata__.-________ 5 
Stans, tortoise == == Sees TEStudonelegans == === ae al 
Huropeanstortoises==——=—-=——---——— = DLESUOED YW RIOGD a il 
Mountainktorvoise====———— == SNESAOKUO. CHD laa oe 2 
Texas copher tortoises=——— === — = — Gopherus berlandieri_.__________ 2 
Pelomedusidae: 
ACTTICAN WeaALCL butt] Cee === =a eee Pelomedusa subrufa_____-_______ 2 
Atricansplack mi Gaturtl ema. saa IPEVUISLOS NgTCan See eee Al 
AMAzon spotted turtle====22222e25 Podocnemis unifilig_____________ 2 
Chelydidae: 
South American side-necked turtle_._ Batrachemys nasuta____________ 2 
Australian side-necked turtle______-_ Chelodina longicollis___________ 3 
Small side-necked turtle____________ Hydromedusa tectifera________- 2 
Large side-necked turtle____________ ERTUNODSHILUL Oi 8 
Kremtes turilets an ee ne ee nny kreftia. 3 
Murray? turtlet sco eas 2 ten ee eee Limydura macquarriit___________ 3 
South American gibba turtle________ Mesociemmys gibba_____________ 2 
Mat-headed turtle Platemys platycephala_____-___- 3 


160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Trionychidae: 
Southern soft-shelled turtle-___----_ THAONU Dap CLO Canes ee 4 
Texas soft-shelled turtle-__---______ LTIONYa Cmonyis se al 
African soft-shelled turtle-_--__---~- Trionya triunguis_—--—==- === == 2 
SAURIA 
Gekkonidae: 
Giant Sgeckoss2t232_ 242 ee Gekkoxustentoree = eee att 
TokayereCekOes] aaa ee eee ee ee Gekkong¢¢0 = 27 
Day {feck 0s 22 ee ae ee Phelsuma cepedianum__——------ 3 
Day Peck oes ate ee ee IPheIsuMN ay Spts eee 2 
Iguanidae: 
Commontiguana==ss see = ees TCO 0 ———— 1 
Carolina anoles22222 222.56 eee Anos carolinensis=— === 50 
Texas hornedsi zard === Phrynosoma cornutum__-------- 10 
Mencenlizanrd ss ssa nee eer Sceloporus undulatus___________ Dy 
Texas Sp iMiyael Ze 1 eee Sceloporus olivaceus.———-______- 2 
Crevicespiny lizard==—== =a Sceloporus poinsetti____________ 3 
Cubanispiny lizard22222)=== —a=aena Leiocephalus variws_—._--_--___- 2 
Collared izard= eae Crotaphytus collaris____________ 3 
Spiny-talledeicuana==—— == Ctenosaura acanthura___------- 3 
INGE, IVa ee Ameiva ameiva ameiva______-__- 6 
Pwo! Wye ee Ameiva ameiva praesignis_______ 1 
Meamid glizard =] 222 eee ee ee LO DUI SS OD UCO UG a 2 
@huckwalla®= 2222 see eee Sauromatus hispidus=—= === === 1 
Scincidae: 
MO UTI Sas Kel Kee eee EQ CRNAGMUULGLILO SO mee ae 2 
Whites: skink. 22sec aes tae THWGPOG U0 Pa 4 
Siobhan) <itatapie Humeces brevilineatus_________- 5 
Greater five-lined skink ___________ Humeces fasciatus-2=—— == al 
Greateblainsiskink=== =e ALINE CESAOUSOLE US ae 2 
Broad-headediskinks saa = == ERUNEGES LAtI CED SaaS 1 
SS 10 ss Beek eee ee ae ae gee Scmnus oficncis= 2 
Stump-tailedss kink see TG aA OS Ce al 
Malayan iskinkes 222 22s s2 2 Ee ee Mabuya multifasciata____------ 2 
Gerrhosauridae: 
APricanipl ated lizards =a, ZONOSOIULTUS Sp aes ee 2 
Madagascar plated lizard___________ Zonosaurus madagascariensis__— 3 
Bronze plated zardsesss === ae ZONOSAaUTUS Geneus—o— = === == 1 
Platedplizardsss22 es Soa ee eee Gerrhosaurus majore—=——----- == 1 
Rlatedtizard= = a eee Gerrhosaurus validus______-_--- 2 
Lacertidae: 
Huropean ereenwlizar (ese IGT UR 9 
European green lizard_________-_____ Lacerta strigata trilineata_____~ 8 
Teiidae: 
SWellowsteCCucee =. = See ee eee Tupinambis teguevin___________ 4 
RA COAUNN CR Ss 22 a8 oa eee Onemidophorus sacki gularis____ 1 
Neiid wizards... 2 a es eee Onemidopnoriusisp= 3 
Cordylidae: 
South African spiny lizard__________ Cordylus vandami perkoensis____ 2 
Varanidae: 
DAMES aN ON tO ae eee VAG ROO OMITOG TU ee 2, 


TY TAT OTE Oe ee Varanus flavescens________---~- 1 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


161 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Varanidae—Continued 
Malayantmonilorsees a= =a as VQnanus salvugloT====- == il 
Philippinesmonitors= =.= ese ViQnanUus TUCKANS 222 aaa 4 
Helodermatidae: 
Gilavmonster 22 ae ee Heloderma suspectum_____------~ 1 
Mexican beaded lizard________-__--_- Heloderma horridum_____.----- al 
Beaded lizard (black phase) ~-----~-. Heloderma horridum alwernensis— 1 
Anguidae: 
Glassiizan dee a ae eee Ophisaurus wventralis--—-=---- = 3 
Humopean Slassizarda= sass as Ophisauwus apodusas=—== sess 2 
SERPENTES 
Boidae: 
Anaconda 2222 oe EVULNC CLC SM NUTT S aa aL 
@ooksitnee boas ss. ee eee BOGLCNY OTIS COOK eens eae ee 5 
mera decrees DO desea eee eee eee IBOOK GUO se ee 2 
IB Oa RCONSEL ClO ee Constrictor constrictor_________-_ 2 
IDeA OIRONO | NOH  e Constrictor imperator__________- 1 
Cubansround|boa== = Tropidophis melanura____-__---~ 1 
Ran DOW DOds ee ee ee ED tGn@ueSiCEn Chil Uae 3 
@ubanwtiree, boa see] et ee eee ae Epicrates angulifer_____________ 3 
Sandehoawee sees ae ee oe ee ERY DE CONUS ee ee ne ee 1 
apie sonia ee ee PU LILOTURT. COLL Se 2 
ihohiniay Tels yon rVO I2VYHIOD GROUT — 2 
Recall pythons =——22 2 Sees ae ee L2H NOR: ROU COMO 5 
Acrochordidae: 
Hlephant trunk snake____________-_- Acrochordus javanicus______---- il 
Colubridae: 
Wing Asn nke sense bee See eee Lampropeltis getulus getulus____ al 
Speckled king snake________________ Lampropeltis getulus holbrooki__ 3 
Californiayking) snakes. saa Lampropeltis getulus californiae— 1 
Horidayking snakets =.= aa Lampropeltis getulus floridana__ 1 
Sonorangkine sna ke sas ea ae Lampropeltis getulus splendida__ 3 
Searle tp kines Sia kicies see eae eee Lampropeltis triangulum doliata— al 
VIR STi aK Ger te cee Sree eee ee ee ce Lampropeltis triangulum___----- il 
Abiqoyonkeenl iauaveg Syneniqa Lampropeltis polyzonus_____-__- 1 
Garterrsmaketea. su ee eee ee eee Thamnophis sirtalis sirtaligs_____ 2 
Garter snake (melanistic phase) _____ Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis____- 2, 
Black-necked garter snake__________. Thamnophis cyrtopsis ocellata__- il 
Ribbonvsnakesss— ee eee Thamnophis sauritus__._______-_ 1 
Western hognose snake_____________ Heterodon nasicus_____.__--____- il 
Walters snak@e= sacar es kee ee eee INTHAUD SGNAO PD - = 2 
Red-bellied water snake____________. Natrix erythrogaster___________ 1 
island iwaters Sia ews ase eee eer Natrizg insularum______—_-----._- 2 
HULOpeAn Srassi sna kewee ees ee Natrix natrig natriv________---- 4 
HUTOpPeCani walter SM ake semen ese INGETAD ING ULUCED CTS Ue ee 2 
IBTAZOSWaLel SNalke@= anes DOA PULPUG Tn a 2 
iWiatertsnakero 2s eas sce eae aes Natri« harteri paucimaculata____ 2 
Diamondback water snake__________. ING@EniD ThOMUI CTO = il 
Tessellated water snake____________. INGEETCMLCSS CULL ea -£ 
Tessellated water snake (green WNatrixz tessellata_____________-- 2 
phase). 


Queentsnakess2a eee a ee Natriz septemvittata____________ 


— 


162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Colubridae—Continued 
Indigo snakelss22s2 2 === Drymarchon couwperi__------—--_ al! 
Pilotblackisnakess === eee Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta________ 3 
Pilot biack snake (albino) ---------_. Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta___----- 1 
Cormsnake?=== 2. eee Hlaphe obsoleita guttata____-_---- Pe 
Woxisnaket222 2-222 ee TELODRCRUILUD LIU a 2 
Asiatieirat snd kee a. == ee JOH ONG CRG OC UR aa iD 
lindheimer’s rat snake==22222222>-—- Elaphe lindheimeri_____--_----- iL 
Great Plains rat snakes2—=== === == JOULE GOOR isa ee 2 
Ohickenisnak@ tees ee aaa Elaphe quadrivittata___-.-__--~ we 
Wesculapiangsno keels === = == ==a==—— Elaphe longissima subgrisea___- ts 
Mormosanurat svake====—)— === Dinodon rufozonatum____~_----- 4 
Oshimaeratesnakese == seen LCOCUROSUMN = il 
Cat-eyed snake s.=  = eee Leptodeira annulata________---- at 
Black aCe ee ae ee eee Coluber constrictor constrictor___ 1 
HUrOpea neta Cet == aaa aa Coluber jugularis caspius_______~ 2 
European racer (melanistic phase)_ Coluber viridiflavus______------- 1 
IReCdeta CCl ese Masticophis flagellum frenatum_ il 
Western coachwhip___-------_-__-__ Masticophis flagellum testaceus__ 3 
Rine-necked ssn ake@s sss Diadophis punctatus edwardsti__ if 
besser Indian rat snake--__________ IPILDIG OOF THT a eS 9 
MASteLn woOltM snake saa === aa Carphophis amoenus______-__---~ i 
Mekays snakess === anaes ISHORGAROM UG DT ae 1 
ouch erecnysnakceas seas Opheodnys aestious== 2 
Greenswhip snakeha se... == s==—a—= =. DFA ODRISRONASUU Sa 1 
Bull. ssnakes: 222252 wes eae eee Pituophis catenifer sayi_________ 2 
Great Basin gopher snake__-------- Pituophis catenifer deserticola___ i 
Greater Indian rat snake_-—____-___. EV OSMINUCOS See 4 
Huropean) malpolon===2— === Malpolon monspessulanus__.---- 2 
Wile SNA Ke! se ae ee ee ee Simocephalus capensis________-~ sft 
IWioli snakes =2 so ne eee Lycodon flavomaculatus________- af: 
Tantillay snakes. -=- a eee RAV graCiisa eee 2 
Texas long-nosed snake__-__-_____-_- Rhinocheilus lecontei tessellatus_ 2 
Formosan green snake____--__-_---. TA ODCUASTING) C1 =e 24 
@at-ey.ed) snake==22 225-2222 soe HL CAROGIDS OSES Dene 1 
Green-headed tree snake___--_-_--_-- Leptophis megvicanus_._________- 1 
Elapidae: 
In diancophies=—-= eee eee NC ON) CS a ee eee al 
To Wan CODLA= === ee INOQIONG OO Canaan eee ips 
in 8 CODRA SS ae a eee eee Ophiophagus hannah__-_------- Pe 
Many-bandedtkralta== === === aa Bungarus multicinctus_____----- 10 
Crotalidae: 
Southern’ copperhead==2222— 2-2 === Ancistrodon contortrix contor- 1 
trig. 
Northern copperhead_____________--_. Ancistrodon contortriz mokeson__ 4 
Western broad-banded copperhead___. Ancistrodon contortriz laticinctus ei 
Water moccasin, or cottonmouth___-_-_. Ancistrodon piscivorus____------~ 2 
IASTAMISNORKE avi Che ee ee Ancistrodon acutuss=2222-.-— = il 
Greeninalmtviperse ==) ee! see Trimeresurus gramineus______-- 29 
Stejneger’s palm viper______________- Trimeresurus stejnegeri_____---- 3 
Mamushi, or Asiatic viper_____-__-__-. Trimeresurus elegans_______---- al 
Haba or Asiatiewiper==———- Trimeresurus flavoviridis____--- 1 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


Family and common name Scientific name 

Crotalidae—Continued 

MaiwanihabWecs ses eee ae Trimeresurus okinavensis 

Western diamondback rattlesnake___._ Crotalus atrov_-_-_-_------- 

TM SRA A TELE ST eC ee eens Crotalus horridus___________ 

Ganebrake rattlesnake---—------~—=_-. Crotalus atricaudatus____-_- 
Viperidae: 

Caboonhviper= se ee ee BOS GOXCWED 

European viper (melanistic phase)--. Vipera berus_---_----------- 

TDUUD CO OSCE OVO OES Vipera ammodytes meridionalis__ 

Huropesnvaipetea= = ea ee eee Vipera ammodytes montandoni__ 

HuTOpeaN svi pele ee = == ee Vipera ammodytes ammodytes___ 

USSeLUShVil pele ee ee VinCrasTuUsseliitaas =e ee 

AMPHIBIANS 
CAUDATA 

Amphiumidae: 

Won come: ee ae eee Amphiwma ‘meansoo—-= === === 
Ambystomidae: 

Spotted salamander___-—---------_- Ambystoma maculatum__-_-- 
Salamandridae: 

Japanese red-bellied newt__--------- Diemictylus pyrrhogaster 

ed -SVOULeC men 6 yitee Diemictylus viridescens_____~ 

SALIENTIA 

Bufonidae: 

PAMeniGanetOaG saa eee a eee Bufo terrestris americanus____-- 

Blompersst0l daa) === aa IBORD WOTWIGR aa 

Giantiitoad Se ee eee BUfOMMariniUse= === 

Cubankt0e 0222222 eee Bufo peltocephalus____-__-_- 
Pelobatidae: 

European spadefoot toad_--------- PElOUgteS I USCUS== === 
Pipidae: 

Surinam toa@ees = see eee PUDO DUD Ons ee eae ee 

APricanmclawedm clogs == === === === MPO NS WOW a 

Congo py sneer HA MCROCMIGUWS Spas = === 
Leptodactylidae: 

Colombianshorneds ros. === Ceratophrys calcarata______- 
Hylidae: 

Barkinguthee totes eae ERUD. ROI DS 

G@reenetree ci:c0 fe ee EUs CLN CR CO = = ae 

Gubanvtree: toga eee Hyla septentrionalis______--- 

Huropean tree dqrOg sss sae een EEUU 0 ONC a a 

G@itthy (aS TRO ee ee TEGUD: RARTES DUO 
Microhylidae: 

INarrow-mouthed toadese sass === Microhyla carolinensis___-_- 
Ranidae: 

African bulletroges 22) eee ee Rana, adspersa=== === =—- = 

IAMeTicanybulletTOg= eee Range catesberana—-__—_-____—— 

Grecneelt0 2 === === eee ae Rana clamitans melanota 


TheopardwttOg=—— == eee IRORDOR (0G) OUCH Sia 


163 


Number 


to bo ob ee eS 


Gy TS) fT 


164 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


FISHES 
NEOCERATODONTOIDEI 
Family and conmon name Scientific name Number 
Protopteridae: 
Atrican ungish2==——2—————=——a Protopterus annectens 2 
OSTARIOPHYSOIDEI 
Characidae: 
D Sab pr ial aks Weer bet ae neat ies ee cia SCLEASQUNUS NL Clee 1 
Mebtynnis; 222)22-.eeaeees ae cease Metynnis rooseveltti____________ 1 
Black tetraas- =) see ee ee eee Gymnocorymbus ternetzi________ fl 
Cyprinidae: 
CUTE LLLS PU eee ee ee ers BrACKYOQNIO TCTIO === ee ee 4. 
Nicer. Dar == 2s sos ae oan eee eee Puntius partipentazona_________ B 
White Cloud Mountain fish__-_-__-. Tanichthys albonubes___________ 8 
Hlectrophoridae: 
PIECE CHCE l= se a ae es ee ee Electrophorus electricus_.________ 8 
Gymnotidae: 
AETICAn nite hs n= ee eee Sternarchella schotit _-2=2- =~ 1 
CYPRINODONTOIDEI 
Poeciliidae: 
Klaec=tatledMouppyesees= ase eee eOStesiTeliCulatusee ee 10 
CETL PDT V see ee ee eS Levistes reviculatusas. 15 
Blacksmoliicos= a= sae eae Molltienesia tatipinna____________ 3 
IPlatya OraMoont she === nee Xiphophorus maculatus_________ 2 
PERCOMORPHOIDEI 
Anabantidae: 
Climbing. perch ee Anaduas testudinens= ==) 3 
Cichlidae: 
Peacock cichlids Astronotus ocetlatus.—_—-_ if 
Egyptian mouthbreeder __---_-_____ Haplochromis multicolor___._____ 3 
African mouthbreeder______________ Peimatochromis beliadorsalis___ 2 
PAN GEMS) 2 ae noe a ee te ee Pterophyllum eimekei__________ 2 
Jacke Dempseyn hsSha ee Cichlasoma biocellatum_________ 8 
Jewellishi ss == seen woe mae Hemichromis bimaculatus______ 1 
Loricariidae: 
South American catfish__-.._______ Plecostomus plecostomus_______-— 2 
ARTHROPODS 
DECAPODA 
Cenobitidae: 
Mandvhermigucrapss==2——2———=—aen ee Coenobita clypeatus_________-___ 23 
Gecareinidae: 
Hloridayblueilandieraps=2s2ss.0 sane Cardisoma guanhwni__________- 2 
ARANEIDA 
Theridiidae: 
iBlack-widOwgspidersee=se. =e Latrodectus mactans____.-__-_-_ 1 
Aviculariidae: 
‘Tarantulay ss eee EU CUI CES = 1 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 165 


ORTHOPTERA 
Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Blattidae: 
Tropical giant cockroach__--_------ Blabverus giganteus__.___------- 30 
MOLLUSKS 
PULMONATA 
Planorbidae: 
ond sngile te a eee Heltisomae trivolwis_i-- =~ = - 30 
REORGANIZATION 


A reorganization of management of the National Zoological Park 
was completed during the year. The number of departments was 
reduced from five to three, headed by the office of the director. 

The functions of the animal department, under Dr. W. T. Roth, 
were increased to include the veterinary and commissary divisions. 
This department also has reptile, bird, small mammal, and large 
mammal divisions. It provides for the development, identification, 
classification, and care of the zoological collection. The veterinary 
division provides medical care for the collection. The commissary 
division provides food for the animals. The duties of the reptile, 
bird, small mammal, and large mammal divisions include cleaning 
of enclosures, feeding and watering the animals, observing and in- 
specting for signs of sickness or injury, and administering prescrip- 
tions as ordered. 

A scientific research department, under J. Lear Grimmer, was 
created, and at the present time is operating with one division, the 
information and education division. A research division will be 
formed at a later date. This department provides zoological research, 
educational, and informational programs and activities. The infor- 
mation and education division designs, creates, and maintains all 
signs, enclosure labels, and directional aids (with the exception of 
police traffic signs) and prepares for publication and distribution in- 
formation about the National Zoological Park and the animal 
collection. 

The administrative services department, under Travis E. Fauntle- 
roy, Jr., includes the mechanical, police, grounds, and services 
divisions. This department provides administrative and operational 
services necessary for support of the functions of the National Zoo- 
logical Park. The mechanical division constructs, renovates, repairs, 
and maintains the buildings. The police division protects the build- 
ings, grounds, facilities, property, employees, and visitors. The 
grounds division provides gardening, tree care, and grounds main- 
tenance. The service division provides operational services, including 


166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


procurement and supply, custodial and labor activities, transporta- 
tion service, vehicle and motorized equipment maintenance, restrooms, 
telephone switchboard, and messenger service. 


PERSONNEL 


William R. James, captain of the National Zoological Park police 
since 1953, died at the age of 62 on December 21, 1961. He had been 
an employee of the Park since 1922 and on the police force since 
1929. The quiet, efficient manner in which he handled his work won 
him the respect not only of his fellow employees but also of the 
thousands of visitors whom he befriended. 

The director was one of the 10 “outstanding young men” of the 
year in Government service to receive the Arthur Flemming Award. 

In September the director visited a number of western zoos to study 
new construction in connection with the forthcoming construction 
program at the National Zoological Park. He also attended the an- 
nual conference of the American Association of Zoological Parks 
and Aquariums in Rochester, N.Y., and was elected secretary of the 
association for 1961-62. 

Two new positions were filled: Dr. Waldfried T. Roth became gen- 
eral curator of the National Zoological Park on August 7, 1961; 
Miss Marion McCrane was appointed zoologist on April 17, 1962. 
She has been assigned to the information and education division 
and is working on a project to design new labels for the entire 
collection. 

Dr. James F. Wright, appointed veterinarian at the Zoo on Au- 
gust 5, 1957, resigned on June 30, 1962, to take a position in the U.S. 
Public Health Service. In addition to his regular duties in the 
Park, Dr. Wright has made a valuable contribution to the study of 
the projectile syringe and its use in capturing and treating wild 
animals. 

Tony Wallace, who came to the Zoo as a mason November 27, 1933, 
retired May 26, 1962; and George Schmedegaard, an animal keeper 
since April 10, 1948, retired June 30, 1962. Samuel Beeler, animal 
keeper, was recalled to military service on September 30, 1961. 

Thomas Schneider, animal keeper, was promoted to medical 
technologist. 

In the fiscal year 1962 there were 205 authorized positions in the 
Zoo: Administrative office, 17, an increase of 1 (zoologist) ; animal 
department, 80, an increase of 4 (1 commissary steward, 2 night 
keepers, 1 biologist) ; mechanical department, 64, an increase of 3 
(1 subjourneyman, 2 laborers); police department, 83; grounds 
department, 11. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 167 
FRIENDS OF THE NATIONAL ZOO 


The Friends of the National Zoo, a group of civic-minded citizens, 
continued their interest in the development and expansion of the 
Zoo. Robert McLaughlin, former Commissioner of the District of 
Columbia, was elected president of the organization. Its member- 
ship has been kept informed on plans for the modernization of the 
Zoo, and at a luncheon on February 21 the director showed the 
Friends the master plan for a 10-year capital outlay program for 
the Zoo. 

The Friends are actively backing plans for a “Breeding Zoo” in 
this country, to be established possibly as a cooperative venture by 
American zoos under the direction of the Federal Government, and 
John Perry, former president of the Friends, contributed an article 
to the Saturday Evening Post (April 7, 1962) dealing with the ne- 
cessity of some sort of “Operation Rescue” for animals now threatened 
with extinction. 

From June 1 to June 10 the Friends sponsored a “Home Show for 
Birds,” which took place outside the birdhouse. The many types of 
birdhouses, feeding stations, and bird baths displayed attracted much 
favorable attention, not only from visitors but also from the native 
wild birds. 

On June 6 the Friends gathered for their annual night visit of 
the Park, and saw many of the animals under nocturnal conditions. 


INFORMATION AND EDUCATION 


The Zoo continues to handle a large correspondence with persons 
all over the world and from every part of this country who write to 
the Zoo, as a national institution, for information regarding animals, 
proper diet, or treatment of disease. Visitors to the office as well as 
to the animal exhibits are constantly seeking information. 

An innovation this year was the showing of films made of Zoo 
animals over the new educational TV station in Washington, Station 
WETY, channel 26. Five programs dealing with mammals, birds, 
reptiles, and amphibians were beamed to the children of Maryland, 
Virginia, and the District of Columbia. Lulu, the baby chimpanzee, 
appeared on a Science Program entitled “Space,” and her keeper, 
Mr. Gallagher, spoke of the contributions chimpanzees have made to 
space travel. One of this year’s lion cubs appeared on channel 4, 
WRC-TYV, with M. Brown, keeper in charge of the lion house. 

The director addressed the annual meeting of the Dallas (Tex.) 
Zoological Society on October 23, 1961. He also gave two radio 
talks and several illustrated lectures to local clubs and civic organi- 
zations, as well as a lecture on the white tiger to a Smithsonian 

Geo 


168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Institution seminar. He assisted WMAI-TYV in taping a Zoo pro- 
gram, which was broadcast on April 14, and advised Parthenon 
Pictures of Hollywood on the Zoo section of a travel film they were 
making of Washington, D.C. 

Dr. James F. Wright gave many illustrated talks on the use of the 
projectile syringe in immobilizing or treating wild animals. Among 
the groups he addressed were the School of Veterinary Medicine, Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania; the Zoo Veterinary Association of the Ameri- 
can Veterinary Medical Association, meeting in Detroit, Mich.; the 
Veterinary Pathology group of the Armed Forces Institute of 
Pathology; Biological Society of Washington; Grayson Laboratory 
personnel of the University of Maryland. 

Set. Marvin Jones, U.S. Army, now stationed at Fort Myer, made 
a signal contribution to the history of the Zoo by reorganizing the 
card catalog of mammals in the collection since 1888 and publishing 
a mimeographed list giving the scientific name, common name, date 
when each species was first exhibited, date of the first birth of a species 
in the collection, and designating by an asterisk the animals still living 
in the Zoo on June 30, 1962. 

Ordinarily the Zoo does not conduct guided tours of the Park, but 
exceptions were made for three groups of handicapped children and 
adults. Mrs, Perle Mesta and Miss Jane Russell sponsored the visit 
on June 18 of 52 children from WAIF (World Adoption Inter- 
national Foundation). The occasion was the adoption of the 10,000th 
child by American parents under this foundation. 

On July 13, 1961, 1,842 foreign students from 50 different countries 
toured the Zoo; on May 12, 1962, the school patrol, consisting of 
6,336 students from all parts of the country, came to the Park follow- 
ing their annual parade cn Constitution Avenue. 

The Virginia Herpetological Society held its annual meeting in 
the reptile house on August 11, 1961. The American Society of 
Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, holding its 42d Annual Meeting 
in Washington, came to the Zoo on Sunday morning, June 17, and 
about 100 scientists were shown the reptile house before the regular 
visiting hours. 


REPORT OF THE VETERINARIAN 


In the Annual Reports for 1960 and 1961 reference was made to 
the similarity, both clinically and pathologically, of a central nervous 
system syndrome occurring in monkeys at the Park to the “Acute 
Amaurotic Epilepsy” deseribed by Langdon and Cadwallader in 1915 
and Van Bogaert and Scherer in 1935. Since the Jast Annual Report 
four additional cases have been seen clinically in young monkeys, one 
of which was euthanized for viral isolation studies, the others being 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 169 


still under observation. The euthanized individual was an 8-month- 
old female sooty mangabey (Cercocebus fuliginosus); the three 
monkeys under observation are two 10-month-old Barbary apes 
(Afacaca sylvanus), one male and one female, and one hybrid macaque 
(Ml. philippinensis X M.irus). Tissues were also taken for viral iso- 
lation attempts from two black-crested mangabeys (Cercocebus ater- 
rimus) with histories of at least one CNS seizure. One of these 
monkeys was apparently blind without visible defect in the eyes, and 
both seemed normal in all other respects. 

Although no viral agents were isolated from the black-crested 
mangabeys mentioned above, the histopathological sections of the blind 
animal showed enough lesions in the optic nerve to account. for its 
blindness. It has not been determined what was responsible for these 
lesions although they appear to be of long standing. No viral agent 
has been demonstrated in the tissues from the 8-month-old sooty 
mangabey described above. All viral isolation attempts included 
culture and intracerebral mouse and hamster inoculation. 

The three remaining young macaques still under observation have 
been free from seizures and any other abnormal clinical signs for ap- 
proximately 8 months. 

The virus isolation attempts were performed by Dr. Anthony Mor- 
ris, chief of the Section on Respiratory Viruses of the Laboratory of 
_Virology and Rickettsiology, Division of Biologics Standards, Na- 
tional Institutes of Health. 

From the past 4 years’ experience with this condition, several facts 
became apparent. First, the condition has occurred only in Old 
World monkeys, the Cercopithecidae (except for one gibbon, Hylo- 
bates sp.). It has involved the genera Macaca, Cercocebus, Cercopt- 
thecus, and Hylobates (one case), with the genus M/acaca most often 
noted. Second, there seems to be no relation to the habitat of the ani- 
mal, some cases appearing in a closed exhibit building, others in all- 
season outdoor cages, and one case in a monkey that had been raised 
in a keeper’s home from the day of birth. Third, the condition is 
first seen when the animal is usually less than a year old. Both sexes 
have been affected but females predominate. Fourth, those animals 
which have died usually did so after the first or second noted CNS 
seizure. Several animals which had one or two seizures in their first 
year have been followed until age 214 without report of additional 
seizures and without apparent blindness. Fifth, in none of the cases 
has there been any diarrhea during or after the seizure, nor had there 
been any evidence of inappetence. Some animals which had been 
eating at the onset of the seizure began to eat again within minutes 
after the attack, and there was no animal noted that did not eat within 
the day. 


170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


In spite of the previous points, the histopathological and microbio- 
logical studies to date on these monkeys seem to support the premise 
that the condition is not infectious but probably toxic. At this time 
the possibility of lead poisoning cannot be completely ruled out. 

Parasites —Identification of parasites from the animal collection 
was made by the Beltsville Parasitological Laboratory of the U.S. 
Department of Agriculture. The nematodes, acanthocephalids, and 
linguatilids were identified by M. B. Chitwood; trematodes, ticks, and 
mites by Dr. A. McIntosh; and cestodes by W. W. Becklund. 

Bacteriology.—Tuberculosis was found to be the cause of death in 
four animals, two bighorn sheep, a female wisent, and an aged female 
gaur. The infections in the bighorn sheep and the gaur were classi- 
fied as the bovine type of organism by Dr. A. G. Karlson, of the Mayo 
Clinic, Rochester, Minn. 

Dr. J. R. Wadsworth of the Department of Animal Pathology of 
the University of Vermont continued to assist the Zoo with his inter- 
pretation of suspected tumor tissues from the collection. 

Whenever possible, hearts and large vessels of necropsy specimens 
are saved for Dr. Thomas Perry, of the George Washington Uni- 
versity School of Medicine, for his study of comparative pathology 
of these organs. 

Dr. F. R. Lucas, director of the Livestock Sanitary Laboratory, Cen- 
treville, Md., provided clinical laboratory services and microscopic 
tissue reports. 

Dr. K. F. Meyer, of the George Williams Hooper Foundation of 
the University of California, assisted the Park by determining the 
complement fixation titers of quarantined psittacine birds to the 
psittacosis antigen. He also advised the Park on a feeding and treat- 
ment regimen for all quarantined birds. 

Black-bear project—At the request of the National Park Service, a 
field trip was made to the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in 
early August 1961 to instruct park personnel in the use of the Cap- 
Chur equipment. Each year in several of the National Parks “rogue” 
bears cause personal injuries to visitors and thousands of dollars in 
property damage. Usually the park personnel know the individual 
troublesome bears by sight, but the culvert trap method of removing or 
translocating the bear is not always successful. Furthermore, a trou- 
blesome bear once trapped and returned is most likely to be trap shy. 
During approximately 6 days of field work, 20 free-ranging American 
black bears were injected, using the Cap-Chur equipment. Five indi- 
viduals were underdosed and did not react to the drug; one syringe 
did not inject because of mechanical difficulties; and two bears escaped 
from the area during the latent period of the drug and so it could not 
be determined whether the dose was effective. Five bears were immo- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT ivAél 


bilized and released after measurements, one crippled bear was im- 
mobilized and euthanized, and six were immobilized, placed in the 
mobile culvert traps, and translocated to the extreme boundary of the 
park. The drug used in these immobilization procedures was suc- 
cinylcholine chloride; the estimated average immobilizing dose was 
0.46 mg. per pound of estimated body weight, the average latent period 
of the drug was 2 minutes, and the average recovery period was 15 
minutes. No difficulties were encountered from overdosage, and the 
animals usually showed very little reaction to the injection. Almost 
all immobilizations were completely carried out from the main high- 
way which runs through the park. This field work served to support 
earlier theories that the bear (including all species) is the ideal subject 
for immobilization with the drug succinylcholine chloride. The re- 
gional director, National Park Service, commented on the project: 
“The results and conclusions of these tests as reported indicate that 
the method shows promise as a practicable means of capturing dan- 
gerous or nuisance bears for relocation or other disposition.” 

Following are the statistics for the mortality rates at the Zoo during 
the past fiscal year and a table of comparison with the past 7 fiscal 
years: 


Mortality, fiscal year 1962 
Total mortality, 


past 7 years 
Cause Reptiles} Birds | Mammals 

No autopsy for sundry reasons !____-__- 155 121 oy) || MCG eee 618 
Attrition (within 7 days after arrival)__| (?) 2 Fall || GSS 549 
IniternerG SC ASCs sme ee nye 54 66 Aly || NOB = — 550 
Imfectudiseasestts: ==. 2225522 Se. 2 28 Ay | alt'95 Ose 472 
IE RG Ochs. Be ee ae ee a DS ee ee 19 602=== 532 
ITUNES}, HECK ONG Hoe sees scesceesse 1 5 NA) UNM Le == Syily/ 
SEROUS ESN oa err gel |e eg 1 (Operas, Bp Se Sas 

ERG Gal bee = ea ae A 5 EAE soe ty 219 245 149) || Wer 584 


i Reasons include preserving of intact specimen for Museum and research, progressed decomposition , 
insufficient remains in case of predators, et al. 

2 No figures available. 

3 Internal diseases include acute and chronic diseases of lung, liver, kidney, and heart, and intestinal 
ailments other than parasite involvement, as well as CNS disorders. 

4 Infectious diseases include TB, viremia, toxoplasmosis, coccidiosis, et al. 


The only fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox) in the United States, as far 
as was known, died on January 6, 1962. This largest of the Malagasy 
carnivores was acquired from Ivan T. Sanderson on October 6, 1954, 
as a fully adult specimen and showed obvious signs of senility during 
his last years at the Zoo. Post-mortem findings indicated no specific 
disease but rather a general physical deterioration due to old age. 


172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The horned toad (Ceratophrys ornata) mentioned in last year’s 
Annual Report died on August 7, 1961. This specimen had been col- 
lected by the National Zoological Park Expedition to Argentina and 
was received in the Zoo June 27, 1939. It died after 22 years 1 month 
1i days in captivity. 

A Malay fishing owl (etupa ketupu), collected as an adult by the 
National Geographic Society-Smithsonian Expedition to Netherlands 
East Indies in 1937, died on June 24, 1962, after 24 years 8 months 26 
days in the collection. 


COOPERATION 


At all times special efiorts are made to maintain friendly contacts 
with other Federal and State agencies, private concerns and indi- 
viduals, and scientific workers for mutual assistance. Asa result, the 
Zoo receives much help and advice and many valuable animals, and 
in turn it furnishes information and, whenever possible, animals it 
does not need. 

In cooperation with the State Department, a bald eagle was sent to 
Berlin, to be presented by Attorney General Robert Kennedy to the 
West Berlin Zoo. 

Through the cooperation of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, a 
number of waterfowl were obtained for the Zoo. Senior keeper W. 
Widman made a trip to Washington, N.C., to collect a pair of swans 
and a number of ducks. 

Special acknowledgment is due George Kirk and John Pulaski, in 
the office of the Dispatch Agent in New York City, and Stephen E. 
Lato, Dispatch Agent in San Francisco, who are frequently called upon 
to clear shipments of animals coming from abroad, often at great 
personal inconvenience—late at night, or on a weekend. 

When it is necessary to quarantine animals coming into this coun- 
try, they are taken to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s station 
in Clifton, N.J. During the past year Dr. B. C. Swindell and Andy 
Goodel, two of the officials stationed there, have been most cooperative 
in keeping the National Zoological Park informed as to the well-being 
of animals and birds being held there for quarantine. 

The reptile division is frequently called upon by hospitals or police 
for help in identifying snakes or snake bites. This year senior keeper 
M. DePrato collaborated with Dr. George B. Rabb of the Chicago 
Zoological Society by assembling information on crocodilians to be 
published in book form. The division also helped the Navy take 
photographs of all poisonous snakes and lizards in the collection, these 
to appear in a field manual for Navy personnel. 

Perhaps the most important project undertaken by the reptile di- 
vision was In cooperation with Dr. Bert N. Ladu and Dr. Jerome J. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 173 


Kamm, National Institutes of Health, in connection with a biochemical 
study of snake venom. NII was particularly interested in venom 
from an Asiatic pit viper and arranged for 20 specimens to be sent 
to the National Zoological Park and cared for in the reptile house. 
The habus (Zrzmeresurus) of three different species arrived on Sep- 
tember 15, and were milked by Mr. DePrato and keeper Lee D. 
Schmeltz. National Institutes of Health reported : “Research workers 
made use of 7'rimeresurus flavoviridis venom in biochemical experi- 
ments. ‘The venom from this species contains an agent, still unidenti- 
fied, which is not found in other venoms. ‘This agent has the ability 
to digest or solubilize the walls of submicroscopic particles [micro- 
somes] of mammalian liver. Microsomes contain enzyme systems 
which metabolize many types of drugs, such as barbiturates, analge- 
sics, and hypnotics, but biochemical studies on these enzyme systems 
have been handicapped because the microsomal particles could not be 
solubilized by other methods. Making this venom available to NIH 
biochemists will permit them to accomplish this important step and 
thereby learn more about how drugs are metabolized in the liver.” 

The National Zoological Park arranged a large-scale shipment of 
American mammals and birds for the new zoo of Delhi, India. The 
general curator of the animal department accompanied the shipment 
and safely delivered 2 coyotes, 2 porcupines, 2 coatimundis, 2 foxes, 
1 bear, 1 paca, 1 ocelot, 2 raccoons, 2 opossums, 2 whistling swans, 3 
Virginia deer, 2 bison, and 2 pumas, and during the absence of the 
director of the Delhi Zoo instructed the zoo personnel there in the 
maintenance and husbandry requirements of this collection. Arrange- 
ments for the shipment were made by the Ambassador of the United 
States to India, the Honorable J. Kenneth Galbraith. Fred Stark, 
director of the San Antonio (Tex.) Zoo, contributed the pair of bison, 
and Walter Stone, director of Franklin Park Zoo in Boston, Mass., 
supphed the porcupines, bear, paca, ocelot, and coatimundis. The Vir- 
ginia deer were a contribution from the West Virginia Game Commis- 
sion. The remainder of the stock came from the collection at the 
National Zoo. 

The director of the Zoo and the general curator spent 2 days in 
Boston as consultants for the Franklin Park Zoo and the Middlesex 
Fells Zoo in Stoneham, Mass., both of which are planning new 
construction. 

The office of forest fire prevention, U.S. Department of Agricul- 
ture, installed a new exhibit at Smokey Bear’s cage consisting of a set 
of large photographs showing the devastation caused by forest fires 
and the capture of a small singed bear. In a glass case are Smokey’s 
hat, belt, trousers, shovel, and a jug of honey. This was in answer to 
the complaints frequently heard from small children who had expected 
Smokey to be dressed as a forest ranger. 


174 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Animals that die in the Zoo are offered to the U.S. National Museum. 
This year 23 animals were sent to the Museum and there preserved 
as scientific specimens. If the Museum does not need the animals, 
they are sent on request to research workers in other institutions. 

The Zoo cooperated with the National Capital Parks and lent small 
animals to Park naturalists and to the Nature Center in Rock Creek 


Park for demonstration. 
VISITORS 


Work continued on developing a new method of estimating total 
visitor attendance, as mentioned in last year’s Annual Report. This 
is being done in cooperation with Albert Mindlin and Sidney Staro- 
bin, statisticians of the management oflice of the District of Columbia. 


Number of bus groups visiting the Zoo in fiscal year 1962 


Locality Number | Number Locality Number | Number 
of groups| in groups of groups | in groups 
Alabamasens sae es. 26 PLS On| MVISSissip pi=== =e 6 246 
(Arkansageess see = 1 26 || New Hampshire_-_--- 3 Tals 
Connecticut__.....-- 8 374 || New Jersey__.--_----- 29 1, 102 
iDelawares== 5-22 ese 12 AGOR| News Vorkseees.-es- = 236 7, 874 
District of Columbia_ 204 | 7, 762 || North Carolina__--.-- 78 | 7,134 
Blonida=s === eee 83 Sx 2001 | Ohio ss ae kanes ee 51 1, 939 
Georgia 2 ace 90 3, 750 || Pennsylvania______-- Bees || le} Aoi 
linoies ee eee 12 442 || Rhode Island____-_-_- 14 585 
Indiana ese 222 Rese 4 170 || South Carolina_-_--_-- 51 2) 
Wansassess22 8 Seah 1 40 || Tennessee____-.------ 45 1, 807 
Kentueky 5a 6 2325 oN exXas eso = Se eee 1 48 
IOUISian a ee 1 32a VermMOntae= === ae 3 iia 
Main Cee eet ae eee 8 Zea) ||| aber 3 oe 844 | 34, 255 
Maryland e552 =223 1,154 | 45, 880 |) West Virginia__.___-- 86 | 3, 473 
Massachusetts___---- 13 4387 ||) Wisconsinees- =. 22 === 16 527 
Michigan= === === 38 1, 492 ——|— 
Minnesota_.=.-=---- 2 90 Lotalseces = 6s 3, 459 |140, 390 


Brazil: lesa cee & = ee i 2iG eJapans 2 se. 2 oes 1 30 
Canadan wa sy 2 Attee 1 30 sl korean. sea se ees 1 37 
Denmark_.=.-- 46.<- 1 2k HW NORWaVeesss== a2 = =e 2 68 
INTaANCes2-e2 ee cents 1 30 || Foreign students_-_-__- 54 | 1, 842 
Germanys 322 see 1 ikes — 

Potala ee 64] 2,113 


About 2 p.m. each day the cars then parked in the Zoo are counted 
and listed according to the State or country from which they come. 
This is, of course, not a census of the cars coming to the Zoo but is 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 175 


valuable in showing the percentage of attendance by States of people 
in private automobiles. Many District of Columbia, Maryland, and 
Virginia cars come to the Zoo to bring guests from other States. The 
tabulation for the fiscal year 1962 is as follows: 


Percentage Percentage 
Maryland yee ae ee ee 33. 2 Massa chusettsme ae 0.8 
WAT eIni ase n= ee ie Bee 23.6 Connecticut === eae 16 
DistrictoL Columbia 2 -2==————— 20.6 South Carolinas 16 
Benn sylvaniae sass ee eee 4.1 Califormign= === .5 
ING wae VOD) be Se ed 2.6 PMIiNO1S fee sst. Ne ee ee nee oe 55 
INoLihe Carolinas. = === 2.0 Michigan) ee See eee 5 i} 
ING Wit CrSeCYn aca e =o koe 1.3 MENNCSSCG) Se RE PR .o 
ONTO eS ae es 1.3 Georgie ot 8 ke a ee aS 4 
MOTIGAe ee waa ee eee ail al Indiana see Shee eee ae 4 
Nest? Varginia: 222 ss oe ial Alabama es seen eee ere «3 


The remaining 4 percent came from other States, Canada, Canal 
Zone, England, France, Germany, Guam, Japan, Mexico, Nova Scotia, 
Panama, and Puerto Rico. 

On the days of even small attendance there are cars parked in the 
Zoo from at least 15 States, the District of Columbia, and foreign 
countries. On average days there are cars from about 22 States, the 
District of Columbia, and foreign countries; and during the periods of 
greatest attendance the cars represent no less than 34 different States 
and countries. 

POLICE DEPARTMENT 


After the death of Capt. William R. James (see p. 166), who had 
been commanding officer of the police force since 1952, Lt. C. R. Brink 
was promoted to the rank of captain on March 4, 1962. Lt. J. R. 
Wolfe, who joined the department in 1946, was appointed executive 
officer. KE. A. King and D. B. Bell were promoted from sergeant to 
lieutenant, and A. S. Kadlubowski and C. 8S. Grubbs were promoted 
from private to the rank of sergeant. 

A notable improvement in the police department was the installa- 
tion of a two-way radio hookup between the station and the police car. 
This new means of communication has facilitated stronger law 
enforcement. 

The practice of using temporary men during the busy season (April 
to October) continues to prove a highly satisfactory arrangement. 
Otherwise, the ever-increasing number of special details and assign- 
ments would result, at times, in reducing the number of regular officers 
available for patrol duty. 

The total number of visitors stopping in the police station for in- 
formation of various sorts was 9,027. 

The police pistol range has been improved by the erection of a 7- 
foot-high safety fence on all sides. A request from the chief of 


176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


domestic operations division, Office of Security, Department of State, 
for the use of the pistol range was granted and a weekly program has 
been put into operation. 

Pvt. G. R. Nicoloff was assigned as a permanent rider of the mounted 
section, making a total of four mounted oilicers. ‘This will insure 
having two men riding each day to give better patrolling along the 
creek, and a horseman assigned to patrol the bridle paths and isolated 
wooded areas on Sundays and holidays. The mounted color guard 
continues to participate in local parades. 

Sets. A. L. Canter and C. S. Grubbs received citations in March 
from the American Red Cross for services rendered as first-aid in- 
structors. The total number of first-aid cases handled by police 
throughout the year was 1,004. 

Juvenile arrests totaled 115. A special file has been set up to handle 
this increase in petty misbehavior acts by juveniles. Fifty-three 
truant children were picked up, and appropriate action was taken ; and 
196 lost children were returned to their parents or school groups. The 
police also have charge of lost and found articles; whenever these are 
claimed by their owners they are returned, but 26 pairs of eyeglasses 
and sunglasses were sent to the Society for the Prevention of Blind- 
ness, and 3 bags of clothing and miscellaneous articles, unclaimed, were 
turned over to the Goodwill Industries. 

The police department is closely associated with the Metropolitan 
Police Department of the District of Columbia, the U.S. Park Police, 
and police departments of nearby counties of Maryland and Virginia. 
The department has been aided by the D.C. Chapter, American Red 
Cross, which has assigned personnel to the Zoo on such days as Kaster 
Monday, School Boy Patrol Day, and other times when unusually 
large crowds of children are expected. The assistance given by the 
Red Cross in treating minor injuries (such as skinned knees and insect 
bites) is greatly appreciated. The District of Columbia Fire Depart- 
ment Ambulance and Rescue Squad responds to calls for transporting 
sick or injured persons to local hospitals when necessary. 

An article on the activities of the National Zoological Park police 
appeared in “Policeman’s Association News” for October 1961. 


SAFETY SUBCOMMITTEE 


The National Zoological Park safety subcommittee, consisting of 
Lt. John R. Wolfe, chairman; Dr. James F. Wright, administration 
office; Capt. C. E. Brink, police department; Bert J. Barker, animal 
department; Reily Straw, maintenance and construction; Michael 
Dubik of the grounds department; and Mrs. W. M. Holden of the 
Smithsonian Institution, secretary, held monthly meetings to suggest, 
discuss, and make recommendations to the director on safety 
improvements. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT ILL FE 


The safety manuals for the animal, grounds, and maintenance de- 
partments are printed and in effect. The police safety manual is in 
press. Each employee is issued a copy of a safety manual and is re- 
sponsible for carrying out the prescribed safety measures. 

The safety improvements program was continued during the year 
with the cooperation of the District of Columbia Department of Build- 
ings and Grounds. The hazardous unbroken flight of steps from 
the main bear line to the seal pool was removed and other access pro- 
vided under this program. The roofs on both wings of the reptile 
house were replaced and roof ventilators were installed to correct the 
poor air circulation in the visitor area. Also included in the program 
was the replacement of 890 square yards of walkway pavement, 5,431 
lineal feet of fencing, and handrails on all steps throughout the Park 
having three or more risers. 

Among the miscellaneous safeguards installed during the year were 
a blinker stoplight at the small door to the reptile house basement; 
lanterns provided to the shop to mark excavations in progress; rein- 
forcement of the guard railing outside the elephant house; new sum- 
mer and winter doors for the front of the lion house; exit lights in 
the small mammal building, reptile house, and monkey house. New 
traflic signs were put up, and all traffic and crosswalk lines were 
repainted. 


MAINTENANCE, CONSTRUCTION, AND GROUNDS 


The work of the maintenance and construction department varied 
from picking up and disposing of the ever-increasing amount of refuse 
and trash to major construction necessary in maintaining the existing 
buildings and grounds and providing new shelters and enclosures for 
the animals exhibited. 

The giraffe cage, both inside and out, at the elephant house, was 
completely rebuilt for the Masai giraffes received on September 30, 
1961. Ironwork in the cage and partitions was redesigned so as to 
eliminate all wood, a possible source of contamination; the ground in 
the outside cage was removed to a depth of 6 inches and replaced; 
inside and outside cages were steam cleaned and sterilized prior to 
repainting. 

Reconstruction of the main bear line, started in 1960, was continued 
during the summer of 1961. Two new partition walls were built, 
designed to conform with those built during the previous years except 
that pneumatically-placed concrete was used in lieu of poured-in-place 
concrete, with resulting savings in time, labor, and material. Five 
pools were repaired, the largest of which was practically rebuilt, again 
using sprayed or gunned rather than poured concrete. The wooden 
beds in all dens were replaced. 


178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The puma house came in for its share of the maintenance program. 
The west half of the inside wooden dens was removed and rebuilt. 
Outside, concrete paving and copings were repaired or replaced. 

The downstairs office rooms in the east wing of the administration 
building, more than 100 years old, were refurbished following the re- 
placement of the wood floor which had yielded to the onslaught of time 
and termites. Asphalt tile over the new concrete, an acoustical tile 
ceiling, and repainted walls and woodwork were included in the 
project. At the request of the division of political history of the 
Smithsonian Institution, a window pane from one of the upstairs 
rooms was removed and taken to the Institution. Visitors to the 
house had scratched political slogans on the glass with diamonds: 
“Down with Hickory’s enemies”; “Huzzah for Old Hickory”; “Old 
Hickory Forever.” One was dated 1827. 

The large second-floor room at the reptile house was redone and 
made suitable for use as an auditorium. 

The rewiring of the small mammal house was completed. A new 
main electrical distributing panel and a separate panel for the motors 
operating the ventilating system and heating controls were included 
in the rewiring. 

A welcome improvement to the Park was the development of a 
large picnic area south of and adjoining the restaurant. 

The grounds department continued to plant and service trees. A 
snow fence was put up in certain areas to deter visitors from trampling 
on newly planted shrubbery. Logs were used to terrace banks and 
protect them from erosion. It was the work of this department to 
remove excess soil and debris after construction jobs were done. The 
department continued to provide perches, hollow logs, and forage for 
the animals. 

Agencies which provided the Zoo with plants in exchange for com- 
post included the U.S. Plant Introduction Center, the D.C. Water 
Department, the National Arboretum, Walter Reed Hospital, the U.S. 
Botanical Gardens, and the Bureau of Naval Weapons. 


PLANS FOR THE FUTURE 


A master plan for the development and growth of the National 
Zoological Park was submitted by the architectural and engineering 
firm of Daniel, Mann, Johnson & Mendenhall on September 11, 1961. 
This plan was accepted in principle by the director and by the Board 
of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. It also received the en- 
dorsement of the National Capital Planning Commission and the 
Fine Arts Commission. 

Plans and specifications for the first phase of the reconstruction 
are now being prepared. Work under this phase will consist of a 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 179 


modernization of the existing birdhouse and the adjacent outside 
exhibit areas, and the construction of an east-west perimeter road 
which will ultimately take the automobile traffic from the center of 
the Park. 

The director and the staff of the National Zoological Park are 
working with the architects and engineers in furnishing requirements 
and design criteria to be followed in the development of the Zoo. An 
experimental panel employing the use of high tensile strength wires 
stretched vertically with no horizontal ties so as to be almost invisible 
to the viewer, yet contain the exhibited birds, has been installed be- 
tween two of the hawk cages. Various species of birds will be put 
into this experimental enclosure to determine the optimum spacing 
of the vertical wires. 

Plans were made by the National Capital Parks for the relocation 
of Beach Drive from the west side of Rock Creek to the east side, 
tunneling under the hill where the administration building stands. 
Certain limited areas of land on the east side of the creek will be 
turned over to National Capital Parks. This will provide a 24-hour, 
all-weather, north-south road connecting Potomac Parkway and Rock 
Creek Park. It will not be within the boundary or jurisdiction of the 
National Zoological Park. Work will be started in the next fiscal year. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Tueopore H. Reep, Director. 

Dr. LEonarpD CARMICHAEL, 

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the Canal Zone Biological Area 


Sm: It gives me pleasure to present herewith the annual report on 
the Canal Zone Biological Area for the fiscal year ended June 30, 


1962. 
SCIENTISTS, STUDENTS, AND OBSERVERS 


Following is the list of 85 scientists, students, and observers who 
made use of the Canal Zone Biological Area facilities on the main- 
land and/or visited Barro Colorado Island last year and stayed for 
several days in order to conduct scientific research or observe the wild- 
life of the area. In addition, scientists of other research and technical 
organizations in the Canal Zone and the Republic of Panama made use 
of station facilities. 


Name Principal interest 

Andrews, Michael I.., Wildlife photography. 
Sussex, England. 

Baker, Ann, Birds. 
Long Island, N.Y. 

Barghoorn, Dr. and Mrs. Elso S., Limnology. 
Harvard University. 

Bernstein, Dr. Irwin S., Rhesus monkeys. 
Emory University. 

Blest, Dr. Andrew D., Lepidopteran behavior. 
University College, London. 

Booth, Dr. and Mrs. Ernest S., Wildlife photography. 
Escondido, Calif. 

Booth, Shirley, Wildlife photography. 
Hscondido, Calif. 

Buchsbaum, Ralph Wildlife photography. 
University of Pittsburgh. 

Burns, Mrs. Marjorie, Wildlife photography. 
Escondido, Calif. 

Campbell, Mr. and Mrs. Carlton I., Inspection of facilities. 
Smithsonian Institution. 

Campbell, Milton, Coleoptera. 
University of Illinois. 

Christiansen, James, Assistant to Dr. Legler. 
University of Utah. 

Collett, T.S., Assistant to Dr. Blest. 
University College, London. 

Collier, Dr. Gerald, Jacana behavior and ecology. 
San Diego State College. 

Cottam, Dr. Grant, Plant morphology, physiology, and be- 
University of Wisconsin. havior. 


180 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 181 


Name 
Darnall, Mr. and Mrs. J.S., 
Dyersburg, Tenn. 
Darnall, Mrs. Ruth, 
Chicago, Ill. 
Deusing, Mr. and Mrs. Murl, 
Baileys Harbor, Wis. 
Dwyer, Dr. John., 
St. Louis University. 
Evans, Jeremy, 
Harvard University. 
Florey, Dr. and Mrs. Ernst, 
University of Washington. 
Gazin, Dr. and Mrs. Charles L., 
Smithsonian Institution. 
Greenwell, Francis M., 
Smithsonian Institution. 
Handley, Dr. Charles O., 
Smithsonian Institution. 
Hayward, Dr. and Mrs. C. Lynn, 
Brigham Young University. 
Heatwole, Dr. Harold, 
University of Puerto Rico. 
Hartshorne, Mr. and Mrs. Charles, 
Atlanta, Ga. 
Hodge, Dr. Walter H., 
National Science Foundation. 
Holgerson, Dr. Holger, 
Stavanger, Norway. 
Hughes-Schrader, Dr. Sally, 
Duke University. 
Hunt, George, 
Harvard University. 
Izower, Jack, 
New York, N.Y. 
Jackson, Mr. and Mrs. B.L., 
Washington, D.C. 
Jones, Dr. Duvall A., 
Madison College. 
Kamstedt, Brit I. S., 
Stavanger, Norway. 
Keck, Dr. David D., 
National Science Foundation. 
Knight, Dennis, 
University of Wisconsin. 
Legler, Dr. John M., 
University of Utah. 
Livingston, Dr. Luzern G., 
Swarthmore College. 
Loftin, Horace, 
Florida State University. 
Olding, Mr. and Mrs. D., 


Mannings School, Jamaica, B.W.I. 


Principal interest 
Wildlife observation. 


Wildlife observation. 

Wildlife photography. 

Botany. 

Insect physiology. 

Wildlife observation. 

Vertebrates. 

Assistant to Dr. Handley. 

Mammals. 

Wildlife observation. 

Assistant to Dr. Sexton. 

Bird vocal patterns. 

Inspection of facilities. 

Insects and littoral marine organisms. 

Cytology and cytotaxonomy of Mantis- 
pidae and Pentatomidae. 

Flycatcher behavior and ecology. 

Tanagers and finches. 

Wildlife observation. 

Birds and amphibians. 

Assistant to Dr. Holgerson. 

Inspection of facilities. 

Plant morphology, physiology, and 
behavior. 

Turtles and entomology. 

Diatoms. 


Fresh-water fishes. 


Wildlife observation. 


182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Name 
O’Neill, John P., 
Norman, Okla. 
Owen, Mr. and Mrs. Herbert, 
Bremerton, Wash. 
Peebles, Dr. James S. 
University of Utah. 
Pipkin, Mrs. Sarah B. 
Gorgas Memorial Laboratory. 
Pope, Dr. and Mrs. W. 
Gorgas Hospital, Ancon, C.Z. 
Proctor, Vernon W. 
Texas Technological College. 
Ream, Dr. and Mrs. Robert, 
University of Wisconsin. 
Rubinoff, Dr. and Mrs. Ira, 
Harvard University. 
Ruckes, Dr. and Mrs. Herbert, 


American Museum of Natural His- 


tory. 
Rudd, Dr. Velva, 
Smithsonian Institution. 
Schmitt, Mr. and Mrs. Rupert, 
Manitowish Water, Wis. 
Schorach, Mr. and Mrs. Carl B. 
Ventura, Calif. 
Sexton, Dr. Owen J., 
Washington University. 
Smith, Dr. W. John, 
Harvard University. 
Stuart, Dr. Alastair M., 
University of Chicago. 
Stull, Dr. Arthur, 
Washington, D.C. 
Taylor, Mr. and Mrs. R. W. 
Harvard University. 
Tyson, Edwin L. 
Florida State University. 
Waldes, Mrs. Rosaline, 
Long Island, N.Y. 
Walker, John, 
Encyclopaedia Britannica, New 
York, N.Y. 
Watson, H., 
Canal Zone. 
Wetmore, Dr. and Mrs. Alexander, 
Smithsonian Institution. 
Willis, Edwin L., 
University of California. 
Yerger, Dr. Ralph W., 
Florida State University. 


Principal interest 
Wildlife observation. 


Wildlife observation. 

Assistant to Dr. Legler. 

Fruit flies. 

Wildlife observation. 

Algae. 

Plant morphology, physiology, and 
behavior. 


Ichthyology. 


Hemiptera. 


Botany. 

Wildlife observation. 
Wildlife observation. 
Amphibians and reptiles. 
Flycatcher behavior. 
Termites. 

Wildlife observation. 
Ants. 

Bats. 

Bird observation. 


Wildlife photography. 


Wildlife observation. 
Bird observation. 
Ecology and behavior of birds that 


follow army ants. 
Fishes and mammals. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 183 


VISITORS 


Approximately 190 visitors were permitted to visit the island for a 
day. 
RAINFALL 


During the dry season (January through April) of the calendar 
year 1961, rains of 0.01 inch or more fell during 38 days (97 hours) 
and amounted to 7.63 inches, as compared to 26.64 inches during 1960. 
During the wet season of 1961 (May through December), rains of 
0.01 inch or more fell on 192 days (752 hours) and amounted to 92.58 
inches, as compared to 113.43 inches during 1960. ‘Total rain for the 
year was 100.21 inches. During 37 years of record, the wettest year 
was 1935 with 143.42 inches, and the driest was 1930 with only 76.57 
inches. February was the driest month of 1961 (0.24 inch) and 
August the wettest (19.73 inches). The maximum records for short 
period were: 5 minutes, 1.30 inches; 10 minutes, 1.65 inches; 1 hour, 
4.11 inches; 2 hours, 6.33 inches; 24 hours, 10.87 inches. 


TasLe 1.—Annual rainfall, Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone 


Year Total Station Year Total Station 

inches average | inches average 
G2 bee eee eee NOG 3h eee ees = Ii y2 Es Nice ed i ene Oa 111. 96 109. 30 
OPA Oe ess ee ed 118. 22 113. 56 QA es oo ere Os 120. 42 109. 84 
O27 Sees ee 116. 36 fey GS | LOA G sean min de eee 87. 38 108. 81 
DUG Ps ies ae ga a ag LOL. 52 GTUIE G3 54 | el Alene ee ee Ut. 92 107. 49 
G2 Oe eens ee as 87. 84 HOSE DSO |IO48 = Sees ee ee §3. 16 106. 43 
IGEN) 5 ek es ea 76. 57 101. 51 194022 63e 423 cee 114. 86 106. 76 
LO Sea se aera Ss 123. 30 1O45694||("Ob Or snes. 282=e Aoi 107. 07 
ROBY 3) A eee, See 113. 52 NOR WGN} WG eee NPA Te 107. 28 
1Q33e2 22 see ee 101. 73 NOS, oy4 ||| UWObye eee ee 97. 68 106. 94 
TOS AS es eee ae 122. 42 NOMROAR MODS Bese see = 104. 97 106. 87 
NO 3 5 ees ee Se a 143. 42 NOS on | P1O54s = sees se 105. 68 106. 82 
11S Ft oyeg ee eee eee 93. 88 NOSSO Sa OS jee eee 114. 42 107. 09 
NGS ipepasies ae re ee 124, 13 WO 3s ||| MOINS eee see 405 107. 30 
LOSS Petre eee I ODe\ HONC2 II) WS eee ee | 97.97 | 106.98 
193 Qian wee seo k 115. 47 LATO FAG As | nO f Semeh a eee eee 100. 20 106. 70 
9GA0 Bee see ae 86. 51 NOOT4ASH || 1959 sa ese se eee | 94, 88 106. 48 
OA ra tyerees ae Ee 91. 82 108. 41 19602 see eens Se 140. 07 107. 41 
NO 4D nite tree. . 2 ais. 111. 10 OSHS om || Pl9 oe ee 100. 21 106. 95 
1QAS eteyee pasa 120. 29 109. 20 


672-174— 6313 


184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


TaBLE 2.—Comparison of 1960 and 1961 rainfall, Barro Colorado Island (inches) 


Total 1961 Accumu- 
Month Station Years of | excess or | lated excess 
average record deficiency or 

1960 1961 deficiency 

JanwaryA Sessa see 2. 96 123 2.15 d6elg— 0802s ahaa 
Hebruary=—ss- se 95 24 1. 33 36 | —1. 09 —2. 01 
Marchese a2 2 oe 4. 47 al 1. 24 36 | —0. 53 —2. 54 
Aprile se. i wee eee 18. 26 5. 45 3. 45 37 | +2. 00 — 0. 54 
Misys ere eee 15.55 7. 86 10. 90 37 | —3. 04 —3. 58 
Junest 25 ee Sea hee idl, ts 10. 70 10. 84 37 | —0. 14 —3. 72 
Qulys se ees ot See 11. 46 6. 94 11. 23 37 | —4. 29 —8. Ol 
AU TUS Soe eee eee 7. 02 19. 73 12. 42 ot | -. 3 —0. 70 
Sepeemberso- esses 9. 49 13. 33 10. 26 37 | +3. 07 +2. 37 
October] sss) see 19. 50 We OP 14. 14 37 | +3. 08 +5. 45 
INGOvembersan eee eae 16. 53 10. 84 17. 96 37 | —7. 12 —1. 67 
Decembersas see e eae 22. 35 5. 96 11. 03 37 | —5. 07 —6. 74 
Wearese loose TAO OFA OOs 2 LOGS Oona see as |e eee —6. 74 

IDIAy KERN ao Se 26. 64 Te (GB Salis |B sb eee —0. 54 
Wietseasone===--—— 2 1138. 438 92. 58 OSS alee ses eee ee — 6. 20 


BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND IMPROVEMENTS 


The facilities on Barro Colorado Island were improved and ex- 
panded in various ways. A partition was added to the Chapman 
House to improve storage and floor distribution. The Zinc Meta- 
Arsenate House was repaired, and portions of its electrical wiring 
system were replaced. New cages were constructed. The old wooden 
water tank was repaired and provided with a new roof. ‘Three 
bridges in the forest were completely rebuilt and new poacher-warning 
signs were placed around the perimeter of the island. A line for a 
“walkie-talkie” phone was installed between the dock area and the 
main building to provide faster communication between these two 
points. 

Maintenance and repair activities included complete overhauls of 
two generators and extensive repairs to a third. The launch and the 
two speedboats were painted, and the hull of the former was repaired 
extensively. All inboard and outboard motors were given complete 
service checks and outworn parts were replaced. All the buildings on 
the island were repainted and some wire screening was replaced. 
Minor repairs and improvements were made to appliances and other 
pieces of equipment. 

The 1951 sedan and the Jeep were replaced, respectively, by a 1962 
station wagon and a 1962 Jeep. <A 27-foot launch was transferred 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 185 


to the Canal Zone Biological Area for cargo and passenger use. The 
Hydrographic Office of the Panama Canal Company completed the 
installation of new rain-recording equipment. Expansion of the 
library continued. 

OTHER ACTIVITIES 


Two scientific aides were employed to serve as temporary assistants. 
Edwin L. Tyson of Florida State University is analyzing the bat 
population of the island and Robert M. King has begun a cytotaxo- 
nomic study of Compositae in the Canal Zone and adjacent areas. 

The research of the resident naturalist continued to progress with 
the publication of several papers which dealt with various aspects 
of neotropical birds. 

FINANCES 


Trust funds for the maintenance of the island and its living facili- 
ties are obtained by collections from visitors and scientists, table 
subscriptions, and donations. 

The following institutions continued their support to the laboratory 
through the payment of table subscriptions: Kastman Kodak Co., 
New York Zoological Society, and Smithsonian Institution. Dona- 
tions are gratefully acknowledged from C. M. Goethe and Rodrigo 
Marciacq. 

PLANS AND REQUIREMENTS 


It is hoped that funds will be made available for the installation 
of an electric cable from the mainland to the island in order to increase 
the amount of electric power available and avoid dependence on the 
generators. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


The Canal Zone Biological Area can operate only with the excel- 
lent cooperation of the Canal Zone Government and the Panama Canal 
Company. Thanks are due especially to the former Lt. Gov. John 
D. McElheny, and the Executive Secretary Paul Runnestrand and his 
staff, the Customs and Immigration officials, and the Police Division. 
Also deeply appreciated are the technical advice and assistance pro- 
vided by P. Alton White, chief of the Dredging Division, and mem- 
bers of his staff, and C. C. Soper of the Eastman Kodak Co. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Martin H. Moyniuan, 
Resident Naturalist. 
Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the International Exchange 
Service 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activities 
of the International Exchange Service for the fiscal year ended June 
30, 1962: 

In 1848 the Smithsonian Institution issued the first of its long 
series of scientific publications. In addition to the American dis- 
tribution, several hundred copies were sent to scientific and other 
learned institutions abroad; in return, many valuable publications 
were received from the foreign institutions. To continue this de- 
sirable international exchange of scientific information, the Smith- 
sonian Institution appointed agents in a number of foreign countries 
to facilitate exchanges. In 1851, the privilege of utilizing the Smith- 
sonian exchange system was offered to other learned bodies, and this 
opportunity for wide distribution of scientific publications was so 
eagerly grasped that the system grew rapidly. Thus began a Smith- 
sonian service that increased steadily in usefulness, and the quantity 
of material has increased from a few hundred pounds of publications 
transmitted in 1849, to more than 900,000 pounds in the fiscal year 
1962. 

From the beginning, U.S. Government departments made use of 
the service for the exchange of their publications for the publications 
of other governments. In 1886 in Brussels, a formal agreement for 
the exchange between countries, not only of governmental documents 
but also of scientific and literary publications, was ratified by eight 
nations. With the ratification of this Convention by the United 
States, the Smithsonian Institution system of exchange of publications 
was given official sanction and the Smithsonian Institution continued 
to carry on this important work and was recognized as the official 
agency of the United States for the international exchange of 
publications. 

The work of the International Exchange Service serves as a means 
of developing and executing, in part, the broad and comprehensive 
objective of the Smithsonian Institution, “the diffusion of knowledge.” 
Over the years the operations of the Service have affected most bene- 
ficially the libraries of all learned institutions in the United States 
and have helped to promote the rapid growth of science through 
facilitating the international exchange of ideas. Libraries through- 


186 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 187 


out the world have been enriched by the publications received through 
the Service from many institutions in the United States, and in turn 
the libraries of the United States have benefited from the publications 
received from the institutions in foreign countries. 

The Service’s operation works in this fashion: Libraries, scientific 
societies, educational institutions, and individuals in the United 
States who wish to distribute their publications to foreign countries 
on exchange or as gifts advise the International Exchange Service 
of the names and addresses of the foreign organizations to which 
they wish to send their publications, and the general character and 
approximate weight of the publications they wish to transmit. If 
the publications are accepted for transmission, packing and shipping 
instructions are furnished the sender. The transportation charges to 
the Smithsonian Institution must be prepaid, but there is no charge 
to the sender for the cost of transportation from the Smithsonian 
Institution to the intended addressees. Publications transmitted 
through the International Exchange Service must be packaged and 
addressed by the senders. The Service receives shipments of ad- 
dressed packages of publications from the foreign exchange bureaus. 
These packages are forwarded to the addressees in the United States 
whose names appear on the packages. 

Publications weighing 798,009 pounds were received by the Inter- 
national Exchange Service during the year from approximately 250 
domestic sources for transmission to recipients in over 100 foreign 
countries. Publications weighing 114,509 pounds were received from 
foreign countries for distribution to addressees in the United States. 

The Service transmitted by ocean freight addressed packages of 
publications, weighing 611,853 pounds to the foreign exchange bu- 
reaus, for distribution in their countries. The cost to the Smithsonian 
Institution for transmitting these publications was $36,717.49, or 
approximately 6 cents per pound. Listed below are the names of the 
foreign exchange bureaus to whom the International Exchange Serv- 
ice forwards addressed packages of publications for distribution. 


LIST OF EXCHANGE SERVICES 


Austria: Austrian National Library, Vienna. 

Betetum: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale de Bel- 
gique, Bruxelles. 

Cuina: National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan. 

CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bureau of International Wxchanges, University Library, 
Prague. 

DENMARK: Institut Danois des Hehanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale, 
Copenhagen. 

EKeyer : Government Press, Publications Office, Bulaq, Cairo. 

FINLAND: Library of the Scientific Societies, Helsinki. 

France: Service des Hchanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. 


188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


GERMANY (Hastern) : Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. 

GERMANY (Western) : Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bad Godesberg. 

Huneary: Service Hongrois des Echanges Internationaux, Orszigos Széchenyi 
Konyvtar, Budapest. 

InpIA: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Bombay. 

INDONESIA: Minister of Education, Djakarta. 

ISRAEL: Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem. 

IraLy: Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionali, Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, 
Rome. 

JAPAN : Division for Interlibrary Services, National Diet Library, Tokyo. 

Korea: Korean Library Association, Seoul. 

NETHERLANDS: International Exchange Bureau of the Netherlands, Royal Li- 
brary, The Hague. 

New SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. 

NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. 

Norway: Service Norvégien des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque de 
l’Université Royale, Oslo. 

PHILIPPINES: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila. 

POLAND: Service Polonais des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, 
Warsaw. 

PorRTUGAL: Seccio de Trocas Internacionais, Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. 

QUEENSLAND: Bureau of International Exchange of Publications, Chief Secre- 
tary’s Office, Brisbane. 

RuMAnNIA: International Exchange Service, Biblioteca Centrala de Stat, Bu- 
charest. 

Souta AuvusTRALIA: South Australian Government Exchanges Bureau, Govern- 
ment Printing and Stationery Office, Adelaide. 

SPpaIn: Junta de Intercambio y Adquisicién de Libros y Revistas para Bibliote- 
cas Publicas, Ministerio de Educacién Nacional, Madrid. 

SweEDEN : Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. 

SwirzeRLAND: Service Suisse des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Cen- 
trale Fédérale, Berne. 

TASMANIA: Secretary of the Premier, Hobart. 

TuRKEY : National Library, Ankara. 

UNion oF SoutH Arrica: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Cape 
Town. 

Union oF Soviet SocraList ReEPpuBLIcS: Bureau of Book Exchange, State Lenin 
Library, Moscow. 

Victoria : Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA: State Library, Perth. 

YuGosLaviA : Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade. 


Many countries do not have exchange facilities for the distribution 
of addressed publications. During the past fiscal year the Interna- 
tional Exchange Service mailed addressed packages of publications 
weighing 225,335 pounds directly to the intended recipients in such 
countries. 

There has been a noticeable increase in requests for permission to 
transmit publications through the International Exchange Service 
to the newly created nations of the world. More dental and medical 
libraries in the United States are finding the Service helpful in dis- 
tributing their journals and books to foreign libraries. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 189 


FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS 


In accordance with treaty stipulations, conventions, and other 
agreements made between the United States and various foreign 
countries for the mutual exchange of official publications, the Smith- 
sonian Institution transmits the official U.S. Government publications 
to the foreign depository libraries. The libraries that receive 
copies of all these official publications are the full depositories of the 
Government documents. The libraries that receive a selected list are 
the partial depositories of the Government documents. During the 
fiscal year 662,274 pieces weighing 227,169 pounds were received by 
the Smithsonian Institution for transmission to the 57 full deposi- 
tories, and 101,171 pieces weighing 48,764 pounds were received for 
transmission to the 45 partial depositories. Listed below are the 
names of the full and partial depositories. 


FULL DEPOSITORIES 


ARGENTINA: Divisién Biblioteca, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, 
Buenos Aires. 
AUSTRALIA: Commonwealth National Library, Canberra. 

New SourtH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. 

QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. 

SoutH AUSTRALIA: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide. 

TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart. 

VictTorIA: Publie Library of Victoria, Melbourne. 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA: State Library, Perth. 

Austria: Administrative Library, Federal Chancellery, Vienna. 
BRAZIL: Biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. 

BurMa: Government Book Depot, Rangoon. 

CaNnADA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. 

ManirTosa: Provincial Library, Winnipeg. 

OnTARIO: Legislative Library, Toronto. 

Qurseo: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec. 
CreYLon: Department of Information, Government of Ceylon, Colombo, 
CHILE: Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago. 

CuHINA: National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan. 
National Chengehi University, Taipei, Taiwan. 
CoLomeBta : Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. 
Costa Rica: Biblioteca Nacional, San José. 
Cusa: Directién de Organismos Internacionales, Ministerio de Relaciones Ex- 
teriores, Habana.’ 
CzECHOSLOVAKIA: University Library, Prague. 
DENMARK: Institut Danois des Echanges Internationaux, Copenhagen. 
Eeyrr: Bureau des Publications, Ministére des Finances, Cairo. 
FINLAND: Parliamentary Library, Helsinki. 
FRANCE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. 
GERMANY: Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. 
Free University of Berlin, Berlin-Dahlem. 
Parliamentary Library, Bonn. 


See footnotes on p. 194. 


190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


GREAT BRITAIN: 
ENGLAND: British Museum, London. 
Lonpon: London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository 
of the London County Council.) 
Inp1A: National Library, Calcutta. 
Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi. 
Parliament Library, New Delhi. 
INDONESIA: Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Djakarta. 
IRELAND: National Library of Ireland, Dublin. 
ISRAEL: State Archives and Library, Hakirya, Jerusalem. 
ITALY : Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Rome. 
JAPAN: National Diet Library, Tokyo.’ 
Mexico: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Departamento de Informacién 
para el Extranjero, México, D.F. 
NETHERLANDS: Royal Library, The Hague. 
New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. 
Norway : Utenriksdepartmentets Bibliothek, Oslo. 
Peru: Seccién de Propaganda y Publicaciones, Ministerio de Relaciones Ex- 
teriores, Lima. 
PHILIPPINES: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila. 
PorTUGAL: Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. 
SPAIN : Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid. 
SWEDEN : Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. 
SWITZERLAND : Bibliothéque Centrale Fédérale, Berne. 
Turkey : National Library, Ankara. 
UNIon or SoutH Arrica : State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. 
UNIoN oF Soviet SocraList REPuBLics: All-Union Lenin Library, Moscow. 
Unirep Nations: Library of the United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. 
Uruauay : Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. 
VENEZUELA : Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. 
Yucostavra: Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade.’ 


PARTIAL DEPOSITORIES 


AFGHANISTAN : Library of the Afghan Academy, Kabul. 
BELGIuM : Bibliothéque Royale, Bruxelles. 
Bo.iv1A: Biblioteca del Ministerio de Relaciones Hxteriores y Culto, La Paz. 
Brazit: Minas Gerais: Departmento Estadul de Hstatistica, Belo Horizonte. 
BrivisH Guiana: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara. 
CANADA: 
ALBERTA : Provincial Library, Edmonton. 
BriITIsH CoLuMBIA: Provincial Library, Victoria. 
New Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton. 
NEWFOUNDLAND: Department of Provincial Affairs, St. John’s. 
Nova Scort1a : Provincial Seeretary of Nova Scctia, Halifax. 
SASKATCHEWAN : Legislative Library, Regina. 
DomMINiIcaN Repusiic: Biblioteca de la Universidad de Santo Domingo, Ciudad 
Trujillo. 
Ecuapor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. 
EL SALVADOR: 
Biblioteca Nacional, San Salvador. 
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. 


See footnotes on p. 194. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 191 


GREECE: National Library, Athens. 
GUATEMALA: Biblioteca Nacional, Guatemala. 
Haitr: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. 
HONDURAS: 
Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa. 
Ministerio de Relaciones Hxteriores, Tegucigalpa. 
IcELAND: National Library, Reykjavik. 
INDIA: 
Bompay: Secretary to the Government, Bombay. 
Bruar: Revenue Department, Patna. 
KERALA: Kerala Legislature Secretariat, Trivandrum. 
UTTAR PRADESH : 
University of Allahabad, Allahabad. 
Secretariat Library, Lucknow. 
West BenGaaL: Library, West Bengal Legislative Secretariat, Assembly 
House, Calcutta. 
Tran : Imperial Ministry of Education, Tehran. 
TraQ: Public Library, Baghdad. 
JAMAICA; 
Colonial Secretary, Kingston. 
University College of the West Indies, St. Andrew. 
LEBANON : American University of Beirut, Beirut. 
Lieerta : Department of State, Monrovia. 
MaayAa: Federal Secretariat, Federation of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. 
Matra: Minister for the Treasury, Valletta. 
NiIcaRAagua: Ministerio de Relaciones Hxteriores, Managua. 
PAKISTAN : Central Secretariat Library, Karachi. 
PaNnAMA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama. 
PaRAGuAY: Ministerio de Relaciones Hxteriores, Seccién Biblioteca, Asuncidn. 
PHILIPPINES : House of Representatives, Manila. 
ScoTLanpD: National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. 
Sram: National Library, Bangkok. 
Singapore: Chief Secretary, Government Offices, Singapore. 
Supan : Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum. 
VIETNAM : Direction des Archives et Bibliotheques Nationales, Saigon.® 


INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF THE OFFICIAL JOURNALS 


There are now being sent abroad through the International Ex- 
change Service 85 copies of the daily issues of the Federal Register 
and 100 copies of the daily issues of the Congressional Record. The 
names and addresses of the recipients of the official journals are listed 
below: 


DEPOSITORIES OF CONGRESSIONAL RECORD AND FEDERAL REGISTER 


ARGENTINA 
Biblioteca del Poder Judicial, Mendoza.® 
Direccién General del Boletin Oficial e Imprentas, Buenos Aires.’ 
Céimara de Diputados Oficina de Informacién Parliamentaria, Buenos Aires. 


See footnotes on p. 194. 


192 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


AUSTRALIA : 
Commonwealth National Library, Canberra. 


New SourH WatgEs: Library of Parliament of New South Wales, Sydney. 


QUEENSLAND: Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane. 
VicroriA : Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.® 


WEsTERN AUSTRALIA: Library of Parliament of Western Australia, Perth. 


BELGIUM: Bibliothéque du Parlement, Palais de la Nation, Brussels.* 
BRAZIL: 
Biblioteca da Camara dos Deputados, Brasilia, D.F.* 
Secretaria da Presidencia, Rio de Janeiro.* 
British Honpuras: Colonial Secretary, Belize. 
Campopia: Ministry of Information, Phnom Penh. 
CANADA: 
Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa. 
Library of Parliament, Ottawa. 
CrYLon: Ceylon Ministry of Defense and External Affairs, Colombo.* 
CHILE: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago.‘ 
CHINA: 
Legislative Yuan, Taipei, Taiwan.‘ 
Taiwan Provincial Government, Taipei, Taiwan. 
CUBA: 
Biblioteca del Capitolio, Habana. 
Biblioteca Publica Panamericana, Habana.° 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Ceskoslovenska Akademie Ved. Prague.‘ 
Eeypr: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Egyptian Government, Cairo.* 
FIniLanp: Library of the Parliament, Helsinki.‘ 
FRANCE: 
Bibliothéque Assemblée Nationale, Paris. 
Bibliothéque Conseil de la République, Paris. 
Library, Organization for European Economic Cooperation, Paris.* 
Research Department, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.* 
Service de la Documentation Etrangére Assemblée Nationale, Paris.* 
GERMANY: 
Amerika Institut der Universitit Miinchen, Miinchen.* 
Archiv, Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn. 
Bibliothek des Instituts fiir Weltwirtschaft an der Universitit 
Kiel-Wik. 
Bibliothek Hessischer Landtag, Wiesbaden.‘ 
Deutsches Institut fiir Rechtswissenschaft, Potsdam-Babelsberg II.° 
Deutscher Bundesrat, Bonn.‘ 
Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn.‘ 
Hamburgisches Welt-Wirtschafts-Archiv, Hamburg. 
Westdeutsche Bibliothek, Marburg, Hessen.‘ ® 
GHANA: Chief Secretary’s Office, Accra. ‘ 
GREAT BRITAIN: 
Department of Printed Books, British Museum, London. 
House of Commons Library, London.* 
N.P.P. Warehouse, H.M. Stationery Office, London.°* 
Printed Library of the Foreign Office, London.* 
Royal Institute of International Affairs, London.‘ 
GREECE: Bibliothéque Chambre des Députés, Hellénique, Athens. 
GUATEMALA: Biblioteca dela Asamblea Legislativa, Guatemala. 
Hartt: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. 
Honpuras: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa. 


See footnotes on p. 194. 


Kiel, 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 193 


HuncGary: Orsigos Széchenyi Konyvtar, Budapest. 
INDIA: 
Civil Secretariat Library, Lucknow, United Provinces.® 
Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi.‘ 
Jammu and Kashmir Constituent Assembly, Srinagar.* 
Legislative Assembly, Government of Assam, Shillong.* 
Legislative Assembly Library, Lucknow, United Provinces. 
Kerala Legislature Secretariat, Trivandrum.‘ 
Madras State Legislature, Madras.‘ 
Parliament Library, New Delhi. 
Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Poona.‘ 
IRELAND: Dail Eireann, Dublin. 
IsRAEL: Library of the Knesset, Jerusalem. 
ITALY: 
Biblioteca Camera dei Deputati, Rome. 
Biblioteca del Senato della Republica, Rome. 
International Institute for the Unification of Private Law, Rome.® 
Periodicals Unit, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 
Rome.® 
JAPAN: 
Library of the National Diet, Tokyo. 
Ministry of Finance, Tokyo. 
JorDAN: Parliament of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Amman.‘ 
Korea: Library, National Assembly, Seoul. 
LuxremMsBoura: Assemblée Commune de la C.E.C.A., Luxembourg. 
MEXxIco: 
Direccién, General Informacién, Secretaria de Governacién, Mexico, D.F. 
Biblioteca Benjamin Franklin, México, D.F. 
AGUASCALIENTES : Gobernador del Estado de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes. 
Baga CALIFORNIA: Gobernador del Distrito Norte, Mexicali. 
CAMPECHE: Gobernador del Estado de Campeche, Campeche. 
Curapas: Gobernador del Estado de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutiérrez. 
CHIHUAHUA: Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua, Chihuahua. 
CoaHuILA: Peridéddico Oficial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno, 
Saltillo. 
CoLt1MaA: Gobernador del Estado de Colima, Colima. 
GuANAJUATO: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado, Guanajuato.® 
JALIsco: Biblioteca del Estado, Guadalajara. 
México: Gaceta del Gobierno, Toluca. 
MicuoacAn: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado de Michoacan, 
Morelia. 
MoreE.os: Palacio de Gobierno, Cuernavaca. 
Nayarit: Gobernador de Nayarit, Tepic. 
NueEvo LEr6n: Biblioteca del Estado, Monterrey. 
Oaxaoa: Periédico Oficial, Palacio de Gobierno, Oaxaca.® 
PUEBLA: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Puebla. 
QueERETARO: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccién de Archivo, Querétaro. 
SrnaLoa : Gobernador del Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacan. 
Sonora : Gobernador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo. 
TAMAULIPAS: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Victoria. 
Veracruz: Gobernador del Estado de Veracruz, Departamento de Gober- 
nacién y Justicia, Jalapa. 
YuoatAn: Gobernador del Estado de Yucataén, Mérida. 


See footnotes on p. 194. 


194. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


NETHERLANDS: Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague.’ 
New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. 
Norway : Library of the Norwegian Parliament, Olso. 
PANAMA: Biblioteca Nacional, Panama City.‘ 
PHILIPPINES: House of Representatives, Manila. 
Potanp: Kancelaria Rady Panstwa, Biblioteka Sejmowa, Warsaw. 
PorTUGUESE TrMoR: Reparticio Central de Administracio Civil, Dili* 
RHODESIA AND NYASALAND: Federal Assembly, Salisbury. 
RuMANIA: Biblioteca Centrala de Stat RPR, Bucharest. 
Sparn: Boletin Oficial del Estado, Presidencia del Gobierno, Madrid.° 
SWEDEN : Universitetsbiblioteket, Uppsala.* * 
SWITZERLAND: 
International Labour Office, Geneva.>* 
Library, United Nations, Geneva. 
Toco: Ministére d’Etat, de l’Interieur, de l’Information et de la Presse, Lome. 
UNION oF SouTH AFRICA: 
CAPE OF Goop Horr: Library of Parliament, Cape Town. 
TRANSVAAL: State Library, Pretoria. 
UNION oF Soviet SOcIALIst REPUBLICS: Fundamental’niia Biblioteka Obshchest- 
vennykh Nauk, Moscow. 
Uruceuay: Diario Oficial, Calle Florida 1178, Montevideo. 
YucostaviaA: Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade.” 


The International Exchange Service accepts publications for trans- 
mission to addressees in all countries except to the mainland of China, 
North Korea, and Communist-controlled areas of Vietnam, but will 
not accept packages of publications from domestic sources intended 
for addressees in the United States or in a territory subject to the 
jurisdiction of the United States. 

The number and weight of the packages received from sources in 
the United States for transmission abroad, and the number and weight 
of packages received from foreign sources intended for domestic ad- 
dressees, are classified in the accompanying table. The balance of 
exchange is not even because many countries do not have an exchange 
service through which they may transmit publications to the Smith- 
sonian Institution for distribution in the United States, therefore 
sending their publications directly to the addressees in the United 
States. 


1 Change of address. 

2 Receives two sets. 

8 Added during the year. 

4 Congressional Record only. 
5 Federal Register only. 

6 Three copies. 

7Two copies. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 195 


Received by the Smithsonian Institution for 
transmission 


Classification For transmission abroad For distribution in the 
United States 


Number of Weight in | Number of} Weight in 
packages pounds packages pounds 


U.S. parliamentary documents re- 

ceived for transmission abroad_____- 816, 044 | 352, 959 
Publications received from foreign 

sources for U.S. parlimentary ad- 

dressees a. = Sa a2 sso2 25542 sees ee Sees l teehee 8,410 | 11, 623 
U.S. departmental documents received 

for transmission abroad______---_-- ign CNS || 2H WO | sancncclnosceose 
Publications received from foreign 

sources for U.S. departmental ad- 

GLeESSECSE nee eae Se Soe es ae sais Sele See 5, 539 13, 719 
Miscellaneous scientific and literary 

publications received for transmis- 

SIOMHADTORG eae eee eee USS, OLoe 2198 S834 nasa ae alee eee 
Miscellaneous scientific and literary 

publications received from abroad 


for distribution in the United States_|___.___-___|__------- 56, 961 89, 167 
ZO Gallen Seas ee ae ene 1, 232, 364 | 798, 009 | 70,910 | 114, 509 
Grandttotal:- 225. 6228458 WF SOB) 274525 eee oe hele Be ee 912, 518 


Respectfully submitted. 
J. A. Cottins, Chief. 
Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the National Gallery of Art 


Sir: I have the honor to submit, on behalf of the Board of Trustees, 
the 25th annual report of the National Gallery of Art, for the fiscal 
year ended June 30, 1962. This report is made pursuant to the pro- 
visions of section 5(d) of Public Resolution No. 14, 75th Congress, ist 
session, approved March 24, 1937 (50 Stat. 51). 


ORGANIZATION 


The statutory members of the Board of Trustees of the National 
Gallery of Art are the Chief Justice of the United States, the Secre- 
tary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution, ex officio. The four general trustees con- 
tinuing in office during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1962, were 
Chester Dale, Paul Mellon, Rush H. Kress, and John Hay Whitney. 
Ferdinand Lammot Belin, who had been a general trustee since 1938 
and vice president since 1939, died on July 6, 1961. On May 28, 1962, 
John N. Irwin II was elected a general trustee for the remainder 
of the term expiring July 1, 1971. On May 29, 1962, Chester Dale was 
reelected by the Board of Trustees to serve as president of the Gallery 
and Paul Mellon was reelected vice president. 

The executive officers of the Gallery as of June 30, 1962, are as 
follows: 


Huntington Cairns, Secretary- Ernest R. Feidler, Administrator. 
Treasurer. Huntington Cairns, General Counsel. 
John Walker, Director. Perry B. Cott, Chief Curator 


The three standing committees of the Board, as constituted at the 
annual meeting on May 29, 1962, were as follows: 


EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


Chief Justice of the United States, Paul Melion. 

Earl Warren, Chairman. John Hay Whitney. 
Chester Dale, Vice Chairman. 
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- 

tion, Leonard Carmichael. 


FINANCE COMMITTEE 


Secretary of the Treasury, C. Douglas Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- 
Dillon, Chairman. tion, Leonard Carmichael. 

Chester Dale, Vice Chairman. John Hay Whitney. 

Paul Mellon. 


196 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 197 


ACQUISITIONS COMMITTEE 


Chester Dale, Chairman. John Hay Whitney. 
Paul Mellon. John Walker. 
PERSONNEL 


At the close of the fiscal year 1962, full-time Government employees 
on the staff of the National Gallery of Art numbered 307. The U.S. 
Civil Service regulations govern the appointment of employees paid 
from appropriated public funds. 

Continued emphasis was given to the training of employees under 
the Government Employees Training Act. Under the provisions of 
this act, 138 Gallery employees obtained additional training in their 


professions. 
APPROPRIATIONS 


For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1962, the Congress of the United 
States in the regular annual appropriation for the National Gallery 
of Art provided $1,932,000 to be used for salaries and expenses in the 
operation and upkeep of the Gallery, the protection and care of works 
of art acquired by the Board of Trustees, and all administrative 
expenses incident thereto, as authorized by joint resolution of Con- 
gress approved March 24, 1937 (20 U.S.C. 71-75; 50 Stat. 51). 

The following expenditures and encumbrances were incurred: 


Personnel compensation and benefits____._________.___-__________ $1, 689, 450. 15 

ATM Otn ere 1 tern sire eee ee oe es ee 242, 473. 32 

Wnobligzated sbalance hase eee ara ea oP Be ee ee No a 76. 53 

eh ACG) 6 La Oeste re eae ee 1, 932, 000. 00 
ATTENDANCE 


There were 1,332,506 visitors to the Gallery during the fiscal year 
1962, an increase of 300,166 over the previous year. The daily average 
number of visitors was 3,671. 


ACCESSIONS 


There were 1,437 accessions by the National Gallery of Art as gifts, 
loans, or deposits during the fiscal year. 


GIFTS 


During the year the following gifts or bequests were accepted by 
the Board of Trustees : 


PAINTINGS 
Donor Artist Title 
Avalon Foundation, New Sargent__-__-_____ A Street in Venice. 
MOrke NYE 
Mrs. Mellon Bruce, New Fragonard___----_- A Young Girl Reading. 


York, N.Y. 


198 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Donor Artist Title 
Samuel H. Kress Founda- Aspertini-.....-.-- St. Sebastian. 
tion, New York, N.Y. 
DO es eee es Daddijs = ev sens The Crucifixion. 
Dor saciass ee eee Domenico di Madonna and Child En- 
Bartolo. throned with St. Peter 
and St. Paul. 
Dott. 2.37 3 wom Bartolo di Fredi_.... The Presentation of the 
Virgin. 
DO. ae ee ee Bellini? = 222 eee. Se The Infant Bacchus. 
WOt eae eee Cretizss aes The Quarrel. 
Dostana iBronZinoe see ase Eleanora di Toledo. 
Dg ite eee ke CWarpacciow 492225. Madonna and Child. 
Dot oae ssa Soe Carracti== 2423 se3= Venus Adorned by the 
Graces. 
DOL See es ee eS Christuss2= asses. A Donor and His Wife. 
DolAer 24a lee Se Cima daConegliano St. Helena. 
DOpJ48 3355 eee Clouet? -22"2- G22 “Diane de Poitiers.” 
IDYo}ee See eS Davide... 223 ee Madame David. 
DOF se Se eee ate t0OL Shae een Napoleon in His Study. 
(DD Of ee eee eee raconarde=see a= Blindman’s Buff. 
Dow? 2255 JPR aes ak Sd =e See eee The Swing. 
1D) Sito op eee ee Seed Oers ste anaes Hubert Robert. 
Do Bee bee ae eee Grimewald £222 222- The Small Crucifixion. 
ND) se cee oe en ee GUercinola Sees Cardinal Francesco Cennini. 
DOME Nase ee Holbein, the Portrait of a Young Man. 
Younger. 
1D Yeh eas ee ee ene ee Juan de Flandes__._.. The Annunciation. 
Dea ees eS eer aA Ouis Sa = The Nativity. 
WD eres Se ees ae Ltt ie Aes a ee The Adoration of the Magi. 
ID) et 9 Sees EES (0 ay ee ee ate The Baptism of Christ. 
1) eee ee eee Largilliére.< 25-222" A Young Man with His 
Tutor. 
Doe. ene eee Lucas van Leyden_. The Card Players. 
DORs s eee a Bee Memling. 2-22 222-2 The Presentation in the 
Temple. 
Woes 222 see =n we aial Master of St. The Crucifixion. 
Veronica 
DO sac oe see INattierioeeee ae Joseph Bonnier de la Mos- 
son. 
1D) Oe eee ee ae Pierino del Vaga__-__ The Nativity. 
NN) OS Ea ae Ee Se Rubens__.__....... The Assumption of - the 
Virgin. 
Do ececosta secures Saenredam___-_-_-- Cathedral of St. John at 
’s-Hertogenbosch. 
DOr = ase eee Ze ATOS Sao yee Church of Santa Maria della 
Febbre, Rome. 
iD) Oe Stas eee ee ae Savoldor-osseeeu== Elijah Fed by the Raven. 
1D Ss fea as te eae er Scorelas aise a2 The Rest on the Flight into 
Egypt. 
DOs See ee Sebastiano del Cardinal Bandinello Sauli, 
Piombo. His Secretary and Two 
Geographers. 
DG2e si == Se eee 23 8800 Uae Portrait of a Humanist. 


Secretary's Report, 1962 PLATE 11 


Grunewald: The Small Crucifixion. National Gallery of Art. Samuel H. Kress Collection. 


PEATE 14: 


Secretary's Report, 1962 


Fre erenereeenneay 


PES 
F 
ca . 4 


( 
2 


j 


5, 


f got, Aa 


- 


C= 


A 7 Eee ee 


Collection 


Kress 


Samuel H. 


Art. 


llery of 


= 
Ta 


National ¢ 


Napoleon in His Study. 


David: 


Secretary's Report, 1962 PEATE 15 


Fragonard: A Young Girl Reading. National Gallery of Art. Gift of Mrs. Mellon Bruce 
in memory of her father, Andrew W. Mellon. 


Secretary's Report, 1962 PLATE 16 


1. Redon: Wildflowers. National Gallery of Art. 
Gift of Loula D. Lasker. 


2. Manet: Oysters. National Gallery of Art. Gift of the Adele R. Levy Fund, Inc. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


Donor Artist 
Samuel H. Kress Founda- Signorelli-._._.._.-- 
tion, New York, N.Y. 
DOM aoe yo ee Solanionotee ses aees 
1B Yo tiger area Aan = a Stro 2712 sae se ae 
DoS aes aes Fe PPiepOlomnssseseale 
OS Se 22s Pee a aes PLintoret toss =e 
TD Geese au deel 3 EE dOnt ee eee 
owes Sse Ricianeeee see eee ee 
DOL es aon eee Valdés Leal__._.__- 
DOQfc2 2 ae eee eee Veronese ss aes eee 
1D Yay sere See poe Vane anne Sees doses seen 
Dig ae ate 2a eRe S Ghirlandaio____-__- 
DOr. Bare ee Wattcaua a= seas 
LB) AAR Se Fol fe Peat ZOPPOs ns ee ee 
12) eee ee oh ae Voueti cose aeee ee 
ID Yo liye ei cto Ree e Se ies PAL) Canaletto== 2-2 —— 
1D) Oe se eee French Master, sec- 
ond half, 15th cen- 
tury. 
LS) preg BE French School, 1572_ 
DO ee SSE ee re IF Tre Pepa ee 
Doses 2s. See ee Florentine School, 
16th century. 
Doles Sass Ricci, Sebastiano 
and Marco. 
DOE aerate ae Se Rosso lla = 
ID ORE Rae oa re 28. Rubens: eee oe 
1) QE See ee OF Vouctes224 eee ne? 
Dose ae se See Baldung Grien_._-_- 
i 1 Yo eee ee ne Se Bellotto=====—=e = 
1D Yosh ae See LO ee 
1D) Geer ee ne iBourdonssseeee ae 
1 BD Yo aes eee ee ge Boutes ee 
1) OW see ee Bramantino=-=2-2=— 
DOW Se St deere bl St Correggio----22222_ 
Wow siens Pa Ak Cranach, the Elder__ 


672-174 63—_14 


199 


Title 
The Marriage of the Virgin. 


Pieta. 

Bishop Alvise Grimani. 

A Scene from Roman His- 
tory. 

The Conversion of St. Paul. 

Doge Alvise Mocenigo and 
Family before the Madon- 
na and Child. 

Doge Andrea Gritti. 

The Assumption of the Vir- 
gin. 

St. Jerome in the Wilderness. 

St. Luey and a Donor. 

Madonna and Child. 

Ceres (Summer). 

Madonna and Child. 

St. Jerome and the Angel. 

The Portello and the Brenta 
Canal at Padua. 

Portrait of an Ecclesiastic. 


Prince Hercule-Frangois, 
Due d’ Alencon. 

The Magdalen. 

Dante. 


Memorial to Admiral Sir 
Clowdisley Shovell. 

Portrait of a Man. 

Marchesa Brigida Spinola 
Doria. 

The Muses Urania and Cal- 
liope. 

St. Anne with the Christ 
Child, the Virgin, and St. 
John the Baptist. 

The Castle of Nymphen- 
burg. 

View of Munich. 

The Finding of Moses. 

Portrait of a Donor. 

The Apparition of Christ 
among the Apostles. 

Salvator Mundi. 

The Crucifixion with 
Longinus. 


200 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN 


Donor Artist 
Samuel H. Kress Founda- Diana_...._.....- 
tion, New York, N.Y. 
Doses aaa ee ee Ble ie2 Se he a 
i Yo peemeenaeeies Sh eee Foppatss ote a tee 
Doste:. Sees eae nes Gentileschi_____-_ 
Dove 32.3 eee Goya y Lucientes__-_ 
Dox se. 2s eae ae eee Hamen y Leén- ~-- 
Doe. S.ege eae ee See ae hours ae 
DoS. eee ae as Master of Badia 
a Isola. 
DON ae ete eee Master of the St. 
Bartholomew 
Altar. 
DOS R224 s/he ae os Morte 222s eee see 
(DOn = he eee eee Nicolé dell’ Abate 
and Denys 
Calvaert. 
DO be 2 Sieh ees as Patinir, follower of_- 
Doses era eh ee ee IPiazzettqeae ss 
1D) Oe apes = oo yee iIRontormo====ee= 
Dobsne nese Lee Prudshons ===] —== 
DOS 5 saws eek oe Ruisdael-__-_---_- 
DOR se peewee eens Savoldosesss=ee= 
DOs tee ee Sionorellime====—— 
Doe ¢ Sas ae Se Sirigels 422 s2e ose 
| D oye a tes ee =e SOU 2 = Aten ae 
SPD) Oe ea ee ra ee Ie Tintorestonaese= 
DD) Se Ss ts Se a oe Waseca ome a ae 
ID Oe e Meee noe Venetian Master, 
third quarter, 
18th century. 
DOs tes aes Sees Seyilerteeee a ae 
Miss Loula D. lasker, Redon.__-__.---- 
New York, N.Y. 
Adele Rew leviveHundss inc mea nete === 
New York, N.Y. 
DOs 26 22a eee Redon! = 22245255 
Lady Roxana Vereker, Carpenter_-_-_-..- 
Valbonne, France. 
Miss Martha E. Warner, Bass Otis_..-_--- 


Paoli, Pa. 
Mrs. E. Laurence White, 
Prides Crossing, Mass. 


INSTITUTION, 1962 


Title 

The Presentation and Mar- 
riage of the Virgin, An- 
nunciation. 

The Assumption of the 
Virgin. 

St. Bernardino. 

St. Cecilia and an Angel. 

Don Antonio Noriega. 

Still Life. 

Claude Dupouch. 

Madonna Enthroned with 
Angels. 

The Baptism of Christ. 


Portrait of a Young Man. 
The Judgment of Paris. 


The Flight into Egypt. 

Madonna and Child Ap- 
pearing to San Filippo 
Neri. 

Monsignor della Casa. 

David Johnston. 

Landscape. 

The Adoration of the Child. 

Madonna and Child with 
Saints. 

St. Mary Cleophas and Her 
Family. 

St. Mary Salome and Her 
Family. 

Summer. 

The Larder. 

Before the Masked Ball. 


Rush H. Kress. 
Wildflowers. 


Oysters. 


Pansies. 
Mrs. Henry C. Bowen. 


John Smith Warner. 


Mother and Children. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


SCULPTURE 


Artist 
Solari es eee 


Donor 
Samuel H. Kress Founda- 
tion, New York, N.Y. 


DOS stra we ee eae. North Italian 
School, 1321. 
1B Yo eee | el ee A Micheloz7ia 
1 DoS a er se ee NINO: eIsano== === 
ID Yo eg eee er ae PEEK 6 (0) ea eer See ree 
WOE See sa oat eae French School, first 
half, 14th century. 
ID Ota ss e sees Sansovino===2e2ee= 
1D Xo) as ee ee eo KO dee eee me 
DD) Ose eee IBY a Se 
DOR Sa aa te aoe e ae Giovanni di Turino. 
1D OSs ee a ee Italian School, first 
half, 17th century- 
DORE Es ase Se oe Ef Eo (ana th ae Ree 
IDC Re ee ere ae WMittorlases= 2 
1D oe ae ee ae eS ee we Ole eee wie sees 
Lessing J. Rosenwald, Jenk- Daumier_____----- 
intown, Pa. 
DOF me aw see SER (6 (0 ea eee ny Niele 


DECORATIVE ARTS 


Samuel H. Kress Founda- 15 enamels. 
tion, New York, N.Y. 
The Tunisian People, Tu- 


nisia. 


Roman Mosaic, 3d 
century A.D. 


GRAPHIC ARTS 


201 


Title 
The Man of Sorrows. 


Madonna and Child En- 
throned with Angels. 

Madonna with the Sleeping 
Child. 

The Archangel Gabriel. 

The Virgin Annunciate. 

Madonna and Child. 


Andiron with Figure of Mars. 

Andiron with Figure of 
Venus. 

Monsignor Francesco Bar- 
berini. 

Madonna and Child. 

Chiaro da Verrazano. 


Giovanni da Verrazano. 
Portrait of a Young Knight. 
Portrait of a Venetian Lady. 
Le Petit Propriétaire. 


Le Visiteur. 


Symbols of Bacchus as God 
of Wine and the Theater. 


During the year Copley Amory gave an engraving entitled The 
Copley Family by Copley. Seventy-four objects in niello were given 
by the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, and Lessing J. Rosenwald in- 
creased his gift to the Gallery with 84 prints and drawings. 


OTHER GIFTS 


In the fiscal year 1962 gifts of money were made by the Old Do- 
minion Foundation, Avalon Foundation, Mrs. Mellon Bruce, Calouste 
Gulbenkian Foundation, Miss Martha E. Warner, and Irving R. Saal. 
An additional cash bequest was received from the estate of William 
Nelson Cromwell. Gifts of securities during the year were received 
from the estate of Ferdinand Lammot Belin and from Mrs. Mildred 


G,. Bryan. 


202 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


EXCHANGE OF WORKS OF ART 


In exchange for one-third interest in the “Geese Book,” a medieval 
choral missal, the Samuel H. Kress Foundation gave the National 
Gallery of Art 200 antique frames. 


WORKS OF ART ON LOAN 


The following works of art were received on loan by the Gallery: 


From Artist Title 
Robert Woods Bliss Wash=" 222255552 25=—2——== 53 objects of Pre-Columbian 
ington, D.C. art. 
Chester Dale, New York, Bellows...-------- Blue Morning. 
ING: 
| Bo anemone tear amt’, ee Monet. 2222s = The Seine at Giverny. 
Col. and Mrs. Edgar W. Unknown-_-___------ 4th Pennsylvania Cavalry. 
Garbisch, New York, 
IN 


Mr. and Mrs. David Lloyd Van Gogh 
Kreeger, Washington, 


Se Vase of Flowers. 


D.C. 
DOR Meas le ee Mioneteeeess eens Water Lilies. 
DOF= saat ats ee Renoir seen see Bather. 
Mrs. Eugene Meyer, Wash- Dufresne__-------- Still Life. 
ington, D.C. 
1 De) ey Ss oe pel ee ae Renoiree sees cere Nude. 


WORKS OF ART ON LOAN RETURNED 


The following works of art on loan were returned during the fiscal 
year: 


To Artist Title 
leqooeren Moe Isis, WEED oo kee4éeoaeosscees 111 objects of Pre-Coium- 
ington, D.C. bian art. 
Chester Dale, New York, Bellows__....----- Blue Morning. 
N.Y. 
Doses See ee Monet: 2 2st o"- sees The Seine at Giverny. 
Col. and Mrs. Edgar W. Chambers_--_----- New York Harbor with Small 
Garbisch, New York, N.Y. Sailing Vessel. 
DOfee eae ee seen Unknowne-“2--2 222 4th Pennsylvania Cavalry. 
Mr. and Mrs. David Lloyd Van Gogh. ___-_- Vase of Flowers. 
Kreeger, Washington, 
DG: 
Doss Reet eae as ae Monette se 2oeeeo= Water Lilies. 
Dore ener ea eee Renoir. 2228535. s22 Bather. 
Samuel H. Kress Founda- Basaiti_......_.__-- Madonna and Child. 
tion, New York, N.Y. 
Mrs. Eugene Meyer, Wash- Dufresne___-..--_- Still Life. 


ington, D.C. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


203 


WORKS OF ART LENT 


During the fiscal year the Gallery lent the following works of art 
for exhibition purposes: 


To 
American Federation 
Arts, New York, N.Y. 


of 


Art Institute of Chicago, 
Chicago, Ml. 


Department of Defense, 
Washington, D.C. 

Philadelphia Museum of 
Art, Philadelphia, Pa. 


Century 21 Exposition, 
Seattle, Wash. 

Texas Technological 
College, Lubbock, Tex. 
The White House, Wash- 

ington, D.C. 

Wilmington Society of the 
Fine Arts, Wilmington, 
Del. 

Woodlawn Plantation, 
Mount Vernon, Va. 


Artist 
Winlkerno wee 


Joseph Badger - --___ 
Unknowns 22353- 


John Bradley_____- 
Susanne Walters_ -_ 


EXHIBITIONS 


Title 
Jonathan Benham. 


Mrs. Isaac Foster. 

Catharine Hendrickson. 

The Start of the Hunt. 

The End of the Hunt. 

The Sargent Family. 

Family Portrait. 

Alice Slade. 

Joseph Slade. 

General Washington on White 
Charger. 

Vermont Lawyer. 

Blue Eyes. 

The Hobby Horse. 

Little Girl in Lavender. 

Memorial to Nicholas M. 8. 
Catlin. 

Flax Scutching Bee. 

Mahantango Valley Farm. 

Civil War Battle Scene. 

Berks County Almshouse. 

Monsignor Diomede Falconio. 


The Biglen Brothers Racing. 
James V. Forrestal. 


Monsignor Diomede Falconio. 


The Biglen Brothers Racing. 
Kpes Sargent. 


Andrew Jackson. 
22 sketches for WPA murals. 
Village by the River. 


General Washington at Prince- 
ton. 


The following exhibitions were held at the National Gallery of Art 
during the fiscal year 1962: 


Ohinese Art Treasures. 


Sponsored by the Government of the Republic of China. 


Continued from previous fiscal year through August 13, 1961. 


204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Early American Lighting Devices. From the Index of American Design. Con- 
tinued from previous fiscal year through July 12, 1961. 

Exhibitions of recent accessions. Roman mosaic, third century A.D. “Symbols 
of Bacchus as God of Wine and the Theater,” May 4, 1961, through August 
25, 1961; “Girl with a Basket of Fish” and “Girl with a Basket of Oranges” 
by Renoir, August 30, 1961, through September 26, 1961; “A Young Girl Read- 
ing’ by Fragonard, November 21, 1961, through March 22, 1962; “Pansies” and 
“Wildflowers” by Redon, January 5, 1962, through January 24, 1962; “The 
Copley Family” by Copley, May 11, 1962, through June 8, 1962; and “Oysters” 
by Manet, June 22, 1962, to continue into the next fiscal year. 

Lithographs and etchings by Goya. From the Rosenwald Collection. July 13 
through September 18, 1961. 

Etchings and drawings by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo and Giovanni Domenico 
Tiepolo. From the Rosenwald and W. G. Russell Allen Collections. September 
15, 1961, through November 2, 1961. 

Tiepolo Drawings. From the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. September 
17 through October 15, 1961. 

French XVIIIth century color prints. From the Widener Collection. October 
7, 1961, through November 6, 1961. 

A Retrospective Exhibition of the Work of Thomas Hakins. From 57 collections 
and private lenders. October 8, 1961, through November 12, 1961. 

Tutankhamun Treasures. From the Department of Antiquities of the United 
Arab Republic. November 8, 1961, through December 8, 1961. 

Art Treasures for America. From the Samuel H. Kress Collection. December 
10, 1961, through February 1, 1962. 

Christmas prints. From the Rosenwald Collection. December 14, 1961, through 
January 24, 1962. 

Early American Glass. From the Index of American Design. January 25, 1962, 
through May 24, 1962. 

English Drawings and Water Colors. From British Collections, sponsored by 
the English-Speaking Unions of the United States and the British Common- 
wealth, and from the Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Paul Mellon. February 
18, 1962, through April 1, 1962. 

English mezzotints. From the Rosenwald Collection. February 17, 1962, 
through April 1, 1962. 

Lithographs by George Bellows. From the Mellon, Rosenwald, and Addie Burr 
Clark Memorial Collections. April 21, 1962, to continue into the next fiscal 
year. 

Prints with color. From the Rosenwald Collection. May 25, 1962, to continue 
into the next fiscal year. 

Hehibition of the Collection of Mr. and Mrs. André Meyer. June 10, 1962, to 
continue into the next fiscal year. 


TRAVELING EXHIBITIONS 


Rosenwald Collection.—Special exhibitions of prints, drawings, and 
sculpture from the Rosenwald Collection were circulated during the 
fiscal year to 35°museums, universities, schools, and art centers in the 
United States and abroad. 

Index of American Design.—During the fiscal year 1962, 28 travel- 
ing exhibitions (865 plates and 34 lithographs) were circulated in 
this country to 14 States, the District of Columbia, and in Canada 
and Germany. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 205 
CURATORIAL ACTIVITIES 


Under the direction of Dr. Perry B. Cott, chief curator, the cura- 
torial department accessioned 291 gifts to the Gallery during the fis- 
cal year 1962. Advice was given with respect to 1,586 works of art 
brought to the Gallery for expert opinion and 24 visits to collections 
were made by members of the staff in connection with offers of gifts. 
About 4,435 inquiries, many of them requiring research, were answered 
verbally and by letter. 

Miss Elizabeth Mongan, curator of graphic arts, lectured on 
graphic arts at Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa., Cheltenham, 
England, and Beaver College, Pa. She gave a course in graphic 
arts to six seniors from Bryn Mawr College at Alverthorpe Gallery, 
Jenkintown, Pa., October through January. She was on the jury of 
selection for the Print Club of Philadelphia and for American Prints 
Today, Print Council of America. 

Dr. H. Lester Cooke, curator of painting, lectured on modern art 
at the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., and the Indiana 
Club of Washington, D.C. He also gave two lectures to the Italian 
Society of Washington. During the year Dr. Cooke assisted in judg- 
ing the following art shows: Mid-States Annual, Evansville, Ind.; 
Miniature Society of America, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 
D.C.; annual art exhibition of Charles County, Md.; and the Indian 
Head Art Society annual exhibition, Indian Head, Md. 

The Richter Archives received and cataloged over 679 photographs 
on exchange from museums here and abroad, 96 purchased photo- 
graphs, and about 1,000 reproductions. Five hundred photographs 
were added to the Iconographical Index. 


RESTORATION 


Francis Sullivan, resident restorer of the Gallery, made regular 
and systematic inspection of all works of art in the Gallery and on 
loan to Government buildings in Washington, and periodically re- 
moved dust and bloom as required. He relined, cleaned, and restored 
12 paintings and gave special treatment to 26. Twenty paintings were 
X-rayed as an aid in research. Experiments were continued with syn- 
thetic materials suggested by the National Gallery of Art Fellowship 
at the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, Pa. Tech- 
nical advice on the conservation of paintings was furnished the public 
upon request, and advice on and special treatment were given to works 
of art belonging to other Government agencies, including the White 
House, U.S. Capitol, U.S. Coast Guard, and the Supreme Court. 

Mr. Sullivan made trips to various cities in connection with the 
loan of paintings to the Gallery for special exhibitions. He also at- 
tended a conference in Rome, Italy, on “Recent Advances in Conser- 


206 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


vation” sponsored by the International Institute for Conservation and, 
while in Europe, met with conservators in London, Paris, Amsterdam, 
and Brussels. 

PUBLICATIONS 


William P. Campbell, assistant chief curator, wrote the notes for 
the catalog of the exhibition Retrospective Hxhibition of the Work of 
Thomas Eakins. 

Miss Klizabeth Mongan, curator of graphic arts, wrote an article 
for the Print Council of America Year Book entitled “Battle of 
Fornovo.” 

Dr. H. Lester Cooke, curator of painting, wrote an article on the 
development of Winslow Homer’s watercolor technique for the Art 
Quarterly, Summer 1961. 

Dr. Katharine Shepard, assistant curator of graphic arts, wrote a 
book review for the American Journal of Archaeology for January 
1962 on “Romische Funde” by Hans von Hiilsen. 

During the fiscal year 1962 the Publications Fund placed seven 
catalogs on sale: Tiepolo Drawings from the Victoria and Albert 
Museum, London; Thomas Eakins, A Retrospective Exhibition; 
Tutankhamun Treasures; Kress Gift to the Nation; English Draw- 
ings and Water Colors from British Collections; English Drawings 
and Water Colors from the Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Paul Mellon; 
and L'xhibition of the Collection of Mr. and Mrs. André Meyer. Four 
books were placed on sale also: Art 7’reasures for America, an anthol- 
ogy of painting and sculpture from the Samuel H. Kress Collection ; 
Paintings of the World’s Great Galleries, with a section on the Na- 
tional Gallery of Art by Perry B. Cott; Zhe Collected Dialogues of 
Plato edited by Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns; and Of 
Divers Arts by Naum Gabo, the A. W. Mellon Lecturer in the Fine 
Arts for 1959. Other material made available included 6 large color 
reproductions, a variety of jewelry pieces made from 6 small sculp- 
tures, 10 color filmstrips on the Gallery collection produced by Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica, and 2 sets of playing cards reproducing Gallery 
subjects. 

Sixteen color postcards and one 11’’ by 14” color reproduction of 
the new Fragonard “A Young Girl Reading” were published, to- 
gether with 51 new 2’ by 2” color slides. The Christmas cards in- 
cluded seven new color subjects and nine new graphic arts selections. 


EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM 


The program of the educational department was carried out under 
the direction of Dr. Raymond S. Stites, curator in charge of educa- 
tional work, and his staff. The staff lectured and conducted tours on 
works of art in the Gallery’s collection. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 207 


Attendance for the general tours, tours of the week, and picture of 
the week talks totaled 41,314. This represents an increase of 2,475 
over last year’s attendance. The attendance at the Sunday afternoon 
auditorium lectures totaled 10,668. 

Special tours, lectures, and conferences were arranged and a total 
of 16,006 were served in this manner. This is an increase over last 
year of 1,918 persons. These included groups of visitors from Gov- 
ernment agencies, club and study groups, foreign students, religious 
organizations, convention groups, and women’s organizations. These 
special services were also given to school groups from all over the 
country. 

The program of training volunteer docents continued and special 
instruction was given to approximately 100 volunteers from the Junior 
League of Washington and the American Association of University 
Women. By special arrangement with the public and parochial 
schools of the District of Columbia and surrounding counties of Mary- 
land and Virginia, these volunteers conducted tours for 59,989 chil- 
dren, an increase of 8,069 children over last year’s total. 

Forty-one lectures were delivered in the auditorium on Sunday 
afternoons. Five of these were delivered by staff members, and 30 by 
guest lecturers. Kathleen Raine delivered the Eleventh Annual Se- 
ries of the Andrew W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts on six consec- 
utive Sundays beginning on March 4 on the subject “Wisdom of the 
Ages: A Study of the Traditional Sources of William Blake.” 

The slide library of the educational department has a total of 44,274 
slides in its permanent and lending collections. During the year 2,244 
slides were added to the collections. In all, 250 persons borrowed a 
total of 11,229 slides from the collections. It is estimated these slides 
were seen by 20,780 viewers. 

Members of the staff participated in outside activities delivering 
lectures, teaching courses, and attending classes in foreign universities. 
Also members of the staff prepared scripts for the Lectour recordings 
and for radio talks and wrote the material used in the school tour pro- 
gram and the slide lending program. 

A printed calendar of events was prepared and distributed monthly 
to a mailing list of about 9,300 names. This is an increase over last 
year of 1,747 names. 

EXTENSION SERVICES 


The extension service continued under the direction of the curator 
of the Index of American Design, Dr. Grose Evans. This service 
circulates to the public the traveling exhibits, Gallery films, and slide 
lecture sets. There are 26 traveling exhibits in circulation, lent free of 
charge except for transportation charges. These were circulated in 
156 bookings and were seen by an estimated 78,000 viewers. Three 


208 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


special exhibits were prepared by special request and circulated. 
Preparation was begun on a program to circulate exhibits in the school 
systems of New York state. 

Three films were circulated in 1389 bookings and were seen by an 
estimated 41,700 viewers. A total of 930 sets of slide lectures on a 
variety of subjects were circulated in 2,019 bookings and seen by ap- 
proximately 121,150 viewers. The extension services this year reached 
approximately 240,850 persons, an increase over last year of 88,870. 


LIBRARY 


During the year the library, under the supervision of Miss Ruth 
Carlson, accessioned 4,397 publications of which 3,955 were received 
by exchange, as gifts, or purchased from private funds. Government 
funds were used to purchase 13 books and 26 subscriptions to periodi- 
cals, and for the binding of 188 volumes of periodicals. In all, 1,279 
photographs were added this year and were acquired by exchange or 
by purchase from private funds. 

During the year the library classified and cataloged 1,667 publica- 
tions, 6,384 cards were filed, and 2,517 periodicals were recorded. 
There were 8,781 periodicals circulated, and 3,622 books borrowed by 
members of the staff. This year the library sold 9 duplicate books 
and disposed of 500 periodicals to the United States Book Exchange. 
A total of 1,483 books and 4 microfilms were borrowed on interlibrary 
loan. 

The exchange program became a library function during the year 
and 570 National Gallery of Art publications were distributed. 

The library maintains a stock of black-and-white photographs of 
works of art in the Gallery’s collections. These are maintained for 
the use of the staff, for exchange, for reproduction in approved pub- 
lications and for sale to the public. Approximately 6,108 photographs 
were stocked in the library during the year and 1,248 orders for 6,014 
photographs were filled. There were 366 permits for reproduction 
of 1,319 subjects processed. 


INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN 


The Index of American Design under the supervision of Dr. Grose 
Evans circulated 106 sets of color slides (5,306) throughout the coun- 
try; and 230 photographs of Index material were used for exhibits, 
study, publicity, and reproduction in approved publications. The 
photographic file was increased by 69 negatives and 260 prints. 
Twenty-eight permits to reproduce 103 subjects from the Index were 
issued. 

The material in the Index of American Design was studied during 
the year by 458 persons doing special research and for publication, 
exhibition, and use by designers. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 209 


The curator of the Index of American Design took part again in 
the orientation program of USIA personnel and delivered 8 lectures 
to approximately 251 people on American folk art. He also delivered 
five lectures to school and club groups. Dr. Evans conducted a series 
of 45 television lectures on the history of painting. 


MAINTENANCE OF BUILDING AND GROUNDS 


The Gallery building, mechanical equipment, and grounds were 
maintained at the established standards throughout the year. 

A new security system, protecting all exterior entrances and exits, 
was installed jointly by the Gallery staff and the Federal Engineering 
Co. This system provides for the sounding of an alarm in the Na- 
tional Gallery of Art Guard Office simultaneously with the sounding 
of an alarm at the Federal Engineering Co. headquarters, should any 
of the exterior doors, windows, or exterior ducts be opened during 
specified periods. 

Specially designed acoustic tile was installed in the compressor 
room to lower the sound level as a protection for the hearing of em- 
ployees working in that area. 

An additional sprinkler system, tied in with the ADT alarm system, 
was installed in the unfinished area, G—-15, on the ground floor. 

The Gallery greenhouse continued to produce flowering and foliage 
plants in quantities sufficient for all decorative needs of special open- 
ings and day-to-day requirements of the Garden Courts. 

The planting of Zoysia grasses in exposed lawns and parking strips 
continued. After experimentally determining that Emerald zoysia is 
apparently hardy under Gallery conditions, the planting of this strain 
is being undertaken in all areas which were not previously planted 
with Meyer zoysia or zoysia matrella. 


LECTOUR 


The Gallery’s electronic guide system, Lectour, was increased by 
over 50 percent in September 1961, when 11 new rooms were added 
to the 20 already wired for broadcast. This additional equipment 
makes it possible for the first time for visitors to have the benefit of 
Lectour in the Gallery’s collection of decorative art on the ground 
floor. 

During the fiscal year 1962 Lectour was used by 87,736 visitors. 

Lectour broadcasts were prepared for the special exhibitions of the 
Kress Gift to the Nation, Eakins Retrospective Exhibition, and 
English Drawings and Water Colors. 


OTHER ACTIVITIES 


Forty Sunday evening Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation concerts 
were given in the East Garden court. The National Gallery of Art 


210 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


orchestra conducted by Richard Bales played 10 of these concerts. 
Two were made possible in part by the Music Performance Trust 
Fund of the American Federation of Musicians. The National Gal- 
lery Strings, conducted by Mr. Bales, furnished music during the 
Thomas Eakins opening on October 7, 1961, and at the opening of 
English Water Colors on February 17, 1962. The concert on Sun- 
day, October 22, 1961, was dedicated to United Nations Day. Five 
consecutive Sunday evenings during May and June were devoted to 
the Gallery’s 19th American Music Festival. All concerts were 
broadcast by Station WGMS-AM and FM in stereophonic sound. 
Washington music critics covered the concerts. Intermission talks 
during the broadcasts were delivered by members of the Educational 
Department staff on works of art in the Gallery, and on music by Mr. 
Bales. During the season Mr. Bales and the National Gallery 
orchestra played a number of engagements outside the Gallery’s 
regular programs. Two hour-long television programs of the Na- 
tional Gallery orchestra with Mr. Bales conducting were shown on 
WTOP. Mr. Bales received an award for his outstanding contribu- 
tions to American music from the Academy of Achievement, Monte- 
rey, Calif., and the National Gallery of Art received an Award of 
Merit from the National Federation of Music Clubs for its participa- 
tion in the performance of American music. 

In response to requests, 27,268 copies of the pamphlet “A Cordial 
Invitation from the Director” and 2,264 copies of the Gallery’s in- 
formation booklet were sent to members of Congress and to organiza- 
tions holding conventions in Washington, D.C. 

Henry B. Beville, the head of the Gallery’s photographic labora- 
tory, and his staff processed 26,661 items including negatives, prints, 
color transparencies, color separations, and slides. 

A total of 232 permits to copy works of art and 124 permits to 
photograph works of art were issued. 


AUDIT OF PRIVATE FUNDS OF THE GALLERY 


An audit of the private funds of the Gallery will be made for the 
fiscal year ended June 30, 1962, by Price Waterhouse & Co., public 
accountants. A report of the audit will be forwarded to the Gallery. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Hountineron Carrns, Secretary. 


Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the Library 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the ac- 
tivities of the Smithsonian library for the fiscal year ended June 380, 
1962: 

The library continued to furnish pertinent literature and informa- 
tion in support of the various programs and activities of the Institu- 
tion. 

ACQUISITIONS 


Publications received during the year totaled 84,061. In this num- 
ber are represented 2,475 purchased books, subscriptions to 826 jour- 
nals, and publications received as gifts and exchanges. In coopera- 
tion with scientific and learned organizations throughout the world, 
83 new exchanges were established. In addition, approximately 
1,750 volumes, which had been specially requested by staff members, 
were received. 

Outstanding gifts from interested donors provided the library with 
many valuable and difficult to locate publications. Some of these 
include: 


The Encyclopedia Americana, the 1829 and the 1962 Seattle World’s Fair 
editions, from the Americana Corp., New York. Accepted by Dr. Leonard Car- 
michael in a special ceremony in the Board of Regents Room, May 1, 1962. 

342 items on architecture and town planning, from Hlbert Peets, Washington, 
D.C. 

Collection of scientific publications, from W. J. Hammer (bequest). 

Scottish Art Review, vols. 1-7, from J. Ramsay, Braidwood, Glasgow, Scot- 
land. 

Price lists, catalogs, books, and pamphlets on the history of dentistry, from 
Edward H. Angle (bequest). 

The Melander collection of 262 volumes on Diptera, from Dr. J. F. Gates 
Clarke, U.S. National Museum. 

“Fan Leaves,” by Fan Guild of Boston, from Mrs. Frank C. Doble, Belmont. 
Mass. 

41 volumes on mechanical and civil engineering, from Mrs. Carolyn H. Ed- 
wards, Glen Echo, Md. 

5 books on weapons, from Mrs. John Oliver LaGorce, Washington, D.C. 

“Primitive into Painter,” by William B. O’Neal, from the author, Charlottes- 
ville, Va. 

Relacién de Michoacan, 1541 (facsimile), from His Excellency Mariano de 
Yturralde y Orbegoso, the Ambassador of Spain, Washington, D.C. 

17 volumes on ceramics and glass, from Dr. Hans Syz, Westport, Conn. 

34 volumes on physical sciences, from the U.S. Naval Observatory Library. 


211 


212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Collection of journals, from Mrs. DeWitt C. Ramsay, Washington, D.C. 

4 trade catalogs, from C. V. S. Roosevelt, Washington, D.C. 

In conjunction with the library’s exchange program, a total of 
32,055 pieces of duplicate and extraneous materials were sent to other 
libraries. This included 26,717 items forwarded to the Library of 
Congress and 2,481 dissertations sent to the National Library of 
Medicine. 

In all, 116,116 pieces of material were handled by the acquisitions 
section during the year. 


REFERENCE AND CIRCULATION 


The reference librarians answered 30,498 requests for specific types 
of information, replied to 3,441 pieces of correspondence, circulated 
33,704 books and journals, and cleared the loan records of 26,269 
volumes. No circulation record is maintained of those books and 
journals assigned to divisional libraries. Publications borrowed from 
other libraries, chiefly the Library of Congress, totaled 5,386; ap- 
proximately 1,503 volumes were lent. The number of persons using 
the reading and reference facilities of the central and branch libraries 
totaled 24,423, an increase of 9,903 over the previous year. Additional 
funds enabled the library to purchase seriously needed reference and 
bibliographical materials. 


CATALOGING AND BINDING 


The organization and control of the library’s collection are necessary 
to provide an effective library program for the staff of the Institution. 

The catalog section cataloged 6,564 volumes, recataloged 344 vol- 
umes, transferred 537 volumes, recorded 29,967 serials in the Serial 
Record, and filed 34,568 cards into the card catalog. 

The binding unit prepared 6,400 volumes of books and journals for 
binding by a commercial binder. The Editorial and Publications Di- 
vision designed end papers to be used for all newly bound or rebound 
books and journals, which attractively indicate Smithsonian owner- 
ship. The skilled hand-binding staff preserved 3,049 volumes and 
pamphlets which were either too fragile or valuable to be sent outside 
the Institution for repair. This program, to preserve our valuable 
research and source materials, continues on a rewarding basis. 


PROGRAMS AND FACILITIES 


The library staff continued to develop and put into practice new 
procedures, routines, and form letters which provided more efficient 
and expeditious operations. In the central library, for example, 
45,000 volumes were rearranged and filed in one sequence on the shelves. 
Such improvements are important to the functioning of the library as 
a whole. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 213 


During the year the library staff assisted in the Smithsonian exhibi- 
tion program by conducting extensive research to provide background 
information and appropriate illustrations for proposed exhibits. 

Careful consideration was given to the efficient and economic ar- 
rangement of space and equipment in the library’s allotted area in 
the east and west ranges in the Natural History Building. Floor plans 
were made for the library of the National Collection of Fine Arts and 
the National Portrait Gallery in the Patent Office Building. 

A Xerox 914 book copier was acquired for the purpose of extending 
library services. This quick photocopying equipment provides the 
research staff with library materials that are needed for long-term 
use, particularly those that are out of print and/or difficult to locate. 


STAFF CHANGES AND ACTIVITIES 


Mrs. Etta C. Bachrach, formerly with the National Library of 
Medicine, joined the catalog section staff in April. Miss Janice 
Brown, chief of the reference and circulation section, retired on 
May 18. 

During the year, staff members attended the International Confer- 
ence on Cataloguing Principles sponsored by UNESCO in Paris, 
France, the American Library Association’s annual conference, the 
American Library Association’s Library Buildings and Equipment 
Institutes, the Special Libraries Association’s conference, and U.S. 
Book Exchange meetings. Staff members also visited the Bibliotheque 
National in Paris and the Library for the National Portrait Gallery 
in London. 

BRANCH LIBRARIES 


The branch library for the Museum of History and Technology 
answered 13,327 reference questions, circulated 12,847 books and 
journals, and provided assistance to 5,591 visitors to the library. The 
trade catalog collection was enriched by the addition of 816 commer- 
cial catalogs, many of which are rare and out of print. A concentrated 
effort is being made to organize this collection prior to its move into 
the new Museum of History and Technology building. A twice- 
monthly accessions list was continued with gratifying results. 

The importance of the Bureau of American Ethnology branch li- 
brary’s valuable collection of materials on the North American Indians 
was recognized by steps taken during the year toward making this 
better available to Smithsonian and visiting scientists. The physical 
appearance and lighting arrangements were improved, and Mrs. Carol 
F. Jopling, formerly with the U.S. Information Agency, was ap- 
pointed as librarian. 

Procedures were put into effect for the operation of the branch 
library of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, 


214 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Mass. The acquisition of all library materials for SAO is conducted 
by the central library, but the materials are delivered directly to Cam- 
bridge where the cataloging is performed. This procedure makes 
books and journals available more rapidly to the SAO staff than was 
heretofore possible. Approximately 5,625 visitors availed themselves 
of this library, 905 books and journals were circulated, and 275 
reference questions were answered. 

The division of insects branch library of approximately 18,000 
volumes was moved to Lamont Street in April, along with the divi- 
sion itself and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Insect Identifica- 
tion Branch. 

SUMMARIZED STATISTICS 
ACCESSIONS 


Volumes |Total recorded 
volumes, 1962 


Smithsonian Central Library including the Museum of Nat- 


LIRA ELIS GOT ys ee eter ee 2, 623 345, 931 
Museumyof History, and ehechnologyae mee = eee ae eee 2, 959 
Astrophysical Observatory (S1) = 22s) es eso ee ee 4 13, 404 
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Cambridge, Mass_ 296 1, 700 
Radiationend.Organismsa= 527 ess esos Be See eee eee 170 2, 039 
Bureausor Americans bhmOlog yee ee eee 289 39, 180 
National'Air Miuseulm==. =o = So 2 ee see ee 135 951 
National Collectionrof bine Atis=s= = see ae eee 86 14, 391 
NationaleZoological bani aa aes = eee 1 4, 297 
Science) information, Pxchange.-=2 > 22 2S es eee 1 1 

Ota See eh es ne cir nae an aad Een 6, 564 421, 894 


Unbound volumes of periodicals and reprints and separates from serial publi- 
cations, of which there are many thousands, have not been included in the above 
totals. 


Exchanges: 
New exchanges arranted 222 25 Gusts Boe a eee 83 
Specially requested publications received_-.-..------------------ 1, 750 
Cataloging: 
Vohimesieataloged suse can. Ee sae ee Ae ee ee eee 7, 445 
Catalog cards phled 2 2 = net an hee eee St eS ee ee ee 34, 568 
Serials: Number @userialsirecordeG== _ oa2 soe n2s 2+ ee sees eee ee 29, 967 
GCirculation:/ Loans! of books and periodicals22-— = 22222 22 S22 eee 33, 704 
Binding and Repair: 
Volumesisent to the: bindery= 3.2222 3 seen e~) 22522 eee 6, 400 
Volumes repaired inthe library: 22222 2-5-5225 25 2 =e ee 3, 049 


Respectfully submitted. 
Ruru E. Buancuarn, Librarian. 
Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on Publications 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publi- 
cations of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for the year 
ended June 30, 1961: 

The publications of the Smithsonian Institution are issued partly 
from federally appropriated funds (Smithsonian Reports and publi- 
cations of the National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, 
and the Astrophysical Observatory) and partly from private endow- 
ment funds (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, publications of 
the Freer Gallery of Art, and some special publications). The Insti- 
tution also edits and publishes under the auspices of the Freer Gallery 
of Art the series Ars Orientalis, which appears under the joint im- 
print of the University of Michigan and the Smithsonian Institution. 
In addition, the Smithsonian publishes a guidebook, a picture pam- 
phlet, postcards and a postcard folder, color slides, a filmstrip on 
Smithsonian exhibits, a coloring book for children, and popular 
publications on scientific and historical subjects related to its impor- 
tant exhibits and collections for sale to visitors. Through its publica- 
tion program the Smithsonian endeavors to carry out its founder’s 
expressed desire for the diffusion of knowledge. 

During the year the Institution published 12 Smithsonian Miscel- 
laneous Collections papers; 1 Annual Report of the Board of Regents 
and separates of 21 articles in the General Appendix; 1 Annual Re- 
port of the Secretary; 2 special publications; and reprints of 3 publi- 
cations. 

The U.S. National Museum issued 1 Annual Report, 4 bulletins, 
5 papers in the series Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium, 
10 papers in the series Contributions from the Museum of History and 
Technology, and 12 Proceedings papers. 

The Bureau of American Ethnology issued 1 Annual Report and 
3 Bulletins. 

The Astrophysical Observatory issued 4 papers in the series Smith- 
sonian Contributions to Astrophysics. 

The Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service, under the National 
Collection of Fine Arts, published 5 catalogs. 


DISTRIBUTION 


Requests for publications and information continued to show a 
substantial increase during the year. The publications distribution 


672-174—63 15 215 


216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


section, under the immediate direction of Mrs. Eileen M. McCarthy, 
received 37,609 requests for publications from foreign and domestic 
libraries, universities, research institutions, educational establishments, 
and individuals throughout the world. Visitors to the office and re- 
plies to inquiries numbered 28,938. 

A total of 817,695 copies of publications and miscellaneous items 
were distributed : 26 Contributions to Knowledge; 34,396 Smithsonian 
Miscellaneous Collections; 7,801 Annual Report volumes and 33,210 
pamphlet copies of Report separates; 48,328 special publications; 244 
reports of the Harriman Alaska Expedition; 60,473 publications of 
the National Museum; 19,326 publications of the Bureau of American 
Ethnology; 21,276 publications of the National Collection of Fine 
Arts; 526 publications of the Freer Gallery of Art’; 21 Annals of 
the Astrophysical Observatory; 7,674 Smithsonian Contributions to 
Astrophysics publications; 789 War Background Studies; 3,349 re- 
ports of the American Historical Association; and 5,800 publications 
not issued by the Smithsonian Institution. Miscellaneous items: 3 
sets of North American Wild Flowers and 162 North American Wild 
Flower prints; 23 Pitcher Plant volumes; 60,384 Guide Books; 17,919 
picture pamphlets; 320,441 postcards, 122,753 postcard folders, 18,267 
color slides; 122,753 information leaflets; 372 statuettes; 3,761 View- 
master reels. 

The distribution section assisted also in the distribution to libraries 
of three titles published as a result of the Institution’s participation 
in the translation program of the National Science Foundation: 
Studies on Crustacea of the Red Sea, part 1, by O. Paul’son; Fauna 
of U.S.S.R.: Birds, vol. 2, No. 3, Charadriiformes, Suborder Alcae, 
by E. V. Kozlova; and Ecology of Sea Colony Birds of the Barents 
Sea, by L. O. Belopol’skii. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


Tn this series, under the immediate editorship of Miss Ruth B. Mac- 
Manus, there were issued 12 papers as follows: 


Volume 142 


No. 2. Folk religion in Southwest China, by David C. Graham. 246 pp., 28 pls., 
10 figs. (Publ. 4457.) November 1, 1961. ($4.) 

No. 4. Cenozoic and Cretaceous echinoids from Trinidad and Venezuela, by C. 
Wythe Cooke. 35 pp., 14 pls. (Publ. 4459.) August 18, 1961. ($1.25.) 


Volume 1438 


No. 3. Supplement to the annotated, subject-heading bibliography of termites, 
1955-1960, by Thomas E. Snyder. 137 pp. (Publ. 4463.) December 29, 1961. 
($1.50.) 


1In addition to those distributed by the Gallery itself. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT PAW 


No. 4. Comparison of tektite specimens from Empire, Georgia, and Martha’s 
Vineyard, Massachusetts, by Roy S. Clarke, Jr., and Maxwell K. Carron. 
18 pp., 6 pis. (Publ. 4465.) August 24, 1961. (60 cents.) 

No. 5. A long-range temperature forecast, by C. G. Abbot. 46 pp., 5 figs. 
(Publ. 4471.) October 27, 1961. (75 cents.) 

No. 6. The caterpillar and the butterfly, by R. EH. Snodgrass. 51 pp., 17 figs. 
(Publ. 4472.) November 3, 1961. (75 cents.) 

No. 7. The organization and probable evolution of some mixed species flocks 
of Neotropical birds, by M. Moynihan. 140 pp. (Publ. 4473.) March 5, 
1962. ($1.50.) 

Volume 144 


No. 1. A further study of the lower Eocene mammalian faunas of southwestern 
Wyoming, by C. Lewis Gazin. 98 pp., 14 pls., 2 figs. (Publ. 4474.) January 17, 
1962. ($1.50.) 

No. 2. Dimensional relationships for flying animals, by Crawford H. Greene- 
walt. 46 pp.,17 figs. (Publ. 4477.) April6,1962. ($2.) 

No. 8. Revision of the cassiduloid echinoids, by Porter M. Kier. 262 pp., 44 pls., 
184 figs. (Publ. 4500.) June 26,1962. ($5.) 


Volume 145 


No. 1. Systematic notes concerned with the avifauna of Panama, by Alexander 
Wetmore. 14 pp. (Publ. 4501.) June 26, 1962. (30 cents.) 

No. 2. Notes on fossil and subfossil birds, by Alexander Wetmore. 17 pp., 2 
figs. (Publ. 4502.) June 26,1962. (80 cents.) 


SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS 


REPORT FOR 1960 


The complete volume of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents 
for 1960 was received from the printer on October 4, 1961: 


Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution showing 
the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ended 
June 30, 1960. x-+605 pp., illus. (Publ. 4485.) 


The general appendix contained the following papers (Publ. 4486- 
4456) : 


The science of yesterday, today, and tomorrow, by W. F. G. Swann. 

The origin and nature of the moon, by Harold ©. Urey. 

Exploring the solar system by radar, by Paul BH. Green, Jr., and Gordon H. 
Pettengill. 

Digital computers: Their history, operation, and use, by H. M. McCormick. 

Navigation—from canoes to spaceships, by Charles S. Draper. 

Photography of the ocean floor, by A. S. Laughton. 

History of a tsunami, by Elliott B. Roberts. 

Hailstorms and hailstones of the western Great Plains, by Vincent J. Schaefer. 

The 1959-60 eruption of Kilauea Volcano, by Donald H. Richter and Jerry P. 
Haton. 

Diamonds, by H. J. Logie. 

Seeing the magnetization in transparent magnetic crystals, by J. F. Dillon, Jr. 

Biophysics of bird flight, by August Raspet. 


672-174 6316 


218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Anima] societies, from slime molds to man, by R. E. Snodgrass. 

Luminescence in marine organisms, by J. A. ©. Nicol. 

Trumpets in the West, by William B. Morse. 

Problems involved in the development of clam farms, by Harry J. Turner, Jr. 
The growth of cotton fiber science in the United States, by Arthur W. Palmer. 
Rice—Basic food for one-third of the earth’s people, by Raymond EK. Crist. 
The River Basin salvage program: After 15 years, by Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr. 
New World prehistory, by Gordon R. Willey. 

The art of Seth Eastman, by John Francis McDermott. 


REPORT FOR 1961 


The report of the Secretary, which will form part of the 1961 
Annual Report of the Board of Regents, was issued January 25, 1962. 


Report of the Secretary and financial report of the Executive Committee of the 
Board of Regents for the year ended June 30, 1961. x-+236 pp., 14 pls. (Publ. 
4475.) 

SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS 


European military museums, by J. Lee Westrate. 206 pp., 13 pls. (Publ. 4432.) 
[July 17} 1961. ($4.) 

Smithsonian publications available for distribution December 31, 1960. 46 pp. 
(Publ. 4464.) [July 12] 1961. 


REPRINTS 


The First Ladies Hall, by Margaret W. Brown [Klapthor]. (Revised.) 12 pp., 
illus. (Publ. 4212.) [Oct. 15] 1961. (25 cents.) 

Solar variations and weather, by Charles Greeley Abbot. 48 pp., illus. (Publ. 
4505.) [May 4, 1962.] (50 cents.) Reprinted from “The Sun and the Welfare 
of Man,” volume 2 of the Smithsonian Scientific Series, pp. 188-182, 1943. 

Smithsonian Mathematical Tables: Hyperbolic functions, prepared by George 
F. Becker and C. B. Van Orstrand. (7th reprint.) Hi+821 pp. (Publ. 1871.) 
August 25,1961. ($5.) 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM 


The editorial work of the National Museum continued during the 
year under the immediate direction of John S. Lea, assistant chief of 
the division. The following publications were issued: 


REPORT 


The United States National Museum annual report for the year ended June 30, 
1961. Pp. viii+-188, illus. January 25, 1962. 


BULLETINS 


216, part 3. Ichneumon-flies of America north of Mexico: 3. Subfamily Gelinae, 
Tribe Mesostenini, by Henry and Marjorie Townes. Pp. viii+602, 400 figs. 
Mar. 18, 1962. 

222. John Baptist Jackson: 18th-century master of the color woodcut, by Jacob 
Kainen. Pp. xii+183, illus. 101 (12inecolor). June1, 1962. 

224. Robber flies of the world: The genera of the family Asilidae, by Frank M. 
Hull. Pp., pt. 1, x-+480, pt. 2, v-+4381-907. June 25, 1962. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 219 


225. Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, papers 12-18, 
by members of the staff and others: 
Paper 17. The effect of Bacon’s Rebellion on government in England and 
Virginia, by Wilcomb FE. Washburn. Pp. 135-152, 8 figs. February 16, 1962. 
Paper 18. Excavations at Rosewell in Gloucester County, Virginia, 1957- 
1959, by Ivor Not] Hume. Pp. 153-229, 38 figs. May 24, 1962. 
228. Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, papers 19-30, 
by members of the staff and others: 
Paper 21. The pioneer steamship Savannah: A study for a scale model, by 
Howard I. Chapelle. Pp. 61-80, 9 figs. Sept. 15, 1961. 
Paper 22. Drawings and pharmacy in al-Zahrawi’s 10th-century surgical 
treatise, by Sami Hamarneh. Pp. 81-94, 21 figs. Oct. 10, 1961. 
Paper 23. The introduction of self-registering meteorological instruments, by 
Robert P. Multhauf. Pp. 95-116, 16 figs. Sept. 6, 1961. 
Paper 24. Introduction of the locomotive safety truck, by John H. White. 
Pp. 117-131, 12 figs. Sept. 5, 1961. 
Paper 25. The migrations of an American boat type, by Howard I. Chapelle. 
Pp. 133-154, 20 figs. Novy. 6, 1961. 
Paper 26. Holcomb, Fitz, and Peate: Three 19th-century American telescope 
makers, with introduction by Robert P. Multhauf. Pp. 155-184, 15 figs. 
Jan. 15, 1962. 
Paper 27. Kinematics of mechanisms from the time of Watt, by Eugene S. 
Ferguson. Pp. 185-280, 46 figs. Feb. 14, 1962. 
Paper 28. The development of electrical technology in the 19th century: 
1. The electrochemical cell and the electromagnet, by W. James King. 
Pp. 231-271, 71 figs. Jan. 15, 1962. 
232. The lithographs of Childe Hassam, a catalog, by Fuller Griffith. Pp. 
vii+66, 45 figs. June 29, 1962. 


CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM 


Volume 35 


Part 3. Origins of the flora of southern Brazil, by Lyman B. Smith. Pp. 
vili+215-249, 42 figs.,4 pls. Mar. 19, 1962. 

Part 4. A synopsis of the American Velloziaceae, by Lyman B. Smith. Pp. 251-— 
292,12 pls. Mar. 19, 1962. 

Part 5. Synopsis of the South American species of Vismia (Guttiferae), by Joseph 
Ewan. Pp. 298-377, 7 pls. June 5, 1962. 


Volume 86 


Part 2. Marine algae from the tropical Atlantic Ocean: V. Algae from the Lesser 
Antilles, by William Randolph Taylor. Pp. 48-62, 4 pls. Jan. 31, 1962. 


Volume 87 


Part 1. Studies of Pacific island plants, XVII: The genus Geniostoma (Logania- 
ceae) in the New Hebrides, Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga, by Albert ©. Smith and 
Benjamin C. Stone. Pp. 1-41,8pls. Jan. 5, 1962. 


PROCEEDINGS 


Volume 112 


No. 3449. Revision of the marine silver hatchetfishes (family Sternoptychidae), 
by Leonard P. Schultz. Pp. 587-649, 26 figs. Sept. 7, 1961. 
Title page, table of contents, and index. Pp. i-vii, 651-677. Feb. 14, 1962. 


220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Volume 113 


No. 3453. Notes on Australian files of the family Conopidae, by Sidney Camras. 
Pp. 61-76. Aug. 1, 1961. 

No. 3454. New and previously known millipeds of Panama, by H. F. Loomis. 
Pp. 77-128, 8 figs. Aug. 16, 1961. 

No. 3455. New genera and new species of lacebugs from the Eastern Hemisphere 
(Hemiptera: Tingidae), by Carl J. Drake and Florence A. Ruhoff. Pp. 125- 
1838, 24 figs. Aug. 1, 1961. 

No. 8456. The weevil genus Smicronyg in America north of Mexico (Coleoptera: 
Curculionidae), by Donald M. Anderson. Pp. 185-872, 157 figs., 1 pl. May 
$1, 1962. 

No. 3457. Neotropical Microlepidoptera, I and II, by J. F. Gates Clarke. Pp. 
873-388, 9 figs. Apr. 30, 1962. 

No. 8458. Two new species of Parastenocaris (Copepoda: Harpacticoidea) from 
Santa Catarina, Brazil, by Hans Jakobi and Jayme de Loyola e Silva. Pp. 
889-397, 2 figs. June 5, 1962. 

No. 3460. Water-striders of the subgenus Siridulivelia from Mexico, Central 
America, and the West Indies (Hemiptera: Veliidae), by Carl J. Drake and 
Arnold 8. Menke. Pp. 418-419, 3 pls. June 19, 1962. 

No. 3462. New and little-known species of South and Central American land 
snails (Bulimulidae), by Juan José Parodiz. Pp. 429-456, 2 pls. June 4, 1962. 

No. 3463. Gorgonolaureus, a new genus of ascothoracid barnacle endoparasitie 
in Octocorallia, by Huzio Utinomi. Pp. 457-464, 9 figs. June 19, 1962. 

No. 8464. Larvae of the caddis-fly genus Rhyacophila in eastern North America 
(Trichoptera: Rhyacophilidae), by Oliver S. Flint, Jr. Pp. 465-493, 11 figs. 
May 31, 1962. 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


The editorial work of the Bureau continued during the year under 
the immediate direction of Mrs. Eloise B. Edelen. The following 
publications were issued: 


Seventy-eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Hthnology, 1960-61. 
1i+33 pp., 2 pls. 1962. 

Bulletin 175. Mohave ethnopsychiatry and suicide: The psychiatric knowledge 
and the psychic disturbances of an Indian tribe, by George Devereux. vi+586 
pp., 10 pls. 1961. 

Bulletin 179. River Basin Surveys Papers, Nos. 21-24, Frank H. H. Roberts, 
Jr., editor. xviii+337 pp., 56 pls., 43 figs. 1961. 

No. 21. Excavations at Texarkana Reservoir, Sulphur River, Texas, by 
Edward B. Jelks. 

No. 22. Archeological investigations at the Coralville Reservoir, Iowa, by 
Warren W. Caldwell. 

No. 23. The McNary Reservoir: A study in Plateau archeology, by Joel L. 
Shiner. 

No. 24. The Sheep Island site and the Mid-Columbia Valley, by Douglas 
Osborne, Alan Bryan, and Robert H. Crabtree. 

Bulletin 183. Seneca Thanksgiving rituals, by Wallace L. Chafe. iii+302 pp. 
1961. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT Pee 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY 


The editorial work of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 
continued under the immediate direction of Ernest E. Biebighauser. 
The year’s publications in the series Smithsonian Contributions to 
Astrophysics are as follows: 


Volume 4 
No. 4. Precision orbits of 413 photographic meteors, by Luigi G. Jacchia and 
Fred L. Whipple. Pp. 97-129, 6 figs. 1961. (Corrected edition.) 


Volume 5 


No. 9. Rotation of an earth satellite in flight along its orbit, by Yusuke Hagihara. 
Pp. 118-143, 5 figs. 1961. 

No. 10. Sampling dust from the stratosphere, by Paul W. Hodge. Pp. 145-152, 
2 figs., 2pls. 1961. 

No. 11. On the A and ® operators of radiative transfer theory, by S. S. Kumar. 
Pp. 153-185, 8 figs. 1962. 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS 


The following catalogs were issued by the Smithsonian Traveling 
Exhibition Service during the year: 
Drawings by sculptors. 16pp.,illus. 1961. 
Belgian drawings from Ensor to Delvaux. 32 pp., illus. 1961. 
Tutankhamun treasures. 46 pp., illus. 1961. 
Tiepolo drawings from the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. 32 pp., illus. 


1961. 
Smithsonian Institution traveling exhibitions. 1962-63 catalog. 70 pp. 


REPORTS OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


The annual reports of the American Historical Association are 
transmitted by the Association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian 
Institution and are by him communicated to Congress, as provided in 
the act of incorporation of the Association. The following report 
was issued during the year: 


Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1960. Vol. 1. 
Proceedings. 1961. 


REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN 
REVOLUTION 


In accordance with law, the manuscript of the sixty-fourth annual 
report of the National Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, 
was transmitted to Congress on March 6, 1962. 


1D.A.R. reports are published as Senate documents and are not available from the Smith- 
sonian Institution. 


222 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


OTHER ACTIVITIES 


The chief of the division continued to represent the Smithsonian 
Institution on the board of trustees of the Greater Washington Edu- 
cational Television Association, Inc., of which the Institution is a 
member, and served on its executive committee. He also represented 
the Institution at the annual meeting of the Association of American 
University Presses held in June at Palo Alto, Calif. 

A noteworthy item in press at the close of the year was an “Author- 
Subject Index to Articles in Smithsonian Annual Reports, 1849-1961,” 
compiled and edited under the direction of the editorial and publica- 
tions division. 

The division, as well as other branches of the Institution, cooperated 
with the National Science Foundation during the year in the prepara- 
tion of No. 13 of the Foundation’s series of bulletins describing the 
policies and practices of Federal agencies relative to their scientific 
and technical information activities. This bulletin, on the scientific 
information activities of the Smithsonian Institution, was published 
by the Foundation in June. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Pau H. Oruser, 
Chief, Editorial and Publications Division. 
Dr. Lzonarp CARMICHAEL, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Other Activities 
LECTURES 


In 1931 the Smithsonian Institution received a bequest from James 
Arthur, of New York City, a part of the income from which was to 
be used to endow an annual lecture on some aspect of the sun. The 
28th Arthur lecture was delivered in the auditorium of the Natural 
History Building on the evening of May 8, 1962, by Dr. Martin 
Schwarzschild, Kugene Higgins professor of astronomy, Princeton 
University. His subject was “Astronomical Photography from the 
Stratosphere.” 

Lt. Gen. James H. Doolittle, USAF (Ret.), delivered the third 
Lester D. Gardner lecture, on “Early Blind Flying,” in the auditorium 
of the Natural History Building on the evening of September 28, 
1961. This lecture was published in full in the general appendix of 
the Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution for 1961 (pp. 337-355). 

Dr. Rodney Young, professor of classical archaeology, University of 
Pennsylvania, lectured on “Gordion on the Royal Road” in the audito- 
rium of the Natural History Building on the evening of February 8, 
1962. This was sponsored jointly by the Smithsonian Institution and 
the Archaeological Institute of America. 

Several lectures were sponsored by the Freer Gallery of Art and the 
National Gallery of Art. These are listed in the reports of these 
bureaus. 

SCIENCE INFORMATION EXCHANGE 


The Science Information Exchange receives, organizes, and dis- 
seminates information on scientific research in progress. Its mission 
is to facilitate planning and management of scientific research ac- 
tivities supported by Government and non-Government agencies and 
institutions by promoting the exchange of information that concerns 
subject matter, distribution, level of effort, and other data pertaining 
to current research in the prepublication stage. It helps program 
directors and administrators to avoid unwanted duplication and to 
determine the most advantageous distribution of research funds. It 
serves the entire scientific community by informing individual in- 


223 


224 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


vestigators about who is currently working on problems in their 
special fields. Funds for the operation of the Science Information 
Exchange were provided by the principal Federal agencies served. 

This year the Exchange was reorganized and expanded to under- 
take the registration of research in the physical sciences in addition to 
the established program in the biological, medical, and social sciences. 
This expansion, projected over 18 months, involves the reorganization 
of the Exchange, the acquisition of enlarged computer facilities, a 
professional staff for the new physical sciences division, and a pro- 
gram for a systems analysis and control intended to coordinate effi- 
ciently the complex operational procedures. 

The new physical sciences division is being organized around an 
initial collection of basic and applied research records in the fields of 
chemistry, physics, mathematics, earth sciences, materials, and elec- 
tronics. Five specialists now form the nucleus of this staff. About 
4,000 projects have been registered. The acquisition of another 3,000 
to 4,000 records over the next few months will afford a fairly repre- 
sentative sample of Government research in these research specialties. 

The life sciences division has had 12 years of successful operation 
in biology, medicine, psychology, and social sciences and continues to 
expand the scope and volume of its collection and services at a healthy 
rate. About 56,000 records of research proposals, awards, and con- 
tracts were received this year. About half a million copies of re- 
search records were selected and sent out in response to requests for 
information. Five new staff members were added to this division 
during the year. 

Dr. Stella Leche Deignan resigned as director of the Exchange in 
September to take a position with the National Institutes of Health. 
Dr. Monroe E. Freeman was appointed director to succeed her. Dr. 
David Hersey became associate director for the life sciences division. 
Harvey Marron was appointed assistant director for operations. 


SMITHSONIAN MUSEUM SERVICE 


The Smithsonian Museum Service, through appropriate educational 
media, interprets to museum visitors and to the general public the 
objects, specimens, and exhibits in the several Smithsonian museums 
and develops interpretative and educational material relating to the 
work of the Institution in the fields of science, natural history, art, 
and history. The Museum Service also cooperates with the volunteer 
docents of the Junior League of Washington, D.C. A more complete 
report of this activity, directed by G. Carroll Lindsay, curator, is 
carried in the Report on the U.S. National Museum (pp. 38-40). 

The Museum Service provided assistance to professional groups and 
individuals visiting the museums of the Institution or planning to 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 220 


do so. Assistance in the form of lectures, answers to inquiries, and 
special tours of certain museum areas was rendered to college and 
university groups visiting the Institution and to other groups and in- 
dividuals from the United States and abroad, visiting or planning to 
visit the Smithsonian in a professional capacity. Mr. Lindsay served 
as consultant on museum organization and practices to representatives 
from other museums on several occasions. 

Arrangements were made through the Museum Service for Smith- 
sonian participation in the workshop on community resources spon- 
sored by the University of Maryland. Through the facilities of this 
workshop, a 5-day program outlining the history of the Institution 
and the work of the various Smithsonian museum and research 
bureaus was presented to 42 graduate students from the University 
of Maryland. This workshop has, since its inception in 1958, pro- 
vided an opportunity for more than 200 local school teachers and 
university faculty members to become acquainted with cultural re- 
sources of the Institution of value in school curricula. 

A radio lecture system has been installed in nine halls and in the 
rotunda of the Museum of Natural History, under the direction of the 
Museum Service. These lectures, written by the assistant curator, 
Mrs. Sophy D. Burnham, in cooperation with the various subject 
specialists involved, provide background information about the 34 
major areas of the halls included in the system. 

The Museum Service cooperated with WTOP-TV to produce the 
television program “The World of Mammals” and with WMAL-TV 
to produce the television film “The History of the Smithsonian In- 
stitution.” It also arranged for loans of objects to the Greater Wash- 
ington Educational Television Association for several of their educa- 
tional television programs and for spot announcements of the Junior 
League guided tours of the Smithsonian. 

Through the Museum Service, distribution of certain duplicate 
specimens and objects from the United States National Museum was 
made to the Overbrook School for the Blind for use in that school’s 
training of blind children. Special “touch” exhibits and demonstra- 
tions were arranged for a visiting group from the Perkins Institute for 
the Blind, Watertown, Mass. 

Mrs. Janet Stratton of the Museum Service staff directed the in- 
stallation of the exhibit “Jazz Memorabilia,” shown in the rotunda 
of the Arts and Industries Building in connection with the Jazz Fes- 
tival sponsored by the President’s Music Committee of the People-to- 
People program. 

The program for visitor orientation to Smithsonian Museums was 
continued through the installation of two floor plans and directories 


226 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


placed in the original Smithsonian building, one at the north door 
and the other at the east door. In addition, signs were placed in the 
Natural History Building announcing special exhibits. 

A 6-week summer training program for high school students, orga- 
nized by Mrs. Arthur Goldberg and the Urban Service Corps, has been 
established. Its purpose is to acquaint the students with the location 
and content of the Smithsonian exhibits and the work of the Insti- 
tution so that they may acquaint small groups of their contemporaries 
with the exhibits of the Institution. 

A great many slides were added to the slide lending library, and two 
slide lectures were prepared, one on “The Smithsonian Institution” 
and the other on “Some Possessions of George Washington in the 
Smithsonian Institution.” 

Arrangements for various Smithsonian public functions and events 
including lectures, films, and the opening of new halls and exhibits 
were made by the Museum Service. More complete information about 
these activities will be found under appropriate headings elsewhere in 
this Report. Mailing lists for announcements of these events were 
maintained and kept current. 

The Smithsonian Calendar of Events, a listing of special events of 
the Institution, was prepared and distributed monthly. 

The curator attended the Annual Winterthur Seminars in Museum 
Operation and Connoisseurship held at Winterthur, Del., in May 
1962; the annual meeting of the Museum Stores Association held at the 
Munson-Williams-Proctor Institute in Utica, N.Y., and the Corning 
Museum of Glass, Corning, N.Y., in May 1962; and the annual meet- 
ing of the American Association of Museums held in Williamsburg, 
Va., in June 1962. Mrs. Burnham, the assistant curator, when in Eu- 
rope in March 1962 visited the British Museum; British Museum of 
Natural History; Science Museum, South Kensington; Victoria and 
Albert Museum; Riikjks Museum, Amsterdam; Palais de la Decou- 
verte; Musée de Homme; Unesco Museum Documentation Center ; 
Jeu de Paume, Louvre, Paris. She also attended the annual meet- 
ing of the American Association of Museums held in June in 
Williamsburg. 

Mr. Lindsay traveled to Providence, R.I., to consult with the direc- 
tor and trustees of the Old Slater Mill and to the Youth Museum at 
Savannah, Ga., regarding various administrative problems of these 
museums. 


Report of the Executive Committee of the 
Board of Regents of the Smithsonian 
Institution 


For the Year Ended June 30, 1962 


To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: 


Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report 
in relation to the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, together with 
a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the Government 
bureaus in the administrative charge of the Institution. 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
PARENT FUND 


The original bequest of James Smithson was £104,960 8s 6d— 
$508,318.46. Refunds of money expended in prosecution of the claim, 
freight, insurance, and other incidental expenses, together with pay- 
ment into the fund of the sum of £5,015, which had been withheld 
during the lifetime of Madame de la Batut, brought the fund to the 
amount of $550,000. 

The gift of James Smithson was “lent to the United States Treas- 
ury, at 6 per centum per annum interest” (20 USC. 54) and by the 
Act of March 12, 1894 (20 USC. 55) the Secretary of the Treasury 
was “authorized to receive into the Treasury, on the same terms as the 
original bequest of James Smithson, such sums as the Regents may, 
from time to time see fit to deposit, not exceeding, with the original 
bequest the sum of $1,000,000.” 

The maximum of $1,000,000 which the Smithsonian Institution was 
authorized to deposit in the Treasury of the United States was reached 
on January 11, 1917, by the deposit of $2,000. 

Under the above authority the amounts shown below are deposited 
in the United States Treasury and draw 6 percent interest : 

Unrestricted 


funds Income 1962 

James Smithsonian ae ee ee eas $727, 640 $43, 658. 40 
ASV CTY pee ees eee oe eee ee ee 14, 000 840. 00 
18 G2) oe) EU Se or fn ee ea a ee ae 500 30. 00 
PET SA tee rea ee ee a ee 2, 500 150. 00 
Hodgkins (General) meee te =e es ee 116, 000 6, 960. 00 
P0016 pe nee ea et a ae oa, ee eee 26, 670 1, 600. 20 
TR OG a5 et ee re a Pe Fate ee 590 35. 40 
Santord eee ee nee eee oe A ee 1, 100 66. 00 
A BC Hr ee AS rR ec ne a CN wpe er 889,000 53, 840.00 


228 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Restricted 
funds 
Hodekins) (Specific))="_ == se Se ee ee es $100, 000 
PROT e cshs 2a hele Be ee Rl ah 11, 000 
TNO teal so he eee es Re Sen 111, 000 
Grand’: Lota 2s tere eee eee eee ee ee 1, 000, 000 


$6, 000. 00 
660. 00 


6, 660. 00 


60, 000.00 


In addition to the $1,000,000 deposited in the Treasury of the United 
States there has been accumulated from income and bequests the sum 
of $4,147,562.65 which has been invested. Of this sum, $3,969,482.90 
is carried on the books of the Institution as the Consolidated Fund, a 
policy approved by the Regents at their meeting on December 14, 1916. 


The balance is made up of several small funds. 


CONSOLIDATED FUND 


(Income for the unrestricted use of the Institution) 


Fund Investment 1962 

IADbOt a Wi cls, SDCCIAL ee as as = ee ape EN ee $22, 522. 34 
WAV ery ODErt 9:5 BNO My Gia. 95 ee eee eee 59, 712. 30 
Gifts, royalties, gain on sale of securities____________ 417, 403. 46 
Hachenberg, George P., and Caroline________--__-- 6, 079. 80 
*Hamil ton, James 2 3 oe Se ee aL oe eee 610. 23 
arts Gustavus be 2 tos ot ee ene ee eee 736. 34 
Henry Carolinet |S. = S245. Ses seen ae ae 1, 828. 34 
Henry, Joseph and HarrietjA— 23. 2202 eee 74, 105. 83 
*Hodgkins; Thomas, G:i(General)- 22222 22 45, 793. 92 
Morrow;, DwightoWee= 22s 28 ee 2. ee ee ee 116, 900. 22 
Olmsted #ielenyAt a2: lene see tee) ee ero et ta 1, 211. 99 
*Poore, diucy. Cand; George Wo. 8) 2 oe 246, 039. 46 
Porter, entry, Workers oe 432, 950. 15 
URNCCS: SV ALILAT I OTI CS a mee see ee 715, 22 
*Sanftords Georgesh 222 25). sel tee ees 2 2 1, 345. 68 
SOMIGNSON, UAMCS sae tee ert) ee ee ee ee 1, 845. 53 
Tacpart Ganson 22.2 = beens ee epee) eee Re 540. 68 
Witherspoon;, Dhomas A >=" 22222 alle. 2f7 Sees 195, 089. 23 
PT Gt alee Os a een nig Bl re aes Sao Pee 1, 625, 430. 72 


*In addition to funds deposited in the United States Treasury. 


Income 1962 


$1, 174. 
3,113. 
21, 762. 
316. 

. 80 
. 40 
. 34 
ee 
. 59 


31 


27 
28 
48 
99 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 229 


CONSOLIDATED FUND 


(Income restricted to specific use) 


Fund Investment 1962 | Income 1962 
Abbott, William L., for investigations in biology_---} $157, 601. 60 | $8, 217. 01 


Armstrong, Edwin James, for use of Department of 
Invertebrate Paleontology when principal amounts 


$0: SOO00 2 Sa an Sa ee ee ie ee PE SS Se 1, 898. 60 94. 07 
Arthur, James, for investigations and study of the 
sun and annual lecture on same______-...-_.__.- 60, 459. 26 3, 152. 23 


Bacon, Virginia Purdy, for traveling scholarship to 
investigate fauna of countries other than the 


Umited Statesec = see eee Soe ens es ee se 75, 738. 96 | 3, 948. 88 
Baird, Lucy H., for creating a memorial to Secretary 
iBairdeen sa: estos te ee koa es oeee ace eee 54, 057. 76 1, 897. 70 


Barney, Alice Pike, for collection of paintings and 
pastels and for encouragement of American artistic 


CICA VO re ene es Re ee See ee 43, 358. 91 2, 260. 62 
Barstow, Frederick D., for purchase of animals for 

ZOOOPICal par kee 2 ee ea ee eee et 1, 511. 33 78. 77 
Canfield collection, for increase and care of the 

Canfield collection of minerals___..___.._._._____- 57, 819. 33 3, 014. 59 


Casey, Thomas L., for maintenance of the Casey 
collection and promotion of researches relating to 


@oleopteras. tee sae ena fe SU on ee ee oa a 18, 948. 75 987. 94 
Chamberlain, Francis Lea, for increase and promotion 

of Isaac Lea Collection of gems and mollusks___-___ 42,571.13 | 2, 219. 58 
Dykes, Charles, for support in financial research_-_-___ 65, 085. 37 3, 393. 41 


Eickemeyer, Florence Brevoort, for preservation and 

exhibition of the photographic collection of 

RudolphvBickemeyer;, Ita 92-26-22) eee ae 16, 481. 70 856. 73 
Hanson, Martin Gustav and Caroline Runice, for 

some scientific work of the Institution, preferably 


iNaCheMIStEyAOL Me GI CIN Baas 13, 439. 14 700. 71 
Higbee, Harry, income for general use of the Smith- 

sonian Institution after June 11, 1967____________ 48. 56 1. 49 
Hillyer, Virgil, for increase and care of Virgil Hillyer 

collection of lighting objects_.._.__.._......____-_- 9, 935. 35 518. 01 
Hitchcock, Albert S., for care of the Hitchcock 

Werostologicalshibrany ss ose seas ae ne eee ee ee 2, 385, 43 124. 39 


Hrdlitka, Ale’ and Marie, to further researches in 
physical anthropology and publication in connec- 


tion) there with! soa Sak ee ae ere en eee 76, 090. 74 | 3, 770. 58 
Hughes, Bruce, to found Hughes alcove___________- 28, 936.60 | 1, 508. 70 
Johnson, E. R. Fenimore, research in underwater 

PHOLORTADOY = see ee amen ae eee ae eS 10, 546. 65 522. 63 
Loeb, Morris, for furtherance of knowledge in the 

Cxactisciencess fue 2a. me sak a. Le ee ee 137, 751. 73 6, 869. 23 


Long, Annette and Edith C., for upkeep and pres- 

ervation of Long collection of embroideries, 

lacesmandctextiles seem a) aan rk a ee ek eee n se 820. 82 42. 80 
Maxwell, Mary E., for care and exhibition of Maxwell 

Collection Hs ake aa ta hs See Se EL Se ae 29, 651. 40 1, 545. 94 


230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


CONSOLIDATED FUND—continued 


Fond Investment 1962 | Income 1962 


Myer, Catherine Walden, for purchase of first- 
class works of art for use and benefit of the 


National Collection of Fine Arts_._.___.____-___--- $30, 535. 47 | $1, 592. 04 
Nelson, Edward W., for support of biological 
S40 0 k= = gm Barman ete wee a Ai FP yey ls SR en 33, 618.85 | 1, 752. 79 


Noyes, Frank B., for use in connection with the col- 
lection of dolls placed in the U.S. National Museum 


through the interest of Mr. and Mrs. Noyes_-_----- 1, 452. 37 75. 70 
Pell, Cornelia Livingston, for maintenance of Alfred 
Duaneseellgcollections == eee eee 11, 205. 62 584. 25 


Petrocelli, Joseph, for the care of the Petrocelli col- 
lection of photographic prints and for the enlarge- 
ment and development of the section of photog- 


raphy of the U.S. National Museum____------_- 11, 206. 92 584. 30 
Rathbun, Richard, for use of division of U.S. National 

Museum containing Crustacea_.___..._....-...---- 16, 078. 72 838, 30 
*Reid, Addison T., for founding chair in biology, in 

MECTIOLYROUCAS he Tales epee en ee 26, 889. 37 1, 401. 97 
Roebling Collection, for care, improvement, and in- 

crease of Roebling collection of minerals-_-----_--- 182, 448. 20 9, 512. 42 
Roebling Solar Researches s= =e eee oe oe 25, 908. 78 1, 425. 07 
Rollins, Miriam and William, for investigations in 

POST Goren clas Cla © TS Taye meee 215, 074. 58 | 10, 928. 64 
Smithsonian employees’ retirement_._..-.---------- 35, 185. 27 1, 851. 54 
Springer, Frank, for care and increase of the Springer 

collectionvandylibranyese ae eee eee 27, 109. 61 1, 413. 41 
Strong, Julia D., for benefit of the National Collec- 

tion-ofebine Arts 2-52 fe = ee fe eee ee 15, 115. 01 788. 07 


Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, for develop- 
ment of geological and paleontological studies and 


publishing results) of samiesi 22-2" 222 a eee 724, 193. 35 | 37, 719. 87 
Walcott, Mary Vaux, for publications in botany_---- 87, 506. 96 4, 562. 40 
Younger, Helen Walcott, held in trust_...__--------- 117, 024. 81 6, 027. 49 
Zerbee, Francis Brinckle, for endowment of aquaria-- 1, 433. 98 74. 76 

ING) 6 Re ae pe ne seek Ee eee a ete 2, 461, 076. 99 |126, 859. 03 


*In addition to funds deposited in the United States Treasury. 


FREER GALLERY OF ART FUND 


Early in 1906, by deed of gift, Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, gave 
to the Institution his collection of Chinese and other Oriental objects 
of art, as well as paintings, etchings, and other works of art by Whist- 
ler, Thayer, Dewing, and other artists. Later he also gave funds for 
construction of a building to house the collection, and finally in his 
will, probated November 6, 1919, he provided stocks and securities to 
the estimated value of $1,958,591.42, as an endowment fund for the 
operation of the Gallery. The fund now amounts to $10,089,088.74. 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 763 


SUMMARY OF ENDOWMENTS 


Invested endowment for general purposes____----_________-___-_ 2, 514, 430. 72 
Invested endowment for specific purposes other than Freer endow- 

YY Ee see cr eee as 2,635; Lol. 93 

Total invested endowment other than Freer______________ 5, 147, 562. 65 

Freer invested endowment for specific purposes________________ 10, 089, O88. 74 

Total invested endowment for all purposes_______________ 15, 236, 651. 39 


CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS 


Deposited in the U.S. Treasury at 6 percent per annum, as author- 

ized in the U.S. Revised Statutes, sec. 5591_--_______________ $1, 000, 000. 00 
Investments other than Freer endowment (cost 

or market value at date acquired) : 


Bonds) 22224=- == Se eS ek $1, 478, 884. 02 

Stocks toe = ae oo ee a Be Se 2, 594, 012. 40 

Realestatemand moxrigaces= = 57, 506. 00 

Uninvested "eapital===== === eee 17,160.23 4,147, 562. 65 
Total investments other than Freer endowment___________ 5, 147, 562. 65 


Investment of Freer endowment (cost or market 
value at date acquired) : 


BONdS esos Se see ee ee eee $5, 055, 130. 47 
SC0CKs oe ee Se ee oe 5, 0238, 175. 83 
Wninvested capital=222 22. -~ a ee e 10, 782.44 10, 089, 088. 74 
ERGE AUN CS ten baie oot 3 valine Ae ae ares oe el 15, 236, 651. 39 
EXHIBIT A 
BALANCE SHEET OF PRIVATE FUNDS 
June 30, 1962 
ASSETS 
Current funds: 
General: 
Cash: 
United States Treasury current account_________________ $777, 833. 49 
invbankszandon hand 222s sea ees sae se esr aee ees 417, 888. 82 
1,195, 722. 31 
Travelmand other agVancCes=. 2. 222-2 ae ee eee 17, 680. 35 
Total generalifunds!222 Se a ee eee 1, 218, 402. 66 
Restricted : 
Cash—United States Treasury current 
ACCOUNT Ge ee ee ee $2, 569, 147. 45 
Investments—stocks and bonds (quoted 
market value $1,619,839.07) __-__________ 1, 635, 712. 56 
Totalorestricted{funds=s222- 25 2a ane a ee ee 4, 204, 860. 01 


Totalicurrent-Lun Csi ee eee 5, 418, 262. 67 


232 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


EXHIBIT A—Continued 


ASSETS—continued 


Endowment funds and funds functioning as 
endowment : 
Investments : 
Freer Gallery of Art: 


Stocks and bonds (quoted market 
Valuer die. 5062.02.01) see aaa 


$10, 782. 44 


10,078, 306. 30 


10, 089, 088.74 


Consolidated : 
Cash 
Stocks and bonds (quoted 

market value $4,696,- 


$16, 880. 03 


O18/45))) ea ee 8, 952, 602. 87 
3, 969,482. 90 
Loan to United States 


DReASUPY so == see 1, 000, 000. 00 
Other stocks and _ bonds 
(quoted market value 


$143:894.75)) geen een 120, 298. 55 
Cachti see Sse ae Te 280. 20 
Real estate at book value__ 57, 506. 00 


5, 147, 562. 65 


Total endowment funds and funds functioning as 


endowment = ee ee ee 


FUND BALANCES 
Current funds: 
General: 


Unexpended funds—unrestricted_____________ 


Totalyzeneralerunds sess 


Restricted (Exhibit C) : 
Unexpended income from endowment___-~ 
Funds for special purposes (gifts, grants, 
CL Ch) eae es ae ie ee ee eee 


Totalveurrent, fund see 


Endowment funds and funds functioning as 
endowment (Exhibit D) : 
loiae CoMlaay Cie AR 


Other: 
Restrictedise sees as $2, 633, 131. 93 
General)2 222s 2, 514, 480. 72 


15, 236, 651. 39 
20, 654, 914. 06 


$1, 213, 402.66 
1, 213, 402. 66 


$1, 210, 899. 50 


2, 993, 960. 51 


MotalirestrictedtundsS22 22222 s2 esas 


4, 204, 860. 01 
5, 418, 262. 67 


$10, 089, 088. 74 


5, 147, 562. 65 


Total endowment funds and funds functioning as 


endowment2 = ee 


15, 236, 651. 39 
20, 654, 914. 06 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 233 


EXHIBIT B 
PRIVATE FUNDS 


STATEMENT OF CURRENT GENERAL FUND RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS 
AND CHANGES IN CURRENT GENERAL FUND BALANCES 


Year ended June 30, 1962 


Operations Publications Gifts and grants 
Current receipts: 
Endowment income: 
Freer Gallery of Art_------ GSAS TOC LR 290 U atieee aet eel eee ee ee 
Other restricted funds - - - -- G42 90583 od Eaters |e ee ene 
Wnnestric¢ted a= === === == 138086056 eee es b= oes aaa eee 
Investment income-_----------- GC HOO TRS ae ee |e ee A 
Gifts and grants, including ad- 
ministrative overhead __--_---- ZiATAAONS OR == Sees $6, 074, 087. 84 
Publications and photographs---|_----------- S108) '2o1lMSs|be22= 2-2 =e—= 
Miscellanecoustess == ee eee OV 266544 22-6. Soe eee 2s ie a ee 
Appropriated from endowment 
funds fo. Se a BS eee 325s 502 se ee eee ee ee 
Total current receipts__._| 930, 993. 75 | 108, 251. 13 | 6, 074, 087. 84 
Current expenditures: 
Salaries: 
Administrativiess=225 25 2—4— IPO rey, AO ew ee eee ee ee 
Resear chive ease a. a eee 1S) Al Be wl (Die eaten a be 2, 589, 259. 57 
Otherie swe. oe Ss 185s Son66u| 52 so en pas aloe eee aa 
Total salaries. ----- S80 NA Son 83 aaa sees 2, 589, 259. 57 
Purchase for collection_- - -- TAOS 568530) ame ene ee aban ae eee 
Researches and exploration 
and related administra- 
tive expenses: 
annaviell-aens= eS S22 = 7 QOS A ese 2 Soe. be ee so eee 
Equipment and supply -_ ANGAA OME ee eee sees ae 
Other: s...7- 2 i eae 9. 890590M ae sees 3, 484, 828. 27 
Publications and _ photo- 
eTapliss sass see eA AQ OLS28G) | ol 296,600 |e =e ee a= ae 
Buildings, equipment, and 
grounds: 
Buildings and installa- 
tiONSS= 22 eet eee 1OPA9ON9Sh |e ae ee aes eee eee 
Court and grounds 
maintenance... ----- TADS | See Ee ee oh ee ee 
Technical laboratory ..- REN VY, Oy (a) Ee Be ee ete eae ne te ere ee 
Contractual services—cus- 


todian and legal fees_ ___- PRS 71 Ol le Aa | ne ee 


234 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


EXHIBIT B—Continued 
PRIVATE FUNDS—Continued 


STATEMENT OF CURRENT GENERAL FUND RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS 
AND CHANGES IN CURRENT GENERAL FUND BALANCES—continued 


Year ended June 30, 1962—Continued 


Operations | Publications Gifts and grants 


Current expenditures—Continued 
Salaries— Continued 
Supplies and expenses: 
Meetings, special ex- 


hibits. ee ads Ie Fe SIU?) O60: en 2 ee eee eee 
Iecturesiese aap a eee Psa Oo 1 Meee lege ee 
Photographs and re- 
productions:== 22722 Oe OO Bay 5 | at fise Breer ao |S meetin teal 2 
Th DraTny. ee eee A O56. 30a ein 8 Sse Sete Ney soiree ee St 
Salesidesk== = === === 1 EE pecs hod Sgn 17 EE eg ce AS oe 
Stationery and office 
supphiesss 22. 22 ae2e— 105827 ose Sa ee oe 
Postage, telephone, and 
telepraphes==.-2-- 33 212; Fie eta see te See kee 
Employees’ withholding 
payments, net___.__._-- (7153.6) sae See Se ee ee 


Total current ex- 
penditures___.___- 633, 180. 08 51, 296. 65 | 6, 074, 087. 84 


Excess of current re- 
ceipts over current 


expenditures__-_-___ 297, 813. 67 56, 954. 48 354, 768. 15 
Balance at beginning 
oOftyear=. = bas 22 3| Ay eee te eae 858, 634. 51 


beeen CRE re nt LP neces Mem ace ol PaUE pene oes choo 1, 213, 402. 66 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


EXHIBIT C 


PRIVATE FUNDS 
STATEMENT OF CHANGES IN CURRENT RESTRICTED FUND BALANCE 
Year ended June 30, 1962 


Unexpended income 


Funds for special 
purposes (gifts, Total 
grants, etc.) 


239 


Balance at beginning of year -_ - _ _|$1, 084, 076. 28 |$2, 290, 370. 27 |$3, 374, 446. 55 


—————SSS=S—====a=— 


Add: 
Income from restricted endow- 
ment: 
Freer Gallery of Art.__---- 
Other restricted funds----_- 


Less custodial costs_______- 


Net income from re- 
stricted endowment-___- 


Transfer from endowment 
HUMES hn Cte seas Spee tle 


Deduct: 
Transfer to current income, 
net of custodial cost: 
Freer Gallery of Art________ 
Other restricted funds_-_-____ 
Unrestricted==== =e ae 


470, 093. 
273, 011. 


743, 105. 
Sil Tale) 


711, 985. 
36, 329. 


1, 837, 154. 


407, 917. 
63, 829. 
138, 086. 


609, 833. 


626, 254. 


1, 210, 899. 


672-174—63—_17 


0% | ieee eee 470, 093. 
OG) max eee eee 273, 011. 
LOH. ws Poche awe 743, 105. 
Goapele 31, 119. 
Es eee eat CP en 711, 985 
31 619. 30 36, 948 
6, 676, 997. 94 | 6, 676, 997 

.85 | 252,054.13 | 256, 816 
1, 381. 69 1, 381. 

00 | 9, 221, 423. 33 |11, 058, 577. 
TA eee Cert ee 407, 917. 
88 | 6, 074, 087. 84 | 6, 137, 917. 
7p ie as 138, 086. 
58 | 6, 074, 087. 84 | 6, 683, 921. 
159, 626.14 | 159, 626. 

738 jean ae 10, 169. 
16 (GoPTaL IG) nen Se foe 
50 | 6, 227, 462. 82 | 6, 853, 717. 
50 | 2, 993, 960. 51 | 4, 204, 860. 


22 
96 


. 61 
. 94 


32 


01 


236 = ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 
EXHIBIT D 
PRIVATE FUNDS 


STATEMENT OF CHANGES IN PRINCIPAL OF ENDOWMENT FUNDS AND FUNDS 
FUNCTIONING AS ENDOWMENT 


Year Ended June 30, 1962 


ES LAN COAG CSUN 0 Fey Oa Te ee ee ee $14, 592, 560. 72 
Add: 
Gifts and bequests (including transfer of 
JOHNSON RNG) see Se ae ee $56, 340. 53 
Income added to principal as prescribed 
Dy donors bis. 6 see ee ee 10, 169. 76 
Netyeainonbinvestments=ssa sss ae 586, 454. 75 652, 965. 04 


15, 245, 525. 76 


Deduct: 
Amount transferred to gifts and grants 
fOTEROCDLNS aE Un Gee eee 8, 548. 84 
Amount appropriated to current funds for 
retirement] payments = sae ee 825. 5a 8, 874. 37 


15, 236, 651. 39 


Balance at year end consisting of : 


Unrestrictedi@es =o eee eee 2, 514, 480. 72 
Restricted for: 
MreersiGallerysoteArt es = = ee 10, 089, 088. 74 
Other collections and research__-___~_ ZaGsomlolege 


15, 236, 651. 39 


The practice of maintaining savings accounts in several of the 
Washington banks and trust companies has been continued during the 
past year, and interest on these deposits amounted to $10,986.45. 

Deposits are made in banks for convenience in collection of checks, 
and later such funds are withdrawn and deposited in the United 
States Treasury. Disbursement of funds is made by check signed by 
the Secretary of the Institution and drawn on the United States 
Treasury. 

The Institution gratefully acknowledges gifts and grants from the 
following: 


A. P. Smith Manufacturing Corporation, a gift to the Marine Archeology Fund. 

Academic Press, a contribution to the Rathbun Fund. 

American Cocoa Research Institute, a grant to defray costs of art work in con- 
nection with a monograph of the genus Theobroma. 

American Council of Learned Societies, a grant for participation in the Inter- 
national Congress on the Antiquity and Origin of Man in the Americas. 

American Philosophical Society, a grant for support of research on the Okla- 
homa Seneca Cayuga Indians. 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 230 


Appalachian Power Co., a grant to cover preliminary archeological surveys in 
the Smith Mountain Reservoir Area on the Roanoke River. 
Atomic Energy Commission : 

A grant for the support of research entitled “A Study of the Biochemical 
Effects of Ionizing and Nonionizing Radiation on Plant Metabolism during 
Development.” 

A grant for the support of research entitled “Systematic Zoological Research 
on the Marine Fauna of the Tropical Pacifie Area.” 

Lucy H. Baird, bequest for the Spencer Fullerton Baird Fund. 
Laura Dreyfus Barney, a gift to finance the publication of the catalog of the 

Barney Collection. 

Laura Dreyfus Barney and Natalie Clifford Barney, additional interest in 

Barney Studio House (aggregate of two quarterly shares received). 

Charles and Rosanna Batchelor Memorial Incorporated, a grant for the purpose 
of improving the Emma E. Batchelor stamp collection. 
Bredin Foundation, additional grant for the support of research entitled “Ocean 

Food Chain Cycle.” 

Mrs. M. P. Bryon, a gift for the purchase of historic items for the National 

Aeronautical Collection. 

Bureau of Naval Weapons, grant for procurement of changes incidental to con- 
struction of the scale model of the A-I Airplane. 

Mrs. J. Campbell, a contribution to the Zoo Animal Fund. 

Department of the Air Force: 

Additional grant for upper atmosphere stellar image study. 

Additional grant for research directed toward providing a program for use 
with an I.B.M. 704 Computer for determination of satellite density data. 

Additional grant for the study of “Atmospheric Entry and Impact of High 
Velocity Meteorites.” 

Additional grant for research directed toward the study of stellar scintillation. 

Additional grant for research directed toward the studies of rate of accretion 
of interplanetary matter by the earth. 

Department of the Army: 

A grant for support of research entitled “Potential Vectors and Reservoirs of 
Disease in Strategic Overseas Areas.” 

A grant for the support of research entitled “Mammals and their Ectoparasites 
from Ethiopia.” 

Additional grant for research entitled “Procurement of Satellite Tracking and 
Orbit.” 

Eastern Federation of Gem and Minerals Societies, fund for inspection of an 
exhibit of gems and minerals. 

Embassy of Guatemala, a gift for investigating a fossil vertebrate occurrence 
near Zacapa. 

Felix and Helen Juda Foundation, a gift to the Freer Gallery of Art for the 
purchase of collections. 

Fred Maytag Family Foundation, a gift to the Marine Archeology Fund. 

General Atomic Division, a gift to the Meteorite Fund. 

Goodman Manufacturing Co., a gift for the purchase of the Benard Mining 

Prints. 

For purchase of the Harleton Texas Meteorite: 

Brookhaven Laboratory 

Carnegie Institute of Technology 

University of California 

University of Chicago 

University of Kentucky 


238 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Harvard University, a grant for Symposium of Evolution of Crustacea. 
International Association for Dental Research, gift for research in Physical 
Anthropology. 
Edwin A. Link, a gift to the Marine Archeology Fund. 
Link Foundation, a grant for the support of special publications on aviation, 
Mrs. Ethel B. McCay, a gift for the purchase of postal history material. 
National Aeronautics and Space Administration: 
Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Optical Satellite Track- 
ing Program.” 
Additional grant for the scientific and engineering study for instrumenting 
and orbiting telescope. 
Additional grant for research on the motion of artificial satellites. 
National Geographic Society, additional grant for Paleo-Indian investigations at 
Agate Basin, Hastern Wyoming. 
National Institutes of Health, a grant for the support of research enitled 
“Studies of Asian Biting Flies.” 
National Science Foundation: 
Grant for the support of research entitled “Ordovician Gastropods of Norway 
and a Comparison of American and European Ordovician Gastropods.” 
Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Monographie Studies 
of the Family Tingidae.” 
Grant for the support of research entitled “Morphology and Paleoecology of 
the Permian Brachiopods of the Glass Mountains, Texas.” 
Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Endocrine Basis of 
Parasitic Breeding of Birds.” 
Grant for the support of research entitled “The Flora of Fiji.” 
Grant for the support of research entitled “Mammals of Southeastern United 
States.” 
Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Tertiary Forests of 
the Tonasi-Santiago Basin of Panama.” 
Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Phanerogams of 
Colombia.” 
Additional grant for the support of research entitled “South Asian Mic- 
rolepidophers, Particularly the Philippine Series.” 
Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘““A Monograph of the 
Lichen Genus Parmalia.” 
Grant for the support of research entitled “Permo—Triassic Reptiles of South 
Africa.” 
Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Comparative Analysis of 
Behavior in Tropical Birds.” 
Grant for the support of research entitled “The Mammals of Panama.” 
Additional grant for the support of research entitled ““Revisionary Study of 
the Blattoidea.” 
Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Taxonomy of the 
Bamboos: Redefinition of the Genera.” 
Grant for the support of research entitled “Stellar Atmospheres.” 
Grant for the support of research entitled “Settlement Patterns in the 
Missouri Valley.” 
Grant for the support of research entitled “Caddo Language Study.” 
Grant for the support of research entitled “A Late Pleistocene Fauna and 
Possible Human Associations near Littleton, Colorado.” 
Grant for the support of research entitled “Oldest Fossil Bryozoa of the 
United States.” 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 239 


Grant for the support of research entitled “Taxonomy of Bamboos.” 

Grant for the support of research entitled “Systematics and Distribution of 
North American Calanoid and Harpacticoid Copepoda.” 

Grant for the support of research entitled “Scientific Community in Hngland, 
1820-1860.” 

Grant for the support of research entitled ‘““Photoresponses and Optical Prop- 
erties of Phycomyces Sporangiophores.” 

Grant for the support of research entitled ‘Ecology and Behavior of Suncus 
murinus.” 

Grant for the support of research entitled “Paramo Flora of Northeastern 
Peru.” 

Grant for the support of research entitled “Taxonomy of the Genus Swartzia.” 

Grant for the support of research entitled “Foreign Cambrian Trilobites with 
American Affinities.” 

Grant for support of research entitled ‘Systematic Significance of Echinoid 
Spines.” 

Office of Naval Research: 

Additional grant for support of research entitled “Information on Shark Dis- 
tribution and the Distribution of Shark Attack all over the World.” 

Additional grant for studies concerning the development of a proposal for 
an institute for laboratory of human performance standards. 

Additional grant for research in connection with studies on the marine fauna 
of the South Pacific Ocean. 

Additional grant to perform psychological research studies. 

Additional grant to perform aeronautical research studies. 

Grant for research on biological community interrelationships and to record 
observations of behavior on film. 

Additional grant to provide expert consultants to advise the Navy Advisory 
Committee. 

Grant for support of research studies on the Microlepidoptera of the Island of 
the mosquitoes of the world. 

Grant for support of research studies on the Microlepidoptera of the Island of 
Rapa. 

Grant for support of research entitled ‘A Study of Anatomy and Taxonomy of 
Hawaiian Woods.” 

B. T. Rocea, gift for the purchase of a geological specimen. 

American Association of Museums through Rockefeller Brothers Fund, a grant 
to cover insurance on the Egyptian Collection to be exhibited by Smithsonian 
Institution Traveling Exhibition Service. 

For the support of the Science Information Exchange: 

Atomic Energy Commission 

Department of Defense 

Department of the Navy 

Federal Aviation Agency 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 
National Institutes of Health 

National Science Foundation 

Veterans’ Administration 

St. Petersburg Shell Club, fund for inspection of an exhibit of shells. 

Philip M. Stern, a gift for animal shipment. 

Chauncey Stillman, a gift for the restoration of a landau presented to the Smith- 
sonian Institution by Mr. Stillman. 


240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Tucson Gem and Mineral Society, fund for inspection of an exhibit of gems and 
minerals. 

United States Information Agency, a grant for the support of the Third Interna- 
tional Exhibition of Contemporary Ceramics held in Prague, Czechoslovakia. 

United Van Lines, a gift to the Meteorite Fund. 

University of West Indies, Trinidad, fund for Neotropical Botany Conference in 
Trinidad. 

Villanova University, a gift for the special Paleontological Fund. 

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, a grant for research cruise from Cape 
Sable, Nova Scotia, to Trinidad. 


The following appropriations were made by Congress for the Gov- 
ernment bureaus under the administrative charge of the Smithsonian 
Institution for the fiscal year 1962: 


Salaries ands xpenseseeses—) === 6 eee eee $9, 125, 000. 00 
National Zoological Park 220)" _ 22 oe Se ee 1, 387, 600. 00 


The appropriation made to the National Gallery of Art (which is 
a bureau of the Smithsonian Institution) was $1,932,000.00. 

In addition, funds were transferred from other Government agen- 
cies for expenditure under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution 
as follows: 


Working Funds, transferred from the National Park Service, 
Interior Department, for archeological investigations in river 
basins) throuchoutschewUnitedastates= =a aa aaa a eee $231, 705. 00 


The Institution also administers a trust fund for partial support of 
the Canal Zone Biological Area, located on Barro Colorado Island in 
the Canal Zone. 

AUDIT 


The report of the audit of the Smithsonian Private Funds follows: 


Tue BoAarD OF REGENTS, 
Smithsonian Institution 
Washington 25, D.C. 


We have examined the balance sheet of private funds of Smithsonian Institu- 
tion as of June 30, 1962, and the related statement of current general private 
funds receipts and disbursements and the several statements of changes in funds 
for the year then ended. Our examination was made in accordance with gen- 
erally accepted auditing standards, and accordingly included such tests of the 
accounting records and such other auditing procedures as we considered neces- 
sary in the circumstances. 

Land, building, furniture, equipment, works of art, living and other specimens 
and certain sundry property are not included in the accounts of the Institution ; 
likewise, the accompanying statements do not include the National Gallery of 
Art and other departments, bureaus and operations administered by the Insti- 
tution under Federal appropriations. The accounts of the Institution are main- 
tained on the basis of cash receipts and disbursements, with the result that the 
accompanying statements do not reflect income earned but not collected or ex- 
penses incurred but not paid. 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 241 


In our opinion, subject to the matters referred to in the preceding para- 
graph, the accompanying statement of private funds presents fairly the assets 
and funds principal of Smithsonian Institution at June 30, 1962; further the 
accompanying statement of current general private funds receipts and disburse- 
ments and several statements of changes in funds, which have been prepared on 
a basis consistent with that of the preceding year, present fairly the cash trans- 
actions of the private funds for the year then ended. 


PEAT, MARWICK, MITCHELL & Co. 
Washington, D.C. 
September 17, 1962 
Respectfully submitted : 
(S) CusarEnce Cannon 
(S) Caryn P. Haskins 
(S) Rozerr V. FLemine 
Executive Committee. 


GENERAL APPENDIX 


to the 


SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1962 


ADVERTISEMENT 


The object of the GrenrraL AppENprx to the Annual Report of the 
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- 
covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by staff 
members and collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a gen- 
eral character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the 
numerous correspondents of the Institution. 

It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the 
Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual 
report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more 
remarkable and important developments in physical and biological 
discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations 
of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this 
purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers 
as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. 

In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum- 
mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by 
well-known private publishing firms, the Secretary had a series of 
abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the 
prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, 
meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and 
anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether 
satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. 

In the report of 1889, a return was made to the earlier method of 
presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) 
embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- 
sion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1962. 

An “Author-Subject Index to Articles in Smithsonian Annual 
Reports, 1849-1961” (Smithsonian Publication 4503) was issued in 
1963. 

Reprints of the various papers in the General Appendix may be 
obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the 
Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Wash- 
ington 25, D.C. 

244 


Aircraft Propulsion 


A REVIEW OF THE E\VOLUTION OF AIRCRAFT 
POWERPLANTS! 


By C. Fayette TAYLor 


Professor of Automotive Engineering Emeritus, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 


[With 27 plates] 
VERY EARLY POWERPLANTS 


Man’s muscles, usually attached to flapping wings, were the earliest 
and most obvious source of power suggested for flight. In spite of in- 
numerable attempts, even as late as 1921, there is no record of heavier- 
than-air sustained flight with this kind of power.? On the other 
hand, many early balloons were equipped with oars or paddles, and at 
least two dirigible balloons, Ritchell at Hartford, Conn., in 1878, and 
deLome in Paris, 1863, were equipped with propellers driven by pedals 
and a manned windlass, respectively. Cromwell Dixon of Seattle, 
Wash., demonstrated a dirigible powered by a pedal-driven propeller 
as late as 1907. 

The first successful free flights by a man-made heavier-than-air 
contrivance seem to have been by model helicopters whose counter- 
rotating propellers, usually made of bird feathers, were driven by a 
wooden or whalebone bow. Gibbs-Smith, in his excellent historical 
book “The Aeroplane,” credits the Chinese with this invention, as 
early as the fourth or fifth century, A.D. The first successful model 
helicopter of this type in the western world was by Launoy and Bien- 
venu in France in 1784, to be followed in 1792 by that of Sir George 
Cayley (fig. 1), “Father of British Aeronautics.” Alphonse Pénaud 
(1851-80) improved on Cayley’s design by using twisted rubber 
bands, both for model helicopters and for a near-conventional model 
monoplane (fig. 2). This system of propulsion remains to this day 
the most important source of power for small airplane and helicopter 


1The Fourth Lester B. Gardner Lecture, given at M.I.T. March 8, 1962, and at the 
Smithsonian Institution October 5, 1962. 

2In May 1962, after this paper was written, John Wimpenny, at St. Albans, England, 
flew the monoplane Puffin, powered by a pedal-driven propeller, for % mile (Christian 
Science Monitor, May 18, 1962, p. 21). The Puffin is a specially built monoplane of 84 
feet span weighing 115 pounds, with propeller behind the tail, geared to bicycle pedals. 


245 


246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Ficure 1.—Cayley helicopter model, bent-bow propulsion. 


models, and even today probably powers many more “airplanes” than 
any other type of powerplant. It is of historical interest to note here 
that in the first detailed account of their pioneer flights the Wright 
Brothers attribute their early interest in flying to toy helicopters 
powered by rubber bands. 

The first successful flight by a model airplane powered by other 
means than rubber bands is said to be that of DuTemple in France, 
1858, using a clockwork motor. Steam power was later used by this 
same inventor, but there is no authentic record of successful flight. 
A compressed-air-driven model by Victor Tatin (France) made cir- 
cular tethered flights in 1879. 


Ficure 2.—Penaud Planaphore, rubber-band propulsion. 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 247 


Odd sources of power, proposed and in some cases even tried, 
included tethered gryphons (birds were evidently considered inade- 
quate), sails, and horses on a treadmill (obviously at least 1,000 
pounds per hp.). The prize for ingenuity in the unconventional 
category might go to one Laurenco de Gusmao of Portgual, who, 
about the year 1700, is said to have proposed an aircraft sustained 
by magnets acting on electrified amber and propelled by a hand-power 
bellows blowing on its sails. 

Sir George Cayley built and tested a “flying” machine powered by 
gunpowder in 1807, but it never flew. A model ornithopter with 
wings operated by gunpowder, built by Trouvé, is said to have risen 
from the ground in 1870, but I consider this doubtful. 

There are records of two flights of dirigible airships using electric 
motors with batteries, namely, that of Tissandier at Auteuil in 
October 1883, and that of Renard and Krebs near Paris in August 
1884. The latter machine was considered quite successful. 

Rocket power, inspired by the Chinese invention of the ballistic 
rocket in the 12th century, was suggested by Gerard in 1784. An 
English cartoon of 1825 shows a proposed rocket in flight to the moon 
propelled by a steerable steam jet. For man-carrying powered flight, 
the first use of rockets was by Fritz von Opel (Germany) in 1928. 
First jet-engined flight was that of the Heinkel-178 airplane in Ger- 
many, August 27, 1939, powered with the HeS-3B gas turbine engine 
of 1,100 pounds thrust developed by Pabst von Ohain. 


STEAM POWER 


Steam power became a popular proposal for aerial navigation in 
the early 19th century, soon after it had been successfully demon- 
strated in ships, locomotives, and road vehicles. 

A model helicopter by W. H. Phillips (England) rose from the 
ground under steam power in 1842. Power was by steam jets in the 
wing tips, a remarkable anticipation of a modern application of jet 
power. 

Contrary to most historical statements, the steam-driven models of 
Henson and Stringfellow were apparently not capable of sustained 
rising or level flight. In the short indoor flights of record, take-off 
was from a horizontal wire somewhat higher than the landing point. 
Thus, these flights were what may be called “powered glides.” How- 
ever, the powerplants used are of interest because of their advanced 
design. Gibbs-Smith attributes the powerplant design to Henson, 
stating that Stringfellow was more the skilled mechanic than the 
inventor. The 20-foot-span model built by Henson, but never flown, 
was said to include a well-designed steam plant, but details are diffi- 


248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


cult to find. Stringfellow’s “flying” model was a 10-foot-span mono- 
plane equipped with a 34-inch bore by 2-inch stroke double-acting 
steam engine driving two mid-wing 16-inch propellers geared to three 
times engine speed. Its best powered glide was for about 120 feet 
indoors. <A Stringfellow engine and boiler, a multibulb affair, is now 
at the National Air Museum of the Smithsonian Institution (pl. 1, 
fiowa)):. 

A dirigible balloon with a 3-hp. steam plant weighing 351 pounds 
was flown by Henri Giffard from Paris to Trappes in 1851 (pl. 1, fig. 
2.) Ihave not found a technical description of this engine. In spite 
of earlier and later designs for steam-driven dirigible balloons, that 
of Giffard seems to be the only one which made successful flights. 

Mozhaiski in Russia in 1884 and Clement Ader in 1890 both built 
and tested full-scale steam-powered machines. At most, these ma- 
chines made short uncontrolled “hops.” Only Ader’s machine seems 
to have had the ability to lift itself without external assistance. No 
engine details seem to be available. 

The best-known full-scale attempt at flight with steam was that of 
Sir Hiram Maxim in 1893. Maxim was an experienced steam en- 
gineer, and his powerplant was far more advanced than the aircraft 
to which it applied. It was rated at 363 hp. and weighed, complete, 
1,800 pounds or 5 pounds per hp. The engine, a two-cylinder affair 
(pl. 2, fig. 1), was evidently of extraordinarily light weight. The 
boiler (pl. 2, fig. 2) was of the multiple water-tube type, very much 
like modern marine steam boilers. Operation along rails indicated 
that this engine could furnish the power necessary to lift even the 
monstrous contraption in which it was installed. Lack of success with 
this machine was not the fault of the powerplant. 

Any discussion of steam power for aircraft should include the 
work of S. P. Langley who built and successfully flew an unmanned 
steam-powered model of 14-foot span in 1896. Fortunately, Langley’s 
records are complete, and full technical details are available. The 
most notable feature of Langley’s steam powerplants (pl. 3, fig. 1) 
was the use of “flash” boilers, that is, boilers consisting of one or more 
long coiled tubes, with water pumped in at one end and steam issuing 
from the other. This type was used successfully later in the White 
automobile and is probably the type which would be used today if no 
alternative to steam power was available. Langley’s steam plants 
weighed in the neighborhood of 7 pounds per horsepower. He was 
perhaps the first to grapple with the problem of flame “blowout” in 
an aeronautical burner. A sentence from his memoirs reads in part, 
“Unfortunately there is a limit to this process (increasing the air flow 
through the burner) of increasing the air supply . . . a certain speed 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 249 


of efflux cannot be exceeded without putting the flame out.” The 
early jet engines encountered this same problem. 

Of course, steam ceased to be of importance for aircraft after flights 
by the Wright brothers and others had demonstrated the superior 
qualities of the internal-combustion engine. Steam was given the 
final coup-de-grace by a United States officer, brought up on steam 
power, who reported in 1926, “On the basis of these three considera- 
tions (weight, economy, air resistance) they (steam powerplants) are 
absolutely impossible.” My own opinion is not so extreme. If steam 
power was without competitors, we would have successful steam air- 
craft today, but at a considerable sacrifice in performance and per- 
haps also in safety. 

Steam power continues to have an emotional appeal to many people, 
and interest in steam power on the part of such enthusiasts continued 
into the 1930’s. A Travelair biplane powered with a steam engine 
by Besler was actually flown in California in 1982. 


INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 


The earliest successful aeronautical application of this type of 
power appears to be in a dirigible balloon flight by Paul Haenlein in 
Germany in 1872. A 4-cylinder 5 hp. (40 r.p.m.) Lenoir engine using 
coal-gas fuel was used. The Lenoir engine was the first commercial 
type of internal-combustion engine. The cylinders drew in air for 
half the stroke and fired at atmospheric pressure at midstroke. Efii- 
ciency was low—about 5 percent. 

The relatively light-weight and relatively efficient “Otto-cycle” 
gasoline engine began with developments in England and Germany 
in the 1880’s, stimulated by automobile development. Its application 
to aircraft came soon after. The first flight with this type engine 
was apparently that of David Schwartz in Germany in a dirigible bal- 
loon in 1897. 

Santos Dumont flew a dirigible in Paris in 1898, equipped with 
a pair of “tricycle” engines in tandem, rated together at 314 hp. and 
weighing, it is said, 66 pounds, or 19 pounds per hp. These engines 
were probably forerunners of the 3 hp. Clement engine used by Du- 
mont for his one-man dirigible airship flown during the summer of 
1903. This engine was a two-cylinder Vee type, air cooled, and 
weighed 8.8 pounds per hp. 

The first successful heavier-than-air flight powered by a gasoline 
engine was that of Langley’s 14-size model, which flew 350 feet on 
June 18, 1901, and 1,000 feet on August 8, 1903. The engine (pl. 3, 
fig. 2) was a 5-cylinder air-cooled radial, designed and built by 
Stephen M. Balzer and redesigned and rebuilt by Charles M. Manly. 
It gave 3.2 hp. at 3,000 r.p.m. with a weight of 7 pounds (see table 


250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


MANLY ano VEAL 


CONSULTING ENGINEERS 
250 WEST S54” STREET 
NEW YORK 


April 27, 1926. 


Professor C, Fayette Taylor, 
Aeronautical Dermrtment , 

Massachusotts Institute of Technolozy, 
Cambridge A, Massachusetts. 


Dear Professor Taylor:= 


I had forgotten that I had not included in the Memoir the more de= 
tailed information concerning the size, weight and speed of the 
small Manly Motor. 


Unfortumtely, I cannot refer to the original records which were 
returned for safe keeping to the archives of ths Smithsonian. Howe 
ever, my recollection of the matter, I think, is quite accurate and 
is as follows: 


The bore was 21/16" diameter; the stroke 2-3/4"; the power developed 
was 3 HePe at 1800 RePelie acd the weight was just ten (10) lbs., ine 
cluding carbureter, ignition ooil and the small storage battery that 
had a life of about five (5) minutes service in firing the engine. 


I do not recall that any photographs were made of this engine except 
while it was assembled in the frame of the gquarter-size model and 
believes thet the pictures shorm in the Memoir are as good as any 
that I had of ite 


The cylinders of this engine were made of heavy steel tubing turned 
down to form thin integral radiating fins,vwith the cylinder barrel 
only 1/32" thick at ths bottom of the fins. Castiron liners were 
shrunk into these cylinders and were bored out to leave them 1 325 
thick, The cylinder heads were mede from solid hand forgings({michined 
out)which were screw threaded and brazed to the steel cylinder 
barrels before the latter were finish machined. T1e general plan 

of construction of it was similar to that of tho large engine except 
that it was air-cooled instead of water-cooled. 


I will try to look up some personil memoranda tmt T have and see 

if I can zive you more definite detailed data regarding the weight 

of the engine and its accessories, but, I think the above information 
is fairly accurate as to general features. 


Yous very truly, 
cray/McB BER wn. redy 


Ficure 3.—Letter from Charles M. Manly describing the small gasoline engine. 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 251 


1 for other data). At 2.2 pounds per hp., this engine can legitimately 
be described as remarkable for its time. Figure 3 shows a letter from 
C. M. Manly giving some data on this engine that were not published 
in the memoirs. 

The first man-carrying heavier-than-air flights were, of course, 
those of the Wright brothers on December 17, 1903. The engine 
used was their own design. Im these four flights, assisted takeoff 
was not used (as it was in later flights). Thus, powered heavier- 
than-air flight by man was first achieved on that day. 

The Wright engine of 1903, and Charles Manly’s magnificent full- 
scale engine completed late in 1901, and tested in 1902, 1903, and 1904 
(also based somewhat on Balzer’s design), may be taken as the real 
beginning of the age of the reciprocating internal-combustion engine 
in aeronautics. As such, these engines are worthy of some detailed 
attention. 

WRIGHT BROTHERS’ ENGINE 


Little was known about the accomplishments of the Wright brothers 
until some years after their flights of December 17, 1903. Figure 4 
shows a short and amusingly inaccurate report in the New York 
Times of December 26, 1903, which attracted little attention. 

In spite of the fact that the flights near Dayton in 1904 and 1905 
were witnessed by numerous people, the press paid them no attention. 
The first eyewitness report published was a letter in Gleanings in 
Bee Culture, Medina, Ohio, January 1, 1905, by its publisher, A. I. 
Root, under the title “What God Hath Wrought.” 

The first public report by the Wrights themselves appeared in the 
Century Magazine of September 1908. (The Century was similar 
in content and format to Harper’s and the Atlantic Monthly.) At 
the time of publication I discovered this article in our home copy 
of the “Century.” In spite of its many photographs of the machine 
in flight, my father refused to believe that human flight had been 
achieved. This attitude was pretty general at the time, partly on 
account of the great number of false claims to flight which had been 
made in the past. These claims also account for the incredible ab- 
sence of reports by the Dayton press, whose representatives, after 
witnessing two unsuccessful attempts at flight in 1904, failed to report 
eyewitness accounts of the many flights made in 1904 and 1905, or 
even to go 8 miles out of town to see for themselves! 

The Century article is extraordinary in its simple and beautiful 
expository style, and in its evidence of the almost excessive modesty 
of the brothers Wright, together with their rationality and persist- 
ence. I believe that it should be rated as a classic in American 
scientific literature. 


672-174 63——18 


252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


AIRSHIP AFTER BUYER. 


Inventors of North Carolina Box Kite 
Machine Want Government .to 
Purchase it. 


Special to The New York Times. 

WASHINGTON, Dec. 23.—The inventors 
of the airship which is sald to have made 
several successful {llghts In North Caro- 
IMna, near Kitty Hawk, are anxious to sell 
the use of thelr device to the Government. 
They claim that they have solved the prob- 
lem of aerial navigation, and have never 
made a failure of any attempt to fly. 

Their machine is an adaptation of the box 
kite idea, with a propeller working on 8 
perpendicular shaft to raise or lower the 
craft, and another working on a horisontal 
shaft to send it forward. The machine, it 
is sald, can be raised or lowered with per- 
fect control, and can carry a strong gaso- 
Nine engine capable of making a speed of 
ten miles an hour. 

The test made in Nerth Carolina will be 
fully reported to the Ordnance Board of the 
War Department, and if the machine com- 
mends itself sufficiently, further tests will 
be made !n the vicinity of Washington, and 
an effort made to arrange a sale of the de- 
vice to the Government. The use to which 
the Government would put it would be in 
scouting and signal work, and possibly In 
torpedo warfare. 


Ficure 4.—New York Times account of Wright brothers’ first airplane, Dec. 25, 1903. 


The 1903 Wright engine (pl. 4, fig. 1) was designed by the brothers 
Wright and built with the assistance of their faithful mechanic, 
Charles E. Taylor (not related to the writer). This engine is espe- 
cially well described by Robert B. Meyer, Jr., in the Annual Report 
of the Smithsonian Institution for 1961. It was a 4-cylinder water- 
cooled, horizontal engine of 200 cubic inches displacement, with auto- 
matic inlet valves. Fuel was supplied by gravity from a small can on 
top of the engine. From there it flowed through an adjustment valve 
to a surface in the intake pipe which was heated by the cylinder water 
jacket. Ignition was by a low-tension magneto with “make-and- 
break” spark contacts in the cylinders. The engine would give 16 hp. 
for a minute or so, after which it gave a steady 12 hp. Control, such 
as it was, was by the spark timing. As shown in table 1, this engine 
was heavy and of low power compared to the contemporary Manly 
engine, but it flew! This basic design was later improved by the 
Wrights so that by 1910 it was delivering 30 hp. for a weight of 180 
pounds, 6 pounds per hp. 

The first and subsequent engines followed contemporary auto- 
mobile practice in cylinder arrangement. However, the water jacket 
and crankcase were of cast aluminum, an innovation which, although 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 253 


in use for aircraft engines from the beginning, has just recently 
come into use for some automobiles. After being in England for a 
number of years, No. 1 Wright engine is now on display in the origi- 
nal airplane in the National Air Museum, Smithsonian Institution. 

It was my good fortune to know Orville Wright, and to see him 
frequently during the period 1919 to 1923 when I was engineer-in- 
charge of the aircraft-engine laboratory of the U.S. Army Air Serv- 
ice in Dayton, Ohio. He had previously retired from active 
participation in aeronautics, and had become a very modest, very 
quiet, much beloved member of the Dayton community, and of the 
famous Dayton Engineers Club. 


THE 1903 MANLY ENGINE 


Considering the then state of the art, this 52-hp. 5-cylinder water- 
cooled radial engine represents one of the most remarkable pieces of 
engineering design and construction ever achieved. Manly, a young 
graduate of Cornell University, was hired by S. P. Langley, to super- 
vise the design and construction of his “aerodromes” and to pilot the 
1903 machine. 

The history of this engine is interesting. In December 1898 Langley 
contracted with a New York City automobile builder, Stephen M. 
Balzer, for a 12-hp. engine to be completed in 3 months. Consider- 
ing that even now, the development of a reliable gasoline engine is a 
matter of at least 2 years, this contract must stand as one of the 
most optimistic on record ! 

In May 1900 Manly worked with the Balzer engine, a rotary radial, 
and came to the conclusion that it was, to say the least, unpromising. 
At this point Langley and Manly spent 3 months in America and Eu- 
rope trying to obtain at least the promise of an engine to meet their 
requirements, but without success. It was decided therefore that 
Manly should take up the further development of the Balzer engine. 
Balzer had been working on both the quarter-scale and the full-scale 
engines. All Balzer’s engines were of the rotating-radial type, but 
Manly decided, quite wisely, to use the stationary radial principle. 
Using a number of parts made by Balzer, the full-scale engine which 
he finally completed late in 1901 is shown in plate 5 with statistics in 
table 1, page 294. 

This engine, described in detail in the Langley Memoirs, is now 
displayed in the Smithsonian removed from the “aerodrome.” Power 
was carefully measured on a dynamometer and, most remarkably, sus- 
tained for three consecutive 10-hour tests. The specific weight, 2.58 
pounds per hp.,? remained as a low record until the Liberty engine of 


% Without water or flywheels, but with ignition battery. This condition is the same as 
for the weights quoted for other liquid-cooled engines. 


254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


1918. The figure of 0.196 pound per cubic inch displacement has never 
been closely approached. 

The 5-inch bore cylinders, assembled and brazed together by Manly 
himself, were built up of steel 14g inch thick, lined with 4g inch of 
cast iron.* Water jackets were steel 0.020 inch thick. The difficulty 
of the brazing operation is mentioned by Manly and can well be 
imagined. Cylinder heads and valve pockets were machined inte- 
grally with the 4,¢-inch-thick barrels. 

The engine completely anticipated modern large aircraft engines in 
the use of the radial arrangement with a master connecting rod, the 
cam and valve-gear arrangement, and the use of crankcase, cylinders, 
and other parts machined all over to carefully controlled dimensions. 

Manly’s skill as an engineer and machinist was matched by his 
courage in making two (unsuccessful) takeoffs from the top of a 
houseboat, without previous instruction or experience as a pilot and 
in an airplane without landing gear. His survival of two crashes 
into the icy waters of the Potomac River testifies to his quick think- 
ing and skill as a swimmer. In contrast to the poor preparation for 
the Manly attempts, the Wright brothers, before making their first 
powered flights, had become skilled aviators by virtue of over 1,000 
flights in gliders of a size and type quite similar to that of their first 
powered airplane. All early Wright machines were equipped with 
landing skids. 

Nowadays it is hard to appreciate the difficulties of these early air- 
craft-engine builders. Although successful automobiles were in op- 
eration both in Europe and in the United States, most of them were 
equipped with engines far too heavy and too low in power for air- 
plane use. Accessory equipment such as spark plugs, carburetors, 
and magnetos was not available on the open market and had to be 
obtained from reluctant automobile builders or else built by hand. 
Worst of all, there was no established body of good practice, and de- 
tails of existing practice were either very difficult to find or else held 
as closely guarded secrets. In view of these difficulties, the accom- 
plishments of the Wrights and Manly are all the more remarkable. 


ENGINES 1907-1909 


After the Wrights had demonstrated the actuality of airplane flight, 
a period of nearly 8 years elapsed before anyone else flew in a 
heavier-than-air craft. Meanwhile the Wrights increased their dura- 
tion of flight to more than half an hour and their distance to nearly 
25 miles, both records accomplished in their flight of October 5, 1905. 
In 1906 the Hungarian Vuia, the Dane Ellehammer, and the Brazilian 


4QZLater development shows this to have been unnecessary. Steel cylinder bores have 
been used since the Gnome engines of 1909. 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR DiS) 


Alberto Santos-Dumont accomplished flights, hardly more than short 
“hops,” in airplanes with unconvincing control systems. Not until 
November 9, 1907, did anyone but the Wright brothers fly as long as 
1 minute, or over 1,000 ft. On that date Henri Farman in a “Voisin” 
biplane flew for 3,368 feet in 1 minute 14 seconds, with a 50 hp. “An- 
toinette” engine, apparently under good control. 

“Antoinette” engines (pl. 6) were built in Paris by Lavavasseur as 
early as 1905 and were to become very important powerplants for 
European aviation in the next few years. Santos-Dumont used one 
rated at 24 hp. for his “hop” of 772 feet in November 1906. Both 
Farman’s and Santos-Dumont’s engines were 8-cylinder Vee types, 
rated at 24 and 50 hp. respectively. Farman’s engine weighed 3 
pounds per hp., a remarkable figure at that time (see table 1, page 295). 

“Antoinette” engines had machined-steel cylinders with electrically 
deposited copper water jackets. All were water-cooled Vee type and 
were later built in 16- and 32-cylinder models. Together with the 
engines of Glenn Curtiss, and the E.N.V. engines (France, 1909) they 
pioneered the use of the water-cooled Vee engine in aeronautics. 
Other noteworthy details of the “Antoinette” included inlet-manifold 
fuel injection, and evaporative cooling. 

Bleriot also used the 50-hp. “Antoinette” engine in his first tractor 
monoplane, No. VII, which flew in December 1907. The first heli- 
copter to lift a man off the ground (Cornu, November 13, 1907) was 
also powered with an “Antoinette” engine. Cody made the first air- 
plane flight in England October 16, 1908, with an airplane somewhat 
resembling the Wright in design, powered by the 50-hp. “Antoinette.” 

The year 1908 was memorable for rapid development of increasingly 
successful airplanes and engines. Except for Wright airplanes 
(which had flown over an hour), the longest flight was by Farman 
in a “Voisin”—44 minutes on October 2. Two important new engines 
appeared, namely, the 50-hp. Renault 8-cylinder air-cooled Vee (80-hp. 
example, pl. 7, fig. 1) and a Curtiss Vee 8-cylinder engine in the June 
Bug (1 minute 48 seconds flight on July 4) (pl. 8, fig. 1). On the last 
day of 1908 Wilbur Wright flew for 2 hours 24 minutes at Auvours, 
France— “un des plus passionants spectacles qu’ait jamais présenté 
Vhistoire des sciences appliqués,” according to a French commentator. 

Glenn Curtiss was building and racing motorcycle engines soon 
after 1900. In 1902 Thomas Baldwin engaged him to supply an en- 
gine for Baldwin’s dirigible airship, which flew successfully in 1904. 
In 1907 Curtiss joined the Aerial Experiment Association headed by 
Alexander Graham Bell, and thus began his distinguished career as 
a designer, builder, and pilot of both airplanes and engines.® 


5 Also in 1907 Curtiss broke the world’s motorcycle speed record (137 m.p.h.) with a 
40 hp. V-8 air-cooled engine. 


256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Curtiss’s earliest engines were air-cooled, including the V-8 engine 
used in the famous June Bug (pl. 8, fig. 1). However, by 1908 he had 
settled on an 8-cylinder water-cooled Vee engine, similar to the “An- 
toinette” of Lavavasseur except that the cylinders were of cast iron, 
with monel-meta] water jackets. 

After the Wright brothers, Glenn Curtiss was certainly the most 
important figure in early American aviation, both in engine design 
and airplane design. The most noteworthy engine which developed 
from his early work was the famous “OX-5,” to be described later. 
Engines bearing his name have an important place in aviation to this 
day. 

The year 1909 has been called the “year of practical powered flying,” 
because in that year flight began to be convincingly demonstrated by 
other than the Wright brothers. Four types of airplane—Wright, 
Antoinette, Farman, and Bleriot—demonstrated flights of more than 
1 hour duration. 

Bleriot made his famous cross-channel flight (87 minutes, 23.5 
miles) on July 25, 1909. His tractor monoplane was equipped with 
the 25-hp. 3-cylinder Anzani, fan-type air-cooled engine (pl. 7, fig. 2). 
Later Anzani built one- and two-row radial air-cooled engines used 
in a number of airplanes prior to and soon after World War I. An- 
other fan-type engine of this period was that of Esnault-Pelterie, in- 
stalled in an unsuccessful airplane in 1907. His “R.E.P.” fan-type 
engines were used subsequently in several successful airplanes. 

An outstanding engine to appear in 1909 was the 50 hp. 7-cylinder 
“Gnome” rotary-radial, first flown in Henri Farman’s No. III bi- 
plane. Rotary types had been built for automobiles by Stephen 
Balzer and Adams-Farwell in the U.S.A., and this type had been 
originally planned for the Langley “aerodrome,” but it was first 
adapted to flying in the “Gnome.” 'This engine (text fig. 5; pl. 9, fig. 1, 
and table 2) was a masterpiece for its time and deserves special atten- 
tion here. 

The design of the “Gnome” (pl. 9, fig. 1) was by Laurent Seguin. 
Made entirely from steel forgings machined all over, with integrally 
machined cooling fins and a modern master-rod system, it anticipated 
many features of the latest large air-cooled radials. The rotary fea- 
ture was used in order to eliminate the flywheel, which had been pre- 
viously thought essential, and also to assist in cooling. It frequently 
used a cowling quite like that later developed for static radials by the 
N.A.C.A. (see later remarks under “Cooling”). This and subsequent 
larger and more powerful versions became perhaps the most popular 
aircraft engines up to World War I and were used widely by both 
sides through most of that war. 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 257 


Ficure 5.—‘‘Gnome” engine, 1910, sectional drawing. 


I had the pleasure of flying with a “Gnome” engine in 1920, It 
was exceptionally free of vibration and also relatively quiet. The 
only disagreeable feature was the castor-oil fumes discharged from 
the exhaust. Lubrication was achieved by pumping castor oil into 
the crankshaft at a fixed rate, and oil which was not burned eventually 
found its way out of the exhaust ports, after which much of it im- 
pinged and remained on the airplane (and on the pilot!). One of my 
first assignments in aviation (1917) was to make tests to show that 
mineral oil could be used in aero engines. Previous to that time castor 
oil had been considered as indispensable for aero engines as it was for 
young children. 

Another interesting feature of the “Gnome” engine was its method 
of control. No carburetor was used, the fuel and air being introduced 
through the hollow crankshaft using separate valves controlled by 
the pilot. Because of the large inertia of the rotating engine, it was 
possible to adjust to the appropriate mixture by trial, without danger 
of stalling the engine. After starting the engine with a known set- 
ting of the valves for idling, the air throttle was opened wide, at which 
time firing ceased, but rotation continued. The fuel valve was then 


258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


opened until firing started and maximum propeller speed was at- 
tained. Since the reverse process was difficult, “throttling” was ac- 
complished by temporarily cutting the ignition, keeping the engine 
going by short “bursts” of power. Oddly enough this technique was 
easy to learn and pilots seemed to like it. 

Important engines of 1909 included the following (see also table 1, 
pages 294 and 295) : 


Wiel oh ie ee 4- and 6-cylinder vertical, water cooled. 
Curtiss) 222s eee ee 8-cylinder Vee, water cooled. 
ANTOINeiCy eee 8- and 16-cylinder Vee, water cooled. 
IRAN Vere ee ee en ee 8-cylinder Vee, water cooled. 

Darracg! S22 2b =. Eee 2-cylinder opposed, water cooled. 
@nome; 22-532 2t 3 7-cylinder rotary, air cooled. 

Renault. oe ae 8-cylinder Vee, air cooled. 

RAN ee ee 7-cylinder fan, air cooled. 

Anant (ea cies ee ee 3-cylinder fan, air cooled. 


These engines accounted for nearly all important flights in 1909, 
including the winners of the first official aviation contests at Rheims. 

The “Darracq” engine, used by Santos-Dumont, was important for 
being apparently the first aircraft engine to use mechanically operated 
inlet valves. All the others used automatic inlet valves, opened by 
suction. Since automobile engines had been using mechanically 
operated valves for many years before 1909, it is hard to understand 
why this important feature was so late in coming into use for aircraft 
engines. 

ENGINES, 1910-1918 


This period, including World War J, saw such rapid developments 
of aircraft engines that only the important ones can be described here. 
By “important” I mean those which pioneered successful new design 
features or which were particularly notable in service. 

Early in this period the “Gnome” air-cooled rotary engine was 
dominant and was built in many countries and in several modified 
designs, including the “LeRhone” and “Clerget” (French) the BR-1 
and BR-2 (British) and the “Oberiirsel” and “Siemens” (German). 
It reached its height early in the war and was definitely obsolescent 
by 1918. Reasons for its demise were chiefly a limitation on speed 
due to centrifugal stress, the considerable windage losses, design limi- 
tations imposed by rotation of all parts but the crankshaft, and a 
rather strong gyroscopic effect on the airplane during turns. How- 
ever, the rotary-type engine set a pattern for the later development of 
the modern air-cooled radial engine. It was a forged-and-machined- 
all-over engine, and it was radial and air-cooled, features which are 
now characteristic of most large military and commercial piston 
engines. 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 259 


As the rotary engines became obsolete, the water-cooled Vee engine 
became the dominant type. In the U.S.A. the Curtiss “OX-5” engine 
(pl. 9, fig. 2, and table 1, page 294) led the field until 1917, when the 
“Liberty” and “Hispano-Suiza” engines (see later descriptions) were 
introduced here. 

The “OX-5,” a water-cooled V—8, had an aluminum crankcase, 
cast-iron cylinders with sheet monel-metal water jackets brazed onto 
the barrels, and overhead valves, push-rod operated. Used by both 
Army and Navy,° it powered practically all U.S. and Canadian train- 
ing airplanes and was probably responsible for training more pilots 
for World War I than any other engine. The best-known trainer, 
the Curtiss J N-4, affectionately known as the “Jenny,” is shown in 
plate 8, figure 2. My first airplane ride (1917) was in a single-float 
seaplane with the “OX X-2,” the Navy version of this engine. 

The “OX-5” engine was considered very reliable for its day, but 
few pilots completed the (very short) training course without at 
least one forced landing. Its weaknesses included single ignition,® 
a rather flimsy valve-operating gear including “pull-rods” for the 
inlet valves, and a tendency to leak water from the water pump down 
onto the low-slung carburetor. In freezing weather the latter defect 
accounted for many forced landings, as Dr. Stark Draper of M.I.T., 
who owned an “OX-5” equipped Curtiss fobin airplane, can testify. 

A very important new style in liquid-cooled cylinder design ap- 
peared in 1915 on the German 6-cylinder 180 hp. “Mercedes” engine 
(fig. 6, table 1). This was the built-up welded-steel construction, 
widely used for a long time thereafter in most water-cooled engines. 
It was copied by such famous makes as Rolls-Royce “Eagle” (pl. 10, 
fig. 1), the “Liberty,” F.I.A.T., Renault, Salmson, B.M.W., etc., but 
finally gave way to the cast-aluminum en-bloc construction, to be 
discussed later. 

An important engine built in this style was the U.S. “Liberty” 
engine (pl. 10, fig. 2, and text fig. 7), which was developed under 
extraordinary circumstances. After a decision on May 29, 1917 (only 
7 weeks after the U.S. entered the war), by the War Production Board 
to build an airplane engine more powerful than any in use up to that 
time, J. G. Vincent, Chief Engineer of Packard, and E. J. Hall, of the 
Hall-Scott Motor Co., started to design such an engine in the Willard 
Hotel, Washington, D.C. On May 31 preliminary layouts were 
approved by the W.P.B. and some extra help was called in. Com- 
plete layouts were approved June 4, detailed design was substantially 
completed on June 11, the first 8-cylinder engine was delivered to the 
Bureau of Standards for test July 3, and the first 12-cylinder engine 
completed the official 50-hour test August 25,1917. The first “pro- 
duction” engine was delivered to the Army Air Service in Dayton on 


6The Navy version was a slight modification having dual ignition and a 100-hp. rating. 


260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


a : H as bees 


| 


TE 


==, 
1B) 
) 
vase! 
| 
hock Sb 


(} 


STROKE 160% 


180 H.P, MERCEDES AERO ENGINE. 
BORE 140% 


SECTIONAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE 


Ficure 6.—“Mercedes” 6-cylinder in-line engine, 180 hp., Germany, World War I. 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 261 


IGU .—“Liberty” engine, sectional transverse view. 
Ficure 7 y ; 


Thanksgiving Day, 1917, just 6 months after Vincent and Hall had 
started their layout. I believe this record has never been equaled, 
before or since, except perhaps by the first Pratt and Whitney 
“Wasp,” described later.’ 

The design was based on the welded-cylinder construction pioneered 
by “Mercedes.” It had no radical features, but was an excellent 
synthesis of the state of the art of its time. Its principal weaknesses 
were cracking of the cylinder-head water jackets, burning of exhaust 
valves, and breaking of accessory gears. These faults were gradually 
reduced as time went on, and it was considered a reliable engine. 
Early production engines had a 50 percent chance of passing the 
government 50-hour endurance test. With later modifications, a bar 
welded between the ports to reduce cylinder distortion and jacket 
cracking, and heavier teeth for the gears, the only weakness remaining 
was in the exhaust valves, which served well most of the time. 


7 Although the “Wasp” did not go into real quantity production nearly as quickly as did 
the “Liberty.” 


262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Large quantities of the “Liberty-12” engine were produced by the 
automobile companies, including Packard, Ford, Lincoln, and some 
General Motors divisions. It was used by the British as well as by 
the U.S. Air Service and Navy. Engine production was far ahead 
of airplane production in this country, and at the end of the war 
many thousands of these engines were on hand. Many were sold at 
low prices to “rum runners” and were very successfully used in run- 
ning liquor through the Coast Guard blockade along the Atlantic and 
Pacific coasts during the prohibition period. During these years the 
Coast Guard had no “requirement” for a light and powerful marine 
engine, and their motor boats were far outclassed by the “Liberty”- 
equipped bootleggers’ craft. 

The “Liberty” engine remained important in U.S. Army and Navy 
aviation well into the 1930’s. This engine was used in the NC boats 
with a special economical carburetor setting developed at the Wash- 
ington Navy Yard. NC- was, of course, the first aircraft to cross 
the Atlantic, May 16-17, 1919 The “Liberty” was also the first 
engine to fly nonstop across the American Continent (in the Fokker 
“T_92,” May 2-3, 1923, piloted by Kelly and McCready). Also, in a 
turbo-supercharged version, it held the world’s altitude records in 
1920, 1921, and 1922, and powered the first flight around the world in 
1924. 

From a technical viewpoint, the outstanding airplane engine during 
World War I was undoubtedly the “Hispano-Suiza” V-8 (pl. 11, fig. 
1, text fig. 8, and table 1), built first in Barcelona by a Swiss engineer, 
Marc Birkigt. It was adopted for French fighters in 1915 and used 
in the “Spad” 7 and 138, perhaps the best fighters of World War I. 

The basic contribution of Birkigt to engine design was the en-bloc 
cylinder construction with a cast-aluminum water jacket containing 
steel cylinder barrels and with enclosed and lubricated valves and 
valve gear.® The success of this engine started a revolution in liquid- 
cooled engine design which culminated in the Rolls-Royce “Kestrel” 
and “Merlin,” via the Curtiss K-12, C-12, and D-12 engines. It was 
also the prototype for the “Mercedes” and “Junkers” engines which 
were the backbone of the 1940-45 German Luftwaffe, together with 
en-bloc Russian, Japanese, and Italian designs. By 1917 “Hispano- 
Suiza” engines were being built in England and the U.S.A., as well as 
in France. 

The only weakness in the early “Hispano-Suiza” engines, by stand- 
ards of the time, was a tendency toward exhaust-valve burning. This 


8The first nonstop Atlantic crossing was by Alcock and Brown, about a month later, 
June 14-15, 1919, using two Rolls-Royce “Eagle” engines, also with welded-cylinder con- 
struction (see pl. 10, fig. 1). 

®Tt will be recalled that the Wright brothers also used crude aluminum en-bloe water- 
jacket construction on their No. 1 engine. Subsequent engines, however, had separate 
cylinders. 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 263 


¢ . . . . . 
Ficure 8.—‘‘Hispano-Suiza”’ engine, sectional transverse view. 


was due to the fact that the steel cylinder heads were “dry,” that is, 
they did not come directly into contact with the cooling water (see 
fig. 10,3). The flat steel head had a tendency to warp and lose contact 
with the aluminum jacket, which reduced valve cooling and also dis- 
torted the valve seats, causing exhaust valves to leak and burn under 
conditions of severe operation. 

The development of this engine was continued in the U.S.A. after 
World War I by the Wright-Martin Co., which later became the 
Wright Aeronautical Corporation. One of the most important 
changes made was to eliminate the steel cylinder head and to seat the 
valves in bronze inserts pressed into the aluminum heads. This basic 
improvement set a pattern for the most successful subsequent liquid- 
cooled engines. 

In contrast to the all-forged construction of the “Gnome” and the 
modern large radial engines, the “Hispano-Suiza” engine and its 
descendants were essentially cast-aluminum engines except for the 
moving parts and the cylinder barrels. 


264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


ENGINES, 1917-1940 


In this period hundreds of new engine types appeared. From 
the technical point of view, the period is marked by the following 
significant developments: 

1. Further development of the liquid-cooled engine of the all-cast 
type, chiefly for military purposes. 

2. The development of the air-cooled radial engine to a place of 
dominance in all but fighter-type military and small civilian aircraft. 

3. The advent of 4-cylinder vertical in-line, and later, opposed- 
cylinder, horizontal, air-cooled engines for light aircraft. 

4, First trials of rocket and jet engines. 


LIQUID-COOLED ENGINES AFTER 1918 


By 1920 the success of the “Hispano-Suiza” engines by that time 
built in both the original size and a larger size (800 hp.), had con- 
vinced most designers that the welded-cylinder construction was 
obsolescent. 

The Curtiss Company, in the U.S.A., took up the cast-aluminum 
engine, generally based on the “Hispano-Suiza,” with successive 12- 
cylinder designs known as the K-12,1° C-12, D-12 (pl. 12, fig. 1), 
and V-1400 models. These were all of the 12-cylinder Vee type, 
with four valves per cylinder, instead of two as in the “Hispano- 
Suiza.” The two early models had steel cylinder heads like that of 
the original “Hispano-Suiza,” but cooling was greatly assisted by 
an integral stud, in the center between the valves, by means of which 
the head was held tightly against the water-jacket casting (fig. 10, 4). 
In the D-12 the steel head was abandoned, and the valve seats were 
bedded directly in the aluminum head, as in the Wright version of the 
“Hispano-Suiza.” 

The great success of the Curtiss engines in racing (first to exceed 
200 m.p.h. in the Mitchell ** Trophy race, Detroit, 1922, and winner 
of the Schneider trophy in 1923 and 1925) led the Rolls-Royce com- 
pany to develop aluminum V-12 engines of similar type. The first 
was the “Kestrel” of 1927 soon followed by the racing or “R” type 
which attained theretofore unheard of output in proportion to its 
size and weight and won the Schneider trophy in 1929 and 1931. 
The “Kestrel” was followed by the Rolls-Royce “Merlin” (pl. 12, 
fig. 2), winner of the Battle of Britain, and also by the Allison 
V-1710 ( a fairly faithful copy of the “Merlin’”), and the German 
“Daimler-Benz” (fig. 9) and “Junkers” V—12 liquid-cooled engines, all 
descendants of the “Hispano-Suiza” and Curtiss. In all these engines 
the valves were seated in inserts embedded in the aluminum head, 
and thus had better valve cooling than the original “Hispano-Suiza” 

10The K was for Chas. B. Kirkham, who conceived the basic design for this series and 


was also consulted in the design of the earlier Liberty engine, q.v. 
4 Named for brother of Gen. William (“Billy”) Mitchell. 


265 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 


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266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


mts 


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Figure 10.—Liquid-cooled cylinder development. 


No. Year Name Barrel Jacket Load by 
j leases eee 1914 CurtissiOX— 5 eee Oe Ie ae eee Monel sheet_-_.___- Barrel. 
2se= ee 1917 liberty 22a ae ee Steelees es Steel, welded_____- Do. 
6 ee eee 1915 Ehispano-Suiz ae meee ee | eee do.-.-.--_-| Cast aluminum__-- Do. 
7 1921 Curtiss 12 ae eee SS ee dos | aa G0nse a  acketss 
fs Soap a ie 1934 IRONS SIV er line ee eee | ee eet | er do ae Studs: 
Czar 2 5 1935 aimier= Benz sean eee a eee dora | doses eee Barrel. 


*Cast aluminum water jacket, not shown, was flanged and bolted to head and to crankcase. 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 267 


design. In every case the basic structure consisted of cast aluminum 
crankcase with en-bloc water jackets and cylinder heads, also of cast 
aluminum. Cylinder barrels were uniformly of steel. Design details 
varied, especially in the method of taking the cylinder-head-to-crank- 
caseload. This wassuccessfully done as follows: 

1. Through the cylinder barrels, Hispano-Suiza, Daimler-Benz, fig. 10, 3, 6. 

2. Through the aluminum water-jacket structure, Curtiss and Junkers, fig. 


10, 4. 
3. By long bolts from cylinder heads to crankcase, Rolls-Royce and Allison, 


fig. 10, 5. 

Figure 10 illustrates the evolution of liquid-cooled cylinder 
construction. 

The improvement in performance of liquid-cooled engines since 
1918 has been astonishing. The following figures illustrate this 
development: 


1918 1948 

Bngines ane = ee ae ce ek eee oe ee Liberty Packard 

““Merlin”’ 
IVa XAT yh yess eer ee ae ee ee ee eee 420 2, 250 
RA paneee nh. Manne eee eee eae eens 1, 700 3, 000 
Brake mean effective pressure, psi---.---------------- 118 360 
Means pistonispeed sitq mine 2 a ae see ee 1, 985 3, 000 
Hp. per square inch piston area. 2-2. 2522-2 tee. 1 its} 8. 2 
Wreircht) pershpsp-drye4 pounds 2 o5- eee ese - ee 2. 04 0. 78 


(“Dry” weight is for complete engine without water, oil, or radiators.) 


These improvements are attributable not only to improved detail 
design, but also to important developments in fuel, supercharging, 
and cooling fluid, which will be discussed in a later section of this 
lecture. 

AIR-COOLED ENGINES, 1918-40 


The “Gnome” and its rotary descendants (LeRhone, Clerget, B.R., 
Oberiirsel, etc.) were obsolescent by 1918. Also obsolescent were air- 
cooled engines using cast-iron cylinders with integral heads and fins. 
These included the radial “Anzani,” and the “Renault” Vee type with 
its descendants, the R.A.F. and F.LA.T. 

During the first World War it had become evident that the simple 
cast-iron cylinder? had reached its limit, and the Royal Aircraft 
Factory of Great Britain had employed Prof. A. H. Gibson, assisted 
by S. D. Heron, to develop more effective air-cooled cylinders. By 
1918 they had constructed and tested steel cylinders with cast-alumi- 
num heads, capable of higher specific outputs than any cast-iron 
cylinder (fig. 11). However, the practical use of the aluminum-head 
cylinder in England was seriously delayed by a parallel development 
starting in 1917 of air-cooled radials with steel, flat-head cylinders, 
capped by a bolted-on valve-port assembly of cast-iron or cast alumi- 


12 The chief limitations on the cast-iron cylinder are poor heat conductivity as compared 
with aluminum, and low strength as compared with steel. 


672-174— 63 19 


268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


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Figure 11.—Air-cooled cylinder developed by Dr. A. H. Gibson at the Royal Aircraft 
Establishment, 1918. This cylinder anticipates the essential features of all modern 
air-cooled aircraft-engine cylinders, including aluminum head screwed over steel barrel, 
applied finning on barrel. From (British) Advisory Committee for Aeronautics report 
ECE. 260") Jan.1919: 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 269 


num (fig. 12, Zeft). This cylinder design suffered from the same trou- 
ble as the early “Hispano-Suiza” engines, namely, poor exhaust-valve 
cooling because of poor contact between the head and the separate 
cooling element. However, the first radial engine using this cylinder 
type, the A.B.C. “Wasp” of 414’’ bore, was successful enough to gain 
the support of the British government for its development in a larger 
version, the “Dragonfly” of 514”’ bore. Evidently the fact that cooling 
problems increase with increased cylinder size was not realized at the 
time. 

This development finally became, through several changes in owner- 
ship, the Bristol “Jupiter” engine (pl. 18, fig. 1), which was built and 
used in considerable quantities in England and in Europe, chiefly for 
military purposes. It was never a really satisfactory aircraft engine, 
because of poor exhaust-valve cooling (S.D. Heron said that its con- 
sumption should be given in terms of pounds of exhaust-valves, rather 
than in pounds of fuel, per horsepower-hour!). Finally realizing this 
fact, Bristol changed from steel heads to aluminum heads with the 
Jupiter “F,” about 1930. 

Meanwhile the Gibson-Heron type cylinders had been further 
developed by Armstrong Siddeley, and were used on the “Jaguar” 
two-row radial (pl. 13, fig. 2) which passed its type test in 1922, 10 
years after Gibson started his work. 

A parallel development of air-cooled engines with aluminum cylin- 
ders was begun about 1916 by C. L. Lawrance. Starting in 1916 with 
a 2-cylinder opposed engine, he built a 3-cylinder engine in 1919, and 
finally a 9-cylinder 200-hp. radial in 1921, the J—-1 (pl. 14, fig. 1), sup- 
ported by an order for 200 engines from the U.S. Navy. In 1922 
this company was absorbed by the Wright Aeronautical Corpora- 
tion ?* and, with Navy support, the 9-cylinder engine was built in 
improved models known as the Wright J-8, J-4, and J-4b, all with 
essentially the Lawrance cylinder design. During the same period, 
1918-1926, S. D. Heron had left England and had been employed by 
the U.S. Army Air Service at McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio, to assist 
in the development of large radial engines.* Heron was a devoted 
worker and an able engineer, and by 1921 had developed successful 
air-cooled cylinders of nearly 6 inches bore, based on his work with 
Gibson plus his own improvements worked out at McCook Field. 

Against considerable resistance from their chief engineers, who at 
the time were thoroughly committed to watercooling, the Army con- 
tracted for sample radial engines from both Curtiss and Wright 
Aeronautical. Such engines were built, but in very small numbers. 

The Lawrance and Heron developments were brought together 
when Heron joined Wright Aeronautical Corporation in 1926, the 

18 See previous remarks regarding the Hispano-Suiza engine. 


14 The author was in charge of the engine laboratory at McCook Field, and was closely 
associated with Heron and his work during this period. 


270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


first result being the Wright J—5, essentially a Lawrance-type engine 
with Heron-type cylinders (pl. 14, fig. 2). This was a successful en- 
gine of 200-hp. class as evidenced by its use in Lindbergh’s New York- 
Paris flight, May 20-21, 1927, and in a number of early transport 
airplanes. 

Although Wright Aeronautical had been experimenting with air- 
cooled radial engines having cylinders larger than those of the J—5, 
whose bore was 4.5 inches, the first really successful engine in this 
class was the Pratt and Whitney 425-hp. “Wasp” of 1927. 

The merger with Lawrance having involved a management change, 
in the summer of 1925 a considerable fraction of the Wright Aero- 
nautical staff, including the chief engineer, George J. Mead, resigned 
from Wright to form Pratt and Whitney Aircraft, of Hartford, Conn. 
In a time almost as short as that for the Liberty engine, this new group 
produced the “Wasp” shown in plate 15, figure 1, the first large radial 
air-cooled engine of what may be called “modern” design. The nota- 
ble features of this engine included: 

Rating, 425 hp. at 1,800 r.p.m. 

9 cylinders, 5.75 x 5.75 inches. 

Built-in geared centrifugal supercharger. 

Fully enclosed valve gear with rocker boxes integral with cylinder head 
(pl. 15, fig. 1). 

Forged and machined crankcase (pl. 15, fig. 2). 

Domed-head, 2-valve cylinders, basically of the Heron design. 

Divided crankpin with one-piece master rod (pl. 15, fig. 3). 


While most of these features had appeared previously, their com- 
bination here was an eminently rational and successful one, and set a 
high standard for future radial-engine development. 

The only important basic improvements to be developed later for 
radial air-cooled engines were : 

1. The forged and machined aluminum cylinder head, pioneered by 
Bristol in England and Wright Aeronautical in the U.S.A. (Gnome 
had pioneered the forged and machined steel head for air-cooled 
engines). 

2. The automatically lubricated (by engine oil) valve gear, pio- 
neered by Pratt and Whitney in 1932 (first used in water-cooled aero 
engines by Hispano-Suiza, ca. 1914). 

3. The vibration-absorbing counterweight, introduced by Wright 
Aeronautical in 1935, which will be discussed later. 

4, Second-order balancing weights, to reduce vibration. 

The basic features of the “Wasp,” with the addition of the above 
improvements, are used in all modern large air-cooled radial engines. 
This type, of course, has dominated transport and much of military 
aviation until the recent advent of the jet and turbine engine. Plate 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR Dr 


16 and plate 17, figure 2, show the outstanding modern air-cooled ra- 
dial engines which are basically descendants of the Gnome, but with 
greatly improved detail design, including the composite steel and 
aluminum cylinder construction pioneered by Gibson, Heron, and 
Lawrance. Figure 12 shows the evolution of Wright cylinders from 
1920 to about 1930, and plate 17, figure 1, shows the cylinder used on the 
Wright turbo-compound engine, the most highly developed air-cooled 
radial. 

The following comparison illustrates the development of air-cooled 
engines from 1922 to the present time. 


1922 1955 

J Daa b oY: ede Rar AMMO BANS, Eee Soa pee ra SNe Re eee RS Bee os ee Lawrance Wright 
J-1 Turbo- 

Compound 

Maximumshorsepower ---o= = == sae oe eee eee 200 3, 700 
ED sae eee cpa See PS ee Bs ee oe 1, 800 2, 900 
Brake mean effective pressure, psi________-_-_-__- 112 302 
Mean: pistonyspeedsft./minis © = 22s saa ae 1, 650 3, 070 
Horsepower per sq. in. piston area__________-___-- 1.4 7.0 
Weight perenp a, ORy4 ssa. See ee eee eens 2. 38 0. 96 


As in the case of liquid-cooled engines, developments in fuels, super- 
charging, and cooling systems were important factors in this develop- 
ment, as well as great improvements in detail design. 

The subject of the air-cooled engine should not be left without men- 
tion of the remarkable development of the light-airplane engine begin- 
ning with the small British 4-cylinder vertical air-cooled “Cirrus” 
(1927) followed 5 years later by the 4-cylinder Continental A-40 
which set the modern style of horizontal-opposed light-airplane en- 
gines. These have developed to a remarkable degree of reliability and 
(unsupercharged) performance. Recently, a license to build Con- 
tinental engines of this type was acquired by Rolls-Royce, a real 
compliment to the high quality of these small powerplants. Plate 18, 
figure 1, shows the Continental A-65 4-cylinder engine brought out in 
1938. This engine used composite steel and cast-aluminum cylinders, 
which are now standard for engines of this category. 

Another category of air-cooled engines comprises those built for 
installation in model airplanes. These are usually single-cylinder 
engines of less than 1 inch bore and stroke (pl. 18, fig. 2). Some are 
rated up to 1 hp. at speeds of 15,000 r.p.m. or more. Originating in 
the U.S. about 1930, these engines were produced in very large quan- 
tities between 1945 and 1950. It is claimed that there were 180 manu- 
facturers of model engines in the U.S. during this period. Their 
total production, in number of engines, probably exceeded that of all 
other aircraft engines combined. The popularity of engine-powered 
model airplanes fell off about 1950, and fewer are now manufactured. 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


272 


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AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 273 


AIR VS. LIQUID COOLING 


The classic and often emotionally charged argument over the rela- 
tive merits of liquid and air cooling started with the early days of fly- 
ing (“Antoinette” vs. “Gnome,” for example) and persisted to the end 
of World War II, when the advent of jets and turbo-props diverted 
attention elsewhere. 

As we have seen, water cooling was dominant through World War 
I, except for the rotaries, which were obsolescent at its end. European 
military aviation remained generally committed to water cooling up 
to and through World War II, although some air-cooled engines were 
used in bombers and transports, and there was one excellent air-cooled 
European fighter, the Focke-Wulf with the B.M.W. two-row radial, 
developed from a Pratt and Whitney license. Japanese fighter air- 
craft also used air-cooled radials copied from Wright and Pratt and 
Whitney designs. Their other military aircraft used these and copies 
of the German Daimler-Benz liquid-cooled engine. 

In the United States, the Navy made a commitment to air cooling 
in 1921 which has held for reciprocating engines to this day. It was 
chiefly Navy support that underwrote early Pratt and Whitney and 
Wright air-cooled developments. The reason for this choice lay in the 
limitations of the airplane carrier, which required short takeoff, com- 
pact size, and minimum maintenance. Commander Bruce Leighton 
was probably the one most responsible for this well-considered 
decision. 

The most intense controversy on this subject took place in the U.S. 
Army Air Service, whose support for air-cooled engine development 
in the 1920’s and 1930’s was never as enthusiastic as that of the Navy, 
because of the assumed “larger frontal area” and greater “drag” of 
air-cooled radials, especially for use in fighter airplanes. That cool- 
ing drag was a real problem in the early days is illustrated by plate 
19, figure 1, and plate 20, figure 1, showing typical installations of the 
1920's, 

The “drag” of air-cooled engines was greatly reduced by the advent 
of the very effective cowling and cylinder baffling developed by the 
(U.S.) N.A.C.A. starting m 1929 (pl. 20, fig. 2, and text fig. 18). 
Further reductions in cooling drag were achieved by increased cooling- 
fin area, which reduced the air velocity required for cooling (com- 
pare fig. 12 with pl. 17, fig. 1). These developments put the air-cooled 
radial virtually on a par with the water-cooled engines with regard 
to cooling drag, until the advent of high-temperature liquid cooling 
with glycol-water mixtures. Plate 19, figure 2, shows modern cowling 
for the air-cooled radial engine. 

The use of high-boiling-point liquids (mixtures of water and ethyl- 
ene glycol) for engines formerly water-cooled was introduced in 1932 


274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


fosition of 
\ flap” when 
Me de! clos ed 
ay 


fuselage or 
nacelle 


Propeller 


Section A-A 
showing shape 
of baffles 


Ficure 13.—Cooling-air flow in tractor installation of a cowled radial engine. Only the 
upper half of the installation is shown. 


by Curtiss (pl. 21, fig. 1) and used soon afterward by Allison and 
Rolls-Royce. This change, which allowed operation of the coolant at 
250° F’., reduced the radiator area required by about 50 percent. This 
improvement, together with better radiator design and radiator cowl- 
ing (pl. 21, fig. 2), brought the drag of liquid-cooled engines well be- 
low that of air-cooled radials of equal power. Their installed weight, 
which had been greater than that of air-cooled radials, also came down 
to more comparable figures. Schlaifer gives the weight per horse- 
power of the best liquid-cooled fighter installation as 80 percent more 
at sea level and about the same at 25,000 ft.° as a comparable air- 
cooled installation. 

The fact that the “Battle of Britain” was won by liquid-cooled 
engines (the Rolls-Royce “Merlin”) gave a great impetus to the Army 
prejudice in favor of water-cooled fighters.* Actually, both types 
were used, and it was found that the air-cooled fighter was better at 
low altitude both because of its lighter specific weight and its lesser 
vulnerability to small-arms fire. 


14° Owing to the fact that radiator area can be designed large enough for any altitude, 
while fin area on an air-cooled cylinder has a practical limit, and power of air-cooled 
engines therefore is limited by cooling, above a certain altitude. 

16 QOne high officer answered the author’s question, “Does the Army want liquid-cooled 
fighters even if better fighters can be built around air-cooled engines?” in the affirmative! 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 275 


The elimination of the weight, complication, and maintenance of 
liquid-cooling systems has been the chief consideration in the use of air 
cooling for air-transport purposes since about 1932. With few ex- 
ceptions, commercial air transports all over the world have used air- 
cooled engines, mostly of American manufacture, from the early begin- 
nings in the late 1920’s up to the present day. There are still (1962) 
many more nonmilitary airplanes powered by air-cooled piston engines 
than all other types combined, including jets and gas-turbines. Pri- 
vately owned aircraft, with few exceptions, use air-cooled piston 
engines. 

EXHAUST VALVES 

As previously mentioned, the poppet exhaust valve has always been 
a critical item because it is subjected to such high gas temperature 
(up to 3000° F.) and high gas velocity, with small areas available 
(stem and seat only) for heat dissipation to the coolant. One method 
of attack on this problem has been through the use of improved ma- 
terials. By 1918 the ordinary steels used at first had given way to 
“high-speed” tool steel which has a high degree of strength at elevated 
temperatures. Tungsten is the chief alloying element in such steel. 
Unfortunately, this type of steel burns readily at the seat of a leaking 
valve. Since about 1920 austenitic (high chromium) steels have been 
successfully used in various forms, with several other alloying ele- 
ments, including principally silicon, nickel, and cobalt. A further 
important improvement, about 1934, was the use of “Stellite” facing 
on both valves and seats. This development occurred jointly in the 
U.S. and abroad (chiefly in Britain), with the manufacturers of 
poppet valves playing an important part. 

Another, and very important, contribution to exhaust-valve life and 
reliability has been the use of a liquid partially filling a hollow valve, 
for the purpose of improving the conductivity of heat from head to 
stem. Heron and Gibson tried water in 1913, but the high steam pres- 
sure exploded the valve stem. Mercury was next tried, with more 
success, since its vapor pressure is lower. But mercury will not wet 
steel. A method of coating the internal valve surface with wettable 
material was developed by Midgeley and Kettering in 1917, and the 
Lawrance J—1 9-cylinder radial of 1921 (pl. 14, fig. 1), used mercury- 
filled valves with some success, although with trouble from mercury 
leakage. 

When S. D. Heron came to McCook Field in 1919, he continued his 
work on valve coolants and soon used successfully the mixture of 
sodium and potassium nitrate previously used for heat treating of 
steel. This material has the necessary low vapor pressure, but its 
density is low. Continuing his work, by 1928 Heron had developed 
liquid sodium as the internal coolant, which is now universally used 
in aircraft exhaust valves and in many nonaircraft engines. 


276 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Ficure 14.—Evolution of Wright Cyclone engine valves. From Journal of S.A.E., Colwell, 
1940. 


Figure 14 shows a sequence of development in exhaust-valve 
design. Much ingenuity has been displayed by valve manufacturers 
in fabricating the modern hollow-head-with-hollow-stem valve, and 
filling it (partially) with metallic sodium. 

The automatic lubrication of valves by engine oil, introduced to 
liquid-cooled engines by Hispano-Suiza (1914) and to air-cooled en- 
gines by Pratt and Whitney (1932) has also been an important con- 
tribution to the present long life and reliability of aircraft-engine 
valves. 

Another method of attack on the valve-cooling problem was to elim- 
inate the poppet valve in favor of some form of sliding valve. This 
method has not met with success, with one exception. The Bristol 
Aeroplane Co. developed its single-sleeve-valve air-cooled radial in 
the 1930’s to the point where it was used to a limited extent in 
World War II. 


FUELS AND DETONATION 


One of the most important developments in aircraft propulsion has 
been the improvement in, and control of, aviation gasoline. This 
development is a long and complex story, and only a bare outline can 
be given here. 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR hike 


For successful use in spark-ignition engines, gasoline must have the 
proper volatility range, and the highest possible resistance to “knock,” 
or “detonation.” Control of volatility seems never to have been a 
serious problem, and development work in aircraft fuels has centered 
around increasing their antiknock value. 

Earliest work on the relation of detonation to fuel composition 
seems to have been by Ricardo in England and by Kettering in the 
U.S.A. Intensive work was started by Midgeley and Boyd, under 
Kettering’s direction, in Dayton, Ohio, in 1917. In the course of this 
work it was discovered that some substances, notably iodine, had a 
strong antiknock effect even in very small concentrations. This dis- 
covery led to an intensive search for powerful antiknock agents. 

Midgeley’s work was done on a tiny single-cylinder engine in an 
old Dayton kitchen, and when a promising substance was found there, 
he would bring it to the McCook Field engine laboratory for test in 
an aircraft engine. I was closely associated with his work during 
my administration of that laboratory, 1919-1923. By 1920 toluene 
and its related compounds appeared promising as an additive and 
were used in flight tests, notably by Schroeder for the 1920 altitude 
record with a turbo-supercharged Liberty engine. By 1921 the ex- 
treme antiknock effects of metallo-organic compounds was evident, 
and in 1922 Midgeley brought the first samples of tetraethyl lead, 
Pb(C.Hs)., to McCook field for tests in a full-scale aircraft engine. 
This important substance was accepted for use in aviation gasoline by 
the U.S. Navy in 1926 and by the Army in 1933, and it is now uni- 
versally accepted as an additive for gasoline. 

Another important contribution was Edgar’s work, about 1926, in 
determining the effect. of fuel structure on antiknock quality and, 
specifically, discovering the high antiknock properties of the 
branched-chain parafins such as iso-octane. 

Specifications and laboratory tests for antiknock quality of aviation 
fuels were sponsored by the Cooperative Fuel Research Committee in 
1933, and led to good control of this quality in U.S. aviation fuels soon 
after. S. D. Heron was also an important contributor to this result. 
The “performance number” of a fuel, used from about 1935, is the 
ratio of knock-limited indicated mean effective pressure (klimep) 
with that fuel, to the klimep in the same engine using iso-octane. Fig- 
ure 15 shows the improvement of klimep vs. time, achieved both by 
tetraethyl lead and the control of fuel composition. 

The powerful effect of water or water-alcohol injection is also illus- 
trated in figure 15. This development was promoted chiefly by the 
N.A.C.A. during the last war, and by 1946 water-alcohol injection was 
generally used for takeoff by both military and transport airplanes 
The high consumption of the auxiliary fluid (about 50 percent of the 
fuel flow) limits its use to the takeoff period and to engines with suffi- 


278 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Ai wart 
ALCOHOL IWS, 


7s 


E 


So x aes ES 
4 z e 
w 2 A 
c 4 £ Plies iivel 
125 ri e 
wo . 
ut 100 ° 3 100-OCTAWE [Gn ee 
: aie = 
£75 g 1 
Q 
w 50 ; 
Y 7, 
IQs 1920 1925 1930 935 1940 1945 1959 


Figure 15.—Aviation fuel performance chart. 


cient supercharging at sea level to take advantage of the increased 
knock limit. 
VIBRATION CONTROL 


Powerplant vibration presents two kinds of problems in aircraft. 
One is “external” vibration, or vibration of the powerplant with rela- 
tion to the airplane itself. The other is “internal” vibration, that 
is, vibration of parts within the powerplant. Considerable external 
vibration from engine and propeller was accepted as normal in the 
early days of aviation. In my experience it became of concern first 
in 1920, with the Hispano-Suiza V-8 300-hp. engine, a larger version 
of the original model. This engine, like all V—8’s up to that time, had 
cranks at 180 degrees, which gave a strong second-order horizontal 
vibration. It also had an unusually large torque variation, due to 
its large cylinders and high mean effective pressure. Pilots com- 
plained of discomfort with this engine. 

About 1921 the Wright Aeronautical Corporation, which built the 
300-hp. Hispano engine, built one with the cranks at 90 degrees 
which eliminated the horizontal shake. Vibration-measurement at 
that time was in a crude state, and the improvement obtained was 
demonstrated on the test stand by the fact that, with the 90-degree 
shaft, a penny would remain on the crankcase, while with the 180- 
degree shaft the penny would quickly bounce off. 

The next test was to mount two engines in similar Thomas-Morse 
fighters, one with the 180-degree shaft and one with the 90-degree 
shaft. A number of engineers ran these engines on the ground, and 
a number of pilots flew them. The consensus was that there was 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 279 


no noticeable difference in vibration of the airplane. Probably, the 
engine torque variation was so large in both cases as to obscure the 
improvement in sidewise shake. In any case, the 90-degree shaft was 
not approved, although it soon became standard on V-8 engines for 
nonaircraft use. Such was the state of vibration analysis in 1922! 

Reduction of engine vibration became essential in the early days 
of commercial aviation when passenger comfort became important. 
In this case, radial engines were used. Draper and Bentley made a 
serious study of radial-engine shaking forces and moments in 1937-38. 
One solution lay in flexible engine mounts to reduce the transmis- 
sion of vibration to the airplane structure. This involved a problem 
of “droop” due to gravity when the engine was mounted at its rear, 
as in the case of radials. There was also the problem of decoupling 
the several modes of vibration in order to avoid numerous critical 
speeds. This problem was solved by the mount patented by E. S. 
Taylor and K. Browne, which has been widely used since. The prin- 
ciple employed is an arrangement of links which have the effect of 
supporting the engine at its center of gravity, although the actual 
flexible mounts are at the rear. Koppen has used very flexible de- 
coupled engine mounts in light airplanes with good effect since about 
1939. Another contribution to reduction of engine vibration was 
the adoption by Wright and Pratt and Whitney, in the late 1930’s, of 
second-order rotating weights to balance the second-order shaking 
component characteristic of the master-rod system in radial engines. 

Internal vibration of reciprocating engines has been most serious 
in the propeller-crankshaft system. This type of vibration originates 
chiefly from the torque variation inherent in piston engines and may 
be destructive when resonance is involved. 

The Liberty engine of 1917 had a torsional resonant speed of 1900 
r.p.m. with the usual propeller. Its rating at 1700 r.p.m. was close 
enough to cause accessory-gear breakage as previously mentioned. 

Serious trouble with torsional vibration was experienced in the 
1920’s in dirigible airships using long shafts between engine and 
propeller. This type of vibration also held back the development of 
metal propellers, discussed later in this article. 

A very critical case of crankshaft-propeller vibration appeared 
with the introduction of the geared version of the Wright 9-cylinder 
1820-cubic inch radial engine in 1935. This problem was quickly 
and brilliantly solved by E. S. Taylor and R. Chilton, who developed 
the pendulous counter-weight, which effectively counteracted the 
principal torque components of the engine and prevented breakages 
in the drive system. The basic concept was by E. S. Taylor, for 
which he received the Reed Award in 1936. Chilton contributed the 


280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


mechanical embodiment. This type of device has been used in large 
radial aircraft engines ever since, and also in many nonaircraft power- 
plants. After testing the first engines so equipped, it was found that 
these inventions had been anticipated in France, but the credit for 
practical application should go to Taylor and Chilton. 

Another important torsional vibration problem was that of the gear- 
driven supercharger rotor. Various types of flexible coupling have 
been used in the gear train to avoid serious trouble. 

Further consideration of vibration problems is included under the 
heading “Propellers.” 


ALTITUDE PERFORMANCE AND SUPERCHARGERS 


The fact that reduced air density, as altitude increases, reduces en- 
gine power must have been realized before it became obvious in 1909, 
when airplanes began to try for high altitude flight. The advantage 
of altitude in military work was very apparent in World War I. 

The only attempt at improved altitude performance used in World 
War I was embodied in the German BMW and Maybach engines, 
which were designed to be partly throttled near sea level, the throttle 
to be opened only above about 5,000 feet. Both engines were designed 
to be lighter in weight than would have been required for full-throttle 
operation at sea level, and the BMW also had higher compression ratios 
than could be used with full throttle at sea level without detonation. 
In these cases the advantage in altitude performance over an engine 
capable of full-throttle operation at sea level was quite small. 

Measurement of engine performance at altitude was first seriously 
undertaken when the U.S. Bureau of Standards completed its altitude 
test chamber in 1918. Subsequently a considerable literature on this 
subject developed. 

The Swiss engineer Buchi suggested the turbo supercharger for 
aircraft in 1914. This type was then developed in France by Rateau, 
and experimental models were tested during the war, but none was 
put into service use. Laboratory work on gear-driven superchargers 
was conducted during the war by the R.A.F. at Farnborough, Eng- 
land. Intensive development of supercharging equipment began both 
in England and the U.S.A. in 1918. 

Many types of compressors have been considered, but only one, the 
centrifugal type, ever got beyond the experimental stage. The Royal 
Aircraft Factory had Armstrong-Siddeley build a radial engine with 
built-in geared centrifugal supercharger in 1916, but the design was 
unsuccessful, probably because of torsional vibration in the drive sys- 
tem. Siddeley did not produce a successful geared supercharger 
until that used in 1926 in the “Jaguar.” 

Geared superchargers were built experimentally by Curtiss and 
Wright Aeronautical Corporation in 1925, but the first U.S. produc- 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 281 


VERTICAL 


HORIZONTAL 
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Perspective drawing of the new tso- 
stage two-speed supercharger of the 
Rolls-Royce Merlin “61” engine. 


The twin rotors are mounted on a FULL CEAR <a 


single shaft. Change of speed of CLUTCH & CEAR 
the supercharger drive is effected DRIVE Cann 
by a hydraulic pump. PUMP 


REDUCING VALVE 


Ficure 16.—Two-stage two-speed geared supercharger with intercooler and aftercooler of 
the Rolls-Royce “Merlin 61” engine of 1942, the first of its kind to be used in service. 
(Courtesy “Flight” magazine.) 


tion engine to be so equipped was the Pratt and Whitney “Wasp” 
of 1927, a year later than the “Jaguar.” Since 1930 all military 
and transport engines have been equipped with geared centrifugal 
superchargers, and in all cases some kind of flexible coupling has been 
introduced in the gear train to prevent critical torsional vibration. 
The culmination of the geared centrifugal type is represented by the 
two-stage, two-speed supercharger of the Rolls-Royce “Merlin” 
(fig. 16). 

In 1918 the Engineering Division of the Army Air Service con- 
tracted with the General Electric Company to develop turbo super- 
chargers of the Rateau type. The man in charge of this development 
for G.E. was Dr. Sanford A. Moss, who remained in this position 
for over 20 years. Experimental models applied to the Liberty engine 
were tested at the top of Pikes Peak in 1918, and in flight at McCook 
Field in 1919. 

Plate 22, figures 1 and 2, show an installation of this early type of 
General Electric supercharger in the Liberty-equipped Le Pere air- 
plane. This equipment held the world’s altitude record for the years 


282 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


1920, 1921, and 1922. Supercharging was hard on an engine not 
originally designed for it, and I remember when Major Schroeder, 
who made the 1920 record, returned from a flight with the Liberty 
engine and its nacelle cut in two by a failed connecting rod at the 
third crank from the front end. The only elements holding the four 
forward cylinders and the propeller in place were the crankshaft and 
the two camshaft housings. In spite of this condition, and the loss 
of all its cooling water, the Liberty engine was still running! 

A serious difficulty with the supercharger shown in plate 22, figure 
1, was the failure of turbine blades due to inadequate cooling of the 
turbine. To overcome this difficulty, I suggested placement of the 
turbine wheel on the nacelle surface, using an overhung turbine wheel 
as in plate 23, figure 1. This suggestion was adopted and used on all 
subsequent installations of turbo superchargers in the U.S.A. includ- 
ing the Martin biplane bombers *" of the 1920’s and the B-17 and B-24 
bombers. The Boeing Stratocruiser and the B-29 and B-50 bombers 
used essentially the same system, although in these airplanes the tur- 
bine was located inside the nacelle and the overhung wheel was cooled 
by air piped in from outside. Beginning with the B-17 the engines 
were also equipped with gear-driven superchargers acting as the 
second stage. 

The only service use of turbo superchargers on foreign-built air- 
planes appears to be that of the German Junkers Diesel engine in a 
World War II high-altitude photographic airplane. It is remarkable 
that this very effective device received so little development outside 
of the U.S.A. 

In 1927 the official world’s altitude record was taken by Lieutenant 
Champion, U.S.N., with a Pratt and Whitney “Wasp” equipped with 
an N.A.C.A. Roots-type supercharger acting as first stage to the 
engine’s own geared centrifugal equipment (pl. 23, fig. 2). This is 
the only important use of a noncentrifugal supercharger in aircraft. 

Aftercoolers,'’ that is, devices to cool the air after leaving the super- 
charger, have been generally used with turbo superchargers, and with 
two-stage geared types. Such coolers are shown in plate 22, figure 1, 
and plate 23, figure 1. The “Merlin” engine (fig. 16) used a water- 
cooled aftercooler with its own separate radiator and circulation 
system. 

The culmination of the supercharger art is represented by the 
Wright Turbo-compound R-8350 engine shown in plate 17, figure 2. 
This engine, introduced about 1947, has three exhaust-driven turbines 
geared into the power system, as well as a two-speed centrifugal 
geared supercharger. In normal operation the turbines deliver more 


147A squadron of Martin bombers was the first combat group ever equipped with turbo 
superchargers (1923-24). 
18 When the cooler is used between stages of supercharging, it is called an “intercooler.” 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 283 


power than is required by the supercharger. This engine is standard 
on the DC-7 and “Super Constellation,” the last large piston-engined 
passenger-transport planes built in this country. 


PROPELLERS 


Gibbs-Smith credits the Chinese with first use of the air propeller, 
on toy helicopters. A helical screw is shown on a DaVinci helicopter 
drawing of about 1500, and screw propellers were used on dirigible 
balloons as early as 1784. 

The success of the Wright brothers was in no small degree due to 
the excellent performance of their two counter-rotating wooden pro- 
pellers, chain driven at 8/23 engine speed, or about 380 r.p.m. The 
Wright brothers encountered many difficulties with propeller design. 
Apparently they could get no useful data from marine engineers and 
had to develop their own theory. In developing this theory, they 
often argued each other into a reversal opinion, but finally arrived at 
a design which Caldwell says ran at near optimum ratio of forward 
speed to tip speed, and had an efficiency of about 0.70. 

The Wright propellers were of 3-ply laminated wood, very light 
in weight. It should, perhaps, have served as a warning to future 
propeller designers that the first fatal accident—the crash of Orville 
Wright and Lieutenant Selfridge in 1908, resulting in the death of 
Selfridge—was caused by a propeller failure. A broken blade set up 
sufficient vibration to cause the propeller to cut a rudder-bracing wire. 

Wooden propellers were universally used from the Wrights’ first 
flight until well after World War I. They were very reliable for 
the duty called for in that time, and were superseded only when the 
requirements for power and tip speed exceeded the limits within 
which a wooden propeller would safely operate. 

Materials superior to wood were actively sought after World War I. 
Frank Caldwell, head of the propeller section at McCook Field (1918- 
30) and later chief engineer at Hamilton Standard, was the chief 
agent in this field, and has given excellent accounts of propeller 
developments. Here there is space for only the briefest review. 

Micarta (canvas laminated with bakelite) was successfully used 
as a wood substitute by 1920. In 1921 Caldwell tested a steel-bladed 
propeller on his electric whirling machine to twice its rated power. 
He then, very innocently, presented it to me for a “routine” test 
on a Hispano-Suiza 300-hp. engine. After a few minutes at rated 
power, a blade broke off, came through the control board between 
the heads of two operators, climbed a wooden staircase, and went 
through the roof. The engine was reduced to junk. 

The above incident was an early warning of the importance of 
vibration and fatigue in propeller operation. At my insistence, 
further “routine” propeller tests on experimental propellers were 

672-174-6320 


284 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


made in a specially constructed “bombproof” shelter. All metal 
propellers of that time (1921-22) failed, with murderous results to 
the engine (pl. 24, fig. 1). In one case the whole assembly of crank- 
shaft, rods, and pistons was pulled out and thrown 20 feet from what 
remained of the engine and stand. 

Subsequent metal propeller development involved careful attention 
to vibration problems. The Reed type, using a twisted aluminum 
plate as a base (pl. 24, fig. 2), was one of the early successful designs. 
Later, the manufacturers of metal propellers developed elaborate 
equipment and procedures for the measurement and suppression of 
blade vibration. 

The need for pitch control was realized in the 1920’s, and some early 
designs of controllable pitch propellers were tested, usually with dis- 
astrous results because of mechanical weaknesses. Variable pitch 
became essential with the advent of the high performance airplane, 
the DC-3 being an early example. To make a long story short, the 
following is the sequence of important propeller developments with 
approximate dates: 


AOD TLS eh Re ea eee ee Aluminum blades, fixed pitch (Reed). 
NODS oe ees See SAE Aluminum blades, adjustable pitch. 
AOSTS 28 see re a ee Hollow steel blades. 

LODO). re oe ee ee Controllable pitch, 2-position. 

LOS Fy eulee eee eee ee ree Automatic, constant speed. 

1OSS2 22 Sees eae ee Feathering. 

OAR eta Se eee Le ee Reversible and feathering. 


Both hydraulic and electric pitch control were used until after the 
last war. Now hydraulic control and aluminum blades are standard 
on piston engines, with a few exceptions. Plate 25, figure 1, shows an 
example. 

REDUCTION GEARS 

The Wrights, with their chain drive, were evidently aware that the 
optimum speed for engines is not usually that for propellers. Even 
before the Wrights, most experimental airplanes (Stringfellow, 
Maxim, Langley) had belt- or gear-driven propellers, although the 
drive ratio for steam engines was usually up rather than down. 

Direct propeller drive, with the propeller mounted on the crank- 
shaft, is attractive for its simplicity and reliability, and was used by 
most of the early flyers after Wright and up to the start of World War 
I. An exception was the early Renault air-cooled V—8 (pl. 7, fig. 1), 
the propeller shaft of which was an extension of the camshaft (or vice- 
versa) and ran at half crankshaft speed—a ratio which has been 
widely used since. 

Other geared engines which appeared for use in World War I in- 
cluded the R.A.F. (copy of the Renault), the 8-cylinder-in-line Mer- 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 285 


<A 
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Figure 17.—Reduction gears of Renault Type 12 Kh engine. 


cedes, and the 220-hp. Hispano-Suiza. These were soon followed by 
the Rolls-Royce “Eagle” with planetary gears. By 1920, most large 
European engines were geared. 

The general use of gearing was much later in the United States. 
Actually, gearing was eliminated for the Curtiss D-12 in 1924 in order 
to save 25 pounds weight! 

By 1930 it was evident to all that large engines should be geared to 
allow of optimum performance. Pratt and Whitney used an internal 
gear in 1931, and both Wright Aeronautical and Pratt and Whitney 
adopted the Farman planetary gear (fig. 18) for use in the DC-3 in 
1933. From that time on, propeller reduction gears became an inte- 
gral part of all large airplane engines, planetary spur gears (pl. 25, 
fig. 2) being standard for radials, and plain two-element spur gears 
for Vee engines (fig. 17). 


286 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


4 
/ 


Yj 
ag EZILID 


SSS ek Ginsiiaitliy) 
ft IS 
N fe 


Ficure 18.—Farman planetary bevel gear. 


The plain spur gears used by the Rolls-Royce Merlin carried 2,200 
takeoff horsepower satisfactorily on a 2-inch face width, a remark- 
able achievement in gear design. 

SECONDARY PROBLEMS 


Only brief mention can be made here of the numerous secondary, 
though often very important, problems encountered and solved in the 
development of reciprocating aircraft engines, Among these should 
be mentioned the following: 

Starting—Hand starting by the propeller was standard before 
1920. Subsequent development included hand cranks, hand cranks 
with inertia flywheel, cartridge starters, air starters, and finally the 
present electric starter with storage battery. 

Spark plugs.—Ceramic plugs were generally used in the U.S.A. be- 
fore 1921. Both mica and ceramic plugs were used in Europe. From 
about 1921 to 1935 mica plugs were generally used. The development 
of new ceramic materials about 1935 caused a universal change to this 
material. 

Carburetion.—At the time of the Wright brothers’ first flight, little 
was known about carburetion, and various devices were used to intro- 
duce fuel to air. As mentioned earlier, the Wright brothers used 
gravity fuel feed from a small can to a heated surface in the inlet pipe. 
Manly used a large sheet-metal box filled with porous wooden blocks. 
These blocks were saturated with fuel, and the engine air was drawn 
past them, in the hope that a combustible mixture would result. The 
Antoinette engine apparently used a small pump to inject fuel into 
the air-inlet pipe. The carburetion system used for the Gnome rotary 
engine has already been described. AI] these systems required experi- 
mental adjustment, good for only one speed of the engine. 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 287 


Meanwhile, float-type carburetors were being developed for auto- 
mobile use, and these were used by most aircraft engines after the 
Gnome and Antoinette. The Wright brothers used float carburetors 
on their later engines. 

Float-type carburetors were generally used for aircraft engines up 
to about 1935. A floatless carburetor was introduced by Chandler- 
Groves in 1935, and the Stromberg floatless injection-type carburetor 
became operational about 1938. Since that time most military and 
transport engines have used floatless-type carburetors, many of the in- 
jection type. Light-plane engines have, generally, continued to use 
float-type carburetors, although injection systems are available for this 
type. 

Direct fuel injection.—Injection into the individual cylinders was 
used in gasoline engines for a short time on some Pratt and Whitney 
Wasps in 1931-32. This method was developed to service use in 
World War II in German military engines. It was adopted by 
Wright Aero Corporation for their R-3350 engine in 1944. 

Inlet-port injection Injection through nozzles located at each inlet 
port has been used to a limited extent in light-aircraft engines since 
about 1946. 

Stress measurement.—A very important contribution to improve- 
ment in the structural design of aircraft engines was made possible by 
the development of experimental stress analysis, which has been used 
by the major aircraft-engine manufacturers since about 1940. An im- 
portant contribution to this art was the development of “Stresscoat” 
by E. S. Taylor and Greer Ellis in 1938. This method of showing 
stress patterns by means of a brittle lacquer coating had been used by 
the Germans earlier but was not known in this country until the work 
of the above-mentioned persons. 

Miscellaneous.—Interesting historical developments have occurred 
in bearing materials, fuel systems, exhaust systems, control systems, 
fire extinguisher systems, and other elements, but space limitations 
prevent their consideration here. 


UNCONVENTIONAL ENGINES 


Hundreds of unconventional types of aircraft engine have been 
proposed, built, and tested. Among these may be mentioned: 

1. Numerous “barrel” or “revolver” type engines. In this type the 
cylinders are positioned around the crankshaft with their axes par- 
allel to it. Perhaps the best-known attempt was the “Almen” engine 
of 1921. None ever flew, as far as I know. 

2. The Fairchild “Caminez” engine (fig. 19) was a 4-cylinder radial 
with rollers in the pistons operating on a two-lobe cam, This engine 
received U.S. Department of Commerce No. 1 type certificate (June 


288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Figure 19.—Fairchild-Caminez engine, transverse section. ‘This was the only crankless 
reciprocating engine to reach the stage of official approval (U.S. Dept. of Commerce 
Approved type Certificate No. 1, June 1927). Later it was found to be impractical be- 
cause of severe torque variation. 


1927) but proved impractical because of excessive vibration due to 
torque variation. It was flown experimentally 1926-28. 

3. Sleeve-valve engines. The earliest development that I recall 
of a sleeve-valve aircraft engine was the Belgian “Minerva,” which 
appeared in the 1920’s, but never got beyond the experimental stage. 
This was a “Knight” type, or double-sleeve engine. The single sleeve, 
or “Burt-McCollum” type, was exploited chiefly in England and finally 
became operational in the Bristol line of aircraft radial engines, 
including the “Hercules” (pl. 26, fig. 1) and the “Centaurus.” These 
engines were used by the British Air Force during World War II, and 
are still being manufactured (1962). The Napier “Sabre,” also using 
the single-sleeve valve, was a 24-cylinder, liquid-cooled, two-crankshaft 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 289 


“H” type engine used in British fighters toward the end of World 
War II. The Rolls-Royce “Eagle” (not to be confused with the 12- 
cylinder Eagle of World War I) was a 24-cylinder “H” type engine 
with sleeve valves, very similar to the Napier “Sabre.” It was de- 
veloped after the war, too late to compete with the rapidly developing 
jet and turbine engines. 

4. Diesel aircraft engines. Diesel engines built by Maybach were 
used in Zeppelin and other rigid airships in the 1920’s. The first 
Diesel engine to power an airplane was a Packard air-cooled radial 
(pl. 27, fig. 1) designed by L. M. Woolson, who was killed in a crash 
(due entirely to bad weather) of an airplane powered with one of 
these engines before the development was completed. The Packard 
Diesel received CAA type certificate No. 43 on March 6, 1930. It set 
the world’s nonrefueling duration record for heavier-than-air craft on 
May 25-28, 1931. This record still stands. This engine and its 
designer and manufacturer were the recipient of the Robert J. Col- 
lier trophy for 1931. However, it never became an important airplane 
powerplant. The Guiberson air-cooled radial Diesel engine followed 
the Packard and received C.A.A. type certificate No. 79, but was never 
widely used. 

The most successful Diesel airplane engine was the Junkers “Jumo” 
6-cylinder opposed-piston water-cooled engine (pl. 27, fig. 2), the 
development of which was started about 1920. This engine was used 
to a limited extent in German military airplanes and in German air 
transport, in the late 1930’s. This engine also powered a high-alti- 
tude photographic reconnaissance airplane of World War II, but 
was obsolescent by that time. 

The Napier “Nomad” engine, a two-cycle Diesel compound power- 
plant was designed after World War II for exceptionally high 
specific output. It was made obsolete by the gas turbines before full 
development. 

Numerous other aircraft Diesels were built and test flown, mostly in 
Europe, but by the beginning of World War IT it was evident that 
the Diesel engine could not compete with the conventional spark- 
ignition type, and development was then terminated. The research 
work of the N.A.C.A. on Diesel engines for aircraft during the late 
1920’s and early 1930’s was outstanding. 

5. Two-cycle engines. The Junkers Diesel engine, previously 
mentioned, has been the only two-cycle aircraft engine to get beyond 
the experimental stage. A great many two-cycle gasoline aircraft 
engines have been proposed, and many were built experimentally. 
Most of these were of the crankcase-compressor type, now common 
in outboard marine engines. The attraction of this type of engine 
lies in its mechanical simplicity and low cost, but it has serious 


290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


drawbacks for aircraft use, principal among which are its high 
fuel consumption when used with a carburetor, and its tendency 
toward misfiring and stalling at light loads. Most of the proposals 
have been for small, low-cost engines, but so far none has been 
developed with the characteristics necessary for a truly successful 
aircraft engine. 

6. Finally there should be mentioned in this category two engines 
with unconventional cylinder arrangements. The first is the Napier 
“Lion” (pl. 26, fig. 2), the only W-type engine to see extensive service. 
This engine was liquid-cooled with its 12 cylinders arranged in 3 
rows of 4 each. Brought out in 1918, it was quite widely used in 
British military and commercial aircraft, and won the Schneider 
Trophy, a race for seaplanes in 1927. The second engine in this cate- 
gory is the Pratt and Whitney R-4360, 28-cylinder air-cooled 
radial with 4 rows of 7 cylinders each (pl. 16, fig. 2). This is the 
largest (but not the most powerful) successful piston-type aircraft 
engine ever to reach the service stage. It has been used in many 
large military aircraft and in the Boeing “Stratocruiser.” Besides 
the large number of cylinders and their unusual arrangement in 
“staggered” radial formation, unusual features include machined- 
all-over cylinder heads of unusual shape and an ingenious arrange- 
ment of the push-rod valve gear. This engine would undoubtedly 
have been more fully developed had it not been for the advent of jet 
engines and turbines. 


SUMMARY OF PISTON-ENGINE DEVELOPMENT 


Figure 20 shows performance parameters for piston aircraft engines 
since 1903. 

Brake mean effective pressure (bmep) is a measure of an engine’s 
ability to withstand high cylinder pressures and to produce power 
with a given speed and size. Starting at 62 pounds per square inch 
(Manly, 1902), it rose to 180 by 1925, which is near maximum for 
unsupercharged engines. With the introduction of supercharging 
and improved fuels in the 1930’s, bmep was increased to takeoff values 
up to 860 psi (Rolls-Royce “Merlin”) and 300 psi (U.S. large radial 
engines), where it has stopped since the advent of jets and turbines. 

Mean piston speed (mps) at takeoff rose steadily from 750 ft./ 
min. in 1903 to a maximum of 3,000 ft./min. in 1935, where it has 
remained. 

Specific fuel consumption has improved from near 1 pound per 
horsepower-hour to current minimum values of less than 0.40. This 
gain has been achieved partly through improved design and partly 


19 Obviously, the sleeve-valve Napier Sabre and the Junkers Diesel also had unconven- 
tional cylinder arrangements, 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 291 


-A00 CET 
= 2/23/62. 
SS 
— 
Q) 
= 
300 


190 


brake mean effective pressure 


900 1910 1920) = 19501940 1450) = 1960 


Ficure 20.—Engine development curves. 


292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


because improved fuels have allowed higher compression ratios (from 
about 4.0 in 1903 to present values up to 8.0). 

Best weight per horsepower in 1903 was the Manly engine, at 2.6 
pounds. This value came down to 1 pound in 1935 and has gone 
slightly below that since (see table 1). 

One of the most remarkable improvements has been in reliability 
and reduced maintenance. ‘The very early aircraft engines were over- 
hauled after every flight. The approved overhaul period for the best 
modern transport engines is now as high as 2,600 hours. 

Further improvements in piston engines would have been made 
had it not been for the introduction of jets and turbines, which have 
virtually put an end to intensive development of the large piston en- 
gine. Jet engines are also under development for certain categories 
of small aircraft. 

PISTON-ENGINE FAMILY TREE 


Figure 21 shows the piston-engine family as it has developed, finally 
culminating in the Vee-12 liquid-cooled engines as represented by the 
Rolls-Royce and Packard “Merlin,” and the 18-cylinder air-cooled 
radials; and the Pratt and Whitney R-2800 and the Wright 3350, 
both of which remain in air-transport service, as do also the Pratt and 
Whitney R-1830 and Wright R-1820 (in the DC-3 airplane). There 
are also some Pratt Whitney 9-cylinder “Wasps” in service in me- 
dium-powered airplanes, especially in Canada, and a few remain in 
service in the old Ford trimotors dating from about 1980. 


TURBINE, JET, AND ROCKET ENGINES 


Figure 21 includes a family tree for rocket, turbo-jet, and turbo- 
propeller engines. The history of these developments is so recent and 
so well covered in the literature (particularly by Schlaifer and Gibbs- 
Smith) that no attempt will be made to cover it here. There could 
well be a paper of similar length, or even a whole volume, devoted to 
this important and revolutionary development in aircraft propulsion. 


NATIONAL CREDITS 


It is interesting to review the contributions of the various nations 
in the field of aircraft propulsion. Table 2 summarizes this subject. 
It is evident that the U.S.A. and France have been the principal con- 
tributors to early engine development, while England has made sig- 
nificant contributions in late piston and early turbine engines, and 
Germany was the first to fly rocket and jet engines. 


CONCLUSION 


If the art and science of aircraft propulsion develop as fast in the 
next 50 years as they have since the Wright brothers’ initial flight, 


1910 


IQs 


1920 


1925 


1930 


1940 


1945 


1950 


STEAM 


OOLED 
HENSON-STRI 
hd 
GIFFARD | Opposep fo} FAN 
(MAxIM) (fom Liekt PLANES) 
LANGLEY 
BESLER 
BALZER 
LANGLEY 
1505" 
a | iS 
CAST-)RON CYLG Cn ms FARweLt) R.E.P, 
GNOME = (esnauit- PELTERiE) 
CVRTISS 
HALL ScoTT 
Sense DETROIT ANZANLIGc«w 1910 
PAN HARD 2-Cy¥L 
ISOTTA 
MAY BAcH 
BENZ es 
ERCEDES, LE RHONE 
AUSTRO-DAIMER CLERGET 
CBERURSEL 
BEARDMORE SiEmieNe 
BENTLEY 
GVRO 
ETC. ETc. 
LAW RANCE 
2-cyvL 
DIESEL 
a 
JUNKERS 120 
MAN GLIDER ENGINES 
PACKARD 
AERONCA 2-CY¥L 
930 
GUIBERSON 
NEINEN TALA-20 {NACA Work) 
ONTINENTAL=A (MANY ExP.TYPE Ss) 
"RANK LIN, ETC. 
EIN GS 
abo ee 
JE PROPELLER 
SADIAL AXIAL 
| OHAIN 
| 1940 
‘ER JETS 
HITTLE) 
JUNKERS cos 
ROLLS, TRENT 
ROLLS-ROYCE 
ARM. SIDDELEY 
BRISTOL 
GEN. ELECTRIC 
TT G@WHiTwey WESTIWSHOUSE DE HAVILAND 
ANO~ SUIZA G.&. “TC-180, 190 NAPIER 1950 
OREN tan AZM, SIDDELEY Pe he 
DATES PRATT & WHITNEY 
eat RoLLs Royce 
> 
eas SOE SMALL (uU.5.) 
Lic (smaw) GEN. ELECT, 
PARE G.E.3-85 1960 ALLISON 
CE TA) 
TURBO-FAN — DIRECT-LIFT CExP) 
METRO.VICKERS ROLLS- Rovce 
pone ROvCE ARMST, WHITWORTH 1960 
ATT BWHITN . 
CEN. Erecrerey GEN. ELECTRIC 


(Faces page 292) 


, turbo-jot, and turbo- 

ats is so recent and 

Schiaifer anddi¢bbs- 

rove it here. ‘There could 
rolume, 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 293 


the following prophecy of Lester D. Gardner in Aviation, volume 1, 
No. 1, August 1916, will be as meaningful now as it was then: 


Now many of the most distinguished scientists in all countries are giving aero- 
nautics close and careful study. From the work of these men aeronautics will 
derive the information upon which progress, such as has never been thought pos- 
sible, will be achieved. 


Epiror’s Note.—The full bibliography that accompanied the manuscript of 
this article was too lengthy for inclusion here, but if possible it will be arranged 
to publish it elsewhere. 


1910 


is 


1920 


1925 


\930 


1935 


140 


1950 


GIFFARD” 


AIRCRAFT ENGINE FAMILY 
STEAM STON-_ SP, N 


LIQUID cooLeD 


Ficure 21.—The aircraft-engine family. 


AiR COOLED 


LINE 
HAENLEIN 1972 "(meme ewe) 7 BAG Ale 
LANGLEY SCHWARTZ etfs ~“) 
bu MONT. lege™ 
apts (vane 
WRICHT (RANGER 
CLemenT® (palaney 
(MANLY) MANLY % SCALE 
i ae eves, 
1 1305" 
i) 
| UTOINET TE Ke cunrias 8 Gone mews) we. 
\" EON. tha 
! ele tasg ve RENAULTrs MAB (eswaver~ pecreeie) 
| cLamnetr ANZANI FIAT vo = ANZANLGOn | 
' a a agin ae a 
eLDED STEEL weLoe 
we reiu pens vunoees aul, sve 
ni T SALMson 19/618) ror 
1 
LORRAINE ~! RAF v8 
pheey = SUIZA 
peu AWMINUM HEADS STEEL HEADS 
L RE Sa ABC’ WAS" LAWRANCE 
NABIER Mi BS mercury DIESEL 
*LION CAWRANCE 3-CYL 
CURTISS K-lz ae COSMOS JUPITEY Ps ae JUNKER: 4920 
PACKARD CURTISS C=12 LAWRANCE R. BRISTOL JUPITER cut ate GHAMAM GUDER EHEIMER 
CORTISS p-1z SIDDELEY AAeUAR Fonwiey Licensees 
WRIGHT "T* iz 
WRIGHT J-F BALL VERTICALS 
seaLL VERTICALS 
WRIGHT 7-4B 
CURTISS CONQUEROR B+Ww WASP 
R-R KESTREL WRic! [— PALL RADIALE 
eeeebeener Sa Di.cyPsy 
1820 CAT RNTA asco PACKARD. 
wrichr poipie  [Eruane PENA, Printers i 2 
Monet _ewgines at ay = | cvipensou 
i= CYLINDER R-Rovce * GNOME—RHONE pee ene O00 TAL tO RACA Wonk) 
he coves RE ie fen | {Rast cee) 
‘PsW R-1830 PRBGIE, wre, 
Ra BENE | GAS TURBINE 
ALLISON V-I7/0 BLM, 
mains fi=y 2 
SUNKERS WRIGHT | R-2600 
MITSUBISHE RADIAL AUAL 
VON OHAIN 
i 
P+w R-2800 nam kee 7h i740 
ai Power Tens 
PACKARD MERLIN BRISTOL HBRCULBS (sienve—vauve) JUNKERS oe 
MAPIER SABE D (H>TVPI 
facanea "eons pew 450 
ROLLS, TRENT 
WRIGHT TURBO-conpouwe 
D 
NOTES ear. re-T80, 979 1950 
ONLY SIGNIFICANT @NGIMES INCLUDED pte ld 
DATES BEFORE 19/0 ARE FoR PinsT SUCCESIPIN wLIGHT oes 
AFTER iio DATE 18 CEMERAL USE O€ TYPI-TEAT COMPLETION Fare mane (ve) 
Dares AND ORDA in OGyES , APPROWIMATE es Gn mune. 
OS eke ome ee Setar ime eka 
PARENTHESIS = DID Mey FLY 
CXTAVLOR rew.igez TURDO-FAM = DIRECT-LIFT CEKP) 
REACTION MOTORS ous neve 1960 
NORTH AMER. KAT Tuaretecrave 
i: 
(Faces page 292) 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


294 


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295 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 


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ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


296 


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297 


AIRCRAFT PROPULSION—TAYLOR 


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ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


298 


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Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 1 


2. Giffard airship, steam-engine powered. 


PRATER 


Taylor 


Smithsonian Report, 1962. 


steam engine, 1894, 


Maxim 


is 


Ay 


fae 

ee 

pe 
jd 


ut 


vat 


4 


ath 
* | bt 
AY 


ey Ye 


mit 


am boiler, 1894. 


xim ste 


2. Ma 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PEATE 3 


2. Langley gasoline engine used in one-quarter-size model aerodrome, 1901. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 4 


~ 


2. Charles Taylor and }4-size Wright 1903 engine made by him. 


PLATE 5 


, 1962.—Taylor 


Smithsonian Report 


‘Jopulf[AD Jo SuIMeVIp [eUOT{das ‘¢Q6] ‘auISua Jozjegq-Ajue 


IN- 


{ 


2 


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Jozjegq-A[ur] \-Aosue'T 


| 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor 


2. Antoinette engine, 8-cylinder, 55 hp. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 7 


1. Renault engine, V—8, 80 hp. 


2. Anzani 3-cylinder fan-type engine, 22 hp., 1909. 
J Yt 2 > I 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 8 


LS Aes j ¢ a 
$ 


. g yAckie at. = ye ae 
‘seas Ra SON ate) A le 
2. Curtiss JN-4 airplane with OX-5 engine. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 9 


{ 


J er’ 
ae 


1. Gnome engine, 1910, 7—cylinder rotary, 50 hp., 1910. 


2. Curtiss OX—5 engine, V—8, 95 hp., 1917. 


PEATE 10 


Taylor 


Smithsonian Report, 1962. 


"TJM POM “v's'a “dy OOF ‘922A JapulfAo-z] ‘oulsus Ayloqry °Z 


“T TUM PIZOM ‘purpsuy 


‘dy Q9¢ ‘90 JopulfAd-7] ‘outsua ,a[3e%y,, xAO0Y-sTJOY, *T 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 11 


1. Hispano-Suiza engine, V—8, 180 hp., oblique view, magneto end, 1915. 
& > > I ? ’ o 5) 


eS ge Sia a 


aoe) 


2. SPAD airplane, used by 27th Squadron, A.E.F., World War I. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PEATE 2 


Curtiss D-12 engine, first to fly more than 200 m.p.h., Detroit, 1922. 


Rolls-Royce Merlin XX, 1944. 1, Left magneto; 2, aftercooler; 3, control unit; 4, car- 
buretor air intake; 5, carburetor; 6, supercharger, first stage; 7, supercharger, second 
stage; 8, engine coolant pump; 9, aftercooler coolant pump. 


PEATE 13 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor 


‘Ios.1vyoiodns UdALIP-1v9s pue SlopulpAd peeY-Wnuluinye YAM aulsus 


[PIpel Yslig [Nfssvoons TSAL ‘CC61 ‘1ense 


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‘T 


Taylor PLATE 14 


Smithsonian Report, 1962. 


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“INU ISI OU, “FZ6] ‘oulsue [viper pspooo-i1e [-[ suviIMe’y ‘Ty 


PLATE 15 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor 


a(G “3 3X9} pur ‘T “By ‘6 ‘\d 
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SIU], “CASE M,, ADUUNYM W VWeIg jo iyeysyuvid poplald “¢ 


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odseay,, Aouiy AA 3 WeIg fo vsvoyuvsd winurlun]e posloy 7 


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-ovid pievpuvis ouredeq YOryM soinjvo} [eotuyIay Auvut possauoid 


dy “QIIAIOS [eloues Oqul o3 01 “dy OOF IDAO jo [ei pes jek) (eles) 


OTOL «ASEM, “AY S7p “AOUIIYM B VI 


I 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 16 


1. Pratt & Whitney R-2800, 18-cyl., 1946 (cutaway). 1, Injection carburetor; 2, super- 
charger rotor; 3, inlet valve; 4, rear cam drum; 5, center main bearing; 6, planetary 
reduction gear; 7, front cam drum; 8, front counterweight; 9, front master rod; 10, fuel 


nozzle; 11, supercharger drive gears. 


2. Pratt & Whitney R-4360, 28-cyl., 4-row air-cooled radial engine, 3350 hp., 1948, cutaway. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 17 


1. Forged cylinder for Wright 3350 engine, 1948. Forged and machined head, steel barrel 
with aluminum fins rolled in, sodium-cooled valves Stellite-faced, 100-plus square inches 
of fin area per square inch of piston area. (Courtesy Wright Aeronautical Corp.) 


2. Wright turbo-compound, 18-cyl., 2-row air-cooled radial engine, 3350 hp., 1946 (cutaway). 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 18 


“Super Cyclone.” 


2. Model airplane engine, 


1. Continental A-40, 4-cyl. horizontal opposed, 38 hp., 1931. 


PLATE 19 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor 


ev 


uO 


YJUISUI 


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I 


t 


Ie 


J 


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1s 


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T JUdTIND 


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le 


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“SI6I 
—]{°q UO sulsue Aqlaqry 10F JOVeIPeI JURTOOS [eRIUOIT oBIe'T *] 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 20 


1. Exposed radial engine on Ryan NYP airplane, Spirit of St. Louis, with Charles Lindbergh, 
after landing at Paris, 1927. 


2. Cowled radial engine on Lockheed Air Express, with Frank Hawks, 1929. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 21 


1. Comparison of radiator installations for water (left) and Ethylene Glycol cooling, on 
Curtiss Falcon airplanes, 1930. (Courtesy Curtiss-Wright Corp.) 


ie 4% 
eet 5 5 . 3 
Boa a : 
i ‘ si ee ey 
| 47 4658 a 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 22 


1. General Electric turbo-supercharger on Liberty engine, installed in LePere airplane 
which held the world altitude record for 1920, 1921, 1922. 


2. Night view of a turbo-supercharger in operation, the same installation as in fig. 1 above. 
The exhaust manifolds and the nozzle box are white hot from the high temperature of 
1500° F., and the turbine is surrounded by hot gases while operating at over 20,000 r.p.m. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PEATE 23 


=< 
x 


— ath 7 GATE NL 
DLLING ate = 


~_ BLOWER 
CASING 
\, 


RADIATOR 


1. Side type turbo-supercharger installation on Curtiss D-12 engine, 460 hp., in Curtiss 
Falcon airplane, 1931. (Courtesy Materiel Div., U.S. Air Force.) 


2. N.A.C.A. Roots type supercharger, coupled to Pratt & Whitney “Wasp” engine in a 
Wright Aero. Corp. “Apache” airplane. This installation broke the world altitude record 
in 1927. ‘This was the only successful displacement-type supercharger. A, Supercharger; 
B, air intake; C, delivery pipe through intercooler D; E, supercharger bypass. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 24 


1. Failure of metal propeller tested on Hispano-Suiza 300 hp. engine at McCook Field 


May 1924. Most similar failures caused more engine damage than is shown here. 


rh ee 


2. Curtiss-Reed twisted-metal propeller, 1925. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 25 


1. Hub of automatic reversible propeller, hydraulic type, 1949. (Courtesy Hamilton-Standard-Propellers.) 
A, Blade root; B, blade socket; C, holes for bearing-ball insertion; D, preloading screw; I, gear sector; F, splined 
ring, sector to blade root; G, operating gear, meshed with gear sectors; H, piston that turns operating gear; 
J, fixed cam; K, moving cam; L, oil passage to rear of piston; M, to front of piston; N, oil tube; O, stop to 
limit blade angle; P, stop adjusting screw thread; Q, servo piston for reversing blades; R, ring that retracts 
stop O for reversing; S, reverse stop ring. 


2. Modern planetary spur gear as used on radial engines. (Courtesy Wright Aeronautical Corp.) 1, Torque- 
meter arm; 2, bearing on propeller shaft; 3, spline for holding sun gear stationary; 4, propeller-shaft disc carry- 


ing pinions; 5, ring gear attached to crankshaft; 6, sun-gear spline; 7, sun gear (stationary); 8, pinions; 9, 
pinion shaft; 10, propeller shaft. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 26 


Sleeve Y 4 Air 
ShOWING | 
port closed <i 


Propeller § = 
reductron- = 
gear 
housing 


Prope/sler 
SHOT 


Sleeve showing port 
partly oper7 
Bristol “Hercules” sleeve-valve engine, 14-cy]., radial air-cooled, 1650 hp., 1948. 
sristol Aeroplane Co., Ltd.) 


il (Courtesy 


2. Napier “Lion” 12-cyl. ‘W’’-type liquid-cooled engine. The only example of this form 
ever widely used. Normal rating, 450 hp. A racing version of 800 hp. powered the 
winner of the Schneider Trophy for seaplane speed in 1927, the Supermarine S—5 which 

flew at 281.65 m.p.h. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Taylor PLATE 27 


Junkers diesel engine. 


2 . 


5 hp. 


22: 


510 pounds, 


Weight 


This example, first of its type to fly, is in 


ynal Air Museum. 


the Natic 


Packard diesel engine. 


il. 


Rocket Propulsion’ 


By Ratpu S. Cooper 


Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 
Los Alamos, New Mexico 


[With 1 plate] 


In Tuer exploration of space, propulsion—the means of getting 
there—has always been the crucial problem. Inspection of any of our 
space vehicles shows that the bulk (over 90 percent) of their volume 
and weight is devoted to the propulsion systems, mainly to the pro- 
pellant itself. The extent of space exploration in the future will 
depend primarily upon the sizes and efficiencies of the propulsion 
systems that will be developed. 

One might wonder whether large-scale space operations are eco- 
nomically feasible in terms of their apparently high energy require- 
ments. But in fact, the electrical energy used by a typical American 
household during 1 month is sufficient to put about 75 pounds into 
orbit about the earth. The same amount of energy is contained in 
only 6 gallons (50 pounds) of gasoline plus the oxygen (150 pounds) 
needed to burn it. Rockets, being far from 100 percent efficient in 
transferring the energy to the payload, require about 5 to 10 times as 
much as this, but still the requirements are not unreasonable. Fur- 
thermore, atomic nuclei represent a very compact, almost limitless, 
source of energy if we can find ways to utilize them efficiently. 


VELOCITY REQUIREMENTS 


Space travel is dynamic in the sense that velocities rather than 
positions are significant. The important effect of propulsion is to 
change the vehicle velocity, which then results in an appropriate 
change in position, and thus one usually expresses the propulsion 
requirements for various missions in terms of a velocity. For ex- 
ample, the velocity required for a low earth orbit is about 26,000 feet 
per second (or 18,000 miles per hour). In addition, one must lift 
the vehicle to some height and overcome certain gravitational and 

1 Reprinted by permission from Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists for March 1962. Copy- 


right 1962 by the Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, 935 East 60th Street, 
Chicago 37, Ill. 


Gi2—1(4——Ga———P 1 299 


300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


TasLe 1.—Mission velocity requirements 


Mission Velocity, ft./sec.* 
howrearth orbith22522 22 Sac et ee ee ea ae ee 30,000 
Earth escape 
Lunar hit Tee a A Be ne cane Os oe elena aan sae’ 
High earth orbit 
PUM AT HOT Lt we hele eee ee eye eae earl eee eS 45,000 
Mars, Venus probes 
TNE WUT VTL a GE ira ea a a ge pe eee a 50,000 
Lunar round trip [RINT fa TERE OO Oe 60,000 
Escape from solar system|{ 
Mars;: Venus round trip. = 22 os 5 04ers ee ee ee 60,000 to 90,000 


*Including losses. 


atmospheric losses (such as aerodynamic drag). These losses are 
frequently evaluated in terms of velocity and included in the mission 
requirement. Table 1 gives the approximate requirements for some 
missions of interest. A lunar round trip has only twice the velocity 
requirement of orbital missions, and interplanetary trips need only 
three times orbital velocity. However, this implies that the rockets 
must be respectively four and nine times as large as the orbital vehicles 
for the same payload and propulsion system. 


ROCKET PRINCIPLES 


Almost all types of rockets are based on the principle of action and 
reaction, and are similar in action to the recoil of a gun or to the mo- 
tion of a balloon which is rapidly losing its gas. The motion depends 
upon expelling some material (propellant), be it gas, solid, or charged 
particles, from the vehicle. Thus rockets carrying their own propel- 
lant are able to operate in a vacuum outside the atmosphere, just as 
a gun’s recoil is independent of the air about it. The velocity of the 
expellant with respect to the vehicle (called the exhaust velocity) is 
a measure of how effectively the propellant is used, and is comparable 
to the miles per gallon of an auto engine. The higher the exhaust 
velocity, the more effectively the propellant is being used, and al- 
though this requires more energy per unit mass of propellant, it is 
advantageous to have high exhaust velocity. Note that the original 
source of energy does not have to be in the ejected material, although 
this is true for chemically propelled rockets. In our earlier illustra- 
tions, the energy was stored in the gunpowder, not the lead projectile, 
and in the stretched rubber of the balloon as well as in the compressed 
gas. The initial gross weight of a rocket for a given payload depends 
exponentially upon the ratio of the mission velocity requirement and 
the exhaust velocity, making the results quite sensitive to these quan- 
tities. Since the mission velocities are relatively fixed, major reduc- 
tions of vehicle sizes for given payloads and missions can come only 
through increasing the exhaust velocity. 


ROCKET PROPULSION—COOPER 301 


The final mass includes the “dead” weight of the rocket (engines, 
tankage, unused propellant), as well as the payload. For some value 
of the ratio of velocity requirement to exhaust velocity, the dead 
weight required for the propulsion system leaves nothing remaining 
for the payload. This problem is circumvented by jettisoning used 
portions of the propulsion system, resulting in a number of stages. 
Usually the tankage and engines of a given stage are dropped when 
it has exhausted its propellant. Occasionally, as with the Atlas, 
which drops two of its engines, only portions are released. Staging 
permits arbitrary mission velocities to be attained, although the pay- 
loads may be small. One can find in general an optimum number 
of stages for a given mission and propulsion system. A high exhaust 
velocity allows one to use few stages, which results in a simpler, as 
well asa lighter, vehicle. 


CHEMICAL PROPULSION: SOLID PROPELLANTS 


Solid propellant rockets are the simplest, and were first historically. 
They were used in both China and Europe in the 13th century. Used 
sporadically for centuries, they became very popular in warfare about 
1800 (“the rockets’ red glare”) but were displaced by rifled artillery 
which was much more accurate. They continued in use in a number 
of minor applications as well as in warfare where much cheap, light- 
weight, but inaccurate firepower was acceptable. These “powder” 
rockets contained black powder and, later, smokeless powder grains 
loosely packed in their cases, necessitating short burning periods to 
keep the rockets from bursting because of the high temperature. 

During World War II, solid rockets using an asphalt base were 
developed for assisting airplane takeoffs (JATO units). This pro- 
pellant could be cast in a single piece but tended to crack or soften 
with temperature changes. The development of rubber-based pro- 
pellants after the war, combined with a design which kept the wall 
cool, opened the way for large solid rocket engines. The propellant 
is cast In place in a single mass with a central hole. The igniter in 
this hole ignites the inside surface, and the burning surface moves 
outward toward the case which remains cool until the propellant is 
almost completely burned. During the entire burning period, the 
case must be able to contain the high pressure (hundreds of pounds 
per square inch) which originates in the hot gases and is transmitted 
through the rubberlike propellant. Thus lightweight, high-strength 
materials are an important requirement for solid rockets, which tend 
to have high dead weights due to the case. The primary require- 
ment for nozzle materials is ability to withstand extremely high tem- 
peratures, and for this purpose, inserts of special refractory materials 
(e.g., graphite or tungsten) are often placed in the nozzle throat. 


302 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


cast propellant 


nozzle 


Ficure 1.—a, Typical modern solid propellant rocket; 5, recession of internal surface with 
time. 


The propellant itself must contain both a fuel and an oxidizer, 
which supplies the oxygen for the combustion process. Both can be 
contained in the same molecule (such as nitroglycerine-nitrocellulose) 
which forms a homogeneous “double base” propellant. For large 
motors, a rubberlike fuel with small, discrete particles of oxidizer 
dispersed throughout (“composite” propellant) is more appropriate, 
since large pieces can be cast in place with little danger of cracking 
or softening. The exhaust velocity for such materials is in the range 
of 7,000 to 8,000 feet per second, which is not as good as many liquid 
propellant combinations. 'To place a payload in orbit (at a mission 
velocity requirement of 30,000 feet per second), four solid propellant 
stages are required, and such a vehicle (Scout) is being developed 
by NASA. Although it puts less than 1 percent of its initial weight 
in orbit, it has many of the favorable characteristics of solids—sim- 
plicity, ease of handling and launching, relatively low cost, use of 
various stages for different missions—which commend it to scientific 
research work with small payloads (about 100 pounds). The ease of 
sealing up or clustering solid rocket motors has led to their considera- 
tion as large boosters. When used as first stages only, their lower 
performance and higher dead weight are less significant. In very 
large sizes, the propellant cost. (about $1 per pound) becomes signifi- 
cant, as does the difficulty of handling the large quantities of poten- 
tially explosive material. 


ROCKET PROPULSION—COOPER 303 


LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKETS 


In order to achieve higher exhaust velocities, it is necessary to use 
propellants with combustion products of low molecular weight, and 
these chemicals are generally liquid or gaseous at room temperatures. 
The gases (such as oxygen) would require too much volume and 
weight to be contained in that state, and thus are liquefied and kept 
at low (cryogenic) temperatures, in contrast to so-called “storable” 
propellants which are liquid at room temperatures. The first liquid 
propellant rocket engine was made about 1900, and in the 1920’s and 
1930’s work on them was carried out independently in Germany and 
in the United States. Little was done in this country except the work 
of Prof. Robert Goddard. 

A variety of applications and propellant combinations were evolved, 
including an antiaircraft missile using aniline as the fuel and nitric 
acid as the oxidizer, aircraft rocket engines utilizing alcohol and con- 
centrated hydrogen peroxide, and finally the V—2, an alcohol and liquid 
oxygen missile. Based on research of the 1930’s, its design was begun 
in 1938, and the first experimental flight was in 1942. Fortunately, 
internal political squabbles prevented its completion until late in the 
war. <A 3,000-mile range, two-stage missile was being designed for 
bombarding the American Continent. 

With the V-2, rocketry came of age. The Redstone missiles which 
were used for the U.S. suborbital manned flights were basically scaled- 
up versions of the V-2, as were early postwar Russian rockets. Long- 
range rockets with high explosive warheads are poor, expensive, 
inaccurate weapons, and probably would not have been developed 
except for the appearance of nuclear weapons, which gave the final 
impetus that led rapidly to space exploration capability. 

The variety of propellant combinations and types of liquid rocket 
engines rapidly multiplied, and so a brief discussion must select and 
over-simplify. The propulsion system includes tankage, propellants, 
pumps to bring propellants to the combustion chamber where they 


combustion chamber. 
cooling jacket injector 


nozzle 


| 


XH Meals 


oxidizer 


tanks (reduced) 


Ficure 2.—Simplified schematic of a typical liquid propellant rocket. 


304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


are burned, and a nozzle to expel the gases efficiently. The fluid pro- 
pellant can be used before combustion to cool the nozzle and combus- 
tion chamber, allowing longer periods of operation than uncooled 
solid rocket motors. The propellants may be forced into the engine 
under the pressure of gas in the tanks, but since this requires heavier 
tankage, for large rockets the propellant is pumped into the combus- 
tion chamber. Propellants enter through an “injector” which is simi- 
lar to a showerhead and serves to disperse and mix the propellants for 
efficient combustion. The pump, which requires considerable power 
in large engines, is usually powered by a gas turbine. The turbine 
may have its own gas generating system or utilize the propellant 
combustion products to supply its working fluid. The nozzle or en- 
tire engine can be swiveled to provide flight control for the vehicle. 

The dead weight of a large liquid rocket propulsion system is 5 to 
10 percent of the stage gross weight. The most commonly used pro- 
pellant combinations (for example, “RP,” a kerosenelike hydrocarbon, 
and oxygen) yield exhaust velocities of about 10,000 feet per second, 
while the use of liquid hydrogen asa fuel yields 14,000 feet per second, 
which is close to the maximum possible with chemical propulsion. 
Hydrogen has a very low boiling point and very low density, but its 
high performance has led to its choice as the fuel for future U.S. 
spacecraft. For liquid chemical propulsion, two or three stages are 
optimum for the earth orbit mission, and only a high energy fueled 
rocket with a light structure can place itself in orbit with only a 
single stage. The liquid propellants are less expensive than solid 
fuel, but the engines are more complicated and therefore more expen- 
sive to develop and build. At this time, it 1s not clear whether it will 
be economically feasible to reduce costs by recovering spent boosters 
for reuse. 

OTHER CHEMICAL SYSTEMS 


Naturally many proposals have been made for improving the per- 
formance of chemical systems by increasing their exhaust velocity, 
reducing dead weights or complexity. Specialized systems have been 
or will be developed for particular purposes, including monopropel- 
lants (single chemical liquids which decompose to give hot gas), 
hybrid solid-liquid rockets, engines with controllable thrust levels for 
landing. Relatively little improvement can be expected in the exhaust 
velocity, even with quite exotic propellant combinations, and it is this 
which primarily determines the performance. Many advances in 
simplicity, reliability, and structural weight can be expected, but a 
“breakthrough” in performance of chemical propulsion seems 
unlikely. 

One area where great improvement is possible is in “aerospace” 
vehicles, which use air-breathing engines (turbojets or ramjets) for 


ROCKET PROPULSION—COOPER 305 


a portion of the boost phase of flight. Since only the fuel need be 
carried in the vehicle, much greater efficiency is possible in the region 
up to 10,000 feet per second (7,000 miles per hour) which is one-third 
of orbital velocity. If sufficiently large, high-speed aircraft engines 
and airframes could be built, they could be used as flyable, recoverable 
boosters. In combination with rocket propulsion such “planes” 
might even be powered into orbit (the so-called “aerospace plane”), 
although this seems a very formidable task. 


NUCLEAR PROPULSION 


Nuclear energy can be a very compact type of almost limitless 
energy, and it is natural to seek some way of utilizing it for space 
propulsion. Any form of rocket will require some form of propellant 
to provide the thrust by being expelled from the vehicle, but with 
a separate energy supply, this could be used much more effectively 
(i.e., with higher exhaust velocity). There are many methods of 
nuclear propulsion, with efficiency and complexity generally increas- 
ing together. Emphasis here is on those which are closest to becom- 
ing a practical reality. 

The simplest and most straightforward way of using nuclear power 
in a rocket is to replace the liquid rocket combustion chamber with a 
nuclear reactor to supply heat to the propellant. The reactor is an 
array of solid nuclear fuel elements containing a fissionable fuel. 
When the reactor is brought to power, the heat generated in its fuel 
is transferred directly to the liquid propellant which is pumped 
through the reactor. The liquid is vaporized, heated to a very high 
temperature, and expelled through a nozzle to provide the thrust. 
Since the heat energy is supplied by a source independent of the pro- 
pellant (rather than by the propellant’s chemical energy), one has 
a freer choice of propellant. 

By choosing hydrogen, which has the lowest molecular weight, one 
can readily achieve exhaust velocities of 25,000 to 380,000 feet per 
second, about twice those of the best chemical propulsion system. 
This high performance is partially offset by the heavier dead weight 
(10 to 15 percent necessitated by the reactor and H, tankage) and by 
the complications arising from the nuclear radiation emanating from 
the reactor. Nevertheless, the high performance is invaluable for 
missions in the interplanetary class and useful for less ambitious ones. 

The nuclear reactor is basically a simple device and its chain reac- 
tion can be easily controlled through the movement of neutron- 
absorbing materials in the core (the fuel-bearing region) or the 
reflector (an outer layer of material which helps to keep the neutrons 
from escaping). Since there is no combustion, explosions are un- 
likely, and the nuclear engine should prove to be quite reliable from 


306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


| "bombs" O OOOO 


shock 
absorbers 


Ficure 3.—A nuclear explosive-propelled vehicle. The nuclear explosive heats the pro- 
pellant, which impinges on the ‘“‘pusher plate,” transferring momentum to the vehicle. 
A set of shock absorbers smooths out the force on the payload. 


that standpoint. To obtain the high thrust and high exhaust veloc- 
ity, the reactor must run at much higher power and temperature than 
do ordinary power reactors, but this is partially ameliorated by the 
short lifetime (about 10 minutes) required of rocket reactors. Each 
cubic foot of the reactor core must generate energy equivalent to the 
electricity used in many thousands of homes. Furthermore, it must 
do this while much of the reactor core, several cubic feet and several 
thousand pounds, is at the temperature of an electric light bulb fila- 
ment (2,000 to 3,000° C.)! This is far above the melting points of 
most common materials (such as steel, quartz sand, and most refrac- 
tory materials) and limits the choice of fuel elements to very few. 
Graphite (the most familiar), tungsten (used in lamp filaments), and 
a few metal carbides are about the only candidates. These must con- 
tain the fissionable material in a refractory form such as uranium 
oxide or carbide, which also have high melting points. 


ROCKET PROPULSION—COOPER 307 


The liquid hydrogen presents several difficulties. First, it is only 
one-fourteenth as dense as water, or most chemical] fuels) and thus 
requires relatively larger and heavier tankage. Secondly, it boils at 
— 423° F., which is close to absolute zero (—459° F.), and thus requires 
special insulating and handling techniques. It is cold enough not only 
to liquefy air, but to freeze it solid. Nevertheless, hydrogen is being 
used as a liquid fuel in the chemical rocket program, and techniques 
are being developed which should make its use routine. 

The nuclear radiation presents a number of problems, but these 
can be met with straightforward solutions in most cases. It has been 
shown that even with regular launchings in the atmosphere, the world- 
wide contamination would be negligible. Hazards for manned oper- 
ations must be minimized, but the problems may not be very 
different from those associated with chemical propulsion. Manned 
space flight may require extensive shielding against space radiation, 
which will be effective against the nuclear engine as well. 

The exhaust velocity for nuclear propulsion is about equal to the 
velocity increment needed to achieve earth orbit, and therefore a single 
nuclear stage is capable of going into orbit with considerable (about 
20 percent) payload. For difficult missions, only about half as many 
nuclear stages as chemical stages need be used, increasing reliability 
and decreasing launch costs. Finally, operation in space reduces 
many of the radiation problems and weight penalties associated with 
nuclear propulsion (lower thrust, lower weight engines can be used, 
hghter structured H, tanks employed). 


ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS 


Since the nuclear heat exchanger engine uses less than 0.1 percent 
of the fission energy available, we can see that only the beginnings 
of nuclear propulsion have been touched upon. The problem lies 
not in obtaining the energy as much as in dealing with the higher 
temperatures involved when this energy is transferred to the pro- 
pellant. An additional incentive for seeking temperatures above 
3,000° C. is the disassociation of the H, molecules into H atoms; 
disassociation occurs over a range of temperatures, which allows much 
greater storage of energy in the propellant at these temperatures. 
This could Jead to exhaust velocities of up to 50,000 feet per second. 
There has been hope of making gaseous core reactors, operating at up 
to 10,000° C., but the problem of separating the gaseous fuel from 
the propellant appears insurmountable if reasonable thrust is desired. 
One possibility for circumventing the material temperature problem 
is the use of small nuclear explosions in what might be called an 
“external combustion engine.” The nuclear explosive heats the pro- 
pellant behind the vehicle. The propellant impinges on a large, 


308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


nozzle 


Ficure 4.—Simplified schematic of a nuclear propulsion system. The Hy, propellant is 
pumped from the tank, cooling the nozzle and reactor reflector (R), before being heated 
in the core and expelled through the nozzle. 


heavy “pusher plate,” transferring momentum to the plate which is 
coupled to the rest of the vehicle through a shock-absorbing system. 
Space ships utilizing such a propulsion system could carry millions 
of pounds of payload throughout the solar system with quite small 
nuclear explosives. 

There are no workable methods of utilizing nuclear fusion (thermo- 
nuclear) energy for space propulsion presently in sight. 

There is another class of propulsion devices which will ultimately 
rely on nuclear energy as the power source and which is best termed 
“electrical propulsion.” This includes a wide variety of engines 
which heat and/or, more importantly, accelerate the propellant elec- 
trically. By accelerating the propellant directly, one can get it to 
very high velocities (50,000 to 500,000 ft./sec.) without raising its 
thermal (random molecular motion) energy. One volt of electrical 
potential corresponds to 10,000°C. of thermal energy. The propel- 
lant can consist of electrically charged ions, fine particles, gases, etc., 
which are accelerated by electrical or magnetic fields using the same 


ROCKET PROPULSION—COOPER 309 


principles applied in “atom smashers” and television tubes. ‘There 
are two major problems associated with these engines. First, 
although their exhaust velocity is very high, they are limited to very 
small total thrust compared to the weight of the engine and power 
supply. Thus they can be used only in space where the vehicle is 
already in orbit and a very small acceleration (less than one-thou- 
sandth that of the earth’s gravity) acting over a long period (months 
or years) is acceptable. Secondly, the long period of operation has 
several unfortunate consequences. Electrical power sources must be 
available which are very light in weight and capable of operating 
many months to several years with little or no attention. This leads 
to a small nuclear reactor as the only energy source with either a tur- 
bine-generator or a thermoelectric system to convert the reactor’s heat 
to electricity. The latter, with no moving parts, would be preferable 
for a long-lived operation. For electrical propulsion, the power/ 
weight of the energy source is the measure of performance rather than 
the exhaust velocity. The long period of thrust and low acceleration 
also implies long periods spent in the radiation belts and in transit to 
planets, which is undesirable for manned flight. Nevertheless, the 
high exhaust velocity makes this form of propulsion attractive for 
very high velocity missions such as exploration of the solar system 
with probes or manned vehicles. Both the engines and the power 
sources (which are the crucial components) are being developed. 

There are other low-thrust propulsion systems which may be of in- 
terest for scientific payloads. One type would use solar energy to 
heat hydrogen with a plastic mirror system replacing the reactor as 
the energy source. The weight of aluminized plastic film and the 
relatively low energy rate in solar radiation limit this to low thrust/ 
weight ratios. A very intriguing propulsion technique, based on the 
momentum carried by solar radiation, has been called “solar sailing.” 
Here a very large aluminized plastic sail is used to catch and reflect 
sunshine much as ship sails catch the wind. The accelerations are 
small, but significant as has been shown by the effects of the sun upon 
the large Echo balloon satellite, which also demonstrated that present 
materials could withstand the space environment for long periods. 
Note also that the “propellant” is composed of particles of light 
(“photons”) supplied by the sun and thus the solar sail need not carry 
any propellant or ever need refueling. 


PERFORMANCE COMPARISON 


There is as much variety in space propulsion as in surface trans- 
portation, and consequently there are varied performance levels and 
areas of application. The method of propulsion used in practice is 
dependent upon availability, cost, and other criteria, as well as per- 
formance simply on a gross weight basis. Table 2 gives approximate 


310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


TasLe 2.—High-thrust propulsion system parameters 


Solid Liquid High energv Nuclear 
RP-O: Ha-O2 Ha 
ixhaust velocity, ib:/SeCaes sea =e 8, 000 | 10, 000 13, 500 27, 000 
Rercentideadaweights——s=== = esse 8 5 7 15 


representative parameters for four propulsion systems currently 
under development. The gross weights of vehicles to send a 10,000- 
pound payload on various missions are given in table 3. A 10,000- 
pound payload was chosen for consistency and as a reasonable manned 
vehicle size, although the more difficult missions may require greater 
payload for radiation shielding and life support systems. Results are 
scalable to other payloads. The necessity for staging leads logically 
to the use of early, low-power versions of advanced propulsion sys- 
tems in upper stages resulting in hybrid vehicles with intermediate 
performance. Each replacement of a chemical by a nuclear stage 
leads to reductions of two and one-half in vehicle gross weight as can 
be seen in table 4 for the lunar mission. Thus the booster size can be 
reduced and the payload increased considerably with nuclear upper 
stages. For manned vehicles, a chemical last stage would be desirable 
to act as an escape vehicle, and for the shielding its propellant would 
provide. 

There are no unclassified performance figures available for the 
nuclear explosion scheme, and low-thrust nuclear-electric propulsion 
performance depends crucially on the specific weight of the power 
plant. If the desired values can be achieved, orbital start electric 
spacecraft could carry about one-third of their gross weight as pay- 
load on interplanetary round trips. 

To summarize the situation, most of these propulsion systems can 
be used exclusively for any vehicle, but combinations will be used 
which reflect their attributes and state of the art. Liquid propellant 
rockets will be the most used of the 1960’s, with high-energy propel- 


TasLE 3.—Performance of high-thrust systems 


Vehicle gross weight for a 10,000-pound payload 


Mission 
AV, ft./sec. Solid 0O2-RP H3-03 Nuclear 


Karth orbit__----- 30, 000 780, 000 280, 000 130,000 | 43, 000 
Lunar round trip--_| 60, 000 | 60,000,000 | 8, 000, 000 1, 700, 000 | 190, 000 


Martian round 
big |) ee ee SOP O0OM | eer toe oe eee eee 22, 000, 000 | 800, 000 


PLATE 1 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Cooper 


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“OUIG ISA], PPVADN VY} 1v SUI}Sa} IO] poivdoid SUIIq S10JIVII JOYIOI IvapoNu sy} FO 9uo “\W—-F_ IMT 


ROCKET PROPULSION—COOPER Sieh: 


TABLE 4.—Vehicles for a lunar mission—665,000 pounds landed on the lunar surface 


Vehicle All chemical 4 3 chemical 1 1 chemical 2 All nuclear 
Stages nuclear (3d stage)| nuclear upper 2 stages 
stages 
Vehicle gross wt/Ibs_______- 10, 000, 000 4, 000, 000 1, 700, 000 | 860, 000 
Vehicle dead wt_--____--_-- 500, 000 220, 000 110, 000 | 125, 000 
Propellant volume, ft.?_ — ~~~ 200, 000 100, 000 80, 000 | 160, 000 


lant being used in upper stages. Solid propellant rockets will be used 
for small final stages (e.g., retro rockets), low total cost, low payload 
research rockets, and possibly as large, first-stage boosters. Nuclear 
propulsion will be used in upper stages for difficult missions (lunar 
and interplanetary). The low-thrust electric propulsion systems will 
be limited to orbital start interplanetary missions. 


AUXILIARY POWER SUPPLIES 


Up to the present, electrical power has been supplied to spacecraft 
mainly by chemical batteries or solar cells. The former are relatively 
heavy per unit of output, and have short lifetimes. The latter are 
limited to low powers which will fluctuate with the spacecraft’s ori- 
entation and position, and are affected by radiation. Some of these 
difficulties are relieved by using the two in conjunction, allowing the 
solar cells periodically to charge the batteries, which supply continu- 
ous power. Nuclear energy represents a way to circumvent the life- 
time and power limitations. One method, which has already been put 
into practice, is to use the heat generated by radioactive isotopes to 
supply energy to thermoelectric generators. These convert heat into 
electricity in the same manner as do temperature-measuring thermo- 
couples. Radioisotope sources are somewhat limited in power (sev- 
eral hundred watts) but can have lifetimes ranging from 100 days to 
100 years or more in practice, depending upon the isotope chosen. 

For high powers (kilowatts) and long times (years) nuclear re- 
actors are the only practical source. A nuclear electric power supply 
must include power conversion equipment, radiators to reject unusable 
heat, and possibly some shielding, as well as the reactor. This leads 
to system weights of the order of 1,000 pounds, useful only in large 
payloads. At present, only rotating electric generators are sufficiently 
developed to handle the high power. These will have a metal vapor 
(such as mercury) heated by the reactor, to power a turbine which 
drives a generator. The vapor is condensed and cooled in the radi- 
ator to complete the cycle. Eventually, high-power thermoelectric 
conversion systems will be developed with lower weight, higher efli- 
ciency, fewer moving parts, and greater reliability than the turbo- 
generator system. 

672-174—63 


22 


312 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


STATE OF THE ART AND PROSPECTS 


In 1962 most large space boosters used liquid propellants with ex- 
haust velocities of less than 10,000 feet per second. Our largest opera- 
tional vehicle, the Atlas-Agena, can place over 5,000 pounds in orbit 
compared to 14,000 pounds for the Russian vehicle, which is therefore 
probably a similar system of two or three times the size of the Atlas. 
A high-energy liquid propellant (hydrogen-oxygen) upper stage 
(Centaur) is being developed for the Atlas which will double the 
orbital payload and allow sending appreciable payloads to the moon 
and planets. Table 5 presents information about vehicles in use or 
being developed by the NASA. 


TasB_Le 5.—NASA space vehicles 


Payload, lbs. 


Vehicle Type 
Orbit Escape 

SCOUber aae ae ee U0) pees e Four solid propellant stages. 
Thor-Agena B-_-__-_- i) 6003/2252 2e Two liquid propellant stages. 
Atlas-Agena B_-_-_-- 5, 000 750 | Two liquid propellant stages. 
Atlas-Centaur----- 8, 500 2,500 | Centaur uses Hp, fuel. 
Shnnuign (aia s- 20, 000 5, 000 | Interim vehicle. 
Saturn @—5222=— - 22 200, 000 | 88, 000 | H2-O,2 upper stages. 


Larger engines and vehicles are being developed for the 1960’s to im- 
plement the manned lunar exploration program. The Saturn C-1 
first stage, which had successful flight tests in 1962 uses eight RP-oxy- 
gen engines giving a total thrust of 1.3 million pounds. With non- 
optimum high-energy upper stages it will be able to place 20,000 pounds 
in orbit. The optimized Saturn C-2, which was to have used this first 
stage and would have put 50,000 pounds in orbit, has been dropped in 
favor of a much larger advanced Saturn C-5 vehicle. Its first stage 
will be powered by five F-1 engines with a thrust of 1.5 million pounds 
each. This vehicle, with high-energy chemical upper stages, will 
place 200,000 pounds in orbit, and hopefully be capable of manned 
lunar missions. Nuclear propulsion will probably be first tested and 
used in an advanced Saturn upper stage. With experience gained in 
the military rocket programs the solid propellant rocket groups have 
been working on larger engines for use as boosters for space vehicles. 
A vehicle is under development which has two 120-inch-diameter solid 
rockets strapped in parallel to a Titan missile for space applications 
with payloads comparable to those of the Saturn C-1. 

Thus in the 1960’s the advances in the chemical propulsion field will 
be principally in switching to the high-energy propellants in upper 
stages and making larger sizes of the present vehicle types. Nuclear 
propulsion is in the early stages of engine and vehicle development: 


ROCKET PROPULSION—COOPER 313 


Several reactor tests (Kiwi A series) were held in 1959-60, using 
graphite fuel loaded with enriched uranium and gaseous hydrogen 
as the propellant. During 1961-62 further tests (Kiwi B series, pl. 1) 
were held, including the use of liquid hydrogen and components (e.g., 
pump and nozzle), more appropriate to a flyable engine. Effort is 
going into a flight test vehicle which will probably be flown in the 
mid and late 1960’s. 

Development of various engines and power supplies for electrical 
propulsion is under way, with plans to test the engines for short flight 
periods in space in 1962 and 1963, using the Scout solid rocket as a 
booster and chemical batteries for the power supply. More extensive 
tests and use will come in the mid-1960’s and depend primarily on the 
nuclear electric power sources. Nuclear explosion propulsion is at 
an early stage of research, but the scheme has been checked with a 38- 
foot diameter, 300-pound scale model, using 3-pound high-explosive 
changes. 

We can expect liquid-fuel chemical rockets to be the workhorses in 
the 1960’s, with nuclear upper stages for many missions, and possibly 
solid propellant first stages. Electric propulsion may be used, starting 
from orbit, for deep-space missions. Some of the more advanced 
schemes, such as nuclear explosion propulsion, may come to fruition 
near the end of the decade. 


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_ 


The Early History of Radar 


By R. M. Pace 


Director of Research, 
U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 


[With 4 plates] 


TECHNOLOGICAL innovation grows out of contemporary technology, 
which in turn rests on the research and scientific discoveries of an 
earlier day. Only when clear distinction is made between innovation, 
contemporary technology, and contemporary scientific knowledge can 
lines of interdependence be meaningfully drawn. 

The combination of five basic ideas constitutes the innovation 
which is radar. They are (1) that electromagnetic radiation at high 
radio frequency be used to detect and locate remote reflecting objects, 
(2) that the radiation be sent out in pulses of a few microseconds dura- 
tion, separated by “silent” intervals very many times the pulse dura- 
tion, (3) that pulses returned from reflecting objects be detected and 
displayed by receiving equipment located at the point of transmission, 
(4) that distance be determined by measuring in terms of an independ- 
ent time standard the time of flight of pulses to “target” and back, and 
(5) that direction be determined by use of highly directive radio 
antennas. 

We first identify the scientific knowledge underlying these ideas. 
Faraday and Maxwell had established the theoretical possibility of 
the electromagnetic field. Hughs had demonstrated its existence at 
radio frequency. Hertz had demonstrated that radio waves behaved 
as light waves, obeying the known laws of propagation and reflection. 
Appleton and Barnet had demonstrated that radio waves could be 
used in interferometer fashion to determine apparent height of the 
ionsphere. Their method used phase velocity to measure the differ- 
ence in length of two propagation paths. Swann and Frayne had sug- 
gested and Breit, Tuve, and Taylor had demonstrated that radio waves 
could be used to measure ionosphere height by observing the relative 
flight time of pulses of radio transmission. Their method used group 


1 Reprinted by permission from Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, vol. 50, 
No. 5, May 1962. 


315 


316 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


velocity to measure the difference in length of two propagation paths. 
Various experimenters in radio, including Breit and Tuve of the Car- 
negie Institution, working with ionosphere measurements, engineers 
of the British Post Office working with short-wave radio, and engi- 
neers of the Bell Telephone Laboratories working with television, had 
observed that aircraft flying near their receivers or transmitters cre- 
ated noticeable disturbances in the radio propagation field. This was 
regarded merely as interference with their experiments, and otherwise 
ignored. These constitute the elements of scientific knowledge basic 
to the idea of radar. Since radar was not in any way an objective in 
the discovery of these facts, since no problem was recognized for which 
radar was the proposed solution, and since radar was only one of many 
technological innovations dependent on these same scientific discover- 
ies, it is not proper to ascribe to any of the named discoverers any 
responsibility for the origin of radar by virtue of their discoveries. 
Our next step is to identify the contemporary technology out of 
which radar grew. A catalogue of the state of the art in radio en- 
gineering in the 1930’s would be both tedious and superfluous. 
Certain elements have a degree of specificity to radar, however, and 
require special mention. The cathode-ray tube, devised by the German 
scientist Braun in 1897 and used on an experimental basis in the early 
1920’s, became generally available as a laboratory tool in the early 
1930’s. In 1900 Nikola Tesla suggested the use of electromagnetic 
waves to determine relative position, speed, and course of a moving 
object. In 1903 Huelsmeyer applied for a patent in Germany on an 
anti-collision device for ships, based on directive transmission and re- 
ception of continuous waves at very short radio wavelengths. Trans- 
mitter and receiver were shown on the same ship, but separated as 
widely as possible. In June 1922 Marconi again suggested the use of 
radio as an anti-collision device. In 1923 Loewy filed a patent ap- 
plication in the U. S. Patent Office for a radio object detector employ- 
ing the Fizeau principle. The transmission consisted of chopped CW, 
with approximately equal intervals on and off. A target would be 
detected when its reflection coincided with the intervals between 
transmission. While Loewy’s disclosure appears at first to anticipate 
radar, it fails to meet the requirements for radar, since range in- 
dication is ambiguous, and the presence of one target would jam the 
system for all other targets. Thus it gave no operational advantage 
over Huelsmeyer, except the possibility of locating transmitter and 
receiver close together. In 1925 Breit and Tuve proposed a radio 
pulse method, which they credited originally to Swann and Frayne 
of the University of Minnesota, for probing the ionosphere. In co- 
operation with Taylor, Young, and Gebhard of the Naval Research 
Laboratory the method was used for the first time in that same year. 
Although this has been said to demonstrate the basic principles of 


EARLY HISTORY OF RADAR—PAGE Sg 


radar, it fails to meet the radar criteria on several counts. The pulses 
were much too long, being about half a millisecond. This would 
blank out the first 50 miles of range. The ratio of pulse spacing to 
pulse duration was too low, being only four or five, therefore subject 
to saturation by a very few targets. The receiving equipment was not 
at the point of transmission, so time of flight of radio pulses to target 
and back could not be measured in terms of an independent time 
standard. Only the difference in length of two propagation paths 
was measured, and direction was not indicated. These deficiencies 
from the radar viewpoint were imposed by the state of the art in 1925. 
They detracted nothing from the excellence of the method or the 
apparatus for probing the ionosphere. In 1930 patent applications 
were filed by Wolf and Hart for a radio pulse altimeter. The dis- 
closures were based on the technology of the ionosphere probe, and 
were therefore subject to some of the same limitations. No develop- 
ment of radar apparatus resulted from these disclosures. In November 
1933, Hershberger (U.S. Signal Corps) proposed a method essentially 
similar to that of Loewy and then did some work on microwave gen- 
erators in a vain attempt to obtain the power required for useful 
echoes. In 1936 the French liner Normandie was equipped with a 
microwave anti-collision device similar to that of Huelsmeyer. 

It is now obvious that contemporary technology contained much 
that was suggestive of radar. However, none of the art described 
contained all five elements necessary to radar, and no radar develop- 
ment resulted from any of it. It is therefore inappropriate to trace 
the development of radar to any of these proposals or related 
developments. 

The first incident that led ultimately to radar was the accidental ob- 
servation by Taylor and Young in September 1922 that a ship in- 
terrupted some experimental high-frequency radio communication 
across the Potomac when it intercepted the propagation path between 
transmitter and receiver. Taylor and Young had for many years been 
employed by the Navy, and were keenly aware of the problem of 
screening Naval forces from penetration by other ships in darkness 
and fog. Though the observation was unrelated to their experiment, 
the application was obvious to them, and they immediately proposed 
that high-frequency radio transmitters and receivers be installed on 
destroyers to detect the passage of other ships between any two de- 
stroyers in radio contact. Obviously this was not radar. It did not 
even involve reflection of radio waves, and was in no way related to 
Marconi’s suggestion, as has sometimes been inferred. It is identified 
with radar here only because Taylor and Young later originated the 
first radar development project, and this incident started them think- 
ing in terms of detection of moving objects by radio. 


318 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The second incident was another accidental observation, this time 
by Hyland, a colleague of Taylor and Young. During experiments 
on high-frequency radio direction finding in June 1930, he detected 
a severe disturbance of the propagation field by an airplane flying 
overhead. Hyland was also an experienced Navy employee, and was 
sensitive to the potential threat of military aircraft and the need for 
warning devices against them. The observation again was unrelated 
to his experiment, but the application was obvious, and he immediately 
proposed that high-frequency radio be used for aircraft warning. 

On Taylor’s recommendation a project was established at the Naval 
Research Laboratory in January 1931 for “Detection of Enemy Vessels 
and Aircraft by Radio.” Work on this project continued for several 
years. The “beat” method was employed, in which transmitter and 
receiver were widely separated and shielded from each other, transmis- 
sion was CW, and reception observed the fluctuating signals, called 
“beats,” when an airplane flew through the radio propagation field. 
Detection ranges of 40 miles were obtained in these experiments. 

The required wide separation of transmitter and receiver precluded 
the use of the beat method on ships and limited its usefulness to the 
protection of large land areas such as cities and military bases. Since 
this was exclusively the responsibility of the Army, it was proposed 
in January 1932 that the Army take over the development for its use 
in that function. Subsequently, Navy interest in the problem lagged 
until Young suggested to Taylor that the pulse method be tried. 
Young’s proposal combined for the first time all five elements essential 
to radar. Ultimately, Taylor accepted the proposal and assigned to 


Oe 


SYNCHRONIZED 
RADIO FREQUENCY PULSE 
TRANSMITTER 


BUFFER 
AMPLIFIER 
BUFFER 
AMPLIFIER 


AUDIO 
OSCILLATOR 


Ficure 1.—Block diagram of radars operated in 1936. The block diagram for the radar 
tested in December 1934 was similar to this one. 


PEATE 1 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Page 


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1. Original 28-Mc receiver with indicator on test bench showing (left to right) standard 


signal generator, receiver, indicator, audio output meter. 1936. 


2. Original 28-Mc radar receiving antenna; \/2 dipole with d/2 reflector. April 1936. 


PLATE 3 


Page 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.— 


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1. The XAF radar (left) and the CXNAM radar (right). Summer 1940. 


2. Penthouse roof, Bldg. 12, showing (right to left) pre-XNAF, XAF, 400-Mc, and CXAM 
antennas. Pre-XAF is hand driven; all others are motor driven with remote control. 


Summer 1940. 


EARLY HISTORY OF RADAR—PAGE 319 


the author, working under Young’s supervision, the task of develop- 
ing pulse radar. The author’s work on this task was started on March 
14, 1934.? 

The first step was to develop an indicator to display the outputs 
of transmitter and receiver. <A suitable sweep circuit was built for a 
commercially produced 5-in. cathode-ray oscilloscope. The next step 
was development of a pulse transmitter. The transmitter frequency 
of 60 Mc was chosen because that was the frequency then used in the 
beat method. Pulse length was slightly under 10 psec., and pulse 
spacing, 100 psec., these being chosen as appropriate experimental 
values. The keyer was an asymmetric multivibrator. The antenna 
was a single half-wave horizontal doublet with a single resonant re- 
flector. The pulse power was estimated to be between 100 and 200 w. 
The first question to be resolved was whether echo pulse energy could 
be detected during the intervals between transmitted pulses, since 
synchronous detection, characteristic of the beat method, was known 
to be more sensitive than asynchronous detection, characteristic of the 
pulse method. Autocorrelation and crosscorrelation were unheard of 
in those days, and the trade-off between time and bandwidth disclosed 
by Hartley,’ as well as the significance of average energy, was not 
too well understood. The only sure recourse was to try it, and skepti- 
cism was great. A broad-band high-gain experimental communica- 
tions receiver was borrowed and connected to a second antenna similar 
to the transmitting antenna. Coupling between the two antennas was 
appreciable, and the transmitted pulse caused the receiver to ring for 
30 to 40 psec. However, when a small airplane flew across the beam at 
a distance of about a mile, the received signal caused the receiver out- 
put following the transmitted pulse to fluctuate violently between zero 
and saturation. This test was completed in December 1934. Although 
synchronous detection prevailed owing to the transient ringing of the 
receiver, the great amplitude of the response left no doubt that an 
asynchronous detector would also have responded to the reflected 
pulse. The result was accepted as evidence that echo signals could be 
detected during the intervals between transmitted pulses, and develop- 
ment of a superior radar receiver was immediately undertaken. 

Radar imposed four severe requirements on the receiver which were 
not encountered in conventional receivers of the time. Close proximity 
of receiver and transmitter subjected the receiver to paralyzing over- 
load, from which recovery to full sensitivity in the incredibly short 
time of a few microseconds was mandatory. The first design re- 
quirement was to eliminate grid blocking. This was achieved by using 


2 Schooley, A. H., Pulse radar history, Proc. Inst. Radio Eng. (Correspondence), vol. 37, 
p. 405, April 1949. 


’ Hartley, R. V. L., Transmission of information, Bell System Techn. Journ., vol. 7, 
p. 535, 1928. 


672-174—63—_23 


320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


a tuned grid circuit with the grid returned to the cathode through the 
tuning coil. Grid coupling capacitance was then reduced to a min- 
imum by using maximum inductance to capacitance ratio in the tuned 
circuit, and loading the tuned circuit to the proper @ value with the 
driving plate resistor. 

The second design requirement was to minimize the ring time of 
tuned circuits from the transmitter-induced high signal level. This 
was achieved by returning grids to cathodes without bias, thus limit- 
ing the level to which the circuits could be driven by the transmitter. 

The third requirement was fast response to amplify the short pulse 
echoes. This meant tailoring the @ values of all tuned circuits so that 
the composite @ of the receiver would match the pulse length. This 
was accomplished with the help of the appropriate equation published 
by Mesny.* 

The fourth requirement was complete absence of regenerative feed- 
back in the presence of high gain. A communication receiver of that 
day was considered stable if it did not oscillate. Equivalent Q, how- 
ever, is a sensitive function of feed-back, and response characteristics 
are readily altered by feed-back long before the point of oscillation is 
reached. This requirement was met by using a superheterodyne re- 
ceiver, limiting voltage gain on any one frequency to one thousand, 
and changing intermediate frequency as required to accomplish an 
overall voltage gain on the order of 10%. In addition, extreme pre- 
cautions were taken in shielding, filtering, and common point 
grounding. 

The receiver was intended for a 5-usec. pulse. The overall response 
was 90 percent of steady state in 5 usec. This characteristic was 
independent of gain up to the point where thermal noise at the input 
filled the cathode-ray screen. 

A new transmitter of the self-quenching or “squegging” type was 
built to go with the new receiver. The transmitting antenna was a 
4X 4-wavelength curtain array with resonant reflector. The receiving 
antenna was a single half-wave doublet with single resonant reflec- 
tor. The frequency was 28.6 Mc, with pulse length of 5 psec. and 
pulse recurrence rate of 3720/sec., giving a range scale of 25 statute 
miles. The system went on the air in April 1936. The receiver 
recovery to full sensitivity following the transmitted pulse appeared 
to be instantaneous. Beautifully sharp echoes from aircraft were 
observed almost at once, and within a few days they appeared all the 
way to the 25-mile limit of the indicator. 

The spectacular success of the experiment was followed by a greatly 
intensified effort. A primary objective was to reduce the size of the 
equipment so it could be used on ships. The 28.6-Mc antenna was 


4Mesny, R., Time constants, build-up time and decrements. lOnde Elec., vol. 13, 
pp. 237-243, June 1934. 


EARLY HISTORY OF RADAR—PAGE BVA 


about 200 feet square. Reduction in directivity of antenna pattern 
was not desired. A smaller antenna therefore meant higher fre- 
quency. On July 22, 1936, a small radar was put in operation on 200 
Me. In that same month the first radar duplexer was successfully 
tested, also on 200 Me, enabling both transmitter and receiver to use 
the same antenna. These two quick developments made it possible to 
put radar on a ship for tests at sea. The first seagoing radar tests 
were made in April 1937, on the U.S.S. Leary, an old destroyer of the 
Atlantic Fleet. The success of these tests led to the development of 
the model XAF, designed for Naval service at sea. Extensive tests 
on the U.S.S. Vew York in 1939 disclosed operational values beyond 
all dreams. The XAF was made prototype for the model CXAM, 
which was in service on 19 ships, the only U.S. Naval radar in service 
on December 7, 1941. It made an excellent wartime record. 

This is a brief outline of the main stream in the early development 
of radar, resting on a sequence of related events from 1922 to 1941. 
Up to the summer of 1935 it was a single stream. At that time two 
other streams started, both remarkably parallel to the main stream. 
The one in England, sparked by the proposal of Watson-Watt in 
February 1935, and conducted under the aegis of the Royal Air 
Force, was completely independent of the American developments 
until 1940, at which time the two countries pooled their resources. In 
the technological trade, America gained the uniquely British cavity 
magnetron, and Britain gained the uniquely American duplexer. The 
trade was not as one-sided as may have been inferred in some of 
the postwar literature. The pooled resources formed the technologi- 
cal capital for the newly formed National Defense Research Commit- 
tee in the superb development of microwave radar by the Radiation 
Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The other 
stream, in the U.S. Army Signal Corps, sparked by the dynamic 
leadership of Col. Roger B. Colton, was independent in part, but 
received much stimulation, both competitive and cooperative, from 
the more advanced work of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. It 
is one of the most remarkable coincidences in history that the three 
streams of radar development, operating more or less independently, 
issued in three vital but nonoverlapping employments, each requiring 
basically different designs. At the war’s beginning the finest mobile 
ground-based radar came from the U.S. Army Signal Corps, the 
finest airborne radar came from the Royal Air Force, and the finest 
Naval radar came from the U.S. Navy. 


ae 


Modern Glass’ 


By S. DonaLp STOOKEY 
Corning Glass Works, Corning, N.Y. 


[With 3 plates] 


A new world is suddenly unfolding to the startled glass technolo- 
gist as he gazes into his 6,000-year-old crystal ball. As his eyes 
gradually adjust to seeing in molecular detail the familiar transparent 
solid turns out to hold a frozen mass of hidden fairy-tale princesses, 
powerful sleeping giants and unknown creatures of all kinds, con- 
densed to molecular size and trapped in an unexplored labyrinth; each 
waiting to be brought to life by the proper magic word. 

In more practical language, we are learning that glass consists 
literally of chemical species in a frozen state of suspended animation, 
somewhat as free radicals are trapped by freezing them. By using the 
proper catalyst—which may be high-energy radiation or internally 
precipitated colloids or heat, or a combination of these—a really aston- 
ishing variety of electronic, chemical, and physical changes can be 
initiated and controlled, resulting in a multitude of new materials. 
Some of the current discoveries are completely reversing traditional 
concepts. For example: 

Glass strengthening techniques now in the laboratory may soon 
change our traditional concept of glass as fragile and brittle to one 
that’s strong and flexible. 

Long known as an electrical insulator, glass in some of its new 
forms becomes an electronic conductor. 

Distinguished from most other solids by its noncrystalline amor- 
phous structure, glass now is found to be a perfect medium for 
controlled crystallization, and has become the spawning ground for a 
growing number of unique new crystalline materials—as shown in 
plate 1, for example. 

Famous for its impermeability to liquids and gases, high silica glass 
has been found to be selectively permeable to the smallest gas mole- 
cules such as helium, neon, and hydrogen; it can be used as a molecular 
sieve. 


1 Reprinted by permission from International Science and Technology, No. 7, July 1962. 
323 


324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Although it is a completely rigid nonreactive material below its 
annealing temperature of 500 to 600 degrees, yet glass permits rapid 
diffusion and exchange of certain monovalent ions such as those of 
silver, copper, sodium, lithium, and potassium, well below the anneal- 


ing temperature. 
THE NATURE OF GLASS 


Let’s start our more detailed description of the newly evolving 
technology of glass by discussing our present concepts of its chemical 
and physical nature. Immediately it becomes necessary to say that no 
two experts agree on the subject of the molecular structure of 
glass. For example, the proceedings of the most recent All-Russia 
Glass Congress report that the main emphasis of Russian glass re- 
search for the preceding 5 years was on glass structure. So what 
you read here should not be taken as a consensus of all glass scientists, 
or even two of us. 

Molten silica is an extremely viscous liquid. It can be visualized as 
a three-dimensional polymer whose basic structure is a network of 
tetrahedral silicon dioxide molecules, figure 1, joined to one another 
by oxygen bonds at the corners in random manner. Figure 2 shows 
this random network in two dimensions; in the molten state, the 
chemical bonds are continually breaking and re-forming. This 
molten glass is a universal solvent, capable of incorporating almost 
every chemical element in its structure. Some elements can replace 
silica and become part of the network; but most (for example, sodium 
and calcium) become an ionic plasma moving through holes in the 


@ SILICON ION. ©) OXYGEN ION. 


Ficure 1.—The silica tetrahedron, basic ingredient in glass, has four ions of oxygen, one of 
silicon. 


MODERN GLASS—STOOKEY 325 


Ficure 2.—Schematic two-dimensional representation according to Zachariasen of structures 
of SiO, network former: a, crystal; b, glass. 


polymer network, loosely bonded to the silica through oxygen bonds, 
as shown in figure 3. We can picture the sodium ions as high-tem- 
perature fish swimming through a three-dimensional net whose 
meshes become gradually more rigid and smaller in size as the 
material cools. Such “network modifiers” greatly increase the 
high-temperature fluidity by breaking some of the silicon-oxygen 
bonds. 


326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Ficure 3.—Schematic two dimensional representation according to Warren of the structure 
of soda-silicate glass. The silicons are here shown to be bonded to only three oxygens. 


As the molten glass cools, the network becomes more and more rigid 
until, usually at 400° to 600° C., it is completely solid. The plasma, 
however, usually does not “freeze” at such a high temperature as the 
network, so that at temperatures where the glass is completely rigid, 
diffusion and chemical reaction can still occur among the modifier 
ions. At still lower temperatures, but still above room temperature, 
the plasma also freezes so that no translational motion of molecules or 
ions can occur. At room temperature, high-energy ionizing radiation 
can produce electronic transitions, but not molecular rearrangements. 

We can see then that the simplest glasses, except for one-component 
glasses like plain fused silica, are molecular two-phase systems al- 
though they are amorphous by any macroscopic or microscopic 
observation. In more complex glasses such as the alkali borosilicates, 
two interpenetrating polymer networks can be present, one containing 
mostly silica, the other mostly boric oxide. At low temperatures 
these two networks tend to separate into really discrete phases, so 
that submicroscopic channels or droplets of alkali borate glass are 
present in a silica matrix. This behavior is the basis of high-silica 
glass, which is made by heat treating a special alkali borosilicate 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Stookey PEATEs! 


One of the new glasses that can be changed to crystallized glass-ceramic. Here it is shaped 


into a missile nose cone. In its transparent glassy state, undergoing inspection at right, 
it is ready for heat treatment to form millions of tiny nuclei and cause crystals to grow 
on these centers. ‘The matured glass-ceramic has great resistance to erosion and thermal 


stress. 


PLATE 2 


Stookey 


Smithsonian Report, 1962. 


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MIITUL UOL 199 [4] 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Stookey 


MODERN GLASS—STOOKEY 327 


glass to induce this channel-type phase separation, leaching out the 
alkali borate with acid, then heating the porous silica skeleton until it 
shrinks and consolidates as reconstructed 96 percent silica glass. 

Such structural complexity is compounded by constituents that may 
interact in oxidation-reduction pairs or precipitate from solution as 
crystals. Small wonder that scientists disagree on “a” glass structure, 
and that few scientists are rash enough to explore this untidy jungle— 
neither truly liquid nor truly crystalline, but related to both. 

Having been one of the foolhardy explorers into this wilderness, 
and having been invited to elucidate recent developments in glass 
from a personal point of view, I will take the liberty of emulating 
Sindbad the Sailor and tell you some of the discoveries in which I have 
taken part and how they came about. 


GLASSES THAT RESPOND TO LIGHT 


A good starting point is an early foray of mine into glass research, 
the purpose of which was to investigate and improve upon the “opal” 
glasses. These did not turn out to be melted gem stones, as I had first 
guessed, but opaque or translucent white glasses containing colloidal 
inclusions, usually crystalline, that scatter light. 

Literature survey disclosed, among other things, the recipe of an 
early German glassmaker calling for ground deer bones to make 
“bone-ash” opal. Such romantic findings are part of the fascination 
of research in a medium that has thousands of years of history. 
(Bone-ash opals, in which calcium phosphate is the insoluble phase, 
are still manufactured.) 

I was soon struck by the apparent similarity between the behavior 
of certain opal glasses containing sodium fluoride and that reported 
for the rare and beautiful gold and copper ruby glasses. All these 
glasses remain clear when they are first cooled, but develop opacity or 
color by precipitating colloidal particles when they are reheated. 
Meanwhile, R. H. Dalton of our laboratory had recently discovered 
that a copper ruby glass, irradiated with ultraviolet light while in its 
colorless state, developed a darker red color after reheating. 

Jumping to the erroneous conclusion that, therefore, similar expo- 
sure of a sodium fluoride glass would result in a photosensitive opal, I 
found that ultraviolet light had no effect whatsoever on this glass. 

The answer to this puzzle proved to be that the sodium fluoride 
precipitation results from a simple supersaturation, with crystal 
nuclei forming at such low temperatures that the glass must be re- 
heated in order that crystals can grow. The gold and copper rubies, 
on the other hand, were found to develop their color in a complex 
sequence of chemical oxidation-reduction reactions, of a temperature- 

672-174_683 24 


328 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


sensitive type perhaps unique to glass. The metal dissolves as an 
oxide in the melt, is frozen in an unstable oxidized state as the glass 
cools, then is slowly reduced to insoluble metal colloid by polyvalent 
ions in the glass as the glass is reheated at low red heat. Some of the 
polyvalent reducing agents are oxides of tin, selenium, antimony, and 
arsenic. Ultraviolet light promotes the reduction of copper, by 
producing photoelectrons which then combine with copper ions in the 
glass. 

This knowledge made it possible to develop photosensitive copper 
ruby and gold ruby glasses, which remained colorless even on reheat- 
ing, except in the areas exposed to ultraviolet light through a photo- 
graphic negative. 

Then it occurred to me that these photographically produced metal 
crystals, if they were precipitated in a glass supersaturated with so- 
dium fluoride, might trigger the growth of sodium fluoride crystals 
and give me the photosensitive opal glass I had failed to produce 
before. This proved to be true; not only could sodium fluoride, but 
several other kinds of crystals be nucleated in three-dimensional pho- 
tographic patterns. The translucent windows in the north wall of the 
United Nations Assembly Building are made of photosensitive opal 
glass with a marble pattern produced in this manner. 

A year or so later, in the early days of television, we were confronted 
with a different practical problem: how to drill a quarter-million 
small, precise holes through a glass plate, to make an aperture mask? 
On a long-shot chance, I tested all the photosensitive opal glasses and 
discovered that the crystallized photographic pattern in one of them, a 
lithium silicate glass that had been shelved as useless, was much more 
readily dissolved in hydrofluoric acid than was the surrounding clear 
glass. Before long we had a plate of glass with a hexagonal array of 
small holes; and this led to the development of chemically machine- 
able glass. This glass is finding increasing use in the electronics 
industry because of its capability of being mass-produced in precise 
complex shapes like those shown in the panels illustrated in plate 2, 
figure 1. 

AN ACCIDENT LEADS TO GLASS CERAMICS 


Chance, in the form of a runaway furnace, now took a hand. A 
plate of photosensitive glass that had been irradiated was accidentally 
heated to several hundred degrees higher than its usual developing 
temperature. The plate, which we had expected would melt to a pool 
of glass, altered instead to a hard, strong crystalline ceramic—the first 
member of a now rapidly growing family of crystalline ceramics 
made from glass, the Pyrocerams. This was not an isolated case; my 


MODERN GLASS—STOOKEY 329 


colleagues and I soon found that the principle of nucleation-con- 
trolled crystallization of glass can be very broadly applied. Plate 3 
shows three stages in the process of nucleation and crystallization in a 
glass ceramic. 

Meanwhile, a search for materials suitable as radomes for super- 
sonic missiles made for the Navy by the Johns Hopkins Applied 
Physics Laboratory, singled out some of the new glass-ceramics as 
being almost unique in meeting the requirements of strength, resist- 
ance to supersonic rain erosion and thermal shock, and radar-trans- 
mitting properties. This led to pilot production and testing of 
radomes for the Terrier and Tartar missiles now standard on the 
missile ships of the Navy. Use of new glass manufacturing methods, 
developed in continuous-tank production of optical glass, resulted in 
radomes that can be mass-produced uniformly and not individually 
tailored to meet the boresight tolerances required for accurate aiming 
of the missile. One of these is illustrated in plate 1. More and more 
varieties of radomes, ultrahigh-frequency windows, and antennas are 
being made of glass-ceramics. 

The strength, chemical resistance, and thermal shock resistance of 
some of the low-expansion glass-ceramics suggested that they could 
be valuable for domestic use as well as for defense; and we developed 
the now-popular heat-resistant ceramic utensils for cooking and serv- 
ing food. A new high-strength glass-ceramic tableware will soon be 
commercial. 

Still newer glass-ceramics are now in the development stage, each 
tailor-made for a special area of use. One, having exceptionally high 
dielectric constant, is being developed for capacitors; another, con- 
taining crystals of an electronic semiconducting oxide, will be used 
for high-temperature resistors. And a third variety of glass-ceramics, 
highly crystalline, contains crystals so small that they do not scatter 
light, and this glass-ceramic is as transparent as glass. The crystals 
are beta-eucryptite, a strange mineral which shrinks, instead of ex- 
panding as do most crystals, when heated. The resultant glass- 
ceramic has a negative coefficient of expansion. 


STRONGER GLASSES WITH CRYSTALLINE ARMOR 


The latest chapter in this story will be found in a paper presented 
by my colleagues and myself at the International Glass Congress in 
Washington, D.C. This paper describes two methods, still in labora- 
tory stage, of producing glass armored by a transparent skin of the 
negative-expansion eucryptic glass-ceramic. This armored glass has 


330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


a bending strength of 100,000 p.s.1. compared to less than 10,000 p.s.i. 
for commercial annealed glass, and maintains most of its strength 
after abrasion. We believe that these glasses can belie the reputation 
for fragility and brittleness that now is deserved by glass. 

Since lack of strength has been the Achilles’ heel of glass, it is 
worth examining the reasons for it to help us understand the new 
cures. The key to both the strength and the weakness of glass is in its 
amorphous structure. We can regard any piece of glass as a single 
molecule, a three-dimensional polymer whose strength is equal to the 
interatomic bond strengths. Therefore, as long as the surface is free 
from flaws, glass is fantastically strong. Fibers have been measured 
at one million p.s.i., quarter-inch diameter rods at 400,000 p.s.i. in ten- 
sion. By contrast, the strongest steel alloys have tensile strengths in 
the 200,000 to 400,000 p.s.i. range. Compressive strength of glass is 
also of the order of hundreds of thousands of pounds per square inch. 

Why then is glass so weak? Unfortunately, any contact with solid 
surfaces produces surface scratches. These become sites of highly con- 
centrated stress when the surface is put into tension; and since the 
glass does not flow to relieve the local stress, a relatively low overall 
tension is sufficient to extend a scratch into a catastrophic crack. 

An obvious way to maintain high strength is to protect the surface 
from abrasion, by coating with rubbery plastics or with slippery 
silicones before it has become scratched. These methods are in fact 
being employed for some types of glass containers, and for “armored” 
industrial pipe. Such plastic coatings serve another useful purpose, 
in preventing loss of the contents if the glass breaks. 

A most promising principle for strengthening glass has been known 
for many years, and is practiced in the form of “chill tempered” glass. 
The principle, stated simply, is that tensile strength increases propor- 
tionately with the previously induced compressive stress in the sur- 
face layer of glass. 

In chill tempering, an object is cooled rapidly from just below its 
softening point. Since the inner portion cools more slowly than the 
surface, it continues to contract after the surface is essentially rigid. 
Thus, compressive stresses develop in the surface layer with compen- 
sating tensile stresses in the interior. 

Chill-tempering is capable of inducing compressive stresses up to 
about 20,000 p.s.i. under favorable circumstances, but is limited to 
relatively thick glass and simple shapes because of heat-flow problems, 
and its strengthening effect is permanently lost if the glass is re- 
heated above 400° C. 

New methods of inducing stress are free from these limitations, and 
in addition can induce much higher compressive stress, well over 
100,000 p.s.i. The two methods of chemical tempering or armoring 


MODERN GLASS—STOOKEY 331 
Stress (1000 psi) 


25) 20) SE) EO) 
| | | | | | | 


CHILL TEMPERED 


Compression 


a 


20 0) —20 —40 —60 -—8s0 


CRYSTALLIZED 


Compression 


M — a aa 


M 
Center plane of glass i 


Tension 


Figure 4.—Two ways to strengthen glass both depend on canceling tensile stress on surface 
by pre-stressing in compression. In diagram, dotted line is the pre-stress. Dashed line 
is stress created by external bending load M. Solid line shows net stress. Note that 
surface stress in crystallized glass stays much farther into compression range than in 
chill-tempered glass. 


mentioned earlier both involve forming transparent polycrystalline 
layers within the surface of glasses of appropriate chemical compo- 
sition. The crystallized skin, which is grown at a high temperature, 
has a negative thermal expansion and thus expands as it cools. The 
shrinking of the internal glass induces an extremely high compres- 
sion of the skin, resulting in high strength. Figure 4 shows how this 
technique compares with chill-tempering. 

One of the new methods employs surface-nucleated crystallization 
of a lithia-alumina-silica glass. The other, more complex, begins with 
a soda-alumina-titania-silica glass, replaces the sodium ions in the 
surface by lithium ions at high temperature—by immersion in a 
molten lithium sulfate bath, and ends with titania-nucleated crystalli- 
zation of eucryptite crystals at the surface of the glass. 


332 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


OTHER USES FOR ION EXCHANGE 


The application of ion exchange in strengthening glass is only one 
of many examples of ionic and molecular diffusion and exchange, un- 
familiar to most of us, that play significant parts in the manufacture 
and uses of glass. 

The modern glass manufacturer immerses carbon electrodes into 
his continuous tank of molten glass and helps to heat it more uni- 
formly by using the glass melt as a resistance; and he heats and seals 
glass parts by taking advantage of the ionic conductivity of glass at 
elevated temperatures. 

The familiar red-stained chemical glassware and the yellow fog 
lenses of auto headlights are colored by reactions in which copper or 
silver ions replace an equal number of sodium ions in the glass sur- 
face at high temperature and are then reduced to colloidal metal by 
hydrogen or other reducing gases. 

Even at room temperature, the performance of glass electrode pH 
meters depends on ion exchange between hydrogen ion in the solu- 
tion being tested and cations in the glass electrode immersed in it. 
New glass electrodes have recently appeared on the market which also 
measure sodium and potassium ion concentrations, and even calcium 
concentration determinations have been reported. One of the signifi- 
cant papers of the Glass Congress is being presented by George Hisen- 
man, a medical doctor who is learning to interpret the structure of 
glass from glass electrode potentials in solutions of various cations. 
He hopes that glass electrodes can be used to understand the way in 
which cations such as sodium and potassium move through living 
tissues, since such movement is crucial to many metabolic processes. 


NEW INSIGHT INTO NUCLEATION 


The discoveries in the photochemistry and crystallization of glass 
described earlier have aroused the interest of a number of scientists 
researching the fundamental mechanisms involved in the earliest 
stages of a photochemical reaction or of crystallization. 

An example is the finding by R. D. Maurer of Corning that the 
smallest stable gold particle capable of growing into a gold crystal 
consists of 3 or 4 atoms; and that the smallest silver particle capable 
of nucleating the growth of a lithium silicate crystal is 80 angstroms 
in size. Such information can be valuable in testing theories as diverse 
as the theory of the photographic latent image, or the quantitative 
theory of nucleus formation in phase changes such as condensation of 
vapor or crystallization. Perhaps it is coincidence, perhaps not, that 
other investigators had previously found the “critical nucleus size” of 
supercooled water vapor—the smallest-size stable droplet capable of 
growing—to be also about 80 angstroms. 


MODERN GLASS—STOOKEY 333 


Considering the fact that every change in state of matter—con- 
densation of vapor to a liquid or a solid, crystallization or evapora- 
tion of a liquid, formation of a new crystal from an old one, every 
chemical reaction-—must be initiated by formation of nuclei of the 
new phase, it is amazing that so little fundamental research has been 
done on the subject of nucleation. One reason for the dearth of ex- 
perimental research may be the difficulty of holding the submicro- 
scopic nucleus still and preventing its instant alteration to a larger 
particle before its properties can be studied. If this is so, the new 
glass-ceramics may become a useful medium for this important re- 
search because the crystallization process can be initiated, controlled, 
or halted at will simply by cooling the glass (see pl. 3). 

By thus being able to examine the nuclei in situ, it becomes possible 
to make measurements of their number and size—a difficult procedure 
by condensation methods. This will permit a comparison between 
various theories of nucleation kinetics, since all such theories include 
the critical nucleus size and nucleation frequency as fundamental 
parameters. This is true even of Willard Gibbs’s early formulation 
relating the thermodynamic work required to form the smallest 
(critical) stable particle of a new phase. 


CAN GLASS BE ELECTRONICALLY CONDUCTIVE? 


All the electrical charge carriers in glass have traditionally been 
believed to be metal ions. One disadvantage of ionic conduction in 
glass is that movement of ions through the glass by diffusion alters the 
glass composition. This means the electrical characteristics of the 
glass can constantly vary with time. For example, glass conducting 
direct current by ion exchange can become “polarized” so that the 
conduction process becomes blocked. 

Much research is being directed toward overcoming such problems. 
Researchers in England (J. E. Stanworth), Holland (H. J. I. Trap 
and J. M. Stevels), and the U.S.A. (A. David Pearson et al. of 
Bell Telephone Laboratories) are currently reporting electronic con- 
ductivity in a variety of glasses. Some of these contain high concen- 
trations of vanadium pentoxide; others contain a single element addi- 
tive in two or more valency states; and still others are low-melting, 
nonoxide glasses combining arsenic, tellurium, and iodine. 

Undoubtedly there will be controversy as to whether these are truly 
amorphous glasses or whether the electrons originate in a crystalline 
component. Here again, the thorny question of molecular structure 
arises. It may be that an intermediate structure exists that permits 
electronic conductivity—a structure in which the molecules are more 
nearly ordered, as they are in crystals. 


334 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


STRONG GLASS IS FLEXIBLE 


We all think of glass as being rigid and brittle. In reality it is 
more elastic and flexible than spring steel. The reason that we have 
not been able to use this valuable property, except in glass fiber, is 
again the low strength. When we have mastered the strength prob- 
lem, we have automatically gained the important bonus of flexibility 
and elasticity. Glass springs, flexible windows, and other manifesta- 
tions of these properties are within sight. Already, tempered glass 
springs have been flexed for millions of cycles without the work- 
hardening or fatigue that occurs in metals. 

While glass is elastic, it is completely nonmalleable and nonductile 
except at high temperatures. Ductility implies an irreversible yield 
or flow under stress, lead metal being a good example of ductile mate- 
rial. If we could give glass a little ductility, it would help a great deal 
in decreasing the complete, “catastrophic” nature of the break, as well 
as preventing very high local stresses from building up without relief 
by flow. 

So far, there seems to be no practical solution to this problem. It 
may be that current work by J. A. Pask at the University of California 
and others on the ductility of single crystals of the alkali halides and 
magnesium oxide will shed some light on this problem, particularly 
with respect to the glass ceramics. However, the step from single 
erystals to polycrystalline materials is sure to be great. 


OLDEST GLASS GETS NEW RESEARCH 


Fused silica is a one-component glass, simply silicon dioxide, and 
as such is one of the simplest and oldest glasses in existence. Tradi- 
tionally, it has been made by melting quartz sand, but many modern 
applications for this material require a purity and homogeneity 
beyond that provided by this simple method. 

High-purity silica can now be made by high-temperature hydrolysis 
of silicon tetrachloride. The products of this reaction are pure silicon 
dioxide and hydrochloric acid. The silica condenses out continuously 
as a growing disk of optical-quality, amorphous glass. The HCl 
passes off as vapor. 

Where is this improved material utilized? Recent research has 
shown that the small gas molecules of helium and hydrogen, normally 
blocked by glass, diffuse readily through high silica glass. Hence, 
serious thought is being given to use of such glass as molecular sieves 
for separation of helium from natural gas. Hydrogen diffuses more 
slowly than its molecular size would suggest, the reason being that it 
reacts chemically with the glass. 

High-purity silica crucibles are employed in manufacture of pure 
single-crystal silicon for transistors. The same high-purity material 
is the heart of acoustical delay lines used in computers, because its 


MODERN GLASS—STOOKEY 335 


attenuation of sound waves is uniquely low. Thus, an electrical signal 
can start a sound wave bounding around inside a specially shaped 
piece of silica until the acoustic energy is needed to generate a second 
signal. ‘This high-purity silica glass is also transparent to the whole 
optical spectrum from the vacuum ultraviolet (185 millimicrons) to 
the near infrared, and is not discolored—as many glasses are, includ- 
ing less pure silica—by exposure to high-energy radiation, so that it 
is useful in special optical instruments employing light in the uv 
range. 


The Great Earthquakes of May 1960 
in Chile’ 


By Pierre Saint-AMAND 


U.S. Naval Ordnance Test Station, 
China Lake, Calif. 


[With 10 plates] 


INTRODUCTION 


During the period of May through June 1960 there occurred a 
series of earthquakes and seismic sea waves? of catastrophic propor- 
tions that devasted large areas of Chile. An eruption of Volcan 
Puyehue occurred. A minor eruption of Volcan Calbuco began on 
January 25 of the following year, and the uplift and subsidence along 
the coastline caused by the earthquake and the subsequent tsunami 
rendered all marine navigational charts of the affected areas obso- 
lete. All small boats, several ships, and all docking facilities were 
destroyed. The times of high and low tides in the Gulf of Chiloé 
were changed. 

Apart from the physical changes of the terrain, the damage to 
industry, private property, utilities, and communications was both 
widespread and catastrophic in its effect. Recovery will take many 
years and vast sums of money. Known deaths from the earthquake 
numbered about 500, and, from the maremotos, about 1,000. ‘The 
number of injured ran into thousands, and there are still numbers 
of persons missing and unaccounted for. 

Except for some notable instances of local initiative, the commu- 
nications systems broke down and rumor magnified the incidents and 
damage far beyond the facts; until communications and news media 
were restored, various degrees of chaos prevailed in isolated areas, 
compounding the difficulties of relief efforts. Despite the incredible 
conditions and persistent bad weather, some semblance of normality 

1 Reprinted by permission, in modified form, from Technical Article 14, Michelson Labora- 
tories, U.S. Naval Ordnance Test Station, China Lake, Calif., August 1961. 


“In geological terminology, known by the Japanese name “‘tsunami’’ or the Spanish name 
“maremoto.’’ These names will henceforth be used in this article. 


337 


338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


was restored within 2 weeks by the Herculean efforts of the Chileans 
and the relief expeditions of their North and South American 
neighbors. 

THE FIRST PHASE 


The first large shock of this series of earthquakes occurred at about 
6 a.m., local time, on the morning of Saturday, May 21, 1960, the 
anniversary of the famous battle of Iquique. This shock, magnitude 
714 (on the Richter scale), had its epicenter in the peninsula of 
Arauco (fig. 1), a projection of the Chilean coast lying to the south 
of Concepcién. This earthquake left a zone of intensity of about 
VIII on the Modified Mercalli (MM) scale, having a length of 
some 100 km. and a width of about 40 km. Nowhere was there a 
clear-cut zone of extremely high intensity. From this it was possible 
to conclude that the focus of the earthquake had a depth of 50 km. 
or more beneath the surface of the earth. The damage from this 
earthquake was largely confined to the city of Concepcion (pl. 1, 
figs. 1 and 2) and to the chain of coal-mining towns situated along 
the Arauco Peninsula. There was some damage to towns in the 
central valley and to roads and railroads. 

All day Saturday aftershocks were felt in the epicentral area, and 
the activity continued through Sunday. At about 2:45 p.m. on Sun- 
day a strong but not seriously destructive shock was felt. Over all 
of southern Chile people became alarmed and left their homes to 
go into the streets. They were still standing in the streets when at 
about 3:15 p.m. the remezén struck. This fortunate circumstance 
saved the lives of many thousands of people, who, had they remained 
indoors, would surely have been killed by the fall of houses and of 
architectural gingerbread as they fled to the streets. 

The motion of the ground during the remez6n was as if one were 
at sea in a small boat in a heavy swell. The ground rose and fell 
slowly with a smooth, rolling motion, smaller oscillations being 
superimposed on larger ones. In Concepcién cars and trucks parked 
by the side of the road rolled to and fro over a distance of 14 m. while 
they bobbed up and down in response to the movement of the ground. 
The tops of the trees waved and tossed as in a tempest. Some already 
damaged buildings fell. The earthquake itself was silent; not a 
sound came from the earth. The period of vibration was of the 
order of 10 to 20 seconds or more. The shaking lasted fully 31% 
minutes and was followed for the next hour by other shocks, all 
having a slow, rolling motion. It was learned later that in all parts 
of the affected zone the movement was similar. Nowhere did anyone 
report the short, brusque movement typical of a locality near an 
epicenter. In the Region of the Lakes, for example at Llifen, the 
movement began smoothly and continued for some 2 minutes, just 
as in other localities, when, suddenly, a loud subterranean noise was 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 339 


CHILLAN 


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Ficure 1.—Sketch map of northern region of the earthquake zone. 


340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


heard, followed by a sharp jarring motion and a more rapid, less 
regular vibration of the earth. Similar reports were obtained at other 
points to the east of the Lakes, and it seems from these that another 
earthquake took place here, between Lago Villarrica and Lago Todos 
los Santos (figs. 2 and 3), while the ground was still shaking from 
the first shock. Similar reports were received from Maullin, Ancud, 
and Puerto Montt (figs. 3 and 4). 


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Ficure 2.—Sketch map of central region of the earthquake zone. 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 341 


VOL, PUNTIAGUDO 


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Ficure 3.—Sketch map of southern region of the earthquake zone. 


Owing to the sparse settlement of the southern part of the affected 
zone and the difficulty of access, little is known of the effects of shak- 
ing there. A number of severe landslides occurred in several places, 
notably near the settlement of Puerto Cisnes on Isla Magdalena. It 
has not been established whether this was produced during the main 
shock or during one of the larger aftershocks. 

The seismograph at Concepcién was completely destroyed by the 
first shock and thus was useless. However, the station at Santiago 


342 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


BAHIA 
MAULLIN 


PEN, LAJSLA 


FLOODED \ 


Figure 4.—Sketch map of Isla Chiloé and surrounding area where extensive damage 
occurred. 


continued recording tremors every hour or so for the first day. Dr. 
Cinna Lomnitz and his colleagues at the Instituto de Sismologia inter- 
preted these as being to the south and situated over a distance of 400 
to 1,000 km. Over a period of several days the area of the activity 
spread southward, and strong shocks were felt on the Peninsula de 
Taitao. It was sufficiently clear, by this time, that Chile was being 
subjected to an earthquake swarm of major proportions and that the 
active area comprised a width of some 160 km. and a length of almost 
1,600 km. 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 343 


INVESTIGATIONS 


As soon as it was possible to organize properly and equip field 
parties, the Instituto de Investigaciones Geoldgicas (ILG), the 
Chilean Geological Survey, under the direction of Don Carlos Ruiz, 
and the Escuela de Geologia under the direction of Don Humberto 
Fuenzalida, working in unison, divided the south into four parts and 
sent four trucks, each with a group of geologists, into each of the areas. 
They remained for about 3 weeks, making observations of earthquake 
damage and recording all the geologic effects that could be observed. 
Each group carried food, water, gasoline, and camping equipment. 

A fifth expedition was sent by private plane to make an aerial ex- 
amination of the epicentral region and to study the needs of the people 
in the region so that aid could be distributed more effectively. The 
plane was placed at the disposal of the investigation by its owner, 
Vernon Goakes, son of Harry Goakes, chief of the U.S. ICA Civil 
Air Mission to Chile. 

Subsequently, personnel of the U.S. Geological Survey, the Inter- 
national Cooperation Administration, the U.S. Department of State, 
the University of California, and various other organizations joined 
the Chilean groups in the field work. Scientific personnel from Mex- 
ico, France, West Germany, and Japan came to do what they could 
to help. The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the California Insti- 
tute of Technology, and the University of California at Los Angeles 
all contributed information. The results of the observations by these 
people are summarized in this article. A detailed study of structural 
damage was undertaken by members of the Earthquake Engineering 
Research Institute and will be published elsewhere. 


DISTRIBUTION OF INTENSITY 


There were two zones of high intensity. One zone lay along the 
coast from about Puerto Saavedra to the south of Isla Chiloé. The 
intensity varied in this region from MMVIII to IX, with occasional 
high points where landsliding and settling of overloaded ground de- 
stroyed parts of some of the larger cities (pls. 2 and 3, and pl. 4, fig. 1). 
The intensity in the central valley was less—VI to VIII. There, 
comparatively little damage was noted except near river banks where 
landslides destroyed a number of buildings, and the railroad and high- 
way were interrupted. <A second zone of high intensity, coincident 
with the Reloncavi Fault (fig. 3), was found to the east of the Lakes. 
Here, a long narrow band some tens of kilometers wide and several 
hundred kilometers long suffered from a rapid high-intensity shaking. 
The two zones converged toward the south. 

In the Lakes Region landslides occurred in thousands of localities. 
Waves were produced in the Lakes by the earthquake, and an oscilla- 

672-174 63 25 


344 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


tion of over 1 meter in height was noted on Lago Panguipulli (fig. 2). 
All the smaller lakes were muddied by the movements of the waters, 
by the landslide material carried into the lakes by the slides them- 
selves, and by the rivers. 

The strongest shaking observed occurred on Isla Chiloé, where, 
over an area of 10 by 30 km., many trees, both green and dry, were 
snapped off by the ferocity of the shaking. In some instances the 
branches of dry trees were snapped from the trunk and fell to the 
ground in a circle around the trees. Some trees fell to one side or the 
other, pulling their roots from the swampy ground. 

The ground was cracked in many places in the south, usually by 
landslides. Lurch-cracks were observed in many places near Puerto 
Montt and on Isla Chiloé (figs. 3 and 4). The Longitudinal Highway 
was cracked in many places, usually by the settling of fill. Near 
Puerto Varas a small car that was being driven along the road at 
the time of the earthquake sank into the soft subgrade that was ex- 
posed when the concrete surface of the road floated off to the sides. 
This was caused by a liquefaction and subsidence of the subgrade and 
the soil upon which the road was built (pl. 4, fig. 2). A person who 
had been pushing a handcart was subsequently found buried in the 
resolidified mud. 

The towns of Valdivia and Puerto Montt (figs. 2 and 3) were 
extensively damaged by small-scale landslides and by earth flows. 
The soil in both localities, being a fine-grained, water-soaked silty 
clay, became liquid when subjected to the shaking of the earth. In 
the harbor of Puerto Montt the motor ship Puyehue was caught in an 
alluvion, a current of sand and mud that flowed from a nearby dock 
area into the bay, thus creating for itself the unique distinction of 
being the first ship in history to go aground in a landslide. Unable 
to remove the ship, but undaunted, the owners converted it into a 
hotel. 

Application of the MM scale to this earthquake is practically im- 
possible. The damage was done by the main shock and by a large 
number of subsequent shocks. People became so confused that, in 
interrogation, it was difficult to establish exactly what happened when. 
One aspect in which the scale is not adequate concerns the effects of 
long-period waves. The long-period movements were certainly of 
great amplitude and produced small but persistent accelerations. 
These were responsible for the liquefaction of the soil in many places. 
The secondary effects, produced by landslides, soil creep, soil flow, 
and the settling of structures into the overloaded soil, were sufficiently 
impressive to assign MM intensity XI and possibly XII in some locali- 
ties, where less than a kilometer away in any direction an alarmist 
could not have assigned an MM intensity greater than VII. Figure 5 
shows the author’s best guesses as to intensity. 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 345 


CONSTITUCION 
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Figure 5.—Author’s estimate of MM intensities of affected areas. 


346 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


ARRIVAL OF THE MAREMOTO 


The inhabitants of the coastal towns, upon running outdoors at 
the arrival of the temblor de advertencia some 15 minutes before the 
large shock, noted that the sea was disturbed and that a small oscilla- 
tion seemed to be taking place. Being experienced in this sort of 
thing, they continued to watch the ocean. During the big shock the 
sea was disturbed, and in some instances it rose a little; in others, it 
fell. Then, suddenly they noted that the sea was beginning to retreat 
from the shores, exposing the ocean floor to distances well beyond 
the lowest tides. When this happened, the fire alarms were sounded, 
and firemen and carabineros systematically went through the streets 
warning everyone of the impending danger. The people fled afoot 
and on horseback to the hills and waited. Those on horseback made 
repeated trips to save the old and infirm. After 15 to 30 minutes, the 
sea returned, advancing upon the shore in a wave that was, in places, 
over 20 feet high. The wave rushed over the land, covering and 
carrying away the houses, killing the animals that could not be evac- 
uated, and carrying off some of the people who, for one reason or an- 
other, had not left their homes. Plate 5, figure 1, shows the remains 
of Puerto Saavedra (figs. 1 and 2). In Queule (fig. 2), according to 
press reports, nearly 500 people were lost because they returned to 
their houses too soon or because they had failed to notice the warning 
of the receding water. 

In several villages along the southern coast, such as Carelmapu 
(fig. 3), the mariscadores, or shellfish collectors, took advantage of 
the recession of the sea to wander over the exposed sea floor collecting 
shellfish in their baskets. When they had collected more than the 
usual quantity of mussels and locos, they returned to the shore, climbed 
upon the hills, and waited for the water to return. The waves con- 
tinued all afternoon. The third or fourth wave was reported as the 
highest. Several days later, a group of mapuchis or Araucanian 
Indians sacrificed a 7-year-old boy to the gods of the sea to calm the 
remorseless surf. 

The maremoto carried away all coastal docking facilities and sank 
innumerable small boats. About 200 people were lost on Isla Chiloé 
(fig. 3), where, fearing the earthquake, they took to small boats to 
escape the shaking earth. In Ancud, for example, the sea withdrew 
past Isla Cochinos (fig. 4), carrying the small boats with it. Upon the 
return of the sea in a thunderous breaker, all were lost. 

Several larger ships were sunk near Valdivia. One notable example 
is the M.V. Canelos, which may still be seen obstructing the Rio 
Valdivia. A ship of 3,000 tons was washed onto the beach on Isla 
Mocha. 

The sea wave produced the most serious effects from Concepcién to 
the south end of Isla Chiloé. The maximum height seems to have 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 347 


been between Puerto Saavedra and Bahia Mansa (fig. 2). The height 
at which the wave arrived depended greatly on the configuration of the 
sea coast. 

The maremoto was observed at Cumberland on the island of Mas a 
Tierra in the Juan Fernandez group, located some 480 km. west of 
Valparaiso. There, it began as a lowering of the sea, at about 4:15 
p-m., local time, followed in about 10 minutes by a rise of 144 m. 
The sea oscillated several times, doing essentially no damage. Cum- 
berland Bay is sheltered somewhat by the island, and so the portion of 
the wave received was, in part, only a diffracted wave; however, the 
island rises abruptly from the deep and has essentially no sloping 
submarine platform. Hence, it can be said that the actual sea wave 
at this distance was more than 2 m. in amplitude. 

On the Isla Mocha (fig. 1) the maremoto began as a withdrawal of 
the sea (so it was reported). However, the shaking there was so fierce, 
with cows, horses, and people falling to the ground, that it is quite 
possible that no one noticed the first movements of the water. The sea 
seemed to “stand still, backing up against itself, the water boiling as 
it withdrew.” When it returned, it reached at least 14 km. inland on 
the eastern shore, destroying the government radio station and the 
docks and scattering the remains of a two-story fieldstone building 
located 500 m. from the shore some 200 m. up the gentle slope. As the 
sea withdrew, it clawed grooves out of the grass, exposing the shell- 
rich soil beneath in parallel furrows 1 m. wide and 20 m. long. A 
private pilot, hunting on the island, had left his plane parked on the 
beach. Feeling the lurching of the earthquake, he realized what was 
going to happen, and ran to his plane. Starting the motor, he raced, 
without waiting to warm the engine, into a frantic takeoff; but, just as 
the plane became airborne, a wave reached it. The plane was carried 
to some trees where the quick-witted pilot leaped from the craft to 
cling to a tree. The plane was carried out to sea. 

Damage to vegetation from the tsunami was also noted on the west- 
ern shore, and, although no detailed observations were made there, 
the waves did not seem to reach as high as on the eastern shore. 

A very readable account of the maremoto, written by Captain 
Andrade[1]? of the Chilean Navy Hydrographic Office, details the 
effects of the maremoto all along the coast. A more recent manuscript 
by Sievers, at the same office, gives more complete information. 


ERUPTION OF VOLCAN PUYEHUE 


At 2:45 p.m. on May 24 the crew of a U.S. Air Force plane, return- 
ing to Santiago from Puerto Montt, piloted by Col. William R. Cal- 
houn, USAF, noticed that an explosion was taking place on the side of 


2 Numbers in brackets refer to the list of references at end of article. 


348 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Voleén Puyehue (fig. 2). The same plane had passed the volcano at 
1:30 p.m. on the trip south. At the time they saw the eruption a 
cloud of ash and steam had ascended to at least 20,000 feet, and the 
volcano was in an explosive phase of its eruption. Large smoking 
rocks flew through the air, and the gigantic explosions, heard inside 
the aircraft, reminded the crew members forcibly of their wartime 
experiences with antiaircraft fire. 

The eruption continued for several weeks. Ash and steam were 
emitted along the length of a fissure about 300 m. long, situated on 
the northwestern flank of the crater of Puyehue itself (pl. 8, fig. 2). 
The zone of fissuring was about 100 m. wide. Steam emerged from 
8 or 10 bocas, and volcanic ash from one or two larger orifices. The 
ash falling near the holes made a small cone around the larger of 
these orifices. The ash from the volcano made a beautiful panache 
against the sky and was driven by the wind over the mountains where 
it fell, giving the landscape the aspect of a fresh fall of somewhat 
sooty snow. For several days ash fell in the central valley, and some 
alarm was expressed by farm owners who feared for their pastures. 
Fortunately, no harm was done. 

The ash eruption was followed by the discharge of a viscous lava, 
making several flows about 1 km. in length. The eruption seemed to 
be terminated when the area was visited on July 22; the lava, although 
still hot, was no longer in motion. 

The local newspapers, in an unparalleled burst of enthusiasm, re- 
ported that 12 volcanoes had exploded and that 2 new ones had been 
formed. Lava was reported to be flowing down the sides of several of 
these volcanoes, and towns were said to have been buried. Because of 
the bad weather and poor visibility in the central valley, the in- 
habitants of the valley towns all believed that the volcanoes were, 
indeed, erupting and were concerned by the situation for a period of 
several weeks. Newspapers and news magazines all over the world 
repeated and enlarged on these stories. 

The last eruption noted in this region was that of Volcan Nilahue 
(fig. 2), located on Cerro Carran (and sometimes referred to by that 
name). Nilahue, situated some 20 km. north of Puyehue crater, 
erupted in July and August 1955, discharging ash and dust [2]. The 
last eruption previous to this one seems to have been that of Volcan 
Rininahue, some 3 km. to the south, in 1907. The last eruption 
ascribed to Puyehue proper was in 1905, according to Gutenberg and 
Richter [3]. 

Las Azufreras, a fumarolic area on the northwestern flank of 
Puyehue, erupted in 1921 and January 1922 with a large outpouring 
of lava [4]. Cassertano‘ points out that the location given by 


3 Unpublished IIG manuscript by Carlos Klohn. 
4Personal communication to Pierre Saint-Amand, dated 1960. 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 349 


Krumm [5, 6] is erroneous. The 1960 eruption was probably from 
the same fissures as the 1921 eruption. 

An eruption of Volcin Calbuco, certainly a part of this same 
seismic crisis began on January 25, 1961, with the emission of steam 
clouds and the production of earth tremors was reported by Erick 
Klohn. On February 1 the first of a series of three lahars swept down 
the slopes of the voleano and into Lake Llanquihue. Several small 
streams of lava were emitted in late February and on March 10th a 
large explosion occurred, accompanied by emission of ash and ejection 
of large bombs. 

A new volcano was reported by an Argentine helicopter pilot to be 
erupting on the coast about 40 km. north of Valdivia near the town of 
Curinanco (fig. 2). A crater several meters high was reported to 
have formed and was apparently throwing rocks and ash into the 
air. A submarine eruption was reported near this cite by bush pilots 
several days after the earthquake, but the fact could not be confirmed. 
There does not seem to have been volcanic activity in this area before. 
None of these reports was confirmed, and it is suspected that what was 
observed was a sand-blow, or mud volcano. 

Sand-blows, or mud volcanoes, were observed in many places and 
were usually taken to be new volcanoes; however, these are effects of 
vibration and soil compaction on subterranean water and have noth- 
ing to do with real volcanoes. 


FAULTING 


The careful ground and aerial search made by the field parties did 
not disclose any clear-cut cases of faulting, that is to say, large displace- 
ment of the land surface, such as have been observed in other earth- 
quakes. In several places to the east of the Lakes, specifically on the 
eastern side of Lago Calafquen (fig. 2), large cracks were found in 
the ground that could have been produced either by faulting or by 
landsliding. 

Weischet [7] reported a fault near Mehuin (fig. 2) that strikes 
N. 53° E. and shows 114 to 3 cm. left lateral movement with about 
3 cm. of sidewise separation. He reported a length of at least 300 m. 
He shows a photograph and discusses what is obviously a type of 
fault trace observed near Ensenada on Lake Llanquihue (fig. 3). 
The general trace runs N. 13° E. for “hundreds of meters,” and shows 
no apparent lateral movement. Unfortunately, the trace is on alluvial 
terrain. The same material is discussed by von Bauer [8]. 

In one of the astonishing accounts of the earthquake, a faultlike 
trough some 30 km. long and 300 m. deep was reported to have formed 
in the Lakes Region. A systematic search did not reveal this feature, 
and it is probable that it was a misinterpretation of a more conven- 


350 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


tional terrain feature such as a river bank seen under conditions of 
poor visibility, or perhaps it was simply an invention. 


CHANGES IN LAND LEVEL 


Some bona fide changes of land level occurred. The western side 
of the Arauco Peninsula seems to have been uplifted 114 meters, ex- 
posing a new beach at Lebu [9]. The uplift at Lebu appears to have 
decreased slightly with the passage of time (pl. 5, fig. 2). When 
visited in October, the uplift was between 14 and 1 m. Fitzroy [10, 11] 
in 1835 reported similar behavior of Isla Santa Maria, a few tens of 
kilometers to the north. A flight over Santa Maria revealed that no 
change had resulted from this earthquake. Isla Mocha has risen 
about 214 m. above its former level. Rocks, formerly buried, are 
now exposed, and places where people had to dive to collect sea 
urchins are now washed by the surf. The waves now break on a 
wave-cut platform, the old beach is high and dry, and the intervening 
space is covered with dead shell fish. The foundation of the dock 
is currently out of water, as may be seen in plate 6, figure 1. Some 
small islets to the south of Isla Mocha are now united and are sur- 
rounded with skirts of wave-cut rock (pl. 6, fig. 2). There seems 
to have been no change in elevation in the months following the 
earthquake, and the uplift seems to be permanent. Evidence of pre- 
vious changes is abundant on the uplifted terrace forming the flanks 
of Isla Mocha. Andrade [1] reports that Isla Guafo also rose a like 
amount and that Isla Guafito is now connected to Isla Guafa by dry 
land. 

In general, however, the coast southward of the Arauco Peninsula 
dropped between 1 and 2m. This was first noticed when the mare- 
moto failed to recede after its last oscillation. In Puerto Saavedra, 
the streets remained covered with water for several days, but 5 days 
later they had almost completely dried off. The sea, however, re- 
mains higher than it was in many places, and large areas of land near 
Maullin and on Isla Chiloé (fig. 3) are still covered with water and 
will probably remain thus. The beach, Playa de Llagua, is now 
covered, and the Peninsula La Isla (fig. 4) is now, indeed, an island. 
Lebu, Isla Santa Maria, Isla Mocha, the Arauco Peninsula, and the 
Puerto Saavedra may be located on the map in figure 1. 

On Isla Chiloé, the Rio Pudeto and Rio Huillinco (fig. 4) now cover 
parts of the railroad and highway (pl. 8, fig. 1) several kilometers 
from their former shores. Evidence of submersion may be seen all 
along the western side of Isla Chiloé. 


FLOODING 
Not only was there considerable flooding caused by the subsidence 
of whole blocks of the continent on a tectonic scale, but there was 
also flooding produced by the rivers. The soil along the river banks 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 351 


and in the valley was compacted and settled, placing the land surface 
lower than before. The earthquake shook water out of the ground, 
and the normal discharge of the rivers was greatly augmented. All 
these factors, coupled with the almost continuous rain, put a number 
of rivers in full flood and added to the problems of the inhabitants 
Glam): 

Among the landslides produced, one was especially notable both 
for its size and the amount of damage done. This slide took place 
on the Rio San Pedro about 4 km. downstream from Lago Rinihue 
(fig. 2 and pl. 9, fig. 1). The slide was some 3 km. in length and 
consisted almost entirely of clay. An oversteepened bank on the 
north side of the river slid over the old river channel along a bed 
of water-saturated clay. 

The slide dammed the river, and the level of Lago Rinihue rose 
about 20 m. before the stream overflowed the natural dam (fig. 2). 
Engineers of the National Power Co. worked feverishly to cut a 
channel across and around the slide to prevent additional rising of 
the lake. The drainage from several nearby lakes contributing to 
Rinihue was shut off artificially in order to prevent excessive rise of 
the water in Rinihue. The dam was opened in July and the lake 
drained, causing a flood of the sort that occurs every few years during 
seasons of heavy rain. 


LUMINOUS PHENOMENA 


Several people reported luminous phenomena associated with the 
earthquakes. The most interesting reports come from the Arauco 
Peninsula, where, it was reported, people in Canete (fig. 1) saw a 
luminous glow in the air associated with these larger aftershocks. 
The phenomenon was described by a pilot who, with three passengers, 
was trying to sleep in his plane. The plane bounced around a great 
deal during the night, sliding some 4 m. southward over the slippery 
surface of the field. 

The light was described as coming from the air, beginning abruptly 
with the sound from the aftershocks, and rising to a fairly constant 
level in less than 1 second. It continued for perhaps 40 to 50 sec- 
onds, dying out more slowly, with a decay time of a few seconds. 
It was seen only during the stronger aftershocks. The light was de- 
scribed as a “fosforescencia del aire de un color azulverdoso.” The 
effect seemed brightest at the horizon to the south and east. The sky 
was quite clear. There was no electric power available anywhere 
on the peninsula, which could have caused the phenomenon, all the 
power having been shut off because of the earthquakes. 

The pilot also reported changes in compass headings during this 
time, but this might have been due to jostling of the aircraft or to 
imagination. This account is reported here as being typical of in- 


302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


stances of light seen during earthquakes. The slight overelaboration 
of the report indicates a possible element of invention. The phenom- 
enon is probably psychological in nature, but it certainly merits 
study. 

GEOLOGY 


The geology of the southern part of Chile is largely unknown in 
detail. Mudfioz-Christi [12] has discussed the region, and, recently, 
Sr. Luis Aguirre of the IIG has compiled a map of the outstanding 
features of the region. An excellent discussion of the orography 
is to be found in Fuenzalida [13]. 

At latitude 3714° S. the country consists, on the Arauco Peninsula, 
of Tertiary marine, estuartial, and continental deposits placed, it ap- 
pears, unconformably over schists and phylites of unknown but pos- 
sibly Pre-Cambrian age. These sediments contain most of Chile’s 
coal. The peninsula is cut every few kilometers by strong northward- 
trending faults of varying vertical displacement. The largest of 
these, the Arauco fault zone, may be followed from Concepcién across 
the peninsula as a discontinuous break. A branch of this fault passes 
to the west of Lago Lanalhue, the lake being dammed by uplift 
of the peninsular block along this fault. 

The Santa Fe fault zone, actually an ancillary member of the 
Arauco fault zone, passes through the town of Lebu. It shows clear- 
out strike-slip topography, modified, of course, by the deeply 
weathered colluvium. This zone almost certainly moved during the 
earthquake or during an aftershock. Smal] landslides developed 
along its length, and cracks could be seen from the air on the hills on 
either side. The bridge crossing the Rio Lebu was ruptured over 
the fault zone, but, unfortunately, no record was made of the displace- 
ment before repairs were made. 

The faulting in the Arauco Peninsula is exceptionally well devel- 
oped, and when aerial photographs or good maps are available, it will 
be an important area to study. Some idea of the complexity of the 
faulting may be had from Fenner and Wenzel [14]. 

To the eastward, in the Cerros de Nahuelbuta, one encounters the 
southern end of the coast-range batholith of probably mid-Cretaceous 
age. This batholith terminates at about Traigtien (fig. 1). South- 
ward, except for miniscule outcrops south and west of Corral, the 
batholith does not reappear in the coastal hills for 7 degrees of latitude. 
The coast range is cut by a number of north-south faults of consider- 
able extent. ‘These form the boundaries of the central valley. 

One gigantic fault passes near the town of Lumaco (fig. 1) and is 
very notable because of the complex geomorphology of the region. 
The Rio Lumaco flows into a closed basin, forming a large, swampy 
area. The basin is bounded on the east by the Lumaco fault. This 
fault is almost invisible from the ground but is quite obvious from the 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 353 


air. It is cut off on the south by a large, northwesterly trending fault 
that forms the valley in which the town of Capitan Paistene lies. The 
interesting thing is that the batholith appears to be dextrally offset for 
several tens of kilometers along this fault. More detailed mapping in 
this area might reveal whether this were a real offset. 

The central valley at this latitude is narrower than in the region of 
Chillan, and southward of Victoria the valley is replaced by a series 
of low hills. The valley is a broad, graben-like depression bounded 
on the east by the frontal scarp of the Andes. The valley in the region 
of Chillan is thought to be filled with several thousand meters of sedi- 
ments of glacial and fluvial origin [15]. 

The frontal scarp of the Andes is markedly straight and abrupt, 
being bounded by a series of subparallel north-south faults of great 
vertical displacement. 

The Andes, here, are composed of andesite porphyries and sediments 
derived therefrom, of probable mid-Cretaceous age, covered in part 
by effluvia of Recent volcanoes and intruded occasionally by masses 
of Andean granodiorite and diorite. These are folded and faulted. 
The mountains have a general level of about 2,000 m., some volcanoes 
reaching over 3,500 m. The eastern side of the Andes is bounded 
by a series of north-south faults forming large blockranges with a 
descent, in some places gradual, in others abrupt, to the Argentine 
pampas. 

At about latitude 3914° S. the coast suffers an embayment. The 
coast range, here composed entirely of the metamorphic sequence, has 
degenerated to a series of low hills extending to within a few kilo- 
meters of the line of lakes. The central valley is absent, except for a 
narrow strip between the hills and the lakes Rinihue, Pangipulli, and 
Calafquen (fig. 2). The character of the Andes, here, is different. 
The average summit level of the hills is about 1,000 m. less than that 
of those to the north. 

The change begins at about Volcan Llaima (fig. 2). A line of lakes, 
apparently bounded on the west by a system of faults and lying in 
partially glaciated valleys, extends to the south like beads on a string. 
The next “lake” comprises Seno Reloncavi and the Golfo de Ancud. 
A line of active and dormant volcanoes rising above the dissected, 
mesalike surface of the Andes dominates the eastern sky lines. 

The mountains here, as those farther north, are composed of the 
same volcanic-sedimentary sequence, partially covered with lavas and 
intruded by granitic rocks. The outstanding difference is that the 
intrusive rocks form almost the entire range, the batholith now being 
confined to the Andes rather than to the coastal range. The question 
arises, has the batholith been offset by some gigantic sinistral-shear 
system, or is it a different batholith from that of the coastal hills? 


354 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


At about latitude 41° S. the coast range again consists of a series 
of low hills of metamorphic rocks. The central valley is broad; and 
the Andes Mountains are more clearly defined. Farther south the 
coastal range becomes the Isla Chiloé and the Archipelago de Los 
Chonos. The lake basins join with the central valley to form the in- 
land waterway of the archipelago. At about the Peninsula de Taitao 
the coastal range merges with the Andes, and the central valley again 
becomes indistinguishable, except as a troughlike channel marking 
the great faults in Estuario de Los Elefantes, in Canal Moraleda, and 
in Canal Errazuriz. The faults at this point swing seaward and 
are lost beneath the ocean. 

This region has a topography similar to that of southeastern Alaska, 
where glaciers have scoured out the ground rock in the fault zones 
leaving the structure of the region clearly exposed [13]. Long faults 
abound. The fault of Estuario de Los Elefantes has, near Laguna 
San Rafael, recent escarpments in the alluvium several tens of meters 
in height. 

Another important fault begins about Volcan Michinmavida (fig. 
3), passes through Estuario Reloncavi, Cayutue, and Lago Todos los 
Santos and continues northward below or near Volcan Puyehue. The 
fault is marked by a long, troughlike valley with volcanoes on either 
side that, occasionally, obstruct the valley. This general zone, with 
a similar line slightly west along which volcanoes Shoshuence, Villar- 
rica, Llaima, Lonquimay, Calafquen, and Antuco are found (fig. 2), 
extends to the region of Lago Laja and possibly farther north. 
Klohn® has described this lineament as a volcanic fracture zone. The 
topography is strongly suggestive of strike-slip faulting in the past, 
although it may no longer be active as a strike-slip fault. This com- 
plex of faulting marked the eastern edge of the active zone during 
this sequence of earthquakes. A similar, possibly related, fault con- 
necting with this one is clearly indicated by the courses of Rio Frio 
and Rio Palena. 

The offshore topography is quite interesting. A long, narrow 
ocean deep parallels the Chilean coast and is bounded on the east by 
a great scarp running roughly parallel to the coast. For example, 
along latitude 41° S. the sea deepens gradually, reaching a depth of 
some 1,000 m. 60 km. from shore; 18 km. farther offshore the depth 
becomes 3,562 m. 

During the last 2 years a study of faulting in Chile has been under- 
taken in collaboration with Prof. Clarence R. Allen, of the California 
Institute of Technology, with emphasis upon work in the Atacama 
Desert of northern Chile. In general, the faulting in the northern 
and central parts of the country consists of two conjugate systems, one 


5 Oral communication from Carlos Klohn to Pierre Saint-Amand, dated 1960. 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 355 


a right-handed strike-slip system oriented roughly parallel to the coast, 
the second a left-handed system oriented about 60 degrees to the east- 
ward of the other. These faults are presently active. 

Another observation is that the Chilean coast is, in general, sub- 
merging along these great faults. The faults inland, in the coastal 
mountains and in the central valley, move primarily horizontally ; 
those in the Andes also slip horizonally, but there is, as well, a strong 
component of vertical uplift on these with the mountains continuing 
to grow with the passage of time. Those faults at the edge of the 
coast show a tendency to permit the oceanward block to drop obliquely 
beneath the sea, shding northward as it goes down. There is ample 
evidence that certain portions of the coast and even some extensive 
areas such as the Mejillones Peninsula are rising. However, lack of 
Recent or Tertiary marine sediments along the flanks of the coast 
range counterindicate post-Cretaceous submergence and subsequent 
uplift. The faulting along the coast must be nearly vertical in order 
to produce the extremely straight coast line. 

The observations, while valid for northern Chile, have not been 
proved for southern Chile. In the discussion that follows it is im- 
plicitly assumed that the same facts hold true, although it must be 
remembered that this may not be so. For example, the peninsula of 
Arauco and a portion of the offshore platform are obviously rising 
while the coastal strip itself is sinking, perhaps forming a new sub- 
marine central valley. 

There is always a concentration of activity at either end of the 
active fault zone with, usually, a section of reduced activity along the 
main fault. The active area is bounded by a rough quadrilateral some 
350 by 1,000 km. The maximum energy released by the earthquakes 
subsequent to the main shock was near the Arauco Peninsula. The 
length of the fault that actually moved must have been about 1,200 
km. This is analogous to the great Kamchatka earthquake of 1952 
alee 

From the strain distribution, it is obvious that the most energy 
came from the eastern block. This and the greater extent of the de- 
formed zone on the eastern side indicate a greater energy storage in 
the eastern block, or a fault that dips under the blocks to the east. 
The changes in elevation of the coast line and islands are such that 
the fault seems certainly to lie between Isla Guafo, Isla Mocha (fig. 
1), and the coast. Also the arguments adduced on the basis of the 
tsuami indicate an origin near the coast. 

The energy radiated by the large earthquake was distributed along 
this fault and not solely at the epicenter. This means that towns to 
the south of the epicenter felt the quake more severely than those to 
the north. The distribution of intensity, as shown by a high intensity 


356 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


all along the coast from Puerto Saavedra to the south end of Isla 
Chiloé (figs. 2 and 3), with the observed intensity a maximum at the 
coast, 1s quite in accordance with these factors. 

The fault movement began in the north and progressed southward. 
This tended to focus the energy of the surface waves southward and 
to decrease the period of waves in that direction. Prof. Hugo Beni- 
off,° of the California Institute of Technology, indicated that the 
fracturing was definitely of a progressive type and that the period of 
the surface waves, as recorded in Peru, was much greater for the 
waves arriving by the short are than for those that went all the way 
around the world before arriving. 

Recent work by Aki [18], using Rayleigh waves, indicates that the 
aftershocks of the earthquake took place on dextral strike-slip faults, 
if the faults are parallel to the coast. Benioff, Press, and Smith [19] 
independently show from seismological observations that the faulting 
was progressive and that the fault slipped over an extent of 1,200 km. 

Aki makes the interesting comment that the faulting in aftershocks 
near the ends of the zone is predominately dextral strike-slip, and 
those with vertical movement lie in the central part of the disturbed 
zone. This speaks clearly of continued tearing at the ends and of ver- 
tical readjustment of a secondary nature; perhaps, in part, isostatic in 
the central part, from which the horizontal sheer forces have been 
temporarily relieved. 

It is probable that the first earthquake took place on the Arauco 
fault near the town of Curanilahue (fig. 1) at a depth too great to per- 
mit surface breakage. This quake caused a redistribution in the 
forces in the earth, causing another part of the fault, just offshore, to 
move. It is more than likely, considering the distribution of after- 
shocks, that the great earthquake was produced by slippage along 
about 1,200 km. of the fault. 

The Reloncavi fault probably moved next, and subsequently a series 
of others in the central valley and coast ranges slipped, giving rise to 
the many aftershocks. The Reloncavi fault zone seems to mark the 
eastern side of the area of earthquake occurrence during this series of 
seisms. 

Following further activity on the Reloncavi fault, or a branch 
thereof, a fracture was opened that was sufficiently large to permit 
lake or ground water to seep to the level of the hot rocks below, and 
steam, hot gas, and rock dust escaped through the fracture on the side 
of Volcan Puyehue (fig. 2). 

The volcanoes may well be caused by the divergence between the 
various fault zones; any tendency of the seaward blocks to drift north- 
ward would reduce the pressure on the sides of the block containing 


® Personal communication to Pierre Saint-Amand, dated 1960. 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 357 


the lakes, permitting it to rift and crack, and forming openings for 
the escape of lava. 


ORIGIN OF THE MAREMOTO 


In general, the sea withdrew for a period of 10 to 20 minutes and 
then returned. There were several successive waves, of which the 
third or fourth seemed largest. The period of the waves was about 20 
minutes. In almost all places, the first movement was a withdrawal of 
the water. In Bahia Mansa, however, the first movement was re- 
ported as a rise. A small rise may have preceded the drop in 
Maullin (fig. 4). 

Watanabe and Karzulovic [20] have tried to indicate the epicenter 
of the earthquake by assuming a velocity for the maremoto and calcu- 
lating the distance run from some points on the shore, using a velocity 
altogether too high. Following their lead and using calculated veloc- 
ities, the following argument is adduced. 

The velocity depends on the depth of the water as shown by Airy 
[21] and elaborated by Lamb [22]: 


V=(gh)'% 


where V is the velocity of the wave with respect to the shore and A 
is the depth of the water. Although the velocity may reach speeds of 
600 km./hr. in the deep sea, the velocity nearer to the shore will be 
much less. Figure 6 shows the approximate position of a maremoto 
wave as a function of time from the coast of Chile, using depths given 
by the charts of the Department of Navegacién e Hidrografia of the 
Chilean Navy. Since the time of arrival of the big wave was between 
10 and 20 minutes after the main earthquake, the approximate origin 
of the sea wave must be nearer to shore than the position indicated by 
the dashed line. 

The times involved in the advance and retreat of the waves are 
short, being possibly nothing more than that the period of the wave 
and the distances from the coast are near that of the length of the 
waves. Hence, such calculations may be meaningless. The shore 
may have been in the zone of production of the wave. Also, the 
time rate of change of velocity is high, and the equation does not 
account for the drag of the bottom nor the change in shape of the wave 
in shallow waters. 

It appears from the foregoing discussion that the wave may have 
been created in two ways: 

1. The dropping of a large block of land offshore could explain the 
wave, except that the primary movement in Bahia Mansa seems to 
have been a rise. Perhaps vertical displacement of gigantic blocks 


358 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


LINE OF ORIGIN OF 
HYPOTHETICAL WAVE 
WITH SAME ORIGIN 
TIME AS EARTHQUAKE®* 


yO 


Fs 


TFBVLON 3NF syns 


\ 
ei 


oo | 


a BN, 
tN SO 0 


VU 


BAHIA MANSA 
10 MIN 
‘ 


Ficure 6.—Distance from shore that a wave can travel in indicated times, and estimated 
position of Maremoto if it began at the same instant as the earthquake. 


of the sea floor, during the displacement of the fault, produced a part 
of the movement. 

2. Benioff has, for years, been proposing that tsunamis are gener- 
ated by the coupling of surface waves in the earth to sea waves [38, 
17,19]. The strain seismograph records from Nana, Peru, show that 
waves of the correct period existed. The waves may have been pro- 
duced by a flexing, due to vertical fault movement, or by a vertical 
warping produced by frictional and inertial forces during strike-slip 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Saint-Amand PLATE 1 


2. Cleaning up rubbish in the streets of Concepcién 10 minutes after the main shock. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Saint-Amand PLATE 2 


1. Ship-loading equipment and buildings along Valdivia waterfront severely damaged, 


caused by slumping. 


2. The public square in Puerto Montt. Liquefied soil caused the statue to sink. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Saint-Amand 


PLATE 3 


: aReG Sie se 
1. Damage to Malecon and park in Valdivia resulting from failure of retaining wall and 
artificial fill. 


hn 


{ 
\ 


( 


2. Dock area in Puerto Montt. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Saint-Amand PLATE 4 


1. Damage to good-quality, wood-frame houses in Valdivia caused by solifluction and 
sliding of the houses toward a small, now abandoned stream channel to the right. 


2. Road construction in swampy area near Puerta Varas. The undamaged road can be 


seen in upper left. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Saint-Amand PLATE 5 


1. The tsunami washed away many houses in Puerto Saavedra. The shoreline is now 1% 
meters higher than before, inundating some streets. 


2. Dock at Lebu, here 115 meters out of water, decreased to about 4 meter in 5 months. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Saint-Amand 


1. Dock at Isla Mocha destroyed by tsunami and former shoreline raised 244 meters. Before, 
top of concrete was awash at low tide. Picture taken at high tide. 


bo 


Raised beach at Isla Mocha. 


PLATE 7 


Saint-Amand 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.- 


PIAIPT 


eB 


N ako aseulep IojeM pue 


SUIPOO] SAIsuaIXY 


“4In0T 


“VUOIJIOATI BIAIp|e 


A 3yy uo gouas1ourqng :4add 2) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Saint-Amand PLATE 8 


seein 


1. Mouth of the Rio Pudeto, 


showing the effects of inundation. Note remains of bridge, 
the deck of which was washed away by the tidal wave, the submerged road, and the 


farmlands. 


2. View of side of fissure, 100 by 500 meters, on Volcan Puyehue. Note the several bocas 


and the ash on the ground. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Saint-Amand PLATE 9 


i ie 


2. Firemen issuing emergency water rations to citizens of Puerto Montt. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Saint-Amand PLATE 10 


1. Packing boxes serving as a temporary shelter for a family in Valdivia. 


Bee | _ ae 
=——— S_ AIR FORCE q 
“Te e 


« oe oe 3 a 


2. Damnificados being evacuated from Puerto Montt by American Globemasters. 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 9359 


movement. The very long period waves are probably not ordinary 
surface waves, as pointed out by Prof. F. Press. 

The waves produced by this earthquake were gigantic and of ex- 
tremely long periods. The whole earth was set in vibration in its 
fundamental mode and in many of the harmonics thereof. These 
oscillations continued for a period of some 2 weeks, exhibiting a Q 
factor (or dissipation function) of 170 for 35-minute waves and 3880 
for 6-minute waves [19]. Both spheroidal and toroidal oscillations 
were observed. The spheroidal oscillations showed a “Zeeman type” 
splitting caused by the rotation of the earth. 

It is not unlikely that the surface waves, combined with the free 
oscillations of the earth, produced movements of the earth below the 
water and along the coast. The land rose and fell—like the chest of 
a person breathing deeply while on his back in a bathtub—in such a 
way that the land rose from the sea, the water running off, and then 
slowly fell, letting the water surge over the subsiding land. Support 
for this impression comes from the almost simultaneous appearance of 
the wave at points all along the coast, including, for example, Achao 
(fig. 3), a small town on the landward side of Isla Chiloé where the 
tsunami began about 10 minutes after the earthquake [1]. If the 
waves were produced solely in the Pacific, the disturbance would not 
have reached Achao for possibly an hour. Isla Chiloé and the con- 
tiguous sea bottom must have participated in the production of the 
tsunami. 

SEISMIC HISTORY OF SOUTHERN CHILE 


The region affected by the recent earthquakes has been repeatedly 
subjected to similar events. Greve [23] has summarized his labors 
and observations, those of Montessus de Balore, and those of the staff 
of the Instituto de Sismologia at Santiago, from 1520 to 1946. In 
these 426 years there have been 47 notable earthquakes between San- 
tiago and Castro. No notice was taken of the millions of tremors of 
nondestructive size. Of these 47 earthquakes, 7 have been roughly 
comparable in magnitude to the main shock of May 1960, and 8 have 
been associated with tsunamis or similar disturbances of the sea. Of 
special interest is the seism of 1575, which appears to have had a 


similar zone of influence, even to having produced a landslide in Rio 
San Pedro. 
SUMMARY OF EFFECTS 


As of June 1960 large destructive aftershocks were still occurring 
at intervals of a few days. Many of these were strong enough to 
have caused a disaster in a more populous region. Shocks in excess 
of magnitude 6 were sufficiently common that people no longer took 
much notice of them. These aftershocks will continue for a period of 
years. 

672-174 63-26 


360 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The final count on the dead, missing, and homeless is not yet in, but 
it is clear that well over 1,000 people were killed, mostly by the tsun- 
ami. Several hundred people are still missing, and well over 400,000 
new houses are needed. The basic industries in many parts are dam- 
aged, and years will be required to complete the reconstruction. 
Damage totaling over $417,000,000 (U.S.) was done, according to a 
report issued by the Corporacién de Fomento in mid-August 1960. 

The complications of an earthquake of this extent are unforeseeable 
in total, but it may be learned what needs to be done to prepare for 
such a disaster. The past is, in this case, the key to the future. 

Sorely needed public services failed, and makeshift measures had 
to be adopted. Among the most important losses were the following: 

1. The potable water supplies for Concepcion, Valdivia, Osorno, 
and Puerto Montt were destroyed in whole or in part. Water was 
delivered by firemen (pl. 9, fig. 2). Recourse was had to old wells, 
small springs, creeks, and other sources of questionable quality. Fil- 
tered river water was subsequently furnished in the larger towns. 

2. Electric power was unavailable for at least a week in the afore- 
mentioned cities, and for months in outlying towns. 

3. Sewage systems were destroyed in part in all the above cities. 

4, Medical services were interrupted by serious damage to the hos- 
pitals and concomitant loss of equipment, making necessary the intro- 
duction of portable hospital units. Most victims were killed outright. 
Very few were injured and, fortunately, no epidemic began, primarily, 
because of cold weather and a resistant population. These factors 
reduced the need for medical care. 

5. Roads and railroads were severely damaged. About 500 km. of 
the Longitudinal Highway will have to be rebuilt because of the fail- 
ure of subgrades and fills. The railroad was interrupted in various 
places, but most severely between Osorno and Puerto Montt. Over 
6 months were needed to put it in good condition; meanwhile, heavy 
truck traffic all but destroyed the remains of the roads, and the small 
waterlogged airfields were soon made into dangerous expanses of 
mud. Bridge damage was extensive. 

6. Dock facilities were largely destroyed by the maremoto, from 
Lebu, where the docks were lifted out of the water, to Castro where 
land-sliding destroyed most installations. 

7. A breakdown in communications was brought about by the loss 
of electricity and damage to installations, making accurate reporting 
of conditions impossible. The loss of the public press prevented the 
spread of accurate news, a most necessary service. Rumors and civic 
unrest were most notable in places without newspaper or radio. Re- 
instatement of communications rapidly alleviated these conditions. 

8. Municipal and governmental leadership is the most important 
loss of all. Plans should be made ahead of time, delegating certain 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 38361 


specific duties to certain people and agencies; all control should re- 
main in local hands. Two outstanding examples of excellent leader- 
ship by local authorities occurred in Puerto Montt and Temuco. Here 
the Intendentes and their assistants immediately organized all the 
civilian and military agencies, while they themselves retained control 
of the government. The people were put to work helping themselves 
and were permitted to move freely while doing so. The prompt and 
courageous action by these public officials prevented civic disorder 
and maintained a general air of healthy cooperation during and after 
the disaster. 

9. Losses to homes and public buildings were, of course, grave. 
Approximately 1 million people were living with neighbors, in make- 
shift shelters, sleeping in the rain, etc. Plate 10, figure 1, shows a 
shelter occupied by a family of five in Valdivia. 

10. The closing of schools and the appropriation of them for use 
as emergency shelters were very harmful to the morale of school-age 
children. 

At present, the investigation of the earthquake is being carried out 
by several teams of engineers, geologists, seismologists, psychologists, 
and others who are trying to establish norms for reconstruction, and 
seeking to determine safe places to rebuild and safe techniques for the 
new edifices and services. A systematic attempt is thus being made 
to see that the next earthquake in the south will not produce the same 
type of catastrophe. A number of preliminary reports are available 
from the IIG, detailing the relation between damage and surficial 
geology. A list of these is to be found among the references 
[9, 24-32]. 


INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF THE EARTHQUAKE 


The way in which the Chilean populace rose to the immediate 
emergency was striking. Within a few hours, groups were gathering 
food, clothing, household articles, and money to send to the stricken 
area. 

The way in which other countries rose to the occasion was equally 
impressive. Every country in South America, including the Carib- 
bean republics, sent aid in the form of food, clothing, and medicine. 
They all furnished transportation, including airplanes and _heli- 
copters. 

The United States began an airlift, brmging materials to Santiago 
and Puerto Montt, where they were redistributed to the larger fields 
by Canadian and South American transports. Private pilots, com- 
mercial airlines, and crop dusters gave their time and aircraft freely 
to move the material to outlying districts. 

The U.S. Globemasters were also used to remove refugees from 
the southern area to Santiago (pl. 10, fig. 2). 


362 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The material aid that Chile received from its good neighbors was 
great. Germany offered to finance the rebuilding of Valdivia. Hol- 
land offered to rebuild Tolten. Cuba sent two shiploads of sugar. 
The United States and Canada sent medical teams, field hospital, 
and supplies. President Eisenhower granted $20 million for imme- 
diate relief, and Congress subsequently voted $100 million for eco- 
nomic reconstruction. Lamentably, only tens of millions have been 


used. 

Spiritual aid and moral encouragement were equally important, 
and hemispheric solidarity was reaffirmed, as it was in 1906 when 
Chile sent a relief mission to San Francisco, Calif., following the 
famous earthquake that devastated that city. 


REFERENCES 


1. ANDRADE, ALBERTO. El maremoto del 22 de Mayo de 1960. Bol. Informa- 
cién Dept. Navegacién e Hidrografia de la Armada de Chile, Afio 16, 
No. 56, 11 pp., Aug. 31, 1960. 

2. CoFrRE, CAUPOLICAN. LHErupcién del Volein Nilahue. An. Facultad Ciéncias 
Fisicas y Matemiaticas, Univ. Chile, vol. 13, p. 738, 1956. 

3. GUTENBERG, BENO, and RICHTER, CHARLES F. Seismicity of the earth, 267 
pp. Princeton Univ. Press, 1949. 

4. BruacEN, JUAN. Fundamentos de la geologia de Chile, pp. 286-289. Santi- 
ago, Chile, Inst. Geogr. Militar, 1950. 

. KruMM, Feperico. Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, An., Temo 96, p. 191, 19238. 

. KruMM, Feperico. Geol. Rund., vol. 14, p. 146, 1923. 

. WEISCHET, WoLrcaANa. Contribuciones al estudio de las transformaciones 
geograficas en la parte septentrional del sur de Chile por efecto de sismo 
del 22 de Mayo de 1960. An. Facultad Ciéncias Fisicas y Matematicas, 
Univ. Chile, Publ. No. 15, vol. 17, p. 23, 1960. 

8. BAUER, PETER PAuL von. Augenzeugenbericht zum Erdeben vom 22 Mai in 
Ensenada, Sudchile. Erdkunde, vol. 19, 1960. 

9. ALVAREZ, LEONARDO. Informe sobre los estudios realizados en la zona com- 
prendida entre la Peninsula de Arauco y Valdivia, con motivo de los sismos 
ocurridos el 21 y 22 de Mayo de 1960. Santiago, Chile, Inst. Investig. Geol., 
1960. 

10. Firzroy, R. Sketch of the surveying voyages of His Majesty’s ships 

Adventure and Beagle, 1825-1836. Geogr. Journ., vol. 6, pp. 311-314, 1836. 
11. Firzroy, R. Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty’s ships 
Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, vol. 2, pp. 402-418. 
British Admiralty, 1839. 

12. MtNoz-CuristI, JorGE. Geologia de Chile. In Geografia Econémica de 
Chile, 428 pp., Santiago, Chile, Imprenta Universitaria, 1950. 

13. F'urzALipA, Humeperto. Orografia. In Geografia Econémica de Chile, pp. 
35-48. Santiago, Chile, Imprenta Universitaria, 1950. 

14. Fenner, R., and WENzEL, O. EI Terciario Carbonifero de Arauco. An. 
Primer Congresso Panamericano Ingenieria de Minas y Geologia, vol. 3, pt. 
2, pp. 1000-1029, January 1942. 

15. Lomnirz, Cinna. Investigaciones, gravimétricas en la regién de Chillan, 
Bol. No. 4, Santiago, Chile, Inst. Investig. Geol., 1959. 

16. SAINT-AMAND, PIERRE. Two proposed measures of seismicity. Seism. Soc. 
Amer. Bull., vol. 46, No. 1, January 1956. 


“1 o> Ol 


Ufc 


18. 


19° 


20. 


22) 
. GREVE, FEDERICO. Determinacién del coeficiente de seguridad antisismico 


24. 


25. 


26. 


28. 


29. 


30. 


31. 


32. 


EARTHQUAKES OF MAY 1960 IN CHILE—SAINT-AMAND 363 


RatTH, Marcus, and BENIorr, Hugo. The aftershock sequence of the Kam- 
chatka earthquake of November 4, 1952. Seism. Soe. Amer. Bull., vol. 
48, pp. 1-15, 1958. 

Akt, Kerri. Further study of the mechanism of circum-Pacific earthquakes 
from Rayleigh waves. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 65, No. 12, pp. 4165-4172, 
December 1960. 

BENIOFF, Huco; Press, FRANK; and SMITH, STEWART. Excitation of free 
oscillations of the earth by earthquakes. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 66, 
No. 2, pp. 605-619, February 1961. 

WATANABE, TAKEO, and KARrzuLOVIC, JUAN. Los movimientos sismicos del 
mes de Mayo de 1960 en Chile. An. Facultad Ciéncias Fisicas y Mate- 
miaticas, Univ. Chile, vol. 17, pp. 23—64, 1960. 


. Atry, Sir G. B. Tides and waves. Article 208 in Encyclopedia Metropolitan, 


1845. 
LAmMps, Sir Horace. Hydrodynamics, pp. 262 and 730. New York, 1945. 


para las diferentes zonas de Chile. An. Facultad de Ciéncias Fisicas y 
Matemiaticas, Uniy. Chile, vol. 5, No. 5, pp. 3-19, 1949. 

THOMAS, HERBERT; BOWES, WILLIAM; and BrAvo, NELSON. Informe geolégico 
sobre los efectos del terremoto del 22 de Mayo 1960 en la ciudad de Puerto 
Varas. Santiago, Chile, Inst. Investig. Geol., 1960. 

THOMAS, HERBERT; BOWES, WILLIAM; and BRAvo, NELSON. Informe geolégico 
sobre los efectos del terremoto del 22 de Mayo 1960 en la ciudad de Rio 
Negro. Santiago, Chile, Inst. Investig. Geol., 1960. 

THOMAS, HERBERT; BOWES, WILLIAM ; and BRAVO, NELSON. Informe geolégico 
sobre los efectos del terremoto del 22 de Mayo 1960 en la ciudad de Llan- 
quihue. Santiago, Chile, Inst. Investig. Geol., 1960. 


. THOMAS, HERBERT; BOWES, WILLIAM ; and Bravo, NELSON. Informe geologico 


sobre los efectos del terremoto del 22 de Mayo 1960 en la ciudad de Maullin. 
Santiago, Chile, Inst. Investig. Geol., 1960. 

GALLI, OLIVER; SANCHEZ, CARLOS; and SANCHEZ, JOAQUIN. La geologia y 
los efectos de los terremotos de Mayo de 1960 en Concepcion y Alrededores. 
Santiago, Chile, Inst. Investig. Geol., 1960. 

GALLI, OLIVER; SANCHEZ, CARLOS; and SANCHEZ, JOAQUIN. Redaccién entre 
la geologia y los efectos de los terremotos de Mayo de 1960, en la ciudad de 
Castro y Alrededores, Chiloé. Santiago, Chile, Inst. Investig. Geol., Sep- 
tember 1960. 

GALLI, OLIVER; SANCHEZ, CaRLos; and SANCHEZ, JOAQUIN. Relacién entre 
la geologia y los efectos de los terremotos de Mayo de 1960, en la ciudad de 
Ancud y Alvededores, Chiloé. Santiago, Chile, Inst. Investig. Geol., Sep- 
tember 1960. 

DoyEeL, WILLIAM W.; Moraaa, ALpoO; and Fatcon, EpuaArpo. Relaciones 
entre la geologia de Valdivia (Chile) y los danos causados por los terre- 
motos del 22 de Mayo de 1960. Santiago, Chile, Inst. Investig. Geol., 
August 1960. 

DosrovoLny, ERNEST ; LEMKE, RICHARD; BOWES, WILLIAM ; THOMAS, HERBERT; 
and Bravo, NELSON. Relacién entre la geologia y el dano producido por 
el terremoto del 22 Mayo de 1960, en Puerto Montt, Chile. Santiago, 
Chile, Inst. Investig. Geol., August 1960. 


7. 


Sal aan 
we ae 


The Rim of the Reef! 


By E. YaLeE Dawson 


Allan Hancock Foundation, 
University of Southern California 


[With 8 plates] 


DREDGE DOWN! The gears of the bow winch mesh; the great 
spool turns, and the steel cable pays out as the biological dredge is 
lowered into the tropical sea. Fifty fathoms below is a submerged, 
flat-topped mountain, the Gorda bank. We are here to seek what lives 
on that submarine butte. 

So it was, 20 years ago, when the research vessel Velero III was ex- 
ploring the strange biota of the Gulf of California. I was, as a fledg- 
ling marine botanist, witnessing dredging from a ship for the first 
time in my career. We were over the bank, and now were blindly 
scraping off a bit of its surface to bring to light the creatures of the 
dim sea floor, almost at the uttermost limits of light. 

The dredge came up full. Its great bag-load, bulging within a 
protective chain skirt, was poised for a moment over the sorting 
screens. The closing cord was cut, and out poured a pile of shiny 
nodular pebbles, each an inch or two in diameter. But these were 
strange stones indeed, covered with warts and knobs, and all of a 
rose-pink color. In fact, there was not a stone in the lot. This was a 
dredge load of plants—stone plants of the sea—the calcareous red 
algae known collectively as nullipores. 

In the days of lace cuffs and powdered hair, these curious plants 
were generally considered to be some kind of inorganic, stalactite- 
like form. They found their way into “collectors’ cabinets” of the 
time along with corals, worm tubes, walrus tusks, and other novelties 
of the sea. Linnaeus treated them as coral-like animal forms. Indeed, 
Lamarck coined their name—nullipore—to distinguish these forms 
“without visible pores” from the porous corals. It was not until 1837 
that the stones were finally and positively recognized as plants. 

Today we recognize calcareous forms in each of the three major 
groups of marine algae—the green Chlorophyta, the brown Phaeo- 


1 Reprinted by permission from Natural History, vol. 70, No. 6, 1961. 


365 


366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


phyta, and the red Rhodophyta. Among marine green algae, calcified 
forms occur only in a few families, largely confined to warm seas. 
Indeed, relatively few genera and species of green algae are calcareous. 
Nonetheless, in their tropical habitats these plants are often re- 
markably abundant, and sometimes are among the most conspicuous 
members of the local marine community. Thus, on some of the gently 
shelving, intertidal flats of Okinawa, one wades ankle deep in a 
veritable meadow of Acetabularia—acre upon acre of almost pure 
stands of these remarkably beautiful little green parasols. In the 
sandy bays of Cuba, the Bahamas, and south Florida, one finds an 
abundance of the strange Neptune’s shaving brush (Penicillus), the 
little Christmas-tree-like Rhipocephalus, and the delicate green, fan- 
like Udotea. Among the coral heads and rubble flats on the bottoms 
of the vast atoll lagoons of Kwajalein or Eniwetok, mounds and mats 
of Halimeda grow in such persistent plenty that the lagoon floor sedi- 
ments are largely built up of the accumulated fragments of these 
jointed plants. 

Then there are the strangely and intricately fashioned species of the 
family Dasycladaceae: Dasycladus, Bornetella, and Neomeris. These 
are tiny little plants, often inconspicuous, but sometimes the most 
striking members of an undersea flora. I remember diving one day in 
a warm island lagoon in the Gulf of California and being impressed 
by great, round boulders on the bottom that were studded with little 
glistening, upended “worms” of a brilliant emerald color—the green 
alga Neomeris. Many members of this family are known from the 
fossil record and have contributed to the formation of limestone rocks. 

Among the brown algae, calcareous species are few, confined largely 
to the tropical genus Padina, whose interesting, fan-shaped represent- 
atives may be found in almost all warm seas. Padina commonly has 
concentric bands of superficial calcium carbonate alternating with 
bands of delicate yellow-brown hairs and underwater sometimes 
stands out as the most gracefully formed and artfully patterned plant 
of the sea floor. 

In red algae, as in the other two groups, the occurrence of calcified 
forms is limited to a few families. One of these, however—the Coral- 
linaceae—is of wide distribution. The only other important cal- 
careous genera of red algae are Galawvaura, Liagora, and Peysonnelia. 
These occur mostly in the tropics, but are seldom abundant or 
conspicuous. 

Thus, the Corallinaceae includes the overwhelming majority of the 
calcareous plants of the world. They occur from the Arctic to the 
Antarctic and from the highest and most inhospitable intertidal levels 
to the cold, dim depths of ocean at the extreme limit of light penetra- 
tion. Sometimes a score of species may live ina single habitat. Again, 


PLATE 1 


Report, 1962.—Dawson 


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Nullipore fragment typifies one of the many kinds of stony plants that grow on seaward 
margins of reefs. 


PLATE 3 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Dawson 


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Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Dawson 


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PLATE 6 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Dawson 


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Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Dawson Pz AniE 7, 


1. One of the intricately sculptured species of Lithophyllum widely associated with algal 


reefs in the Pacific. 


2. Palmyra Island, a small eastern Pacific atoll with an irregular array of narrow islets 


scattered over the broad reef flat and new sand islets in the upper left. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Dawson PLATE 8 


1. Recently discovered calcareous alga is Lithophyllum reeset, found on the west coast of 


Mexico. Shapes of algae are nearly as numerous as are species. 


2. Lush vegetation on Palmyra Atoll, in Line Islands of Pacific, is rooted in the reef flat’s 


calcareous sand and gravel. 


THE RIM OF THE REEF—DAWSON 367 


Ficure 1.—Bossiella, with segments of wingnut shape, is found in California coastal waters. 
Ficure 2.—Jania genus includes this species of dainty, branched red alga of warm waters. 


one species may dominate a region to the near exclusion of other forms 
of vegetable life. 

Despite the rigidity and often brittle character of many calcareous 
algae, the structural differences from the usual, fleshy forms are 
essentially eliminated by the application of a few drops of hydro- 
chloric acid. Removal of the carbonate reveals the typical cellular 
structure of the plant, hitherto obscured by encrustation. 

672-174—63 27 


368 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The stony material laid down by the living cells of the plants is 
largely calcium carbonate, although some magnesium carbonate is 
present. This takes the form of calcite in the Corallinaceae and of 
aragonite in the other red algae. While the encrustation first appears 
in pectin-bearing layers of the cell walls and then extends into the 
cellulose layers, the living protoplast of the cells always remains 
enveloped by an uncalcified membrane. 

In the segmented corallines, some groups of cells remain completely 
uncalcified, thus forming flexible joints between rigid segments. Such 
a delicate, erect, bushy plant as Corallina is admirably suited to surf 
shock and agitation—hardly less so than is the rigid, rock-encrusting 
Lithophyllum with which it may grow. 

The calcareous red algae, like most of the members of this large 
plant phylum, fulfill their life history by means of an alternation of 
generations (see pls. 4 and 5). That is to say, a given plant does not 
reproduce one of the same kind as itself. Instead, it gives rise to a 
different generation of plants, and these, in their turn, repeat the first 
generation. These generations are of two kinds: one is sexual, and 
consists of separate male and female plants. The other is asexual, 
producing spores that germinate to grow into sexual plants. 

At maturity, the asexual plants form small, domed cavities on 
their exterior surfaces. These asexual conceptacles produce small, 
red structures consisting of four spores in a row (tetraspores). The 
spores are released into the water by means of one or more exit pores 
from the cavity. The released spores then settle down, germinate, 
and grow into new plants. Some grow into male and some into 
female plants which, except for reproductive details, look very much 
alike. 

The male plants produce quite small conceptacles in which are 
formed exceedingly minute, non-motile, male cells (spermatia). 
These, usually only %o99 of a millimeter in diameter, are released 
into the water through a pore in the conceptacle roof. 

Meanwhile, the female plants have produced much larger concep- 
tacles, on the floors of which stand minute receptive organs called 
carpogonia. Each carpogonium has a sensitive, tubular, hairlike ex- 
tension, called a trichogyne. This organ probes the empty space 
beneath the conceptacle pore, waiting for the stimulus of contact with 
one of the many male spermatia that are then drifting freely about in 
the surrounding water. 

By what mechanism the drifting, but nonmotile male cell enters the 
tiny pore of the female conceptacle to accomplish the sexual] union 
we do not know. When a spermatium does make contact with a 
trichogyne, however, its nucleus enters the carpogonium, effects sexual 
fusion, and so begins the development of a new generation. 
Strangely, this new generation remains as a distinct parasitic plant 


THE RIM OF THE REEF—DAWSON 369 


Ficure 3.—Lithothrix, a red alga of the northeast Pacific, has unusually short segments. 
Ficure 4.—Corallina polysticha is a rare, jointed red alga from Guadalupe Island, 


Mexico. 


Ficure 5.—Galaxaura acuminata, a nonsegmented red alga, is a tropical 


Pacific species. 


370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


within the female plant. There it grows into a small mass of cells 
and produces a special group of spores inside the old female concep- 
tacle. Each of the spores must now be released in its turn—through 
the same pore by which the male cel] entered—into the sea water out- 
side. There it finds a rocky surface yet unoccupied, upon which to 
spread the first cells of a new, non-sexual generation. 

Calcareous members of the red algal family Corallinaceae are the 
most prevalent of the stone plants, so widely distributed that they 
form part of the marine flora of every maritime nation of the world. 
In the glacial fiords of Norway or Greenland one finds thriving beds 
of nullipores. Crustose corallines cover wave-beaten rocks from Kam- 
chatka to Chile, and from Newfoundland to Kerguelen. Delicate, 
flakelike forms live on the leaves of turtlegrass in Cuba, and on eelgrass 
in Japan. The jointed bossiellas dwell no less successfully in the cold, 
clean tide pools of Vancouver Island than beside sewer outfalls in 
southern California. The dainty janias are equally prominent in 
spongy, algal turfs on the reef flats of East Africa and in those of 
Micronesia. Despite the ubiquity of these plants, they have been little 
studied and remain among the least-known organisms of the sea. 

Since plant scientists have generally neglected the calcareous algae, 
their importance in many natural phenomena has been little recog- 
nized. This is particularly true of one of the most extraordinary of 
all marine geological phenomena—the tropical “coral” atoll. The 
story of the calcareous algae’s contribution to the formation and 
growth of the atoll is so remarkable and so little known that it seems 
particularly appropriate to tell something of it here. 

During the last century, a number of naturalists made visits to the 
coral reefs of the Indo-Pacific region and, from their observations, 
theories of atoll origin and growth were developed (Natural History, 
March and April 1959). Charles Darwin, James D. Dana, Sir John 
Murray, Alexander Agassiz, Reginald A. Daly, and others inter- 
preted the atoll from a geological or zoological standpoint. But each 
investigator failed in every instance fully to recognize the importance 
of calcareous algae as controllers of reef development. It was not 
until Sir Edgeworth David’s South Pacific expedition (1896-1898) 
that evidence was obtained to establish the significance of plants in 
this relationship. Since then only an occasional] marine botanist has 
written on the subject and expanded the knowledge of the role algae 
play in atoll formation. As a result, some long-standing and wide- 
spread misconceptions are still prevalent. 

Some of the pertinent facts are: First, nullipores have been found 
to be among the principal components of atoll reefs in a great majority 
of cases. In some instances, they are almost the only visible com- 
ponents, to the virtual exclusion of coral animals. 


THE RIM OF THE REEF—DAWSON orl 


Second, the principal cementing agent in the reefs is the nullipore. 

Third, calcareous algae have been found actively working at depths 
of 600 feet. 

Fourth, the seaward margins of actively growing atoll reefs are 
often covered by a pavement-like growth of Porolithon, a species of 
nullipore. 

Fifth, borings to depths of several thousand feet indicate the con- 
sistent presence of great quantities of nullipore material throughout 
the reefs. 

The most striking first impression of many atolls is of their 
enormous size. Tens of thousands of servicemen have visited the 
vast lagoons of Kwajalein or Eniwetok, 30 miles or more across, sur- 
rounded by dots and lines of vegetation-clad islets. But these atolls 
have not always been so large. They grew, and are still growing. 

One also finds small atolls, such as Palmyra in the Line Group, and 
nearby reefs, such as Kingman, that barely break the surface of the 
water. All these are related within the atoll phenomenon. To 
understand an atoll’s development, it must be considered as a kind of 
dynamic, living organism. It is, really, a vastly complex association 
of living things, all dwelling together in a marvelous balance, each 
plant and animal contributing to the life and growth of the whole 
atoll and to the delicate balance maintained between construction 
and destruction. 

As a possible point of departure in the development of an atoll, 
consider a reef such as Kingman, consisting of an association of coral 
animals and coralline algae, growing on a slightly submerged sea 
mount. Let us say that the reef is 5 acres in extent and barely breaks 
the surface at low tide. Now, somewhat different optima for growth 
and persistence exist among the corals and the nullipores with regard 
to the surf that breaks over the reef. The rigid, branched, brittle 
corals tend to break and fragment under severe wave action. But the 
massive, reef-forming nullipores are unaffected by the pounding surf. 
In fact, the stronger the surf the better they grow, for one of the 
principal factors for their growth is the availability of oxygen for 
their respiration during the dark hours of the night, when their photo- 
synthetic pigments are inactive. 

Accordingly, on this 5-acre reef, the first organisms to grow above 
the water surface, creating a condition of surf, will also create condi- 
tions that tend to favor the growth of the nullipores and to reduce 
the upward extension of the coral. Herein begins the formation of 
an atoll from a reef, for the nullipores grow into the breaking surf. 
As they do so, the intensity of the surf becomes greatest around the 
margins of the reef. Here the nullipores grow upward and form a 
rim slightly above sea level. This rim, which breaks the impact of 


372 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Ficure 6.—Acetabularia, a handsome, tropical green alga, is shaped like a gay umbrella. 
Ficure 7.—Rhipocephalus is a small, “treelike” green alga found on the Caribbean shores. 


the waves on all sides, provides a relative calm over the inner part of 
the reef. If the sea level is rising, or the sea floor subsiding, a lagoon 
develops within the slightly elevated ridge, aided by the destructive 
process of solution resulting from the action of carbonic acid derived 
from the respiratory carbon dioxide produced by the life of the lagoon. 

The rate of outward growth of the reef margin reflects differences 
in surf and in available growth nutrients, due to wind and currents. 
As a result, the young, dynamic atoll usually takes on a somewhat 
elliptical shape. 

Reef margins are extended seaward in three ways: by the growth 
and cementing action of the nullipores, by the often profuse growth 
of corals on the outer front, or face, of the reef below the surf zone, 
and by the infinitely slow build-up of a vast talus slope of nullipore 


THE RIM OF THE REEF—DAWSON 373 


and coral fragments to the abyssal sea floor. Whenever the reef ridge 
dissolves down to a level that permits the sea waves to pour in over 
it, the increased supply of oxygen for nighttime respiration encour- 
ages the growth of the pavement algae by which it is built up again. 

The seaward advance of the nullipore ridge, whose height above sea 
level is controlled by desiccation, leaves behind it a reef flat that 
stretches between the ridge and the central lagoon. Storms cast up 
boulders and debris from the reef margin and the talus slope onto 
this reef flat. 

Until such a pile of sand and rubble appears on the reef flat, all 
rain water is dissipated into the open sea. With sufficient material 
to confine it, however, the fresh rain water stands in the sand at sea 
level, floating on the salt water below it, and mixing only very slowly. 
As a pool of fresh water forms in the sand, seeds (carried to the islet 
by wind and sea) sprout and penetrate to the water supply, and thus 
the island vegetation comes into being. Sea birds come, and as they 
feed on the fish of the reefs and lagoon, and nest in the vegetation, 
they convert animal life of the sea into fertilizer for the land. The 
birds thrive, trees and shrubs grow, and gradually humus forms on 
what at first was only barren sand and rock. 

In all this atoll growth, the calcareous algae play an important 
role, spreading their crusts over the rubble and the sand, cementing 
and binding the reef margin, and advancing—ever so slowly, but 
steadily—into the waves. 


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What’s Happening to Water?’ 


By Cuar.es J. ROBINOVE 
U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. 


(With 1 plate] 


What is happening to water? In the early days of the United 
States, when the population was small and widely scattered, water 
was not a problem. Most people took water from streams or from 
dug wells for their personal use or for town distribution systems. 
Waterpower developments were made on streams in which water 
wheels could be run for mills. The total use of water in the United 
States and the average use per individual were not high, and the 
demands upon the total water supply of the country were small. The 
problems of water supply through the 19th century were not great— 
enough water was available for most users. If the supply might 
be short in one area, it could be supplemented from another; if the 
quality of surface water was poor for a particular industry, the 
ground water in the immediate area might be usable. 

Since that time the American way of life has changed. Water is 
used for countless purposes, many of which were not dreamed of 50 
years ago, The same water may be used over and over again in proc- 
esses where it 1s not consumed, such as waterpower or cooling, or it 
may be consumed by irrigation or industry. 

Today, the problems of water and water conservation are para- 
mount in the minds of many people in the United States. Large 
organizations, both within and outside the Government, are con- 
cerned with the investigation of water resources, the development of 
water, and the proper management of water. More and more we hear 
that water is the “limiting factor” in developments of irrigation, 
industrial, waterpower, and municipal projects. It is apt to quote 
here the words of Oscar E. Meinzer, who, in an article entitled “Our 
Water Supply” in the 1937 Annual Report of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, said, “Deprived of water, all plants and animals would perish. 


1 Publication authorized by the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. 
375 


376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Deprived of water, the human race, with all its thought and emotion 
and spiritual aspiration, would come to prompt oblivion.” ? 

The American people have become alert to the importance of water 
in our life and economy. The news media—television, radio, and 
newspapers—carry stories about pollution of streams, falling water 
tables, short supplies of water, and the decreasing number of sites left 
for major waterpower development. Stories are calculated to awaken 
the reader to the problems of water in the United States and to his 
responsibility to be aware of these problems and to take part in their 
solutions. In many instances the stories are exaggerated, but the 
problems are real. 

In 1960 nearly 270 billion gallons of water per day, or about 1,500 
gallons per day per person, was used in the United States (MacKichan 
and Kammerer, 1961). Of this total, 61 billion gallons per day was 
consumed and was not available for reuse. The estimated and pro- 
jected withdrawals of water from 1955 to 2000 indicate that in 1980 
our use of water will be more than double that in 1960 (fig. 1). The 
estimates for 1980 and 2000, however, may be greatly in error if reuse 
of water is practiced more widely and intensively than it is now. 

The water that we use comes from many sources which may be 
shown as parts of a general picture of water movement on the earth. 


THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 


The major reservoirs of water on the earth are the oceans, and they 
form one link in what is known as the “hydrologic cycle.” The hydro- 
logic cycle describes the circulation of water from the ocean into the 
atmosphere; the movement of atmospheric moisture across oceans and 
over the continents; the precipitation of moisture as snow and rain; 
the flow of water in streams and lakes; the evaporation and transpira- 
tion of water from the surface back into the atmosphere; the move- 
ment of water beneath the surface of the ground; and the discharge 
of water back into the ocean to continue its endless journey. The 
hydrologic cycle is continuous and cannot be easily separated into 
its various phases, and in turn its phases are made up of endless and 
complex details. Water in any one phase of the cycle cannot be treated 
as a single subject. It must be considered in relation to its total 
natural environment, to its use by man, and as a function of time. 

Let us begin by considering the moisture in the atmosphere. Water 
evaporates from the surface of the ocean. It rises in the air and is 
borne by winds over the landmasses, where a part of it condenses and 
falls as rain or snow. In the western United States most moisture is 
brought from the Pacific Ocean and carried east. When winds 
from the Pacific Ocean meet the west coast, the warm moisture-laden 


2 Meinzer, O. B., Our water supply. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1937, p. 292, 1938. 


WHAT’S HAPPENING TO WATER?—ROBINOVE 377 


air is lifted high over the mountains and becomes cooler. The cool 
air cannot contain as much water vapor as warm air and so the 
moisture falls as rain or snow on the western slopes of the coastal 
ranges and the Sierra Nevada. East of the coastal ranges and the 
Sierra Nevada the air is drier; there is less moisture to precipitate and 
fall; and as a result, the region between the coastal areas and the 
Rocky Mountains is arid or semiarid. The lifting and drying effect 
of the continental mass is again shown as the air reaches the Rocky 
Mountains. Precipitation is greatest on the western slopes of the 
Rocky Mountains; the drier air moves across the mountains to the 
eastern slope, where the precipitation is less. 

Precipitation in the central part of the United States increases as 
additional air masses moving from the Gulf coast, the Atlantic, and 
the Arctic region bring moisture-laden air over the continent. 

Water is abundant in the United States. If all the precipitation 
that fell within the limits of the 48 conterminous States during an 
average year were to be spread evenly over the country, it would 
stand 30 inches deep. However, as the pattern of air movement 
indicates, this precipitation is not spread evenly over the United 
States. Some areas receive only a few inches of rainfall during the 
year, while others receive as much as 100 inches. 

The water represented by the average 30-inch depth is about 4,800 
million acre-feet per year, or about 4,400 billion gallons per day. 
This is an enormous amount of water, but unfortunately not all of it 
is available for our use. Of the 30 inches of water, about 211% inches 
is evaporated from open water areas or is transpired from the soil and 
the leaves of plants and thus returned to the atmosphere. Only part 
of this 2114 inches supports cultivated crops, native grass, and forests; 
the rest is evaporated or used by nonbeneficial plants. 

The remaining 814 inches of rainfall moves over the ground to 
streams as “direct runoff,” or seeps to the water table to become 
“oround water,” later to discharge into streams as “ground-water 
runoff.” Of the 814 inches, man withdraws from streams, lakes, 
reservoirs, springs, and wells the equivalent of about 2 inches (but in 
part this represents the same water used over again) and uses it for 
municipal and rural water supplies, industry, and irrigation. About 
half an inch evaporates or is transpired, in part as a result of the 
activities of man (principally irrigation) and in part by natural 
means in the Great Basin. The remainder joins the “unused” water 
to make a total of about 8 inches flowing into the oceans. Actually, 
the “unused” water is used too, though not “withdrawn”—for hydro- 
power (to an extent equivalent to nearly twice the average stream- 
flow), for dilution of sanitary and industrial wastes, for navigation, 
and for recreation and fish and wildlife. 


378 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The general disposal of the 80 inches of precipitation received is 
shown diagrammatically on plate 1, in which the quantities are 
rounded off to whole numbers. 

The 81% inches of runoff represents, virtually, our manageable water 
supply. Management of water consists of solving the general prob- 
lem—national, regional, or local in scope—of how to obtain perennial 
supplies of water of usable quality at a reasonable price at desired 
locations for specific uses. Each area of the Nation has several water 
problems that require solutions, and these may differ greatly from 
those in other areas of the country. 


WHAT WE KNOW OF THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 


Much is known about the fundamentals of hydrology and the laws 
that govern the occurrence and movement of water on and below the 
surface of the earth. Research directed to finding these facts has been 
a continuing and accelerated program throughout the United States 
and elsewhere and has been carried on by governmental agencies, uni- 
versities, and foundations. A great deal has been learned, but a great 
deal more remains to be understood. 

The mechanics of precipitation of water from atmospheric vapor 
as rain, hail, and snow is fairly well known. However, we still do 
not understand the distribution of precipitation in time and space 
well enough to predict how much rain or snow will fall where and 
when—to say nothing of being able to influence them. Stations for 
the recording of precipitation and temperature are scattered through- 
out the United States, but most of them are in heavily populated 
areas. However, much of the precipitation falls where the population 
is small and scattered, such as the mountainous areas of the West, 
which furnish a large part of our water, and records from these areas 
are spotty and inadequate. More has to be learned about the distri- 
bution of precipitation in these areas before we can understand and 
predict our primary source of water (Langbein and Hoyt, 1959, 
p.41). 

When water reaches the land surface, a portion soaks into the 
ground and is stored as soil water which is available for the growth 
and nourishment of plants. This zone of soil moisture may at times 
be completely saturated with water—that is, all the pore spaces be- 
tween the grains of soil and rock may be filled with water, or they may 
be only partially filled. We need to know more about the mechanism 
of the filling and draining of the soil-moisture zone. We also need 
to know a great deal more about how much water is extracted by 
crop plants and native plants from this soil-moisture zone and how 
much water is evaporated from the land. 

Between the zone of soil moisture and the water table is the zone of 
aeration. Water in excess of the amount (“field capacity”) that the 


WHAT’S HAPPENING TO WATER?—ROBINOVE 379 


soil can hold moves downward under the force of gravity. The me- 
chanics of the movement of water in this zone are complex and not 
so well understood as the movement of water in some other phases of 
the hydrologic cycle. Because water must move through this zone, 
which is not saturated with water, in order to enter the saturated zone 
where the ground water moves laterally through completely filled 
pore spaces, further research on the mechanics of water movement in 
the zone of aeration is essential. 

Fluid movement in the zone of aeration involves movement in three 
phases; water, water vapor, and air. Water is retained in the zone of 
aeration as films of water surrounding particles of the rock or com- 
pletely filling some of the void spaces between the grains. Water 
completely filling the voids can move downward until it reaches the 
water table as ground-water recharge. Downward movement of 
water in the zone of aeration is primarily in the water phase; the 
transfer of water vapor does not contribute significantly to ground- 
water recharge. 

A particular ground-water reservoir, such as the Dakota Sandstone 
of the northern Great Plains, may underlie tens of thousands of 
square miles, while another ground-water reservoir, such as the sand 
beds underlying Long Island, may be confined to relatively small 
areas. The movement of ground water in small aquifers (water- 
bearing beds or strata) may be only part of a large pattern of ground- 
water movement throughout a larger area. The effects of water use 
and development must be studied in both large and small areas in 
order to understand fully the regimen of ground water. 

Water moves through ground-water reservoirs until it is discharged 
as springs, by seepage into streams and lakes, and through with- 
drawal by man. Such discharge allows a continual movement of 
water through aquifers and provides room for recharge. The amount 
of water moving through the ground and the total amount of water 
removed from the ground-water reservoir in any specific period of 
time are known only approximately. The water that seeps into 
streams and lakes provides the base flow of the streams—that is, the 
low flow that is sustained through the driest part of the year. If 
water is diverted from a ground-water system and withdrawn for use, 
such as irrigation, or the water is evaporated back into the atmosphere, 
the base flow may be reduced substantially or even eliminated. The 
complex interrelationship of water on the surface and under the 
ground is one part of the hydrologic cycle which we need to study 
more intensively in order to make the best use of both sources of 
water. 

Evaporation and transpiration are two phases of the hydrologic 
cycle that are difficult to study quantitatively. Only in the last few 
years have instruments and mathematical techniques been developed 


380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


to measure and calculate the rate and amount of evaporation from 
open water and land surfaces and the transpiration of plants. Evapo- 
ration may be estimated by measuring the loss of water from open 
pans on the land surface, but application of the evaporation rates to 
lakes and swamps can be misleading. Recent studies of energy 
budgets and heat transfer provide more reliable means of calculating 
total evapotranspiration than we have had in the past. In the fu- 
ture we may look to measurement of atmospheric moisture at eleva- 
tions high above the ground and to the use of instruments carried in 
aircraft to give us gross figures on the total evaporation from a par- 
ticular area. 

The water on and below the surface of the ground is not pure; it 
contains varying amounts of different chemical substances in solution. 
The amount of material that is carried in solution by the water de- 
pends upon the solubility of the rocks with which the water comes in 
contact and the length of time of contact. Research into the physical 
and chemical properties of water and rocks and the interrelations of 
the water and the dissolved mineral matter are of extreme importance 
because of the uses to which we put water. Industries, municipalities, 
and irrigation all require water that is within certain but different 
limits of chemical quality. Ground water at a particular place gen- 
erally has a fairly constant chemical quality, but water in streams in 
the same area may vary greatly in chemical quality during the year. 
The constancy of ground-water quality is an attractive feature for 
consumers whose water-quality requirements are not flexible. 


WATER PROBLEMS OF THE UNITED STATES 


It is easy to see that we cannot manage water as a whole throughout 
the Nation, because water problems are not the same everywhere. We 
have therefore oversimplified the major water problems in the follow- 
ing discussion. The general problem of water in the United States 
can be broken down into six problems of major importance which 
plague the Nation’s water resources. Plate 1 shows the major areas 
affected by the problems listed. 

The first problem, and one that comes most quickly to mind, is that 
of deficient supply—not enough water. Deficient supply is primarily 
a problem of the southwestern United States, although, as with other 
problems, it occurs in some areas elsewhere. In such areas, the total 
supply of water is not sufficient for the demands made upon it. Defi- 
cient supply may be in part an economic problem. Water may be 
available, but the cost of obtaining it can be prohibitive. 

The Navajo country of Arizona, Utah, and New Mexico covers 
about 25,000 square miles and is a good example of an area of deficient 
supply. It is sparsely settled and probably never will have the prob- 
lems of an increasing population similar to those of the nearby cities 


WHAT’S HAPPENING TO WATER?—ROBINOVE 381 


of Phoenix and Tucson. Nevertheless, a stable water supply is needed 
for those who live and work in the Navajo country. Few streams 
are perennial—the Colorado and San Juan Rivers on the west and 
north sides of the Navajo country are the principal exceptions, but 
water from these generally is not available because the streams are 
deeply entrenched in canyons and the water contains large amounts 
of sediment. The meager supplies on the reservation come from small 
and undependable reservoirs on intermittent streams and deep but 
dependable wells. On an average, only about 10 gallons of water per 
day is available for human consumption (U.S. House of Representa- 
tives, 1953, p. 126). A larger and more dependable water supply can 
be assured only by a program of storage of runoff, promotion of the 
growth of plants that would use less water or be of more economic 
value than the present native species, and use of the ground-water 
reservoirs to the maximum capability, if such is economically feasible. 
Such a program would be expensive and would require more informa- 
tion on the Navajo country than is now available. 

The second major water problem is that of variability. The avail- 
able water supply may be less than the demand during drought years 
and greater than the demand during wet years. The average water 
supply may be able to meet the average demands, but this statement 
is small consolation to a user of water who must face several years of 
drought during which he cannot get enough water to meet his needs. 
This problem gives rise to the often asked question “Is our total water 
supply decreasing?” The answer to this is “No!” We may have less 
water at a certain place at a particular time but at other times we may 
have more water than wecan use. Thus, droughts have been of serious 
proportions in the Central Plains in the 1930’s and in a large part of 
the country in the 1950’s, but at other times these regions have had 
surpluses of water. 

Water supplies vary throughout a single year also. Irrigation in 
the West demands large and dependable water supplies during the 
growing season, but the natural stream runoff varies greatly during 
that time. Storage of surface water in reservoirs to regulate the flow 
for irrigation, together with the use of stored ground water, can even 
out the usable supply and allow its release when needed. 

The distribution of the water supply is the third problem of major 
importance. The distribution problem means that the supply exceeds 
the demand in one part of a region and is less than the demand in 
another. For example, northern California has large supplies of 
water and the demand for water is small; southern California, in con- 
trast, has a limited supply but its large, ever-expanding population 
and industry need ever-increasing amounts of water. 

The Los Angeles River furnished the municipal water supply for 
the city of Los Angeles from the founding of the city in 1781 until 


382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


960,000 TEER 


vel dc oe 
840,000 
720,000 y, 
600,000 eke eee es 
PARED AERES: 


360,000 
on National Water Resoures, 


| 
, . 
bs 1960 b 
120,000 
million 
gallons 
per day lof aba Palieiad 


1955 I960 1965 1970 1975 I980 1985 990 1995 2000 


|. MacKichan, 1957 
2 MacKichan’ and Kammerer, 196] 
3.U.S, Senate, Select Committee 


Ficure 1.—Estimates of total withdrawals of water (excluding waterpower), 1955-2000. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Robinove PLATE 1 


Me OUR WATER SUPPLY 


iN lhe I’ 
ia | EVAPO- 


nicbrelt TRANSPIRATION 


ts 


FLOW INTO OCEAN 


DISTRIBUTION - SUPPLY CHEMICAL AND 


POLLUTION FLOODS . VARIABILITY 


WHAT’S HAPPENING TO WATER?—ROBINOVE 383 


1913. By 1900 the local water supply was obviously going to be inade- 
quate for the anticipated population growth, and other possible 
sources of supply outside the local area were investigated. As a re- 
sult, a 215-mile aqueduct was built to import water from Owens Val- 
ley on the east side of the Sierra Nevada. By 1930 the population of 
the coastal basins near Los Angeles had increased to over 21% million. 
To supply the growing population, the Colorado River was tapped 
and an aqueduct, 240 miles long, with a capacity of 1,500 cubic feet 
per second of water, was constructed by the newly formed Metro- 
politan Water District of Southern California and began delivery of 
water in 1941. The Metropolitan Water District now supphes water 
to Los Angeles and surrounding cities with a combined population of 
over 7 million and also supplies water to San Diego County. 

At present the State of California plans to store and divert water 
from the upper Feather River drainage area in northern California 
for use in the Central Valley, San Francisco Bay area, and southern 
California. The magnitude of these efforts to provide water for 
municipal and other uses is testimony to the expense and effort 
needed to adjust the natural distribution of water to sustain the life 
and economy of southern California. 

In many regions the quality of water is the fourth major water 
problem. Water quality is determined by the dissolved chemical 
constituents and by the sediment carried in the water. The chemical 
quality of water is extremely variable, and in some parts of the 
Nation the water has always been “poor”—that is, unusable for 
most purposes because it contains excessive amounts of dissolved min- 
erals. Much of the water in the ground is of poor quality—possibly 
more water of poor quality than of good quality is stored in the 
ground. A person may say that his water is 9944499 percent pure, 
but such a statement is only figurative. The amount of dissolved 
minerals in natural water is measured in p.p.m. (parts per million), 
that is, parts of mineral constituents per million parts of water. A 
water that could be said to be “9944499 percent pure” would contain 
5,600 parts per million of dissolved mineral matter and would be 
unfit for drinking. Drinking water usually should have no more 
than 500 p.p.m. of dissolved minerals. Sea water usually is about 
9614 percent “pure.” 

Sea water may mix with surface and ground water and thus impair 
the quality of the fresh water. The sea water off the coast opposite 
New York City has a normal chloride content of about 18,500 p.p.m. 
The tidal estuaries of streams flowing into the Atlantic Ocean near 
New York City have somewhat lower salinities, from about 2,000 
to 16,000 p.p.m. of chloride, because the fresh water of the streams 
is mixed with the sea water. The ground water in parts of Queens 


672-174—63——28 


384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


County, Long Island, is fresh and contains less than 100 p.p.m. of 
chloride. In parts of Kings County and southern Manhattan, how- 
ever, the chloride content of the ground water has become as high 
as 15,000 p.p.m. This indicates contamination of the fresh ground 
water by encroachment of sea water (Perlmutter and Arnow, 1953, 
p. 37). Pumping of fresh ground water may cause a reversal of 
the gradient of the fresh ground water, which usually moves from 
the high land areas to the ocean. The reversal of the gradient allows 
the sea water to enter the fresh ground-water reservoir. 

A large body of salty ground water beneath southwestern Nassau 
County and southeastern Queens County, Long Island, probably is 
encroaching landward at a rate somewhat less than 100 feet per year 
(Perlmutter, Geraghty, and Upson, 1959, p. 417). 

Salty ground water cannot be used for municipal water supply, 
but it can be used by industry, principally for cooling and air con- 
ditioning. The problem of continued encroachment of sea water 
can be and is being solved either by reducing the total amount of 
ground water pumped or by pumping the water out of the ground, 
using it for cooling, and pumping it back into the ground. This 
recirculation is a water-conservation measure that can reduce the 
total amount of water removed from the ground-water reservoir 
and thus slow down the rate of salt-water encroachment. 

The sediment carried by streams and deposited in reservoirs also 
affects its quality. Although some waters have small concentrations 
of sediment, they may, because of the great total volume of water, 
carry a large total sediment load. A reservoir built on a river that 
has a large sediment load may eventually be filled with silt and 
other sediment and become unusable for further storage. Sediment 
is also a major problem to the operators of municipal and industrial 
waterworks, which must have facilities capable of removing sediment 
from water before the water can be used. 

Some major reservoirs have lost sizable parts of their capacity 
owing to accumulation of sediment carried by streams flowing into 
the reservoirs. The sediment load of the Colorado River near the 
United States-Mexico boundary was 180 million tons per year before 
construction of dams on the main stem of the Colorado. After 
Hoover Dam and other dams were built, the sediment was impounded 
in the reservoirs instead of being transported to the delta at the 
mouth of the river. Lake Mead, the lake behind Hoover Dam, has 
filled with sediment at a rate slower than originally estimated, but 
reservoir capacity needed for storage of water has nevertheless been 
lost. In addition, the loss of the normal sediment load of the river 
below Hoover Dam has changed the regimen of the stream and 
allowed it to cut its channel deeper than if it carried its normal 
sediment load. 


WHAT’S HAPPENING TO WATER?—ROBINOVE 385 


Natural water of poor quality must be distinguished from water 
polluted or contaminated by man and his agencies. The poor natural 
chemical quality of water is a problem that is not easily coped with, 
but a great deal can be done to avoid and correct pollution of water 
in streams and below the surface of the ground. Pollution, the fifth 
major problem, consists of permitting the entry into streams, lakes, 
and ground-water reservoirs of materials that are harmful and can- 
not readily be removed by normal water-treatment processes. ‘These 
include organic and inorganic waste from municipalities and indus- 
tries, which may, for example, temporarily lower the dissolved oxygen 
content of water in streams and lakes to a point where no fish or 
other aquatic life can live in the water. 

Waste must be disposed of, of course, and disposal of waste into 
flowing streams has been a practical method for many years. How- 
ever, the streams must have a large enough flow to dilute the waste, 
and when the wastes become a large enough percentage of the stream- 
flow so that the quality of water is objectionable, the stream is pol- 
luted. The solution to the pollution problem lies in determining the 
best way of handling the waste material. We cannot stop waste dis- 
posal—we must learn to control it and perhaps handle it without hayv- 
ing to use large quantities of water for waste dilution. 

The Potomac River, which is the source of water supply for the 
Nation’s Capital and other communities, has been polluted by the 
municipal and industrial sewage discharged into the river and its 
tributaries. Aquatic vegetation and fish cannot thrive in its polluted 
water. Recreational activities such as swimming and boating bring 
people into contact with polluted water, constituting a health hazard. 
The prevention of future pollution and the control of the present pol- 
lution are goals that can benefit all users of the Potomac. Steps have 
already been taken to cut down or eliminate the discharge of raw sew- 
age into the Potomac River; many cities now treat the sewage before 
disposal. 

The estuary of the Potomac is narrow and deep and extends from 
Chesapeake Bay upstream to Washington. The river in this estuary 
receives pollution from other streams flowing directly into it and from 
sewage of cities adjacent to the estuary. The large size of the estuary 
combined with a back and forth movement of tidal surges prevent the 
pollutants from discharging into the sea fast enough, and the pollut- 
ants are therefore concentrated in the estuary, raising the tempera- 
ture of the water and increasing the concentration of organic material. 
Within a few years no raw sewage will be discharged into the Poto- 
mac, but the problem of concentration of pollutants may still remain. 
Perhaps it will be necessary to dispose of sewage without discharging 
it into the river. Pumping sewage into ground-water reservoirs has 
been suggested as a pollution-abatement measure along the Potomac. 


386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Even if this proved to by hydrologically feasible, which is not likely, 
care would have to be taken to ensure that the ground water did not 
become polluted. 

The sixth major water problem, that of floods, probably gains the 
greatest public attention because floods are often of disaster propor- 
tions. Floods are a normal part of a river’s life. The flow of a river 
generally ranges from the low flow, which is maintained principally 
by ground-water seepage into the stream, to a bank-full stage which 
occurs on the average of about twice a year. Higher flows, which may 
occur about every 10, 50, or 100 years, depending upon local condi- 
tions, can only be carried outside the channel of the river on the flood 
plain. Floods can be controlled by the construction and use of water- 
storage reservoirs, which tend to even out the annual fluctuation to a 
more or less steady flow. However, the construction of reservoirs 
solely for flood control is not always economically practical, and for 
that reason multipurpose reservoirs must be designed. These can be 
partly emptied and used for storage of flood water, which is later re- 
leased for hydroelectric power generation, navigation, irrigation, water 
supply, and the dilution of waste reaching the river downstream from 
the reservoir. 

The extent to which floods can endanger life and damage property 
is well illustrated by the floods of August 13-19, 1955, on the eastern 
and northeastern coasts of the United States. Hurricane Connie 
crossed the coast of North Carolina at about noon on August 12, 
moved north along the coast, across eastern Virginia, northeastward 
across central Maryland, Pennsylvania, and the southwestern tip of 
New York, and entered Ontario on August 14. Scattered floods oc- 
curred as a result of this hurricane, but its most dangerous effect was 
to saturate the soil to its capacity, which meant that further heavy 
rains would cause high runoff. Three days later hurricane Diane 
crossed the southern North Carolina coast, moved northward across 
southeastern Pennsylvania, crossed New Jersey, and swept out to sea 
south of Long Island on August 19. Heavy rains occurred in a broad 
band along the coast, an area that includes the most industrialized and 
densely populated part of the United States. The ground, still wet 
from the rains of August 12-14, could absorb only a small part of the 
rain; consequently, the rest ran off in the stream channels and flood 
plains, causing disastrous floods. In spite of flood-control reservoirs, 
property damage amounted to almost $500 million, and some 200 
persons were killed or injured. The floods reached new record maxi- 
mum discharges at 129 of the 287 stream-gaging stations in the flood 
area (Bogart, 1960). Predictions of maximum expected floods are 
based on statistical analyses of the frequency and magnitude of pre- 
vious floods, and the recorded data on such record-breaking floods as 
those of 1955 will make possible wiser planning of future flood control. 


WHAT’S HAPPENING TO WATER?—ROBINOVE 387 


These, then, are the six major water problems of the country. Much 
is known about the natural regimen of water and about the effects of 
man’s use of water, but nevertheless we need to know a lot more. The 
various water problems have been solved, in part and temporarily, in 
many ways. Technology can aid in the avoidance or correction of 
water problems; dams have been built to regulate river flow to allevi- 
ate floods, to provide water for consumptive use, and to furnish hydro- 
electric power; and municipalities and industries treat their sewage to 
prevent pollution. Water has been diverted hundreds of miles, even 
across the Continental Divide, to areas where natural water supplies 
are inadequate. But what will happen to water in the long run? 
How can we as a Nation use our water supplies wisely and with the 
greatest benefit ? 


CAN WE SOLVE OUR WATER PROBLEMS? 


The solution or avoidance of water problems can be achieved only 
through sufiicient knowledge of basic hydrologic processes, adequate 
basic facts on water occurrence throughout the Nation, and experience 
in dealing with water problems. 

An understanding of the physical and chemical regimen of water 
is a prerequisite to the proper use of water and the correction or allevi- 
ation of water problems. The expression “balance of nature” is often 
used in the field of natural history and conservation to refer to the 
relations of living organisms with each other and with their environ- 
ment. By analogy this expression is also applicable to the hydrologic 
environment when not affected by man. The amount of water in each 
of the phases of the hydrologic cycle is relatively constant over long 
periods of time of the order of thousands of years. For example, the 
amount of water discharging from a ground-water reservoir is equal 
to the amount of water entering the reservoir if no changes in the 
system are made by man. 

Man’s diversion and consumption of water upset the balance of the 
hydrologic cycle. Readjustment may take generations or even thou- 
sands of years. But the natural system must be thrown out of balance 
in order to provide water for man’s use. Man must have water, but 
he must realize the consequences of water development in order to get 
the greatest benefit from his use of water. 

There are three stages in the development of water resources of a 
particular area, whether it is a small drainage basin or the entire 
Nation. The first stage is use of the available water for needed pur- 
poses without planning or anticipating future expansion of water 
development and the consequent problems. 

The second stage begins when problems such as deficient supply or 
pollution are seen to be serious. In this stage the problems are recog- 
nized and data on the hydrologic system are collected and analyzed to 


388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


determine the best ways of furthering development of the water 
supply as well as of minimizing the problems. Development in the 
second stage usually consists of stopgap measures to alleviate the 
major problems—stopgap primarily because of economic and 
sociological limitations. 

The third stage, water management, consists of comprehensive plan- 
ning and development of an area’s water resources with the goal of 
providing the greatest benefit from the water and the minimization of 
water problems. The knowledge of how to manage water depends 
on the results of research in the fundamentals of the hydrologic cycle. 
For example, we must know the amount of water interchanged be- 
tween the land surface and the ground-water reservoirs through the 
zone of aeration. Research is put into practice in the description and 
appraisal of hydrologic systems in specific areas, such as Long Island, 
where surface water, ground water, and the ocean all must be consid- 
ered in evaluating the availability and usability of water. Principles 
of water management are based upon the existing physical and chemi- 
cal regimen of water and are modified as needed by economic, legal, 
and sociological factors. 

The development of water can then be adjusted to an optimum 
level at which maximum usability of water is assured with a minimum 
of bad effects on the resource and the users. Facts and sound prin- 
ciples of water management are not enough, however, to make these 
adjustments effective. Experience in the utilization and management 
of water is an additional vital factor in the conservation of water 
which allows us to profit from our mistakes. 

Water management, the ultimate step in the development of water 
resources, has not yet been reached for any area. As we develop the 
water resources of the country and pass through the various stages 
of development, we must recognize that management of water will 
become a greater and greater tool in the full development of the 
Nation. A “laissez faire” attitude of water use must be a thing of 
the past, and we must recognize our responsibility to manage our 
resources wisely. 

If we could visualize an imaginary electronic computer programed 
with sound principles of water management, into which we could 
feed all the facts on the water resources of an area, data on the present 
and expected use of water, and the sociological and economic facts 
allied with the development of water, perhaps we could push a button 
and get the solutions to the water problems. Unfortunately, we do 
not have such a computer and maybe we never will have. But it is 
certain that the continuation of scientific and engineering studies of 
the basic principles of the hydrologic cycle together with complete 
appraisals of the available and usable water resources of the Nation 


WHAT’S HAPPENING TO WATER?—ROBINOVE 389 


can lead ever closer to the ultimate goal of water management and 
conservation for any area in the Nation. 


LITERATURE CITED 


ACKERMAN, BE. A., and L6r, G. O. G. 
1959. Technology in American water development, 710 pp. Baltimore, 
Johns Hopkins Press. 
Bogart, D. B. 
1960. Floods of August—October, 1955, New England to North Carolina, 
854 pp. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Pap. 1420. 
LANGBEIN, W. B., and Hoyt, W. G. 
1959. Water facts for the Nation’s future, 288 pp. New York, Ronald 
Press Co. 
MacKicH an, K. A. 
1957. Estimated use of water in the United States, 1955, 18 pp. U.S. Geol. 
Surv. Cire. 398. 
MacKicuHan, K. A., and KAMMERER, J.C. 
1961. Estimated use of water in the United States, 1960. 44 pp. U.S. Geol. 
Sury. Cire. 456. 
MEINzER, O. Hi. 
1938. Our water supply. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1937, pp. 291-305. 
PERLMUTTER, N. M., and ArNnow, T. 
1953. Ground water in Bronx, New York, and Richmond Counties, with 
summary data on Kings and Queens Counties, New York City, 
New York, 86 pp. New York Dept. Conseryv., Water Power, and 
Control and Comm. Bull. GW-82. 
PERLMUTTER, N. M., GeRAGHTY, J. J., and Upson, J. i. 
1959. The relation between fresh and salty ground water in southern 
Nassau and southeastern Queens Counties, Long Island, N.Y. 
Eeon. Geol., vol. 54, pp. 416-485. 
U.S. House or REPRESENTATIVES, INTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS COMMITTEE. 
1953. The physical and economic foundation of natural resources, pt. 4. 
Subsurface facilities of water management and patterns of supply 
type area studies, 206 pp. 
U.S. SENATE SELECT COMMITTEE ON NATIONAL WATER RESOURCES. 
1960a. Water resources activities in the United States—water facts and 
problems, 44 pp. 86th Congr., Ist Sess., Comm. Print 1. 
1960b. Water resources activities in the United States—water supply and 
demand, 131 pp. 86th Congr., 1st Sess., Comm. Print 32. 


The Opening of the Arctic Ocean * 


By Lt. Comdr. James T. Stronc,? U.S. Navy 


[With 4 plates] 


Far-REACHING voyages under the Arctic ice by nuclear submarines 
are now common enough to attract little interest. For the many who 
regard them as stunts, there now seems little reason to continue them. 
That they may well herald a new phase of naval operations, as im- 
portant as any our Navy has ever seen, is perceived by only a few. 

Until 1958 the Arctic Ocean was untraveled by ship. Polar bears, 
seals, and fishes shared this vast area with rare human intruders who 
traveled there by air or on foot or by sled at great effort. A few pow- 
erful armored icebreakers probed the edges of the perpetual icepack. 
These ships and others entered the fringes of this region at great risk; 
frequently they were trapped and remained until rescued at great cost. 

Then Nautilus’ crossing of the entire Arctic Basin under the icepack 
proved the feasibility of travel there by submarine. Within two years, 
succeeding voyages have removed all the major questions in under-ice 
navigation and the nuclear submarine has opened 5 million square 
miles of ocean to travel by ship. Before considering the implications 
of this breakthrough, a brief review of the conditions under which it 
occurred will be profitable. 

The trip of U.S.S. Vautilus from the Pacific across the Pole to the 
Atlantic is well known. Earlier in 1957, Vautilus had prepared for 
this voyage by a brief but productive probe under the ice to within 
180 miles of the Pole. Shortly after Nautilus crossed the Pole, the 
nuclear-powered submarine Skate arrived there on an intensive voyage 
of discovery. Among other significant achievements, Skate demon- 
strated the ability of submarines to surface in the open-water leads, 

1 Reprinted by permission from Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute, vol. 87, 
No. 10, October 1961. Copyright 1961 by U.S. Naval Institute. 

2A graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy in the Class of 1948A, Lieutenant Commander 
Strong served in U.S.S. Cochino (SS—345) which burned and sank in Arctie waters in 1949. 
Subsequently, he has served in U.S.S. Sarda (SS-488), U.S.S. Trout (SS—566), U.S.S. 
Stickleback (SS-415), and U.S.S. Bashaw (SSK—241). He is presently (1961) a member 


of the crew which commissioned U.S.S. Seadragon (SS(N)-584) and sailed her from 
Portsmouth, N.H., to Pearl Harbor by way of the Northwest Passage and the North Pole. 


391 


392 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


and she also proved the existence of these leads throughout the Arctic 
pack during summer months. In March 1959, less than 7 months later, 
Skate proceeded to the Pole a second time. During this severest of all 
seasons in the Arctic, Skate developed a procedure for surfacing blind 
through the ice which completely covers the Arctic Ocean during the 
winter darkness. 

In February 1960 Sargo became the third of the “ice boats” to under- 
take what many consider was the most hazardous task of all. Build- 
ing on knowledge gained from Nautilus and Skate, and utilizing 
prototype equipment to guide her around shoals and deep ice, Sargo 
operated for many days in shallow waters under the unfavorable cir- 
cumstances of complete ice coverage and round-the-clock darkness. 

Several questions remained after Sargo successes. Could nuclear 
submarines operate under ice in proximity to icebergs without fear of 
colliding with this deep draft ice? Could nuclear submarines operate 
under the ice in the restricted waters between land masses? If a 
nuclear submarine could operate in narrow, shallow passages under the 
ice and in the vicinity of icebergs, it seemed likely that there were 
usable passages in the islands of northern Canada that should be 
sought out and used. Several ice-blocked straits crossed this area, but 
whether they were passable by submarine was not known. 

Much had been learned about icebergs since the establishment of the 
International Ice Patrol in 1913 after the tragic smking of Zitanic. 
Icebergs are the droppings of glaciers which exist on many of the 
Arctic islands. The weight of centuries of snowfall shoves the glacier 
down the island slopes toward the sea where huge pieces break off, be- 
coming icebergs. Time and pressure and temperature have converted 
snow to very hard ice by the time it reaches the sea. Once afloat, it 
may wander in Arctic waters under the effects of current and—to a 
lesser extent, wind—for years while a slow erosion occurs. Whenever 
currents take it into warmer waters, disintegration occurs within a 
few days. 

Most of the world’s icebergs occur in Baffin Bay. Greenland is by 
far the most important source; here 12 large glaciers alone have been 
recorded as calving 2,300 bergs in 1 year. Icebergs do not normally 
occur in the Arctic Ocean so that previous nuclear submarine 
expeditions have not confronted them. 


A new nuclear submarine, U.S.S. Seadragon (SSN-584) was having 
her post-shakedown shipyard availability at Portsmouth, N.H., at 
this time. Seadragon was scheduled for transfer to the Pacific Fleet 
at an opportune moment, and so it was decided to fit her with ice 
equipment and send her to Pearl Harbor by way of a Northwest 
Passage, if one could be found. On August 1, 1960, Seadragon sailed 
northward. 


OPENING OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN—STRONG 393 


On August 9, Seadragon entered Baffin Bay, traveling at deep 
depths and at a speed of 14 knots. Attempts to locate icebergs re- 
ported to be disintegrating in the warm waters to the south had been 
unsuccessful. As the ship approached an area where several bergs 
were reported, speed was slackened. On August 10 Seadragon surfaced 
on the edge of a large area of loose sea ice which stretched as far as 
the eye could see to the north. This was what remained of the solid 
pack which had covered all of Baffin Bay the previous winter. Less 
than 2 miles away was a small piece of a berg—Inown as a bergy bit. 
Small compared to a full-sized berg, this bit was later computed to 
weigh 2,500 tons. At the limit of visibility to the north was a shape 
that must be an iceberg. 

The bergy bit was a perfect target to use for final adjustments of 
the ship’s iceberg detection equipment. Carefully the ship was conned 
under the bit for the first time—then again and again until the iceberg 
detector and the men who must use it were ready for bigger game. 
Going deep, the ship then headed in the direction of the full-sized berg. 

Seadragon was surfaced in the open water before the berg, having 
traveled under 12 miles of loose pack. Slowly she approached the 
berg like the legendary David must have stalked his giant. Knowing 
that the underwater size was much greater than apparent, the Captain 
stopped the ship while still a mile away. The dangers of hitting a berg 
are well known to seamen. Ships that collide with icebergs are in- 
variably severely damaged or lost. The above-water portion measured 
74 feet tall with a 313-foot waterline. The submarine slowly circled 
the berg, surveying and photographing every angle. The berg was 
blocky on one side like the breastworks of a fort, while the reverse was 
hollowed out like the back side of a shield. The berg was clearly 
weathered, showing the multiple waterlines characteristic of the state 
of accelerated disintegration. It would not be safe to approach close 
or send a party to this berg. A huge ice slide or rotation of the berg 
due to a change in center of gravity might occur as happened later 
on two other bergs. 

After all possible study had been completed on the surface, Sea- 
dragon submerged. As expected, the iceberg detector traced out a 
huge underwater body in the direction of the berg. Except for size, 
it looked to the sonar no differently than the bergy bit earlier. But 
could the detector identify the berg as deep draft ice compared to shal- 
low draft sea ice? The iceberg detector indicated that the berg was be- 
tween 100 and 200 feet in draft. One theory held that the draft would 
be somewhere between one and five time the above-water height. 
Studying the above-water height and shape of the berg, the ice experts 
estimated the draft to be between 150 and 200 feet. There was no other 
way to check the iceberg detector measurement—or the theory—than 
to pass under the berg and let upward-beamed fathometers measure 


394 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


the distance precisely. At Seadragon’s depth, the berg should clear 
by more than 200 feet. Beyond these prosaic reasons for passing 
under the berg was the urge to be the first submarine to do so. This 
magnificent crew had brought their ship 2,500 miles to find this berg. 
All were eager to conquer it in every way. A few runs were made at 
the berg to test equipment operation at every angle and speed, then 
Seadragon headed directly for the berg. 

After many hours of preliminary steps, the long-awaited trip 
under the berg seem anticlimatic. The upward-beamed fathometer 
traced out an irregular bottom with a draft of 108 feet. A total of 
six runs were made under this berg in different directions to produce 
a complete picture of its shape. The maximum length of the under- 
water shape proved to be 822 feet compared to the 313-foot measure- 
ment above water. While proving her ice equipment, Seadragon 
corrected and proved many of the theories concerning the undersides 
of icebergs. 

Soon the ship was operated routinely at speeds up to 20 knots with 
sure knowledge that every berg would be easily seen and avoided. 

During the week that followed, 12 icebergs in all were selected 
and measured off. Six were passed under a total of 22 times. Six 
were too deep to be passed under safely. At one time in an area south 
of Kap York, Greenland, the bergs were so dense that 45 were in 
sight at the same time and the radar scope showed them to be undi- 
minished in number beyond the range of visibility. Icebergs were 
clearly no hazard to a properly equipped nuclear submarine. In 
proving this fact, invaluable scentific information about the under- 
sides of icebergs was produced to an extent never before possible. 

Her first task completed, Seadragon turned west. In approximately 
the same position, 121 years earlier, a young English naval officer 
named William Edward Parry had directed his ships Hecla and 
Gripper in the same direction. He had entered a body of water called 
Lancaster Sound which was shown on his chart as a bay without an 
exit to the west. He was soon aware that it was not really a bay, but 
a strait, possibly the Northwest Passage, that he and many before him 
had sought. 

It was a Northwest Passage and Parry lived to be knighted and have 
Parry Channel named after him. It took 121 years and nuclear power 
to see it navigated fully, however. In the winter this channel is com- 
pletely ice covered. In the summer the eastern end, Lancaster Sound, 
is usually ice free. The western end, McClure Strait, and narrow 
center, Barrow Strait, are usually covered with rugged pack ice 
relentlessly forced there from the Arctic Ocean under pressure gen- 
erated by the usual Arctic wind circulation. Parry was fortunate to 
have found the channel in a good year, the mildest ever recorded. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Strong 


ALASKA 


PEATE! 


NORTH 
| POLE | : 
20° 
U = 
40° Th 
DE .. ELLESMERE Re \ 
\ we 2 ISLAND Vay . 
ey NK ie 0 
oa 
4 
we 
Nie 
ee és 
\ a 
yy Pram 2 
<< any ae 
3h) d\ ~ 
J \ ° \ : 
J aN 
7) \ oc. u 
\ 
CANADA —aps0n \K 
\ \ 
paY Neate 
La \ 
J : So eS : 
\ % | \ 


ore 
/ 


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= W.id, GHANNON 


General route of USS Seadragon’s August 1960 Arctic cruise. 


PLATE 2 


Strong 


Smithsonian Report, 1962. 


‘roatp Aq poydessojoyd se 9d1 fo apisrapuy) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Strong PEATE: 3S 


Frogman from Seadragon takes first pictures under the North Pole. 


PLATE 4 


Strong 


Smithsonian Report, 1962. 


‘advAOA IvjOg Jay Uo uosvIpvay Aq poiajUNOsUD S1oqad! 4sas1V] 9, J, 


OPENING OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN—STRONG 395 


He managed to travel all the way to Melville Island before being 
stopped by the pack. Here he wintered and returned home to a 
hero’s rewards the next summer. 

Because the usually unfavorable ice conditions keep ships away, 
Parry’s soundings were all that existed in the main section of the 
channel. Ships since that historic voyage had traversed sections of 
the channel inshore in relatively shallow waters where the winds and 
presence of land frequently left channels through the ice. The many 
soundings along the coasts clearly revealed that a submerged sub- 
marine could not pass there. The half dozen or more soundings 
sparsely spread along the center of the Barrow Strait narrows 
indicated that the depth here was shallow as compared to the ends 
of Parry Channel. Five islands exist in the narrows, while 
another island and several shoals were marked as “existence 
doubtful” or “position doubtful.” The best passage between the 
islands, or whether a passage even existed, was by no means 
clear from the chart. Whether the passage would be deep enough 
to pass a submerged submarine under the heavily ridged ice that nor- 
mally was there was clearly uncertain. 

On the morning of August 17, Seadragon submerged at the western 
end of Lancaster Sound and proceeded into the rapidly shoaling waters 
of Barrow Strait at slow speed. During the 3 days that followed she 
was never far from the bottom below or the surface above. The bottom 
proved to have many shoals that appeared on the fathometer trace 
with little warning. Grounding or collision with ice above was nar- 
rowly escaped many times by turning or changing depth rapidly. 
Although there was some ice on the surface, a lucky wind condition 
had cleared most of the ice from the Strait, permitting a more 
thorough survey than expected. Seadragon surfaced six times within 
the strait for navigational fixing to locate her survey accurately on the 
area’s charts. The fixes revealed that several of the charted islands 
were 5 miles out of position. On August 19, the task was complete. 
Islands and shoals were carefully and accurately plotted on the chart. 
There was a channel there deep enough for any future nuclear sub- 
marine to follow, winter or summer, favorable ice or not. The survey 
had proved without reservation that the electronic equipment on 
Seadragon was capable of leading her through restricted channels 
between land masses. 

At high speed, Seadragon entered the deep, unsounded waters of 
Viscount Melville Sound, passed the North Magnetic Pole, passed 
under the edge of the ice pack pushing into McClure Strait, and 
entered the Arctic Basin—all without surfacing once. Proceeding 
under the pack to the North Pole, the ship was surfaced frequently 
for scientific studies, tests of military equipments, and sightseeing by 


672-174 63——29 


396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


the crew. Departing the Pole on August 27 Seadragon continued 
this routine until emerging from under the ice north of Bering Strait. 
A brief stop was made at Nome, Alaska, and on September 14 Sea- 
dragon arrived at Pearl Harbor. 

The final questions answered, all of the Arctic is now open to naviga- 
tion by any nation having nuclear submarines. This is possible 
through the miracle of nuclear power. A hundred and nineteen years 
ago, Sir William Edward Parry could not have predicted Seadragon’s 
voyage as he struggled through an icebound channel for the first 
time in a sail-driven wooden ship, misguided by a vexed magnetic 
compass. Neither can we predict today the nature of the change 
that will have occurred in the Arctic a hundred years hence. But 
change it most certainly will. 

The Queen Elizabeth Islands of the Canadian Archipelago are 
rich in minerals. As those new materials become more valuable and 
as science makes them easier to obtain, commerce will surely move 
into the Arctic and flourish. Seadragon’s route through the Parry 
Channel and many others yet uncharted will some day be important 
commercial routes just as they are today routes of military signifi- 
cance. Passenger routes across the Arctic of great importance are 
already in daily use in the air. 


The idea of increasing importance of the Arctic is not a new one. 
Many years ago that venerable Arctic explorer and writer Vilhjalmur 
Stefansson gathered together the impressive evidence for this thesis 
in a book called “Northward the Course of Empire.” This book traces 
the center of civilization from its inception in a tropical climate, 
observes its slow movement north to temperate regions, and predicts 
an eventual center far to the north of where it exists now. 

Across the Arctic Ocean from Canada there is already considerable 
activity. North of the 60th parallel, 6 million people live under 
Soviet direction, while north of the same parallel in Canada and 
Alaska live only a few hundred thousand. Just south of the Arctic 
Circle, Archangel has a population of 300,000, while the northernmost 
city of comparable size in North America is Vancouver, which is 15° 
farther south. Geography has aimed the great waterways of the 
Russian heartland to the north. While the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena 
Rivers may never approach the same position of importance that the 
Mississippi River holds in the commerce of North America, they 
nevertheless are important commercial routes to north-central Asia. 
The northern sea route across the top of Eurasia is of growing Impor- 
tance as the main path for freight between the river systems and the 
population of the Soviet North. It is of increasing strategic signifi- 
cance as the only secure waterway between Soviet Pacific forces and 
the rest of the Soviet Union. The Russian interest in this route has 


OPENING OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN—STRONG 397 


produced the largest icebreaker fleet in the world. The more modern 
vessels of this fleet include four 11,000-ton Stadin-class ships and three 
Finnish built 5,500-ton Aapitan-class ships. The much heralded 
nuclear-powered, 16,000-ton Lenin will join the fleet soon. 

For many years the Soviets have been systematically studying the 
science of the Arctic on a scale far beyond that of the Western World. 
Since 1937 this work has been carried out in the far north by groups 
of scientists established on ice floes. Since the floes drift very slowly, 
the scientists can thoroughly and deliberately carry out their studies 
over a long period of time. The pattern for this exploration was set 
by the first party in 1937 led by Ivan Papanin who is now one of the 
most celebrated of polar explorers. Papanin and his three comrades 
were landed by aircraft on a floe at the North Pole. Nine months 
later, the floe had drifted clear of the ice and the party was removed 
by an icebreaker east of Greenland. Since that time, a series of eight 
expeditions have used aircraft to land men and equipment on the ice. 
The slow drift of the ice has carried them around this previously in- 
accessible region while they pursued their studies and research. Sev- 
eral of these expeditions manned their floes winter and summer for 
more thana year. During 1959, two of these stations, NP6 and NP8, 
were drifting in the Arctic. 

While the drifting stations conducted long-time studies, the tech- 
niques and equipment developed to land the parties were used to 
extend the area of observations by short-time observations. During 
the 10 years after 1947, Soviet aircraft landed at more than 100 points 
all over the Arctic Ocean for brief hydrographic, oceanographic, 
meteorologic, and cyrologic observations. 

The nuclear submarine has proved to be a very efficient means for 
the gathering of certain scientific information in the Arctic on six 
cruises since 1957. This information has to a certain extent closed the 
gap that has existed between the Soviet exploration in the Arctic and 
the modest amount accomplished by all other countries. In 1960 it 
would appear that even though the Soviets have a far greater experi- 
ence and interest in the commercial, scientific, and military opportuni- 
ties of the Arctic, the United States has a fortunate, if temporary, 
advantage in the area because of her unique possession of nuclear 
submarines. 

The Arctic air has been a scene of large-scale military air operations 
ever since the U.S. and Soviet Air Forces began looking at each other 
across the Pole after World War II. The Arctic is ready for the first 
time for a corresponding interest by the two navies of these countries. 
The voyages of Nautilus, Skate, Sargo, and Seadragon have marked 
this area as the exclusive domain of the nuclear submarine. The 
Soviet submarine force—the largest submarine force in the world by a 
factor of more than three times—will most certainly soon have nuclear 


398 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


submarines. With their demonstrated interest in the Arctic com- 
mercially, scientifically, and strategically, the Soviets can be expected 
to direct their nuclear submarines north and under the ice. 

The advantage to be gained by naval forces operating under the 
northern ice is fairly obvious. First, such a submarine force is secure 
from their traditional surface and air enemies. Second, ship targets 
in this area are especially valuable since there are few if any overland 
roads or rails to support the area, and air transport is practicable only 
to a limited extent. The sinking of a very few ships could cause whole 
areas to wither from lack of supplies. Third, the Arctic Ocean oc- 
cupies a strategic position second to none. The search for missile- 
launching points clearly marks the Arctic Ocean as ideal for targets 
both in North America and Eurasia. The development of the Polaris 
submarine and its Soviet equivalent is bound to increase the desirabil- 
ity of operating submarines in the Arctic. 

Beyond the three direct considerations is a subtle fourth considera- 
tion of great importance. Neither the Soviet Union nor the United 
States could possibly accept the establishment of an unfriendly Arctic 
nuclear submarine force without establishing a similar force. A 
nuclear submarine will be the only weapon able to counter a nuclear 
submarine under the Arctic ice in the foreseeable future. 

The nuclear submarine is not per se an Arctic ship of war. It must 
be specially equipped, trained, and provided with information and 
procedures for offensive Arctic operations. The voyages of Vautilus, 
Skate, Sargo, and Seadragon have been nonmilitary in nature. Much 
remains to be done before nuclear submarines are ready for offensive 
naval operations in the Arctic. The equipment and environmental 
information already obtained by these submarines is a broad base to 
build on. The conclusion that their efforts have placed the United 
States several years in the lead because of voyages over a period of 
3 years 1s not valid, however. The voyages so far accomplished have 
been widely spaced. Any determined opponent having several nuclear 
submarines and the published knowledge of these voyages could 
duplicate and exceed them quickly. It is possible to produce an Arctic 
naval force equal to that of the United States in a relatively short 
period of time. 

History may well mark this period as a time of utmost significance 
in the Arctic. If accelerated naval penetration of this area does not 
result, it will be only because the challenge and opportunities that 
exist were ignored. 


The Place of Genetics in Modern Biology’ 


By Grorce W. BEADLE 
President, The University of Chicago 


[With 1 plate] 


Many years ago Dr. William Morton Wheeler, a distinguished and 
admired professor of biology and Dean of the Bussey Institution of 
Harvard University, wrote a small essay ? in which he said, “Natural 
history constitutes the perennial rootstock or stolon of biologic sci- 
ence. ... From time to time the stolon has produced special dis- 
ciplines which have grown into great flourishing complexes. . . . More 
recently another dear little bud, genetics, has come off, so promising, so 
self-conscious, but alas, so constricted at the base.” Iam sure Profes- 
sor Wheeler was convinced that this bud would be abortive. 

More recently there appeared in Science * a related essay by a dis- 
tinguished and likewise much admired biologist, Sewall Wright, who 
was a graduate student at the Bussey Institution during Wheeler’s 
time. After quoting the above words, Wright points out that, far 
from aborting, the little bud genetics has flourished mightily and has 
in many respects replaced natural history in the sense that it has be- 
come the rootstock of all biological science and has bound “the whole 
field of biology into a unified discipline that may yet rival the physical 
sciences.” 

Why such a change in 36 years? For despite the fact that Wheeler 
was not above giving his friends and colleagues in genetics a bit of 
ragging, he was basically serious. There has been a great change. 
We have come to recognize that genetics does in fact deal with the 
very essence of life. This is why at the present time in the biology 
laboratories of M.I.T. there are physical chemists, biophysicists, bio- 
chemists, microbiologists, virologists, zoologists, and other varieties 
of biologists devoting much effort to the study of genetic material. 

I should like to begin a development of this thesis that genetics is 
the keystone of modern biology by reminding you that every one of 
us—you and I—starts development as a tiny sphere of protoplasm, 

1 BHleventh Annual Arthur Dehon Little Memorial Lecture. Reprinted, with additions 
and modifications, by permission of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 


2 Science, vol. 57, p. 61, 1923. 
3 Science, vol. 130, p. 959, 1959. 


399 


400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


the almost microscopic fertilized egg; and that somehow in this small 
sphere there must be contained the specifications, the directions, or the 
architectural blueprints for making one of us out of that bit of jelly- 
like material. Of course, the process by which this happens is enor- 
mously complex, and we do not yet understand very many of the de- 
tails. But we do know that a substantial part of these directions is 
wrapped up in the centrally located nucleus of the cell. These direc- 
tions are the material heredity that we received from our parents. 

In addition to this set of directions in the nucleus, there must be more. 
There must be an architectural organization of the rest of the cell— 
the cytoplasm—and this is indispensable. And for the carrying out 
of the directions there must be a proper supply of raw materials in the 
form of food—perhaps 10 or 20 tons—for the egg to grow and differ- 
entiate into a mature person. Time, too, is essential—16, 20, 25 years, 
or more. Finally, there must be a proper environment, initially a 
very precise one. Later, as we develop the ability to regulate our own 
environments, we become less fussy. The environment adds to the 
information in the original egg. This is particularly impressive in 
our own species, for in addition to all the other environmental infor- 
mation fed into us during development we are continually bombarded 
with a cultural inheritance—language, art, music, religion, history, sci- 
ence, and so on—that in man supplements biological inheritance to 
a far greater degree than in any other species. 

All these factors are essential to our development, and many of 
them continue throughout life. In these halls I do not need to em- 
phasize the significance of cultural inheritance, for it is a primary 
function of M.I.T. to add to that cultural inheritance and to teach us 
how more effectively to pass it on in a manner that will be cumulative 
from generation to generation. 

What I wish to talk about are the directions in the nucleus. What 
are they and how do they specify that from this minute cell one of 
us will come? JI shall ask five questions about these specifications: 

First, how do we get them and how do we transmit them? I shall 
dispose of this one briefly, for it is answered by classical genetics— 
the Mendelian genetics now found in every elementary textbook of 
modern biology. You know about classical genetics: about blue eyes, 
brown eyes; curly hair, straight hair; good hemoglobin, bad hemo- 
globin; and so on. 

Perhaps you know less about the remaining four questions: 

How are the specifications written—that is, what is the language of 
genetics ? 

How are the specifications replicated? From the time we start de- 
velopment as a fertilized egg until we transmit them to the next gen- 
eration there are perhaps 16 to 25 successive replications of these 
specifications, depending on whether the carrier is female or male. 


GENETICS IN MODERN BIOLOGY—BEADLE 401 


Kach time the material is replicated it doubles, so 20 replications rep- 
resents more than a million copies. How does replication occur with 
the precision necessary to avoid intolerable numbers of mistakes ? 

How are the specifications—the directions or the recipe for making 
us—translated? ‘This is an enormously difficult question, and I shall 
say right now that we know very little about it. 

How are specifications modified during the course of evolution ? 
Most of us believe in organic evolution, and we want to know how 
we have come to be different from our ancestors. In other words, 
what is the nature of the mutation process ? 

A few years ago, seven or eight years ago, we would have had a very 
difficult time answering the four questions that I have just asked. We 
did not know enough, and we did not have many good clues even as 
to how we might go about searching for answers to these questions. 
But within the past half-dozen years or so excellent clues have turned 
up. In 1953, shortly before the M.I.T. Dorrance Laboratories of 
biology and food technology were opened and dedicated, there oc- 
curred an important turning point in modern biology. What was it 
and what does it have to do with answering the questions I have 
posed ? 

By this time it had become quite clear to a number of biologists that 
a particular chemical substance called deoxyribonucleic acid was im- 
portant in transmitting hereditary information in bacteria and in 
viruses. Since the cells of all higher plants and animals contain 
deoxyribonucleic acid, it seemed probable that this substance served 
to carry genetic specifications in all living systems. 

I shall attempt to explain how and why this substance, DNA for 
short, is important. And I shall try to do it without considering the 
details of its rather complex chemistry. DNA has been known for a 
long time. And it was known to consist of long chainlike molecules 
made of four kinds of units called nucleotides. But it was not known 
exactly how DNA molecules were internally organized until 1953, 
when two investigators—Dr. James D. Watson, now at Harvard 
University, and Dr. Francis H. C. Crick of Cambridge University— 
succeeded in formulating a structure that has proved to be substan- 
tially correct. 

From the information then available from classical organic 
chemistry, from X-ray diffraction studies, from analyses of the rela- 
tive proportions of the four kinds of nucleotides, and through in- 
genious model building, Watson and Crick proposed the structure 
illustrated in figure 1. 

This Watson-Crick structure was at once exciting to the biologists. 
Why? Because it suggested such plausible answers to the four 
questions: How is genetic information written? How is it replicated ? 
How is it translated? And how does it mutate? 


402 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Ficure 1.—The Watson-Crick structure of 


DNA schematically represented. The paral- 
lel spiral ribbons represent the paired poly- 
nucleotide chains. Hydrogen bonding is 
represented by transverse parallel lines. 
P=phosphate group, S=sugar unit, A= 
adenine base, T =thymine base, G= guanine 
base, C=cytosine base. Arrows indicate 
that polynucleotide chains run in opposite 
directions as specified by the sugar-phos- 
phate linkages. Redrawn form Watson and 
Crick (1953), 


GENETICS IN MODERN BIOLOGY—BEADLE 403 


How does the model help answer these questions? The key to the 
structure of DNA is that its molecules are double in a special way. 
There are two parallel polynucleotide chains wound around a comme! 
axis and bound together through specific hydrogen bonding. 

You can more easily visualize the essential features of DNA if you 
wil imagine a four-unit segment of it pulled out in two dimensions as 
follows: 


—@ 1) 


Here the four letters represent the four nucleotides; and the colons, 
hydrogen bonds. In fact, you can very nicely represent such a seg- 
ment with your two hands. Place your forearms vertically before 
you and parallel. Fold your thumbs against your palms and place 
homologous finger tips together as though they were teeth on two 
combs vertically oriented in a single plane, tooth tip to tooth tip. In 
this arrangement the two index fingers represent the A : T nucleotide 
pair and so on. 

Imagine many fingers along your forearms—of four kinds corre- 
sponding to the nucleotides A, T,C,and G. The four kinds of fingers 
or nucleotides can be arranged in any order on one arm but must 
always have the complementary order on the other. T opposite A, A 
opposite T, G opposite C, C opposite G. Thus if one knows the 
sequence of nucleotides in one chain, the sequence in the other can be 
determined by the simple rule of complementarity. 

This structure suggests that genetic information is contained in the 
sequence of nucleotides; in other words, DNA is a kind of molecular 
code written in four symbols. One can think of the code as a sequence 
of nucleotide pairs or of nucleotides in a single chain, for it is obvious 
that the double chain and the two single component chains all contain 
equivalent information. In essence the two complementary chains 
are analogous to forms of a single message, one written in conventional 
Morse code, the other in a complementary code in which each dot is 
changed to a dash and vice versa. 

Let us now ask the question: how much information is packed away 
in the nucleus of a human egg? It is estimated that there are about 
five billion nucleotide pairs per single cell. How much information 
does this correspond to in terms of, say, information spelled out in the 


404 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


English language? Francis Crick has expressed it this way: If you 
were to make an efficient code for encoding messages in English in the 
lour symbols of DNA, and with this started encoding standard library 
vormmes of 500 pages, 500 words per page in this DNA code, you could 
get the contents of 1,000 such volumes in the DNA in the nucleus of a 
single feztilized egg cell. This is another way of saying that it requires 
the equivaient of about 1,000 large volumes of directions in the egg 
nucleus to specify that a human being like one of us will develop 
properly from it, given a cytoplasm, proper food, and a suitable 
environment. 

Said in another way, that is the size of a genetic recipe for building 
a person. 

This is supposedly the way the genetic information is carried from 
generation to generation—in a language we might call DNA-ese. 
Each gene is a segment of DNA of perhaps three or four thousand 
nucleotides. 

Now let us ask about the replication. The double 
structure of DNA suggested immediately to Watson 
and Crick how this could happen. If, during cell di- 
vision, the two chains were to come apart, obviously 
each could serve as a template for picking up addi- 
tional units to make new half chains. And this is 
happening in each of us right now. In many cells 
nucleotides are continually being made from food 
components. The replication of DNA according to 
this scheme can be illustrated as shown at the left. 

You can represent the process with your hands. 
Indicate the double molecule as already directed as 
paired hands. Take the two hands apart. Imagine 
free fingers (nucleotides) moving around at random. 
Each single hand serves to select in proper order the 
one-fingered units necessary to make a complemen- 
tary hand. The right hand is a template for making 
a left hand and vice versa. So with a double mole- 
cule, represented by a pair of hands, two single mole- 
cules arise by breakage of hydrogen bonds, with 
each then directing the synthesis of a new comple- 
mentary single partner. 

This process of replication takes place with every 
cell division and, as we shall see, with a high degree 
of precision. 

This hypothesis by which two identical bipartite 
molecules arise from a single such double molecule 
is very satisfying in its simplicity and elegance. If 
true, it is presumably the basis of all biological re- 


a—a—A— >— 
OO] > 


N 
ea 


—— 0) a OS eae 
SD a Oe a lee 


— Q— @) — P— -|— 
=O os A= 


GENETICS IN MODERN BIOLOGY—BEADLE 405 


production at a molecular level. Can the hypothesis be tested? The 
answer is yes. In fact, several kinds of experiments can be and have 
been made to see if the hypothesis agrees with observed facts. 

In one kind of experiment DNA units are labeled with radioactive 
phosphorus. Each nucleotide has one phosphorus atom, and a certain 
number of its phosphorus atoms can be made radioactive by growing 
an organism, say a bacterium, in a medium containing radioactive 
phosphorus for several generations until it becomes equilibrated. 
Then both chains of its DNA molecules will be labeled. If the bac- 
teria are then allowed to multiply in a medium in which there is no 
radioactivity, the two chains of each DNA molecule, both labeled, 
should come apart, each then directing the synthesis of an unlabled 
partner. The new double molecules should then be labeled in one 
chain but not in the other. In the next generation the labeled chain 
should separate from the nonlabeled one. With synthesis of non- 
labeled partners by these, there should be produced labeled and non- 
labeled double molecules in equal numbers. The observed results are 
consistent with this expectation. 

Another way of doing essentially the same experiment is to replace 
the normal] nitrogen atoms of DNA with “heavy” nitrogen, the stable 
isotope N?> instead of the usual N** counterpart. DNA molecules so 
labeled become heavier but not larger. Hence they are denser. DNA 
containing only N* can be cleanly separated from that containing N™ 
in an analytical centrifuge cell in which an appropriate density gradi- 
ent is established. In such experiments it is found that bacteria con- 
taining DNA fully labeled with N®, if allowed to multiply once 
(double in number) in a medium containing only N*, give rise to de- 
scendants in which all the DNA molecules are “hybrid” as though cne 
nucleotide chain of the double molecules contained N?° and the other 
N*. This, of course, is what is predicted by the hypothesis. In a 
subsequent generation, also in N** medium, half the DNA molecules 
are hybrid and half are fully light. Again this is what would be 
expected if the hypothesis is correct. 

While experiments of this kind do not prove that the Watson-Crick 
hypothesis of DNA replication is correct, they do strongly suggest it. 

An even more dramatic way of testing the hypothesis is the one used 
by Professor Arthur Kornberg and his associates, now at Stanford 
University. They have devised a test-tube system in which there are 
present the four nucleotides A, T, C, and G as triphosphates, a buffer 
solution, magnesium ions, and a polymerizing enzyme. DNA mole- 
cules added to this system appear to be replicated. Is the new DNA 
like the primer molecules added? One important observation sug- 
gests it is. The ratio of A:T nucleotide pairs to C:G pairs of the 
product is like that of the primer DNA. It is not easy to see how this 
could be if the primer were not being copied in a precise way. On 


406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


the other hand, if DNA having known biological activity (as deter- 
mined by ability to transform the genetic constitution of a bacterium) 
is used as a primer, both the product and the primer added end up 
being inactive. Why this is so is not known, but it is strongly sus- 
pected that the polymerizing enzyme added contains a small amount 
of depolymerizing enzyme that breaks up DNA chains and thus de- 
stroys activity. 

Again, the Kornberg synthesis does not prove that the hypothesis 
is correct. It is just possible that an unkind nature could have 
evolved asystem that would do just exactly what the hypothesis 
predicts but by a different mechanism. 

About the next question: How is genetic information translated? 
How do we develop from that minute egg cell? These are enor- 
mously difficult questions, and we know relatively little in detail about 
the answers. They involve the whole of development, differentiation, 
and function. There are working sypotheses—widely used and use- 
ful ones—that suggest how some of the steps occur. 

We know that in our bodies there are many thousands of kinds of 
protein molecules—large, long molecules made of amino acids and 
very specific in their properties. One, for example, is hemoglobin. 
It is built of 600 amino acids strung together in a particular way. 
There are two kinds of chains of amino acids per hemoglobin mole- 
cule, each in pairs, with each chain about 150 amino acids long. And 
we know that there are segments of DN A—two, we postulate—in our 
chromosomes that say how to build the two protein subunits. 

A widely used working hypothesis assumes that against a single 
chain of DNA there is formed a chain of another kind of nucleic acid, 
called ribonucleic acid or RNA. RNA like DNA, is built of four 
nucleotides. The DNA code is translated into a complementary se- 
quence of RNA. RNA then moves from the nucleus into the 
cytoplasm. ‘There it is incorporated into microsomes, submicroscopic 
structures in which protein synthesis occurs. In the microsome, 
RNA units are believed to serve as templates against which amino 
acids are lined up in proper sequence. 

Amino acids, derived from the proteins in our food, are first acti- 
vated by enzymes and subsequently hooked to smal] carrier segments 
of RNA that serve to carry the amino acids to their proper places on 
the microsomal RNA templates. 

For each amino acid there is a specific carrier RNA, made up of 
about 80 nucleotides. Each of the 20 carrier RNA’s contains a cod- 
ing unit of 3 nucleotides presumably complementary to a 3-nucleotide 
coding unit in the template RNA in the microsome. When all coding 
units in the template are matched by their complements, the amino 
acids are lined up in proper order along the template and are joined 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Beadle PLATE 1 


"eli 


DNA molecule model. 


GENETICS IN MODERN BIOLOGY—BEADLE 407 


chainlike through peptide linkages. The resulting protein then peels 
off the template and the process is repeated. For hemoglobin, for 
example, there are assumed to be two DNA segments, one for each of 
the two protein chains, and two RNA templates. 

Protein synthesis can be carried out in a cell-free system in which 
are present ribosomes, template RNA, carrier RNA, amino acids, the 
requisite enzymes, and other necessary components. By means of 
radioactive labels it can be shown that proteins are synthesized step- 
wise beginning at the free amino end and ending up with a free 
carboxyl group in the last amino acid to be added to the chain. Thus 
there is a good experimental evidence suggesting that the translation 
process does occur as postulated. 

A large number of proteins serve as enzymes or essential com- 
ponents of enzymes. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions that would 
otherwise occur at rates so low that hfe processes would essentially 
cease. For each enzyme protein there is supposedly a segment of DNA 
information in the nucleus—a gene—and corresponding microsomal 
RNA templates in the cytoplasms of those cells active in synthesis 
of that particular enzyme protein. An important question of present- 
day biology is concerned with the nature of the mechanism by which 
the 4-symbol code of DNA is related to the 20-symbol code of pro- 
teins. It is obvious that single symbols of DNA cannot stand for 
amino acid, for there are only 4. Likewise pairs of DNA symbols 
will not do, for there are only 16 such pairs if the DNA molecule is 
read in one direction. If one reads in one direction and uses 8 
symbols per amino acid, there are 64 possibilities. 

Recent genetic evidence strongly suggests that the code is indeed a 
triplet code read in one direction from a starting point on the tem- 
plate RNA. Each successive triplet normally encodes an amino acid. 
Thus if we assume a segment of a template beginning: UCG UUU 
UGA UUA UGU UUG - - -, where U (uracil nucleotide) replaces 


A inthe DNA code, the amino acids arginine, phenylalanine, glutamic, 
tyrosine, valine, and cysteine might be incorporated by the successive 
underline triplets. The order i nucleotides is determined by making 
use of synthetic template RNAs. Thus such an RNA template con- 
sisting of ... UUUUUUUUA incorporates only phenylalanine 
and tyrosine. Tyrosine appears to be at the carboxyl end of the 
polypeptide so synthesized (preliminary reports from S. Ochoa’s 
laboratory). Thus the triplet encoding tyrosine must be read UUA. 
Now from mutational replacement of amino acids in proteins such as 
occurs in hemoglobin on mutation from normal hemoglobin to sickle 
cell hemoglobin in which one glutamic acid unit in the chain is changed 
to glutamic acid, one can deduce the nucleotide sequence in the code 
672-174-6330 


408 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


triplets for other amino acids. Thus if it is assumed that the order of 
the G, U, and A nucleotides in the glutamic acid code is UGA, then 
the lysine triplet which is known to contain two A and one U 
nucleotide must be UAA, thus 


UGA - - - - > UAA, 


assuming the mutation responsible resulted from a change of a single 
nucleotide. 

Study of intra-coding-unit recombinants reveals nucleotide se- 
quence just as classical crossing over indicates gene order and per- 
mits the assignment of a unique linear order to genes in a chromosome. 
This method is being used by Dr. Charles Yanofsky and coworkers. 

There is good reason to believe that the genetic code is degenerate 
in the sense that a single amino acid may be specified by more than 
one triplet. 

The task of deciphering the total genetic code is well along toward 
solution and one may confidently predict that it will be completed in 
the near future. 

My fourth question concerns the nature of mutation. How is genetic 
information modified during the replication in a manner that permits 
organic evolution ? 

During DNA replication, mistakes are occasionally made. Pre- 
sumably, during replication a nucleotide does not pick up a comple- 
mentary partner as it should but instead picks up a noncomplementary 
one. It has been postulated that such mistakes result from an im- 
probable tautomeric form in which a hydrogen atom is in an improb- 
able position at the exact moment the nucleotide picks up a partner. 
A wrong partner is therefore selected. In the next round of replication 
the “wrong” partner will pick up what is its complementary partner, 
and this will result in substitution of one nucleotide pair for another. 
This is somewhat like a typographical error. In typographical errors 
it is possible to have extra letters, too few letters, one letter substituted 
for another, or transposed letters. Presumably similar kinds of mis- 
takes can be made in genetic information during replication. In fact, 
there is genetic evidence that these four basic types of mistakes do 
occasionally occur. 

How often do such mistakes occur? Quite infrequently, we believe. 
From the time one receives a set of directions in the fertilized egg until 
one transmits it to the next generation—and remember this is perhaps 
17 to 20 successive replications of information equivalent to about 
1,000 printed volumes—a significant and detectable mistake is made 
perhaps about once in a hundred times. This is clearly a high order 
of precision. 


GENETICS IN MODERN BIOLOGY—BEADLE 409 


What happens to such typographical errors as are made? First of 
all, it is clear that the DNA molecules will replicate just as faithfully 
whether the information in it makes sense or not. Its replication is 
a purely mechanical one, it seems. Therefore mistakes in genetic 
information will be perpetuated. 

It is obvious that if there were no way of eliminating errors in such 
a process, such errors would accumulate from generation to genera- 
tion. Perhaps an analogy will make this clear. If a typist types in 
a purely mechanical way, never proofreading, never correcting, and 
types successive copies of the same material always from the most 
recently typed copy, she will accumulate mistakes at a rate depend- 
ent on her accuracy until eventually the sense of the original mes- 
sage will be entirely gone. In the same way this would have to happen 
with genetic information if there were no way of taking care of 
mistakes. With genetic information something does happen that 
takes care of mistakes. By extending the analogy perhaps I can make 
clear what does happen. The typist, typing mechanically, can cor- 
rect a mistake by a second random typographical error, but obviously 
the probability of this is extremely low. It is likewise so with genetic 
information, and it is clear therefore that this is not the principal 
way in which mistakes are prevented from accumulating. Let us pre- 
tend the typist has an inspector standing beside her. When she makes 
a mistake, he says, “Throw that one away. Put it in the waste- 
basket and start over.” If in the next try she makes no mistake, he 
says, “All right, now you may type another from the one you have 
just finished.” ach time she makes a perfect copy he allows her to 
go ahead, but each time she makes a mistake he insists she throw the 
copy away. ‘That is what happens with genetic information. The 
inspector is analogous to natural selection. Bad sets of specifications 
in man are eliminated by natural selection. 

A more dramatic term for elimination of unfavorable specifications 
by natural selection is “genetic death,” as used by Dr. H. J. Muller. 
Individuals developed from unfavorable specifications do not repro- 
duce at the normal rate, and ultimately a line so handicapped dies 
out. To avoid progressive accumulation of mistakes from generation 
to generation, it is obvious that every error in replication that is 
unfavorable must be compensated for by the equivalent of a genetic 
death. That is why geneticists are concerned about factors that in- 
crease the mutation rates. 

You may quite properly ask, “Are there no favorable mutations?” 
The answer is yes, there are occasional favorable mutations; they are, 
in fact, the basis of organic evolution. 

However, because many mutations involve subtle changes that may 
be favorable under special circumstances of environment or over-all 


410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


genetic constitution, it is not easy to estimate the proportion of favor- 
able to unfavorable mutations. Theoretical considerations and a cer- 
tain amount of experimental evidence agree in indicating that the 
great majority are unfavorable. Organisms are in general already so 
highly selected for success in their normal environments that the 
chance of further improvement by random mutation must be very 
small. Perhaps an analogy with a fine watch will dramatize the 
point. Assume the watch is very slightly out of adjustment. A ran- 
dom change brought about, say by dropping it, could conceivably im- 
prove the adjustment. Clearly, however, the chance of making it run 
less well or not at all is enormously greater. Now let us extend our 
typing analogy. Assume our inspector exercises Judgment. When 
the typist makes an error that improves the original message, he 
passes it. Thus improved messages will replace their ancestral forms 
and the improvement will be cumulative. Something lke this 
happens with living systems. Specifications improved by occasional 
favorable mutations are preferentially reproduced and thus tend to 
replace their ancestral forms. This is natural selection. 

In recent years many factors have been found to increase the fre- 
quency of mutations. High energy radiation that penetrates to the 
cell nucleus is mutagenic in proportion to its amount. A number of 
chemical agents are likewise mutagenic. It is now possible, for ex- 
ample, to alter nucleotides in known chemical ways that will produce 
mutations. Oxidation of amino groups of nucleotides with nitrous 
acid is one way. It is encouraging that biochemists and geneticists 
who study the mechanisms involved are beginning to be able to pre- 
dict. successfully the types of mutations that are most likely to be 
produced by specific chemical agents. It is not, however, possible to 
do this specifically for certain genes only. 

Let us now turn to the general question of evolution. What do 
mutations have to do with the processes by which evolution occurs? 
It is especially appropriate at this time to discuss this aspect of my 
subject, for, as you know, this is the hundredth anniversary of the 
publication of Darwin’s “Origin of Species.” 

Organic evolution is interesting and important in many respects. 
For one thing, it is not logically possible to accept only a small amount 
of it, for one cannot imagine a living system that could not have 
evolved from a very slightly simpler system. Starting with man, 
for example, and working backward toward simpler systems one sees 
no obvious stopping place. Our ancestors were presumably a bit 
simpler than we. Early in man’s evolution there were primitive men. 
And before primitive man there were prehuman ancestral forms capa- 
ble of evolving into true man. This is true however one defines man. 
The point is that no matter what living system one thinks of, another 
is conceivable that is one mutation simpler or different. And so one 


GENETICS IN MODERN BIOLOGY—BEADLE 411 


can go backward in the evolutionary process to simpler and simpler 
forms until finally one begins to think of systems like present-day 
viruses, the simplest of which consist of little more than nucleic acid 
cores (DNA or RNA) and protein coats. One can easily imagine 
that before systems of this type there were smaller and smaller sys- 
tems of nucleic acid and protein capable of replication and of muta- 
tion which in turn had ancestors consisting of only nucleic acid. 

We know that nucleic acids can be built up from nucleotides and 
these from simpler precursors. In a lecture delivered a few days ago 
in this auditorium, Prof. Melvin Calvin talked about the origin of 
some nucleotide precursors and presented evidence suggesting that 
some such compounds, or their relatives, are found in certain meteor- 
ites. It is assumed that these were formed by natural chemical reac- 
tions that went on and are still going on outside living systems. 
Presumably precursors of nucleotides were formed through such reac- 
tions. Professor Calvin also mentioned the evidence that amino acids 
are made from such simple inorganic molecules as methane, ammonia, 
hydrogen, and water under conditions assumed to have obtained on 
primitive earth. It is, I believe, justifiable to make the generaliza- 
tion that anything an organic chemist can synthesize can be made 
without him. All he does is increase the probability that given re- 
actions will “go.” So it is quite reasonable to assume that given sufli- 
cient time and proper conditions, nucleotides, amino acids, proteins, 
and nucleic acids will arise by reactions that, though less probable, 
are as inevitable as those by which the organic chemist fulfills his 
predictions. So why not self-duplicating viruslike systems capable of 
further evolution ? 

I should point out that nucleic acid protected with a protein coat 
has an enormous selective advantage, for it is much more resistant to 
destruction than is “raw” nucleic acid. Viruses can be stored for 
years as inert chemicals without losing the capacity to reproduce 
when placed in a proper environment. Of course present-day viruses 
demand living host cells for multiplication, but presumably the first 
primitive life forms inhabited environments replete with sponta- 
neously formed building blocks from which they could build replicas. 

Before molecules like methane, hydrogen, water, and ammonia 
there were even simpler molecules. Before that there were elements, 
all of which nuclear physicists and astrophysicists believe have 
evolved and are now evolving from simple hydrogen. That is why I 
say if you believe in evolution at all there is no logical stopping place 
short of hydrogen. At that stage I’m afraid logic, too, runs out. 

The story can, of course, be repeated in reverse. When the con- 
ditions become right, hydrogen must give rise to other elements. 
Hydrogen fuses to form helium, helium nuclei combine to give beryl- 
lium-8, beryllium-8 captures helium nuclei to form carbon, and carbon 


412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


is converted to oxygen by a similar process. In this and other known 
ways all the elements are formed. As one goes up the scale, the 
number of possibilities rapidly increases. As elements begin to inter- 
act to give inorganic molecules, the number of possibilities becomes 
still greater. I do not know how many inorganic molecules are pos- 
sible, but I do know there must be a very large number. With organic 
molecules the number becomes truly enormous, particularly with large 
molecules like proteins and nucleic acids. For example, there are 
something like 4 raised to the 10,000th power ways a modest-sized 
DNA molecule can be made. There appears to be no stage at which 
there is a true qualitative change in the nature of evolution. The 
number of possibilities goes up gradually, the complexity goes up 
gradually, and there appears to be no point at which the next stage 
cannot be reached by simple mutation. 

Let us suppose we have a small piece of DNA protected by a protein 
coat and capable of replication in the presence of the proper building 
blocks and a suitable environment. During replication, the system 
will occasionally make mistakes. It is a mutable system. Given 
sufficient time there will eventually occur a combination of mutations 
of such a nature that the protein coat will become enzymatically active 
and capable of catalyzing the formation of a nucleotide or amino acid 
from a slightly simpler precursor. If this particular building block 
happens to be limiting in replication, the mutant type will obviously 
have a selective advantage. It can replicate in the absence of an 
essential building block by making it from a simpler precursor. If 
two such units with protein coats having different catalytic functions 
combine to form a two-unit system, they will be able to make two 
building blocks from simpler compounds and will be able to survive 
under conditions in which their ancestral forms would fail. In the 
same way it is not too difficult to imagine systems arising with suc- 
cessively three, four, five, and more units with every additional unit 
serving a catalytic function. With each additional unit the total 
system would become one step less dependent on spontaneously pre- 
formed precursors. With perhaps ten thousand such units the system 
might be able to build all its necessary parts from inorganic materials 
as we know present day green plants do. 

How many units to reach the stage of man? Perhaps one hundred 
thousand units carrying out one hundred thousand functions are 
necessary. However many it is, we know they carry the specifications 
for the development of a complex nervous system by which we supple- 
ment blind biological inheritance with cultura] inheritance. We 
reason, we communicate, we accumulate knowledge, and we transmit 
it to future generations. No other species we know of does this to 
anything like the same degree. We have even learned about organic 
evolution and are on the verge of learning how to start the process. 


GENETICS IN MODERN BIOLOGY—BEADLE 413 


I pointed out that in the Kornberg system with the four nucleotides 
present, nothing happens unless a primer is added, That is not entirely 
true. After a delay of some three or four hours something does happen 
even without a primer. What happens is that a DNA molecule is 
spontaneously formed. It differs from most naturally occurrmg DNA 
in that it contains only two of the four nucleotides. Now if this two- 
unit co-polymer is used as a primer in a new system, it immediately 
initiates the synthesis of co-polymers like itself. In other words, it 
starts replicating. Remember, it arose spontaneously. If you believe 
in mutation—and you must if you accept scientific evidence—you 
must believe that if you start with a two-unit co-polymer and iet it 
undergo successive replications, there will eventually occur a mutation 
with which a pair of nucleotides will be replaced by the pair origi- 
nally excluded in the process. This conceivably could have been the 
origin of the four-unit DNA of all higher organisms. 

Knowing that we now know about living systems—how they repli- 
cate and how they mutate—we are beginning to know how to control 
their evolutionary futures. To a considerable extent we now do that 
with the plants we cultivate and the animals we domesticate. This 
is, in fact, a standard application of genetics today. We could even 
go further, for there is no reason why we cannot in the same way direct 
our own evolutionary futures. I wish to emphasize, however—and 
emphatically—that whether we should do this and, if so, how, are 
not questions science alone can answer. They are for society as a 
whole to think about. Scientists can say what is possible and perhaps 
something about what the consequences might be, but they are not 
justified in going further except as responsible members of society. 

Some of you will, I am sure, rebel against the kind of evolution 
I’ve been talking about. You will not like to believe that it all hap- 
pened “by chance.” I wish to repeat that in one sense it is not 
chance. As I have said, the mutations by which we believe organic 
evolution to have occurred are no more “chance” reactions than those 
that occur in the organic chemist’s test tube. He puts certain reactants 
in with the knowledge that an expected reaction will go on. From 
the beginning of the universe this has been true. In the early stages 
of organic evolution the probabilities were likely very small in terms 
of time intervals we are accustomed to think about. But for the time 
then available, they were almost certainly not small. Quite the 
contrary; the probability of evolving some living system was likely 
high. That evolution would go in a particular direction is a very dif- 
ferent matter. Thus the @ priori probability of evolving man must 
have been extremely small—for there were an almost infinite number 
of other possibilities. Even the probability of an organism evolving 
with a nervous system like ours, was, I think, extremely small because 
of the enormous numbers of alternatives, I am therefore not at all 


414 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


hopeful that we will ever establish communication with living beings 
on other planets, even though there may well be many such on many 
planets. But I do not say we should not try—just in case I am 
wrong! 

Some of you will no doubt be bothered by such a “materialistic” 
concept of evolution. Ninety years ago in Edinburgh, Thomas Henry 
Huxley faced this question of materialism in his famous lecture on 
the physical basis of life. And it has been faced many times since— 
for example, a few years ago by Dean George Harrison of M.I.T. in 
his book “What Man May Be.” What Huxley said can be said today 
with equal appropriateness. He said in effect that just because science 
must by its very nature use the methodology of materialism, scientists 
need not necessarily be materialists. A priest wears material clothes, 
eats material food, and takes his text from a material book. This 
does not make him a materialist. And so it need not with a scientist. 
To illustrate, the concept I have attempted to present of the origin 
of life and of subsequent evolution has nothing to do in principle 
with the problem of ultimate creation. We have only shifted the 
problem from the creation of man, as man, to the creation of a uni- 
verse of hydrogen capable of evolving into man. We have not 
changed the problem in any fundamental way. And we are no closer 
to—or further from—solving it than we ever were. 


The Shark That Hibernates ’ 


By L. Harrison Mattuews, F.R.S. 
Scientific Director, Zoological Society of London 


Tue basking shark is among the largest of living fishes for it 
reaches a length of nearly 380 feet and a weight approaching 4 tons; 
only the great whale shark of tropical seas exceeds it in length and 
bulk. Basking sharks are found in all the oceans of the world except 
the coldest, but it is not certain, although it is probable, that they are 
all of one species; those that live in the North Atlantic belong to the 
species Cetorhinus maximus. The basking shark is common in the 
seas of western Europe, at least during the summer months, and is 
conspicuous when it approaches the shore and swims so near the sur- 
face that its enormous back fin sticks out of the water. The habit of 
swimming slowly at the surface has given rise to the common name of 
the animal (although it does not literally bask) and to the alternative 
local name of sailfish. In spite of its great size, comparative abun- 
dance, and frequent conspicuousness little was known of the anatomy 
and less of the natural history of the species until recent years—and 
many questions have still to be answered. 

My own special interest in the basking shark dates from 1947, 
when Dr. H. W. Parker and I were invited by Maj. Gavin Maxwell to 
visit his shark fishery in the Hebrides to study its biology. Our in- 
vestigations produced much unexpected information. 

The body of the basking shark is fusiform or cigar shaped, with the 
greatest diameter about one-third of the body length behind the tip 
of the snout. Two large triangular fins are set on the back, the front 
and larger one nearly 6 feet high a little in front of mid-length, the 
smaller one nearer the root of the tail below which there is another 
small triangular fin. The tail fin is very large and is asymmetrical, the 
upper lobe being the bigger; it is crescentic in outline and measures 6 
feet or more from tip to tip. The paired pectoral fins are also very 
large, their leading edges measuring between 5 and 6 feet. In life 
they are held more or less horizontally and act as planes supporting 
the front part of the body which, without them, would be driven 


1 Reprinted by permission from the New Scientist, No. 280, March 29, 1962. 
415 


416 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


downward by the action of the tail fin. The paired pelvic fins are 
much smaller and lie well back toward the tail. The tip of the snout 
is bluntly pointed, and the front of the mouth lies about 18 inches be- 
hind it; at this point the tubular nostrils lie on each side of the mid- 
line, and a little behind and above them the comparatively small eyes. 
The mouth is enormous and measures about 3 feet across when open. 
The most conspicuous feature of the head region, however, is the 
series of gill openings, five on each side. As in all sharks the spaces 
between the gill arches open separately on the surface and are not 
concealed by a gill cover as in the bony fishes. In most sharks the 
spaces appear as slits at the side of the “neck,” but in the basking 
shark they are so large and extend so far around the sides of the 
“neck” that those of opposite sides almost meet on the upper and 
lower surfaces—it is surprising that so little tissue is sufficient to 
prevent the head falling off. 

The color of the basking shark is dark gray, almost black, with an 
inconstant amount of light gray or white along the center line of the 
belly. There are darker patches on the background color, and when 
there are many they are arranged as indefinite longitudinal streaks. 
The skin is entirely covered with small placoid scales, or denticles, 
shaped like minute thorns about a millimeter long with the points 
facing backward. The skin feels smooth toa hand passed over it from 
before backward, but exceedingly rough to one passed in the reverse 
direction. It is also plentifully supplied with mucus glands, so that 
during life a film of slime covers the entire surface to the summits of 
the denticles. The skin covering the body is continuous with that 
lining the mouth (on which, however, the denticles are very much 
smaller), but where the skin passes over the jaws the denticles are 
enlarged and form the teeth. The teeth are unlike those one expects 
to see in the mouth of a shark—there is no fearsome array of pointed 
blades, sharp as razors—for they are no more than about 5 millimeters 
long and are arranged in four to seven rows so that they look like a 
rather coarse rasp. 

The teeth alone show that the basking shark is no fierce predator, 
and indeed all its anatomy and habits are highly adapted to its very 
specialized method of feeding. Like the great whalebone whales this 
shark is a plankton feeder, and although it is one of the biggest fishes 
in the sea its food consists of minute creatures barely visible to the 
naked eye. Like the plankton-feeding whales, too, the basking shark 
is provided with a special apparatus for straining its food in bulk 
from the sea water. Fishes breathe by pumping a stream of water 
over the gills, where some of the oxygen dissolved in the water passes 
through the exceedingly thin covering membrane into the blood in the 
underlying capillaries, and the carbon dioxide in the blood passes out 
into the water. The stream enters the fish’s mouth and passes out 


THE SHARK THAT HIBERNATES—MATTHEWS 417 


through the gill slits between the curved gill arches of bone or carti- 
lage on which the gills are borne. The gills are complexly folded, 
so that they have a very large surface area through which exchange of 
gases between blood and water can take place; in a basking shark 7 
meters long this area is approximately 270 square meters. In some 
fishes, including the basking shark, the gill arches carry, in addition 
to the gills, structures known as gill rakers. The rakers of the shark 
resemble long bristles set along the edge of the gill arches with their 
free ends pointing toward the mouth cavity; there are 1,000 to 1,300 of 
them on each side of all the 5 gill clefts. The rakers, which are highly 
modified placoid scales, are flexible but stiff, and are calcified toward 
their bases, and there is a mass of mucus glands at their attachment to 
the arch. Muscle fibers connected to their bases can erect the rakers so 
that they stand out and project across the space between adjacent 
arches. When the fish opens its mouth the rakers spring up and form 
a fine sieve through which the water has to pass before it flows over 
the gills. 

When feeding near the surface the basking shark cruises slowly at 
about 2 knots with the mouth widely open, filtering the plankton out 
of the sea water and at the same time automatically respiring. The 
gill slits are widely opened and the whole pharyngeal region is 
greatly expanded and characteristically fanned out. The area of the 
open mouth is at least 14 square meter so that, at 2 knots, 1,484 cubic 
meters of water are filtered per hour—well over a thousand tons. 
When the mouth is periodically shut the gill slits close and the 
rakers fold down on to the arches so that the plankton entangled in the 
mucus secreted over them passes into the mouth and is swallowed. The 
back of the mouth is covered with papillae which at the gullet are 
complexly branched and knobbed and form a valve that closes the back 
of the mouth—they look strangely like a huge cauliflower filling the 
passage. The stomach is very large, and when the fish is feeding, it 
contains about half a ton of tomato-red mush of plankton of which, 
however, only about 30 percent by weight is organic matter, much of it 
being mucus derived from the fish itself. 

The first stages of digestion take place in the stomach and the small 
planktonic Crustacea are broken up into minute fragments; they are 
concentrated on passing into the narrow pyloric loop of the stomach 
where great quantities of water are removed, for the content of this 
organ is a firm paste resembling anchovy paste in color and consist- 
ency—and, somewhat, in taste. On leaving the pylorus the gut con- 
tents enter a small sac, the bursa entiana, in which the oily fraction is 
separated. The sac is filled with bright red oil, the color being pro- 
duced by the astacene derived from the crustacea. It is difficult to 
understand how the oil can be retained in the bursa while the solid 
contents of the gut pass on, but so it is. The food from which the oil 


418 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


has been extracted, passes on as a brownish-yellow chyme to the duo- 
denum and spiral valve, where digestion is completed under the influ- 
ence of the bile and pancreatic secretions, The oil in the bursa is taken 
up by the cells of its lining and finally transferred to the liver after 
undergoing metabolic change. 

The liver is comparatively enormous, its two huge lobes weighing 
together about a ton, no less than a quarter of the total weight of the 
fish, by far the greater part of its weight being due to the oil. In the 
economy of the fish the liver acts as a hydrostatic organ so that the 
total density of the fish, which possess no air bladder, approximates 
to that of the sea water. In the economy of man the liver is the fish’s 
undoing, for the oil is easily extracted and has a commercial value— 
without this wealth to be had for the taking, the basking shark would 
be of no interest to the fisherman. On the west coasts of Ireland and 
Scotland the basking shark had been for centuries the subject of a 
cottage industry until the introduction of paraffin about the middle 
of the last century. A moderate number of them were taken annually 
with primitive gear worked from small boats in order to obtain illumi- 
nating oil for winter nights. Petroleum killed this fishery and for 
long the sharks were seldom molested but in recent years commercial 
fishing on a larger scale has been developed. 

Basking sharks appear off the British coasts in some abundance 
during the spring and depart in the early autumn—whence they come 
and whither they go is unknown. But even in the winter occasional 
fish are seen and sometimes caught or stranded on the shore. There 
is a very peculiar thing about these winter strays—they have no gill 
rakers; in every way the fish are normal except in the complete ab- 
sence of rakers from the gill arches. Careful dissection, however, 
reveals that under the skin of the gill arches a set of rakers is in course 
of being developed. As the rakers are homologous with scales and 
teeth which are replaced as they are worn out, there is no reason why 
they too should not be replaced when necessary. When fully devel- 
oped they erupt through the skin of the arches much as we cut our 
second set of teeth. 

Why should this replacement be necessary? And how does the 
shark feed when it has no rakers? During the warmer months the 
fish feed luxuriously on the rich summer plankton, gulping it down 
by the ton; but in winter the pastures of the seas are bare and there is 
little nourishment to be found. The power needed to propel a feeding 
shark of average length at its feeding speed of 2 knots is about 0.33 
h.p.; the heat equivalent of this is 212 calories per hour. Allowing 
40 percent efficiency to the shark’s muscles in doing work, and 80 per- 
cent to its tail as a propeller—a very generous allowance—a shark 7 
meters long would need to take each hour food with a calorific value 


THE SHARK THAT HIBERNATES—MATTHEWS 419 


of 668 calories to give merely the energy required in swimming to col- 
lect the food. Even if we multiply the recorded density of plankton 
in the North Sea in November by three, the shark’s intake could be 
only 410 calories per hour under the most favorable conditions, and 
it would be losing on the deal. So it solves its problem by throwing 
away its rakers worn by a season’s use, refraining from feeding, sink- 
ing to the bottom and hibernating. At this moment there are probably 
great schools of these enormous fish quietly resting on the bottom of 
the sea, perhaps in the heads of the canyons at the edge of the conti- 
nental shelf, with their metabolism running at its lowest level while 
they grow their new gill rakers ready for browsing on next summer’s 
crop of plankton. 

The “basking” of this shark is probably connected in some way 
with its breeding as well as its feeding. The fish do not invariably 
swim straight ahead; sometimes two or more are seen to follow each 
other about in comparatively small circles, apparently indulging in 
elephantine gambols which may be a form of nuptial behavior. How- 
ever that may be, it is certain that pairing takes place in the early 
summer, though it may also take place at other times. As in all 
elasmobranchs, or cartilaginous fishes, fertilization is internal, and 
the sperm is transferred to the female by means of modified parts of 
the male’s pelvic fins called the claspers. Each clasper of the basking 
shark is about 4 feet long, and its skeleton is rolled into a scroll that 
forms a tube through which the sperm passes. The sperm is unlike 
that of other fishes, for it is not a suspension of spermatozoa in a fluid 
medium but is concentrated into spermatophores. The lower part of 
the genital duct of the male is a large ampulla, a cavity of complicated 
internal structure in which the sperm entering the fore end are gath- 
ered into small masses around which a thick envelope of firm trans- 
parent gristly substance is laid down. The core of each spermato- 
phore into which the sperm are concentrated is about 1 cm. in diam- 
eter, but the thickness of the envelope is such that the diameter of the 
spermatophore is from 2 to 5cm. About 5 or 6 gallons of these pecu- 
liar bodies are tightly packed inside each ampulla, and float in a 
watery fluid. 

The presence of great quantities of spermatophores inside the fe- 
males in May showed that copulation was occurring then. Further- 
more, the clasper of the male bears a movable spur armed with a hard 
curved claw that evidently serves to maintain the clasper in position 
within the common vagina of the female. Although many of the 
females examined in May contained no spermatophores they carried 
large internal lacerations made by the claws. The spermatophores 
are received into a capacious uterus where a secretion acts upon them 
and rapidly dissolves their hard envelopes, thus releasing the sper- 


420 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


matozoa from the cores and setting them free to make their way up 
the genital tract. 

There are two uteri, one on each side of the abdominal cavity. They 
are lined with a vast number of small tags or trophonemata that in 
many other elasmobranch fishes secrete nourishment for the young, 
which develop inside the uterus until they are ready to be born alive. 
By analogy, therefore, it is believed that the basking shart is vivip- 
arous. On the other hand, the ovary of the basking shark is strik- 
ingly different from that of other elasmobranchs, which produce only 
a few large yolky eggs, whether or not development takes place within 
the mother. The ovary of the basking shark produces a very large 
number of minute eggs containing a comparatively small amount of 
yolk, and in this particular resembles that of most bony fishes. It 
contains at least 6 million eggs 0.5 mm. or more in diameter, the largest 
not more than 5.0 mm. in diameter. They appear to be ripe at the 
latter size, and are released from the ovary through a complex system 
of branching canals. It is improbable that they grow larger before 
being released, for the upper part of the oviduct, in contrast to the 
enormous uterus, is extremely constricted. It has tough inelastic 
walls giving a canal only 2 to 38 mm. in diameter, so that even an egg 
no more than 5 mm. in diameter must undergo considerable distortion 
in passing through this narrow passage. 

The basking shark thus shows the paradox of a large ovary con- 
taining great numbers of minute eggs as in fishes that spawn, and a 
large uterus lined copiously with trophonemata (threadlike projec- 
tions for nourishing embryos) as in viviparous elasmobranchs. Nev- 
ertheless it is probable that the fish is viviparous—no elasmobranch is 
known to spawn, and in those that lay eggs there is a large nidamen- 
tary gland which produces the albumen and the shell, and there is 
no proliferation of trophonemata in the uterus. The basking shark 
has a small, almost rudimentary, nidamentary gland, and a great pro- 
fusion of trophonemata. 

The paradox could readily be resolved were a pregnant female ex- 
amined; but no pregnant female has ever been seen. It is evident, 
therefore, that after insemination in the early summer the females 
must, before any embryo is recognizable, refrain from basking and 
either swim near the bottom or leave inshore waters, or both. Where 
and when the young sharks are born is unknown, but the smallest 
specimens recorded measured about 6 feet in length; evidently that 
is the size at which they are born. They have always been found in 
early summer, and consequently it is possible that they are born during 
the inshore movement of the adults at that time. 

There is space only to mention a final point among the many un- 
answered questions about this elusive fish. In the commercial catch, 


THE SHARK THAT HIBERNATES—MATTHEWS 421 


which is presumably a random sample, the females outnumber the 
males by 30 or 40 tol. It is unlikely that these figures are the true sex 
ratio of the population. Where are the other males? Do they habitu- 
ally swim at greater depths, and come to the surface only in quest 
of the females? Are they shyer of the predacious fisherman? Or 
is there a social structure in the population so that dominant males 
herd harem schools of females and keep their rivals at a distance? 
Some fortunate naturalist may one day be able to find the answers to 
this and many other riddles about these interesting creatures. 


7 U ! 
Peer ilies 
ON: se 


A ee 


if iy . 


Man in a World of Insects’ 


By Dwicut M. DeLonc 
Professor of Entomology, The Ohio State University, Columbus 


Numerous scientific scholars have attempted to define or name the 
present age of biological development in line with past evolutionary 
ages. The geologist has referred to it as “the age of man.” Others 
have referred to it as the Psychozoic Era. This is undoubtedly the 
result of the general belief that man is the dominant and superior 
type of animal on the surface of the earth and that he is capable of 
conquering or subduing every other form of life. 

Of course we are extremely egotistic. Many of us believe that the 
world was created for us and that everything on the earth is intended 
in some way, directly or indirectly, for our use or benefit. But the 
truth is that man is only one of the recent products of organic evolu- 
tion. It is true that man has become the dominant type of vertebrate 
animal, but he must constantly be aware of, and compete with, the 
dominant type of invertebrate, “the world of insects,” which com- 
prises four-fifths of all the animals on the earth, some 800,000 species, 
and which man has never subdued. One author has referred to this 
era as the “age of insects,” another writes of the “insect menace,” 
and a recent film which is an excellent portrayal of this struggle is 
entitled “The Rival World.” 

When primitive man arrived on the earth as a product of evolution, 
he found it already occupied and well populated with insects. This 
has been proved to us by the paleontologist, with his undisputable 
evidence of fossil records. The paleontologist tells us that insects 
are recorded in the late Paleozoic, which was some 200 million years 
ago, and at that time they were well developed, so that they must 
have appeared much earlier. There cannot be the faintest doubt 
that millions of years must have been required for the evolution of 
the insect world as it existed in the upper Carboniferous period. This 
historic evidence leads us to believe that insects came into the world 
some 300 million years ago or more, became highly developed through 


1 Presidential Address, 69th annual meeting of the Ohio Academy of Science, Antioch 
College, April 22,1960. Reprinted by permission from the Ohio Journal of Science, vol. 60, 
No. 4, July 1960. 


672-174— 63——_31 423 


424 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


rapid multiplication by means of quickly developing, short cycle gen- 
erations, and by rapidly evolving through ages of time they have be- 
come highly adapted and perfectly fitted through mutation and 
selection to every natural condition on the earth. 

The mammals in general and man in particular arrived in this 
insect world long after the insects had taken possession of practically 
every habitat on the earth. Primitive man arrived not more than a 
million years ago—some authorities say about one-half million. Mod- 
ern man has been here not more than 50,000 years. He is not so well 
adapted as the insect; he is a comparative newcomer. He spends 
his time and efforts converting the materials of the natural world into 
man-made structures and plantings. Unlike the insect, he does not 
attempt to live in the natural world as he found it. 

The evolution of the insects was apparently not always successful 
for in the late Carboniferous period we find enormous cockroaches 
and dragonflies with a wing spread of more than 2 feet which ap- 
parently have long since been lost as failures in a competitive organic 
world. But see the successful mutants which have arisen from these 
ancestors! The present-day species of roaches are the German, 
American, Oriental, and others, which inhabit our homes and kitchens, 
invade our restaurants, markets, and night-clubs, and are carried 
everywhere in trucks, steamships, airplanes, and other conveyors in 
all type of receptacles, whether they contain food, clothing, or other 
materials. 

Insofar as historic records are available, man has in all ages since 
his arrival on the earth been tormented by the ravages of insects 
upon him directly or upon his food and possessions. On the other 
hand, he has often turned to the insect as a source of nourishment 
to sustain life. The authors who wrote the Bible point out the oc- 
currence of many insects—ants, bees, locusts, lice, fleas, hornets, flies, 
and moths, for example. They describe the terrific populations of 
migratory locusts (grasshoppers) which completely destroyed the 
crops and devastated the fields. This is similar to the devastations 
of the forage crops of our own Plains States by migratory 
erasshoppers—the Rocky Mountain locust—in the middle of the 19th 
century. 

The ant and the bee are cited in the Bible as examples of industry 
and aggressiveness. They are carved on Egyptian monuments. 
Grasshoppers, and honey and manna as insect products, are listed as 
foods which were apparently largely responsible for the sustenance of 
the children of Israel while they were sojourning in the wilderness. 
Honey was a marketable product several thousand years ago; it was 
used in sacrificial offerings and was believed by the ancient people to 
have medicinal qualities, 


MAN IN A WORLD OF INSECTS—DE LONG 425 


The majority of insect species have no economic status and are seen 
only incidentally by man. They are considered as neutral. The re- 
maining forms could be divided into two groups, the constructive and 
the destructive. If man attempts to evaluate the role of his insect asso- 
ciates, he will need to enter them on the ledger as either assets or lia- 
bilities, namely, those that benefit him or those that do him harm. We 
speak of many insects as being beneficial to man, and although we 
may be reluctant to admit it, we are actually dependent upon insects 
for much of our food supply, either directly or indirectly. In fact, 
the peoples of the world could not be fed today except for their 


assistance. 
INSECT ASSETS—THE CONSTRUCTIVE 


Insects and pollination.—Biologists in general have agreed that one 
of the major benefits derived from insects is the production of crops 
which result from their services as pollinating agents. It would be 
difficult to estimate the value to man of pollinating insects, but the 
sum is enormous. It has been demonstrated that at least 50 agricul- 
tural crops depend on flower-visiting insects for pollination, or yield 
decidedly more abundant crops when bees are present. This list as 
reported by the U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine in- 
cludes most of the important fruits and vegetables, forage crops, 
legumes, and certain special crops. The real value to man is the 
production of seed and fruit. Without insects to effect pollination, 
many species of plants will not set seed or produce fruit no matter 
how well they are cultivated, fertilized, and protected from diseases 
and pests. 

Although the honey bee is the most important pollinating insect, 
it is but one of many species of bees necessary for the perpetuation of 
flowering plants. Various species of flies, beetles, and other insects 
also visit flowers and to some extent pollinate them. The Bombyllidae 
are particularly known for their pollinating habits. The importance 
of the honey bee is especially noted because it and certain wild bees 
must obtain nectar and pollen in order to nourish both the young and 
adults. Thisis not the case with other pollinating insects. 

Furthermore, agricultural development has seriously interfered 
with the balance in nature by demanding enormous acreages for cul- 
tivation. The nesting places of wild and native pollinating insects 
have thus been destroyed. As a result the burden of pollination has 
been increased to such an extent that wild bees are no longer adequate 
or dependable. Honey bees must be introduced seasonally in certain 
specific areas for pollination, and they have thus become the most 
numerous of the flower-visiting insects. It is essential, nevertheless, 
to work to conserve our native pollinating insects, since some species 
of native bees are more efficient, bee for bee, than honey bees and will 
work under more adverse conditions. 


426 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Insect products ——Certain insects are of benefit to man by their 
direct production of materials which serve as his food, or from which 
he can manufacture marketable products. 

The honey bees produce some 250 million pounds of valuable and 
nutritious food each year in the form of honey. ‘They also produce 
several million pounds of wax which is used in a great variety of 
industries, including both wartime and peacetime products. Wax is 
used, for instance, in the sealing and coating of shells, for ignition 
apparatus, in the manufacture of cosmetics, in candles for religious 
purposes, in dental supplies, in pharmaceutical salves, in carbon paper, 
in confections, in printers’ ink, in engravers’ wax, and in the lubrica- 
tion of dies for drawing sheet-metal tubes and cylinders. 

In the Orient a pure white wax is produced by scale insects of 
the genus /ricerus, and in the semiarid regions of Mexico and the 
southwestern United States wax is produced by scale insects of the 
genus Z’achardiella. 

Other commercial products of lesser importance or monetary value 
are produced by other scale insects. Notable are the lac insects, which 
occur in many of the tropical and subtropical countries such as Cey- 
lon, Formosa, India, the East Indies, and the Philippine Islands. 
These insects encase their bodies with a secretion which encrusts the 
limbs and twigs of trees upon which they live with a resinous deposit 
one-fourth to one-half inch thick. This substance is melted, refined, 
and placed on the market as shellac and is also used extensively in the 
manufacture of paints and varnishes. 

Certain other scale insects known as cochineal insects are common 
on cacti in Mexico. Their bodies are collected, dried, and used by 
the native Indians for the preparation of a crimson or vermilion dye. 
In the 19th century a cochineal manufacturing industry was estab- 
lished in the Canary Islands where it flourished until 1875. 

Insects as food.—Indirectly, insects are of great importance to the 
food supply of man the world over, as they supply the basic or initial 
food materials that are transformed into the bodies of food animals, 
especially birds and fishes, whose flesh later finds its way to our tables. 
These insects are as much a part of the food chain for fish and fowl 
as corn is a part of the food chain for the bacon, ham, or beef that 
we eat. 

While the value and acceptability of the bodies of insects as food 
for man might be questioned, there are many instances where they 
have been or are being used. Our close neighbors, the people of 
Mexico, utilize several types of insects as food. The larval stage of 
a large hesperid skipper which lives in the maguey or century plant 
may be purchased alive in the markets in lots of 10 or 12, tied ina 
small sack made from the thin membrane of the maguey plant, or 
they may be purchased in cans put up by commercial canning com- 


MAN IN A WORLD OF INSECTS—DE LONG 427 


panies. At one of the regular meetings of the Columbus Entomolog- 
ical Society in 1941 these larvae were served as refreshments and 
some 75 persons partook of them upon this occasion. Other insects 
used as human foods in Mexico are the eggs of certain aquatic Hemip- 
tera, particularly Corixidae and Notonectidae, which are utilized for 
the production of an edible meal known as “ahutle.” In towns near 
Lake Texcoco dried cakes containing these insects may be purchased 
in the markets. 

Certain California Indians obtain in quantity from Mono Lake 
and other highly alkaline and saline lakes a brine fly, Ephydra hians, 
in the pupal stage, which is dried and furnishes a highly nutritious 
food known as “koochabe.” 

In the Old World, grasshoppers have been eaten by man for cen- 
turies, native tribes commonly roasting them. In the Belgian Congo, 
dried termites are sold in baskets at the native markets, and termite 
queens are roasted or fried in fat. Termites are also eaten in the 
oriental Tropics. Centain of the larvae of various large beetles are 
also roasted, fried, or boiled by the natives of several of the tropical 
countries. The Laos Indians of Siam feast upon both adults and 
larvae of one of the dung beetles. Of the many specific types of 
insects which have been utilized as food, one of the most curious is 
the giant water bug, Lethocerus, which, being large in size, is steamed 
and then picked like a lobster. 

Sik production—Fiber for cloth is also furnished by an insect. 
The silkworm has for many years been considered the second most 
commercially important beneficial member of the insect world. From 
modified salivary glands it has furnished the raw materials for large 
industries in both Asia and Europe, where caterpillars are reared 
and raw silk is produced. This has been an especially important 
industry of the Orient. 

The Chinese silkworm, Bombya mori, has been reared in quantity in 
captivity for so many years that it is at present impossible for it to 
exist without human care. This rearing involves extensive hand 
labor, making silk a costly fiber. The industry is valued at millions 
of dollars, but its existence is seriously threatened at present by the 
manufacture of synthetic fibers which are rapidly and largely replac- 
ing silk and by the growing trend toward the formation of democra- 
cies in the Orient, under which conditions the high cost of labor will 
make the price of silk prohibitive. 

Insects in medicine and surgery—Man has recognized the medical 
value of certain insects and for some time has used their products as 
therapeutic agents. Cantharidin has been produced from the bodies 
of blister beetles and is used in the treatment of certain conditions of 
the urogenital system. The importance of this drug was probably not 
fully realized until World War II when shipments of insects for its 


428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


manufacture could not be obtained from Europe. The pharmacists 
then became disturbed when they learned that different species of 
beetles contained different percentages of cantharidin and that the 
species in the United States yield very small percentages. Canthari- 
din has not been, and apparently cannot be, produced on a commercial 
scale from native blister beetles. 

Another example of the value of insects in medicine is the use of blow- 
fly larvae to render aseptic and hasten the healing of surgical wounds 
caused by osteomyelitis. In a field dressing station in France during 
World War I a young surgeon observed severe shrapnel wounds 
containing infestations of fly maggots and noted the subsequent rapid 
recovery of the soldiers so infested. After returning to the United 
States he was responsible for the experimental treating of wounds 
with fly larvae of Lucilia serricata and Phormia regina reared under 
aspetic conditions. Through this treatment a therapeutic agent, 
allantoin, has now been developed and fly maggots are no longer being 
used. At present allantoin is being used in the treatment of osteo- 
myelitis and other deep-seated wounds in which there is decaying 
tissue. The fact remains that it was through the use of fly maggots 
and a study of their physiologic action that a modern medical treat- 
ment was developed for a condition which was previously very difficult 
to cure. 

Insect parasites and predators.—Some of the most valuable insects 
are those which live upon or within other insects, particularly noxious 
plant-feeding species, and thus destroy them. We usually classify 
these as parasites and predators. Both types are important, although 
the parasites are much more complex in their biology and adaptations. 

Predation is a common mode of sustenance of many types of 
animals, including man. The development of predation in insects is 
hard to trace, but we know that it existed in certain forms such as the 
dragonflies, which were major types of insects in the late Carbonif- 
erous and early Permian periods. The habit of predation is found 
generally throughout the insect orders. In many species and groups, 
however, predation may not be beneficial to man. This is especially 
true in the case of the large group of aquatic predatory insects. Even 
when the predatory habit is beneficial, such as the aphid-feeding habit 
of the tree crickets, the benefit is often offset by an injurious habit 
such as egg-laying in twigs or stems which causes untold injury to 
the plant or crop. 

There are many groups in which predation brings enormous value 
to man. This is particularly true of those insects which feed upon 
colonies of aphids or attack caterpillars upon the ground. Most of 
these have insatiable appetites and are therefore important factors in 
the control of the insects upon which they prey. The following data 
will bear out this statement: 


MAN IN A WORLD OF INSECTS—DE LONG 429 


A ladybird beetle, Coccinella californica, according to Clausen, re- 
quires 475 aphids at the rate of 25 a day for development and, after 
transforming into an adult beetle, eats 34 per day during its remaining 
life. Perhaps the greediest coccinellid species recorded is Chilocoris 
similis, which Nakayama has found consumes on an average 1,563 
aphids per individual during its lifetime. In the case of the aphis 
lion, Chrysopa californica, a larva may consume 141 aphids during its 
larval development. ‘The syrphid fly larvae have equally voracious 
appetites. Two species reported by Curran, Allograpta obliqua and 
Syrphus americanus, consumed 265 and 474 aphids, respectively, 
during their larval development. 

The ground beetles, one of the largest families of Coleoptera, often 
attack larger insects. Their importance lies in the fact that here is 
a predacious group which covers the surface of the earth, continuously 
patrolling it and devouring untold numbers of insects, particularly 
caterpillars whose life cycle is such that they must drop to the ground 
as full-grown larvae and penetrate its surface twice, once to pupate 
and again to emerge. ‘This offers the opportunity to our carabid 
patrolmen to see that few pass or repass without being apprehended. 
Considering the large numbers of prey that are destroyed by a single 
individual during the course of its life, we are forced to admit that 
predatory insects play a primary role in checking the increase of 
destructive forms and are thus of great value to man. 

Insect parasites——Insect parasitism is extremely diverse and may 
in some instances verge on predatism, scavengerism, and commensal- 
ism. In addition to this there is a wide range of parasitic behavior 
among the truly parasitic species. This is probably due to the fact 
that parasitism has arisen independently in various groups of insects 
although certain parallel developments have occurred among these 
different types. 

One group of parasitic insects is known as ectoparasites and these 
are predominantly blood-sucking species such as mosquitoes, black 
flies, horse flies, blood-sucking lice, bed bugs, other Hemiptera, etc., 
which attack vertebrate animals. With few exceptions these are not 
beneficial to man. 

The entomophagous parasites are usually forms that feed inside the 
bodies of their insect hosts and either destroy them or render them 
sterile so that they are not able to reproduce. These parasites occur 
in several orders, and one insect order, the Strepsiptera, is composed 
entirely of parasitic species. These develop internally as parasites of 
bees, wasps, and certain Homoptera. 

By far the greatest number of parasites are Hymenoptera, and 
probably half or more of the known species of this group are parasitic 
on other insects. Certain minute forms like 7richogramma will para- 
sitize insect eggs, and an individual parasite can develop to maturity 


430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


within the egg of the host. Others such as the braconoids or ichneu- 
mons may parasitize the larvae. The larval parasites are frequently 
quite specific, and a high percentage of the host species may be de- 
stroyed. As an example of this type of parasitic control, the soil 
under a tree or plant may be so completely covered by the empty 
cocoons of braconid parasites that the surface appears white. An 
experience encountered a few summers ago is further evidence of the 
percentage of parasitism. An attempt was being made to secure a 
number of normal sphinx moth larvae on catalpa. Several hundred 
individuals were collected from a small area of concentrated plantings, 
and during the examination of some 300 specimens not a single larva 
was found free from parasites. 

These parasites are of enormous value to man in the continuous 
combating of almost every important economic insect pest. Many 
other insects would probably become important pests if it were not for 
the parasites that constantly hold them in check. One of the most 
interesting and remarkable examples of the importance of insects as 
natural enemies is the almost exclusive use of insect parasites and 
predators in the control program of orchard insects in the fruit area 
at Kentville, Nova Scotia, Canada. 

Insects as scavengers.—The insect scavengers are those which feed 
upon decomposing plants or animals, or on dung. Such insects assist 
in converting these complex organic materials to simpler chemicals 
which are returned to the soil where they are available to plants for 
the production of new organisms. 

Carrion-feeding insects such as blow flies, carrion beetles, rove 
beetles, skin beetles, and others are of value in removing or often 
burying carrion. Dung beetles of several families and dung flies 
hasten the decomposition of dung. Insects such as termites, carpenter 
ants, wood-boring beetles, and other wood feeders are important agents 
in hastening the conversion of fallen trees, logs, and stumps to soil. 
The galleries of these insects serve as avenues of entrance for fungi 
and other organisms of decomposition which hasten the breakdown of 
the wood. 

We have observed the organic cycle in nature since our earliest recol- 
lections and as a result have accepted this condition without further 
thought. The value of insect scavengers can be best emphasized by 
asking how long we would be able to survive in a world where dead 
bodies of plants and animals were not broken down and returned to 
soil and where the earth’s surface would as a result in time become 
covered to a depth of several feet with such organic waste. These 
insect scavengers are indeed essential to maintaining a balance in 
nature. 

Importance of soil insects—Many types of insects spend part or 
all of their lives in the soil, where many life activities and processes 


MAN IN A WORLD OF INSECTS—DE LONG 431 


are carried on. Many forage above the surface, carrying organic 
materials below, where new tunnels or burrows are continuously made. 
The soil is thus aerated and continuously enriched by their excretions 
and the decomposition of their dead bodies. In this manner soil 
insects improve the physical properties of the soil and add to its 
organic content. We should hasten to add that soil insects vary 
greatly in their feeding habits, and some that are root-feeding forms 
in the larval stage, such as white grubs and wireworms, are quite 
injurious and are of much more harm than benefit to man. There is 
no question, however, that many soil-inhabiting forms are beneficial 
and are of value to man. 

Insects destroy noxious plants——A survey of insect feeding habits 
has established the fact that a large proportion of insects feed on 
plants but only a small number of these are considered pests. Many 
of the others may be beneficial by destroying cacti, noxious weeds, or 
undesirable deciduous plants. It often happens that when a plant 
is introduced into a new geographic area it thrives to such an extent 
that it becomes a pest. In some cases plant-feeding insects have been 
introduced to bring this plant under control. The pricklypear cacti 
(Opuntia spp.) were at one time introduced into Australia, and by 1925 
they had spread over some 25 million acres to form a dense, im- 
penetrable growth. In 1925 a moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg.), 
the larvae of which burrow in the cactus plants, was introduced into 
Australia from Argentina. As a result of the continuous feeding of 
these moth larvae the dense cactus growth is now reduced to about 1 
percent of the area it occupied in 1925. 

Weed-feeding insects are not always beneficial. In some cases the 
weeds may serve only as an early seasonal food plant for the produc- 
tion of large populations which will later in the season attack and in- 
jure cultivated plants or crops. This type of problem is seen in the 
case of sugar-beet leafhopper. On the other hand, the insect may 
change its food preference from a wild to a cultivated host. The 
Colorado potato beetle, for example, originally fed on wild species of 
Solanum and later changed to potato. 

The esthetic value of insects —The brilliant colors and color patterns 
of insects have been utilized by artists, jewelers, and designers. Some 
of the butterflies, moths, and beetles have provided basic patterns in 
many typesofart. Because of their larger size their patterns are more 
often observed, but some of the smaller insects are just as brilliantly 
colored. For instance a tropical leafhopper, Agrosoma pulchella 
(Guerin), has a brilliant black, white, and red pattern of bars or 
stripes which is frequently used in Mexican and Central American 
art. The ecology and abundance of this insect account for its use in 
color designs there. It occurs in the lower tropical areas on shrubbery 
and is commonly found along streams where the natives launder their 


432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


clothing. When white garments are spread upon the shrubbery to 
dry, these brilliantly colored leafhoppers hop upon the clothing, 
where their conspicuous color is emphasized by the white background. 

Insects are also used in making jewelry. In some tropical countries 
the natives make necklaces of “ground pearls,” the wax cysts of female 
scale insects of the genus A/argarodes. The wings of morpho butter- 
flies, brilliant bluish butterflies occurring in South America, are often 
mounted under glass and made into trays, pictures, and certain types 
of jewelry. Showy insects mounted in plastic or under glass are 
sometimes made into such things as paperweights and _ book-ends. 

During the past few years the department of fine arts at Ohio State 
University has annually requested certain of these insects with bril- 
liant coloring or exquisite patterns for use in its laboratories, so that 
students specializing in fine arts might become acquainted with this 
source of material and might have an opportunity to use some of 
these designs in their period of training. 

The recreational value of insects—Insects are fascinating animals 
when one takes the time to observe them or begins to study them 
carefully. Therefore, many persons find in the study of insects a 
stimulating hobby and a means of recreation, just as intriguing and 
beneficial as any other type of nature study. The interest in insect 
study leads to collecting and field study and to observations of habits 
and interrelations of insects with insects, insects with plants and with 
other biologic forms. The collecting, hiking, field activity, and 
mountain climbing serve as an excellent form of recreation. The 
scientific and educational values of such collections are also very 
important phases of the use of insects as a hobby. Some of the finest 
collections of certain groups of insects that we have in the world today 
have been formed in this way and are often handed down for several 
generations. Several of these have been developed in the United 
States, but this country has fallen far behind the European and Asiatic 
countries in the practice of collecting insects as a hobby. This prac- 
tice is found especially in Japan and certain of the central European 
countries. Scientists from these countries who have visited the United 
States during the past few years have expressed their astonishment at 
the lack of interest by the American people and the comparatively 
few amateur entomologists found in our country. 


INSECT LIABILITIES—THE DESTRUCTIVE 


The liability side of the ledger is illustrated by the insects which 
destroy crops, eat through the wood of houses and other build- 
ings, make attacks upon supplies of food in pantries and larders, 
and pierce the skin of our bodies, thereby injecting deadly disease 
organisms into the blood. Insects eat, steal, or destroy one-third of 
everything which man grows and stores for the future, This includes 


MAN IN A WORLD OF INSECTS—DE LONG 433 


fields of corn and wheat, orchards of fruits, fields of potatoes, peas, 
and tomatoes, vineyards, citrus groves, and all other types of crops. 
Some wood-boring insects attack and fell our forest trees. Others 
inject disease-producing organisms into certain trees, causing Dutch 
elm disease, phloem necrosis, or oak wilt, which take their toll of our 
forest and shade trees. Lumber used in buildings is continuously 
attacked and destroyed by termites and powder-post beetles. 

Insect-borne diseases of man.—The most direct and fatal attacks are 
by those insects which feed upon the blood of man. The world health 
authorities, working through the United Nations and gaining know]l- 
edge and statistics from all the nations of the world, are authority 
for the statement that insects are the cause of one-half of all human 
deaths, sickness, disease, and deformity. 

The anopholine mosquitoes alone are responsible for injecting into 
man’s blood stream the protozoans which cause malaria—a scourge 
which infests one-sixth of the human race and kills somewhere in the 
world a man or woman every 10 seconds. In like manner the Aédes 
mosquitoes are vectors of organisms causing yellow fever, a much 
more deadly human disease although not as widely distributed 
throughout the world. 

The Simulium or black flies, which occur in certain tropical areas 
around the world, inject into man’s blood the microfilaria roundworms 
causing blindness (onchocerciasis) in man. Large segments of the 
native populations are often totally blind. 

The tsetse fly is one of the most deadly of the blood-sucking flies, 
causing the usually fatal sleeping sickness in man. Several million 
square miles of Africa have been so completely dominated by this 
insect that man has not been able to inhabit this area. The wild game 
animals serve as reservoirs for the trypanosomes which are carried to 
man by these flies. 


REASONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE INSECT WORLD 


What is the character of these rivals which humanity must surely 
hold in check if it is going to be successful as a species? The follow- 
ing reasons could be cited to explain why the insect type has become 
so highly evolved, adapted, selected, and so dominant and successful 
on the surface of the earth: 

1. The body is enclosed within an exoskeleton which is composed of 
chitin. Its essential chemical elements, carbon, hydrogen, and nitro- 
gen, are easily and abundantly available from green plants in the form 
of nitrogenous sugars. A body covering of this type limits the insects 
to small size but affords great strength due to direct muscle attach- 
ments. It also favors diversified mutation and all types and extremes 
of protection through form, color, and thickness of the armor. This 
skeleton is always properly developed, insofar as diet is concerned, 


434 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


in spite of the fact that usually no parent is present to select the diet 
and feed the young. In contrast the human infant must be carefully 
nourished during his early life in order to obtain a proper skeletal 
structure and a healthy body. 

2. Insects are the only winged invertebrates, and this fact, combined 
with other survival characteristics, has given the insects dominance 
of the earth which even other winged forms like the birds cannot 
dispute. With wings, insects can quickly abandon habitats when they 
become unsuitable. Aquatic insects have winged stages in their life 
cycles which solve the problem of desiccation, or in many instances 
they can develop wings in time to avoid death which might be immi- 
nent in many habitats. Fish and other aquatic forms usually perish 
under similar adverse circumstances. 

3. The temperature of an insect’s body usually follows closely the 
external temperature to which it is exposed. In order to adjust for 
seasonal changes the composition of the protoplasm is such that it 
can function as a hydrophyllic colloid, to the extent that it can absorb 
and bind the free water of the body. Thus by a short period of con- 
ditioning, insects in every life stage, depending upon the species, can 
be subjected to freezing and subfreezing temperatures, and a certain 
percentage can survive long periods of low temperature. This adap- 
tation to a condition of hibernation is one of the most important 
survival factors in the world of insects. This is the means by which 
most insects are fitted into a natural world and thus solve the problems 
of changing seasons. During the winter their bodies are quiescent 
and the metabolic rate is extremely low. When food is not available, 
they are able to survive without it. 

Man on the other hand, who maintains a constant body temperature, 
must have fuel in order to retain a normal temperature during periods 
of low climatic temperature, as well as warm clothing to protect his 
body and a good supply of food to maintain a normal high metabolic 
rate and a continuous supply of internal heat and energy. 

4. Metamorphosis in insects is a condition allied in a way to the 
previous factor. Different biologic stages of activity and inactivity 
are often selective adaptations to seasonal conditions or feeding habits. 
The common cattle pest, the horn fly, is a good example of this. The 
only place that the larvae are able to complete their growth is in fresh 
cattle droppings. In hot, dry, summer weather these droppings soon 
desiccate. If and when they do, the maggots die. The selection 
factor here has produced a short maggot or growing stage of from 
2 to 4 days. 

Or take the case of a specialized plant-feeding larva which attains 
great size during its short larval period. As a young apprentice of 
entomological research working with the United States Department 
of Agriculture in the tobacco-growing sections of Tennessee in 1915, 


MAN IN A WORLD OF INSECTS—DE LONG 435 


I was assigned the task of finding how much leaf tissue a tobacco 
horn-worm larva would consume between the time it hatched from the 
egg and the time it became a quiescent pupa. From the data I 
obtained and from the studies of subsequent workers, we can conserva- 
tively say that a single larva (tobacco worm) consumes in 28 days of 
larval growth, food weighing approximately 50,000 times its birth 
weight, and the larva increases in size during this period approxi- 
mately 12,000 times its birth weight. Equally surprising is the case 
of a silkworm larva which consumes its weight in food each day. 

5. To these characteristics should be added the factor in insects 
of great biotic potential—the power of the insect to reproduce rapidly 
and establish enormous populations. This potential factor has been 
stressed by the theoretical estimates of many of our honest and repu- 
table entomologists, who estimate, for instance, that under optimum 
conditions a single cabbage aphis together with its accumulating de- 
scendants could, if enough cabbage were available, produce in a single 
growing season enough aphids, weighing one milligram each, to form 
a mass weighing 822 million tons or 5 times the weight of the total 
human population of the world. While this does not occur, the 
potential danger is always present in man’s world of insects; and here 
or there, from time to time, where environmental resistance is re- 
strained, the chinch bug, the Japanese beetle, the Mediterranean fruit 
fly, or some other specific form, will produce populations which get 
out of hand in spite of man’s knowledge and continued efforts to 
subdue them. 

Consider the potential of a common rainbarrel, which has been 
observed to produce in excess of 100,000 mosquitoes in a single season. 
Regarding this potential, we should bear in mind that an average of 
only 1 percent of the previous season’s populations survives the period 
of wintering. 

Certain insects, such as the digger wasps, in the absence of food 
preservation by low temperatures, habitually paralyze their prey by 
stinging them and then depositing their eggs upon these victims which 
are used to provision their galleries or burrows. In case these para- 
lyzed insects should die the venom acts as a preservative and they will 
not decompose for periods of several weeks or even months. 

The insect heart is a very unimportant structure in connection with 
respiration or oxidation. So heart disease, the great killer of humans, 
could not occur in an insect. In like manner, insects have no lungs, no 
liver, and no kidneys. The respiratory system composed of a complex 
network of tracheal tubes is adapted to all types of aquatic life and is 
tolerant of both air and vacuum pressure and of high altitude flight, 
and is more tolerant to radiation than vertebrate animals. 

Also, consider the fact that in insects the infants, when born, usually 
take care of themselves; there is seldom parental care. Add to this 


436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


the fact that there is no old age in insects. When their work is finished, 
they die. There is no retirement, no social security, no old-age pen- 
sions, and never a feeble grandparent. All these problems have solu- 
tions in a world of insects as a part of their adaptation. 


ADAPTATIONS 


Not only did man find these populations of insects in the world, 
but he also found extreme adaptations of these species by millions of 
years of survival selection. The extent to which insects will become 
adapted is amazing, and often shocking, at least when you use your 
Imagination as to what might happen in the future. These adapta- 
tions occur in morphology, all phases of the biological cycle, habits, 
and physiology. ‘The following are a few examples of these 
adaptations. 

The legs of insects are adapted in various groups for running, swim- 
ming, digging, grasping, and holding prey or, in the case of blood- 
sucking lice, grasping and holding onto the hairs of mammals. In 
the case of surface-swimming gyrinid beetles, their eyes are divided 
so that one portion of the eye is above the surface of the water and the 
other is below. 

In many insects which have hypermetamorphosis, the larva when 
first hatching from the egg may have well-developed legs and be 
able to seek out an egg mass upon which to feed; but when moulting 
to a second instar the legs become quite small and inadequate for 
locomotion. This condition is also seen in the scale insects which 
have an active first instar crawler stage and then become sessile and 
lose their legs in the second and succeeding instars. 

Many interesting adaptations are seen in egg production. In some 
insect parasites we have a condition which is known as polyembryony. 
The female lays a single egg which eventually produces many individ- 
uals. In the cannibalistic aphis lion the survival factor is apparently 
accomplished by the eggs being laid on stalks, and thus brothers and 
sisters are protected from the first of the brood to hatch. Females of 
the giant waterbug, genus A bedus, glue the eggs to the back of the male, 
where they remain until hatching. 

Certain insects are adapted to extremes of climate. The grylloblat- 
tids prefer temperatures of 0° C. and apparently are unable to live at 
temperatures which are more than a few degrees from this point. 
They normally occur at the edge of melting glaciers. At the other 
extreme, certain insects live in hot springs with temperatures of 120° 
to 124° F. 

There are many diversified adaptations in feeding habits and phys- 
iology among insects. The clothes-moth larvae feed upon animal 
fiber (carotin) only and never have available water as such. The 
water needed by the body is obtained through metabolic processes, 


MAN IN A WORLD OF INSECTS—DE LONG 437 


and the water released in the body from this source is conserved by 
the process of excretion and the production of dry fecal pellets. 
Stored-grain insects conserve water in a similar way. 

Gall insects, belonging to several orders, demonstrate another in- 
teresting phase of nutrition and interrelationship. In this case the 
insect produces a stimulus which is so specific that each individual of a 
gallmaking species will cause the plant to produce the same type of 
abnormal growth, inside of which the immature insect feeds, grows, 
and develops to maturity. Conversely, every different species of gall- 
maker on the same plant will stimulate the plant to produce its own 
specific and uniform type of abnormal growth. 

One of the most amazing adaptations is found in the ephydrid flies 
which live in saline, alkaline, or other solutions of extreme degree or 
variation. Certain of these occur in ocean water, in the Great Salt 
Lake, in the Bohemian salt mines, in pools of crude oil in California, 
and some have been found living in medical-school cadavers preserved 
in strong solutions of formaldehyde. 

An interesting survival factor is also displayed in the sexton beetles 
belonging to the Silphidae. These live in the bodies of exposed dead 
animals. The eggs are laid and the larvae develop in these carcasses, 
but the larvae must have soft, moist tissues to complete their growth. 
In hot dry weather these carcasses will desiccate rapidly, but the 
species is preserved by the action of adults, which dig the soil from 
under the carcass and gradually, but rather quickly, bury it. 

To the best of our knowledge the caddis-fly larvae were the first 
organisms to demonstrate the use of nets to capture aquatic micro- 
organisms. The dragonfly naiads, by the intake and repulsion of 
water to bathe the gills in the rectal cavity, gave us the first example 
of jet propulsion; and the paper wasps of the hornet group were the 
first to make paper from wood pulp. 


NATURAL BALANCE 


It is impossible to predict what role the insects might have played in 
the world without the advent of man. There is no question but that 
they had existed for millions of years and had become well adapted. 
Our observations, however, of areas of the world uninhabited by man 
have proved that natural conditions are usually well balanced until 
man’s arrival. The number of insects and their interrelationships, 
parasites, predators, etc., the diversity of plants, and many other fac- 
tors keep populations well balanced. When man arrives he cuts down 
forests, cultivates fields containing many kinds of wild plants, and 
changes the fields to extensive acres of one kind of plant or crop. This 
upsets the balance and produces extensive populations of what we 
term economic insects. 


438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The chinch bug is a good example. The corn belt was originally a 
grassland with an Andropogon Climax vegetation. This was the 
native food plant of the chinch bug which sucked the juices of the 
grass and hibernated in the adult stage in the clumps of dead grass at 
the base. Man decided he could raise the finest corn and wheat here. 
He plows out the Andropogon and plants two crops which he fertilizes 
and cultivates, causing them to grow rapidly, to be succulent and 
highly attractive to insects, and these two crops fit perfectly into the 
two seasonal generations of the chinch bug, spring on wheat, summer 
on corn; and then he wonders why these enormous populations destroy 
his crops. 

In like manner man changes the course of streams, impounds water, 
constructs artificial barriers, and in general changes natural condi- 
tions, and in so doing he destroys the original balance. 


THE STRUGGLE FOR DOMINANCE 


When we view man as a competitor in the insect world, attempting 
to subdue his invertebrate rivals, we must face up to certain facts and 
considerations. The insect is an animal without intelligence, or at 
least the ability to think, which has come to its present position of 
dominance in the world by mutation, selection, and adaptation. As 
pointed out, it is highly adapted to most conditions in the world. 

If there is any doubt concerning its ability to overcome anything 
adverse which is devised for its destruction, we have only to look upon 
the chemical developments and history of the past two decades. Man 
has devised the most deadly chemicals he could find in the chlorinated 
hydrocarbons and organic phosphates which at first seemed to wipe 
out completely populations of house flies, roaches, body lice, and most 
agricultural insects for months at a time. In 5 to 10 years time these 
chemicals have proved ineffective on the descendants of these 
same insects. 

When D.D.T. was first used, a prominent biologist stated that the 
house-fly problem was forever solved. In 5 years from that date, we 
were rearing them in our laboratories in screen cages which were white 
with coatings of D.D.T. painted on the wire screen. Where does man 
hope to go in his fight with selective adaptation or tolerance of this 
type? 

Man, on the other hand, is an intelligent animal with the ability to 
think, and his choice of adaptation has been in this direction. In 
man we visualize another type of biologic experiment in the world. 
We see the development of an entirely different type of animal body 
with a different type of appendage, the hands. With these he makes 
tools with which to make gadgets and devices for obtaining materials 
and directing the forces of the earth, thus converting or changing the 


MAN IN A WORLD OF INSECTS—DE LONG 439 


natural world around him. At the moment his greatest efforts seem 
to be in the direction of producing mechanisms of all kinds, including 
missiles, bombs, and devices for the exploration of outer space. 

His intelligence drives him to an expanding horizon of activity so 
that he vigorously competes with other men and other races in order 
to control greater resources and materials in the world and command 
greater areas of influence. This leads to cold and other types of war, 
and to the potential destruction of man and his valuable possessions 
and international relationships. 

Could it be possible that man has not been here long enough to be 
properly established, since only about half a million years have elapsed 
from Pithecanthropus to present-day man, and modern man has been 
here a comparatively short time? At the present moment in world 
affairs a sudden misunderstanding or misstep might, in view of the 
world’s present stockpile of bombs, eliminate man from large areas of 
the world in a single stroke. The insect populations under similar 
conditions would have a much greater chance of survival. 

If this does not happen, what will be the fate of man in the next 
million years, attempting to live in a world full of established insects? 
The laws of evolution should work to improve the human race, but 
will this happen or can it happen in the world as we know it? In 
order to meditate upon this thought it is necessary to recall that man 
is dual in nature. He must conform to his animal nature in order to 
meet his physical requirements, but he wishes at the same time to be 
a spiritual creature in order to survive the physical world. He thus 
becomes involved in religious theories and doctrines, and he becomes 
confused and perplexed by biological laws, theories, and concepts. 
How far will religious prejudice, archaic concepts, and ecclesiastical 
dictatorship deter man from a sane pattern or philosophy of biological 
existence? Can intelligence direct the religious to augment the bio- 
logical? Ifso, when may we expect it? 

The biologist in his rational moments studies the laws of genetics 
as they apply to insects. He experiments with these in order to obtain 
and study certain gene combinations and marvels at what has hap- 
pened in their evolution and adaptation. He applies the principles 
he discovers for the improvement of farm crops and farm and domestic 
animals, but he has not applied these basic biologic laws when he 
considers the human species and the possible and certain improvement 
of the peoples of the world. In the present world, he dares not. 

Man, then, has not competed and cannot compete with the insect 
upon the same plane. It is a case of man’s intelligence against biolog- 
ical adaption, and repeatedly intelligence has lost skirmish after 
skirmish. 

672-174-6332 


440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


We could reflect that nothing in the whole range of biological and 
paleontological study shows anything to equal the insect in its per- 
sistence and its potential complement of characteristics, which would 
seem to assure its continued progress even if the experiment of the 
human species would prove eventually to be unsuccessful. We are 
reasonably certain from the past and present that the insect will persist 
and probably increase its position of dominance in the world. Can we 
predict the same for man? Will it be possible for man to become 
humane with man in time to solve the problems which face him? 
Will his intelligence lead to adaptive survival or destruction ? 

Can intelligence solve such problems as the rapidly increasing popu- 
lations of the world with its many and diversified facets, the depletion 
of farm lands, the decreasing supplies of natural resources, the de- 
struction of the wild populations of pollinating insects and the natural 
enemies of insects, the failure and diminution of more and more of 
our promising insecticides, the increasing ravaging of crops, and 
the increasing spread by modern travel of insect-borne diseases of 
man? Can intelligence cope with and solve the international political 
situation, especially when this is linked with increasing stockpiles of 
bigger and more deadly bombs and missiles for human destruction ? 
If it cannot, the insect may eventually win and eliminate man from 
its world, and Dr. W. J. Holland’s prophecy that—‘. . . the last 
living thing on the globe will be some active insect sitting on a dead 
lichen which will represent the last of the life of the plants” may be 
fulfilled. 


Tropical Fruit-Fly Menace 


By L. D. CurisTENSON 


Entomology Research Division, U.S. Department of Agriculture 


[With 6 plates] 


Insects occur in almost endless variety. More species exist—some 
800,000 have been described—than all other kinds of animals put 
together. 

Insects can breed so rapidly that they would soon overrun the 
earth if uninhibited. They are among the strongest of man’s com- 
petitors for food for his table, for animal and plant fibers to make 
his clothes, for lumber to build his shelters, for flowers that grace his 
table, sometimes even for the game he seeks in field and forest. Dis- 
eases spread by insects kill or make seriously ill millions of people 
each year. 

Our six-legged rivals consume vast quantities of food so desperately 
needed by hungry people in many parts of the world. Some years 
ago Dr. L. O. Howard, eminent pioneer in the science of entomology, 
stated: “There is a third way of assisting in the feeding of the world 
aside from birth-control or the stimulation of plant food or the inven- 
tion of new food, and that is the stopping of waste. Probably the 
greatest of these wastes is the tremendous but unnecessary tribute 
that we pay to insects.” Despite important advances in insect control 
in the years since Dr. Howard arrived at these conclusions, there is 
still truth in them today. If we did nothing about insects, our agri- 
culture would revert to an uncertain gamble because of frequent insect 
plagues. In modern times insects cause damage to crops, livestock, 
forests, fabrics, houses and other buildings amounting to nearly $4 
billion each year in the United States alone. 

Among the most noxious, and at the same time most interesting, 
insect families are the so-called tropical fruit flies, family Tephritidae. 
This is a large family comprising some 4,000 species distributed 
throughout the world. The wings and bodies of many are beautifully 
adorned with yellow, brown, or black markings. Some fruit flies 
attack the ovaries and seeds of plants; others lay their eggs in fruits 
and vegetables. Most are strong fliers. The Mexican fruit fly (Anas- 


441 


442 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


trepha ludens (Loew) ), after following air currents across deserts 
for more than 100 miles each year, invades the lower Rio Grande 
Valley of Texas, where it causes an annoying quarantine problem. 
The oriental and other fruit flies may fly from one Pacific island to 
another, sometimes across 35 miles or more of open sea. 

The losses caused by tropical fruit-fly larvae as they feed and live 
in the fruits of host plants accord these flies high rank among the 
world’s foremost plant pests. Well known is the Mediterranean fruit 
fly (Ceratitis capitata (Weidemann) ), which has invaded our country 
three times within the span of the last four decades. Eradication in 
1929-30 cost about $714 million plus many million pounds of citrus 
that was destroyed to eliminate breeding. In 1956-57 this fly’s 
elimination cost nearly $11 million. In 1962 early detection with 
strong lures developed by research reduced the cost of another eradi- 
cation campaign, which appears to have been successful, to less than $2 
million. The olive fruit fly (Dacus oleae (Gmelin)) takes a toll of 
nearly a third of all olives produced on countless trees in the Medi- 
terranean area each year. When we consider that olives and olive 
oil comprise a substantial part of the caloric intake of people living 
there, and that Greece alone has an estimated 75 million olive trees, 
this loss is indeed appalling. In every continent—Africa, Asia, Aus- 
tralia, Europe, North America, and South America—tropical fruit 
flies are obstacles to eflicient fruit and vegetable production. 

What to do about tropical fruit flies and how to detect invasion by 
them are problems that have received serious attention by research 
scientists and farmers for a long time. Probably one of the earliest 
control measures was the use of fermenting juices or wine in bottle 
traps, which attracted some of the flies. After entering the traps, 
they fell into the liquid and were drowned. Such lures were never 
very successful, even though trap designs and formulations were 
gradually improved. 

In another early control procedure, materials that the flies like to 
eat were mixed with poisons. The first of these poisoned baits were 
developed in Italy and South Africa. The bait materials were usually 
sweet substances such as brown sugar or molasses, or fermenting 
wheat bran. The most effective toxicants for use with them were 
arsenicals or other inorganic compounds. Unfortunately, mixtures 
such as these were often harmful to foliage or left excessive residues 
on the ripening fruit. Sometimes they were applied to cut sprigs 
of foliage from other trees, or on tied-up bunches of weeds of broom- 
straw, which, after treatment, were suspended in the canopies or host 
trees to be protected. This poisoned-bait method, known as the 
Berlese method after the Italian scientist who first used it in olive 
orchards in an attempt to control the olive fly, was also only partially 
successful. 


TROPICAL FRUIT-FLY MENACE—CHRISTENSON 443 


Sanitation measures, including the picking up and destruction of 
infested fruits and vegetables and the bagging of individual fruits 
to prevent infestation, also produced some benefits. 

Man’s attention soon turned toward parasites and predators in the 
hope that these might reduce tropical fruit-fly infestations to a toler- 
able level. Repeated worldwide searches for natural control agents 
in areas where tropical fruit flies are indigenous revealed many prom- 
ising species. When these were introduced into areas with unusually 
serious tropical fruit-fly problems, some became established, but none 
has reduced infestation to a level where it would no longer be of some 
concern to those who grow highly susceptible fruits and vegetables 
for profit. Yet the benefits from partial control by these natural 
control agents have more than justified the expense of parasite explora- 
tions and research. A cooperative biological-control program against 
the oriental fruit fly (Dacus dorsalis Hendel) in Hawaii, in which 
Federal, State, and private research agencies participated, has been 
a noteworthy example. 

At the conclusion of World War ITI the oriental fruit fly was acci- 
dentally introduced into Hawaii—how, no one knows exactly. En- 
tomologists searched throughout the tropical and subtropical world for 
effective parasites. About 60 species were sent to Hawaii, where they 
were studied under quarantine conditions to make certain that no sec- 
ondary parasites—these are parasites of parasites—would be intro- 
duced. Several dozens of the introduced parasites were released, and 
a dozen or so became established. Some of the new natural control 
agents were immediately successful, but too often this control was only 
fleeting. Only one parasite, Opius oophilus Fullaway, a species that 
attacks both the eggs and young larvae of the oriental fruit fly, has been 
able to maintain significant sustained effectiveness. Before O. oophilus 
was introduced, nearly all fruits of preferred hosts of the oriental 
fruit fly im Hawaii were infested. The new parasite reduced this 
infestation by at least half, and the number of fruit-fly maggots in 
individual infested fruits was much less. The result was the saving 
of large quantities of fruits and vegetables growing in backyard gar- 
dens and on farms. With fewer adult fruit flies near transportation 
centers where they might enter airplanes or ships, there was much less 
opportunity for these flies to be transported to lush breeding grounds 
in citrus orchards in continental United States. This was an impor- 
tant quarantine benefit. 

Fruit growers in continental United States, and most of the people 
who purchase fruits and vegetables in supermarkets, would not coun- 
tenance the amount of infestation the introduced parasites still permit 
in Hawaii. Nevertheless, we are grateful for the good they have 
done. There is still hope that someday a completely adequate bio- 
logical-control complex can be attained. Our growing knowledge of 


444 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


insect diseases and their use in supplementing the work of parasites 
and predators may speed us along the road toward this goal. 

Entomologists sometimes do strange things. Not so long ago, in 
a woodlot near Florence, S.C., at a time near midnight, on seats ar- 
ranged as though in a theater, several scientists watched the responses 
of male tobacco hornworm moths (Protoparce sexta (Johannson) ) to 
virgin female moths confined in small cages suspended at intervals 
throughout a much larger cage. From time to time, one or more 
of the male moths in the large cage would become agitated and then 
fly about one of the small cages containing a virgin female moth. 
This was evidence that a sex attractant had been produced by the 
female moth. The particular female inciting the male response was 
quickly removed, the tip of its abdomen containing the recently se- 
creted sex attractant clipped off with scissors and the abdomen tip 
then placed in a preservative. Chemists are analyzing the attractant 
in the hope they will be able to determine its chemical formula and 
to synthesize it for use in programs to eradicate or control the horn- 
worm in tobacco or tomato fields. We need to discover all possible 
attractants for insects, for they provide means of early detection of 
invasion by new pests, methods for measuring the effectiveness of 
programs to eradicate incipient infestation, and they may have use- 
fulness as direct control agents. 

Thus far, all efforts to find strong chemical sex attractants in 
tropical fruit fly females have failed, and there are reasons for be- 
lieving that the two sexes are brought together by fruit or vegetable 
odors rather than by chemicals secreted by the female flies. A short- 
range sex attractant, sounds emitted by the flies, or other unknown 
stimuli may then induce mating. Despite the apparent absence of 
strong natural sex attractants, tropical fruit flies are nonetheless 
among the most responsive of all insects to chemicals. Certain com- 
plex mixtures such as protein hydrolysates, fermenting liquids, and 
botanical extracts are known to attract both males and females. Nu- 
merous compounds are attractive to males only. Why there should 
be so many more male than female lures and why the response of 
the males to certain compounds should be so much more compelling 
than the response of females can only be speculated upon. 

Strongest of all tropical fruit-fly lures is methyl eugenol, which 
attracts male oriental fruit flies and is eagerly consumed by them. 
First discovered in India more than 50 years ago, its potential use- 
fulness was not realized until many years later when L. F. Steiner, 
U.S. Department of Agriculture scientist, mixed this lure with a 
poison and then impregnated the mixture on cane-fiberboard squares. 
When the squares were exposed in fruit-fly areas in Hawaii, results 
were spectacular. Fly abundance quickly declined to such an extent 
that the feasibility of eradication with this technique was suggested. 


TROPICAL FRUIT-FLY MENACE—CHRISTENSON 445 


In a large-scale test of this male annihilation method on an isolated 
group of islands in the Western Pacific, conducted by the U.S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, with the U.S. Navy distributing the pois- 
oned lure on small pieces of cane fiberboard from a flying boat, and 
the Trust Territory of the Pacifle Islands furnishing laboratory fa- 
cilities on Guam, near extinction of the oriental fruit fly was achieved. 
Interruptions in treatment schedules probably prevented eradication. 
Even though the fly was not eliminated, suppression of the popula- 
tion density to only about 30 flies or so per 1,000 trap days at one 
point in the experiment, in contrast to the many thousands of flies 
caught before treatments were started, was a noteworthy accomplish- 
ment. The results provided assurance that use of frequent traps 
baited with methyl eugenol in southern California, where three orien- 
tal fruit flies were found a few years ago, was a sound procedure. 
It is unlikely that any infestation present would have been able to 
expand or develop. 

Although no specific compound comparable in effectiveness to 
methyl eugenol has been found for the Mexican fruit fly, which 
causes quarantine and control problems along our border with Mexi- 
co each year, the best attractants found for this fruit fly are ferment- 
ing or protein hydrolysate liquid mixtures, to which both sexes re- 
spond. Although thus far only moderately effective, these lures have 
had significant usefulness by providing effective detection systems in 
regulatory and eradication programs. Whether they will eventually 
prove to be strong enough to have direct control usefulness remains 
to be determined. 

Now let us turn for a moment to insecticides for tropical fruit-fly 
control. There are individuals who take every opportunity to con- 
demn insecticides, but without them, production of adequate supplies 
of food would be difficult in our country. Insecticides must satisfy 
stringent safety requirements before they can be registered for sale. 
Harmful amounts on or in foods are not tolerated, and any material 
that is even remotely suspected of being able to cause cancer or other 
diseases, on the basis of acceptable evidence, is quickly banned. Prob- 
ably nowhere in the world today is there a more healthful and abund- 
ant variety of food than that present in our markets. 

Entomologists hope that someday it will be possible to grow plants 
and livestock without insecticides, not because they consider insecti- 
cides to be a hazard to public health when used properly, but because 
pests frequently develop resistance to such treatments, the work of 
beneficial parasites and predators may be interfered with, and residue 
and application problems are associated with their usage. The de- 
velopment of less objectionable insecticide treatments and nonchemi- 
cal methods for insect control has occupied high priority in the 
research on tropical fruit flies for many years. 


446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


A significant step forward was the discovery, again by L. F. Steiner 
in Hawaii, that deposits from a bait spray containing protein 
hydrolysates and a mild phosphatic toxin such as malathion attract 
tropical fruit flies and are consumed avidly by them, with ensuing 
fatal stomach-poison action. Only small amounts of actual toxicant 
per acre are needed for control. The knowledge that protein hydroly- 
sates contain elements essential to the development of sexual maturity 
and fecundity of fruit flies was the discovery of Dr. Kenneth S. 
Hagen, a University of California Agricultural Experiment Station 
scientist. Amazingly successful, this new protein hydrolysate bait 
spray has been used to eradicate one extensive Mediterranean fruit fly 
infestation and appears to have eliminated another in Florida. A 
similar bait spray is being used to prevent establishment of the Mexi- 
can fruit fly in southern California. Research conducted by J. G. 
Shaw, another U.S. Department of Agriculture scientist working in 
Mexico, proved the bait spray to be effective against this fruit fly. 
The same bait spray, sometimes modified, is now known to be effective 
against a number of tropical and temperate-zone fruit flies in other 
parts of the world. 

Few could have guessed years ago that knowledge of the nutritional 
requirements of tropical fruit flies obtained by Dr. Hagen would lead 
to a safe control method that could be applied by air over cities and 
towns as well as on crops. 

Tf 10 pairs of normal insects are placed in a cage and 100 males that 
have been sterilized by exposure to gamma radiation from a cobalt © 
source are then added, there will be a strong decrease in the fertility 
of eggs laid by the normal females. If sterile males continue to be 
added at the same high, overflooding ratio at frequent intervals, 
fewer and fewer normal females may be produced in each subsequent 
generation. Soon the entire population may be extinguished. This 
exciting noninsecticidal method of insect control was conceived by 
K. F. Knipling, director of U.S. Department of Agriculture’s 
Entomology Research Division, and first successfully used on the 
screw-worm fly (Callitroga hominivorax (Coquerel) ), a serious pest 
infesting wounds of cattle. The method requires the rearing and 
sterilization of large numbers of insects and their later distribution 
throughout the area inhabited by the pest. The new technique has 
eradicated the screw-worm fly throughout Florida and other South- 
eastern States with savings to the cattle industry of about $20 million 
each year. The fly-rearing and sterilization factory used in this first 
large-scale operation of the sterilization principle cost about $1 million 
and had a capacity of 50 million sterile flies per week. The fleet of 


1See article entitled “Screwworm Eradication: Concepts and Research Leading to the 
Sterile-Male Method,” by H. F. Knipling, in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Instl- 
tuition for 1958, pp. 409-418. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Christenson PLATE 1 


Mediterranean fruit fly, a persistent threat to our subtropical agriculture which has been 
eliminated from Florida on two occasions. A campaign to eradicate a third accidental 
infestation appears to have been successful. (Photo by L. D. Christenson.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Christenson PLATE 2 


Opius oophilus, oriental fruit-fly parasite extraordinary. Introduced into Hawaii from 
southeast Asia, this parasite reduced infestation in fruits and vegetables by more than 
half and lessened the risk of fly hitchhikers reaching mainland citrus areas. (Photo by 


L. D. Christenson.) 


PLATE 3 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Christenson 


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Large quantities of experimental fruit flies are needed for tests of the radiation sterilization 
method. These cages at the Honolulu fruit-fly laboratory contain adult flies which 


supply large quantities of eggs. (Photo by R. Wenkam, Honolulu.) 


f 
le 


Oriental fruit flies ovipositing through pinholes made in ice-cream cartons inserted inside 
stock cages at Honolulu fruit-fly laboratory. (Photo by R. Wenkam, Honolulu.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Christenson PLATE 5 


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Dehydrated carrot medium in which fruit-fly larvae are reared, an invention of University 
of California scientists and later modified by U.S. Department of Agriculture entomolo- 


gists, is mixed with water and nutrients in a large hopper and then poured in trays. ‘The 


fruit-fly eggs are added to the surface of the carrot medium. (Photo by R. Wenkam, 


Honolulu.) 


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i ey cae a 


Preparing the fresh carrot larval medium required by the Mexican fruit fly. (Photo 


courtesy Rockefeller Foundation, Mexico City.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Christenson PLATE 6 


Fruit-fly pupae are exposed to gamma radiation inside the sealed lead cask. Adults emerg- 


ing from treated pupae are sterile. (Photo by R. Wenkam, Honolulu.) 


In fruit-fly radiation sterilization experiments, sterile fly pupae are placed in small aerated 


boxes with honey water for food. After all flies have emerged a few days later, the boxes 
are distributed over the experimental area with an airplane. (Official photograph, 


U.S. Navy.) 


TROPICAL FRUIT-FLY MENACE—CHRISTENSON 447 


airplanes distributing the sterile insects flew several million miles. 
An even larger screw-worm fly factory has been constructed in Texas. 
There is hope that this fly can be eliminated from all of the United 
States and eventually even from the entire North American Continent. 

Soon after the concept of radiation sterilization to control insects 
received publicity a decade or so ago, work to determine its possible 
application to tropical fruit-fly problems was initiated in Hawaii by 
the writer and L. F. Steiner. At first it was believed that single- 
mating habits were a prerequisite for successful application of 
the method. Tropical fruit flies mate more than once. The first cage 
experiments with the oriental fruit fly revealed a strong effect on 
fertility of eggs when normal flies were overflooded with sterile indi- 
viduals. Pilot tests on the Mediterranean fruit fly in Hawaii and 
the Mexican fruit fly in Mexico, the latter tests conducted by R. H. 
Rhode, soon demonstrated that overflooding of semi-isolated tropical 
fruit-fly populations with sterile flies will inhibit population growth. 
In an isolated-island oriental fruit fly test on Rota in the Western 
Pacific about 40 miles north of Guam, sterile flies in small boxes were 
dropped from a U.S. Navy flying boat, and others were allowed to 
emerge in special emergence trays suspended from trees. Despite sus- 
tained releases, sometimes as many as 10 million sterile flies per week, 
the desired amount of overflooding of the oriental fruit fly population 
could not be achieved because of the abundance of wild hosts, the 
strong reproductive potential of the fruit flies, losses during distribu- 
tion, the effects of predation after release, and natural mortality before 
the flies attained ability tomate. A definite seasonal upturn in infesta- 
tion in preferred hosts in the spring and early summer of 1962 was 
the final signal for termination of the experiment. 

The results of the radiation sterilization test on Rota, the first 
large-scale test of its kind on an insect that breeds copiously on 
abundant wild hosts, did not prove that this technique will not work. 
The test taught us that for some tropical fruit flies it may be necessary 
to reduce wild populations by other means so as to bring them within 
reach of the sterile-fly release method. A new experiment on the 
melon fly is now in progress on Rota, where insecticides are being 
used to reduce the wild flies to low numbers before the sterile flies are 
introduced. 

Other research on the radiation sterilization of tropical fruit flies 
is underway in Central America, Egypt, and Greece. Within a few 
years we should have a good answer to the question of whether this 
technique is effective against these insects. A method such as this, 
which can eliminate an insect species from large areas, or even from 
entire continents, needs to succeed only occasionally, as with the screw- 
worm fly, to merit recognition as one of man’s greatest 
accomplishments. 

672-174-6333 


448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Tropical fruit flies can also be sterilized with chemicals, but 
materials so far available are not safe enough to apply to fruit-fly 
environments in nature. Chemosterilants should soon achieve eradi- 
cation if enough of the wild tropical fruit flies could be rendered 
sterile during a sustained period. 

What will the future bring in our war on tropical fruit flies? We 
will still need to study insecticides and bait sprays, improve formula- 
tions, and make further progress in the direction of safety and prob- 
lem-free application. Insecticides mixed with baits provide at 
present our only known means of abating fruit-fly emergencies 
Highly coveted are completely effective nonchemical methods for 
control or eradication. Such methods may come sooner than we 
think, but no matter what we do about tropical fruit flies, the odds are 
that they will remain a worthy challenge for many years to come. 


The Soil as a Habitat for Life’ 


By Sir JouHn RusseLu 


Late Director of the Rothamsted Experiment Station 
Vice President of the British Royal Agricultural Society 


[With 5 plates] 


The dark and seemingly inert structure of a lump of soil would not 
at first sight seem to constitute a likely habitat for life. Even in the 
1880’s and 1890’s, when bacteria were found as regular inhabitants 
playing an important part in the nutrition of plants, nothing larger 
was supposed capable of existence in the soil. Later investigations at 
Rothamsted, however, showed that active protozoa were present as 
well as bacteria, and in 1919 a team was set up there to study these 
and other organisms also found—algae, fungi, and small inverte- 
brates—not simply as individual groups, but as a mutually inter- 
dependent population. Lack of resources brought the scheme to 
an end, but work on individual groups continued, and has recently 
been greatly extended, especially on the small invertebrates. 


ORGANISMS IN THE SOIL 


As usual, every advance shows that the field is much wider than 
had been expected. The old estimates of the numbers of active bac- 
teria in farm soil at Rothamsted ranged from about 38 to 10 million 
per gram; modern estimates are 3,000 million or more. It is difficult 
to visualize either the size or the numbers of bacteria in the soil. 
One of the best illustrations I know of the size of bacteria was given 
by S. G. Paine when he estimated that a quarter of a million of 
average size could sit on the period at the end of this sentence. Esti- 
mates of their weight per acre to a depth of 6 inches have ranged 
between 1,500 and 3,000 pounds at Rothamsted, and up to 4 tons on 
a Swiss grass field—which is considerably greater than that of the 
animals grazing on it. The numbers and variety of the soil animals 


1 Reprinted by permission, with some substitution of illustrations, from Discovery for 
December 1961. 
4 Russell, W. John (ed.), Microorganisms in the soil. Longmans, 1923. 


449 


450 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


are also much greater than suspected. The smallest are usually the 
most numerous: the protozoa, nematodes, and arthropods, roughly 
in that order. 

They are also the most active, consuming more food and more oxy- 
gen per unit of bodyweight than the larger ones. The protozoa vary 
greatly in size, and weight is a better standard of comparison: in 
Stéckli’s experiments and at Rothamsted their weight was 3.4 percent 
of that of the bacteria. The nematodes range from about 4 to 17 
million per square yard, mostly in the top 4 inches of soil. The 
majority are free living, but some are parasitic on plants: these have 
been the most fully studied. 

The chief arthropods are the mites and springtails. The mites 
range considerably in size: between 12,500 to 100,000 of them could 
be packed into a drop of water. Salt found about 100,000 per square 
yard in the top 6 inches of grassland, and about 40,000 in the second 


Nematodes 


Plant 
residue ee 


~ 
N 
Si SS - 
Nematodes 
; \ 


7 


7 


4 / 
yy 4 
/ 
Nematodes + 
Ficure 1.—The food cycle of free-living nematodes. The inner circle represents the part 
of the soil organic matter derived from plant residues; the surrounding ring indicates the 
contribution made by the dead bodies of soil population. Solid line means “‘enter into”; 


light broken line, “turn into when dead”; heavy broken line indicates that several stages 
are involved. (C. Overgaard Nielsen.) 


THE SOIL AS A HABITAT FOR LIFE—RUSSELL 451 


6 inches. The total number of arthropods per square yard to a depth 
of 12 inches was about 220,000, some 70 percent being in the top 6 
inches. The springtails are less numerous than the mites but are 
of particular interest because of their antiquity. They are wingless 
and appear to be survivors of the days before insects developed 
wings—a primeval race left stranded in the march of evolution. A 
fossil insect closely resembling a present-day springtail has been 
found in the Lower Devonian rocks in Scotland going back some 
300 million years, and 40 or 50 million years before the first winged 
insects appeared in Upper Carboniferous times. Some species dwell 
near the surface of the soil and are usually brightly colored; others 
live several inches lower down and are colorless, without eyes, and 
very sluggish in their movements; the Protura are also low-level 
dwellers. 

But the soil population comprises many other kinds of animals, such 
as enchytraeids, earthworms, myriapods, larvae, ete. Kiihnelt in his 
recent book* lists some 700 species in all, but there are certainly 
more: as methods improve the list is extended. A. Macfadyen puts 
the number at up to 1,000. 


STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF SOIL 


In order that these varied organisms can live in the soil, these con- 
ditions must be satisfied : they must have living space, air, water, food, 
suitable temperature, and sufficient freedom from harmful factors to 
live long enough to reproduce themselves in numbers adequate for race 
survival. Two important properties of the soil make this possible: 
its content of organic matter and its peculiar structure. The organic 
matter is derived from the remains of plants that grew on the soil 
and died there; they were drawn into the soil by worms and other 
animals and served as food and energy suppliers for the soil popula- 
tion—the energy being ultimately derived from sunlight by photo- 
synthesis; F. Raw has studied this in detail. The quantity and nature 
of the organic matter determine the size and character of the soil 
population; nonacid soils of deciduous forest carry the largest and 
most varied populations grassland soils may be lower in the scale 
and arable soils lower still. 

The unique structure of soil results from the properties of its con- 
stituents. Most of it—often 90 to 97 percent of dry soil—consists 
of mineral particles derived by weathering or disintegration from the 
parent rocks. Those between 2 mm. and 0.02 mm. in equivalent diam- 
eter, usually chemically inert and unchangeable, are called sand and 
constitute the framework of the soil. Those lying between 0.02 and 


3 Kiihnelt, BE. W., Soil biology with special reference to the animal kingdom. Faber 
and Faber, 1961. 


452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


0.002 mm. diameter, the silt, are mainly inert and somewhat indeter- 
minate in character. The particles below 0.002 mm. diameter are, 
however, in the main strikingly different from the larger ones. Their 
parent material was decomposed by weathering agencies and the 
resulting products, collectively called clay, are chemically reactive, 
and their small size gives them a very large surface area/weight 
ratio compared with larger particles. The clay is colloidal and is a 
powerful absorber of water. A light sandy soil may contain only 
about 3 to 5 percent and a good, easily workable loam about 7 to 15 
percent, but a heavy clay may contain 30 to 60 percent, even occa- 
sionally 70 percent. At these high values the soil becomes almost 
unworkable. Calcium carbonate varies more in amount than any other 
soil constituent and is especially important, as it is slowly leached 
out till finally the soil becomes acid and its character as a habitat 
changes completely. The population alters and becomes less 
diversified. 

The mineral and organic components of the soil become thoroughly 
intermingled through the activities of the larger soil animals, par- 
ticularly the various kinds of worms which eat their way through the 
soil: in particular the clay and organic matter becomes so closely 
united that no mechanical separation is possible. The particles do not 
normally remain separate but are built up into fairly stable crumbs 
which may be 2 or 8 mm. in diameter, honeycombed with cells and pas- 
sages. It is not known how this is achieved—clay, organic matter, 
plant roots, earthworms, and other soil organisms are all involved; 
but it is one of nature’s most vitally important processes, for without 
crumb formation little plant growth would be possible and indeed 
most soils would long ago have been blown or washed away. Farm- 
ers and gardeners have learned empirically how to assist crumb for- 
mation, but they have not discovered how it comes about. More 
investigation is greatly needed: soil erosion is one of the world’s most 
serious problems. 

The soil particles are irregular in shape and do not fit compactly: 
empty passages and pores remain as they do between soil crumbs. In 
addition passages are left as roots decay or as soil animals force their 
way through the soil, and cracks form as the clay shrinks. In an 
ordinary farm or garden soil the empty spaces are so numerous that 
in spite of their small size they add up to an almost unbelievably large 
volume; at Rothamsted about half of what looks like a solid lump of 
Rothamsted’s clay soil is really empty space. R. J.B. Williams and 
G. W. Cooke found that many of the pores range in size from about 
200 to 400 microns, but in the Woburn sandy soil, much poorer in clay 
and organic matter, they are mostly below 200 microns in equivalent 
diameter, and the total pore space is only about a third of the volume 
of the soil. 


THE SOIL AS A HABITAT FOR LIFE—RUSSELL 453 


SOIL WATER SUPPLY 


Pore spaces become more or less filled with water after heavy rain. 
Much of it drains away under the action of gravity when the rain 
ceases, but surface forces which are far more powerful than gravity 
retain a considerable quantity depending on the sizes of the pores: 
only those above 30 microns equivalent diameter lose water by drain- 
age. After drainage ceases water may still occupy two-thirds or more 
of the pore space—roughly equivalent to some 30 to 40 percent of the 
total volume of the soil. It coats the walls of the spaces with a thin 
layer which allows the development on them of bacterial and fungal 
colonies, and is deep enough to allow bacteria, protozoa, nematodes, 
and rotifers to move about in it. Plant roots can suck out much of this 
water: those of our common plants can exert pulls of about 10 atmos- 
pheres or 300 feet of water. But some water still remains; R. K. 
Schofield has shown that the last of it requires for its removal a suc- 
tion of the order of 10,000 atmospheres—equal to a column of water 
60 miles high. 

GASES IN THE SOIL 


Air occupies the soil pore space not taken up by water. Measure- 
ments in progress by J. C. Hawkins indicate that under a mature 
potato crop the oxygen consumption may be of the order of 6 to 13 
liters per square meter per day, of which the soil population took be- 
tween a third and three-quarters, the lower amount on a sandy soil 
and the higher on a fen soil. Air diffuses so rapidly into and out of 
normal soil that quantities of this order are readily supplied; the air 
6 inches down in the soil of a Rothamsted wheatfield differs little in 
oxygen content from the atmosphere, though it contains somewhat 
more carbon dioxide. There were greater differences on the grass- 
land, but apparently insuflicient to affect the soil organisms; these are 
more numerous than on arable land. 


HAZARDS TO THE SOIL POPULATION 


These are many and drastic. The acidity consequent on the absence 
of calcium carbonate profoundly alters the soil population, cutting out 
many members and favoring others. Earthworms disappear, but 
whether owing to the acid or to lack of calcium is not clear. Severe 
drought is harmful, but its effect is negligible deep in the soil; bacteria 
and protozoa can escape by passing into a resting condition. 

The greatest hazard to the soil propulation appears to be the wide- 
spread predacity of its members and the constant and varied warfare 
that prevails. The larger prey upon the smaller: protozoa, certain 
nematodes, mites, and springtails all prey upon the bacteria, while the 
protozoa and nematodes are consumed by mites, which in turn are con- 
sumed by other anthropods—and so the tale goes on. The predacity 


454 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


is not always indiscriminate. B. N. Singh at Rothamsted has shown 
that the soil protozoa are very selective in the bacteria they feed upon, 
taking some species readily and refusing other. Fungi also comes into 
the struggle: some are taken by predators, some are themselves preda- 
cious, capturing nematodes either by hyphal nooses or sticky networks, 
or producing sticky spores which are picked up by the nematodes. The 
victim’s body is then penetrated by an outgrowth from the fungus, and 
its proliferations absorb the body contents (see pl. 5). CO. L. Dudd- 
ington has made interesting studies of these groups. ‘There is also 
vigorous chemical warfare: some of the fungi eliminate competitors 
by discharging poisonous antibiotics. These have been studied by 
S. D. Garrett and F. W. Brian; it is not known how they affect the 
soil fauna. Some of these enchytraeids, according to Jegen, poison 
the nematodes on which they feed and then consume the decomposing 
mass. Some plants excrete from their roots poisons to kill parasitic 
fungi, others, curiously enough, excrete stimulants that arouse destruc- 
tive pests from dormancy; potatoes thus become infested with wart 
disease and parasitic nematodes. 

There are numerous cases of external parasitism and of phoresi 
(transport of smaller animals by hosts), and internal parasites occur 
in the larger animals, such as earthworms, but there is no record of 
their occurrence in the small animals, so Dr. Macfadyen tells me. 
This seems extraordinary: is it possible that they are there, but too 
small to be seen with an optical microscope? Soils contain such enti- 
ties, the phages. They attack and dissolve bacteria and actinomy- 
cetes, but very selectively, each group attacking only certain strains of 
one group of their victims. They are far smaller than bacteria, about 
0.01 to 0.1 microns in diameter, and can be seen only by an electron 
microscope. They are a class of virus, and are able to reproduce 
themselves although they consist only of DNA enclosed in a protein 
coat. They are studied by J. Kleczkowska at Rothamsted Experi- 
mental Station. 

Bacteria appear to have the most enemies but are saved from ex- 
termination by their colossal power of reproduction and their small 
size, which presumably enables them to find refuge in the minute re- 
cesses of the soil. This is fortunate because they are very eflicient 
scavengers and can produce and secrete enzymes which will decompose 
many harmful organic substances; they also oxidize the poisonous 
ammonia contained in the secretions of predators that feed on orga- 
nisms rich in nitrogen, such as bacteria, which may contain 3 to 15 
percent. This scavenging action of bacteria is assuming increasing 
importance now that farmers are using increasing quantities of or- 
ganic poisons to control weeds, pests, and plant and animal diseases; 
these poisons get into the soil and if they accumulated might do seri- 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Russell Pear 


Wood- 


e organisms found 


2 OD 

x SS 

_— - : 
= = 
=) f= 


l. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Russell PLATE 2 


Mouth - stylet 


Oesophagus 
(anterior region) 


Oesophageal 
bulb 


Posterior 


Oesophageal 
uterus 


glands 


Intestine 


1/20 mm. 


Meadow nematode: free-living (Pratylenchus pratensis). (Drawing by C. G. Doncaster.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Russell PLATE 3 


1. Pseudotritia ardua (Koch), a medium-sized oribatid mite. Up to 100,000 mites may be 
found in the top 6 inches of a square yard of soil and some 40,000 in the second 6 inches. 


(Photo, P. W. Murphy and H. F. Woodward.) 


2. Pergamasus runcatellus Berl., a large oribatid mite. (Photo, P. W. Murphy and H. F. 
Woodward.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Russe ll 


e, which destroys bacteria. Phages are a class of viruses; they consist of 


; 
71 


\ surrounded by a protein covering, and they are capable of multiplying. (Electron- 


2. B. hyacinthi, a soil bacterium. (Electron-micrograph by E. Van Slogteren.) | 


PEATE > 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Russell 


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9 SOPOPBULINT 


THE SOIL AS A HABITAT FOR LIFE—RUSSELL A55 


ous and unexpected harm. The soil bacteria can decompose many 
stable types including benzene and naphthalene compounds; the for- 
mula should be designed to insure destruction when their work is done. 


FOOD CYCLES IN THE SOIL 


The ultimate source of food for the soil population is the dead vege- 
tation falling on the soil surface and dragged in by the larger ani- 
mals. Some organisms feed on it directly, some at second hand, 
some even more indirectly. The process has been studied by the 
foresters, and considerable work is now being done on grassland and 
on arable soils. W. Kiihnelt, in the bool already mentioned, de- 
scribes the process as seen in a Swiss forest. In the first stage the 
forest litter is attacked by numerous members of the population. Bac- 
teria and many of the animals take the carbohydrates and proteins 
which they can digest, and the fungi feed on the celluloses in the wood, 
which other organisms cannot take. In the second stage, organisms 
of the first stage are devoured by the predators. In neither stage do 
the organisms assimilate all the material they ingest: the rest is ex- 
creted. But the excretions still have some food and energy value 
and in the third stage they are consumed by the coprophagous or 
dung-eating organisms; this process is repeated while any utilizable 
material remains. Kiihnelt states that among the tipulid larvae some 
of the smaller individuals consume the excreta of the larger ones—a 
monstrous piece of economy. The feces of many soil animals are rich 
centers for germination and growth of microorganisms. 

The process appears to be of the same pattern on grassland and on 
arable land. Earthworms and other large animals begin operations 
by dragging the plant material into the soil and ingesting it. The 
decomposition is intensified by the vast numbers of bacteria in their 
guts which seem to find conditions there more favorable than in the 
soil outside: oxygen absorption and carbon dioxide evolution are 
much increased by the presence of these larger animals in the soil. 
Other actions are stimulated also: in the Arnheim experiments the 
introduction of a millipede into a soil culture increased fungus ger- 
mination 400-fold. These are examples of what A. Macfadyen has 
called the catalytic action of the soil fauna. The small animals take 


over as in forest soils. 
CONCLUSION 


The most remarkable part of the story is the conclusion. The final 
unconsumed and indigestible material and excretions constitute the 
soil humus (most important for plant growth), and the simple salts to 
which much of the digested material has been reduced are nutrients 
essential to plant growth. They were taken up by the plant while 
it lived, they helped to build up the plant tissues, and now at the end 

672-174 63 84 


456 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


they are back in the soil ready to nourish a new generation and start 
the cycle again. The population on the surface of the soil, including 
ourselves, is thus entirely dependent on the population, mostly in- 
visible to our eyes, living within it. 

Much of our agricultural effort is really an attempt to help the soil 
population prepare the food for the next generation of plants. Plant 
residues—grass and clover leys, straw mixed with anima] manure— 
are ploughed into the soil so that the soil population can get at it 
more easily. E. W. Russell* compared the number of calories of 
human food produced with the number in the organic matter supplied 
per acre to the soil population: 13 million calories had been given, 
which would have sufficed for 12 persons for a year, but the calories 
in the human food produced numbered 2 million, sufficient for the 
needs of two persons only. More economical procedures are now 
known, but even the best are extravagant, and much research is needed 
to insure a more equitable distribution. 

It will ultimately be necessary to obtain control of the soil popula- 
tion so as to insure more efficient working in our interests. For this 
purpose the soil population must be studied as a whole and not in 
isolated groups. Fortunately the subject is attracting increasing at- 
tention and much good work is now being done. Considerable prog- 
ress may be expected in the near future. 


4 Russell, E. W., Soil conditions and plant growth, 9th ed., Longmans, 1961. 


The Evolution of the Echinoderms ' 


By H. BarracLtoucH FELL 
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand 


[With 3 plates] 


Sea stars, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers are obviously interrelated 
in some way, for they share many common characters. Their origins 
and ancestry, however, have long remained a bafiling enigma, for no 
intermediate forms between sea stars and other echinoderms have 
hitherto been recognized, and the relationships suggested by known 
fossils have seemed to conflict with those suggested by embryology. 
Recently a promising line of inquiry, based on comparative study of 
growth-gradients, has given a very different aspect to the problem. 
The investigation, reported in detail elsewhere (see references), has 
led to the isolation of several surviving members of supposedly ex- 
tinct groups of sea stars, and the information yielded by these now 
suggests that sea stars (both brittlestars and starfishes) arose from 
a different stock from that which gave rise to sea urchins and sea 
cucumbers. This, in turn, implies that the conventional phylogeny 
of echinoderms is in need of some revision. A brief sketch of these 


ideas follows. 
CONVENTIONAL CLASSIFICATION 


The Echinodermata are, of course, well known for their conspicuous 
radial symmetry. They are also to be reckoned among the most 
numerous animals in the sea, as evidenced by the large numbers taken 
in trawls, and by photographs of the sea floor. Fossils show that they 
have been important faunal elements since the Cambrian. Although 
they are so notable for radial symmetry, we now know of at least 
one quite varied group of Paleozoic echinoderms with no trace of 
radial symmetry, the Homalozoa. Thus, a modern diagnosis of the 
Echinodermata would not include radial symmetry as a fundamental 
feature, stressing rather the unique crystalline calcite features of the 
skeleton, and the presence of a multipurpose hydrovascular system. 


1 Address delivered to the Jubilee Congress of the Australian and New Zealand Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science held at Sydney in August 1962. 


457 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


458 


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EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 459 


Nonetheless, the vast majority of echinoderms do exhibit radial sym- 
metry, and it is the radially symmetrical members that I wish to 
discuss here. 

Figure 1 sets out the major divisions of the phylum, arranged in ac- 
cordance with the conventional classification. On the left are the 
crinoids, which, with certain other fossil groups, comprise the sub- 
phylum Pelmatozoa. These forms are attached to the substrate for at 
least the earlier phases of the life history; they have a U-shaped gut, 
so that the mouth and anus lie side by side on the upper surface, and 
they employ a ciliary feeding mechanism which sweeps small particles 
along radial food grooves to the central mouth. The other four 
groups of echinoderms form the subphylum Eleutherozoa, free-living 
animals not attached to the substrate, with either a blind gut or a 
straight gut, the mouth being on the lower side, and equipped with 
jaws or similar structures, permitting a much coarser mode of nutri- 
tion. They comprise the Holothuroidea or sea cucumbers, the 
Asteroidea or starfishes, the Ophiuroidea or brittlestars, and the 
Echinoidea or sea urchins. AJ] Eleutherozoa are viewed as descended 
from some common, though unknown, ancestry. This classification 
has been in vogue for many years, but there are grounds for suspecting 
that it is incorrect. However, before setting out on a necessarily 
abbreviated review of the evidence, we may first take note of certain 
views introduced by embryologists earlier in this century. 


LARVAL FORMS 


Figure 2 shows in schematic form a phylogenetic arrangement of 
Eleutherozoa as suggested by a comparison of their larval forms. 
Sea urchins and brittlestars share a larva called the pluteus, as seen 
in the upper two rows. Strictly speaking the larvae of the two groups 
are not the same, but they are certainly very similar and distinguish- 
able from all others by their paired, rodlike arms. On the other hand, 
sea cucumbers and starfishes have larvae which lack rodlike arms, 
barrel-shaped forms with ciliated bands or lobes; in the simplest form, 
such a larva is called an auricularia. It is shown in the two lower 
rows. On the right you see the adult forms into which they meta- 
morphose, and on the left the earliest larval stage of all, the di- 
pleurula, from which all the larvae can be derived. Crinoids have 
a different type of larva, not shown in this diagram, but which we 
will discuss briefly a little later on. 

The following phylogenetic relationships have been inferred from 
such evidence: Ophiuroids and echinoids are supposed to descend 
from some common ancestor while asteroids and holothurians would 
presumably be derived from another common ancestor. Both of these 
double lines, together with crinoids as a third line, would be en- 
visaged as derived ultimately from a common dipleurula ancestry. 


460 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


\ 
ke 
r 


Skeleti 
od 


Ciliated band 


/ Stomac! 
Mouth 

Ciliated band 

Stomach 

Anus 


are Baan a 


Skeletal rod 


Figure 2.—Conventional phylogenetic arrangement of the free-living extant echinoderms, 
as suggested by their larval forms. A, Ophiuroidea, and B, Echinoidea, both groups 
having the pluteus-type larva. C, Holothuroidea, and D, Asteroidea, both groups having 
the auricularia-type larva. On the left is the dipleurula larva, from which all the other 
larvae arise during development. 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 461 


Further, since the tornaria larva of enteropneusts closely resembles 
the auricularia, it was inferred that hemichordates arose from the 
same hypothetical auricularia ancestry as led to holothurians and 
asteroids. This necessarily implies a closer relationship between 
ophiuroids and echinoids than occurs between ophiuroids and aster- 
oids, an inference so divorced from other evidence as to make the 
theory unattractive to students of echinoderms, few of whom have 
supported such speculations. 

In 1948 attention was focused on some obvious weaknesses in the 
embryological theory. One of them is illustrated in figure 3, which 
shows how quite divergent types of larval development can occur 
within single groups, in this case ophiuroids. Some have a pluteus 
larva, others have a vitellaria or yolk-larva, similar to the larva of 
crinoids, and others again have no larva at all, not even a vestige of 
one. Thus, differences in mode of development do not necessarily 
indicate different origins, for obviously all ophiuroids are more 
closely interrelated to one another than to other echinoderms. 

Figure 4 illustrates another criticism; quite unrelated assemblages 
can share common larval forms. Here we see diagrammatic life 
histories of a crinoid (on the right), an ophiuroid (on the left), and 
a holothurian (above), so arranged as to bring the common larval 
form, the vitellaria, into proximity. Obviously none of these can be 
closely related, yet all share a similar larva. On the basis of this 


Vitellaria 


eae a 


Gastrulae 


Young 
ophiuroid 


Ficure 3.—Divergent types of development in the life histories of related echinoderms 
(Ophiuroidea). 


462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Pep EE | 


Figure 4.—Convergent types of development in the life histories of unrelated echinoderms. 
A, a sea cucumber (Cucumaria). B, a brittlestar (Ophioderma). C, a crinoid (Antedon). 


evidence Caswell Grave had suggested as long ago as 1903 that a 
yolky egg and a vitellaria, or yolk-larva, may be an ancient feature of 
echinoderms, and that larvae such as the pluteus must be only special- 
ized later developments. As, however, some ophiuroids with partly 
direct development have a vestigial pluteus, this has been taken as 
evidence that direct development is secondary and that yolk-larvae 
are a special kind of modified form without wide significance. Until 
last year no answer could be given to that objection, but, as will be 
mentioned later in this discussion, the impasse now seems to be soluble. 

Certain serious objections to the embryological theory were also 
raised by comparative anatomy and paleontology. Fossil evidence 
already available in 1948 implied that ophiuroids had arisen from 
some generalized lower Paleozoic stock of sea stars, from which 
modern starfishes must also have descended. Echinoids and holothuri- 
ans, according to the evidence of fossils, seemed to have been derived 
from ancient pelmatozoans, and certainly could not be related to the 
star-shaped groups in the strange way which the embryological evi- 
dence implied. Even at that date no paleontologist could have 
doubted that asteroids and ophiuroids arose from a common ancestry, 
yet the embryological evidence, still cited by one author of a textbook 
as late as 1955, implied a closer affinity between ophiuroids and echi- 
noids. Obviously more definite evidence was needed. 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 463 


FOSSIL SOMASTEROIDS 


This evidence, as is now apparent, was first placed in our hands in 
1951, though its full significance was not apparent till quite recently. 
Figure 5, A-F, shows the lower Ordovician sea star Chinianaster, of 
which the late W. K. Spencer published the first detailed description 
in that year. Spencer recognized it as the type of an entirely un- 
known kind of sea star, evidently antecedent to both ophiuroids and 
asteroids, and characterized by the frondlike structure of the arm, in 
which transverse rows of rodlike ossicles, which he called virgalia, lay 
on either side of a double axial series of ambulacral ossicles. 

Figure 5, G, shows Villebrunaster, another of these ancient sea stars 
and, like Chinianaster, from the lower Paleozoic of Europe. Spencer, 
as a paleontologist, was well aware of the fact that fossils indicate 
that ophiuroids and asteroids had a common ancestry, and so, in 
common with other echinoderm paleontologists, he employed a classi- 
fication in which both groups are placed together in one class called 
Asterozoa or Stelleroidea. Until 1900 the same classification had also 
been used by zoologists, and Lankester’s Z7’reatise published in that 
year had retained it; for it was not until the next decade that embryo- 
logical theories came to the fore. Spencer, who was not an embry- 
ologist, recognized, of course, that the animals he had before him 
were members of the Asterozoa, though they obviously could not be 
referred to either of the known subclasses Asteroidea and Ophiur- 
oidea. He therefore proposed for their reception a third subclass, 
the Somasteroidea, antecedent to the other two subclasses. You will 
see from the illustrations that both genera show a broad, petal-shaped 
arm, extremely flattened and leaflike, with each adjacent pair of arms 
separated by a deep interradial cleft, the disk region quite small, and 
the mouthparts obviously very simple and derived from the adjoining 
elements in the base of the arm skeleton. 

Spencer also recognized another kind of somasteroid, shown in 
figure 5, I, the genus Archegonaster. It too had the characteristic 
transverse rows of virgalia, but was more starfishlike in appearance, 
because the arms were fused broadly at the base, and the outermost 
virgalia had been converted into a marginal series of large plates 
defining the outline of the animal. Also the innermost virgalia, ad- 
joining the axial ambulacral ossicles, carried spines and evidently 
corresponded to the plates called adambulacral plates in modern star- 
fishes. Spencer thus concluded that starfishes had been derived from 
somasteroids, and although he did not say so, he left it to be inferred 
that ophiuroids also must have arisen from somasteroids. He believed 
that somasteroids must have had ciliary food grooves between the 
rows of virgalia, and that their mode of nutrition would have re- 
sembled that of pelmatozoans. 


464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


+ BAR 


IW \<s 
AI 


Ficure 5.—Fossil somasteroids of the Ordovician period. A-F, H, Chinianaster; G, 
Villebrunaster; 1, Archegonaster. For description, see text. 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 465 


Figure 5 shows some details which have recently been elucidated on 
material of Chinianaster and Villebrunaster. In figure 5, B, the 
ambulacral ossicles are seen to be arranged in opposite pairs; this is 
the condition in the middle and base of the arm. In figure 5, H, how- 
ever, they are seen to be placed alternately; this is the condition in 
young specimens of Villebrunaster, and at the tip of the arm in older 
specimens. In figure 5, D, are seen rows of virgalia in Chindanaster ; 
they terminate in a spine-shaped virgalium. In figure 5, G (Vdle- 
brunaster), virgalia are seen overturned on the right side and erect in 
the normal position on the left; from this specimen, and others, it has 
become clear that each fully developed virgalium was shaped like a 
seoment of a tram rail, while in the growing region they were nearly 
cylindrical rods. 

Figure 5, E, shows a more detailed reconstruction on the basis of 
the type material of Chinianaster, and of other specimens since dis- 
covered. It explains the relation of the ambulacral ossicles to the 
adjacent virgalia. Tube-feet were evidently placed in cup-shaped 
depressions on the lower side of the ambulacra, here sketched upside- 
down, as in ventral aspect. The arm had a frondlike structure 
to the very tip, as seen in figure 5, C. 

Figure 5, F, is a general reconstruction of Chinianaster, seen in 
ventral aspect, to incorporate these data, The arrows show the direc- 
tion of the inferred ciliary currents in the food grooves between the 
rows of virgalia, and along the main radial groove leading to the 
mouth. The material on which these details have been studied was 
generously placed in my hands by Prof. Georges Ubaghs, of Liége. 

Referring again to Archegonaster, figure 5, I, the more starfishlike 
of the somasteroid fossils: Note the buttresslike appearance of the 
virgalia, especially near the ends of the arms, where they seem to 
make a bridge between the marginal plates and the axial ambulacral 
plates. This illustration, published by Spencer in 1951, remained 
with me as a dimly remembered image after I read his paper. Mean- 
time I had embarked on a long series of dissections of modern genera 
of starfishes, searching for characters which might enable a better 
correlation between the Paleozoic sea stars and the modern forms, 
and thus Jead to a more satisfactory classification. It happened that 
one of the genera whose skeleton I had prepared some years prior 
to 1951 was Persephonaster, illustrated in figure 6, E. The dissection 
was used for a number of years in our practical classes, but although 
students had several times questioned me about the rodlike ossicles 
between the ambulacral ossicles and the marginal series (for no such 
rods were mentioned in the textbooks), I am afraid a good many years 
went by before it dawned upon me one day that there was something 
oddly familiar about these so-called superambulacral ossicles. Of 
course, as must now be obvious to you, they present a remarkable 


466 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


qn hasa sad Manos Ln 


‘f 


Ficure 6.—Patterns of the skeleton in representative asteroids, illustrating the growth 
axes described in the text. A, ventral aspect, and B, dorsal aspect, of Pentagonaster 
(Goniasteridae); C, Leptychaster; D, Astropecten; E, F, Persephonaster (all Astropec- 
tinidae). G,H, I, Luidia; G, dorsal internal aspect of endoskeleton; H, transverse section 
of arm (Luidiidae). Abbreviations: 1, ambulacral ossicle; 2, adambulacral ossicle; 3, 
inferomarginal ossicle; 4, superomarginal paxilla; 5, superambulacral ossicle; P, ambulacral 
furrow. 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 467 


resemblance to the virgalia of Archegonaster. Now Persephonaster, 
as seen in figure 6, F’, is a typical starfish, related to the well-known 
genus Astropecten, and differs quite considerably from any known 
somasteroid. However, it seemed worth while to ascertain whether 
rodlike superambulacral ossicles occur in other genera. It did not 
take long to establish the fact that such ossicles occur only in the 
families Astropectinidae and Luidiidae, and only in some of the 
members of these two families do they have a rodlike form. The 
next point I investigated was whether the skeletal ossicles ever form 
transverse series. 

Figure 6 shows representative examples of the kind of arrangement 
of the internal skeletal elements that occurs in various starfishes. 
Dissections indicated that in every family except one the ossicles 
conform to patterns such as appear in the upper diagrams, figure 6, 
A-E. The gradients are essentially longitudinal ones, the ossicles 
differentiating in series not coordinated transversely, but instead 
longitudinally, retaining this arrangement throughout life. In some 
of the Astropectinidae, as in figure 6, D, EK, a tendency to transverse 
arrangement is apparent, since the marginal longitudinal gradient 
is nearly, though not quite, in phase with the axial gradient differ- 
entiating the ambulacral ossicles, and the other gradients are nearly 
coordinated also. But in the one remaining family, the Luidiidae, 
an exact correlation occurs between all gradients, and thus the ossicles 
differentiate not only in longitudinal gradients, but also in transverse 
series. 

SURVIVING PLATYASTERID STARFISHES 


Figure 6, G, shows these features in Zuzdza, as seen in dissection 
from the dorsal side. It is clear that the ossicles all differentiate under 
a double intersecting system of longitudinal and transverse gradients. 
However, this is also a character of all known ophiuroids. Thus, the 
Luidiidae could now be set apart from all other asteroids, and the 
character which distinguished them was one which they shared with 
ophiuroids. It was further very significant that Luidiidae have a 
blind gut, with no anus, just as in ophiuroids, and have no suckers 
on the tube feet; these two latter characters are shared by some 
Astropectinidae, a family which (as we have just seen) also has rod- 
like superambulacral ossicles. I was now convinced that the Luidiidae 
must be the most ancient type of surviving asteroids, and that 
Astropectinidae represent a transitional phase between Luidiidae and 
other asteroids. Could it be that Luidiidae are also transitional 
forms, linking the ancient somasteroids with asteroids? It would 
be too long a story to relate step-by-step here, but this is an appro- 
priate place to interpolate a later finding, in which I was assisted by 
an idea sent to me by my colleague C. W. Wright of London, 


468 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


by which it can be demonstrated that luidiid skeletal structure had 
already appeared in the lower Ordovician sea star Platanaster. Thus, 
though Luidiidae have until now been thought to be a modern group 
without fossil representatives, on the contrary they are now seen to be 
truly living fossils of the antiquity of Platanasteridae. Edward 
Llhuyd, who first recognized that featherstars are surviving sea lilies 
in a paper published in 1699, is honored by the Latinized version 
of his name, Luidius, from which Zwidia is derived. How justly 
named that genus is! To return to my subject, however, it was obvi- 
ous that Zuédia could not be directly related to somasteroids, for, 
as seen in figure 6, H, the cross section of the arm shows a very 
deep furrow excavated on the lower surface, bounded by the ambula- 
cral ossicles, and housing the tube feet. Al starfishes have this fea- 
ture, called the ambulacral groove. It is really the diagnostic char- 
acter of Asteroidea. It is produced by the erection of the ambulacral 
ossicles, which stand wpon the adambulacral ossicles, and it serves 
the gross feeding which typifies starfishes. Somasteroid fossils did 
not exhibit this structure, for the ambulacral ossicles are recumbent. 
Again, as seen in figure 6, I, the body of Zuidia differs considerably 
in form from that of a somasteroid, for the arms are long and strap- 
like, as in many modern starfishes. 

We may now consolidate the data so far. Figure 7 sets out in 
simplified schematic form the different patterns of growth gradient 
fields so far established in the various Asterozoa. On the right is the 
pattern typical of all asteroids except Luidiidae; it is dominated 
by longitudinal gradients. In the center is the pattern seen in Luidi- 
idae and all Ophiuroidea, with dominant longitudinal gradients 
intersected by short transverse gradients. On the left is the inferred 
gradient field of a chinianasterid somasteroid, in which dominant 


B Cc 


Ficure 7.—Growth-gradient fields in Asterozoa. A, somasteroids (found also in pinnulate 
crinoids). B, Platyasterida and Ophiuroidea. C, Asteroidea, other than Platyasterida. 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 469 


transverse (or obliquely transverse) gradients are intersected by 
subsidiary longitudinal gradients, shown by dotted lines, and 
swinging outward near the base to produce the petaloid outline 
of the arm. This pattern, incidentally, is also seen in crinoids. 
No patterns of this type, in fact none of the patterns illustrated, 
are found in any other echinoderms. On the evidence so far, it 
appears likely that the left-hand pattern is the oldest, that the middle 
pattern arose from it, and that the right-hand pattern arose from 
the middle pattern. Independent evidence, which space excludes 
from citation here, shows that the soft structures of the arm indicate 
a similar sequence. 

To refresh your minds as to the gradients in somasteroids, glance 
back at figure 5 and note how the gradient field is perpetuated in 
the adult skeleton, which preserves the gradient patterns under 
which it must have been produced during development. 


A SURVIVING SOMASTEROID 


Now, having isolated Luidiidae as the most archaic surviving 
type of asteroid, the obvious next step was to examine each of the 
surviving representatives of that family. One of the genera dubi- 
ously referred to the family is Platasterias, recorded from west Mex- 
ico 91 years ago and about which little is known. 

Figure 8, A, shows the original lithograph published by Gray in 
1871. Some features immediately arrest our attention—the petal- 
shaped arms (unknown in any other living asterozoan), the evi- 
dent flattening of the animal, and what appears to be a transverse 
arrangement of the underlying internal skeleton. Notice that one of 
arms is represented by a regenerating stump. The authorities of the 
British Museum, in which the type specimen was deposited, gener- 
ously allowed me to dissect this regenerating arm as soon as they 
received a statement setting out the grounds for suspecting it might 
throw important light on the affinities of Chinianasteridae. 

Plate 1 shows this same arm, with the regenerating tip, in oblique 
ventral aspect, after some superficial dissection. Of course, it is 
at once apparent that Platasterias is not only a somasteroid, but one 
more closely related to the Chinianasteridae than is Archegonaster. 
Apart from the characteristic transverse rows of virgalia, it has the am- 
bulacral plates in a recumbent position, with a long lateral wing 
(labeled 1), resting nearly horizontally along the first virgalium 
(labeled 2) —note that in this aspect the arm is upside down. Between 
the transverse rows of virgalia are the very grooves which Spen- 
cer had inferred in his fossils, leading into the narrow and shallow 
radial groove (numbered 3), below the ambulacral ossicles, and 
leading to the mouth. A preliminary account of this specimen 
has since been published (Fell, 1962a). 


470 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Ficure 8.—A-C, E, F, Platasterias latiradiata (Somasteroidea); D, Luidia (Asteroidea, 
Platyasterida), cross section of extreme armtip. For explanation, see text. Abbrevia- 
tions: 1, ambulacral ossicle; 2, first virgalium (V-1, or adambulacral ossicle); 3, third 
virgalium (V-3, or inferomarginal ossicle); 4, superomarginal paxilla; 5, second virgalium 
(V-2, or superambulacral ossicle); 6, dorsal surface of arm; 9, fourth virgalium (V-4, or 
inferomarginal radiole); 11, adductor of ambulacral ossicles. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Fell 


PLATE 1 


recumbent ambulacral ossicle. 
of Wellington.) 


IF 
King, Victoria University 


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itastertas latiradiata, holotype. 


Pli 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Fell Les D 


rias latiradiata. A, dorsal aspect; B, ventral aspect. > two-thirds. Material ex 
ro III (Corinto), courtesy F. C. Ziesenhenne. (Photo by M. D. King, Victoria 
University of Wellington.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Fell PLATE 3 


Platasterias latiradiata. 1, ventral aspect. 2, endoskeleton. Material ex Veero III 


(Corinto), courtesy F. C. Ziesenhenne. (Photo by M. D. King, Victoria University of 
Wellington.) 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 471 


Inquiries were now directed to institutions on the west coast of 
America, requesting a search for new material. This was forth- 
coming almost immediately, for by good fortune some material 
had been taken in 1939 off Nicaragua by the Allan Hancock research 
vessel Velero III, though not recorded. Plate 2 shows one of the 
splendid examples generously placed at my disposal by Capt. F. C. 
Ziesenhenne. On the lower surface, seen in plate 2, B, the pinnule- 
like rows of virgalia are evident even without dissection. The speci- 
mens showed that Platasterias is able to feed on animals as large as 
small amphipods, some of which were found wedged in the narrow 
grooves of the arm, and in the mouth. 

Plate 3(1), also from ventral aspect, illustrates the dominant trans- 
verse gradients of the arm and the general chinianasterid facies of 
the animal. The soft-part characters include small tube feet without 
suckers, a blind gut with no anus, and as expected a madreporite 
placed at the edge of the disk, as in fossils. 

Plate 3(2) is a dissection of the skeleton, in ventral aspect, with 
the lateral food-grooves exposed between the rows of virgalia. The 
jaws are derived from ambulacral elements.t. A difference from 
Chinianasteridae is seen in the establishment of the virgalia in four 
longitudinal rows, the homologies of which with asteroids are easy 
to recognize. This photograph also shows some details of the radial 
groove. The conspicuous Y-shaped processes had also been observed 
in the fossils, though their significance was unknown. Platasterias 
shows that a transverse adductor muscle lies between the adjacent 
forks of the Y’s on either side of the groove, and its action is to raise 
the groove by approximating the ambulacrals. Thus now we can 
understand how the fossil forms would feed, for hitherto it was puz- 
zling that the lateral grooves seemed to lead into a flattened radial 
region. As we now see, the groove is raised or lowered by the muscle, 
and the fossils, being compressed, are in the lowered condition. 

Figure 8, C, shows the adductor muscle in the middle of the cross 
section (numbered 11), in the roof of the radial groove. The struc- 
ture of Platasterias implies ciliary currents, as suggested by the 
arrows, and the cilia that produce them are almost certainly located 
on the delicate microspines shown in the grooves on the right of figure 
8, B, a ventral view. However, detailed study of wet material has not 
yet been carried out. 

Figure 8, E, is a cross section of the arm tip in the regenerating 
arm, the youngest stage so far investigated. The ambulacral ossicles 
are here completely horizontal, and the outer wing is evidently grow- 
ing between the two first virgalia, in such a manner as to wedge the 
second one upward, thus producing the superambulacral ossicle. 


1 Not from proximal virgalia, as originally reported (Fell, 1962) 
672-174—63——35 


472 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Figure 8, F, shows the general layout of the arm skeleton, in internal 
aspect, dissected from above. The occluded second virgalia of each 
row form conspicuous series, the origin of all the asteroid skeletal 
elements from virgalia being most precisely indicated, so that the 
exact homology of every plate can be stated in terms of a code-num- 
bering system which has been proposed for the purpose. 

Returning now to the asteroid dissections, there are some other 
points of interest. In figure 8, D, is the youngest stage of the arm 
in Luidia as seen in cross section near the extreme tip. Already at 
this early stage the ambulacral ossicles are completely erected, as in 
all asteroids, and in contradistinction to the corresponding section in 
Platasterias (fig. 8, E), where the ambulacral ossicles are quite 
horizontal. Figure 9, A, illustrates the jaws of the asteroid Per- 
sephonaster (those of Zuidia are quite similar). In each jaw there is 
a T-shaped plate overlying a larger pair of plates, here colored in 
with black and forming the actual jaw. The large plates forming 
the greater part of the jaw are really a displaced pair of ambulacral 
ossicles, as will now be shown. 


ALL STARFISHES FUNDAMENTALLY PINNATE 


In figure 9, B, a general dissection of the arm base and adjacent 
jaw is shown for Platasterias, in ventral aspect. The ossicles Al, A2, 
and A3 which make up the structure have been derived from the ad- 
jacent ambulacral series of the arms on either side. This can be 
demonstrated by comparing the jaw with that of the young stage of 
the oldest and most generalized asterozoan, namely the somasteroid 
Chinianaster of the Cambro-Ordovician (fig. 9,C, D), and that of the 
more advanced somasteroid Villebrunaster of the same age (fig. 
9,E). The puzzling T-shaped plate of Platasterias and primitive as- 
teroids would seem to represent tegminal plates of the earlier 
somasteroids, covered over by outward growth of the plate A1; this 
latter plate is already sending out a small interradial extension in 
Villebrunaster (fig. 9, FE), and evidently a further extension of the 
process led to the condition seen in Platasterias. The jaw of Chini- 
anaster shows some curious resemblances to the base of the arm in 
crinoids. For example, in crinoids two of the arm-joints at the base 
of the arm tend to fuse together, to produce a double joint, termed 
a syzygy. The inner of the two successive elements forming the 
syzygy is termed a hypozygal, and it carries no pinnule; the outer 
element is called the epizygal and, unlike the hypozygal, it does carry 
apinnule. The pinnule of the epizygal is often larger than the others, 
and serves as a special feeding organ, being then termed an oral pin- 
nule. It is of great interest that the second and third ambulacral 
joints of Chinianaster are soldered together to make a syzygy, and 
that the hypozygal carries no pinnule, while the epizygal carries an 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 473 


Ficure 9.—A, jaw of an asteroid, Persephonaster. B, jaw of the somasteroid Platastertias. 
C, juvenile stage of the Cambro-Ordovician somasteroid Chinianaster, X 8. D, ventral 
aspect of the jaw of juvenile Chinianaster. E, ventral aspect of the jaw in the Cambro- 
Ordovician somasteroid Villebrunaster. F, Ampullasier, an Ordovician somasteroid 
in which the tube-foot rested on a sunken shelf, with a pore for an interna! ampulla 
bounded by the wings and adjacent adambulacral virgalia. 

Al, A2, A3, A4, first, second, third, and fourth ambulacral elements, Al forming the 
jaw angle-plate. F1, facet for interradial muscle of jaw. M, sieve-plate. Po, oral 
pinnule. P23, Py, pinnules of third and fourth arm joints (in the case of Platasterias and 
Villebrunaster, modified into fixed metapinnules). S, line of syzygy between A2 and A3. 
T, terminal or T-shaped plate. TE, terminal pair of ambulacral ossicles. 


474 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


enlarged, and evidently movable, pinnule—apparently an oral 
pinnule. 

Another interesting parallel is that the ambulacral ossicles of 
Chinianaster are solid, block-like structures, like the arm-joints of 
crinoids. Chinianaster had pointed tube-feet (preserved in some of 
the fossils), and they were carried in basin-shaped depressions on the 
lower side of the arm, one basin between each adjacent pair of ossicles 
(fig. 9, D). In the more starfish-like somasteroids, however, there 
grew out a lateral wing from each ossicle, and the basins for the tube- 
feet became a mere shelf, which sank inward between successive 
wings. In the Ordovician genus Ampullaster, and to a lesser ex- 
tent in the contemporary somasteroid V2llebrunaster, the shelf led to 
a definite internal opening, labeled P in figure 9, F. The pore was 
evidently for an internal extension of the base of the tube-foot, a 
small reservoir called the ampulla. Platasterias has a small ampulla, 
and starfishes generally have a large one. The Ordovician somaster- 
oids Villebrunaster and Ampullaster also have the innermost vir- 
galium somewhat enlarged, forming a definite adambulacral plate, 
as in starfishes; and the outermost virgalium in these genera was 
transformed into a marginal plate. Thus, many features of modern 
starfishes were already developed in some of the lower Paleozoic 
somasteroids. These facts have only recently become known, the 
earlier descriptions of fossil somasteroids having been very inade- 
quate. It is clear that no sharp boundary separates the starfishes 
from the somasteroids, and that the mosaic-like pattern of the skel- 
eton of modern starfishes arose from the frond-like pattern of the 
somasteroids. 

Refer again to figure 7, and note the three main phases in the 
transformations of the gradient patterns, which are simplified in the 
diagrams, so as to stress the main features. 

Figure 15 gives a representative series of arms of genera illustrating 
these three main patterns, though it also shows that there are no hard 
and fast boundaries between them. In figure 15, C (Chinianaster), 
and D (Platasterias), there are dominant transverse gradients and 
petaloid arm form. Figure 15, E, is Platanaster, a lower Paleozoic 
asteroid in which the petaloid arm is retained, but the transverse and 
longitudinal gradients are now equally evident. Next follows Lucdia 
(fig. 15, F), where the gradients are still as in Platanaster, but the arm 
has now lost its petaloid form. On the extreme right (fig. 15, G) is 
Plutonaster, an astropectinid, in which the transverse gradients are 
disrupted by longitudinal sliding of the elements, and the base of the 
arm has expanded by the insertion of new elements, the actinal inter- 
mediate series. 

Figure 10 presents a corresponding series of cross-sectional views of 
arms of representative genera, ranging from somasteroids above to 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 475 


Ficure 10.—Sequence of cross sections of the arm in: A, biserial crinoid; B, Chinianaster; 
C, Platasterias; D, Platanaster (Platyasterida); E, Luidia; F, Astropecten. Abbreviations: 
1, ambulacral (brachial) ossicle; 2, virgalium-1; 3, virgalium-2; 4, virgalium-3; 5, vir- 
galium-4; 6, superomarginal paxilla. (Homologies of virgalia are as given in caption to 


Fig. 8.) 


476 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


various grades of asteroids below. Space will not permit detailed 
analysis, but note the gradual conversion of originally slender virgalia 
into massive blocklike elements in the later grades, and the simul- 
taneous erection of the ambulacral ossicles upon the proximal virgalia 
(or adambulacrals, as they now become) to produce the elevated in- 
vaginated furrow of asteroids. Although many details, including all 
the soft parts, have had to be omitted from this condensed account, I 
think it will by now be clear how the asteroids can be traced back, 
without any sharp break, to the ancient lower Paleozoic somasteroids. 
We can, I believe, trace them still farther back, but first of all, what of 
the Ophiuroidea ? 


PINNATE STRUCTURE IN BRITTLESTARS 


It would be tedious and unnecessary to attempt here to trace the 
ophiuroids backward in time in such detail, and of necessity this part 
of the topic must be cut to its bare essentials. Glance again at figure 
5 to refresh your memory of the essentially pinnate structure of Ordo- 
vician somasteroids. Since we have ascertained that the ambu- 
lacral ossicles alternate near the tip of the arm, and in the young 
stages of Chinianaster, it follows from Jackson’s so-called “law of 
localized stages” that the opposite condition of the ambulacral ossicles 
must have been derived from an original alternating condition. This 
alternating condition was retained in Archegonaster, in some Paleo- 
zoic asteroids, and in some of the Paleozoic ophiuroids. One very 
important point emerges. It has been shown how asteroids have 
arisen from a former pinnate grade of organization, represented by 
somasteroids, and that the most primitive asteroids preserve pinnate 
features in the arm. Now, if ophiuroids, as we suspect, arose from a 
similar ancestry, they too should exhibit evidence of pinnate struc- 
ture. A considerable number of genera were accordingly dissected, in 
search of such features, and the results are illustrated by the repre- 
sentative genera shown in figure 11. Except for figure 11, E, which 
shows an Ordovician genus with alternating ambulacral ossicles, all 
illustrations are of surviving genera. The pinnate structure is self- 
evident, and it is indeed strange that so little attention has been paid 
to such evidence hitherto, almost the entire classification having been 
based on superficial characters not requiring dissection. The condi- 
tion D, in the middle, shows the final simplification, as seen in the vast 
majority of surviving genera. Yet even in this simplified state, the 
homologies of the ossicles are easy to determine. In fact, the entire 
skeleton in ophiuroids can now be equated with known structures in 
somasteroids. 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 477 


Ficure 11.—Archaic brittlestars (Ophiuroidea), showing persistence of pinnate structure 
of somasteroid type, and presence of reproductive and alimentary organs in the arms; for 
further explanation see text. A, Asteronyx. B, Trichaser. C, Astrophyton. D, 
modern type of brittlestar (Ophiomastus) for comparison; E, Eophiura. F-J, Ophiocanops 
(Oegophiurida). Abbreviations: A, ambulacral ossicles (fusing to form vertebrae); C, 
caecum of stomach extending into arm; M, madreporite; V, ventral arm plate; 1, first 
virgalium (V-1, sublateral plate); 2, second virgalium (V-2, lateral plate); 3, third 
virgalium (V-3, primary radiole); 4, presumed fourth virgalium (V-4). In Astrophyton 
the ambulacral elements are concealed beneath the second virgalia. F shows the disk in 
ventral aspect, G the arm skeleton in dorsal aspect, H the arm in ioto in dorsal aspect, I 
the disc in dorsal aspect, J the arm skeleton in ventral aspect, all in Ophiocanops. 


478 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


A SURVIVING OEGOPHIURID 


Now, in the discussion hitherto, I have restricted the argument to 
hard parts. It is however, possible to correlate the soft parts with the 
skeleton and to make some inferences as to what the soft parts prob- 
ably were like in the ancient forms. In figure 11, F—J, is shown one 
of the most interesting results of such correlation, for the animal 
illustrated proves to be another living member of a group of echino- 
derms hitherto believed to have died out in the middle Paleozoic. 
It was isolated in this way: Once it was established that Luidiidae 
represent an ancient grade of asteroids, it became evident that the 
original condition of the reproductive glands must have been a 
serially paired disposition of separate gonads along the arms, not in 
the disk as in modern forms. Further, Platasterias showed that the 
caecum of the stomach, which extends into the arms in asteroids, is 
also present in somasteroids, and must therefore be another ancient 
character. Now in one surviving genus of ophiuroids, Ophiocanops 
of Indonesia, Mortensen (1932) had already shown that serially 
paired gonads occur in the arms, and that there is a stomach caecum 
ineach arm, as inasteroids. Also, in those ophiuroids where conspicu- 
ous pinnate structure occurs in the skeleton, I found that the gonads 
enter the arm. Hence there were compelling reasons for believing 
that Ophiocanops must be a very archaic form, for it had even more 
archaic characters than did the pinnate ophiuroids which I had 
dissected. Could it be that this genus was wrongly classified ? 

A few months ago (1962), with the kind cooperation of the Copen- 
hagen Zoological Museum, I was enabled to dissect the skeleton of a 
paratype of Ophiocanops. It proved to have all the characteristic 
features of the mid-Paleozoic Oegophiuroida. There are neither 
dorsal nor ventral arm plates (fig. 11, G, J), the madreporite lies at 
the edge of the disk (fig. 11, I), there are no bursae and no genital 
plates, and most parts of the skeleton can be homologized with somas- 
teroid elements. It is therefore now apparent that the possession of a 
stomach caecum in each arm, and serially paired branchial gonads, is 
really part of the diagnosis of these ancient ophiuroids. The original 
radial groove of somasteroids is still present, but is covered over by a 
sheet of integument on the ventral side of the arm (fig. 12, A, B). 
This must surely be regarded as most encouraging evidence that the 
general lines of our hypothesis are fundamentally sound, for this is 
the first time that we have been able to infer from the soft parts—I 
stress soft parts—that a certain form must fall in a fossil assemblage, 
itself known only from hard parts. The hard parts of Ophiocanops, 
when dissected, provided the proofs of the whole hypothesis, for they 
exhibit the predicted archaic condition already known from the 
Paleozoic fossils. These data have been privately studied by my col- 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL A479 


150 # 


Ficure 12.—Ophiocanops fugiens (Oegophiurida), cross sections of the arm showing ordinal 
characters. Abbreviations: 1, vertebra; 2, lateral plate; 3, ventral tegumentary muscle; 
4, dorsal coelom; 5, ventral coelom (ambulacral vessel possibly destroyed, lost during 
sectioning, apparently very small if present); 6, dorsal caecum of stomach; 7, dorsal 
integument; 8, radial nerve; 9, subneural (“epineural”) canal; 10, dorsolateral muscle; 
11, ventrolatera! muscle; 12, ovary and part of oviduct. (Drawings from sections cut 
by A. G. Clark, from specimen in Copenhagen University Museum.) 


leagues C. W. Wright and Georges Ubaghs, and both at once informed 
me that they concur with my conclusions, and that Ophiocanops 1s 
indeed another example of the unsuspected persistence of archaic 
Paleozoic groups. 

Figure 13 illustrates cross sections of the arm in three major groups 
of ophiuroids; A shows one of the lower Paleozoic Stenurida, such as 
Eophiura (also shown in fig. 11, E, in ventral aspect). In figure 13, B, 
is a typical oegophiurid, and comparison with figure 12 indicates 
that the ventral groove (labeled 4) would be sealed over by muscle, 
not open (as hitherto supposed). Figure 13, C, shows a typical 
member of the Ophiurida, the last order to appear in the fossil 
sequence, and the one to which all modern forms are assigned (save 
for Ophiocanops). 


ALL ASTEROZOA FUNDAMENTALLY PINNATE 


Returning once again to our main theme, which is the phylogeny of 
the echinoderms, it is now to be stated that all known star-shaped 
echinoderms are fundamentally pinnate forms, and can be traced 
back to somasteroid ancestors. A detailed analysis of the inferred 
evolution sequence is given in another paper (Fell, in press). It fol- 
lows that the apparent differences between the pluteus larva of 


480 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Gr 


of 


Figure 13.—Skeletal characters of three orders of Ophiuroidea. A, Stenurida. B, 
Oegophiurida. C, Ophiurida. Abbreviations: 0, ambulacral element (vertebra); 1, 
virgalium—1 (sublatera!); 2, virgalium-2 (lateral); 3, spines of lateral plate; 4, radial 
groove; 5, primitive plates of dorsal integument; 6, secondary dorsal plate; 7, secondary 
ventral plate. Compare with Figure 12. 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 481 


ophiuroids and the auricularia larva of starfishes cannot have any 
broad phylogenetic significance, and by the same token the close re- 
semblance of the pluteus larva of ophiuroids to the pluteus larva of 
echinoids cannot mean any relationship between echinoids and 
ophiuroids. Not the slightest trace of any fossil intermediate between 
ophiuroids and echinoids has ever been found, whereas we have found 
abundant and overwhelming evidence of the direct relationship of 
ophiuroids and asteroids through common pinnate somasteroid an- 
cestors, whose fossil remains we now possess in considerable number 
and variety. 

A further point now emerges, which goes some way toward solv- 
ing the impasse mentioned earlier, by which it appeared that indirect 
development must be older than direct development, since some forms 
with direct development have vestigial larvae. Although we still 
know nothing of the embryology of Ophiocanops, many features of 
its anatomy declare its affinity to the Ophiomyxidae, a group of 
ophiuroids in which absolutely direct development occurs, without 
any trace of a larva at all. On the other hand, those genera of Ophi- 
uroidea which have vestigial larvae have now been shown to fall in 
families of relatively late derivation, from groups which have pe- 
lagic larvae. They are groups with numerous secondary features in 
the skelton, far removed from the archaic forms with somasteroid- 
like features. Thus it is now extremely probable that there are two 
quite distinct types of direct development in ophiuroids, one ancient, 
with no vestige of a larva, the other secondary and showing both by 
the vestigial larva and by the characters of the skeleton that it is of late 
origin. I now suspect that the pluteus larva will eventually be proved 
to be a feature evolved by ophiuroids after the separation of ophiu- 
roids from the somasteroid line, and that the pluteus of echinoids 
is an entirely independent development of that group. It is most 
urgent to ascertain the nature of the development in Ochzocanops, 
as also of course in Platasterias. 

An analogous situation exists in regard to pedicellariae, which 
can be proved to have originated in the Asteroidea as a late develop- 
ment, subsequent to the differentiation of the Luidiidae. They occur 
in no other subclass of Asterozoa. It is thus obvious that the super- 
ficially similar pedicellariae of echinoids are an entirely independent 
development, most of which has occurred subsequent to the differenti- 
ation of the Cidaroida, which are the oldest surviving echinoids. 


ORIGIN OF ASTEROZOA 


We can further elucidate stages in the evolution within the Aster- 
ozoa by interpolation between fixed points on our frame of reference. 
What happens if we now attempt to extrapolate backward, in search 
of the ancestry of the somasteroids themselves? 


482 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Ficure 14.—A, biserial crinoid. B, cross se tion of pinnulesin A. C, Platasterias, and D, 
cross section of metapinnules of same; E, developing pinnule and tentacle in young 
crinoid; F, tentacles (tube-feet) in Platasterias, G, tube-feet in Luidia. H, optical section 
of developing pentacrinoid stage of young crinoid; I, similar aspect of young asterozoan. 
Abbreviations: 1, centrodorsal; 2, radial plate; 3, proximal brachial (ambulacral) ele- 
ment(s); 4, stomach; 5, caecum of stomach; 6, perivisceral coelom; 7, tube-foot (tentacle). 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 483 


In ventral view, the arm in Platasterias exhibits transverse grooves 
between the rows of virgalia, and the grooves are seen to be guarded 
by rows of cover plates, held in connective tissue webs on either side 
of the virgalia, forming a sort of fringe. In the natural position, 
these fringes constitute the floors of the transverse ciliary grooves. 
But these webs are erectile. In plate 3 (1) we see a specimen in 
which the grooves are naturally exposed, when the webs are erected. 
The similiarity to the condition in crinoids is quite striking. In 
figure 14, A, B, we see, above, two adjacent pinnules in a biserial 
crinoid, in which the cover plates and webs are seen forming the food 
groove on each pinnule, leading to the radial food groove. Biserial 
crinoids are now extinct. They differ from other crinoids in having 
two alternating series of brachial ossicles forming the arm. Below, 
in figure 14, C, D, is seen the corresponding region in Platasterias, 
with the cover plates in the normal down position. It does look rather 
as though the somasteroid condition must have arisen from the crinoid 
condition by the growth of interpinnular integument, forming new 
grooves between the pinnules, instead of on the pinnules, while the 
cover plates and webs accordingly turned outward, so as to cover the 
new interpinnular grooves. The opposite condition of the ambu- 
lacral ossicles, as already argued, must have arisen from an earlier 
alternating arrangement, as seen in some of the fossil somasteroids, 
and as seen also in biserial crinoids. 

Figure 15 shows the relationship which may now be inferred 
between the crinoid arm and the arm of somasteroids and asteroids. 
Ophiuroids have been omitted only for lack of space. In figure 15, 
A, on the left is the normal monoserial arm, as seen in most crinoids. 
Pinnules are given off to left and right alternately. Students of 
erinoids have already demonstrated how the next stage, the biserial 
arm, arose from that. But this same stage (fig. 15, B) is almost 
precisely what we arrive at if we extrapolate backward from the 
chinianasteroid figure 15, C, using the frame of reference we have 
now established for all Asterozoa. We may therefore infer that the 
hypothetical “protosomasteroid” must have been a pinnulate pelmato- 
zoan, and since crinoids are the only known pinnulate pelmatozoans, 
the ancestor of somasteroids must be identified as some crinoid. 

Figure 14, E-G, which can only be briefly mentioned here, shows 
how the tube-foot in Platasterias (center) can be regarded as inter- 
mediate between the tentacle at the base of a pinnule in a young 
crinoid, and the much larger ampullate tube-foot of Zwdia. In the 
young crinoid, when the pinnule begins to grow out, the radial water 
vessel produces at first only one tentacle; the others are added along 
the pinnule later. In the asterozoans only one such structure ever 
arises at the base of each row of virgalia. Ophiuroids have tube-feet 


672-174—63——36 


484 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


\ 


ii 
ANRAG 


— 
= 

——— 
= 
FF 


Figure 15.—Inferred relationship between arms of crinoids, somasteroids, and asteroids, in 
which dominant transverse growth gradients are gradually replaced by dominant longi- 
tudinal gradients. A, monoserial crinoid; B, biserial crinoid; C, chinianasterid somas- 
teroid; D, platasteriid somasteroid; E, Platanaster (early platyasterid asteroid); F, Luidia 
(later platyasterid); G, Plutonaster (astropectinid asteroid). 


that differ little from those of crinoids. It is evident that suckers are 
completely lacking, save in the late stages of development of special- 
ized Asteroidea, On the other hand, in echinoids, where suckers also 
occur, they are already present in the oldest grades of echinoids 
known to us, and dwindle in some late secondary groups of irregu- 
lar urchins. Thus the affinities of the asterozoan tube-foot must be 
nearer that of Pelmatozoa than that of echinoids. 

Figure 16 compares the embryology of the disk region of astero- 
zoans with that of crinoids. Here again there is no space to go into 
details here, but it must suffice to state that essentially identical plates 
develop in both groups, in essentially the same sequence; but whereas 
the crinoid proceeds to elaborate them, the asterozoan nearly always 
discards them, or supplants them by later structures. Even in those 
asterozoans which in the adult have a naked disk, without plates at 
all, a complete series of calyx plates develop in the young stage, only 
to vanish again. In the upper two rows are shown two main types 
of calyx (with and without persistent basal plates), in each case 
left-hand and middle examples are young crinoids, and the right-hand 
member of each row is a comparable asterozoan. However, the calyx 
in the third row is no crinoid at all, but the ophiuroid Ophiopyrgus, 
of which the single known specimen now lies in the British Museum, 
and was reexamined recently at my request by Miss Ailsa Clark, 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 485 


Ficure 16,—Calyx in crinoids and asterozoans, at comparable early stages of development. 
A, lateral aspect, and B, dorsal aspect, of Promachocrinus, showing basals. C, corre- 
sponding calyx in the ophiuroid Ophiosteira. D, E, similar views of the pentacrinoid stage 
of Eumorphometra, with suppressed basals, and F, corresponding calyx in the ophiuroid 
Ophiomastus. G, H, corresponding calyx in the ophiuroid Ophiopyrgus. I, calyx of 
yound crinoid showing late (postbasal) development of infrabasals. J, K, late (post- 
basal) development of infrabasals in asteroid Asterina. 


486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


whose sketches are here used. You will note that the centrodorsal 
even seems to have a vestige of a stalk, though Miss Clark could not 
be sure what the structure may represent. Perhaps an asterozoan 
may yet survive with a stalked pentacrinoid stage. The bottom row 
of illustrations shows how infrabasals develop in crinoids and aster- 
oids at early stages of development. Thus, exactly comparable vari- 
ations in the structure and modification of the calyx occur in young 
crinoids and in young asterozoans at equivalent stages, the radials, 
basals, and infrabasals being evidently subject to the same laws. 
Young stages of hundreds of species of asterozoans are now known, 
and every one without exception has been found to have a calyx. 
The conclusion is surely inescapable that the skeleton in crinoids 
and asterozoans is built to the same fundamental plan, namely a 
cup-shaped central body, dominated by meridional gradients, from 
which radial gradients emerge and tend to become pinnate. 

Figure 14, H, compares the pentacrinoid stage of a crinoid with the 
equivalent stage in an asterozoan (fig. 14, I). In the crinoid, the 
main radial gradient passes from the radial plate of the calyx (num- 
bered 2) directly into the first brachial ossicle (numbered 3), and so 
outward through the successive brachial ossicles. Thus the arm 
plates rest upon the radial plate of the calyx without any interrup- 
tion. Consequently, the gut is necessarily restricted to the central 
region of the body. In the asterozoan, on the other hand, the first 
arm ossicle (that is, the ambulacral ossicles, here numbered 3) is dis- 
located adorally, so that all the brachial ossicles come to lie in a nearly 
horizontal series, separated by a gap from the radial plate of the 
calyx. During development the two first arm skeletal elements actu- 
ally migrate into the jaw, to which they contribute, while growth 
of the disk and insertion of secondary dorsal plates widens the gap 
between the original radial plate and the first arm ossicle. Thus it 
is that the gut can send a caecum outward into the arm, carrying with 
it as it goes an envelope of perivisceral coelom. ‘Thus it is by no 
means difficult to understand how the asterozoan arm could arise from 
the pelmatozoan arm, for in the very life span of asterozoans still 
living we can observe the action of the processes we postulate. That 
the earlier embryologists were unable to interpret the data in this 
way was because they had studied only genera of families which 
we now can prove to have been late derivatives, loaded with secondary 
dorsal and ventral plates, completely concealing the course of the 
original radial gradients. Thus secondary plates, such as asteroid 
carinals and ophiuroid dorsals, and terminal plates of the arms, were 
mistakenly supposed to continue the series started by the radial plates 
of the calyx. In fact, no carinals and no dorsals ever develop in the 
groups of asteroids and ophiuroids which have now been isolated as 
the archaic ones, and none whatever occur in somasteroids. Terminal 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 487 


plates are a post-chinianasterid development, not part of the calyx. 
It is highly probable that the origin of asterozoans from crinoidlike 
ancestors came about through a dislocation of the main radial gradi- 
ent of each arm, so that proximal brachial elements were deflected 
adorally, to give rise to the jaw. The change in feeding habits which 
the acquisition of jaws made possible would lead to the change in 
orientation, though some asterozoans still retain the ancient attitude, 
in which the mouth is directed upward, and the arms sweep through 
the overlying water. 


MAJOR GRADIENT PATTERNS IN ECHINODERMS 


Figure 17 illustrates diagrammatically the two major patterns of 
dominant gradients which may be recognized in echinoderms. The 
upper diagrams show the essentially meridional pattern established 
in young echinoids and young holothurians. During metamorphosis, 
the hydrocoel encircles the gut, and then sends out five meridional 
water tubes which encircle the body. Thereafter the whole skeleton 
and nervous system, as well as the hydrocoel itself, differentiate under 
the same meridional gradients, and new meridional ones are estab- 
lished in the interradii. The lower diagrams show the contrasted 
system based on dominant radial gradients. This is found in young 
crinoids, asteroids, ophiuroids, and somasteroids. Instead of growing 
along meridians, the water tubes are thrust outward in the horizontal 
plane, as five spokes radiating from the mouth, carrying the body wall 
and coelom with them, as five finger-shaped processes, which become 
the arms. The whole skeletal, nervous, and hydrovascular system 
thereafter differentiates under the influence of these five major radial 
gradients, with pinnate gradients arising as a secondary lateral growth 
from the main radial gradients, these pinnate gradients suffering all 
manner of slipping and dislocation as already inferred, eventually 
giving rise to radial longitudinal fields in late asteroids. The calyx 
alone retains the ancient meridional system. 

Thus, I would now argue that the clue to the phylogeny of echino- 
derms lies in the postmetamorphic stages, which alone are directly 
comparable with, for example, the young stages of Crustacea. A 
newly metamorphosed sea star bears the same relation to its adult as 
say a nauplius or metanauplius does to its adult. On the other hand a 
pluteus or an auricularia is a totally different kind of creature, with 
different symmetries, orientation, and habits. The phylogenetic per- 
plexities which led to such sterility in echinoderm studies came in 
when secondarily evolved larval forms were mistakenly taken to be 
ancestral patterns of development. This supposition did not elucidate 
one single fact of echinoderm phylogeny, and only led to the complete 
divorce of echinoderm paleontology from echinoderm embryology. 


488 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Echinoidea 


Holothuroidea 


Crinoidea 


Asterozaa 


Ficure 17.—Dominant gradient patterns established by the hydrocoel, and subsequently 
adopted by the other organ systems, in echinoderms. Early postmetamorphic stages lie 
to the left, and succeeding stages in the named groups appear on the right. Above, 
meridional gradients (Echinozoa). Below, radial gradients (Crinoidea and Asterozoa). 


EVOLUTION OF THE ECHINODERMS—FELL 489 


Cidaroida 


y | 
TT 
ae 


Stenurida % 
Subclass Asteroidea 


Subclass Ophiuroidea 


Class Holothuroidea 


Subclass Somasteroidea Subclass Perischoechinoidea 


A Class Echinoidea 
sterozoa 


Class Ophioc istioidea 


Class Blastoidea 


Echinozoa 
Class Cystoidea 


Subclass Camerata { Class Edrioasteroidea 


Class Crinoidea 


Class Paracrinoidea 


Class Eocrinoidea 7 


RADIAL GRADIENTS ACQUIRED RADIAL GRADIENTS LACKING 
Subphylum Pelmatozoa 


Ficure 18.—Classification of echinoderms based on growth gradient fields in postlarval 
stages, as inferred from the evidence summarized in this paper. 


490 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The two should not be at loggerheads in this way, and need not be, 
if the data are handled in the way here advocated. 

If the postlarval stages alone are a guide to phylogeny in echino- 
derms, as I have always believed and advocated, the entire picture 
returns to its focus, and acquires once more that definition which it 
lost when larval embryology took control after 1900. The clarity of 
the picture enables predictions to be made and, as now twice demon- 
strated, the predictions can be tested and confirmed. 

It is now evident that the conventional classification into Eleu- 
therozoa of all free-living echinoderms is inadequate. The assemblage 
is made up of two quite different stocks, of different age and different 
derivation, and to maintain Eleutherozoa as a formal unit of classi- 
fication will merely conceal the true relationship between included 


and excluded classes. 
PHYLOGENY 


Although the details are not quite finalized, figure 18 indicates the 
general proposals which now seem reasonable. It is proposed to 
replace the old subphylum Eleutherozoa by two new subphyla, the 
Asterozoa and Echinozoa, whose content is illustrated in the diagram. 
Their inferred relationships are approximately indicated on the dia- 
gram, in which, of course, the time scale is necessarily distorted. No 
such proposals can possibly be definitive, and we may be sure that 
many modifications will become necessary with new discoveries. I am 
confident, however, that by abandoning the Eleutherozoa as a unit, 
and by transferring the stress to dynamic processes governing the 
erowth of postlarval stages, the way will be opened to a more fruitful 
line of investigation in future. As for the larval stages themselves, 
surely they can only be secondary, late-evolved stages of development, 
specially adapted to meet temporary conditions in a planktonic phase 
of development, so that they are examples of “clandestine” evolu- 
tion, giving no direct indication of the structure or the habit of the 
ancestral stocks from which echinoderms descend. 


REFERENCES 


(Note: References prior to 1962 are given in the first item below.) 


Feit H. BARRACLOUGH. 
In press. Phylogeny of sea-stars. Phil. Trans., ser. B. 
1962a. Science, vol. 1386, pp. 633-636. 
1962b. Univ. Kansas Paleont. Contr., Echinodermata: vol. 6. 
1962e. Zool. Zhurn. Akad. Nauk. §.8.8.R., vol. 41, No. 9. 
1962d. Publ. Seto Marine Biol. Lab., vol. 10, No. 2. 
1962e. Tuatara, Journ. Biol. Soc. Victoria Univ., Wellington, vol. 10, 
No. 3, pp. 138-140. 
1962f. Native sea-stars of New Zealand (A. H. and A. W. Reed). 


Mangroves: Trees ‘That Make Land 


By Witu1aM M. STEPHENS 


[With 4 plates] 


Wuen Columbus discovered the New World he noticed a strange 
kind of tree growing in shallow salt-water lagoons, its trunk held 
above the surface by arching, stiltlike roots. In the Gulf of Batabano, 
on Cuba’s south coast, Columbus wrote in his ship’s log that the trees 
were “so thick a cat couldn’t get ashore.” 

A century later Sir Walter Raleigh, while searching for the land of 
El Dorado, found the same kind of tree at the mouths of rivers in 
Trinidad and Guiana and noted that the trees had “oysters upon the 
branches.” The oysters, he said, were “very salt and well tasted” and 
were found only “upon those boughs and sprays, and not on the 
ground. 

Tourists who visit tidal areas in the Tropics where mangrove trees 
flourish continue to be astonished at the spectacle of oysters “growing 
on trees.” These coon oysters, which attach themselves to the prop 
roots of the red mangrove, where they are often exposed at low tide, 
are not generally considered a delicacy today, except, perhaps, to 
raccoons, but they are quite edible. 

The tree described by both Columbus and Raleigh was the red 
mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), which is found throughout the New 
World Tropics. Closely related species grow in Indo-Pacific regions. 
All trees of the genus RAizophora have the distinctive prop roots, that 
look to some observers like the legs of monstrous spiders wading in 
shallow water. They are, according to some botanists, the only “true” 
mangroves. Red mangroves are important land builders, pioneer 
trees that start new islands and extend old shorelines. They are 
always found in or near the water. Other mangroves (of which there 
are only two in the New World: the black mangrove, Avicennia nitida, 
and the white mangrove, Laguncularia racemosa) are usually found 
farther inland. 


1 Reprinted by permission from Sea Frontiers (Magazine of the International Oceano- 
graphie Foundation), vol. 8, No. 4, October 1962. 


491 


492 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


TREE THAT MIGRATED INTO THE SEA 


Botanists are in disagreement over what constitutes a mangrove, 
since the name “mangrove” itself relates more to habit than form. 
Generally speaking, mangroves are plants that can live in loose, satu- 
rated, salty soils; they have respiratory roots and produce seeds that 
are more or less viviparous—that is, the seeds germinate while still at- 
tached to the parent tree. Some scholars suggest that mangroves are 
primitive plants that evolved in shallow seas and never managed to 
move inland. But as mangroves belong to the highest order of plants, 
the fruit-bearers, the prevailing opinion is that these unique trees 
developed on land and later began their return to the sea. 

In one sense they have completed their return to the sea and might 
be considered marine plants; for the red mangrove is capable of living, 
growing, and reproducing without the aid of either “land” or rainfall; 
it can exist hundreds of miles from the nearest true shoreline (but 
must, of course, be in quite shallow water for its roots to find a 
foothold). 

But in another sense mangroves cannot be considered strictly marine 
plants, for they grow best in brackish water—near the mouths of 
rivers, for example—and can sometimes be found in virtually fresh 
water. Laboratory tests, in fact, show that some mangroves can live 
and grow for years in water that has no detectable trace of salt. 

The way in which the red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle, propa- 
gates itself is quite remarkable. When each fruit matures, the embryo 
of a new plant begins to grow inside it. A slender, spikelike root 
emerges and grows to a length of 6 to 12 inches while still hanging 
from the tree. When it falls, the seedling, which resembles a green 
wooden dart whose lower end has been dipped into copper paint, may 
stick into mud and send out rootlets and soon become anchored to the 
spot. But most seedlings will float away with the tide before second- 
ary roots develop. 

The seedlings may drift for hundreds—or even thousands—of miles, 
remaining alive for a year or longer and sometimes even producing 
secondary roots and top growth while afloat. At first they float in a 
horizontal position, but as they grow older they swing more and more 
to the vertical. After a month most are floating vertically, the root 
end downward, ready to take root if it comes into contact with the 
bottom. 

The saltier the water, the longer the seedlings will float. Even 
those that eventually sink may occasionally survive, since tests show 
they may live a year or longer while totally submerged. If they sink 
in water no deeper than 2 or 8 feet, they may root in the bottom, send 
a thin shoot to the surface, and then produce leaves. 

The mortality of seedlings is undoubtedly high. In one afternoon 
of prowling through a Florida mangrove swamp at low tide, hundreds 


TREES THAT MAKE LAND—STEPHENS 493 


of seedlings were found that had begun to rot and seemed to be dead. 
There were about a hundred that had recently rooted and had already 
produced a pair of leaves at the apex, and literally thousands more 
that had recently fallen and would probably grow if the tides shifted 
them to a somewhat erect position or carried them away to a less- 
crowded spot. Some of these fresh seedlings produced rootlets in a 
week’s time after they were placed in upright cans of mud. This was 
in September, at the end of the main seed-producing season in south 
Florida. Most seedlings are produced in July and August, although 
some are produced all year. 


MILLIONS OF YOUNG 


Dr. John H. Davis, of the University of Florida, to whom any 
writer who discusses mangroves owes a considerable debt, states that 
an “average vigorous red mangrove tree produces over 300 seedlings 
during a summer season, and probably over half of these float away 
from the swamp.” Obviously, then, many hundreds of thousands of 
seedlings—if not millions—are set adrift each year in Florida alone. 

Ocean currents are undoubtedly responsible for the wide distribu- 
tion of mangroves. The three American species are found on the 
west coast of Africa (where they probably originated) and, inter- 
estingly, on both coasts of Central America and in the Galapagos 
Islands. How they got into the Pacific is a perplexing question. Most 
botanists doubt that the seedlings migrated around Cape Horn, and 
fossil records indicate that mangroves evolved after the Panama 
land bridge rose. In recent years the American red mangrove has also 
been found in Hawaii, where mangroves are not native but where 
both Old World and New World species now grow. It has also been 
reported from Fiji, Tonga, and even from atolls in the Indian Ocean. 

Once the seedling becomes anchored, it grows rapidly, its height 
increasing as much as 2 feet the first year. During the second year 
it sends out prop roots, which extend outward from the trunk in suc- 
cessively widening circles. After 3 or 4 years the tree is braced so 
securely that it can withstand almost any storm. In addition to the 
main prop roots, aerial roots may drop from branches, forming sec- 
ondary trunks with their own prop roots. 


TREES AND CORAL REEFS 


Mangroves are often popularly associated with coral reefs, but while 
corals and mangroves do in fact exist in close proximity—particularly 
in Indo-Pacific regions—they thrive best under quite different condi- 
tions. Reef-building corals need clear ocean water which contains 
little sediment and is in continual motion, while mangroves do best 
in still, protected, sediment-laden water. Corals require fairly salty 
water and may be harmed by a drastic change in salinity in either 


494 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


direction. Mangroves prefer brackish water but can tolerate a wide 
range in salinity from virtually fresh to extremely salty water. Reef 
corals cannot live long in water that falls below 70° Fahrenheit, while 
mangroves thrive in much colder water. At Galapagos, for example, 
the water temperature is frequently in the 50’s, owing to the cold Hum- 
boldt current, yet all three species of American mangrove are found 
growing. On the other hand, a drop in air temperature to 25° Fahr- 
enheit is almost certain to kill mangroves—while, of course, a drop 
in air temperature per se has little or no effect on corals, unless fol- 
lowed by a drop in water temperature. 

Although, obviously, the conditions under which corals and man- 
eroves can exist together are far from the optimum conditions for 
either, both play important roles in creating tropical real estate—and, 
in a sense, they often work together. Normally, the corals must first 
do their work, however, producing conditions where mangroves can 
grow. 

Young mangroves must have protection from waves and currents. 
On beaches exposed to surf, or on bars and flats where currents are 
strong, the seedlings cannot gain good footholds. They may root in 
such areas and hang on for months but are almost sure to be killed or 
swept away by wind, water, or shifting sands before reaching ma- 
turity. If, however, a shore or a shoal is protected by a coral reef, 
the mangrove seedlings can establish themselves. 


MANGROVES MAKE NEW LAND 


Thus mangroves may become established on the inside of a coral 
reef, where relatively still water is found, sedimentation is rapid, and 
debris accumulates. These, of course, are conditions that live corals 
cannot tolerate; so the mangroves take up where the corals leave off. 
As the reef corals continue to grow outward, toward the sea, the man- 
groves grow along the rubble-strewn inner edge, trapping in their 
great spreading roots the seaweed, sponges, shells, chunks of dead 
coral, and other material that washes over the reef. By reducing the 
flow of water, the mangroves aid further in the buildup of sand, marl, 
and other deposits. 

As the mangrove colony increases, broken limbs and roots from the 
trees decay and form peat; and the land may be further built up by 
calcareous algae and the shells of mollusks and crustaceans that live 
among the roots. Birds may roost in the trees and leave deposits of 
guano. Other species of mangrove may become established in the 
swamp, as well as other salt-marsh plants. As the land becomes 
higher, coconuts may float ashore and take root, as well, perhaps, as 
the seeds of the sea hibiscus, or mallow. In Indo-Pacific areas, screw- 
pines and casuarinas are frequently found near the mangroves, while 
in the Americas the seagrape is often present. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Stephens PLATE 1 


1. Oysters grow on trees in southern Florida, particularly on the prop roots of mangroves. 
At low tide they may be completely exposed, making it easy for the seafood fancier to 
pick his dinner. (Photo by the author.) 


2. Seeds of the red mangrove germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Each fruit 
sends out a long, slender primary root that reaches a length of 6 to 12 inches before falling. 
After dropping from the tree, these seedlings may stick in the mud and soon develop 
secondary roots. Most seedlings, however, are carried away by tides and currents and 
may drift for months before sinking or floating into shallow water where they can take 
root in the bottom. (Photo by the author.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Stephens PLATE 2 


1. These mangrove seedlings, having begun their germination while still hanging from the 
Jarent tree, have dropped into water shallow enough for them to take root. A vast 
I | 
number of the seedlings are carried out to sea or fall into water too deep. (Photo by 


the author.) 


2. Two species of mangroves are seen growing together in Biscayne Bay, 10 miles south of 
Miami. Black mangrove (Avicennia nitida) on the left has an extensive underground 
root system and sends up numerous pneumatophores, or breathing roots, that project 
from the mud and sand. Red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) on right has characteristic 


prop roots and aerial roots. (Photo by the author.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Stephens PLATE 3 


1. Red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle) have aerial roots dropping down from their branches 
as well as the characteristic prop roots. Coon oysters are seen growing on parts of the 


roots that are submerged at high tide. (Photo by the author.) 


2. A forest of red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle) on Florida’s Biscayne Bay at low tide. 
(Photo by the author.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Stephens PLATE 4 


Eugene Shinn, an oil company geologist, examines algae in a shallow area where sedimen- 
tation is rapid, and where the start of a new island can be seen in the background. 
This picture was taken on the Atlantic side of Elliott Key, 25 miles south of Miami, 


Fla. Trees are red mangroves. (Photo by the author.) 


TREES THAT MAKE LAND—STEPHENS 495 


In this manner—and over many, many years—an island may be 
formed on the leeward side of a coral reef. 

Similar results may be produced near the mouths cf rivers. (Here 
there are no corals, of course, for corals cannot live in brackish water.) 
Mangroves become established along the shores of rivers and on shal- 
low bars formed by sand and mud carried downstream by the cur- 
rent and deposited at the mouth of the stream. Hundreds of man- 
grove keys may be formed near the mouth of a single river. Over a 
long period of time some of these keys may rise above the reach of 
high tide, producing conditions for the growth of mahogany, oak, and 
other hardwoods. A dense hammock may develop which may even- 
tually become a part of the mainland. 


1,500 ACRES OF TREE-MADE LAND 


The land-building properties of mangroves are substantial in areas 
such as south Florida, where sedimentation is great. During his 
study of Florida mangroves, Dr. J. H. Davis found that about 1,500 
acres of new land had been formed in Biscayne Bay and Florida Bay 
over a period of 30 to 40 years. (For the purposes of this estimate, 
Dr. Davis considered mangrove swamps to be land.) During this 
study it was found that the soil of many inland hammocks in the 
Everglades is composed largely of mangrove peat. 

One of the greatest mangrove forests in the Western Hemisphere— 
and possibly in the entire world—is found in southwest Florida. Ex- 
tending from the southern tip of the mainland up the Gulf coast to 
Marco, the forest includes the area known as the Ten Thousand 
Islands and the mouths of numerous rivers draining the Everglades. 
The actual number of mangrove islands is unknown, since the islands 
constantly merge and new ones are constantly born. Unlike the 
low, twisting trees of most mangrove swamps, the trees in this forest 
often grow straight and tall—near the mouth of the Shark River 
are red mangroves 80 feet high—but occasionally a tremendous tree 
extends almost horizontally for about 100 feet, its trunk supported 
by hundreds of aerial roots. Such trees may have been blown down 
in storms of many decades ago. Other trees, killed by hurricanes, 
stand upright, stark and white, like bleached skeletons. 

Even the strongest winds rarely uproot the mangroves, but hur- 
ricanes may shake the trees so violently that the bark peels off, ex- 
posing the soft cambium layers to salt spray and waves, quickly killing 
the trees. The great storm of 1960, Hurricane Donna, killed thousands 
of large mangroves in southwest Florida—trees that had withstood 
dozens of previous hurricanes. 

When observed from seaward a mature mangrove forest is like a 
massive green wall. Up close, twisting waterways are seen between 
the islands, often virtual tunnels with merging branches forming a 

672-174 63 37 


496 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


canopy. Exploring these islands on foot is a memorable experience— 
though few visitors leave their boats. The dark interior is a seeming- 
ly impenetrable maze of slimy roots growing from the mud and often 
armed with razor-sharp oysters. The air is humid and still, and the 
odor of peat and muck is strong. Even in the dry season, at low tide 
one may sink past his knees in the soft soil. 

Sometimes there is dead silence in the swamps; other times there 
may be the constant whine of insects, the clicking of the shells of 
bivalves, the rustle of scurrying crabs, and perhaps the haunting 
cry of alimpkin. Pools of water are often rust-red, caused by tannic 
acid produced by the red mangroves. This tannic acid is believed to 
prevent teredos from infesting the submerged roots. 


EVEN BEES LIKE MANGROVES 


The larger trees will usually be found away from the shore. And 
here the black mangroves are often seen. The black mangroves have 
no prop roots, but the roots often form strong buttresses at the base of 
the trunk, and then, extending for long distances under the soil, 
they send up myriad pneumatophores—breathing roots—that project 
from the soil like pencils. The flowers of the black mangrove are rich 
in nectar, and bee keepers often place their hives in the swamps to 
obtain the highly prized mangrove honey. The smaller white man- 
groves, which also sometimes have pneumatophores, are seen in many 
Florida swamps, along with twisted, gnarled buttonwoods. 

In many parts of the world, the timber of mangroves is economically 
important. The thick bark of the red mangrove is widely used in 
tanning leather; and in Jamaica the government has found it neces- 
sary to restrict the stripping of bark. A Trinidad botanist has esti- 
mated that a single red mangrove with a girth of eight feet (which 
is a giant of the species) will yield 1,000 pounds of bark. The heart- 
wood of all three American mangroves is used in furniture work. 

Perhaps the greatest importance of mangroves in Florida is their 
value in stabilizing and preserving shorelines. Many sections of 
shore might be washed away in severe storms without the protection 
of these unique trees. Studies might show that many shorelines now 
sufferings erosion could be stabilized by plantings of mangroves. 


The History and Relationships of the 
World’s Cottons 


By Sir JosepH Hutcuinson 
Professor of Agriculture, University of Cambridge, England 


Srupvents of the cotton plant enjoy the enormous advantage of a 
comprehensive work of reference: in 1907 Sir George Watt [27] ° 
set out all that was then known of the botany of the plant and much 
of its agricultural history. Modern work on the crop began with 
S. C. Harland’s analysis [11] of the nature of the species distinctions 
among the cultivated cottons, and led to studies of their origin and 
evolutionary history [15, 19]. Harland’s work was, in addition, a 
major contribution to genetics. 

Harland’s study of the genetic nature of the species distinction led 
to the acceptance of four, and only four, species to embrace the whole 
vast diversity of the cultivated cottons. Between these four the pri- 
mary distinction is in chromosome number. Two species, Gossypium 
herbaceum and G. arboreum, are diploid, with n=13 chromosomes; 
they are confined to tropical and subtropical regions of the Old 
World. Two species, G. hirsutum and G. barbadense, are tetraploid, 
with n=26 chromosomes, and it has been shown that, of this comple- 
ment, half is homologous with the complement of the Old World dip- 
loids, and half with the complement of species of the genus growing 
wild in the New World. The tetraploid species were confined to the 
New World until they were spread, along with other New World crop 
plants, over the Old World in recent times. 

These four species all bear lint hairs on the seed. The wild species 
of the genus also bear hairs on the seed, but these are short and 
scanty, and of a type that could not be spun. The term “cotton” is 
properly restricted to the lint-bearing species. 

The commercial cottons of the present day are almost all short-term 
annual plants. They belong to a genus of perennial shrubs, and the 
primitive forms of the cultivated species are perennial shrubs; the 


1 Reprinted by permission from Endeavour, vol. 21, No. 81, January 1962. 
2 Figures in brackets refer to list of references at end of article. 


497 


498 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


annual forms have been bred and brought into use only in historic 
times. For a study of the development of the cottons, therefore, the 
primitive perennials, both wild and cultivated, are the natural start- 
ing-point. Primitive perennial types of the cultivated cottons are not 
difficult to find. The modern textile industry, consisting of great 
mills dependent for supplies on the cultivation of fairly uniform types 
over large areas, is of very recent origin, and in all the older cotton- 
growing countries the remnants of the old textile crafts are still to be 
found. The craftsman—spinning, weaving, and dyeing the cloth in 
traditional ways and on a smal] scale—draws his raw material from 
small plots, or occasional plants grown in gardens or house com- 
pounds. It was from these relics of village crafts that the primitive 
forms of the world’s cottons were collected. They are to be found 
over wide areas in India and southeast Asia, in the Sudan and West 
Africa, and in the West Indies, Central America, and northern South 
America. They occur less commonly in the Pacific islands and even 
in northern Australia. 

These cottons readily run wild and establish themselves in waste 
places and hedgerows, and on the margins of cultivated land. Watt 
and other early writers regarded many of them as truly wild, and 
ancestral to the cultivated cottons. In collecting, it became apparent 
that there was no line of demarcation between the wild plants of waste 
places; the occasional plants of house compounds and gardens that 
grew from carelessly scattered seeds but which were regularly har- 
vested; and the true crop plants of neighboring fields. It then be- 
came important to decide whether the wild plant was the original from 
which the cultivated form was developed, or whether it arose as an 
escape into natural or seminatural vegetation from cultivated lands. 

As our knowledge increased, so the number of forms that could be 
regarded as independent of human influence diminished. A. Cheva- 
her [4] stated that, of the cottons now to be found in West Africa, 
none occurs in undisturbed vegetation, and all show signs of having 
reached their present habitat as cultivated plants. In the Sudan 
and Ethiopia [21], it is also clear that the cottons exist in association 
with man, and not wild in natural vegetation. Moreover, in no 
locality in India are the uncultivated forms of cotton to be found 
growing in anything like natural vegetation. They have, in fact, all 
the characteristics to be expected of the abandoned relics of the crops 
and crafts of an earlier culture. 

The situation is simliar in the New World. S. G. Stephens [17], 
collecting cottons in Central America, found that it was useless to 
look for material anywhere but in villages and on village lands. In 
the West Indian islands also, the cottons are to be found growing as 
commensal plants, preserved and harvested for domestic use even if 
not deliberately sown. There are a few reports of New World cottons 


THE WORLD'S COTTONS—HUTCHINSON 499 


now growing wild in natural vegetation. J.B. Hutchinson [18] has 
given an account of the “algodén brujo” of the Salinas de Cabo Rojo 
in Puerto Rico, and O. F. Cook and J. W. Hubbard [5] recorded the 
existence of the plant they described as @. morrilli on coastal dunes 
beyond the limits of agriculture in northwestern Mexico. ‘The success 
of primitive types of cotton in establishing themselves on waste land 
is such that it would be expected that they would sometimes spread 
into undisturbed natural vegetation, and Stephens [17] has given an 
account of the transition that is to be observed in Yucatan from 
domestic cottons to the ecotype that is established on the coastal sand 
dunes of the Progreso area; there, considerable specialization to the 
exposed maritime situation has taken place. 

In South America also, accounts by E. K. Balls [19] indicate that 
the cottons found growing outside the present limits of cultivation are 
escapes and not truly wild plants. Even in the Galapagos Islands, 
the evidence from both herbarium material and from accessions es- 
tablished in the living collection is that there is a continuous range of 
form, from those closely similar to cultivated types in western South 
America to types evidently closely adapted to survival in the wild. 

The evidence for the view that types of cotton now found wild are 
escapes from cultivation is so widespread, and the number of forms 
for which an origin by escape from cultivation cannot be demonstrated 
is so small, that in 1947 J. B. Hutchinson, R. A. Silow, and S. G. 
Stephens [15] set out to account for the origin and development of the 
cottons on the assumption that the whole process had gone on under 
domestication. This extreme view is no longer tenable [18], but truly 
wild cottons are so rare that the differentiation of the modern culti- 
vated cottons is best considered in terms of the cottons that are now, 
or recently have been, cultivated. Consideration of these early culti- 
vated cottons leads directly to the study of the origin and spread of 
the annual cottons. In fact, the success of the cottons as crop plants 
has depended very largely on the comparative ease with which annual 
types have been selected from the original perennial shrubby forms. 
The branching pattern of the cotton plant, with vegetative branches 
arising from the lower part of the stem and fruiting branches from 
the upper, lends itself to the development of annual forms. By selec- 
tion of plants giving rise to fruiting branches low on the main stem, 
the vegetative period of the plant can be reduced, and flowering 
brought forward far enough to allow a crop to be matured on a spring- 
sown plant before the onset of cold autumn weather. 


COTTONS OF AFRICA AND ASIA 


Perennial cottons are confined to areas where there is no winter frost, 
since all cottons are frost-susceptible. Though they can survive a long 
dry season, the development of extensive commercial crops in areas of 


500 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


seasonal drought has been much more successful with annual cottons. 
Consequently the development of annual types has made possible vast 
extensions of the area in which the plant can grow, and the subdivi- 
sions that have arisen in each of the cultivated species are best de- 
scribed as geographical races. In the cottons of the Old World, 
annual forms were first developed in G. herbaceum (fig. 1). In 
this species the most primitive, and only truly wild, form is race 
africanum; this is a perennial shrub found on the southern African 
bushveld across a belt of country from Mozambique to Angola and 
southwest Africa [18]. The most primitive cultivated forms are 
those found as occasional perennial plants in fields and gardens in 
Ethiopia [21], in southern Arabia, and on the coasts of southern 
Baluchistan; these are included in the race acerifoliwum. Inland in 
Iran, a characteristic group of annual forms has arisen, named race 
persicum. Farther north, where the summers are shorter and the 
winters colder, the species has given rise, by progressive adaptation 
to shorter seasons, to the kuljianuwm cottons of Central Asia that will 
mature a small crop in three months from sowing. The annual 
persicum cottons from Iran spread into western India, and provided 
the first annual cottons in Indian agriculture. The introduction can 
be dated, since it has been shown [19] that when Dr. Hove collected in 


Z 


G. herbaceum 
kuljianum 


G. herbaceum 
persicum 


G. herbaceum 
acerifolium , 


’ G. arboreum 
indicum 


G. herbaceum 
africanum 


Ficure 1.—Distribution of the Old World cottons at time of Marco Polo (13th century). 


THE WORLD’S COTTONS—HUTCHINSON 501 


Gujerat in 1787, the annual form was new to the country, where it 
provided an alternative to the perennial G. arborewm known as Rozi. 

The history and relationships of the Indian species, G. arboreum, 
were somewhat more difficult to unravel, since the greater part of the 
development of the species took place under the influence of an im- 
portant and expanding textile industry in a country where communi- 
cations were comparatively good and exchange of seed was easy and 
frequent. Thus, on the one hand, the geographical races are not so 
well separated or so distinct as in G. herbacewm, and on the other, 
there has been a much greater development of agricultural forms 
adapted to particular regions and specific needs. 

Silow [23] showed that race zndicwm of peninsular India was more 
closely related to the cottons of the species G. herbaceum than are 
other races of arboreum. Race indicum includes both perennial and 
annual forms; there is good evidence that the perennial forms are 
primitive. The Reverend E. Terry, who accompanied Sir Thomas 
Roe on his mission to India at the beginning of the 17th century, 
reported that “those shrubs bear that Wood three or four years ere they 
supplant them” [27]. 

The cottons of northern India and Pakistan are distinct from those 
of peninsular India. Perennial forms are still to be found occasional- 
ly in remote places in Rajputana, and in those parts of the Ganges 
valley where cotton is not grown commercially but is appreciated as 
a useful plant for household purposes. This northern form spread 
widely both eastward and westward. Perennial forms in Assam and 
Burma are derived from it, and westward it has provided the material 
out of which the common Old World perennial cotton of Africa has 
developed. The African form, now known as race soudanense, was 
probably the cotton grown by the people of Meroé, an ancient Nubian 
kingdom, who were the first in Africa to spin and weave cotton [16]. 

The selection of annual types in the arboreum cottons was no more 
difficult than it had been in the herbaceums, and with the expanding 
trade of the 19th century annual forms of arboreum were developed ; 
these not only supplanted their perennial ancestors, but spread into 
areas where cotton growing had formerly been unimportant. 'The 
new overseas trade in cotton and cotton goods brought with it changes 
in demand also. Manchester had supplanted the Indian village artisan 
as the supplier of the great bulk of cotton cloth. A large export 
trade in raw cotton grew up, but it was to countries farther east 
rather than to Manchester, and the export demand was for quantity 
rather than quality. It happened that the annual types selected in 
the Ganges Valley from the northern arboreums possessed a higher 
“oining out-turn” (proportion of lint to seed) and a lower quality 
than those selected from the indicums of peninsular India. These 
northern annuals were sufficiently distinctive to be regarded as a geo- 


502 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


graphical race (bengalense), and they spread south into the peninsula 
at the expense of the indicums. Thus there arose a problem that was 
to beset the Indian cotton industry for many years. Quantity drove 
out quality, and by misclassification, adulteration, and other malprac- 
tices, the reputation of quality-producing areas was ruined, and coarse 
high-ginning types were spread. Only with the establishment of the 
Indian Central Cotton Committee in 1921 and the control of cotton 
movements under the Cotton Transport Act was the situation brought 
under control and the better-quality cotton protected. 

The development of annual arboreum cottons was not confined to 
India. They were selected independently in Burma, though they 
do not appear to have become so widespread there as in India. In 
southeast Asia, colonists from peninsular India brought perennial 
cottons with them, probably of the éndicum type, and in Indonesia 
some annual types have arisen. But the great development of annual 
cottons in the Far East was in China (fig. 2). According to Watt 
[27], cotton was grown in Chinese gardens as an ornamental shrub 
toward the end of the seventh century; cultivation as a field crop be- 
gan in the 11th century. The Chinese must have been among the 
first to develop annual forms of arboreum, since most of their crop is 
grown in areas where winter cold would preclude the growing of 
perennials on a field scale. The Chinese arboreums of the present 


ae 


2 


ee Ghenbaceuln 
e uljianum 
= = bengalense | 
SS VA 


G. arboreum 
sinense 


G. herbaceum 
_ Wightianum \ 
ce G. arboreum\S * 


indicum 


G. barbadense mi 


Egyptians iN G. hirsutum 


uplands and == 
Cambodias 


Ficure 2.—Distribution of annual cottons in the Old World in 1960. 


THE WORLD’S COTTONS—HUTCHINSON 503 


day—race sinense—are the earliest-fruiting forms in the species, and 
have developed a distinctive character that marks them off from the 
two main Indian types, bengalense and indicum. 


COTTONS OF THE NEW WORLD 


Cotton was grown and used extensively in South and Central Amer- 
ica when the New World was first discovered (fig. 3). It is impos- 
sible now to assess adequately the relative importance of the southern 
and the central regions. From the coastal strip in Peru, a great 


AE, "fe eet 
AiG. hirsutum!=- & 
fe punctatum=*.* 


G, barbadense 


Ficure 3.—Distribution of the New World cottons at the time of Columbus. 


504 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


wealth of cotton fabrics of outstanding design and technical com- 
petence has been recovered, preserved by the dry soil of the desert 
graveyards. From the moister climates of Central America, nothing 
comparable has survived, though it is known from the historical 
records that cotton provided clothing for the people. As in the Old 
World, so in the New; the ancient cottons were perennial shrubs. 
Perennials of the South American G. barbadense spread throughout 
the continent as far south as northern Argentina, but apart from 
a Brazilian form with large leaves, large flowers, and large bolls and 
seeds fused into a kidney-shaped mass, there are no well-defined geo- 
graphical races among the perennials of G. barbadense. 

Differentiation among the perennials of G. Aérsutwm is much more 
pronounced. Two important perennial races were early recognized. 
One of these, race marie-galante, includes the largest cottons of all. 
On the coasts of the Spanish Main, from Panama to Trinidad, and 
thence north to the Greater Antilles and south to northern Brazil, 
very large shrubs or small trees up to 20 feet in height are to be found 
in houseyards and in small cultivations, and sometimes wild among 
dry coastal vegetation. These were the basis of the early cotton 
cultivations of the West Indies, and the imprint of human selective 
forces is still to be detected in their modern descendants [26]. Out- 
side the Americas, race marie-galante is known only from Ghana [16], 
where it was introduced from the West Indies by the Basle 
missionaries. 

The second important perennial race of G. hirsutum is race pune- 
tatum, a much smaller, bushy cotton, to be found round the coasts of 
the Gulf of Mexico from Yucatan to Florida and the Bahamas. It 
has been recorded infrequently from Cuba, Haiti, and Puerto Rico, 
but not from Jamaica or the Lesser Antilles. Race punctatum was 
introduced into West Africa about the end of the 17th century. 
There it was very successful, and spread across the continent south of 
the Sahara, completely replacing the Old World cottons as a raw 
material for the local spinning and weaving industry. It was also 
introduced into the island of Bourbon (Réunion) by the French, and 
taken thence to the Malabar coast of India by the East India Com- 
pany. In the 1930’s it was still to be found mixed with a perennial 
form of G. arboreum race indicum in the Nadam crop of Madras. 
British settlers took it to northern Australia; their settlement was a 
failure, but the cotton survived, and was collected about 1930 from 
the neighborhood of Port Essington. 

Between 1945 and 1948 three expeditions collected extensively in 
the center of origin of @. hirsutum in Central America. Apart from 
a very few, apparently introduced, forms of @. barbadense, all the 
cottons collected were forms of @. hirsutum. This material revealed 
a geographical differentiation formerly unsuspected. Northern Gua- 


THE WORLD’S COTTONS—HUTCHINSON 505 


temala and Yucatan were occupied by typical race punctatum, with 
the specialized form collected by Stephens on the coastal sand dunes 
near Progreso (see above)—race yucatanense—representing the 
escape of an exceptionally specialized form into natural vegetation. 
The second well-known race, race marie-galante, was represented in 
collections from Salvador and southern Guatemala. These plants, 
though evidently belonging to marie-galante, were smaller bushes 
than the large forms of the Spanish Main and the Lesser Antilles. 
They still possessed the characteristic dominance of the main stem 
that makes the development of tree forms possible, and distinguishes 
marie-galante from the bushy, much-branched punctatum. 

In Central Mexico in Oaxaca, Puebla, and Morelos the perennial 
cottons were bushy forms with very broad and intensely hairy leaves. 
These were named race morriili. In the state of Guerrero it appears 
that a race—palmeri—of pyramidal shrubs with deeply dissected 
leaves and strong anthocyanin pigmentation is almost universal. 
Last among the perennials is a strong-growing, lax shrub found in a 
rather small area round the coasts of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. 

One other race, Zatifolium, was found in the state of Chiapas in 
Mexico and in neighboring regions in Guatemala. This is an annual 
cotton. It is not an early-fruiting, specialized agricultural type, and 
it may persist for more than one year. But, as distinct from the 
perennial races, it gives its major crop in the first year. There are 
two main forms: a small-fruited form that occurs throughout the 
area, and a large-fruited, large-leaved form found in the vicinity of 
the town of Acala in the state of Chiapas in Mexico. This race 
appears to be the foundation stock of all the annual G@. hirsutum 
cottons. In Central America it has spread into the territories of 
races morrilli and palmeri. There, the advantage of annual cottons 
for commercial cultivation has led to the spread of the neighboring 
annual form, and natural hybridization with the local perennial has 
led to the emergence of an annual with some of the characters of its 
perennial predecessor. 

The spread beyond Central America has been enormous (fig. 4). 
First came the colonization of the Cotton Belt of the United States of 
America. The source of the first introductions is not known, but 
there are numerous records of subsequent introductions from Mexico, 
at intervals down to the time of the discovery of the big-bolled types 
from Acala which have given the modern very high-yielding com- 
mercial types of that name now grown in Arizona and California. 

The annual hirsutum cottons of the United States became known as 
“Uplands” (to distinguish them from the “Sea Island” cottons of the 
coastal islands, which belong to G@. barbadense), and their develop- 
ment coincided with the development of the cotton industry im Lanea- 
shire. Asan index of the rate of growth of the crop, in 1784 Customs 


506 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


—e 


G. hirsutum 
uplands 


G. barbadense 
Sea Islands 
and Egyptians 


Ficure 4.—Distribution of annual cottons in the New World in 1960, 


officers in Liverpool seized eight bags of cotton on the ground that so 
much could not have been produced in America. In 1912-13 Great 
Britain consumed over three and a quarter million bales of American 
cotton. 

The natural desire of other countries to share in the wealth of this 
export trade, together with such special stimuli as the cotton famine in 
Lancashire caused by the American Civil War, led to the introduction 
and trial of Upland cotton in most tropical and subtropical countries 
of the world. The modern Russian crop in Central Asia is composed 
of Upland types. Apart from the Nile Valley, all cottons grown in 


THE WORLD’S COTTONS—HUTCHINSON 507 


Africa are now Uplands. In India and Pakistan, Upland cottons 
were first introduced at the time of the American Civil War. They 
were a dismal failure, owing to the attacks of the jassid pest. Upland 
cottons went out of cultivation as a crop, but persisted as occasional 
plants in crops of Old World cottons. Under the shelter of the Old 
World types, Upland types were not altogether eliminated, but those 
with some of the leaf hair that gives resistance to jassid attack were 
favored. Fifty years later, it was possible for agricultural botanists 
to select, trom the mixed crops, Upland types that had sufficient 
resistance to be grown satisfactorily in pure stands. This was the 
beginning of the successful establishment of Upland cotton as a crop 
in India. A different source of American-type cottons for use in 
India was discovered in the second decade of the 20th century. 
_ Madras cotton-spinners drew the attention of Government botanists 
to a very useful type of cotton they had been able to import from 
Cambodia. Seed was obtained, and became the foundation stock of 
what is now known as the Cambodia crop of South India. Cambodia 
is a latifolium type; its outstanding characteristic is the extremely 
dense coat of long hairs on the leaf, which gives it very high resistance 
to jassid. It appears to have been derived from direct introductions 
by the Spaniards from Central America to the Philippines. The 
Central American cottons are short-day plants, and when grown in 
the long summer days of northern latitudes they do not fruit until 
autumn, and consequently they lose their crop when the frost comes. 
The establishment of the Uplands in the United States depended on 
the selection of types tolerant of long days and able to mature a crop 
before the onset of cold weather. Consequently, Upland cottons, 
wherever they have been taken, are unaffected by day length. The 
Cambodias, on the other hand, though early fruiting in the short days 
of Madras, become progressively later-fruiting as they are taken far- 
ther north, and have in consequence never been successful in com- 
petition with Upland types in central or northern India or Pakistan. 

The datifolium cottons have become the dominant cottons in the 
world’s crop. United States commercial varieties of Upland have 
formed the basis of the cotton crops of Africa, of most of South 
America, and increasingly of Central America. Uplands and Cam- 
bodias are invading the Chinese crop, and where cotton crops are 
developed in southeast Asia, they will undoubtedly be based on these 
types, and on hybrids between them. 

The development of annual cottons in G. barbadense took place 
later than in G. hirsutum. The barbadense cottons of the Sea Islands 
of South Carolina arose from an introduction from either the 
Bahamas or Jamaica in 1786. In the Sea Islands only annual cropping 
was possible, and so the type introduced must have been one that was 
already capable of producing a worth-while crop in the first year. 


508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Types are known among the barbadense cottons of western South 
America that fruit early enough, are independent of day length, and 
are of good enough quality, to have provided a source from which the 
annual cottons of the Sea Islands might have been derived [14]. The 
route by which they reached the Carolinas must remain a matter for 
speculation. 

The outstanding character of the Sea Island cottons is their very 
high quality. Though a wide range of fine cottons is now available in 
other groups, no other cottons have been bred to the quality of the 
best of the “superfine” Sea Islands. Sea Island cotton has always 
been a small crop. In the first decade of the 20th century it was 
introduced into, and became established in, some of the islands of the 
Lesser Antilles, but the main crop in the United States was virtually 
extinguished when the boll weevil, spreading across the Cotton Belt 
from Mexico, reached the eastern seaboard. 


EGYPTIAN COTTON 


There was a prosperous and growing market for fine cottons 
throughout the 19th and the first half of the 20th century, and it was 
largely suppled by another race of annual barbadense cottons, the 
Egyptian cottons. Cotton-growing in Egypt based on barbadense cot- 
tons was initiated by M. Jumel with perennial types in the years fol- 
lowing 1820. The development of the Egyptian crop from this small 
beginning has been recorded by G. C. Dudgeon [6], and the sources of 
barbadense cottons and the probable route by which they reached 
Egypt are fairly well understood [16]. Jumel’s perennial probably 
reached the Nile Valley from southern Nigeria by way of the trade 
and slave routes. 

In Egypt, cultivation of a perennial crop called for a radical re- 
development of the irrigation system. The old basin system, whereby 
the land was flooded at high Nile and a crop was grown on the water 
stored in the alluvial soil, made no provision for watering at low 
river-levels. Canals were deepened to bring the water to the field 
margins at low river, and lifts were installed. Cotton proved so 
successful that it provided both the incentive and the finance for the 
building of barrages on the river and high-level canals, to provide 
perennial-flow irrigation. Meanwhile, Jumel’s perennial was so suc- 
cessful that other cottons were introduced for trial. None of these 
were satisfactory except Sea Island types, which were grown on a 
small scale for some years. Being a form of barbadense cotton, Sea 
Island alone of all the types introduced gave vigorous and fertile 
hybrids with Jumel’s perennial. Out of such hybrids, cotton breeders 
selected types with the annual habit and some of the quality of Sea 
Island, together with some of the vigor and cropping character- 
istics of the old perennial. Thus a new race of annual barbadense 


THE WORLD’S COTTONS—HUTCHINSON 509 


cottons arose, members of a New World species but bred in, and 
adapted to, the Nile Valley. Furthermore, the replacement of basin 
irrigation by high-level flow irrigation having been undertaken under 
the stimulus of the need for water at all seasons for a perennial cotton 
crop, the perennial plant was replaced by an annual, and the new 
irrigation system was used to grow two short-term crops each year 
instead of one perennial. 


THE ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED COTTONS 


All four species of the cultivated cottons were established crop 
plants long before the beginning of historical records. Evidence of 
their status before the dawn of history is available only from a few 
specially favorable places. A fortunate accident led to the preser- 
vation of a small fragment of cotton fabric and a small piece of 
cotton string in the neck of a silver vessel recovered during excava- 
tions at Mohenjo-Daro in West Pakistan. The fragments, which are 
believed to date from about 3000 n.c., were made from raw material 
indistinguishable from the product of the indigenous coarse benga- 
lense cottons found in the area at the present day. Both fabric and 
string were well made, and indicated the existence at that time of a 
well-established, mature textile craft, of which cotton must have been 
a familiar raw material. 

In the New World, the earliest known textiles were discovered first 
by Dr. Junius Bird at a site on the north Peruvian coast known as the 
Huaca Prieta [2,3]. The Huaca Prieta is a mound made up of the 
occupation refuse of a people who did not use pottery and did not 
grow maize. They did grow cotton, beans, and some cucurbits. Their 
cotton was very short-fibered and very coarse, and among present-day 
cottons is most closely matched by some of the very coarse primitive 
barbadense cottons of the same area. The textile craft of the Huaca 
Prieta appeared at first sight to be very primitive, but a recent recon- 
struction of a Huaca Prieta fabric (J. B. Bird, personal commu- 
nication) has shown an unexpectedly elaborate pattern worked into 
the material. Evidently, even at that date (ca. 2400 B.c.), the people 
of the Huaca Prieta were familar with cotton, and were far beyond 
the stage of experimenting with a new raw material. 

The use of cotton as a textile goes back far into prehistory in both 
hemispheres. The archeological record is inevitably incomplete, since 
cotton fabrics and cotton plant material have survived only in the 
driest of the areas in which the crop is cultivated. For further evi- 
dence on the origin of the cottons it is necessary to study the botany 
and cytology of the cultivated species and their wild relatives. 

The wild members of the genus Gossypium are rare shrubs of the 
semiarid and arid regions of the Tropics. Watt [27] recorded species 
from Australia, India, North and Central America, and the Galapagos 


510 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Islands. Species are now known also from continental South America, 
Arabia, and Africa; they are listed and described by J. H. Saunders 
[22]. The wild species do not bear seed hairs that can be spun, and 
one of the major problems of the origin of the cottons is to account 
for the origin of lint. The simplest hypothesis is that the four lint- 
bearing species derived their lint from one common ancestor, and the 
history of the true cottons will now be reconstructed on this basis. 

The chromosome complement in Gossypium is basically n=133; all 
the wild species save one are diploid. The two Old World species of 
the true cottons are also diploid. The two New World species of 
cotton and one wild species (G@. tomentoswm in Hawaii) are tetraploid. 
Of the diploid wild species, the African species of the section Anomala 
are comparatively closely related to the Old World diploid cottons. 
There are two species, G. anomalum and G@. triphyllum, and both 
have been crossed with the two Old World cottons. The hybrids are 
moderately fertile, and gene transfer and genetic analysis have been 
carried out successfully [23]. D. U. Gerstel [9] has shown that the 
chromosome complement of G. herbaceum is very closely homologous 
with that of G. anomalum. The complement of G. arboreum differs 
from those of G. herbaceum and G. anomalum by one translocation. 
It is in G. herbaceum, therefore, that one would logically look for the 
wild prototype of the diploid cottons. The Anomala are distributed 
in arid areas on the southern borders of the Sahara and in Angola 
and southwest Africa. The wild form of G. herbacewm, race afri- 
canum, occurs in natural vegetation right across the dry bushveld and 
semiarid tracts of southern Africa from Mozambique to Angola. It 
occupies, in fact, an area adjoining that of the most closely related 
wild lintless species, but it has no obvious contact with the cultivated 
races of its own species. It has all the characters that would be ex- 
pected of the original wild form: the perennial bushy habit and 
the hard seeds with a marked period of dormancy adapted to survival 
in the wild, and a coat of rough, wiry lint on the seeds, long enough 
and copious enough to be spun if nothing better offered, but of the 
lowest quality in terms of modern textile materials. The only sub- 
stantial difficulty in regarding it as ancestral to the cultivated cottons 
is the enormous distance between the natural habitat of africanum and 
the areas occupied by the primitive cultivated form of the species, 
race acerifolium, in Ethiopia and southern Arabia. If africanum is 
ancestral to the cultivated forms, it must have been carried far to 
the north at a very early date, or its range must formerly have been 
vastly greater than it is now. Travel up and down the East African 
coast has gone on from ancient times, and the trade in gold from the 
area, in what is now Southern Rhodesia, in which africanum grows 
wild, is of unknown antiquity. It seems most likely, therefore, that 


THE WORLD’S COTTONS—HUTCHINSON 511 


the early domesticated forms of herbacewm arose from africanum 
types carried by travelers northward to Ethiopia or Arabia. 

In considering the origin of the arborewm cottons, the most impor- 
tant evidence is that on the morphological similarities and genetic 
relationships between the perennial forms of arboreum race indicum 
and the herbaceums. Perennial forms of G. arboreum race indicum 
and of G. herbaceum race acerifolium are extremely difficult to dis- 
tinguish unless good fruiting material is available, whereas all other 
forms can be readily and confidently distinguished in all stages of 
growth. Silow [24] has shown that the genotype of race indicum 
is more closely related to that of G. herbaceum than is the genotype 
of any other race of arboreum. The perennials of race ¢ndicum are 
native to western India, and the evidence suggests that the species 
G. arboreum arose by differentiation from a primitive G. herbaceum 
stock introduced into western India. Thus, as far as the Old World 
cottons are concerned, the origin of lint may be traced to G. herbaceum 
race africanum, or something closely related to it. 

The problem of the origin of the New World cottons is more diffi- 
cult. They are tetraploid in chromosome constitution, and their 
chromosome complement is made up of one set homologous with the 
complement of the diploid Old World cottons and one set homologous 
with the complement of the wild diploid species of the New World. 
They are thus allopolyploids, and a related allopolyploid was synthe- 
sized by J. O. Beasley [1] from a cross between G. arboreum and the 
wild Arizona species G. thurbert. Chromosome-pairing in crosses 
between the new allopolyploid and New World cottons was good; 
nevertheless, the synthetic allopolyploid was not a true New World 
cotton. It was only partially fertile, and the hairs on the seed coat 
could hardly be regarded as true lint. Subsequently Stephens [15] 
showed that the Peruvian G. raimondii was morphologically consider- 
ably nearer to the type one would postulate to give the characters of 
the New World cottons when crossed with one of the Old World 
cottons. He was able to produce two hybrid plants, one from the 
cross G. arboreumXG. raimondii, and one from the cross G. her- 
baceumX G. raimondii, and showed that they did in fact resemble 
New World cottons more closely than the G. arboreumX G@. thurberi 
cross. Unfortunately, he did not succeed in inducing polyploidy, and, 
despite many attempts, it has not been possible to repeat the cross. 

Though G. raimondii appears to be more nearly related to the New 
World diploid ancestor of the New World cotton than is G. thurbert, 
it possesses a number of characters that can hardly have been present 
in the true ancestral type, and it cannot be as close to the New World 
ancestor of the polyploid cottons as africanum is to the ancestor of 
the diploids. 

62-174 6n——=a8 


512 |§ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


In view of the difficulty of making crosses from which synthetic 
tetraploids might be produced, interest turned in the direction of 
genome analyses of hexaploids, made by doubling with colchicine F, 
hybrids between New World cottons and wild New World diploids. 
Stephens [15] first reported on the cytology of a G@. barbadensex G. 
raitmondit hexaploid, and showed that pairing at meiosis was such 
as would be expected if the @. raitmondii set were rather closely homol- 
ogous with one set of the G. barbadense complement. Gerstel [10] 
conducted a genetic analysis in back-crosses of hexaploids to New 
World cottons, and showed that segregation in G. ratmondii crosses 
gave ratios much nearer to those expected in autopolyploids than did 
segregation in G. thurberi crosses. Such evidence as is available on 
other wild New World species indicates that they are no more closely 
related to the allopolyploid New World cottons than is @. thur- 
bert [15]. 

Since the New World cottons originated from a hybrid between two 
diploids, one of which was closely related to the Old World cottons, 
it is not necessary to postulate a separate origin for their lint. On 
the other hand, since the other diploid parent was related to the 
Peruvian G@. raimondii, it is necessary to consider how an Old World 
diploid and a New World diploid could have come together in western 
South America so that the cross could take place. The first attempt 
to account for the meeting of the two parents was by Harland [12], 
who suggested that they came together on a land bridge across the 
Pacific Ocean. Little evidence has been adduced for the existence 
of such a land bridge, and it was later suggested [15, 19] that the link 
was provided by civilized man, migrating eastward from the Old 
World and taking his Old World cottons with him. Landing on the 
Peruvian coast, he would find suitable conditions for his simple agri- 
culture in the valleys of the rivers draining the Andes and crossing 
the coastal desert to the sea. In those valleys, G. raimondii grows 
naturally, and from natural crosses between the introduced Old World 
cotton and an ancestor of @. ratmondii arose allopolyploids from 
which the New World cottons sprang. The hypothesis fitted the 
known facts, and its usefulness as a working tool was demonstrated 
when Bird [3] used it to help in the search which led to the excavation 
of the Huaca Prieta and the discovery of the oldest known textiles 
in the New World. 

An examination of seeds, carpels, and lint from the early Huaca 
Prieta deposits revealed nothing to suggest the presence of an Old 
World diploid cotton. Moreover, F. Engel [7] has since shown that 
habitation sites of the Huaca Prieta type of culture occur over a great 
stretch of the Peruvian coastline, far beyond the area in which G. 
raimondii now exists. 


THE WORLD’S COTTONS—HUTCHINSON flies 


It may well be, of course, that @. ratmondii was formerly more 
widely distributed, or that there were other, related species in the 
Peruvian valleys. The pressure of the population of coastal Peru 
on the very limited resources of water and of vegetation is such that 
the natural flora has been virtually eliminated and other wild species 
besides G. raimondit may have existed in former times. Nevertheless, 
though restriction of distribution and even extinction may have af- 
fected the situation greatly, it cannot be claimed that evidence for the 
origin of the allopolyploid cottons in coastal Peru has increased 
greatly since the hypothesis was put forward, and alternative theories 
must now be examined. 

G. L. Stebbins [25] has suggested that the diploid Old World parent 
reached the New World by way of China and Alaska, and the pos- 
sibility of an Antarctic route has been proposed. Both the northern 
and the southern routes are advocated on the ground that at one time 
mesophytic temperate woodland floras existed that were common to 
the two hemispheres. Gossypium is a genus of xerophytic perennial 
shrubs adapted to the arid Tropics. No member of the genus would 
grow in an ecological] situation where temperate woodlands existed, 
and until the modern development of short-term annual cottons under 
domestication, no member of the genus would survive in a climate 
with winter frosts. It is therefore reasonable to conclude that contact 
between Old World and New World species did not come about by 
migration round the Pacific, either by a northern or by a southern 
route. 

The remaining alternative to a trans-Pacific link is a link across the 
Atlantic, and Gerstel [9] has recently suggested that this should be 
considered. He showed that in G. herbaceum the chromosome order 
does not differ substantially from that in the wild African G. 
anomalum, and he concluded that the G. herbacewm order is primi- 
tive. G. arboreum differs from the primitive order by one transloca- 
tion, and the corresponding chromosome set in the New World 
allopolyploids differs from that in G. herbacewm by two and from 
that in G. arboreum by three. He therefore argued that G. arboreum 
is not in the main line of development from the primitive chromosome 
pattern to the modern allopolyploids. Since G. arboreum is the cot- 
ton of the Indian subcontinent and of the western coasts of the Pacific 
basin, it seemed to him unlikely that the link between the primitive 
diploids represented by G. herbaceum and the New World cottons of 
South and Central America was to be sought across southeast Asia. 

The difficulty of supposing that the allopolyploids arose following 
migration of an Old World cotton across the Atlantic lies not only 
in accounting for the ocean passage, but in also understanding how 
the two parents came in contact after the Old World cottons reached 


514 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


South America. Not only is the closest known New World wild 
relative confined to the Peruvian coast, but the whole group of New 
World wild species of Gossypium is distributed west of the continen- 
tal divide. Nevertheless, certain other fragments of evidence seem 
to point toward an eastern South American origin for the cottons. 
Engel [8] has reported that the crops of the ancient preceramic 
cotton-using cultures of the Peruvian coast include groundnuts 
(Arachis), which originated east of the Andes, probably [20] in 
northwestern Argentina, suggesting that the cultivators reached 
the coast from the mountains, and not from the sea. If they came 
over the mountains, they presumably brought their cotton with them. 

Archeological evidence from preceramic cultures in Peru is critical. 
If it could be shown that the people to whom these cultures belonged 
came there by sea, the recent-origin theory of the development of 
the New World cottons would be greatly strengthened, and a search 
of natural vegetation in remote valleys of the Peruvian coast should 
be undertaken in the hope of discovering a wild diploid species related 
to G. raimondii with characters more nearly those appropriate to the 
ancestor of the New World cottons. If, on the other hand, it turns 
out that the earliest Peruvian cotton farmers reached the coast from 
the mountains, the wild American diploid ancestor of the New World 
cottons might be sought east of the Andes, and not on the Pacific 
slopes. One would naturally look in arid areas for such a plant, and 
in the regions in which the other crops of the early cotton users 
originated. 

To accept an eastern South American origin for the New World 
cottons would involve accepting also an ancient and not a recent 
origin for the allopolyploids. The cultivation of cotton on the Atlantic 
coasts of Africa is very recent, and it would be necessary to suppose 
that the parents of the allopolyploid were both wild and came in con- 
tact by natural spread. The present distribution of the wild species 
of Gossypium has been interpreted [15] in terms of the distribution 
of the major land masses before the continents drifted apart. If the 
main species distinctions in Gossypium were already established at 
that time, and if a suitable wild diploid existed east of the Andes, a 
type akin to the South African G. herbaceum race africanum might 
have come naturally in contact with its counterpart, and the allopoly- 
ploid might have arisen in that way. Then Stebbins’s contention 
would be upheld, that the New World cottons are among the oldest, 
and not the youngest, of the known allopolyploid species. 

The trail of speculation about an ancient Atlantic origin for the 
New World cottons is as long and as scantily supplied with beacons as 
that about a recent Pacific origin. Nevertheless, speculation of this 
kind is worthwhile. For example, the original speculation influenced 
Bird in the choice of the Huaca Prieta as a site for archeological study. 


THE WORLD’S COTTONS—HUTCHINSON 515 


Following Gerstel’s suggestion and the archeological indications re- 
ported by Engel, it is possible to set out the conditions governing the 
possibility of a transatlantic link, and to point to two lines of investi- 
gation—archeological in Peru and botanical east of the Andes—that 
might make it possible to decide between the two hypotheses. This is 
anew and unexpected turn in the inquiry into the origin of the cottons. 
No mention has been made here of the third allopolyploid, G. tomen- 
tosum, which is a wild fuzzy-seeded—but not linted—species in 
Hawaii. Ever since the cytological situation in the genus was set out 
it has seemed that if the origin and relationship of G. tomentosum 
could be elucidated, the problem of the New World cottons would be 
solved. Now it appears that the origin of G. tomentosum is a separate 
and probably unimportant problem, and the real interest lies in the 
Peruvian Andes, and in the origin of the earliest cotton farmers of the 
Peruvian coast. 
REFERENCES 


. BEASLEY, J. O. Genetics, vol. 27, p. 25, 1942. 

. Birp, J. B. Nat. Hist., New York, September 1948, p. 296, 1948. 

. Birp, J. B., and Mautrr, J. Amer. Fabrics, vol. 20, p. 73, 1951-52. 

. CHEVALIER, A. Rev. Bot. Appl., vol. 13, p. 190, 19383. 

Coox, O. F., and Huxnparp, J. W. Journ. Heredity, vol. 17, p. 463, 1926. 

. Duperon, G. C. Min. Agric. Hgypt, 1916, No. 3a, 1917. 

. ENGEL, F. Journ. Soc. Américan., Paris, vol. 46, p. 67, 1957. 

. HncEL, F. Journ. Soc. Américan., Paris, vol. 49, p. 7, 1960. 

. GERSTEL, D. U. Evolution, vol. 7, p. 234, 1953. 

10. GERSTEL, D. U. Genetics, vol. 41, p. 31, 1956. 

11. Harxtanp, 8. C. Biol. Rev., vol. 11, p. 82, 1936. 

12. Harianp, 8. C. The genetics of cotton. Jonathan Cape, London, 1989. 

13. HutcHinson, J. B. Journ. Agric. Univ. Puerto Rico, vol. 28, p. 35, 1944. 

14. Hutcuinson, J. B., and MAannine, H. L. Emp. Journ. Exp. Agric., vol. 18, 
p. 80, 1945. 

15. HutcuHinson, J. B.; Stmow, R. A.; and STEPHENS, 8. G. Evolution of Gos- 
sypium. Oxford University Press, London, 1947. 

16. HutcHinson, J. B. Emp. Cotton Growing Rev., vol. 26, No. 1, 1949. 

17. HutcuHinson, J. B. Heredity, vol. 5, p. 161, 1951. 

18. HutcHinson, J. B. Heredity, vol. 8, p. 225, 1954. 

19. Hutcuinson, J. B. Application of genetics to cotton improvement. Cam- 
bridge University Press, London, 1959. 

20. Krapovickas, A., and Ricont, V. A. Darwiniana, Buenos Aires, vol. 11, 
p. 431, 1957. 

21. NicHOoLSON, G. HE. EHeon. Bot., vol. 14, p. 3, 1960. 

22. SAUNDERS, J. H. The wild species of Gossypium and their evolutionary his- 
tory, Oxford University Press, 1961. 

23. Strow, R. A. Journ. Genetics, vol. 42, p. 259, 1941. 

24. Strow, R. A. Journ. Genetics, vol. 46, p. 62, 1944. 

25. Sreppins, G. L. Ecol. Monogr., vol. 17, p. 149, 1947. 

26. StepHens, 8S. G. Trop. Agric., Trinidad, vol. 21, p. 23, 1944. 

27. Watt, G. Wild and cultivated cotton plants of the world. Longmans, 

London, 1907. 


CHAP MURWNH 


Some Mysteries of Life and Existence 


By R. E. Snoperass 1 


Honorary Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution 


INTRODUCTION 


The anatomists, the cytologists, the embryologists, the physiologists, 
the biochemists are continually giving us more and more facts about 
the structure, development, composition, and activities of living things. 
Yet beyond their farthermost advances there still remains in each 
phase of life an unresolved mystery. The mysteries of life are the 
various activities constantly going on in living matter, which can be 
observed, but cannot yet be explained. 

The universe itself is one vast mystery. All matter, in a last analy- 
sis, consists of the component particles of atoms—protons, neutrons, 
and electrons. These are united in about a hundred kinds of known 
atoms, which combine to form innumerable kinds of molecules, gase- 
ous, liquid, gelatinous, and solid. It is the energies inherent in these 
elementary cosmic units that account for all the activities of matter, 
both inanimate and animate. The final mystery of the universe and of 
everything in it, then, is the nature and origin of matter. The basis of 
life in its simplest form is the chemical interaction of certain kinds of 
molecules when the latter come together in appropriate conditions. 
Life, therefore, is one with the movements of the stars and the planets, 
the heat of the sun, radiant energy, volcanic eruptions, and simple 
chemical reactions, all of which are manifestations of atomic and 
molecular energies. While this thought greatly simplifies our concept 
of the universe, it only magnifies the mystery of it all. 

The biologist studies the various phases of life in plants and animals, 
but generally he regards it as no part of his science to explain the 
invisible forces that activate living matter. The general public gives 
little thought to such subjects. We plant a tiny seed knowing that 
it will give rise to a plant of the kind from which it came, perhaps a 
huge tree, for example, which will put out thousands of leaves all 
essentially alike, and repeat the same year after year. We see all this 
without emotion, just as we see young animals, or even our own chil- 
dren, grow up to be adults of their species. Such things are so com- 


Dr. Snodgrass died on September 4, 1962.—Eprror. 
517 


518 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


monplace that we take them for granted, not realizing that we live in 
the midst of mysteries, or that we ourselves are one of the greatest 
mysteries in nature. 

From this paper the reader must not expect to get any factual infor- 
mation beyond what is well known. The discussions that follow are 
simply ratiocinations about things we do not know, and theories that 
attempt to explain them. 


IN THE BEGINNING 


We begin with the most abstruse of all mysteries, the question of 
how did the universe come into existence. In the book of Genesis we 
are definitely told that on the first day, whenever that was, the heavens 
and the earth were created and that, on the third day following, the 
sun and stars were made. No astronomer can accept this statement. 
To say the least, the writer got his dates badly mixed, since it is cer- 
tain that the earth did not float around in space for 4 days before mak- 
ing connections with the sun. Moreover, “creation,” as we must now 
visualize it, did not begin with the formation of stars and planets all 
ready-made, but with the elemental particles of matter. Since atoms 
are no longer indivisible units, the first forms of matter should have 
been protons, neutrons, and electrons. 

There are only two possible ways to account for the existence of the 
universe; either matter was created, or it has always existed. The 
technique of creation, making something out of nothing, no one has 
even attempted to explain, and the process is quite impossible for us to 
understand. On the other hand, that anything can exist without a 
beginning is something we cannot visualize; “always” is a stretch of 
time our finite minds cannot grasp. Yet we can hardly conceive of 
time having had a beginning—we rather confidently speak of eternity 
in the opposite direction—nor can we think of space as having limits. 
Time can be limited only by more time, and space by more space. 
However, there is the theory of some astronomers that radiation from 
the sun and stars is produced by the annihilation of atoms. In this 
case, Jeans (1921) points out, the present matter of the universe could 
not always have been here, and so he postulates that annihilation must 
be compensated by creation, but he is not explicit as to how the latter 
takes place. Material existence has to be taken as a fact, but the ques- 
tion of origins will forever remain a double mystery. As said by 
Jeans, there is “a growing conviction that the ultimate realities of the 
universe are at present quite beyond the reach of science, and may be— 
and probably are—forever beyond the comprehension of the human 
mind.” It is a relief to feel that there are things so far beyond us 
that we need not even try to understand them. 

Material existence has to be accepted as a fact, and we can endure 
perpetual ignorance concerning the origin or beginning of the uni- 


MYSTERIES OF LIFE AND EXISTENCE—SNODGRASS 519 


verse. The important thing to realize is that, however it may have 
begun, the universe is still composed of the elemental particles of 
matter and that the energy with which these particles were originally 
endowed is the source of all energies and activities, inanimate and 
animate, later developed as the universe evolved. 

Gamow (1952), under the misleading title of the “creation” of the 
universe, gives us a very good picture of its evolution from a vast, hot, 
seething, gaseous mass of the primary particles of matter. Later, as 
the mass began to cool and expand, protons, neutrons, and electrons 
combined to form atoms, and atoms united into molecules. Cloudlike 
condensations formed galaxies, condensations in the galaxies became 
stars, and finally the planets were formed. It is wonderful what 
atomic physics, mathematics, and imagination can do for astronomy, 
but still it is disconcerting to find how much of it is theoretical. Urey 
(1952), for example, lists five theories, beginning with that of La- 
place, which have been proposed to explain the origin of the solar 
planets. Of these theories he discredits all except the idea that the 
sun was first surrounded by a vast cloud of dust which condensed 
into the planets. However, we need not here be concerned with cosmic 
theories; they all have to come out with things as they are, the earth a 
globe fitted for life, the other planets still to be investigated in this 
respect. 

The earth at last, perhaps 3 billion years ago, acquired a solid rocky 
crust, but still it was intensely hot, and volcanoes everywhere were 
throwing out liquid matter from below. All was shrouded in dense 
cloud masses. Given a billion years to cool, the clouds condensed into 
torrential rains that filled depressions on the earth’s surface and 
formed the primitive oceans. (Never again until the time of Noah 
was there sucha rain as this.) The rain brought down chemicals from 
the atmosphere, washed them out of the rocky hillsides, from the 
voleanic lava, and poured them all into the standing waters. With the 
clouds dispersed, sunshine floods the earth and ultraviolet radiation 
penetrates the atmosphere. The stage is now set for the beginning of 
life. 

The picture above presented of conditions on the earth before the 
advent of life is that visualized by theorists on life’s origin. However, 
as generally in matters incapable of proof, different writers have 
advanced quite different theories on the nature of the young world 
(see Urey, 1952). 

THE ORIGIN OF LIFE 


Ideas concerning the beginning of life on the world are necessarily 
theoretical, but the biochemists have worked out a theory that is now 
generally approved or accepted. It is derived from the fact that the 
basis of all life at present is the chemical interaction of organic sub- 


520 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


stances in the units of living matter called cells. It is reasoned, 
therefore, that if similar substances were first brought together in 
pools of water or along the shores of the primary seas, the same chem- 
ical reactions would take place as at present, and thus give the begin- 
ning of life. This theory has been particularly well worked out by 
Oparin (1938, 1961), whose ideas have been so closely followed by 
others, as by Wald (1954), Adler (1957), and Lehrman (1961) here 
cited, that fortunately we have only one plausible theory on the sub- 
ject to deal with, which fact in itself is a good recommendation for it. 
The general reader may find the theory well presented by Platt (1961) 
in the Reader’s Digest. Briefly reviewed, this modern scientific con- 
cept of the origin of life is as follows: 

Among the chemicals poured into the waters of the earth by the 
rains were simple organic compounds freely formed in nature. As 
time went on, some of these substances came together in small groups 
forming droplets of organic material in a gelatinous or colloidal state, 
such as are known as coacervates. When organic molecules get to- 
gether in a water medium, things begin to happen. Some are broken 
down into simpler molecules, some of which are thrown out, while 
others are taken in from the surrounding water and assimilated to 
restore the internal balance. Thus metabolism, the basic activity of 
life, began on a small scale. Though most of the coacervates were 
highly unstable and soon went to pieces, those in which a balance 
of output and intake was preserved endured. These persisting coa- 
cervates could now be said to be alive. With feeding, the mass became 
too large and simply broke into two parts, perhaps as a lump of jelly 
might be divided. Thus the simple organisms multiplied; those best 
fitted to survive were preserved by natural selection and became the 
progenitors of future life forms. In the words of Adler (1957), 
“through the slow accumulation of changes during hundreds of mil- 
lions of years, coacervates finally developed that had the complex, deli- 
cately balanced, and stable chemical processes that we call life.” 

Some writers, as Moskin (1962), refer to the origin of life in mat- 
ter as “creation” of life, but clearly there is no act of creation involved. 

The materials that first became living matter had been in existence 
since the beginning. They were simply brought together under cir- 
cumstances that allowed their inherent energies to interact in a new 
way. 

The chemical activities of living matter require a constant supply 
of energy. ‘The principal source of life’s energy today is the oxida- 
tion of food, but the theorists tell us that when life began and for a 
long period afterward there was no oxygen or very little in the earth’s 
atmosphere. At this time it is supposed that energy was produced 
by fermentation, a very slow process, but there were millions of years 
during which living matter could leisurely develop and improve. It 


MYSTERIES OF LIFE AND EXISTENCE—SNODGRASS 521 


was not until plants acquired chlorophyll and developed the process 
of photosynthesis that oxygen was liberated from carbon dioxide and 
energy became available by oxidation. Thereafter organic substances 
were produced in abundance by living things themselves, and the life 
processes were speeded up by the acquisition of enzymes. Since all 
the earliest known animals were air breathers, the plants must have 
had the water well oxygenated by the time of the Pre-Cambrian, and 
made the land habitable for all the air-breathing creatures that came 
later to populate the earth. There is no doubt that plants are now 
the ultimate source of all animal food; it is difficult to believe, how- 
ever, that we are indebted to them also for all the oxygen we breathe 
today. Another theory contends that oxygen and other gases have 
seeped through the earth’s crust from the interior. 

The biochemical theory of life’s origin here reviewed should be 
as convincing as any visionary theory on the subject could be. It is 
the hope of the biochemists that it may sometime be demonstrated by 
the artificial synthesis of life in the laboratory. Im this event, the 
mystery of life would not be its origin, but the nature of the chemical 
forces in organic compounds by which they give life to lifeless 
matter. 

There have been other theories concerning the origin of life on the 
earth. A fanciful idea that once appealed to the credulous held that 
germs of life prevaded the universe and that drifting through space 
they have developed on any planet that offered favorable conditions. 
This theory neatly avoids the question of life’s origin. It may read- 
ily be admitted that if the same chemicals and the same conditions are 
present on some other planet as on ours, life may have appeared 
there as on the earth. But it is highly improbable that evolution fol- 
lowed the same course and produced higher forms of life comparable 
to those that have evolved here. The “man from Mars” will probably 
be found to be just as fictitious as the “man in the moon.” 

Down to almost modern times a belief has persisted in the spon- 
taneous generation of living creatures, such as the production of mag- 
gots from the flesh of dead animals, or the origin of microorganisms 
from the scum of foul water. Even in the writer’s early days we 
never doubted that threadworms (Gordius) found in the old horse 
watering-troughs were animated horse hairs. Modern biology has 
callously put an end to all such romance. 

From the theoretical primitive forms of life it is still a long way 
to the organized cell with its nucleus, chromosomes and genes, centri- 
oles, and mitochondria. Unfortunately, however, as Oparin (1938) 
says, “the origin of the cell is perhaps the most obscure point in the 
whole study of the evolution of organisms.” No intermediate forms 
are known, and theories have not yet bridged the gap. Viruses are 
not a primitive form of life because they can reproduce only in other 


522 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


organisms, and bacteria cannot live alone in nature. If, however, 
we can once account for the origin of an amoeba, evolution from 
Protozoa to man is relatively easy. 


CELL DIVISION, REPRODUCTION, AND HEREDITY 


Since no form of life is individually immortal, there would be no 
living thing on the earth today if the first living creatures had not 
devised a means of multiplication. The simplest type of reproduction 
is the division of a unicellular animal into two duplicating cells, and 
cell division is still the basis of reproduction in all higher animals. 
In the simpler Protozoa it begins with a division of the nucleus, fol- 
lowed by a constriction of the cell between the daughter nuclei, and 
ends with a complete separation of the cell into two cells. In others 
the mechanism becomes variously more complex until it comes to re- 
semble that characteristic of the Metazoa. In some of the Protozoa 
the successively formed cells, instead of separating as individuals, ad- 
here in a mass, forming a many-celled animal of a sort, such as Vol- 
vox, in which there is some coordination among the individuals, but 
little differentiation of structure, except that certain cells assume the 
function of reproduction. With the true many-celled animals, or 
Metazoa, however, the cells are so closely adherent that they practi- 
cally lose their individualities, and groups of them differentiate into 
complex organs of various functions. 

In some of the lower Metazoa the body cells may retain a repro- 
ductive potential sufficient to regenerate lost appendages or even a 
large part of the body including the head. Among the higher ani- 
mals this faculty becomes reduced to wound healing. In general, re- 
production is the function of special cells set apart for the purpose. 
The germ cells are differentiated into male and female cells which, 
with few exceptions, must first unite in pairs before development 
begins. The combination of the male and female elements in the 
zygote, or egg, combines hereditary material from two parental 
sources, and is usually accredited with inducing more structural vari- 
ations in the adult for natural selection to work on in the evolution 
of species. Sexual reproduction occurs among the Protozoa, some 
of which come together in pairs and unite, while others simply ex- 
change nuclear material. Among the metazoic animals and in the 
flowering plants it is all but universal. Bisexual reproduction, there- 
fore, evidently has had a strong evolutionary influence. Only in a 
few invertebrates, as in the honey bee, does the unfertilized egg 
develop. 

Since the number of chromosomes in the body cells of the Metazoa is 
typical for each species, the primary germ cells undergo a reduction 
division by which the number of chromosomes is halved. Union of the 
sex cells at the time of fertilization then restores the normal chromo- 


MYSTERIES OF LIFE AND EXISTENCE—SNODGRASS 523 


some equipment of the species. Sexual reproduction, therefore, is 
dependent on chromosome reduction in the conjugating cells, but the 
same thing takes place in every dividing cell. In ordinary cell divi- 
sion, however, the chromosomes are first doubled. 

When we turn from the gross structure of an animal to what goes 
on within its cells, we leave the realm of anatomy for that of bio- 
chemistry. Here we find ourselves in a totally different world of life, 
in fact, in that of life itself, and we encounter phenomena quite dif- 
ferent from anything we have experienced before. 

The mechanism of cell division in the Metazoa is highly developed 
in a form known as mitosis (see Mazia, 1953). In the resting cell the 
nuclear chromosomes are long, tangled filaments, but preceding 
mitosis they condense into darkly staining bodies usually of a definite 
number in each species. Prior to this the chromosomes have divided 
each into two, so that now they are present in identical pairs. A 
small body in the cytoplasm, known as the centriole, then divides and 
the two parts move to opposite poles of the cell. Threadlike fibers 
radiate out from each centriole, forming a spindle through the nucleus, 
which now accommodatingly loses its wall. Some of the threads 
extend from pole to pole, others attach to individual chromosomes. 
The two chromosomes of each pair then move to opposite poles as if 
pulled by the threads, but the mechanism of their movement is not 
fully understood. Each chromosome group becomes a new nucleus. 
Finally the cell constricts at the equator between the nuclei and even- 
tually divides into two duplicate cells. 

All this coordinated activity observed in the dividing cell appears 
to take place automatically. It can be followed under the microscope, 
but there is no visible evidence of what causes the phenomena seen. 

The biochemists have shown that the principal substance of the 
chromosomes in all animals is a chemical known as deoxyribonucleic 
acid, of highly complex molecules. This acid, called DNA, is truly a 
most remarkable stuff; it is the “dictator” of all the cell activities, 
including cell metabolism and the growth of the embryo developed 
from the egg. Intensive studies of these subjects have been made by 
the biochemists in recent years. A dramatic example of the creative 
power of DNA is seen in the infection of a bacterium by a virus. The 
virus cell discharges its DNA into the bacterium, and here, at the 
expense of the bacterial cytoplasm, the DNA molecules not only 
replicate themselves but form complete new virus cells, as many as 
200, which are discharged with the rupture of the bacterium (Jacob 
and Wollman, 1961). 

The cytoplasmic changes that differentiate the multiplying cells are 
said to be done strictly “on orders” from the DNA of the nucleus, and 
are carried to the cytoplasm by a related substance RNA (ribonucleic 
acid) catalyzed by enzymes from the DNA. In connection with 


524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


nodules (ribosomes) in the cytoplasm RNA then synthesizes the amino 
acids of the cell into the proteins and enzymes necessary for the 
specific function the cell is destined to assume. 

The fertilized egg is the mother cell of her offspring. To each cell 
is given explicit “instructions” as to just what is to be its role in dupli- 
cating the form and structure of its immediate ancestor. The bio- 
chemists are attempting to explain all this, but still it seems one of 
the most mysterious things in the whole physical realm of nature. As 
said by Fischberg and Blackler (1961), “Long before men knew any- 
thing about cells, much less molecules, they were familiar with one of 
the most tangible mysteries in nature: out of a simple-looking egg 
emerges a living organism, complete and perfect in every detail and 
unimaginably complex. Each organ just the right size and in the 
right place and contains the right kind of cell to carry on its special- 
ized function. Today we are scarcely less mystified. How does the 
undifferentiated cell of a cleaving egg turn into a specialized cell of 
heart, liver, nerve, bone, or muscle?” Needham (1942) gave an ex- 
haustive review of the status of biochemistry and morphogenesis as of 
20 years ago, occupying 677 pages based on more than 2,400 citations. 
Bonner (1962) now gives us an up-to-date account of more recent 
developments in the biochemistry of the genetic materials. Yet both 
authors leave us still with the mystery of how chemical substances 
determine and contro] the development of the egg into an embryo that 
reproduces the structure of its parents, whether a mouse, a bird, a dog, 
a man, or an insect. According to Bonner the mechanism of cell 
differentiation is still unknown. The biochemists, of course, ardently 
believe that some day the mystery may be dispelled ; but let us hope this 
will not be too soon, for when all the facts of life are known, biology 
will lose its interest. 

The specific factors of heredity we have long been told are bodies 
called genes, thousands of them distributed along the length of the 
chromosomes. We might then suppose them to be something like 
seeds in a pod. However, it appears that not yet has a gene been 
isolated and studied individually. They are parts of the DNA mole- 
cules, which the biochemists now regard as the basic material of 
heredity. That the genes are specific somethings, however, is evident 
from the fact that changes (mutations) attributed to them are re- 
flected in hereditary changes in the adult. These changes are the 
structural variations by which natural selection has evolved new 
species. The genes of a modern animal, therefore, include those that 
formed it by mutation, and hence they can reproduce its present 
structure. 

We should very much like to understand how the chemical DNA, 
whether of the genes or the chromosome molecules, or both, ean influ- 
ence the proliferating cells to build up an embryo and finally an adult 


MYSTERIES OF LIFE AND EXISTENCE—SNODGRASS 525 


of the parent species. The geneticists and biochemists tell us that 
on the chromosomes of the cell nucleus is encoded the entire plan for 
the development of the embryo, which serves as a working blueprint 
for the developing cells. ‘To clarify this somewhat anthropomorphic 
statement, it must be explained that the language of the code is that 
of molecular chemistry, which the biochemists are industriously trying 
to interpret. (See numerous papers in the Scientific American dur- 
ing the past 10 years.) The code characters are said to be different 
combinations of the component elements of the DNA molecules. The 
message is delivered in the form of enzymes, but the language of 
enzymes has not been fully translated. 

Though the fact of embryonic development from a single cell is 
commonplace knowledge, that it is done by the chemically guided 
interaction of cell molecules is almost unbelievable. Yet no other 
power can be invoked, no outside force normally affects the embryo. 
Though the chemical basis of embryogeny may be a mystery beyond 
cur comprehension, we have to accept it as a fact. It makes us one 
with the physical universe. Without DNA we might still be one-celled 
animals. 

When the embryo is once established, DNA seems to delegate its 
authority largely to organizers. An organizer is any part of the em- 
bryo that induces a neighboring part to develop in a particular way. 
The effective chemical substance emitted by an organizer is called an 
evocator. That chemicals can produce specific forms of growth in 
living tissue is clearly demonstrated in the formation of plant galls by 
insects. Something injected into the plant by the female insect when 
she inserts her eggs, or something excreted by the larvae, causes an 
abnormal growth of the plant tissue into a gall specific of the insect 
species that caused it. 


CELL MOVEMENTS 


The free-living Protozoa are one-celled motile animals; in fact it 
is because of their movements that we recognize them as living things. 
Simplest of them is the amoeba, a minute shapeless mass of proto- 
plasm, and yet it moves, ingests particles from the water, digests and 
assimilates those of food value, ejects the others, reacts to external 
stimuli, and reproduces itself. The amoeba thus performs all the 
essential functions of the higher animals, but does them in a very 
simpler manner. 

The amoeba moves in any direction by throwing out fingerlike proc- 
esses of its body called pseudopodia. Since it can project pseudopods 
from any part of its body, it has no permanent anterior or posterior 
end. If it comes into contact with a solid object, it turns one way or 
another, just as would any other living animal. But what is life in 
such a simple creature? The experimentalists tell us (see Meier and 


526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Schneirla, 1935, pp. 14-23) that in response to the stimulus of touch 
on the amoeba a chemical reaction is produced that sets up currents 
in the body protoplasm resulting in the extension of a pseudopod and 
movement of the body. According to the strength of the stimulus, 
movement may be toward or away from the point of stimulation. 
Forward movement is explained by Allen (1962) as due to contrac- 
tion of the pseudopods. If this is animal life in its simplest mani- 
festation, it is little more than chemical and physical reactions induced 
in a plastic substance by external stimuli. Other protozoons have 
become more complex in structure and have developed specific motor 
organs in the form of vibratile cilia or flagella. 

The protozoons all move by some visible motor mechanism, but some 
cells in the tissue of plants or animals have been described as simply 
moving in a purposeful direction without giving any evidence of how 
they do it. Several examples of this are given by Lewis (1940). One 
is that of spicule-carrying cells in sponges, described by Schroder 
(1936). The primary spicule is formed as an axial filament in the 
cytoplasm of a cell, which then dies. Another silica-containing cell 
now comes up and discharges its silica on the young spicule, which is 
thus increased in thickness. Other cells then attach themselves to the 
spicule and transport it to its proper place in the sponge body. It 
would be useless to ask what motivates or operates these transporting 
cells. 

A still more remarkable example of activity in tissue cells has been 
ascribed to the flatworm Microstomum, described by Lewis from 
the studies of Kepner, Gregory, and Porter (1938). The worm eats 
the green freshwater hydra and ingests its nematocysts (epidermal 
cells with projectile threads). The hydra possesses four kinds of 
nematocysts, in two of which the threads are stinging, a third kind 
adhesive, and the fourth grasping. All four kinds of nematocysts are 
taken into the stomach of the worm and penetrate through the 
stomach wall into the parenchyma. Here the nonstinging nemato- 
cysts are digested and absorbed as being of no use to the worm. The 
stinging nematocysts, however, are transported by certain parenchyma 
cells to the epidermis, where they are oriented with the threads 
directed outward. At the point of contact of each nematocyst with an 
epidermal cell, the latter becomes pitted internally and externally to 
allow the discharge of the nematocysts thread. Thus Aficrostomum 
arms itself with the stinging nematocysts of the hydra as weapons for 
its own defense. After 100 hours all ingested nematocysts are ready 
for action, but when the epidermis if fully loaded, the superfluous 
nematocysts are retained in the stomach and thrown out of the mouth. 

“Thus it becomes evident,” the authors point out “that endoderm, 
parenchyma, and epidermis of microstomum cooperate in the manipu- 
lation of hydra’s nematocysts.” “In all this conduct,” according to 


MYSTERIES OF LIFE AND EXISTENCE—SNODGRASS 527 


the senior author, “physical and chemical factors are involved, but 
some organizer appears to be directing these factors.” The “or- 
ganizer,” however, does not visibly appear, nor is it evident what the 
motor force of the transporting cells may be, even if their activities 
are directed by an organizer. A further mystery is: how did these 
coordinated activities originate in the evolutionary history of Micro- 
stomum, and then become transmitted by heredity? Some zoologists 
are reluctant to accept this story of Aficrostomum and the nematocysts 
of hydra, but Lewis (1940) and Tinbergen (1951) quote it without 
comment. 
INSTINCT 


A primarily distinctive quality of animals is mobility, only a few 
having adopted secondarily a sedentary life by attachment to a sup- 
port. A moving animal encounters differences in the environment, 
some of which are advantageous to it and others harmful. Movement, 
therefore, must be capable of regulation. In some way the animal 
must be sensitive to environmental conditions, and its sensory impres- 
sions must be transmitted to the motor system. 

The simplest animal movements are those of the Protozoa. They in- 
clude avoiding reactions to obstructions, the avoidance of unfavorable 
chemical conditions in the water, and in some cases reaction to light. 
The protozoons move either by changes in the shape of the body or 
by the action of external cilia or flagella. Yet they have no specific 
sense organs, nervous system, or muscles; the one-celled body evidently 
acts in all three capacities. 

The many-celled animals have a great advantage in the potentiality 
for cell differentiation. This has enabled them to develop specific 
sensory, conductive, and motor tissues along with efficient organs of 
locomotion. Their capacity for varied movements, therefore, is prac- 
tically unlimited. In the lower Metazoa, probably including all the 
invertebrates, the sensory-nervous-muscular circuit works automati- 
cally in response to a sensory stimulus. The resulting behavior of the 
animal is called instinct. Instincts, thus, having a purely physical 
basis, are acquired by structural inheritance, are not learned, and re- 
quire no act of consciousness on the part of the animal. Instincts are 
present also in all the higher animals, but in the vertebrates, with the 
development of the forebrain, the faculty of consciousness appears, 
leading to intelligence, and instincts become of less and less impor- 
tance, until in man they are all but suppressed. Animals guided by 
instinct seldom make mistakes, but they cannot adjust their actions to 
changed conditions. Animals with intelligence, on the other hand, 
are prone to make mistakes or to do the wrong thing, but they can 
correct their errors and adjust their actions to circumstances. 

Tinbergen (1951) in his book on “Instinct” discusses animal be- 
havior that subserves the individual, such as locomotion, feeding, 

672-174_63 39 


528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


avoidance of danger, fighting, and reproduction. Activities of this 
nature are mostly direct reflexes to stimuli and might be termed 
instincts of intrinsic behavior because they have to do with the welfare 
and life of the individual. On the other hand, many animals have 
constructive instincts for nest-building, cocoon-spinning, web-making, 
etc. Such instincts may be distinguished as instincts of extrinsic 
behavior. They are comparable to tool-making, house-building, and 
the manufacture of mechanical appliances by the human species. As 
a third class of instincts we might include the migratory drive of some 
animals, such as that of the eels, the salmon, many birds, and some 
insects. 

Intrinsic behavior is common to all animals, varying according to 
the habits, structure, and sensory equipment of each species. Ex- 
trinsic instincts are most highly developed in the insects, spiders, 
birds, and some mammals. It is of particular interest because the 
constructural procedure of the animal often closely resembles human 
workmanship, and yet is unlearned and acquired by heredity. 

Examples of extrinsic instinct among the insects are so well known 
they scarcely need to be cited. They include the familiar cocoon- 
spinning of the caterpillars, nest-building by the wasps, comb-making 
by the honey bees, and the construction of above-ground nests by some 
termites. 

The spiders have long been famous for their spinning of silken 
webs. The types of webs vary from the too familiar formless mass of 
threads spun by the house spider to the flat orbs of the outdoor garden 
spiders. Each species of the latter, as noted by Crompton (1950), 
builds one fixed pattern of web, but the talents of the different species 
vary. A relatively simple example of a flat web is that of Hyptiotes 
paradoxus, which is a triangle with two inner radii diverging from 
the apex, and the interradial spaces filled with cross-threads. The 
spider’s method of making this web is described in detail by Peters 
(1938), who shows that the spider follows a complex but entirely 
orderly plan of construction. Clearly she “knows” in advance what 
the completed web must be like and exactly how to make it. As many 
separate acts are involved as there are threads in the web, and yet the 
spider goes from one to the next as if she carries the whole plan in her 
mind. Still more elaborate and complex are the orb webs of Aranea, 
but even in the spinning of these webs the spider is just as competent 
and methodical as Hyptiotes. 

A human workman making a fabric as intricate as a spider’s web 
would have to learn in advance how to do the job, or he first would 
work out a plan in his mind or on paper. Then he would consciously 
direct the action of his arms and fingers for each phase of the work. 
The spider, on the other hand, never learned how to spin a web, or 
how to make one of the particular pattern characteristics of her 


MYSTERIES OF LIFE AND EXISTENCE—SNODGRASS 529 


species. Yet to all appearances she regulates her actions just as does 
the human workman. She is assumed to work automatically like a 
machine, with no consciousness to direct her operations. Yet at the 
end of one act something shifts her nerve impulses to the muscles 
proper for the next act in the series that leads to the completed web. 

In some ways other than web-spinning Aranea seems to show some- 
thing resembling intelligence. When an insect lands in the web, the 
spider comes out of her retreat to inspect it and takes action according 
to the nature of the captive or its display of activity. An ordinary fly 
she carries off at once and makes quick work of it. In the case of a 
grasshopper she is more cautious and deliberates before acting. Then, 
according to Crompton (1950), she directs the end of her abdomen 
toward the grasshopper and throws out a mass of silk, not in the form 
of threads but as a sheet that completely enswathes the victim, which 
now bound and helpless the spider drags to her retreat and leisurely 
feeds on its blood. A wasp or a bee is first examined with suspicious 
caution. The wasp, evidently recognized as dangerous, is either cut 
out of the web or allowed to escape by its own efforts; a bee may be 
successfully wrapped up and carried off. Such acts on the part of the 
spider look like reasoned judgment, but since the spider is not sup- 
posed to have reason, her behavior must be merely reactions according 
to the nature of the visual stimulus. The spider presumably receives 
a different ocular stimulus from the fly, the grasshopper, or the wasp, 
each of which activates an appropriate set of muscles. If we accept 
this explanation we are faced with the question as to how the nerve 
connections are prearranged in advance to give the proper response. 
Hither the spider deceives us in appearing to act as if she has some 
slight degree of intelligence, or we deceive ourselves in thinking that 
she has none. 

The ground-living wolf spider, Zycosa, spins no web to entangle 
her prey, but she encloses her eggs in a silken cocoon, which she at- 
taches to her body and drags with her wherever she goes until the 
voung hatch. As observed by Crompton (1950) the mother ZLycosa 
now appears to have such a sentimental attachment to her ball of eggs 
that she will fight to the death to retain it. Yet she does not know 
her own cocoon from that of another spider, since she will readily 
accept a substitute, or even an artificial cocoon made of cork. Clearly 
the female Zycosa does not know that the cocoon she so sedulously 
guards contains the eggs that will guarantee the perpetuation of her 
species. Her apparent emotional attachment to the cocoon is merely 
a temporary physiological condition necessary for the security of the 
eggs during the incubation period, comparable to the development of 
the milk glands and the physical modification of the uterus during 
pregnancy in a mammal. In neither case is “maternal instinct” 
involved. 


530 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The moth caterpillar is another noted silk-spinner. its spinning 
apparatus is operative from the time it leaves the egg, but only when 
the caterpillar comes to the end of its feeding life does some internal 
condition dictate the spinning of a cocoon. Now, without any pre- 
liminary practice, each caterpillar knows just how to construct a 
cocoon like that of its predecessors in which to await its dissolution in 
the pupa. The cocoon is for the protection of the pupa in which the 
adult moth will be formed. 

Notwithstanding all that has been written on the subject of animal 
instinct, the physical mechanism of instinctive behavior is still un- 
known. Simple instincts may be mere reflexes to stimuli, but complex 
instincts of action and construction, involving a series of coordinated 
reflexes, are not easily explainable. A single neuromuscular arc may 
serve for a simple reflex, but it is hardly to be supposed that a complex 
instinct involves the presence of as many preformed circuits as there 
are separate acts in the performance. The spinning spider, then, 
would have to be a complete, automatic web-making machine con- 
structed to run through the whole series of acts involved in spinning 
the web. Yet the spider has only one set of muscles, and a different 
action of the same muscles would have to be stimulated for each act. 
It would seem, therefore, that there must be some mechanism in the 
central nervous system that determines the muscular reaction for each 
stimulus. This may be what has been called the “innate releasing 
mechanism,” but giving something a name does not explain what it is. 

Some biologists do not like the term “instinct” because it cannot 
be defined and is often used to mean some mysterious inner sense of 
the animal. Yet the word is indispensable for convenience in writing 
about animal behavior; at least it stands for visible facts. 

As we ascend the ranks of the animal kingdom instinct plays an 
ever-decreasing role until in man it is almost abolished, except for 
a few acts such as grasping and sucking during infancy. Among 
the birds, however, instincts for nest-building are equal to anything 
in the insect world or the web-spinning of the spiders. Many of the 
smaller rodents dig burrows that are specific of their kind, and the 
beaver is noted for the construction of dams and the building of 
houses. The house cat, though she has no idea of sanitation, care- 
fully covers her voided feces when out of doors, and will go through 
the motions even on a wooden floor. Kittens in their play stalk each 
other and crouch for a final spring, just as did their unknown an- 
cestors hunting prey in the wild. 

Finally there is the seeming mystery of instinct inheritance. If, 
however, instinct depends, as it somehow must, on physical structure 
and organization, it is no more inherited as such than are physio- 
logical activities, which are functions of inheritable physical organs. 


MYSTERIES OF LIFE AND EXISTENCE—SNODGRASS 531 


CONSCIOUSNESS 


The spoken pronoun “I” usually does not refer to the physical 
body of the speaker, but to an abstract feeling of conscious individu- 
ality that is he himself. Yet no amount of introspection will reveal 
to us what our consciousness is. Small wonder then that the concept 
of human duality has long prevailed, that a nonmaterial spirit, soul, 
or psyche resides within our physical bodies, which receives sensations 
from the outer world, is master of the body, thinks, and gives orders 
to our muscles. AI] this, however, from a strictly scientific viewpoint 
is a creation of the imagination; “spirit” and “soul” are mere words 
without intelligible definitions. Biologically, we might ask how 
could an immaterial nothing be duplicated from generation to genera- 
tion? If the mind is not a function of something material, there is 
no known mechanism of psychic inheritance, or of mental evolution 
from ape to man. 

Since even the strongest advocates of duality of mind and body 
cannot explain what they mean by consciousness, some psychologists, 
as Watson (1930), practically deny the existence of consciousness, 
and hence that it can dictate our actions. The creed of the behavior- 
ists 1s “Hvery human action is a mechanical reflex response to a stimu- 
lus.” Physiology, according to Mitchell (1923), has for its final goal 
“nothing less than a complete interpretation of life phenomena in 
terms applicable to nonliving mechanisms—in short, a physico-chemi- 
cal explanation of life.” He admits, however, the goal is yet far 
away and dim. Lashley (1923) points out that the mechanistic view 
of human behavior conforms with the general principles of physical 
mechanics, and makes the animal no exception. The human body, it 
is argued, is a physical mechanism and must be subject to the laws 
of mechanics. ‘Therefore, according to this view an immaterial 
“mind” or “consciousness” cannot modify or guide the actions of the 
body. 

This argument does not seem to negate the existence of conscious- 
ness; it simply denies that consciousness has any activating function, 
and reduces it to brain action accompanying physical activities. Ac- 
cording to Herrick (1924) disembodied functions are not recognized 
in biology as causes of anything. “It is the functioning organ which 
is the cause, and it seems to be at least a plausible inference that the 
observed effects of mind on body are in reality effects of one function- 
ing organ (the brain thinking) on other parts of the body.” “Con- 
sciousness, then, is a factor in behavior, a real cause of human conduct, 
and probably to some extent in that of other animals.” 

There can be no doubt that the seat of consciousness is the brain. 
Consciousness is totally abolished by serious injury to the brain, or 
by shutting off the blood supply to it. Consciousness is aroused, 


532 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


except by abnormal conditions in the brain itself, only by the dis- 
charge of sensory nerve impulses into the brain cortex. Troland 
(1926) believes that consciousness is generated in the nerve associa- 
tion centers (synapses) that occupy most of the cortex. However, 
we do not locate our feeling of consciousness in the brain. A pain, 
for example, is felt at the point of physical injury, but if the nerves 
to the brain are deadened by an anesthetic we do not feel a surgical 
operation or the pulling of a tooth. In the same way our other sen- 
sory perceptions are projected to the objects or conditions that stimu- 
late the sense organs. Consciousness is the perception of what we 
see, hear, or feel. Yet the brain action, whatever it may be, is essen- 
tial to the conscious sensation. 

Human consciousness, then, is merely a mental experience gen- 
erated in the brain by nerve impulses from the sense organs. A nerve 
impulse is a wave of metabolism propagated through the nerve, ac- 
companied by an electrical disturbance, and is the same from what- 
ever sense organ it is engendered. The nerve structure may be 
adapted to its function, but the resulting form of consciousness de- 
pends on the particular brain center to which the nerve goes. Our 
conscious perceptions correspond with the varieties of sense organs we 
possess. 

Our ordinary state of consciousness, when nothing disturbs us, is 
the sum of all sensory impressions external and internal received at 
any one time. If the sensory nerves gradually cease to convey mes- 
sages, we fall asleep and consciousness disappears. 

With most of us awareness of our surroundings seems so real that 
we cannot doubt the reality of consciousness, if only as a sensation. 
Surely, pain, fear, anger, pleasure are states of consciousness that 
may induce muscular movements, but few of us can be convinced 
that our everyday acts are not consciously dictated. Yet we do not 
know how we perform actions that we ascribe to intent. Picking 
up a pencil from the table, for example, seems to be a perfectly simple 
voluntary act, but the human arm, shoulder, hand, and fingers con- 
tain more than 40 muscles, and we do not know what muscles we use, 
or how they are stimulated and coordinated in action to carry out 
the dictates of our “will.” 

Though we must admit, then, that consciousness is real and is some- 
how a product of brain activity, by no effort of the imagination can 
we understand it. As said by Sperry (1952): “Despite steady ad- 
vancement in our knowledge of the brain, the intrinsic nature of mind 
and its relation to cerebral excitation remains as much an enigma 
today as it was a hundred years ago.” The histologists have found 
no correlation between the histological structure of the brain centers 
and the conscious sensations aroused in them. As noted by Sperry, 
“Present-day science is quite at a loss even to begin to describe the 


MYSTERIES OF LIFE AND EXISTENCE—SNODGRASS 533 


neural events involved in the simplest forms of mental activity.” The 
physiologists know what goes on in our visceral organs; they have not 
yet been able to fully explore the secrets of the brain. 

It must be noted that our forms of consciousness resulting from 
sensory stimuli give us little or no information about the nature of 
the stimuli. From our sensation of illumination and color, for ex- 
ample, we should never know that physical light is vibrations of 
something traversing space that impinge on the eye. What we call 
sound is a form of consciousness generated by propagated waves of 
air. Some people, therefore, cannot understand that there is no sound 
without an ear to hear it. So with odor and taste, which in conscious- 
ness are sensations produced by chemical substances. Truly, in our 
consciousness we live in a world that does not conform with reality. 
Only the primitive sense of touch gives us some information about 
the nature of the object felt, its shape, size, and whether it is hard, 
soft, smooth, or rough. 

Consciousness in ourselves has come to be more than the registra- 
tion of sensory stimuli. It is also the medium of imagination, mem- 
ory, and reason. This group of faculties constitutes intelligence, and 
greatly complicates the efforts of the psychologists to rationalize our 
mental life according to any theory. It is much easier to understand 
how we see than how we think. There is no doubt that intelligence 
has developed with the evolution of the vertebrate forebrain, but it 
is scarcely perceptible below the mammals. The higher mammals 
can learn by “trial and error,” and they exhibit many human emo- 
tions, but it is highly doubtful that any but the human species is 
capable of abstract reasoning. 

It is a long-disputed and still unanswered question as to where con- 
sciousness begins in the animal kingdom. Since pain is a most acute 
form of consciousness, it would seem reasonable to believe that any 
animal that gives vocal evidence of feeling pain must have con- 
sciousness. This would include the mammals and birds and perhaps 
the frogs, but lack of a voice can hardly be taken as evidence of insen- 
sitivity to pain. We cannot positively assert that the higher inverte- 
brates do not have some dim awareness of their surroundings or of 
their actions. It is hard to imagine that an insect or a spider, for ex- 
ample, is merely a mechanism responding automatically to stimuli 
that in us generate consciousness. Consciousness in other animals, 
however, is beyond experimental investigation, and probably will long 
remain a secret of the animals themselves. 

The greatest literary crime that can be brought against a writer 
on animal behavior is indulgence in anthropomorphism—the attribut- 
ing to animals of human motives and reason. Yet there is plenty of 
animalism in the human species, and some recent accounts of animals 
in nature, such as that of the African lioness by Adamson (1960, 


534 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


1961) and of the otter by Maxwell (1961), suggest that animals may 
be more human than we have been willing to admit. After all, we 
have a common ancestry. 

Since most of our body structures and our mental faculties have 
been evolved from our animal progenitors, it is reasonable to suppose 
that the sensation of awareness arose in some form of life much lower 
in the scale of evolution than ourselves. Perhaps consciousness began 
as an adjunct to instinct, but having a high survival value of its own, 
it underwent evolutionary improvement, gradually eliminating the 
need of instinct. Finally, consciousness became the basis of the higher 
mental faculties, and set us apart, at least some of us, from all the 
other animals. 

REFERENCES 


ADAMSON, JOY. 
1960. Born free. A lioness of two worlds. 220 pp., numerous photographs. 
New York. 
1961. Living free. The story of Hlsa and her cubs. 161 pp., numerous pho- 
tographs. New York. 
ADLER, I. 
1957. How life began. 128 pp., ills. New York. 
ALLEN, R. D. 
1962. Amoeboid movement. Scientific American, February 1962, pp. 112-122. 
Bonner, D. M. 
1962. Heredity. 112 pp., 41 figs. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 
CROMPTON, J. 
1950. The life of the spider. 192 pp., 23 figs. New York. 
FISCHBERG, M., and BLACKLER, A. W. 
1961. How cells specialize. Scientific American, September 1961, pp. 124-140. 
Gamow, G. 
1952. The creation of the universe. 147 pp., 40 text figs., 11 pls. New York. 
HERRICK, C. J. 
1924. Neurological foundations of animal behavior. 334 pp., 131 figs. New 
York. 
Jacopg, F., and WoLLMAN, E. L. 
1961. Viruses and genes. Scientific American, June 1961. 
JEANS, J. 
1929. The universe around us. 341 pp., 24 pls. 24 figs. New York and 
Cambridge. 
Kepner, W. A., GREGorY, W. C., and Porter, R. J. 
1938. The manipulation of the nematocysts of Chlorohydra by microstomum. 
Zool. Anz., vol. 121, pp. 114-124, 4 figs. 
LASHLEY, K. S. 
1923. The behavioristie interpretation of consciousness I, II. Psychol. Rev., 
vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 237-277 ; No. 5, pp. 329-355. 
LEHRMAN, R. L. 
1961. The long road toman. 192 pp., 53 figs. 
Lewis, I. F. 
1940. Cell reactions. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 74, pp. 97-106. 


MYSTERIES OF LIFE AND EXISTENCE—SNODGRASS 535 


Marre, N. R. F., and SCHNEIRLA, T. C. 
1935. Principles of animal psychology. 529 pp., 107 figs. New York and 
London. 
MAXWELL, G. 
1961. Ring of bright water. 211 pp., numerous illustrations. New York. 
Mazi, D. 
19538. Cell division. Scientific American, August 1953. 
MITCHELL, P. H. 
1923. A text book of general physiology. 748 pp., 174 figs. New York. 
Moskin, J. R. 
1962. In the next twenty-five years, man will master the secret of creation. 
Look, special issue, January 1962, pp. 44, 46. 
NEEDHAM, J. 
1942. Biochemistry and morphogenesis. xvi+787 pp., 328 figs. Cambridge 
Univ. Press. 
OpaRiIn, A. I. 
1938. The origin of life. 270 pp., 8 figs. New York. 
1961. Life, origin of. The Encyclopedia of the Biological Sciences (ed., 
Peter Gray), pp. 561-563. 
PETERS, H. 
1938. Uber das Netz der Dreickspinne, Hyptiotes paradoxus. Zool. Anz., vol. 
121, pp. 49-59, 5 figs. 
PEAT a. 
1961. When life on earth began. Reader’s Digest, December 1961, pp. 194-200. 
SCHRODER, K. 
1936. Beitrige zur Kenntnis der Spicularbildung, der Larvenspiculation und 
der Variationsbreite der Geriistnadeln von Sitisswasserschwimmen. 
Zeitschr. Morph. Okol. Tiere, vol. 31, pp. 245-267, 24 figs. 
SPERRY, R. W. 
1952. Neurology and the mind-brain problem. Amer. Scientist, vol. 40, No. 2, 
pp. 291-311. 
TINBERGEN, N. 
1951. The study of instinct. 228 pp., 130 figs. Oxford. 
TROLAND, L. T. 
1926. The mystery of mind. 253 pp., 22 figs. New York. 
Urey, H. C. 
1952. The planets: their origin and development, xvii+245 pp., 16 figs., 
photograph of themoon. Yale Univ. Press. 
WALD, G. 
1954. The origin of life. Scientific American, vol. 191, August 1954, pp. 44-53. 
WATSON, J. B. 
1930. Behaviorism. 308 pp., 23 figs. New York. 


J 


Civilization and the Landscape 


By SytviA CROWE 
Past President of the Institute of Landscape Architects (British) 


[With 4 plates] 


The birth of a civilization may perhaps be defined as that moment 
when men first become conscious of their surroundings. The sub- 
sequent history of civilization is the progressive distillation of human 
consciousness out of the background of the physical world. 

If we accept this, then it follows that there can be no civilization 
without impact on the landscape, and further, that the more complex 
the civilization becomes the greater this impact will be. One aspect 
of this has been dealt with brilliantly by Edward Hyams in “Soil 
and Civilization.” Here are set out the interactions of civilization 
and ecology and the effect on soil, fertility, and balanced landscape 
of the demands which civilized men make upon their habitat. In 
precivilization man accepts the landscape as his natural environment; 
he is just one member of a country’s fauna. His impact is no greater 
than that of other creatures. In too great numbers he will erode 
his surroundings as too great numbers of rabbits will do, but he is 
subject to the same natural controls as other creatures, and the land- 
scape, given time, will heal over his depredations. 

Nomadic tribes depend on the power of the landscape to regenerate, 
and both they and their habitat only prosper if the interval between 
their depredations is long enough for the natural ecology to reestablish 
itself. 

But civilization cannot develop under these conditions. It can 
only grow by a release of surplus energy which allows man time to 
think and to create. Therefore its first necessity is to find surplus 
wealth and to use it to provide leisure and power. To acquire this 
wealth one civilization after another has raided the landscape’s capi- 
tal, robbing it of trees, fertility, and water. But ultimately no civili- 
zation can survive unless it learns to repay this capital and to live on 

1 Reprinted by permission of the Royal Society of Arts, from the first Reflection Riding 


Lecture. The Reflection Riding Lectures are named after the park of that name in 
Tennessee. 


537 


538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


the income from its natural resources. Our present civilization has 
carried this destruction of the landscape further than any of its pred- 
ecessors, and this poses one of the most urgent questions of today: 
Can we repair the ravages of the past and so manipulate the land- 
scape that it will yield an income on which the people of the world 
can live? In terms of food production there is little doubt that this 
could be done. Whether sufficient world resources will be made 
available to achieve this end is another question. 

Throughout history, men’s attitude to the landscape has shown 
sometimes a negative and sometimes a positive approach. The nega- 
tive approach regards the landscape either as a storehouse to be 
plundered, or an enemy to be subdued. The positive one recognizes 
it as an organism of which man is a part, the only thinking part, and 
therefore the landscape becomes something to be manipulated and 
cared for, as if it were his own body. The negative approach has 
resulted in the dust bowls of America and the black country of 
Britain. The positive approach has produced, among others, the 
landscapes of Tuscany, of Holland, and of agricultural Britain. 

These landscapes show us that good husbandry is the foundation of 
good landscape, but it is not the whole of it. Parallel to the prob- 
lem of physical survival runs the more elusive problem of the 
growth of true civilization, of the widening of our consciousness and 
awareness, our enjoyment of the whole created world, for without 
this conscious enjoyment we are little better than ants or machines. 

Very early in all civilizations men have wanted to shape their sur- 
roundings to their desires. The first manifestation of this desire 
is the creation of a garden, a private paradise set apart from the hos- 
tile world. But in time, with extending consciousness, men look fur- 
ther afield and extend this creative urge to the wider landscape. The 
chief concern of landscape architecture today is to explore the forms 
which this creative urge should take, for never before in history has 
so great an area of the earth’s surface been under the influence of the 
human species. 

To understand our present attitude to our surroundings, we must 
look back to the dawn of western civilization. How did the Greeks 
regard their landscape? Certainly they venerated it, for they peopled 
its most sublime aspects with their gods, who gave divine protection 
to the mountaintops and springs. When they built upon it, the clear 
thought and exact mathematics of their temples were imposed directly 
upon the untouched and sublime background. The two were distinct 
and contrasted. The clear lines of human thought were drawn onto 
the background of nature’s organic growth, forming perhaps the 
most beautiful of all juxtapositions. Yet though the contrast was 
strong and clear, it was not insensitive. The mathematics was 


CIVILIZATION AND THE LANDSCAPE—CROWE 539 


inflected, the columns modified to suit the foibles of the human eye; 
the Parthenon curves imperceptibly to acknowledge the land forma- 
tion of its hill. Surely the Greeks knew that geometry and organic 
form are two facets of a single truth. 

In direct lineage from Greece, down through the Mediterranean 
tradition in Italy, in France, and in parts of Spain, we can trace 
the clarity of the Greek and Latin brain revealed in the ordered lines 
of logical thought superimposed upon the organic landscape. But 
other races have approached the landscape in a different way. They 
have been more conscious of themselves as a part of nature, less 
ready to stand aloof and impose upon it their thought patterns. The 
Celt and the Oriental, for instance, both show a strong identification 
of themselves with nature. Compare the stone walls of Celtic Britain, 
twisting with the ground form, making a part of the organic pattern, 
with the stone terraces of Spain, exact and hard, ruled lines which 
mark the extent of man’s domination and run straight and uninflected 
into the wild hillside. Or contrast the idealized natural landscape 
of an Oriental garden with the clear, masterful logic of Le Notre’s 
Vaux-Le-Vicomte. 

A leaning toward the Celtic and Oriental attitude of identification 
with nature is, I believe, likely to be more fruitful at our present 
stage of development than the more detached classical approach. 

The impact of human activity on the landscape goes through two 
stages. In the first stage men’s work is placed directly on an un- 
touched background. The background, because it is not interfered 
with, maintains its natural ecological balance. In the second stage, 
men adjust the background to accept and complement their work. 
When the classical tradition reaches the second stage it tends either 
to overreach itself, as for example in the grandiose pattern of ave- 
nues which the 17th-century landowners imposed on the land- 
scape, or, more happily, it makes a concession to the natural approach 
as in the planting of bosche which merge the formal terraces of the 
Italian Renaissance gardens into the flanking hillsides. The natural 
tradition, on the other hand, can extend itself indefinitely, welding, 
adjusting, but never destroying or contradicting the surrounding 
landscape. 

A superb example of this technique is seen in the estates of 18th- 
century England. In these it is hard to define the frontier between 
agriculture, adjusted to man’s delight, and pure pleasure grounds 
shaped as idyllic landscape. This gives to the classical element, 
confined to the building and perhaps its immediate surroundings, a 
setting large enough to let it register as a clear statement of human 
thought seen against a background of natural growth. 


540 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The same technique, on a vastly greater scale, can serve us today in 
recreating an organic landscape, extensive enough to take the patterns 
of our inventions, as the Greek hills were great enough to take their 
temples. 

We have to find the way to combine these two ideas, man as a 
conscious part of his natural background and man the mind apart 
which uses the lines of truth, of logic, and of power to superimpose 
a new pattern on the landscape, for both these ideas are aspects of 
the same universal pattern and subject to the same universal laws. 
The question of the coexistence of these two elements in the landscape 
is the counterpart of the current argument of science versus the 
humanities. The answer to both problems is the same, the apparently 
opposed ideas are both part of one whole, but just as science is only 
valuable insofar as it helps humanity to evolve into a state of higher 
consciousness, so the application of science to the landscape is only 
viable if it encourages the development of a higher and richer form of 
organic ecology. 

For example, the use of science and machinery to irrigate a desert 
is an enrichment of life and of the landscape, but the use of science to 
apply indiscriminate poisons is an impoverishment, even if it results 
in an immediate cash gain. 

The problem of introducing men’s inventions into the natural 
ecology has only recently become apparent in its full force. As long 
as a naturally balanced landscape formed the backcloth to man’s 
activities, it was comparatively easy to adjust this natural background 
to accept man’s works, especially while his chief activity was agri- 
culture, which is only a variation on nature’s own theme. But now 
the fertility of man’s inventions has tilted the balance against the 
organic landscape. It is in any case far harder to find the synthesis 
between mechanics and the landscape, that is, to fit the morganic into 
the pattern of the organic, than to carry out organic changes. Yet 
the extent of inorganic constructions is constantly growing in relation 
both to previously untouched natural landscapes and to agriculture. 
These constructions are no longer incidents seen against an unbroken 
organic countryside like a single castle on a hill, or a viaduct across 
a valley. They are sufficient in size and number to wreck a landscape 
unless they can be assimilated as elements within it. At the same 
time, the number of men as well as their new mobility is exerting 
a crushing pressure on the landscape’s ecology. This is why it is 
essential for us to take a more active part in the evolution of the land- 
scape than men have ever done before. To do this we must first study 
the biology of the landscape and realize its infinite ramifications. 
Then we must extend our conception of ecology to include the new 
complex which we are creating with our inventions and the new 
numbers of the human element. Finally we must understand our- 


CIVILIZATION AND THE LANDSCAPE—CROWE 541 


selves and the civilization for which we are trying to build an environ- 
ment. Only if we see clearly the goals of our civilization may we 
hope to achieve a setting for it. 

Where the landscape suffers as a result of civilization, either the 
ideals of that civilization are at fault or it means that the whole truth 
and implications of the ideal have not been grasped, some angle 
of life has been neglected, some secondary interest overstressed. This 
lack of balance is evident both in individual countries and in the world 
asa whole. For the balanced landscape must be seen as a world con- 
cept. If “no man is an island entire of itself,” still less is any 
country. We can no longer countenance the destruction of one part 
of the earth’s surface to supply riches for another; nor the desecra- 
tion of one part to provide a playground for another. 

Yet the action of one country can have repercussions in others far 
removed from it. For example, the wreckage of three landscapes, 
in different parts of the world, can be traced to the same cause, an 
overemphasis on the benefits of industrial wealth. The dust bowls of 
Australia and America were formed in providing cheap food for the 
industrial revolution which resulted in the black country of Britain. 

But while we need a landscape balanced on a worldwide scale, we 
need also the full richness and variety of local ecology, without which 
the evolution of both life and thought must stagnate. There are signs 
that the moronic idea, so prevalent in the last generation, that any 
organism not directly profitable to man could be dispensed with, is 
eradually giving way to the realization that only the full variation of 
landscapes and of organisms can give the rich textures which make a 
fully conscious life possible. This dawning realization marks an 
advance in man’s relationship to the landscape. He has left behind 
the stage of unconscious membership, and the stage of exploitation, 
and is reaching toward the stage of conscious partnership. 

But this fresh outlook, full of hope as it is, is at present only a 
very small current stirring against a strong running tide. For by far 
the more obvious forces are still those hostile to the landscape; if not 
consciously, then through ignorance and apathy. 

Pressure of population on restricted areas, greed, the deification 
of the profit motive, the belief that speed, machines, and mass 
production are good in themselves, rather than as servants of human- 
ity, all these flaws in our civilization are the cause of scars upon our 
landscape. They result in soulless housing development, holiday 
resorts where natural beauty is obliterated under tarmac and tawdry 
buildings; wildlife, both plant and animal, exterminated for quick 
profit; advertisements defiling the countryside; industries polluting 
rivers and pouring waste upon good land. All these things may 
bring quick cash profit, but they impoverish human life and cause 
long-term damage to the landscape. 


542 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


This flood of destruction has been running for over a century and 
in many places is still spreading at an accelerated pace. The havoc to 
the landscape is too well known to need reiterating, but perhaps less 
well known are the re-creative efforts being made in many parts of 
the world to stem the flood and rebuild a fertile landscape capable 
not only of feeding but also of refreshing mankind. 

Some of the greatest efforts in creative landscape are being made 
by two small countries, entirely different in climate, geography, and 
history. Holland and Israel are each building a new landscape, one 
from the sea and the other from the desert. 

In the case of Holland this is nothing new. They have been doing 
it for 900 years, but their present approach to the problem is new. In 
the old days their sole objects were to provide fertile land and sweet 
water and to hold back the sea, and their works of reclamation were 
carried out mechanically to achieve this with the greatest material 
economy. But today their object is no longer confined to the pro- 
duction of a food factory. The newly reclaimed polders are also 
designed as pleasant places in which to live. Social needs, recreation, 
and beautiful landscape are all added to the basic requirements of 
mere existence, while the study of every variation in soil potential and 
local climate is resulting in a varied and organic pattern as opposed 
to the mechanical outlines of the old polders.? 

In Israel the basis of their new landscape is irrigation of the desert ; 
but here again the creation of so many acres of land for crops is not 
their only consideration. The land is also their home. Step by step 
with the new fertility go the planting of shade trees, the provision 
of parks and gardens, the formation of a complete and complex 
landscape within which men may live full lives. 

These two examples show the possibilities of creating a fully 
humanized landscape, a new habitat, purpose-designed for civilized 
men with all their varied needs. The conditions have been unusual, 
for a blank page was presented on which the landscape builders, in 
both cases people who had already attained to a high state of civil- 
ization, could design a setting for a known condition of life. The more 
usual case is for a landscape and a civilization to evolve slowly to- 
gether, as has happened in Britain, or for a civilization to grow and 
then invade a landscape which is already functioning in some degree of 
natural balance. This was the case in the United States of America. 

In the case of Britain, the problem is to find the right adjustment 
between the new needs of expanding population and the old land- 
scape. We have to reconcile the desire for mobility, increased com- 
munications and less arduous work, all goals which require industry 


2 See “Designing on New Land,” by Arthur Glikson, in “Space for Living,’ published by 
Djambatan. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Crowe PLATE 1 


1. Reflection Riding. A view of the road known as Reflection Lane. 


6 meen PSP ie ee . 


hacia urs 


— >. ereedt> 


2. Reflection Riding. The little field along Lookout Creek called Cornish Horizons. 
Lookout Mountain beyond. (Photo by J. B. Collins.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Crowe PLATE 4 


1. Reflection Riding. View from the road that winds for 3 miles to Lookout Mountain 


above. 


2. Reflection Riding. A view of Lookout Mountain across the field known as Candy Flats. 


(Photos by J. B. Collins.) 


CIVILIZATION AND THE LANDSCAPE—CROWE 543 


and machines, with the desire for peace and community with nature 
which only the countryside can give, and which can be destroyed by 
the same machines which give us leisure and mobility. 

The lines on which we are attempting to work are becoming clearer, 
although we are very far from either finding a solution or even attain- 
ing general agreement on our aims. As a first step a certain extent of 
landscape zoning is accepted, such as the designation of National 
Parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty. These designations 
give varying degrees of protection to the old landscape with its 
established balance, its peace and its quietness. In defense of these 
values we have official bodies, such as the National Parks Commission, 
and the Nature Conservancy, and unofficial bodies such as the Council 
for the Preservation of Rural England. Change comes to these 
protected landscapes, but in general it comes slowly enough to be 
absorbed. 

Secondly, we are progressively trying to improve the design of our 
new structures and their relationship to the old landscape. The 
progress in this direction is shown by the growing number of public 
authorities and industrialists who take architectural and landscape 
advice on the design, siting, and setting of their structures, whether 
these be roads, power stations, reservoirs, factories, or housing. 

The third hopeful sign is the beginning of the counterattack on 
waste areas. Some old slag heaps are being afforested, others cleared’ 
away. Gravel pits are being filled or converted into lakes and stocked 
with fish. Many county councils, who are the planning authorities 
for their areas, are actively engaged in this work of regeneration. 

There is a slight lessening of pollution in our rivers, clean air is 
already increasing the range of plants which will grow in London, 
and, most important of all, there is a growing public demand for this 
cleaning-up process. The movement is very slow, but it is perceptible. 

One of the chief causes of failure is that we have not realized that 
the landscape is one interrelated, biological complex in which water 
conservation, flooding, afforestation, agriculture, and all the works of 
man and nature are linked and interacting. If a landscape is to live, 
all its parts must work together like the cells of an organism. This 
can only be achieved by overall landscape planning by men who 
understand the anatomy of the landscape, as a doctor understands the 
anatomy of the human body. 

Perhaps no country has seen such rapid and extensive inroads into 
hitherto wild landscapes as the United States of America. In her case 
a land untouched by civilization has been subjected in the course of 
two centuries to the most rapidly expanding economy the world has 
ever seen. 

As a result the two facets of man’s relationship to the landscape, 
man the destroyer and man the creater and preserver, can be seen 

672-174-6340 


544 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


here in acute conflict with each other. While in some places the 
heritage of a unique landscape is being destroyed by unplanned de- 
velopment, in others new and magnificant landscapes are being 
created. The T.V.A. stands as a supreme example of a landscape 
manipulated for the full enjoyment of men as well as for the creation 
of material wealth, while still conserving the richness of the natural 
ecology. Yet perhaps America’s best-known contribution to the recon- 
ciliation of civilization and landscape lies in her national parks. 
Because of her wealth, America more than any other nation is faced 
with the problems raised by recreation. Townsmen long for the 
contrast of wild country and for the release from city tensions which 
it brings, yet in going to the country they destroy it. In an attempt 
to reconcile this contradiction, the National Park Service of America 
is doing two things: First, by care, knowledge, and devoted service, 
the complete ecology of great areas of natural landscape is being 
preserved; second, by education within the parks, town people are 
learning to understand and respect wild nature. Thus landscape 
reserves are being held inviolate by legislation and protected from 
their admirers. Necessary and admirable as this service is, it must 
be regarded as a holding operation; our civilization cannot claim to 
be truly civilized until the respect now enforced by law is each man’s 
natural reaction to his surroundings. Moreover, the frantic urge to 
reach the few remaining areas of peace and beauty, which now im- 
perils them, can only be lessened when civilization has learned to 
make the whole landscape a proper habitat for men. 

These few examples from different parts of the world, each with 
its own problem, show how the idea of adjustment between men 
and the landscape is slowly growing. It is indeed a discouragingly 
small effort compared to the vast forces of destruction, but because it 
is a positive ideal as opposed to a negative, it has the cumulative 
strength of all living things, which must in the end prevail against 
inertia. 

If this present civilization does not perish, it will be because it has 
found the way to create a new ecology combining the emanations of 
men’s skill and brains with the ecology of organic nature and has 
learned to fashion from this a new landscape within which men can 
function not merely as economic units, but as men. 


How Many People Have Ever Lived 
on Earth?’ 


By ANNABELLE DESMOND ? 


How many people have ever been born since the beginning of the 
human race? 

What percentage does the present world population of 3 billion 
represent of the total number of people who have ever lived? 

These questions are frequently asked the Population Reference 
Bureau’s Information Service. Because of the perennial interest and 
because of the credence sometimes given to what would seem to be un- 
realistic appraisals, this issue presents an estimate prepared by 
Fletcher Wellemeyer, Manpower, Education and Personnel Consul- 
tant, Washington, D.C., with Frank Lorimer of American University, 
Washington, D.C., acting as adviser. ‘This estimate, based on certain 
statistical, historical, and demographic assumptions set forth in the 
appendix, should be regarded as no more than a reasonable guess. It 
assumes that man first appeared about 600,000 years ago, a date which 
has been proposed for the dawn of the prehistoric era. However, 
this date obviously is a compromise, anthropologically speaking, be- 
tween varying extremes. 

Since then, it is estimated that about 77 billion babies have been 
born. Thus, today’s population of approximately 3 billion is about 
4.0 percent of that number. 

Absolutely no information exists as to the size and distribution of 
prehistoric populations. Presumably they were not large, nor very 
widely distributed. If the 600,000 B.C. date is accepted as a sound 
compromise, then only about 12 billion people—less than one-sixth of 
the total number ever born—are estimated to have lived before 6000 
B.C. 

Anthropologists and paleontologists differ by hundreds of thou- 
sands of years as to when man first walked this earth. Recent dis- 
coveries strongly suggest that the life-span of the human species might 

1 Reprinted by permission from Population Bulletin, vol. 18, No. 1, February 1962. 

2This article was based on a research report prepared by Fletcher Wellemeyer, with the 


technical assistance of Frank Lorimer, and on supplemental research by Georgia Ogden.— 
RoBERT C. COOK, editor, Population Bulletin. 


545 


546 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


date back as much as 2 million years. However, this time-scale has 
not yet been accepted by all anthropologists. 

If the “beginning” actually extended a million years prior to 
600,000 B.C., the estimated number of births prior to 6000 B.C. would 
be 32 billion, and the estimated total number, about 96 billion. 

Prior to 1650, historical population data are very scanty for every 
part of the world. Despite this lack of knowledge, ancillary evi- 
dence exists which reveals the general pattern of human growth. 
Throughout the thousands of centuries which preceded the present 
technological age, human survival was such a touch-and-go affair 
that high fertility was essential to balance brutally high mortality. 
The human female—a relatively slow breeder, even among mammals— 
had to reproduce somewhere near her physiological limit in order for 
the family, the clan, the tribe, and the nation to survive. 

As human culture developed over the ages, the chances of survival 
tended to improve. When the invention of agriculture provided a 
more stable food supply, the base was laid for the maintenance of 
large populations and for their spread into new areas. However, high 
death rates continued to check population growth. 

Until recently, at least a half of all babies born died before reaching 
maturity. Man’s quest for some formula to avert death included 
magic, incanations, and prayers, but none of these had shown any 
efficacy against the major killers. Then, with the advance of modern 
science, the mortality pattern of a million years was broken. 

Jenner’s dramatic discovery of vaccination for smallpox was the 
first of a multitude of discoveries destined to defer death, especially 
in infancy and childhood. This brilliant application of the scientific 
method to biology and medicine, together with improved agricultural 
technology, better transportation, and the vast and complex nexus of 
an emerging industrial culture, set in motion forces which drastically 
lowered death rates and thereby greatly increased the efficiency of 
reproduction. In some countries, the birth rate declined also, al- 
though more slowly than the death rate. During the 19th century, 
the industrial countries of the West were the first to experience the 
transition from high to low birth and death rates. This transition 
took about 150 years. 

These epochal changes profoundly altered the patterns of survival 
and population growth. In those countries of northern Europe and 
North America which were the first to exploit effectively the new 
medical discoveries, life expectancy at birth rose rapidly from 30 
years to 40, then to 50, and, by 1960, to 70 years and more. Infant 
mortality declined drastically: now, 95 out of every 100 babies born 
in Western industrial countries live to reach adulthood. 

Although the power to defer death is one of the greatest advances 
in man’s long history, it has been the principal factor in the accelera- 


HOW MANY PEOPLE ON EARTH?—DESMOND 547 


tion in the rate of population growth during the past century. Now, 
public health programs reach even the world’s most remote villages, 
and death rates in the less developed areas are falling rapidly. But 
the traditionally high birth rates—so essential] to offset the high death 
rates of even the very recent past—remain high. Thus, population 
growth soars. 

Therefore, over the long span of history, the rate of population 
growth has tended to accelerate—almost imperceptibly at first; then 
slowly; and recently, at a rapid clip. By the beginning of the Chris- 
tian Era, 200 to 300 million people are believed to have lived on earth. 
That number had grown to some 500 million by 1650. Then the 
growth curve took a sharp upward trend. By 1850, world population 
was more than 1 billion. Today, it is over 3 billion. 

The quickening tempo of growth is even more dramatically 
expressed in doubling time. It took hundreds of thousands of years 
for world population to reach the quarter-billion mark, at about the 
beginning of the Christian Era. Over 16 centuries more passed before 
that number reached an estimated half-billion. It took only 200 addi- 
tional years to reach 1 billion, and only 80 more years—to about 1930 
—to reach 2 billion. Population growth rates are still going up. Dur- 
ing all of the eons of time—perhaps as long as 2 million years—the 
human race grew to its present total of 3 billion. But it will take only 
40 years to add the next 3 billion, according to United Nations esti- 
mates. In certain nations and larger areas, populations will double 
in 25 years or even less, if growth rates remain unchanged. 

This historical review traces the proliferation of the human species 
through three very broad time-spans: Period I extends from 600,000 
B.C. to 6000 B.C.; Period II extends to A.D. 1650; and Period ITI, 
to 1962. These time periods are chosen because the dates mark impor- 
tant epochs in man’s cultural development. 

It should be emphasized, however, that not all portions of the globe 
experienced simultaneously the cultural and technological advances 
which mark these different stages of man’s history. When the first 
European settlement was established in Australia in 1788, the 
aborigines there were in the Stone Age. Even today, some tribes liv- 
ing in New Guinea and elsewhere still remain at that level. 


PERIOD I—THE OLD STONE AGE 


Period I extends from 600,000 to 6000 B.C. It begins early in the 
Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and continues to the beginning of the 
Neolithic or New Stone Age. It is estimated that during this period 
numbers grew to about 5 million, that man’s birth rate was close to 
50 per thousand, and that there was an approximate total of 12 
billion births. 


548 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Little, if anything, is known about population size during this hunt- 
ing and gathering stage of man’s existence. The total land area of the 
earth is approximately 58 million square miles. It seems reasonable to 
assume that not more than 20 million square miles could have been used 
successfully by the relatively few who inhabited the earth at that time. 
The consensus of competent opinion indicates that, on moderately 
fertile soil in a temperate climate, about 2 square miles per person 
would be needed for a hunting and gathering economy. 

It must be assumed that there were severe limitations on man’s 
numbers during this period; and that his life cycle and average gen- 
eration were much shorter than they are today. Man existed for the 
most part in wandering bands in order to survive. Our ancient 
ancestors were completely subject to all the vagaries of the weather 
and the ecological cycle of the game animals on which their existence 
depended. Food shortages were usually endemic, and the ravages of 
epidemics were routine—although the wide dispersal of the popula- 
tion tended to localize these hazards. Nevertheless, the picture that 
emerges is one in which births and deaths were roughly balanced, with 
births perhaps holding a narrow margin. 


THE LONG TIME-SPAN OF PREHISTORY 


Anthropologists and paleontologists are gradually putting together, 
piece by piece, the great jigsaw puzzle that is the history of early man. 
T. Dale Stewart, eminent physical anthropologist of the Smithsonian 
Institute in Washington, D.C., points out that only a few fossils of 
humans who lived in this period have been found. Nevertheless, 
man’s long time-scale is known today with far greater accuracy than 
ever before, mainly because of the new radioactive dating techniques. 
According to Dr. Stewart, new discoveries demand new theories or 
the adjustment of existing theories. 

The remains of Zinjanthropus, recently found in the Olduvai gorge 
of Tanganyika by L. S. B. Leakey, Curator of the Coryndon Museum, 
Nairobi, Kenya, which Leakey believes date back almost 2 million 
years, probably do not represent the beginning of the line. Zinjan- 
thropus has been called man because he was a toolmaker, in the crudest 
sense. Since his physical form represents a very early stage of human 
evolution, it is not advisable to assume so early a beginning for pur- 
poses of estimating human population growth. 

However, it is generally believed that “man” had reached the point 
of being able to make simple tools and to talk by a half million or 
even a million years ago. Homo sapiens first appeared with great 
force in Europe sometime between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago, though 
he presumably emerged much earlier. Very little is known about 
where he came from or about his connection with the Neanderthal 
people who were one of many types of man to precede him. By 


549 


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20,000 B.C., he had created the first great art in human history: the 
magnificent paintings and other artifacts found in certain caves in 
southern France and northern Spain. He engraved and carved bone 
and ivory with faithful representations of his women and of the ani- 
mals he knew so well: the mammoth, the bison and others. These 
were believed to have had magic significance—to bring fertility to 
the clan and success to the hunter. 

No birth rates or death rates have ever been found on the walls of 
the prehistoric caves. Thus, what is the puzzle of man to the anthro- 
pologist and the paleontologist becomes the enigma of man to the 
demographer. A United Nations Report, “The Determinants and 
Consequences of Population Trends,” published in 1953, presents a 
comprehensive survey of world population through the whole of man’s 
history. Readers are referred to it for a more complete historical 
survey than this limited space permits. The report states: 

That men, using tools, have been living on this planet for at least 100,000 
years, and possibly for over a million years, is proved by various types of 
evidence. For example, the definitely human skeletal remains found at Chou- 
koutien, China, in association with artificial stone and bone implements and 
possible indications of the use of fire, were deposited during the second intergla- 
cial period, or earlier. There is evidence, also, that several divergent types 
of men emerged, some of whom had specialized characteristics which place 
them outside the ancestral line of all living races today. The Neanderthal 


people, who were dominant in Hurope during the last (Wiirm) glaciation, were 
apparently such a divergent race. 


PERIOD II—6000 B.C. TO 1650 A.D. 


Starting with the beginning of the New Stone Age, this period 
extends through the Bronze and Iron periods, through classical antiq- 
uity and the Dark Ages, the Renaissance, and the Reformation. It is 
estimated that world population increased one hundredfold during 
the period, growing from 5 million to half a billion, and that about 
42 billion births occurred. 

It is believed that at the beginning of the era the earth was still 
very sparsely settled and population was widely dispersed. Vast 
areas of the globe were not inhabited, partly because the last glacia- 
tions had just receded. 

It was during this period that man began to produce food instead 
of simply consuming what nature had laid before him. In the Near 
Kast, he had already passed the stage of the most primitive village- 
farming communities which grew out of the earliest agriculture with 
its domestication of animals. Some of these ancient communities 
developed into the earliest known urban settlements. The develop- 
ment of agriculture with its settled farming community spread to 
other areas of the earth during this period. Eventually, it was to 
change drastically man’s pattern of survival and his way of life. 


HOW MANY PEOPLE ON EARTH?—DESMOND 551 


The earliest scene of settled village-farming communities appears 
to have been in the Near East. Robert J. Braidwood, Professor of 
the Oriental Institute of Chicago, and Field Director of the Jarmo 
Project, a recently studied archeological site in Iraq, says: 

It is probably very difficult for us now to conceptualize fully (or to exagger- 
ate) the consequences of the first appearance of effective food production. The 
whole range of human existence, from the biological (including diet, demog- 
raphy, disease, and so on) through the cultural (social organization, politics, 
religion, esthetics, and so forth) bands of the spectrum took on completely new 
dimensions. 


Braidwood described the hilly piedmont and intermontane regions 
surrounding the great “Fertile Crescent” which starts in the valleys 
of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, sweeps around to the north to 
touch southern Turkey and Syria, then curves south to the shores of 
the Mediterranean and into Egypt. One radioactive-carbon date sug- 
gests that this development was well advanced by 4000 B.C. 

Sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, and some kind of horselike animal were 
used by those living in the area. Their plants were wheat and barley. 
Braidwood notes that some sort of hybridization or mutation, particu- 
larly in domesticated plants, must have taken place before certain spe- 
cies could have been moved to other areas. However, they seem to 
have moved into the Danube Valley by 4000 B.C., and into western 
Europe by 2500 B.C. 

In other words, man was learning to utilize his environment more 
efficiently ; thus it could support more people than ever before. But 
numbers were still regulated by the food-producing quality of the 
land. Population grew in times of plenty and declined when food 
became scarce and when disease decimated large populations, as it 
did in Europe during the Dark Ages. 

During the Bronze Age, man began to use copper and bronze and 
to build towns, cities, and states. Kings, advanced religions, social 
classes, writing, and enduring monuments, such as the Nile pyramids, 
appeared during this period. The Iron Age brought iron metallurgy, 
the invention of the alphabet, the use of coined money, and the spread 
of commerce and navigation. 

The early and great empires and cultures developed : those of Egypt, 
Rome, and Greece; of King Asoka in India; of the Han dynasty in 
China; and, later, the empires of the Mayas and the Incas in the New 
World. The Hindu, Confucian, Buddhist, Jewish, Christian, Mus- 
lim, and other great religions emerged. 


THE CITY—PERIOD II 


The great cities of ancient times rose in rich valleys adjacent to the 
Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf, along the Indus 
and the Nile, and along the Yangtze in China. The first great urban 


552 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


civilization arose about 3500 B.C. in Mesopotamia, along the Tigris 
and Euphrates. Another grew up in Egypt before 3000 B.C. and still 
another in Crete. A fourth arose along the banks of the Indus in 
western India, but whether this grew directly out of Neolithic begin- 
nings or was a transplant of the Sumerian culture of Mesopotamia is 
a matter of dispute. Urban civilizations developed in China at a 
later date, and still later in some areas of tropical Central America 
and in Peru. 

The urban societies of Mesopotamia, China, and Egypt maintained 
complex centralized control of soil and water resources in order to 
provide irrigation and to control floods. These “hydraulic” civiliza- 
tions supported very dense populations with highly integrated social 
systems. The individual peasant was allowed a small land area which 
produced more food than his family needed. Such civilizations have 
persisted in Egypt, India, China, and elsewhere to the present day, 
with little change in the economic basis of life but with periodic 
rises and declines. 

The ancient Mediterranean, Asian, and American urban civilizations 
appear to have been isolated flowerings of human culture which cul- 
minated in “golden ages” and then declined. The archeological record 
abundantly reveals their wavelike nature. For additional informa- 
tion, readers are referred to an earlier issue of Population Bulletin, 
“The World’s Great Cities: Evolution or Devolution?” (September 


1960). 
THE A.D. ERA OF PERIOD II 


The United Nations study previously mentioned states that, at the 
beginning of the Christian Era, the world’s population was likely to 
have been between 200 and 300 million people. Discussing the lack 
of historic demographic information, the report states: 


Various kinds of evidence indicate that man’s numbers became adjusted to 
the food-producing capacity of the land in ancient times—increasing as it rose 
and declining as it fell. Unfortunately little of this evidence is of a census type, 
and most of the remainder does not provide a basis for estimating the number 
of inhabitants of an area. Large parts of the world’s population were subject 
to some sort of census enumeration near the beginning of the Christian era, but 
the information available from these censuses has limited value. Roman cen- 
suses were taken for administrative purposes and were restricted to “citizens,” 
an expanding category as citizenship rights were extended to outlying regions. 
Moreover only adult males were included in some of these censuses, while all 
household members except “children” were included in others. Chinese censuses 
at about this time provided reports on total population but interpretation of the 
results involves many difficulties. Elaborate records were kept by the ancient 
Incas, but their meaning is obscure. 


J.C. Russell, Professor of History at the University of New Mexico, 
who has contributed much to the demographic history of the West, 


HOW MANY PEOPLE ON EARTH?—DESMOND 553 


has traced the population changes within the Roman Empire from the 
second century A.D. to the year A.D. 548, a period he characterizes 
generally as one of imperial decline: 


. . - However, within the general picture there are great differences in the 
trends. Actually most of the decrease occurred in western Mediterranean lands: 
Italy, Gaul, Iberia, and North Africa, together with Greece and Egypt. In Syria 
the population seems to have held even while in Gaul and Britain something 
like recovery must have occurred at the end of the period. Eastern Asia Minor 
and the Slavie area probably increased markedly. The German and Scandi- 
navian spheres apparently held even in spite of emigration. The information 
about the central, eastern, and northern parts of Europe is so vague and uncertain 
that there may have been a considerable increase in population. The general rise 
in temperature should certainly have reduced the semiglacial conditions of the 
northern countries and made them attractive for grain-growing groups. 


In the second and third centuries A.D., Rome suffered two dev- 
astating epidemics which have not been identified but their virulence 
suggests bubonic plague. According to Dr. Russell: 

The period from A.D. 543 to 950 probably marks the lowest ebb of population 
in Europe since the early Roman Empire. It covers the first great attack of the 
plague, the worst epidemic to strike the area with which we are concerned. 
Following it came the Mohammedan invasions from the semi-nomadic areas of 
the lands surrounding the Mediterranean. From the east in the tenth century 
the Hungarians scourged most of Europe and what they missed was visited by the 
terrible raids of the Vikings from the north. Some measure of the weakness of 
the European population is indicated by the feeble defense put up against these 
invaders by the governments of Europe... . 

Endemic diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis were prevalent, 
and the latter was particularly fatal among young people. In fact, 
the combination of both diseases occurred quite frequently and was 
highly fatal. Dr. Russell speculates that during the periods of pop- 
ulation decline in early medieval Europe, much carefully tilled and 
drained acreage lapsed into breeding grounds for mosquitoes; and that 
a period of wet, warm weather about 800-900 A.D. greatly increased 
the incidence of malaria. 

The span of life (extreme length of life) seems to have been around 
100 years, as it isnow. Those who could avoid infection were likely to 


TaBLE 1.—Area and estimates of population of the Roman Empire, A.D. 14 


Area (thousands Population Persons per 
of sq. mi.) (thousands) sq. mi. 
ALocaliempine sa seeo) oe so oS 1, 289 54, 000 41 
Huropeamupaniees 24h bo Feel ke 861 23, 000 26 
ASIC EIGN ATG Ree see oes ah ee oS ke 257 19, 500 UU. 
IAPRICa Tapani bee se are eo soe Jl S 171 11, 500 67 


& Source: Reference No. 14 at end of article. 


504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


live to considerable ages. According to John Durand, Assistant Direc- 
tor in Charge of Population, the United Nations Bureau of Social 
Affairs, the best basis for making mortality estimates of the Roman 
period is a study of tombstone inscriptions for males dying between 
the ages of 15 and 42. This method corrects the exaggeration of years 
that humans are apt to indulge in, even on tombstones, and allows for 
the under-representation of children’s deaths. On this basis, Durand 
concludes that life expectancy at birth for the whole population of the 
Roman Empire was probably only about 25 or 30 years. 

After the year 1000, it appears that population began to increase; 
and, between 1000 and 1348, that growth was phenomenal, particularly 
in northern Europe. The Empire of Charlemagne had already capi- 
talized on the upward population movement, and stronger govern- 
ments began to develop in Germany, Scandinavia, and even in Russia. 
The Crusades spread Christianity throughout the Middle East and 
brought contact between the Moslem and Christian worlds. 

Then in 1348, the bubonic plague, which seems to have first appeared 
in the sixth century in Egypt, suddenly erupted in Europe in a more 
virulent form, taking a frightful toll of lives. Russell states that “the 
years 1348-1350 saw a very heavy loss of life, 20 to 25 percent in most 
European countries. The decline continued with later epidemics until 
the population of about 1400 was near 60 percent of the pre-plague 
figures os. ” 

Between 1500 and 1700, far-reaching social, economic, and intellec- 
tual revolutions began which formed the basis for the modern world. 
The era of medieval authority was first challenged in northern Italy, at 
the time of the Renaissance. This was followed by the age of dis- 
covery, with voyages around Africa and to the New World. At the 
same time, the Reformation set the stage for the revival of intellectual 


TABLE 2.—Approzximate population of the world and its subdivisions, 1000-1600 
(in millions) 


South- South- The 


Year World | Europe | Asiatic west India China | Japan east Africa | Ameri- 
Russia Asia major 4 Asia, cas 
Oceania 

NOOOL |) Paras 42 5 32 48 70 4 iil 50 13 
UO BXOfa) 48 6 33 50 79 6 12 55 17 
1200222) 348 61 7 34 51 89 8 14 61 23 
1300___| 384 73 8 33 50 99 ml 15 67 28 
1400___| 373 45 9 27 46 112 14 16 74 30 
1500___| 446 69 11 29 54 125 16 19 82 41 
1600___| 486 89 13 30 68 140 20 21 90 15 


a China proper, plus Manchuria and Korea, Outer Mongolia, Sinkiang, and Formosa. 
Source: Reference No. 1 at end of article. 


HOW MANY PEOPLE ON EARTH?—DESMOND 555 


development in northern Europe. For the first time since the Golden 
Age of Greece, the human intellect began to look at the world objec- 
tively. This led to the birth of the scientific method: new concepts 
of the nature of matter, energy, and, ultimately, of life began to cap- 
ture the minds of men. Out of this intellectual revolution came 
powerful new insights which were eventually to change greatly man’s 
pattern of living and dying. 

In Europe about the middle of the 17th century—after the end of 
the Thirty Years’ War and the period of peace and stability which 
followed—agricultural methods improved, slowly at first and then 
rapidly. New crops were introduced and crops were rotated ; manure 
and fertilizers were used more generally; and the soil was cultivated 
more extensively. Even though these more advanced methods in- 
creased food production, the margin of plenty continued to be pre- 
carious, especially for those who lived in cities. A comparable agri- 
cultural expansion seems to have occurred in China at about the same 
time. 

Unfortunately, little is known about population growth and decline 
during this period for the vast continent of Asia, particularly for 
India and China. M. K. Bennett, Director of the Food Research In- 
stitute, Stanford University, has recognized the need for a continent- 
by-continent or region-by-region survey. He estimates that world 
population in A.D. 1000 was somewhere around 275 million, or “prob- 
ably less than half of the population of Europe in 1949; . . . that 
there has been one century, the fourteenth [the century of the Black 
Death in Europe] in which world population did not increase at all, 
but declined. . . .” 

The earlier “hydraulic” civilizations became subject to disorders 
which checked and, in some cases, reversed their population growth. 

The Americas had an estimated population of 16 million at the time 
of their discovery by Columbus. Julian Steward, Research Professor 
of Anthropology, University of Illinois, has estimated the population 
of the different regions of the American Hemisphere in 1492 as 
follows: 


North America: 


INGOT EI OE SIV Cet CO ete ka ee ee eee 1,000,000 

IG NED. 0 SR a oe SI SS eee oe Dest aye Maes eee were Eo ee ile ee ee OE Ree 4,500,000 

AVVO GAT CLIT CS eee et ee ne ee a ee ee ee ee 225,000 

Cen trailer eri Cae ea ae re eae a ee 736,000 
South America: 

PANIGGANICAT CAL @ eer erie Se ey ee oe ed Se a eR ee A 6,131,000 

ER QTV VET) Cl Ge eae sre anes a SLs Foe ey Re BO eR EO 2,898,000 


ON a 15,490,000 


ASIA & 
OCEANIA 


EUROPE Incl. RUSSIA 


1000 AD. 


AMERICAS bees 


ASIA & 
OCEANIA 
“x 


AMERICAS 


EUROPE Including RUSSIA 


| 

| 

| E 

1600 2000 
| 

| 


ASIA & 
OCEANIA 


ASIA & 
OCEANIA 165| 279| 59S} 921|1700| 3900 


EUROPE INCL. 
RUSSIA 


2 AFRICA 
AMERICAS “SN 


EUROPE Including RUSSIA 
AMERICAS 


BS 
BS 


Population Reference Bureau 


Ficure 2.—A TuHousanp YEARS oF Wor.tp PoruLtaTion GRrowTR 


In A.D. 1000, Asia accounted for 60 percent of the world’s population, Europe, including 
Russia, for about 17 percent, Africa, 18 percent, and the Americas, 4 percent. By 1960, 
Asia’s percentage had declined to somewhat under 60, that of Europe and the USSR had 
increased to 22 percent, and the Americas, to 14 percent. Africa’s portion declined to 8 
percent, By 2000, Asia may comprise about 65 percent of the total, Europe and the USSR, 
15 percent, the Americas, 15 percent, and Africa, 8 percent. Russia includes Asiatic and 
European Russia. 


556 


HOW MANY PEOPLE ON EARTH?—DESMOND 557 
PERIOD III—1650-1962 A.D. 


If man’s existence on earth is viewed as a day, this period is less than 
a minute. But a fourth or more of all human beings ever born have 
lived during this brief span. 

The period brought a sixfold increase in human numbers: from an 
estimated half-billion in 1650 to over 3 billion in 1962. There were 
approximately 23 billion births during this period—over half as many 
as In the preceding 76 centuries ! 

World population doubled between 1650 and 1850, growing beyond 
the 1-billion mark. It doubled again, to reach 2 billion by 1930, in 
only 80 years. Since that time, the rate of growth has accelerated 
steadily. Now over 50 million more people are added each year. If 
the current rate remains unchanged, today’s population will double 
again in less than 40 years. 

A steadily falling death rate, especially during the last century, is 
mainly responsible for the very rapid acceleration in population 
growth. It is estimated that during 1650-1750 population was grow- 
ing at about 0.3 percent a year; during 1750-1850, at about 0.5 per- 
cent; 1850-1950, at 0.8 percent. Currently, the rate is somewhere 
between 1.6 and 1.9 percent. 

This period brings man through to the modern agricultural- 
industrial age with its tremendous scientific and technological dis- 
coveries which have greatly speeded up the rate of social change in 
the Western world and which have revolutionized agriculture, indus- 
try, communication, transportation, etc. These developments have 
made possible the support of the mammoth populations in numerous 
areas of the world. However, many of those technological advances 
are only beginning to touch the less developed areas where living levels 
for over half of the world’s people are only a little, if any, above what 
they were during much of the earlier history of the race. 

For the world as a whole, the mid-17th century is a bench mark in 
the pattern of population growth. Then, the upward surge in the 
numbers of people began. Just why the response to the early stirrings 
of the modern age was so rapid is not entirely clear, though many of 
the major factors which stimulated the increase in human numbers 
can be recognized. In Europe, the frightful famines and epidemics 
that marked the Dark Ages seem to have decreased, although hunger 
and disease were still endemic. The discovery of the New World 
opened the way for great transatlantic migrations to the rich, sparsely 
settled lands of the Americas. ‘To some extent, this relieved the grow- 
ing population pressure in Europe and provided a new source of food 
for the Old World. It also gave impetus to the tremendous growth of 
populations of European origin—at home and in European colonies— 
which amounted to a ninefold increase during the period. 


558 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


TABLE 3.—Estimates of world population by regions, 1650-1960 


Estimated population in millions 


Source of estimates Asia (ex- | Europe Area of 
and date World Africa | Northern] Latin cluding and Oceania | European 
America +] America>/U.S.S.R.)°} Asiatic settle- 
U.S.S.R.c ment 4 
Willcox’s 
estimates: 
1G6502==== 470 100 1 7 257 103 2 113 
(50 694 100 1 10 437 144 2, 157 
L800== a= 919 100 6 2a 595 193 2 224 
USL 1, 091 100 26 33 656 274 2 335 
900 aa 1, Bel 141 81 63 857 423 6 573 
Carr- 
Saunders’ 
estimates: 
NGOs 545 100 1 12 327 103 2 118 
Os 728 95 il alti 475 144 2 158 
S00 saan 906 90 6 19 597 192 2 219 
tS 5 See iL Wize 95 26 30 7TA1 274 2 335 
LOOOL eee 1, 608 120 81 63 915 423 6 573 
United 
Nations 
estimates: 
11920 22=ee= 1, 810 140 Ie 91 966 487 9 704 
OBO 4 AVIS} 155 135 109 | 1,072 532 10 786 
1940... - 2, 246 UA 146 esl |) ilo PAY Oe ill 861 
950222 2, 495 200 167 NOS elersiiG 576 13 919 
19602 Saas 2, 972 244 200 207 | 1, 665 641 16 1, 064 


a United States, Canada, Alaska, St. Pierre, and Miquelon. 

b Central and South America and Caribbean Islands. 

e Estimates for Asia and Europe in Willcox’s and Carr-Saunders’ series have been adjusted so as to include 
the population of the Asiatic U.S.S.R. with that of Europe. 

4 Includes northern America, Latin America, Europe, and the Asiatic U.S.S.R. and Oceania. 


Source: Reference No. 14 at end of article. 


The development of the scientific method and the application of this 
new knowledge to technology stimulated the Industrial and Vital 
Revolutions which so greatly changed man’s way of life throughout 
the Western world. The Industrial Revolution brought the transi- 
tion from agrarian to industrial societies—a transition which is begin- 
ning only now for large areas of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. 
The Vital Revolution brought the Western industrial nations through 
the demographic transition: from high birth and death rates to low 
birth and death rates. 

More facts and learned estimates concerning world population are 
available for this period since census-taking began during the 17th 
century. The first censuses were conducted in 1655 by the French 
and British in their Canadian colonies. Iceland took a count in 1703, 


EARLY ROMAN MIDDLE BEFORE 1900 
IRON& EMPIRE AGES 1789 US. Ai 
BRONZE England MASS. 

AGE & N.H. 


Figure 3.—Lire Exprecrancy Over THE AGES 


1953- 55 
NETHER 
-LANDS 


Life expectancy at birth is believed to have been about 18 years in prehistoric times. It 
has quadrupled today in some of the Western industrialized countries. (Source: Length of 
Life: A Study of the Life Table, by Louis 1. Dublin, Alfred J. Lotka, and Mortimer Spiegel- 


man and ref. 15 A.) 
672-174—63—_41 


559 


560 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Sweden in 1748 and Denmark in 1769. The United States took its 
first national census in 1790. Great Britain took its first in 1801. 

The first estimate of world population ever to be compiled was pub- 
lished in the 17th century by a Jesuit priest named Riccioli who esti- 
mated that 1 billion people then inhabited the earth: 100 million in 
Kurope, 500 million in Asia, 100 million in Africa, 200 million in 
America, and 100 million in Oceania. It appears that Riccioli re- 
ported the conjectures of others rather than his own. Other contem- 
porary estimates of the 17th century all range below Riccioli’s—one 
as low as 320 million. 

G. King, a 17th-century English scholar, estimating population 
densities for the various continents, allocated 17 acres per head for 
Kurope, 20 for Asia, 64 for Africa, and 129 for America. This yielded 
a total of 700 million for the world, or 600 million, rejecting a hypo- 
thetical southern continent. If correct land areas as now known are 
substituted, the estimate would be 874 million. It should be noted 
that this estimate is two-thirds higher than the estimate of approxi- 
mately 500 million accepted by modern scholars. 

Even though Asia’s population continued to increase during the 
period, its proportion of world population declined from about 58 
percent in 1650 to 53 percent in 1920 (excluding the Asiatic part of the 
U.S.S.R.). Africa’s proportion also declined, from 20 percent to 8 
percent. But the proportion for Europe, including all of the 
U.S.S.R., rose from 20 percent to 27 percent. Since 1920, the propor- 
tion for Asia and Africa has again increased, while that for Europe 
has declined. 

Today, the combined population of the Americas is about 400 mil- 
lion. Their proportion of world population increased from approxi- 
mately 2 percent in 1650 to 14 percent at the present time. As 
previously mentioned, the indigenous American populations were 
heavily decimated by diseases brought in by Europeans and by wars 
with early colonizers. Much of the subsequent increase was due to 
immigration and to the proliferation of the immigrant groups. More 
recently, the descendants of the indigenous Americans have been 
increasing rapidly. 


THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION OF PERIOD III 


Application of the scientific method to medica] technology brought 
man the ability to defer death. In the Western industria] countries, 
this has changed his pattern of survival far more rapidly than any 
other major social development throughout his long history. Simi- 
larly, in the Western world, knowledge about the control of fertility 
is widespread. As the traditional pattern of high birth and death 
rates changed to one of low birth and death rates, man’s reproductive 
process has become much more efficient. 


HOW MANY PEOPLE ON EARTH?—DESMOND 561 


In the heavily populated, less developed countries of Africa, Asia, 
and Latin America, the application of scientific techniques to defer 
death is generally accepted and quite widely practiced; but the control 
of fertility has not begun to be practiced extensively enough to affect 
birth rates. As a result, rapidly falling death rates combined with 
traditionally high birth rates have touched off a surge in the rate 
of population growth. 

Modern public health methods have cut death rates by one-third 
or more in a single year in some countries. With the drastic decline 
in infant and child mortality, the proportion of the population under 
15 years of age tends to increase. It is now over 40 percent in many 
of these countries, as compared with about 20 percent in some coun- 
tries of western and northern Europe. 

It is expected that the growth rate will increase even further in 
many areas of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, as death rates continue 
to decline. This will surely happen unless effective measures can be 
devised which will speed up the demographic transition and the rate 
of social change. Simply stated, acceptable measures must be found 
to bring birth rates mto balance with modern low death rates, thereby 
completing the demographic transition. Unless birth rates are re- 
duced, population growth rates will continue upward until they are 
checked eventually by a rise in the death rate. 

Although information about the number and distribution of the 
world’s population and vital rates is far more extensive today than 
at any time in history, there are still large blank spaces in the world’s 
demographic map. Only about half of the world’s births and ap- 
proximately two-thirds of the deaths are formally registered. 

Discussing the present rapid rate of population growth, the latest 
United Nations Demographic Yearbook points out that approximately 
one-half of the world’s population lives in only four countries—China 
(mainland), India, the U.S.S.R, and the U.S.A.—and that the reli- 
ability of world-population estimates depends largely on the accuracy 
of the information available about the population of these countries: 

Similarly the 1950-59 average rate of increase, estimated in the range of 1.5 
to 2.0 percent per annum for the four largest populations and 1.6 to 1.9 percent 
per annum for the remainder of the world, can be placed, in view of possibly 
compensating errors, between 1.6 and 1.9 percent per annum for the world 
as a whole. 

Actually in view of declining mortality, it is virtually certain that the rate of 
world population growth has now surpassed 1.5 percent per annum, and quite 
possible that it has attained 2.0 percent per annum. Because of this decline 
of mortality, world population certainly increased in the year 1959 by at least 
45 million, and possibly by as much as 55 million. Again it is evident that 
much of the uncertainty is caused by the lack of precise knowledge regarding 
the population of China (mainland). Large margins of error must also be 


allowed for in the estimated annual increases in India, in other parts of Asia, 
and in Africa. 


562 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


TABLE 4.—Estimated population and vital rates for the world by region, 1950-75 


Midvear Annual | Vital rates 1955-59; Medium 


population rate of projection 
Continent and region (millions) increase to 1975 
1959 (percent) Birth Death | (millions) 
1950-59 rate rate 
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 
Worlditotalo22 = 232s. eee ee ee 2, 907 ls ¢ 36 19 3, 830 
Afri Comes ce ayn eee ee eee er 237 1.9 46 27 303 
INortherneAtricas= == = eee 78 1.9 45 26 76 
Tropical and Southern Africa ___-_- 159 19 47 28 226 
America s4o4. 202 BOE kh pe ee 398 P41 34 14 543 
Nort bi Aun eri Cae ee ee 196 1.8 25 9 240 
Middle yAtmeni case eee 65 22, '7/ 45 18 99 
SouthwAum erica ae 11337/ 28 42 19 204 
ASIg # eh s 2Eb2 cb coc iii e es Ala A Bs rok we 1, 622 ss) 42 23 2, 210 
SouthwestwAsiaqes 2255-2 seers ae 74 PA, & 46 21 116 
South=centralvAsia === eee 546 He 44 26 one 
SoutheastvAsia ssa ss 2 ees 208 PA, 1 44 23 280 
HSS bRASI Oe eer sae wey ee 794 1.8 39 21 1,075 
UT OPE See oe een aurea ee 423 0.8 19 10 476 
Northern and Western Europe _--_- 141 ON 18 11 154 
Centralehunopes se. eee eee 337/ 0.8 19 10 156 
Southern /urope__2=- 3- 52 2 2 145 0.9 21 10 166 
Oceania® see sh Riats Rae ce eer eee 16 2.4 25 9 21 
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics_- 211 be 25 8 275 


Source: References 15 A and B at end of article. 


The Chinese census of 1953 is very difficult to appraise and might 
introduce an error of as much as 90 million in the present world 
population ! 

WHAT IS PAST IS PROLOGUE 


Since man first appeared on earth, human arithmetic has moved 
from a relatively simple exercise in addition to a complicated one of 
geometric progression. It took all of the vast reaches of time to 
build today’s population of slightly over 8 billion. But it will take 
only 40 more years for population to reach 6 billion, if the present 
growth rates remain unchanged. 

Life on this earth was a precarious gamble for Homo sapiens for 
hundreds of thousands of years. Driven by his natural] reluctance to 
endure an early death, man ultimately discovered and then perfected 
the power to defer death. That he has succeeded is a notable tribute 
to his genius and to his humanitarian and philanthropic instincts. 

It is noteworthy that the desire to control fertility has never had 
the emotional imperatives which brought the power over death. Only 
modest efforts have been made thus far to discover effective methods 
of fertility control which would be acceptable to the people of all 
cultures and religions, Less than modest efforts have been made 


HOW MANY PEOPLE ON EARTH?—DESMOND 563 


to disseminate what knowledge is now available to all the world’s 
people who would benefit from that knowledge. Consequently, dur- 
ing the past decade of rapid death-rate decline in the less developed 
countries, there has been no measurable reduction in high birth rates; 
so population growth has increased. 

Rapid population growth cannot be maintained indefinitely in any 
part of the world. If birth rates do not decline in overcrowded lands, 
death rates eventually will rise to check growth. 

The gulf which exists today between the peoples of the world has 
widened : life is better than ever before for those who live in the West- 
ern industrial countries. But the majority of the world’s people 
still live close to the subsistence level, in poverty and squalor remi- 
niscent of the Middle Ages. If the demographic transition to a 
balance between low birth and death rates could be hastened in the 
less developed countries, this gulf might yet be bridged in time to 
avert a Malthusian disaster. 


APPENDIX 


The statistical and general demographic assumptions used to deter- 
mine the number of people who have ever been born were provided 
the Population Reference Bureau by J. Fletcher Wellemeyer, an inde- 
pendent manpower consultant, Washington, D.C., in consultation with 
Frank Lorimer, American University, Washington, D.C. 

The estimate was made on the basis of three time periods: 


Number of | Number of births | Number of births | Number of 


Period years in per year at be- | per year atend | birthsin 
period ginning of period of period period 
(billions) 
I. 600,000-6000 B.C________- 594, 000 sa92? 250, 000 12 
ie 6000 BSC —1650,ACD eae 7, 650 250, 000 | 25, 000, 000 42 
INOS GO ees AID Soe 312 | 25, 000, 000 |110, 000, 000 23 
Lay ii Lt oui a sR at AT) Set A Lr a A A eae eed Ue 


To obtain the number of births at the beginning and end of these 
periods, certain assumptions were made regarding birth rates and the 
size of populations. It was assumed that at the beginning of the 
Neolithic era the population was 5 million and that the annual birth 
rate was 50 per thousand. The procedure assumes a smooth increase. 
The growth was undoubtedly irregular, but the estimates may fairly 
represent the net effect of the ups and downs. 

By 1650 the annual number of births was estimated at 25 million, 
corresponding to a population of about 500 million. The 1962 world 
population of 3.05 billion, the number of births and birth rate of 36 
per thousand are based on United Nations estimates. 


564 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The 600,000 years’ duration of the Paleolithic era is based on the 
assumption that manlike types were then in existence but in very small 
numbers. Earlier dates have been given a few species by certain 
authorities, but some of these dates are questionable, and the earlier 
species may have been considerably less than manlike. The 600,000- 
year period seems a reasonable compromise between extreme 
possibilities. 

Once the number of births at the dates indicated was determined, 
the total number of births for each period was calculated at a constant 
rate of increase for the period. 

The estimated rates of increase differ sharply. For the long Paleo- 
lithic period, the average annual rate of increase was only 0.02 per 
thousand; during 6000 B.C. to A.D. 1650, it rose to 0.6; and during 
1650-1962, it reached 4.35. 

For the figures derived here, the following equation was used: 


rt 
$B Bue 


B, is the number of births per year at the beginning of the period; 
¢ is the number of years in the period; e is the base of natural loga- 
rithms; and 7 is the annual rate of increase during the period. 


: : : Bury Fy 
The value of 7 is obtained by solving for 7 the equation p’=e" 


where B, is the number of births the first year of the period, and B; is 
the number of births the final year of the period. 


SOURCES 


In the preparation of this Bulletin, the following sources were consulted. The 
reader is referred to them for additional information. 
1. Bennett, M. K. The world’s food. New York, Harper and Brothers, 1954. 
2. Bratpwoop, Rosert J. Near Eastern prehistory. Science, vol. 127, No. 3312, 
June 20, 1958. 
38. Brown, Harrison. The challenge of man’s future. New York, The Viking 
Press, 1954. 
4, CARR-SAUNDERS, A. M. World population, past growth and present trends. 
Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1936. 
5. CoLiier, JOHN. Indians of the Americas. New York, New American Library 
of World Literature, 1947. 
6. Cook, Ronert C. World population growth. Law and Contemporary Prob- 
lems (a quarterly published by the Duke University School of Law), vol. 
25, No. 3, summer 1960. 
7. DURAND, Joun. Mortality estimates from Roman tombstone inscriptions. 
Amer. Journ. Sociol., vol. 45, No. 4, January 1960. 
8. Huxtry, Jur1aAn. New bottles for new wine. New York, Harper and 
Brothers, 1957. 
9. Krorper, A. L. Anthropology. New York, Harcourt, Brace and Company, 
1948. 
10. RusSELL, J. C. Late ancient and medieval population. Trans. Amer. Philos. 
Soc., n.s., vol. 48, pt. 3, June 1958. 


att 


12. 


13. 


14. 


15. 


16. 


HOW MANY PEOPLE ON EARTH?—DESMOND 565 


Scientific American. Issue entitled The human species. Vol. 203, No. 3, 
September 1960. 

STEWARD, JULIAN. The native population of South America. Bur. Amer. 
Ethnol. Bull. 148, vol. 5, pp. 655-668. 

TURNER, RateH. The great cultural traditions: Vol. I, The ancient cities 
New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1941. 

United Nations. Department of Social Affairs. Population Division. 

A. The determinants and consequences of population trends. New York, 1953. 

United Nations. Department of Economie and Social Affairs. Statistical 
Office. 

A. Demographic yearbook, 1960. New York, 1960. 

B. The future growth of world population. New York, 1958. 

C. Population and vital statistics reports (Statistical Papers, Series A, vol. 
13, No. 1). New York, 1961. 

WILLcox, WALTER F. (ed.). Population of the earth in international 
migrations, vol. 2, pt. 1. New York, National Bureau of Economie Re- 
search, Inc., 1931. 


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Bows and Arrows: 


A Chapter in the Evolution of Archery 


in America 


By Pau E. KLopstec 


Professor Emeritus, Northwestern University 


[ With 5 plates] 


This article, as a first objective, is intended to acquaint the reader 
with the sports and other pastimes which have to do with the bow 
and arrow. Among the pastimes, perhaps surprisingly, are the seri- 
ous theoretical and experimental studies of these ancient implements, 
which contributed in large measure to the unparalleled increase in 
their use in this country during the past 30 years. As a second 
objective, an account of the technological advance which resulted 
from the studies seems worth presenting, since the development is 
interesting in its own right and because it is probably unique in sports 
history. 

The sports mentioned are comprised of a variety of ways of using 
the bow, all of which depend on skillful handling. Other diversions 
include the collecting of old books and prints, which not only give 
insight into the practice of archery centuries ago, but also reveal 
something of the customs of those times. Then, too, there is the 
collecting of bows, arrows, and associated gear from around the world, 
and of artifacts which were obviously or presumably related to 
archery. Fora person of my interests, the most interesting diversion, 
which attracted others of like tastes, is the research and development 
aimed at understanding the mechanics of propulsion of the arrow and 
of its flight characteristics. 

It is not intended here to review the history of archery, for to do 
so would go far beyond the scope of this article. For reasons already 
mentioned, the technical side of archery will be treated more fully 
than the others. It is the area to which my attention and interest 
were initially attracted, and the area in which the rapid evolution of 
archery in the United States took place. 


567 


568 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


My immersion in archery began in the late 1920’s, when a dormant 
interest in the flight of a projectile was fanned to activity by my 
undertaking, one summer, to do target practice with arrows. During 
World War I my work had been largely in experimental ballistics. 
This may have stimulated a desire to know more about the manner of 
flight of the arrow, about the way in which energy is stored in the 
bow, and about the mechanism of transfer of the stored energy to the 
arrow—in short, about the physics of bows and arrows. One of the 
chief attractions of archery is the opportunity of applying the findings 
of science and engineering to the design and construction of bows and 
arrows. 

Because of its venerable age and traditions, a voluminous literature 
has grown up in archery, especially in English. Less well known in 
English-speaking countries is the wealth of written records concerning 
archery in Arabic, Chinese, Persian, Turkish, and other oriental 
languages. By contrast, little of such writing has been produced in 
German or French. The collecting of old books and prints and more 
ephemeral items as well is a possibility not easily matched in any other 
sport. Its antiquity, its unique role in the history of nations, its 
science and technology, and its appeal to craftsmanship—the combina- 
tion of all these is rarely found outside of archery. 

Competent estimates indicate that 6 million or more persons in the 
United States are serious about some form of archery. To discover 
reasons for such wide appeal, observe that the bow is one of the first 
if not the first of propellant devices invented by man. To what epoch 
in prehistory its genesis may be assigned is not clearly established, 
but that game was hunted with the bow many millenniums ago is 
attested by the rock paintings in the Cueva de los Caballos in eastern 
Spain. Among prehistoric tribes the bow was the steadfast com- 
panion of the family provider, of the group defender, perhaps even 
of the tribal aggressor. Without doubt it was the principal imple- 
ment used in the struggle for existence. To this day it plays the same 
indispensable role among primitive tribes of Africa and South 
America. 

The bow is thus an authentic antique. Its antiquity, along with the 
fact that the modern bow and arrow are in principle unchanged from 
their prototypes, invests their use with fascination among sports 
which employ specialized instruments. Appreciation of this and other 
attractive attributes helps in part to explain its growth and present 
large number of followers. Archery has always been more a partici- 
pant sport than a spectator’s, which makes its phenomenal expansion 
all the more noteworthy. Its number of followers will always remain 
small in comparison with the crowds who are baseball and football 
enthusiasts. 


BOWS AND ARROWS—KLOPSTEG 569 


Among the diversions which comprise the “world of sports” one 
comparison is the relative market for the implements used. By this 
test a participant sport ranks high, for nearly everyone interested in it 
is a potential buyer for its equipment. Archery, so measured, has 
arrived asa major sport. Its manufacturers and suppliers are found 
among the larger business enterprises. Manufacturers of firearms 
and fishing tackle have entered the primary market. One other indi- 
eator which confirms its rank is the rapid expansion of its specialized 
magazines, the number of recently published books, and the avid col- 
lection of old books and other material published in the field. 


SSS eee? 
IY er 


Ficure 1.—An English longbow of the 1850’s, unstrung. The upper limb, 34’ long, is at 
the left, the lower limb, 34’’ long, at the right. To provide better grasp, the grip is 
enlarged by a shaped pad of cork glued to the back of the bow. The bow is made of two 
strips of wood glued together. The back is probably lancewood; the belly is a dark, hard 
wood, unidentified, but possibly degame, stained deep brown. 


Today’s number of archers contrasts sharply with that of only 30 
years ago. During this period there has probably been a doubling of 
numbers every 5 years, which would make the ratio more than 60/1, 
which seems plausible. Prior to 1930, the number of archers in 
America was almost too small to be noticed. In the tables of data 
about outdoor sports, its category was “miscellaneous” or “other.” 
Seldom did the public press carry news about it. Among the reasons 
for the prevailing popularity of the sport, a major one to be examined 
is the exceptional improvement of its implements. This new excel- 
lence was the first in centuries, the centuries during which makers of 
bows and arrows blindly and uncritically followed tradition. 

Though unchanged in principle, the instruments of archery today 
differ profoundly in detail from their prehistoric and historic proto- 
types. They differ radically even from the more recent ones being 
used during the first few decades of this century. Changes in design, 
materials, and construction have contributed incomparably to pre- 
cision in performance, hence to greater accuracy in the hands of the 
skillful user. Even the fantastic skill attributed to Robin Hood and 
his outlaws of Sherwood Forest does not surpass that of many of our 
present-day bowmen. The new designs have undoubtedly served as a 
potent catalyst both in stirring the latent interest of many potential 
archers, and in stimulating manufacture of the new bows which, 
unlike the old, lend themselves to systematic mass production. 

Shooting an arrow at a mark such as the bullseye or “gold” of a 
standard target has much resemblance to measuring a physical 
constant with the purpose of determining its value to the utmost 
attainable accuracy. To increase the accuracy in such a measurement, 


570 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


the first requisite is precision made possible by the use of instruments 
of greater sophistication. In shooting, these instruments are the bow 
and arrow which in their present design and construction are indeed 
sophisticated. To attain maximum precision with them requires: 

1. Minimum differences, in successive shots, in the energy stored in 
the bow at equal lengths of draw. 

2. Minimum effects of temperature and humidity on the materials 
of which the bow and the arrows are made. 

3. Minimum differences in dimensions, materials, and shapes of the 
arrows comprising the set. 

4. Arrows of proper spine in relation to the bow. (Spine is a char- 
acteristic of an arrow which depends on such factors as stiffness, resil- 
ience, mass, and distribution of mass along the shaft.) 

5. Exact replication by the archer of all the sequences of action in 
the process of shooting, i.e., of drawing the bow and “loosing” the 
arrow. 

Requirement 5, which calls for near perfection in the archer’s coordi- 
nation and in the execution of the difficult, interrelated steps in the 
shooting of an arrow, is to an extent dependent on the other specifica- 
tions enumerated. His confidence in his ability to perform all the 
necessary actions properly is increased if he can be sure that these 
specifications are closely met. 


Ficure 2.—The bow of Figure 1, strung (“braced”’) for shooting. 


In the United States the bow and arrow are used in five main cate- 
gories of the overall sport. The oldest form, widely practiced, derives 
from the kind of target shooting long practiced in England. It con- 
sists of competitive rounds, variously named, such as York, American, 
National. Each round consists of certain numbers of “ends” of six 
arrows each, at several known distances. The York Round, for exam- 
ple, calls for 12 ends at 100 yards, 8 at 80 yards, and 4 at 60 yards for 
a total of 144 shots. The standard target on a thick straw mat is 4 
feet in diameter. Its gold bullseye is 0.8 foot in diameter. This is 
surrounded by four concentric rings each 0.4 foot in width, having 
colors red, blue, black, and white going outward from the gold. A hit 
in the gold counts 9; and the rings, going outward, have values of 
7, 5, 3, and 1, respectively. 

Clout and wand shooting are variations of the customary rounds. 
In the former, a target 12 times the diameter of the standard, namely, 
48 feet, is laid out on the turf, with its center 180 yards from the shoot- 
ing line. The arrows are loosed at a high initial angle and come 


BOWS AND ARROWS—KLOPSTEG 571 


down steeply to stick in the sod on which the target is described. In 
wand shooting, a vertical lath 2 inches wide is set up at 100 yards, and 
hits are counted regardless of their elevation on the wand. 

A second category called flight shooting puts a premium on skill in 
shooting for maximum distance. The bows and arrows are especially 
designed for the purpose. Another, field archery, requires a course of 
14 targets, laid out where possible up hill and down dale, with dis- 
tances only approximately known, and with targets roughly propor- 
tional in diameter to the distances from the shooting stands. Hilly 
woodland is preferred terrain, with natural hazards, or with artificial 
ones built in. 

Still another bow-and-arrow sport is archery golf, played on a golf 
course. Bows and arrows are substituted for clubs and balls, and the 
cup is replaced by a circular disk of the same diameter as the cup, 
supported vertically. Some historians of sport surmise that the 
“antient and honourable game” of golf is descended from the old 
archery game of rovers. In this form of contest the participants, 
ambling about the countryside, selected a series of marks as they 
strolled, and scored the total number of shots to hit the marks, low 
score winning. Archery golf may, in fact, be “rovers reviv’d,” in 
modified form. 

The fifth major category, and the one growing most rapidly, is that 
of hunting wild game with bow and arrow. Most States have long 
open seasons limited to bow hunting, usually preceding the rifle hunt- 
ing season for deer. Deer hunting is the most popular version. Hun- 
dreds of deer fall annually to the bow, but this is only a small fraction 
of those still being taken each year with rifles. The word “still” is 
used by design, because many of today’s bow hunters are yesterday’s 
riflemen. Other large game being hunted with the bow includes bob- 
cats, mountain lions, javelina, elk, and moose in this country, as well 
as black and brown bears. Rabbits, squirrels, and upland birds are 
among the small game. Carp and gar fishing with the bow and special 
arrows 1s becoming increasingly popular. 

The requirements for precision shooting where the object is to hit 
a mark have already been enumerated. These are closely approxi- 
mated in most modern bows and arrows. Thus any appreciable 
scatter on a target of six matched arrows may be attributed to the 
archer’s technique, to the variations in his performance in the different 
shots. Variable and gusty winds increase the scatter, whereas in a 
steady wind, the effect can be minimized by allowing for drift. With 
all these factors considered, it seems reasonable to use the comparison 
of scores of today’s champion archers with the corresponding scores of 
35 years ago as a measure of improvement in the equipment during 
the intervening period. Before the improved bows and arrows were 

672-174 6342 


572 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


available, it was standard procedure for the archer who was striving 
for highest score to shoot his matched arrows repeatedly with a given 
bow, to determine their dispersion pattern, and to fix in his mind the 
deviation of each arrow, identified by number, from the intended 
point of impact at various target distances. He also needed to know 
the effects of temperature and humidity on the performance of his 
tackle, and make due allowances for them. With these precautions, 
experts could make fair scores. 

The story of how bows and arrows became the objects of study by 
scientists and engineers, and how the transformation in design from 
the old to the new came about, begins in the 1920's. 

Among those who became the pioneers in studies looking toward 
improvement, C. N. Hickman is one of the leaders. His training in 
physics to the doctorate was at Clark University, where he worked 
with Robert H. Goddard, known as the father of modern rocketry. 
Soon after the first World War, Hickman was employed at the 
National Bureau of Standards and soon thereafter transferred to the 
Washington Navy Yard as research engineer. He seems to have inher- 
ited his interest in archery. His grandfather learned it from the 
Indians, and his father was one of the relatively small number of 
archers in the United States during the last decade of the 19th and 
the early decades of the 20th centuries. Throughout his career Hick- 
man has been a confirmed experimentalist in mechanics, with specific 
and practical objectives, and with exceptional ingenuity in devising 
and constructing apparatus and systems needed for specialized meas- 
urements and mechanical performance. 

His exploration of the mechanics of the bow included the design and 
construction of a shooting machine with which hand shooting could 
be more closely simulated than in earlier machines of this kind. In it 
he employed a nonjarring pneumatic release, adapted from the pneu- 
matic bellows used in a player piano. The device makes possible the 
reduction to minimum of the inevitable small variations in the process 
of shooting by hand. The machine and his modified form of the 
Aberdeen Chronograph, on the development of which I was engaged 
at Aberdeen Proving Ground and in Philadelphia during World 
War I, made it feasible to measure accurately the short time inter- 
vals involved in determining velocities and accelerations of arrows 
being discharged from bows. Data could thus be obtained for better 
understanding of the “interior ballistics” of the bow and arrow com- 
bination, and of the velocities and retardations involved in the “ex- 
terior ballistics” of the missile. 

The beginning of my interest in these matters in the summer of 1929 
came about through the fact that part of the family’s vacation pas- 
time was provided by a beginner’s archery set and a homemade target. 


BOWS AND ARROWS—KLOPSTEG 573 


First efforts sought to gain skill and improve scores. Practice was 
guided by an instruction sheet which came with the set. We started 
with complete ignorance of the techniques, so that improvement began 
from the zero level. In the course of my self-instruction in the art of 
“shooting in the bow” my familiarity with physics helped me to 
recognize the mechanical principles and problems involved in the 
propulsion of an arrow by means of a bow. 

To increase the success of our efforts I bought and read what few 
up-to-date books on archery could be procured, and subscribed to the 
single archery magazine then being published, “yclept ‘Ye Sylvan 
Archer’ ”—the title of which provided a flavor of romantic antiquity 
and old tradition for a struggling journal by and for amateurs. 

The appearance of some of Hickman’s articles in this magazine led 
to a renewal of our acquaintance. A lively correspondence about the 
physics and engineering aspects of archery developed. My Aberdeen 
Chronograph and shop equipment became the nucleus of an attic 
laboratory for which I built a shooting machine and other specialized 
apparatus. The latter included high-speed flash equipment for ob- 
taining instantaneous photographs of an arrow being accelerated by 
the bow, and measurement of force-draw characteristics of a bow by 
photography. I was thus launched, not to say propelled, into experi- 
mental studies which were all the more welcome for the diversion 
they afforded from the serious economic problems following the great 
depression of 1929. In many respects, my equipment was similar to 
Hickman’s, so that we could easily compare and check measurements 
and keep our efforts cooperative and complementary. 

My publications reporting on these experiments began in 1931, first 
in “Ye Sylvan Archer,” and later in a newly established journal of 
small circulation, the “Archery Review.” Reference to the bibli- 
ography shows that several engineer-scientists other than Hickman 
and myself also published several papers, a few of which appeared in 
the Journal of the Franklin Institute. Among the authors were 
English, Higgins, Nagler, and Rheingans. 

The topics listed below give a picture of some of the interesting 
problems with which the research and development efforts dealt; but 
many questions were only partially answered. ‘There is still plenty 
of rewarding pastime left in them for anyone who feels inclined to 
apply his skill to their solution. 

1. The effects of the shape, dimensions, relative settings, and angles 
of limbs on the static force-draw relation as the bow is drawn and the 
dynamic force-displacement relation as the arrow is accelerated. 

2. The static energy-draw relation as the bow is drawn. 

3. The velocity of departure of the arrow and its kinetic energy 
derived from the energy in the drawn bow. 


574 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


4. The mass-velocity relationship and corresponding mass-energy 
relationship for arrows of different masses shot from the same bow. 

5. Effect of the mass of the string on the initial velocity and energy 
of the arrow. 

6. The efficiency of a bow-arrow combination, i.e., the fraction of 
the stored energy in the bow which appears as kinetic energy in the 
arrow. 

7. The “virtual mass” of the bow. 

8. Factors which affect performance of arrows: their effects on 
accuracy, and consistency and distance in flight. 

9. The geometry and methods of aiming. 

10. Psychological factors in shooting. 

The list above is representative of some of the questions in the 
mind of the observant, analytically minded archer who has serious 
inclinations toward finding the answers. If he does, he has potential 
guides to improvement in performance of both the archer and his 
implements, and the search for the answers will have provided pleasant 
avocation for those who enjoy such pursuits. Our discussion of these 
matters will be illustrative rather than exhaustive. 

Known kinds of bows are numerous. They may have long limbs 
or short limbs, equal or unequal in length. Cross-sectional shapes of 
the limbs are various. Materials may be wood, of a single kind, in 
“self” bows, or of different kinds, glued together in layers. There are 
“composite” bows, with layers of several kinds of organic materials, 
or, In modern form, of laminae of wood and synthetic plastics rein- 
forced with fiberglass. 

The two representative types of bow from which the kind now gen- 
erally used has evolved are the longbow, with which are associated 
centuries of history and tradition, and the oriental, specifically the 
Turkish, composite bow. Prototypes of the latter are the bows used 
by the Saracens and by the conquering hordes of Genghis Khan. We 
have authentic information, dating back to the 15th century, about the 
Turkish bow. Through the following centuries its design apparently 
never changed. In the middle of the 19th century, interest in arch- 
ery vanished with the end of the reign of Sultan Mahmud IT, and few 
if any bows were made in Turkey thereafter. 

The English longbow had straight limbs when relaxed, i.e., not 
strung, except as the limbs might have taken a set from having been 
repeatedly drawn. The limbs terminated in fitted tips of horn with 
grooves (‘“nocks”) in which the loops of the string were seated. 
Limbs tapered in both width and thickness from grip to tip. At any 
cross section, the limb was rounded on the belly side, toward the 
string, and more or less flattened on the back, on the opposite side. 
In the drawn bow the belly is under compression, the back under ten- 


BOWS AND ARROWS—KLOPSTEG 575 


sion. Several shapes of cross section are shown in figure 8. Such a 
limb is said to be stacked. 

The grip occupied the region where the tapering limbs merged, 
and bending occurred throughout the length of the bow. For this and 
perhaps other reasons, an unpleasant recoil might be felt in the bow 
hand when the arrow was loosed. The stacked limb, characteristic of 
the longbow, was a violation of good mechanical principles and did not 
properly exploit the possibilities of the wood from which the bow 
was fashioned. On the contrary, it subjected the wood to needlessly 
high stresses. Indeed, such a bow had to be long to minimize stresses 
and prevent breakage; hence Jongbow. That the margin of safety in 
the longbow was recognized as precarious is implied in the saying that 
a bow fully drawn is nine-tenths broken. This is not true of the 
modern bow. Another feature of the longbow was that its lower limb 
was about 2 inches shorter, and stiffer, than the upper. ‘This seems to 
have been a concession to the bowyer’s desire to keep the overall length 
within tolerable limits and to have the arrow engage the string at 
the midpoint of the latter. Both desires were satisfied by moving 
the handgrip in the direction of the lower limb by a couple of 
inches. 


"SROZGRe. 


Ficure 3.—Typical shapes of cross sections of limbs of traditional longbows. 


During the known history of the longbow up to the early 1930’s the 
only change in design seems to have been one intended to reduce the 
aforementioned recoil in the bow hand. The change consisted of mak- 
ing the grip rigid and nonbending by leaving more wood in the handle 
portion. The limbs then, instead of merging within the grip, made 
juncture somewhat abruptly with the heavier midsection, where the 
latter was fashioned into dips which merged into the limbs. The 
limbs thus became more clearly defined in length. In other respects 
the design remained frozen. 

The original motive for Hickman’s work and mine was the convic- 
tion, bred by recognition of the theoretical shortcomings of the long- 
bow and by the desire to improve its performance, that much better 
bows could be made. The improvements that resulted from the work 
demonstrate the effectiveness of using science and engineering princi- 
ples as compared with the stagnation inevitable in adherence to 
tradition. In contrast with these improvements, brought about within 
a few years, is the frozen design to which bowyers in England and 
America adhered through the centuries, because they “knew” that it 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


576 


*IOAP] [Bnou oY} JO UOT}BIOT SOLVIIPUT BUT] p9jOp VY, “WIT JUsq & JO MOIIA QpIs S1}eW9YIS—'F AUN 


°4 


BOWS AND ARROWS—KLOPSTEG 577 


could not be improved. They must have felt certain that any attempts 
to improve their product were predestined to failure. I have recollec- 
tions of pre-1930 bowyers speaking with pride, if not boastfully, of 
their ability in selecting yew wood for making bows par excellence. 
But no matter how singularly excellent the quality of the wood they 
selected, or how well it was seasoned, even the best of their bows 
required a high initial angle of trajectory for the arrow to hit the 
target at 100 yards. This did not contribute to high scores, nothwith- 
standing their derogation of the higher velocity and flatter trajectory 
of the new bows, not attainable with theirs. 

It may interest the reader to follow the major steps by which 
the improvements were achieved. Our point of departure was the 
longbow, as used in this country prior to the early 1930’s which was 
the English pattern modified with the rigid grip. 

Mechanics, that section of physics which deals with static and 
dynamic forces, with kinematics, and with the properties of materials 
subjected to stresses, shows that when a elastic beam is bent, it 
is under tension which causes stretching on the convex side and under 
compression, causing shortening on the concave side. Somewhere be- 
tween there is a geometric “layer” of zero thickness which neither 
stretches nor shortens as the beam is bent. At this “neutral” layer 
the shearing force between the stretched and the compressed sections 
is 2 maximum, and this diminishes to zero as we move outward, at 
right angles, to the surfaces of the beam. 

To illustrate this, consider the limb of a longbow (fig. 4). A force 
F’, applied to the tip through the string causes the limb to bend in a 
curve which depends on the force, and on the shape, dimensions, and 
elastic properties of the limb. At any section AB within some finite 
radius of curvature, the tensile force is 7; and the compressive force 
F.. These forces increase from zero to maximum values as we go 
outward from the neutral layer. The bending moment at the section 
is the summation of the tensile and compressive forces over the ele- 
ments of area on each side of the neutral layer, giving a resultant 
tensile and compressive force, respectively; the sum of each of these 
resultant forces, multiplied by the distance of its point of applica- 
tion from the neutral axis of the section, is the bending moment at 
the section. This is equal to the moment represented by the force 
along the string multiplied by the perpendicular distance of the sec- 
tion AB from the string: 7’; daz. 

Figure 5 represents a section AB of the limb in figure 4, of a typical 
longbow. Line CD through the center of mass of the section is the 
neutral axis. The neutral axes of all the sections define the neutral 
layer; conversely, the neutral layer contains all the neutral axes of all 
possible sections. In the section shown, the distance from the neutral 
axis to the outer surface of the back of the limb is less than the cor- 


578 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


TENSION 


BELLY COMPRESSION 


(a) dean 


Ficure 5.—(a) Section of a stacked limb. CD is the neutral axis, containing CM, the 
center of mass of the section. (b) Force diagram at this section of the stressed limb 
showing proportionality of fiber stress and distance from the neutral axis. 


responding distance to the outer surface of the belly. Since the maxi- 
mum tension and compression occur at the outer surfaces, the back is 
subject to lower maximum stress in tension than is the belly in com- 
pression. It is a general characteristic of wood, both from the stand- 
point of intrinsic strength and of imperfections, that it can withstand 
greater tension than compression without failure. Thus, in a stacked 
limb, forces to which the wood is subjected are not matched with the 
strength characteristics of the wood. This confirms the previous 
statement that in the longbow the qualities of the wood are not prop- 
erly exploited. From mechanical considerations it would be better 
to reverse the shape of the limb, so as to make the stacked side the 
back and the flat side the belly. It is now evident why the longbow 
must be long to withstand the stresses to which it is subjected in use. 

In a working bow, made of wood with suitable elastic properties, the 
energy in the bent limbs resides in the stresses set up in them as the 
bow is drawn. When the arrow is loosed, the wood tends to spring 
back toward its unstressed configuration. The best use of the wood or 
other resilient material is made when the maximum tensile and com- 
pressive forces are constant throughout the length of the limbs, with 
constant bending moment per unit area at any section. The condition 
can be approximated in a limb of uniform thickness, rectangular in 
section, bending in a circular are. In handbooks of engineering one 
finds that a cantilever beam of uniform thickness, tapering from 
finite width at the point of support to zero width at its free end, with 
loading at the end, bends in a circular are with light loading and 
small deflection. Hickman pointed out this simple fact and sug- 
gested that a bow with limbs rectangular in section, of uniform thick- 
ness and taper, would more effectively utilize the resilient qualities 
of the wood than does the longbow. Experiments carried on by Hick- 


BOWS AND ARROWS—KLOPSTEG 579 


Ficure 6.—Graphic method of designing a bow. BT, the limb, is divided into ten equal 
sections. Its tip, in bending, follows the path TT’, a circular arc with center at R and 
radius t, which is 3/4 BT in length. The length of the arrow is EP; the line CA represents 
the string on the braced bow, with CP the “bracing height”; ET’ represents the string at 
full draw. Arc BT’ represents the bent limb, with radius r, the center of which is located 
by the intersection of the line BF which is perpendicular to BT, and the perpendicular 
bisector of chord BT’. Perpendiculars to ET’ are dropped from each of the ten equally 
spaced points B, G’, H’,.... Q’, along the bent limb. The lengths of the perpen- 
dicalars are proportional to the respective widths of the limb at each of the ten locations. 


man and myself some 30 years ago fully substantiated the point. 
When the deflection is large, as in a fully drawn bow, the bending 
moment per unit area is no longer uniform along the limbs. To 
restore uniformity, widths at different points along the limbs must 
be corrected so as to bring about the desired result of keeping the 
bending moment per unit area constant. 

Figure 6 depicts a graphic method for determining the correct 
widths, along its length, for a limb of uniform thickness, to achieve 
the stated objective. Accordingly, it becomes the basis for the design 
of a bow with limbs rectangular in section, uniformly stressed. 

Hickman showed that when a limb is bent in a circular are, the 
path of its tip closely follows a circle having a radius three-fourths 
the length of the limb, its center being on the limb. This simple con- 
struction enables one to draw a circular are representing the bent 
limb for any length of draw. The procedure for determining the 


580 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


relative widths, in terms of the maximum width of the limb at its base, 
is described in the caption for figure 6. 

It is of course impracticable to reduce the width of the limb to zero 
at the tip. This would have no place for seating (“nocking”) the 
string, and because of the small width, the outermost several inches 
of the limb would be unstable and tend to twist. Accordingly, in con- 
structing the limb, sufficient width is left in the outermost 3 or 4 inches 
to provide for a suitable nock and retain stability. To compensate for 
the extra stiffness due to the added width, the thickness of the end of 
the limb is reduced so as to approximate bending in this section on the 
same radius with the rest of the limb, The approximation cannot be 
close, because of the very small bending moment near the tip. The 
corners of the limb are chamfered to reduce concentration of stresses. 

The new design, shown in plate 3, which in effect loads the limbs 
uniformly and thus makes optimum use of their elastic properties, 
made possible a reduction in their length by 10 to 15 percent, while 
reducing hazard of breakage. A dividend was the possibility of mak- 
ing the limbs of equal length, instead of keeping the lower limb 2 inches 
shorter than the upper, as in the longbow. This is accomplished by 
lengthening the rigid middle section sufficiently to provide the same 
length of rigid section above the arrow as there is in the handle sec- 
tion below the arrow, thereby keeping the bow symmetrical with re- 
spect to the axis of the arrow, with the arrow nocked at the midpoint 
of the string. Both limbs are now alike in dimensions and stiffness. 
Such a limb has a period of vibration much shorter than that of the 
equivalent limb of a longbow, the comparison between the two bows 
being based on their exerting the same static force on the arrow at full 
draw. ‘The new limbs therefore spring back faster, impart higher 
velocity to a given arrow, and thus have greater efficiency in trans- 
ferring their energy to the arrow. 

Experiments with bows developed along these lines proved them to 
be far superior in efficiency to the longbow. Whereas the latter at 
best transferred 40 percent of its stored energy to the arrow, the new 
bows, according to measurement made both by Hickman and myself, 
had above 75 percent. With efficiency about double that of the long- 
bow, it can impart an initial velocity to a given arrow about 40 percent 
higher than that produced by a longbow. 

It seems appropriate at this point to quote from a letter which I 
received from a distinguished scientist and friend in Washington after 
I had sent him one of the new bows. He had been finding welcome 
relief from strenuous responsibilities in military research and develop- 
ment by practicing archery occasionally with the Potomac Archers, 
where he used a longbow. Upon receipt of the new bow, he tried it, 
then sent me the following comment: 


That is the doggondest bow I ever saw—and apparently that the Potomac 
Archers ever saw. I took it down yesterday. The club was having an informal 


BOWS AND ARROWS—KLOPSTEG 581 


shoot so I snuck off on the side, nocked an arrow, picked a point of aim some- 
what nearer than with the older bow, and let er go. I haven’t seen that arrow 
since. I just hope it didn’t plug someone. . . . When the gang started shooting 
at 100 yards, Mr. -—————— joined me and helped me try it out... . He was 
drawing only 26 inches, so was losing a lot. But his point of aim at 100 was 
somewhere about the 40 yard line. He shot a couple, and it pretty well broke 
up the shoot because the gang gathered around as soon as they saw the flat 
trajectory.... 

Publication in the early 1930’s of a series of articles on the design 
and performance of the new bow met with some skepticism by tradi- 
tion-bound archers, but it also met. with widely increasing acceptance. 
As more archers acquired bows of the new design they were able to 
verify the published statements about performance. It took only a 
relatively few years for the longbow virtually to disappear from tour- 
nament shooting lines. 

In parallel with the acceptance of the bow of scientific design, an- 
other circumstance strongly influenced the continuing improvement 
of bows. In the early 1930’s I had begun to make a collection of books 
on archery, most of which are of English origin, published from the 
16th century onward. Among the items in the collection is a complete 
run of an annual review volume called “The Archer’s Register,” be- 
ginning in 1864 and continuing through 1915. Some of these con- 
tained seemingly authentic information as well as some conjecture 
about the practice of archery in Turkey in the 15th and later cen- 
turies. One assertion was the almost incredible one that the Turks had 
shot arrows a distance of a half mile—incredible, certainly, to those 
who knew only the limited range of the longbow. My technical in- 
terest. stirred me to discover whether this might be true, and if so, 
how it had been accomplished. 

In my exploration of Turkish archery, I was fortunate in being able 
to obtain a book by Mustafa Kani, printed in old Turkish with Arabic- 
Persian calligraphy, published in Constantinople in 1847, and bearing 
the title, “Excerpts from the Writings of the Archers.” Among the 
things reported was the construction and methods of shooting the 
Turkish bow. 

Because of my inability to read Turkish, it was fortunate that I 
later discovered two other publications concerning Turkish bows and 
arrows, both based almost wholly on the book by Kani. The first 
was a paper entitled “Concerning Bows and Arrows: Their Use and 
Construction by the Arabs and Turks,” by Dr. Freiherr Hammar- 
Purgstall, presented before the Imperial Academy of Sciences of 
Austria-Hungary and published in the proceedings of the Academy. 
The second, “Bowyery and Archery among the Osmanli Turks,” by 
Joachim Hein, was published serially in three successive issues in 
1921-22 of the German periodical “Der Islam.” These two sources, 
both in German, which I read easily, were of substantial help in giving 


582 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


: & 


Ve 


Ficure 7.—A Turkish archer, early 19th century, holding a composite bow at full draw, 
ready for loosing a flight arrow. Note that the arrow is drawn several inches within the 
bow, its tip resting in a guide (siper) strapped to the bow hand. (From “Turkish Archery 
and the Composite Bow”’.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—K lopsteg PLATE 1 


ae . oe 


An English longbow of the 1850’s, like that of figures l and 2, at full draw. Reproduced from 
Horace A. Ford’s “Archery in Theory and Practice,” 1856. 


archery champion of England. 


Ford was eleven times 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Klopsteg PLATE 2 


d So 


a, Modified grip of an American-made longbow to show the change in midsection from that 
of the English longbow. ‘The midsection is made rigid, with “dips” where the limbs 
merge with the grip. b-d, A Turkish type composite bow (b) relaxed, (c) braced, and 
(d) at full draw. (From ‘Turkish Archery and the Composite Bow.’’) 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Klopsteg PLATE 3 


c 


A wood bow, of yew, made according to the design of figure 6, shown (a) relaxed, (b) braced, 
and (c) at full draw. ‘The limbs are straight, and, when drawn, bend in circular arcs. 
Note how the slightly wavy grain in the wood has been followed by the bowyer, to avoid 
cutting across the grain. Note also that the limbs are of equal length (28’’); the long 
(15’’) rigid midsection; and the symmetry of the bent limbs relative to the position of 
the arrow. 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Klopsteg PLATE 4 


A b 


A modern composite bow (bow of the 1960’s) (a) relaxed, (b) braced, and pl. 5, at full draw. | 
Note the length (ca. 20’’) of the equal limbs, as compared with the 34’’ length of the | 
upper and 32’ lower limb of the English longbow of figure 1, and the rigid midsection, 
27” long, which is completely absent in the English longbow. (Photos courtesy of Bear 
Archery Co.) | 


Smithsonian Report, 1962.—Klopsteg PEATE 5 


(See plate 4 for explanation.) 


BOWS AND ARROWS—KLOPSTEG 583 


me insight into Kani’s book, which otherwise would have remained 
obscure. 

The result of the study of these two works led to my publishing a 
book in 1934, with the title “Turkish Archery and the Composite 
Bow.” In it I reported what I had learned from the two German 
sources, along with comments and explanations deriving from both 
my practical experience in shooting, and from the research and de- 
velopment I had done. The book, published in a limited edition, 
proved to be in greater demand than had been anticipated, with the 
result that it became a collector’s item on the day of its publication. A 
revised and enlarged edition was published in 1947, the centennial 
year of publication of the book by Mustafa Kani. The book deals 
exclusively with the Turkish bow, arrows, shooting accessories, 
methods of practice and of shooting, distance records and other re- 
lated and pertinent information. 

The Turkish composite bow differed profoundly from its English 
contemporary counterpart. Whereas the longbow was made ex- 
clusively of wood, the Turkish bow was “composite,” with limbs 
constructed of materials in layers, so arranged that the compression, 
tension, and shear in the bent limbs occurred in those materials best 
adapted to withstand these respective forces. The precise form and 
construction of the composite bow must have evolved through experi- 
ence in the use of the weapon, and from the trial-and-error method in 
construction employed by many successive generations of cooperating 
bowyers and archers. 

The studies of Turkish bows and arrows, and their use in distance 
shooting, reported in the book on Turkish archery, left no doubt 
that their record distances were very much greater than any which 
had been achieved with the longbow. The principal reasons for the 
superiority were probably : 

1. The greater energy storage per unit volume in the stressed limbs 
of the composite bow, made possible by the judicious use of suitable 
materials, and the geometry of the bow. 

2. The design characteristics of the Turkish bow, such as shorter 
limbs, strongly reflexed when relaxed; and the setback, or “ears” at 
the ends of the limbs. 

3. The design of the Turkish flight arrow, light yet strong and rigid 
to avoid buckling under high thrust; stabilizing vanes made as small 
as feasible, to minimize drag. 

4. The use of a relatively short arrow, also designed to reduce drag, 
drawn several inches within the bow, made possible by the use of a 
special guiding device worn on the bow hand. 

5. The thumb release, to minimize violent bending and deflection 
of the arrow during and immediately after release. 

Many of the American archers interested in flight shooting who 

672-174 6348 


584 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


had access to the book on Turkish archery realized the challenge 
which confronted them in the Turkish records, and proceeded to work 
at closing the wide gap between those records and the much shorter 
distances attainable with the longbow, or straight self bow of wood. 
Prior to publication of the book, some of them had already made 
changes in the longbow. They used limbs of rectangular section, 
shortened them to the limit of safety, and provided them with ears. 
This was the beginning of progress. The wood most frequently used 
in making flight bows was osage orange, a very strong, hard, resilient 
North American wood, named bois d’are by the French explorers 
because they found it being used by many Indian tribes for bows. 
Seasoned osage orange wood of good quality has mechanical prop- 
erties approximating those of horn, making the use of the latter as 
compression material unnecessary. Sinew fiber was, however, used 
for backing, to safeguard the limbs against breakage from possible 
flaws in the wood, and to withstand the high tensile stress which 
develops in a bend of short radius. They had learned from the book 
how the Turkish craftsman prepared the sinew and glue, and how he 
applied the sinew fiber, in a glue matrix, to the bow. With such 
transitional models of bows, flight distances increased through the 
400’s of yards into the low 500’s. 

Research and development during and since the war produced plas- 
tics with excellent characteristics for reliably storing and releasing 
energy through stress loading and unloading. Mass production at 
low cost of glass fibers was perfected, making long parallel fibers of 
glass readily available. Strong plastics with fiber glass reinforce- 
ment are now in regular if not exclusive use in the construction of 
bows of all kinds. Except in certain kinds of specialized, custom- 
built bows, sinew fiber, horn, and osage orange wood have been dis- 
placed by the new materials. The bow of the 1960’s is composite in 
the Turkish tradition, though in modified pattern, influenced by the 
designs which developed from the research studies of the longbow. 

Plates 4 and 5 represent one commercial form of modern bow, re- 
laxed, braced, and at full draw. Although resemblance to the Turk- 
ish bow is manifest both in appearance and its composite structure, 
the straight-limbed bow of rectangular limb section had a strong in- 
fluence upon its development also, as an intermediate phase after the 
longbow. The limbs are rectangular in section, with adequate width 
to insure stability against twisting as the bow is drawn. Moreover, 
the design is aimed at employing the whole limb, including the back- 
wardly curved ends, for storing energy. The lesson learned from 
the bow with rectangular limb section, bending in circular ares, is 
that each limb is “working” throughout, with approximately the same 
stored energy in each unit of volume of the stressed limb. In the 
Turkish bow only about one-half the length of each limb is under 
great stress when the bow is drawn. In the modern bow, which is 


BOWS AND ARROWS—KLOPSTEG 585 


composite as is the Turkish, the tensile stress is taken by glass fibers 
in a matrix of strong plastic, and the compressive stresses by the 
plastic, perhaps aided by the glass fibers embedded in and bonded to 
it. The limb is built upon a thin strip of wood, usually hard maple, 
to both sides of which the plastic with embedded glass fibers is bonded. 
The limb of the Turkish composite bow was constructed similarly, 
but, it will be recalled, with horn to take the compression and sinew 
fibers to take the tension. 

One of the outstanding gains of the new construction as compared 
with that of its precursor, the wood bow with rectangular-section 
limbs, is the relative immunity to normal temperature and humidity 
variations. Moreover, the modern composite has little or no tendency 
to follow the string, i.e., to take a permanent set from being braced 
and drawn. It may be left braced over long periods, and when re- 
laxed, will resume its original form. A significant test of such a bow 
was to draw it full and let it snap 260,000 times. After this “abuse” 
the force at full draw was the same, within a few ounces, as it was 
when new. 

The modern bow has the long rigid midsection which has been men- 
tioned before. It permits using short limbs of equal length, and appli- 
cation of the drawing force to the bow along a line approximating the 
axis of the arrow as an axis of symmetry. A new feature is the sculp- 
tured grip, as seen in plates 4 and 5, shaped not only to fit the contours 
of the hand, but also to make certain that the force applied by the bow 
hand is always applied at the same location. An arrow rest, and a 
marked nocking point on the string insure the proper positioning of 
every arrow and replication in each shot of the impulse applied to 
the arrow. These features minimize variations which would intro- 
duce inaccuracies in hits. Another important characteristic which 
makes a similar contribution to accuracy is the absence of energy loss 
in the limbs from mechanical hysteresis, or internal friction in the 
materials of the limbs. This is present in most self bows of wood. 
It is related to permanent set in the limbs, which has been previously 
discussed. 

The modern arrow also makes its contribution to accuracy. For 
the most part, precision arrows are now made of strong aluminum al- 
loy tubing, precision drawn, with constant physical properties such 
as stiffness and mass per unit length for each diameter and wall thick- 
ness. ‘The wood arrows, which have been largely superseded, suffered 
from the inevitable lack of homogeneity of wood. Notwithstanding 
close attention to manufacture, meticulous selection and seasoning 
of wood, and other handling intended to increase uniformity, complete 
identity of specifications for every arrow in a dozen could only be 
approximated. The final step in matching the arrows in a dozen 


586 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


was that of selection, through measurements and tests, from a large 
number. 

Another point of importance in accurate shooting at long distances, 
such as 100 yards in the York Round, is that the drag on the arrow 
must be alike for all. The principal cause of variation in drag has 
been in the vanes made of turkey feathers, which are easily dis- 
arranged or damaged by mechanical impact, and changed in texture 
and uniformity when wet. In the new designs, plastic vanes are used, 
with the result that greater uniformity is achieved with smaller ef- 
fort. Some experimenters and manufacturers have used four or six 
vanes in place of the usual three. The only advantage is that for 
the same area of stabilizing surface, the larger number may be made 
somewhat narrower, and this may have value in preventing contact 
of the vanes with the bow when the arrow is loosed. 

The drastic changes made in bows and arrows during the three 
decades past have produced emotional reactions among the older arch- 
ers to whom the legend of Robin Hood was sacrosanct, and who were 
unable to tolerate innovation. They lived in the old English tradi- 
tion with the longbow and the arrows made of “old deal.” They 
ridiculed the research and development which pointed the way to 
better shooting and higher scores. Clearly they were entitled to hold 
affectionately to the Robin Hood image of archery. However, their 
predictions about the decline of archery, caused by the newfangled 
gear, failed of fulfillment. The number of archers has moved from 
the thousands into the millions. In large part this has come about 
by leaving tradition behind. The new bows and arrows have added 
immeasurably to the potential enjoyment of the sport. 

A brief compilation of some of the technical considerations involved 
in the advancement of the art will, I hope, interest many readers, 
for it helps in following the rationale of the research and development 
which have been described. 

The force-draw relation—The most obvious characteristic of any 
bow is the relation between the force and the displacement of the 
nocking point of the arrow on the string. In graphic form, the 
relation is expressed as the force-draw curve. It shows the force 
exerted by the bow on the arrow at any point of the path in which 
it experiences acceleration. 

In figure 8 are shown force-draw curves of bows of the several 
kinds which are under discussion in this report. These are adjusted to 
the same maximum force of draw at the same length of draw. 

The significance of the force-draw curve in these studies is the fact 
that from it one obtains the energy in the drawn bow. The measure 
of the energy is the area enclosed by the graph, the X-axis at 
zero force and the ordinate at maximum force. The force-draw 


BOWS AND ARROWS—KLOPSTEG 587 


Force 


Draw 


Ficure 8.—A group of force-draw curves for bows of different types. (1) A short bow 
with straight limbs; (2) a longbow; (3) a straight-limbed short bow with backwardly 
curved tips (ears); (4) a modern composite bow, as shown in pl. 5; (5) a Turkish composite 
bow as shown in pl. 2, d. 


588 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


curve for the longbow approximates a straight line. For a short, 
straight-limbed bow it curves slightly downward from that for the 
longbow. Backwardly curved tips produce convexity upward, as do 
strongly reflexed limbs of the kind employed in the Turkish bow, 
and some modern bows which employ modifications of such limbs. 
Hence the energy at full draw is relatively lower in bows with 
straight limbs than in reflexed bows, or bows with backwardly cur- 
ving tips or ears. It would appear, therefore, that with substantially 
higher energy content for the same maximum force, the bows which 
follow a modified Turkish design, or use backwardly curving tips, 
are to be preferred to bows with straight limbs. This is indeed true 
if they are as effective in transferring energy to the arrow. 

Velocity-mass relations in arrows shot from a given bow.—An arch- 
er, as he gains experience with his bow, will notice—provided he 
shoots arrows of different weights—that the light arrow takes off with 
higher velocity than the heavier. This raises questions. First, can one 
establish a systematic relation between the mass of an arrow and the 
velocity imparted to it by a given bow? Second, can one find a rela- 
tion between the mass of an arrow and the energy which is trans- 
ferred to it from the bow? These two questions, and the search for 
their answers, lead to some other considerations of interest. 

Figure 9 reproduces a mass-velocity curve obtained by plotting 
measured velocities of arrows of different masses against the mass 
values, all shot from a bow with given energy at full draw. The solid 
line is plotted from computed values of v and m, using the relation 


mv nS 
i= D a. 


simplified to #=14(m+ )o. 

The equation says that the energy / in the drawn bow is accounted 
for by the kinetic energy in the arrow, 14 mv’, and another energy 
term, 14 Hv’, which represents the part of # which failed to be trans- 
ferred from the bow to the arrow; it is that part of the energy which is 
left behind when the arrow leaves the string. This term employs the 
same velocity v as that of the arrow, and a quantity 4 which has the 
dimensions of mass. This I have called the virtual mass of the bow. 

A physical picture of virtual mass may be drawn as follows. 
Imagine the bow and string to have no mass, and imagine a mass 
K to ride “piggyback” on the arrow until the instant the arrow leaves 
the string. The velocity v is that which corresponds to kinetic energy 
equal to the energy /’, transferred to a mass of m+. The energy 
carried off by the arrow is 14 mv’, which means that the energy left 
behind is 14 Hv?. The virtual mass / has been found by many experi- 


BOWS AND ARROWS—KLOPSTEG 589 


MASS-VELOCITY RELATIONSHIP 
OF ARROWS 
BOW : OSAGE ORANGE , 1000 FT.- POLS, 


SOLID CURVE, COMPUTED 
MEASURED VALUES: X 


a 
° 


8 


42) 
WwW 
” 
~ 
kK 
& 
> 
2 
Y 
ie) 
a 
wW 
> 


MASS OF ARROW, GRAINS 
400 475 _ : 


Ficure 9.—Relation between mass of an arrow and its velocity when shot from a bow having 
1,000 foot-poundals of available energy at full draw. 


ments to be uniquely characteristic of the bow. In bows of high 
efficiency, 1.e., of high energy transfer, is small, and vice versa. The 
virtual mass of a longbow is large. It is much smaller in the “scien- 
tific” and the modern bows. This is the more readily understood when 
we consider that the limbs of a bow must themselves be accelerated 
by the stored energy in order to impart acceleration to the arrow. The 
long, heavy limbs of the longbow are sluggish as compared with the 
shorter and lighter limbs of its successors. Were it possible to trans- 
fer all the energy in the bow to the arrow, the virtual mass of the 
bow would be zero. Theoretically this might be achieved if a bow 
could be so designed that the limbs had zero velocity in the normal 
braced position at the instant of disengagement of the arrow. This 
is an unattainable ideal, but it has been approached to within 10 
percent. 

In closing this discussion, it is my hope that the purposes set forth 
at its beginning have been achieved. More detailed exposition of the 
many technical considerations involved in the design, construction 


590 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


MASS- VELOCITY RELATIONSHIPS 
OF ARROWS SHOT WITH BOWS OF 
OIFFERENT VIRTUAL MASSES (K), 
AT 1000 FT.-POLS. AVAILABLE ENERGY 


7" 
S 
| ol 
a 
e 
= 
Uv 
c 6) 
a 
Ww 

| > 


RROW, GR. 


Ficure 10.—A set of curves relating mass of an arrow to its velocity when shot from bows 
of different virtual mass but the same available energy. 


and use of bows and arrows would far exceed its scope. The 
appended bibliography may serve as a guide for more thorough 
exploration of such technical matters as have been enumerated. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


(Abbreviations: S.A., Ye Sylvan Archer; A.R., Archery Review; A.B.R., Ameri- 
can Bowman-Review ) 


CAVANAUGH, JAMES F, 
1958. Standardization of procedures in bow testing. Archery, June. 
ELMER, ROBERT P. 
1933. Archery (rey. ed.), chap. 15. 
1946. Target archery, pp. 184 et. seq. 
ENGLISH, F. L. 
1930. The exterior ballistics of the arrow. Journ. Franklin Inst., vol. 210, 
p. 805. 
HickMAN, C. N. 
1929. Velocity and acceleration of arrows. Weight and efficiency of bows 
as affected by backing of bow. Journ. Franklin Inst., vol. 208, 
p. 521. 
1930. Formulas for strains and stresses in a drawn bow. S.A., November. 
1931a. A portable spark chronograph. Journ. Franklin Inst., vol. 211, p. 59. 


BOWS AND ARROWS—KLOPSTEG 591 


HickMAN, C. E.—Continued 
1931b. Effect of rigid middle section on statie strains and stresses. SH 
February. 
1931c. Effect of bracing eight on static strains and stresses. S.A., March. 
1931d. Effect of string weight on arrow velocity and efficiency of bows. S.A., 
April. 
193le. Effect of permanent set and reflexing on static strains and stresses. 
S.A., May. 
1931f. Effect of bow length on static strains and stresses. S.A., August. 
1981g. Effect of weight and air resistance of bow tips on east. S.A., 
September. 
1932a. Effect of thickness and width of a bow on its form in bending. S.A., 
January. 
1932b. The neutral plane of bending in a bow. S.A., February. 
1932c. Fiber stresses in bows. S.A., March. 
1937. The dynamics of a bow and arrow. Journ. Appl. Phys., vol. 8, p. 404. 
HICKMAN, C. N.; NaAcier, F.; and Kiorstec, P. E. 
1947. Archery, the technical side (now out of print). Nat. Field Archery 
Assoc. 
HiaGins, GEORGE J. 
1933. The aerodynamics of an arrow. Journ. Franklin Inst., vol. 216, p. 91. 
KLopstea, PAu BH. 
1931. What is the proper cross section for a bow? §S.A., December. 
1932a. Analyzing the bow sight. S.A., January. 
1932b. Constructing the bow with rectangular limb section. S.A., May. 
1932¢c. The effect on scores of errors in aiming and holding. §.A., also A.R., 
June. 
19382d. What of the bow? A.R., October. 
1932e. The flight of an arrow. A.R., November. 
1932f. A comparison of the point of aim and sight. A.R., July. 
19388a. A study of points of aim. A.R., January. 
1933b. Hlements of the prism sight. A.R., February. 
19383c. Photographing the paradox. A.R., April. 
1933d. Some new light on the paradox of archery. December (and January 
1934). 
1934. Turkish archery and the composite bow. (Rev. ed., 1947.) (Both 
editions out of print.) 
1935a. Getting the most out of the bowstave. A.R., June. 
1935b. Science looks at archery. A monograph. 
1939a. A graphic method of designing a bow. S.A., June. 
1939b. The penetration of arrows. A.B.R., July. 
1943a. Physics of bows and arrows. Amer. Journ. Phys., vol. 11, p. 175. 
1943b. The whys and wherefores of cast. A.B.R., August. 
1947. Archery. Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th ed. (1947 printing). 
Loomis, A. L., and Kropstrec, PAuL HE. 
1920. The measurement of projectile velocity (Aberdeen Chronograph). 
Journ. AIEH, vol. 39, p. 98. 
McQuitty, R. M. 
1944. Aiming as affected by changes in velocity. A.B.R., June. 
NAGLER, FORREST. 
1933. Bow design. A.R., June and July. 
1935. More about the elliptical bow. A.R., December (and January 1936). 
Naater, F., and RHEINGANS, W. J. 
1937. Spine and arrow design. A.B.R., June and July. 


592 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


RHEINGANS, W. J. 
1933. Debunking spine. A.R., May. 
1934. Bow efficiency. A.R., February. 
1936. Exterior and interior ballistics of bows and arrows. A.R., March 
and April. 
Ropecers, W. L. 
1935. The bow as a missile weapon. Army Ordnance, May—June. 
SEAGRAVE, JOHN D. 
1958. A survey of methods for measurement of arrow velocity. Archery, 
February. 


Scientific Methods in the Examination 
and Conservation of Antiquities ’ 


By A. E. A. WERNER 


Department of Research Laboratory, British Museum 


[With 4 plates] 
INTRODUCTION 


Ir was at the beginning of the 19th century that scientists first 
began to show an interest in the composition of the metallic alloys 
used by the ancients. This early work has been reviewed in some 
detail by Earle Caley [1],? who gives credit to Gobel for recognizing 
brass as a Roman alloy, to Wocel for being the first to attempt a 
correlation between chemical composition and the date and place 
of origin of an object, and to Fellenberg for his series of papers on 
the composition of prehistoric central European bronzes. These 
early researches were undoubtedly of value to the archeologist, but 
they were of a rather spasmodic nature and devoted to specific topics. 
The intensive application of scientific methods in the field of arche- 
ology is of more recent origin; it may, in fact, be said to have begun 
with the pioneer work of Rathgen round about 1900 when the first 
laboratory devoted to museum problems was set up in Berlin. Since 
the First World War, this idea of museum laboratories has spread 
far and wide on an ever increasing scale. In these laboratories an 
unique opportunity has been afforded for the chemist or physicist 
to apply his specialized knowledge to studying the various problems 
that arise in the scientific examination and conservation of antiquities. 
This involves the development of a thoroughly scientific approach 
to conservation and the adoption of scientific techniques aimed at 
obtaining precise information about the methods and materials used 
by craftsmen in the past. 

We will first consider the question of the conservation of antiquities 
as seen from the point of view of the scientist. Here there are two 
main aims: the first is concerned with the diagnosis of the factors 

1 Reprinted by permission from Science Progress, vol. 50, No. 200, October 1962. The 


illustrations (pls. 1-4) are copyrighted by the British Museum. 
§ Numbers in brackets indicate references at end of paper. 


593 


594 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


responsible for the deterioration which an object may suffer during 
its burial in the ground prior to excavation, or when it is exposed 
to adverse environmental conditions in a museum, and the second 
is to develop improved methods of conservation which will be based 
upon an appreciation of the above factors and the use of new synthetic 
materials. 

CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENT 


In the belief that prevention is better than cure, one of the first 
studies undertaken in museum laboratories was devoted to the behavior 
of archeological materials under different environmental conditions, 
so as to obtain a clear understanding of the factors likely to cause 
deterioration. This knowledge could then be used to establish methods 
of controlling the climate of a museum so that it would be best 
suited for the preservation of its contents. The chief problem arose 
in connection with museum objects of an organic nature, e.g., wood, 
textiles, ivory, etc. Such objects are susceptible to variation in atmos- 
pheric conditions, and the factor of paramount importance is con- 
trol of the relative humidity of the museum atmosphere within pre- 
scribed limits. In general, this means that the relative humidity 
should lie in the range 50 to 65 percent, thus maintaining a reasonable 
thermodynamic equilibrium between the moisture content of the air 
and the moisture content of the organic material of which the object 
is composed. In this way it is possible to avoid excessive dryness 
which would lead to embrittlement by desiccation or excessive wetness 
which would lead to mold growth, weakening of moisture-sensitive 
adhesives such as glue, and, in the case of metallic objects, would 
encourage corrosion. Another vital point which was realized was 
the need to ensure adequate air circulation—particularly in storage 
rooms—so as to guard against the possible formation of air pockets 
where a high relative humidity beyond the safety limit of 65 percent 
might be developed [2]. An interesting example of the need to guard 
against this eventuality is shown in plate 1. A high relative humidity 
had developed in a basement room where books were stored on steel 
shelving, and resulted in mold growth becoming visible on the backs 
of the books. This condition was rectified by adopting methods 
whereby the ambient relative humidity was reduced to a desirable 
level, namely 50 percent. Later, when a book adjacent to a hollow 
steel shelf support was drawn out, it was found that mold was still 
active on the inside edge of the spine of the book and was growing 
in such a way as to reproduce the pattern of the holes in the hollow 
support. This was clearly due to the fact that a pocket of moist 
stagnant air had persisted inside the hollow support, because air 
circulation had not been maintained at a sufficiently high velocity; 
indeed, when the relative humidity of the air inside the support was 
measured, it was found to be no less than 83 percent. The various 


CONSERVATION OF ANTIQUITIES—WERNER 595 


aspects of this problem of museum climate and the methods available 
for the control of the ambient conditions in museums have been 
described in a recent number of the journal Museum [3]. 
Sometimes this question of the control of environment may arise in 
a particularly acute form. Such a case is the problem of “sweating” 
glass—a phenomenon which shows itself in the appearance of droplets 
of moisture on the surface of glass objects. These droplets were 
found by microanalysis to consist of a very dilute solution of sodium 
and potassium carbonates, produced by the leaching out of alkali ions 
by atmospheric moisture. The unsightly droplets can be removed 
by washing the surface of the glass, but the glass still remains po- 
tentially unstable and is liable to undergo further deterioration under 
normal museum conditions. It transpired, in fact, that the only prac- 
tical method of conservation of such glass objects was to keep them in 
a dry environment; in practice this meant ensuring that the relative 
humidity did not exceed 42 percent. This control figure represented 
the proportion of moisture in the atmosphere when the hygroscopic 
potassium carbonate just begins to become moist, i.e., when the glass 
“sweats.” 'The problem was, therefore, solved by constructing special 
show cases in which the relative humidity was maintained below the 
critical limit using silica gel as a desiccant [4]. This serves inciden- 
tally as a good example of how a scientific evaluation of the cause of 
deterioration is necessary before a rational method of conservation can 


be worked out. 
NEW MATERIALS IN CONSERVATION 


In the past the materials used in conservation were largely those of 
natural origin such as glues, beeswax, and natural resins. Con- 
sequently, many of the techniques evolved as the result of empirical 
experimentation by restorers were dictated primarily by the proper- 
ties of whatever naturally occurring material seemed most suitable, 
and had perforce to be used. Progress was thus constrained within 
narrow limits. However, advances made in high-polymer chemistry 
during recent years have resulted in the production of a wide range 
of synthetic materials. Many of these new materials possess a com- 
bination of chemical and physical properties which are not to be 
found in materials of natural origin, and these can be employed in 
developing more reliable methods for the conservation of antiquities. 

The best way to illustrate the manner in which modern materials 
can be used in conservation is to select specific examples for con- 
sideration. These will serve to show how the correct choice of a 
new synthetic material makes it possible to carry out conservation 
work which would have been very difficult, if not virtually impossible 
in the past, relying solely on materials of natural origin. 

The first problem relates to the consolidation and repair of an- 
tiquities which are in a fragile state. In this field synthetic resins 


596 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


are now being used on an extensive scale as adhesives and consoli- 
dants. The factor of paramount importance in the choice of a par- 
ticular material is the amount of shrinkage which occurs when the 
resin sets. If the degree of shrinkage is excessive, considerable con- 
tractile forces may develop and there is a danger that serious dis- 
tortion of a fragile object may occur. Tests have been carried out 
on many synthetic resins, and it has been found that the epoxy resins, 
which set by a condensation reaction that does not involve the loss 
of any volatile material, show a minimum contraction [5]. 
These materials are, therefore, particularly suitable in conservation, 
because they not only set without appreciable contraction, but they 
are also easy to use because certain of them set in situ from the liquid 
to the solid state at room temperature using a special hardener and 
catalyst. One example will suffice to show the great advantages 
of the epoxy resins in the consolidation of fragile objects. In 1958 
a number of silver objects of early Christian origin were discovered 
on the site of the ninth-century church in St. Ninian’s Island in the 
Shetlands. Among these there was a silver hanging bowl, which 
was of particular archeological significance because it is the only 
surviving example of a silver hanging bowl found in these islands. 
The bowl was covered with corrosion products formed by the 
mineralization of the copper present in the silver alloy, and when 
these had been removed, the silver which remained was egg-shell 
thin and brittle so that the object was extremely fragile. It was, 
therefore, necessary to devise some form of internal support to act 
as a permanent reinforcement using a material which must have 
the following properties: (1) it must be colorless and transparent, 
(2) it must be strong but not brittle, (8) it must adhere well to the 
silver, (4) it must set without appreciable shrinkage, and (5) it 
must be easy to apply without using too much heat. The only 
material which appeared to satisfy these criteria was a cold-setting 
epoxy resin, which could be brushed on the inside of the bowl as a 
viscous liquid and allowed to set as the bowl was slowly rotated on 
a turntable. It was by this means possible to build up a uniform 
thin layer of clear resin which gave sufficient mechanical strength 
to the bow] so that it could be handled with safety [6]. 

The only disadvantage of these epoxy resins from the conservation 
point of view is the fact that the hardeners used in the formulation 
of the cold-setting types are amines, and therefore not entirely 
suitable for the consolidation of bronze objects because of the risk 
that the hardeners may react with the bronze forming unsightly 
green or blue compounds. Hence, for the consolidation of bronze 
objects, it is necessary to employ a different type of synthetic resin. 
One of these is a special preparation of a polymethylmethacrylate 
resin manufactured in Germany under the trade name “Technovit.” 


CONSERVATION OF ANTIQUITIES—WERNER 597 


When mixed with a hardener, this sets in about 10 minutes at room 
temperature to form a glass-clear solid that adheres well to bronze. 
The degree of shrinkage is also very slight so that this resin is an 
almost ideal material for the consolidation and repair of fragile 
bronzes. Both these techniques provide striking examples of the 
modern kind of conservation which would have been almost impos- 
sible to carry out using the old traditional materials. 

One of the attractive features about the use of synthetic materials 
in the development of new methods of conservation is the fact that 
many possess an unusual combination of chemical and physical 
properties not met with in natural products. This obtains with 
many of the new synthetic waxlike materials, especially the poly- 
ethylene glycol waxes, which are produced by the polymerization 
of ethylene oxide. The members of the series are designated by 
numbers representing their average molecular weight, and range in 
consistency from soft materials like Vaseline to white solids like 
ordinary paraffin wax. Although they are like waxes in appearance, 
they have the interesting property of dissolving in water, and are, 
therefore, of interest in certain kinds of conservation work. One 
of the soft waxes—grade 1500, which is composed of equal parts of 
liquid grade 300 and a solid grade 1540—can be used to restore 
flexibility to leather objects that are found to be in a brittle state 
owing to desiccation [7]. The actual procedure is very simple, as it 
is merely necessary to immerse the object in the molten wax at a 
temperature of about 45° C. Another problem which has occupied 
the attention of chemists in museum laboratories for a long time has 
been the development of a reliable method for the treatment of 
wooden objects that are excavated from damp conditions in a so-called 
waterlogged condition. The actual physical state of such objects 
will be dependent upon the extent to which the cellulosic component 
of the wood has been degraded as the result of biochemical attack. If 
this is far advanced, the wood may be quite soft and will have very 
little mechanical strength. The treatment of waterlogged wood 
involves two factors, namely, first the removal of the large excess 
of water without causing the collapse of the weakened cell-walls, and 
consequent warping and shrinkage of the wood, and, secondly, some 
method for strengthening the wood so that the object can be handled 
with safety. Various attempts were made to solve this problem, but 
they were found to be either unreliable, limited in scope, or very slow 
and time-consuming. However, interesting techniques based on the 
use of synthetic materials have recently been evolved which show a 
great advance over previous methods. The first of these depends 
upon the use of the polyethylene glycol wax of grade 4000, employing 
a special procedure which was worked out in the British Museum Re- 
search Laboratory. Details will be found in a publication by Organ 


598 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


[8] describing the successful treatment of soft, fragile waterlogged 
wooden artifacts from a site at the Kalambo Falls in Southern 
Rhodesia, which were of considerable interest because they were con- 
sidered to be wooden tools of the Lower Paleolithic period and had 
been estimated by the radiocarbon dating method to be about 53,000 
years old. The second method was developed at the Historisches 
Museum in Berne; in this the material used for consolidation is a 
special melamine-formaldehyde resin which is produced by Ciba Ltd. 
under the trade name Arigal C. Details of the actual process have 
been published by Miiller-Beck and Haas [9]. 

Another new synthetic material, which has been adapted to solve 
particular problems in conservation, is N-hydroxy methyl nylon, 
which is formed by the action of formaldehyde on nylon and is pro- 
duced by I.C.I. Ltd. under the trade name “Maranyl soluble nylon 
C 109/P” [10]. This dissolves in methy] or ethyl alcohol and the film 
which is formed upon evaporation of the solvent has certain properties 
which make it suitable for dealing with particular problems in the 
conservation of archeological materials. One such problem is the 
treatment of porous objects—for example, limestone carvings and 
earthenware tablets or potsherds called ostraka used in ancient Egypt 
for writing purposes—which have absorbed soluble salts whilst buried 
in salty ground. When such objects are exposed to fluctuating humid- 
ity conditions, as occurs in many museums, these salts are transported 
to the surface where they crystallize and weaken it so that decorative 
details of carving, or the writing, may flake off. Before these objects 
are washed in water to remove the soluble salts, it is essential that pre- 
cautions be taken to consolidate the surface prior to washing. Since 
the film of soluble nylon is, first, permeable to water, thus allowing 
elution of the soluble salts during washing, and, second, is markedly 
flexible so that it does not exert undue contraction on the frail surface 
layers, it is ideally suitable for this purpose. This material has 
already been successfully used in the washing of many hundreds of 
ostraka. It was also found, incidentally, that this soluble nylon can 
act as an adhesive when it is necessary to employ a mobile nonaqueous 
adhesive. Such a case arose in connection with a fragment of a 
tempera wall-painting from a tomb at Thebes in which the paint was 
flaking away from the ground layer. Owing to the possible risk of 
softening the ground layer or activating soluble salts in the plaster 
support, it was considered inadvisable to use a normal aqueous adhe- 
sive such as glue. Instead, a warm 5 percent alcoholic solution of 
soluble nylon was used; this proved most suitable because it has a 
relatively low surface tension and readily flows under the detached 
flakes of paint. Furthermore, the soluble nylon film has a distinctly 
matt appearance, so that there is no esthetically unattractive sheen on 
the treated areas. Other uses which have been found for this interest- 


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CONSERVATION OF ANTIQUITIES—WERNER 599 


ing new material include the consolidation of friable paint in illumi- 
nated manuscripts and powdery patina on bronzes. ‘These examples 
will suffice to show that the scientific evaluation of synthetic materials 
of potential value in conservation has led to considerable advances in 
this field. 

SCIENTIFIC AIDS IN CONSERVATION 


Another direction in which scientific methods are utilized in con- 
servation is in the use of scientific aids such as metallographic and 
microchemical analysis and radiography to provide information 
necessary for the correct assessment of the factors involved in the 
conservation. Radiography is, for example, frequently used in order 
to find out if there is any decorative inlay lying hidden under layers 
of corrosion products. Thus, when a fragment of an iron sword was 
X-rayed (pl. 2, figs. 1 and 2), it was possible to obtain evidence of an 
inlay which was present on both sides of the sword. By careful re- 
moval of the overlaying layers of rust, it was subsequently possible to 
reveal the inlay which had been carried out in a material similar to 
brass, known as orichaleum (pl. 3). Another example which strik- 
ingly illustrates the value of radiography in the examination of an- 
tiquities was a silver cup which was excavated at Enkomi in Cyprus 
in the condition shown in plate 4, figure 1, covered with green cor- 
rosion products derived from the copper which had been leached out 
from the alloy. Preliminary examination showed that thin frag- 
ments of gold, and also a black powdery material lay embedded in the 
corrosion layers. Spectographic analysis of the black material 
showed the major constituents to be silver and copper, thus indicating 
a material similar to niello [11]. These findings indicated the prob- 
able presence of a decorative inlay, and this was confirmed by X-ray. 
This was important because it meant that special precautions had to 
be taken in the choice of chemical reagent for removing the unsightly 
incrustation without damaging the materials of the inlay. This was 
achieved using hot formic acid to dissolve the copper corrosion prod- 
ucts, when the original decoration round the cup was revealed in 
surprising freshness (pl. 4, fig. 2). 

Another example which illustrates the need for scientific tests be- 
fore commencing conservation of an antiquity was provided by a 
silver libation vessel which was excavated at Nuri in the Sudan in a 
fragmentary condition. Ancient silver is always very brittle, and 
annealing of the silver to make it ductile is always the first stage in 
the restoration of ancient silver objects. Normally, this does not pre- 
sent any difficulties, but when tests were carried out on fragments 
from this Nuri vessel it was found that for this case a special pro- 
cedure would be necessary. In fact, metallographic examination of a 
fragment as it was subjected to successively higher temperatures 

672-174-6344 


600 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


showed that the alteration characteristic of annealing did not occur 
until the silver was heated to 900° C., 1.e., only 50 degrees below the 
melting point of silver. However, by carrying out the annealing 
under strictly controlled conditions in an inert atmosphere, it was 
possible to restore ductibility to the silver, so that the reshaping and 
restoration of the vessel could be successfully carried out. 


PHYSICAL TECHNIQUES OF ANALYSIS 


The analysis of antiquities undertaken in order to provide the 
archeologist with a knowledge of their composition (which can be 
used to deduce information about techniques, date of production, and 
provenance) is a major activity in museum laboratories. 

If a sufficiently large sample can be taken, the ordinary methods 
of chemical—or, more often, microchemical—analysis can be used. 
However, very often the objects are so precious that the permissible 
sample may be of the order of only a few milligrams, or, indeed, it 
may not be possible to take any sample at all. For this reason, 
physical techniques of analysis of increasing refinement are now being 
extensively employed. Whenever a small sample can be taken, the 
well-known techniques of spectrochemical analysis and X-ray diffrac- 
tion analysis can be used. By these means, results have been obtained 
which are of considerable value to the archeologist. Thus, for exam- 
ple, in a recent study of Romano-British and Mycenaean pottery, 
Richards and Hartley [12] used spectrochemical analysis to demon- 
strate a link between a given pattern of minor impurities and a par- 
ticular geographical origin. Also, the same technique is being 
extensively used to determine the composition of ancient bronzes in 
an attempt to indicate the sources and trade-routes of the contempo- 
rary supply of metal. Recently a series of no less than 488 analyses 
was carried out by Brown and Blin-Stoyle [13] on British middle 
and late Bronze Age material in order to provide results available for 
statistical examination. 

The technique of X-ray diffraction analysis is used to obtain infor- 
mation about the chemical composition of antiquities and the nature 
of corrosion products. One example, which clearly shows the value 
of this technique, is the interesting study which has been recently 
carried out by Turner and Rooksby [14] in order to determine the 
chemical nature of materials used as opacifiers in ancient opal glass 
made over a period of 3,400 years. The evidence thus obtained 
indicated the different techniques of manufacture used at various 
periods. 

With more precious objects such as Chinese porcelain or valuable 
coins, it is usually not possible to take a sample for analysis, and it is, 
therefore, necessary to use methods of analysis which are completely 


CONSERVATION OF ANTIQUITIES—WERNER 601 


nondestructive. In this field the work being done by Hall and his 
coworkers of the Oxford Archaeological Research Laboratory is of 
outstanding importance. They have succeeded in adapting techniques 
of X-ray fluorescent analysis and neutron activation analysis to the 
examination of antiquities. The former technique is admirable for 
the analysis of the surface of an object; it is rapidly carried out so 
that a large number of samples can be analyzed in a short time and it 
is entirely nondestructive. A striking example of the manner in 
which this technique can be used to reveal important information has 
recently been published by Young [15]. The problem was to find a 
means of distinguishing between imported cobalt and native cobalt 
ores used in making the blue pigment on “blue and white” Chinese 
porcelain. The imported cobalt ore from Persia was known to be free 
from manganese, whereas the cobalt ores occurring in China contained 
a high proportion of manganese. By measuring in less than 20 hours 
the ratio of manganese to cobalt in the blue pigment on some 80 
pieces of porcelain, he obtained results which told a significant story, 
namely, that imported ores were used from the 14th century until the 
end of the 16th century, and that native ore did not start to be used 
until the beginning of the 15th century. 

The technique of X-ray fluorescence analysis is confined to the ex- 
amination of the actual surface layers, and, therefore, with respect 
to metal antiquities, the results may be misleading because of surface 
enrichment or the presence of corrosion products. With such, the 
technique of neutron activation followed by gamma-ray spectrom- 
etry has to be employed. This method has, for example, shown its 
value in the analysis of trace elements in Greek silver coins [16] and 
in ancient ceramic objects [17] with a view to obtaining analytical 
information which could be used to establish a link between a given 
pattern of impurities and a particular location for the manufacture 
of the objects. 

Finally, mention must be made of the latest addition to the arma- 
ment of physical techniques of analysis which have very recently been 
applied to the study of antiquities. This is the electron beam micro- 
probe analyzer. The unique feature of this instrument is the fact 
that the electron beam can be focused very sharply on an area as small 
as two microns in diameter. This means that it is possible to perform 
a chemical analysis of objects too small to be clearly seen by the 
unaided eye. For this reason, Brill and Moll [18] used this technique 
in their recent study of ancient glass whereby it was possible to carry 
out a quantitative analysis of the individual layers in Roman mille- 
fiori glass, to determine the chemical nature of occlusions in glass, and 
to examine the products formed as a weathering crust on ancient glass. 
Such refined analysis was only possible by this technique. 


602 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


The potentialities of these various refined methods of physical anal- 
ysis in the examination of antiquities are very great and they are 
capable of yielding information of great interest to archeologists. 
There is little doubt that they will in the future be used on an increas- 
ing scale. The only drawback to their extended use is the high cost 
of the necessary equipment. 


ARCHEOLOGICAL DATING 


As a final illustration of the versatile role played by chemistry and 
physics in the service of archeology, there can surely be no better 
example than that of the modern methods which have been developed 
for the dating of certain classes of antiquities. The first of these 
is the radiocarbon method due to the pioneer work of Libby, which 
began in 1946. The principle of this method depends upon the fact 
that the carbon in all living organisms contains a constant proportion 
of the radioactive isotope (carbon-14) derived from the atmosphere, 
and such organisms are thus slightly radioactive. When the organ- 
ism dies, replenishment of the radioactive isotope by the uptake of 
atmospheric carbon dioxide ceases, and the existing radioactivity 
decays at a known rate, determined by the “half-life” of carbon-14 
which has been estimated at about 5,700 years. This means that the 
radioactivity of the sample dwindles to half its value in 5,700 years to 
a quarter in 11,400 years, and so on. Thus, by measuring the actual 
radioactivity of an object containing carbon—such as wood, charcoal, 
bone—it is possible to estimate the time that has elapsed since the 
death of the organism. Although the amount of radioactivity that 
has to be measured is extremely small—‘modern” carbon having a 
specific activity of only about 14 disintegrations per minute per 
gram—it is possible to obtain reasonably accurate measurements by 
the use of refined techniques. The reliability of the method has been 
established by applying the method to samples of known age, and 
finding that the results agree. This method of dating is of paramount 
importance to the archeologist, who is concerned with the chronology 
of the prehistoric past, because he now has for the first time reli- 
able absolute dates upon which he can base his system of chro- 
nology. There are now many radiocarbon laboratories all over the 
world, including three in Great Britain, and their lists of dates are 
published annually in a special Radiocarbon Supplement of the 
American Journal of Science. 

The radiocarbon methed of dating is, of course, limited to material 
which contains carbon, and therefore it is of interest that two other 
methods of dating have recently been suggested, which can be applied 
to a different class of archeological material. The first of these is 
known as magnetic dating, and can be applied to baked clay of arche- 
ological origin (e.g., the walls of a pottery kiln, or bricks or associated 


CONSERVATION OF ANTIQUITIES—WERNER 603 


pottery that has remained in situ). This method depends upon two 
essential facts. The first is that the secular variations in the direction 
of the earth’s magnetic field—as defined by the magnetic declination 
and the angle of dip—have been recorded in different centers over the 
past 400 years, and the second is that this information has also been 
preserved in baked clay by the phenomenon of thermo-remanent 
magnetism. Hence, by measuring the magnetic direction in clay that 
can be presumed to have remained in situ since it was baked (as would 
be the case with a pottery kiln) and comparing the measurements with 
the known secular variations, an estimate of the date of baking can 
be obtained. Details of the method and its archeological applications 
are given in a recent book by Aitken [19]. 

The other possible method of dating, which is known as thermo- 
luminescent dating, has been suggested by Professor Kennedy of the 
University of California. This depends upon measuring the radiation 
damage produced in clay minerals owing to the presence in them of 
small amounts of radioactive impurities such as uranium and thorium. 
This radiation damage consists of defects in the crystal lattice, which 
act as electron traps. If the clay sample is heated to about 400° C., 
the excess energy of the electrons is released as visible light, which 
can be measured by a photo-multiplier. The amount of light is pro- 
portional to the amount of damage, which is itself proportional to the 
length of time during which the radiation damage has been accumulat- 
ing. For pottery this would be the time elapsed since it was originally 
fired, and herein lies the value of this dating method in archeology. 
Potsherds are among the commonest of archeological material, and, 
unlike the magnetic dating method, the thermoluminescent dating 
method would not require the finding of the sample in situ. If further 
research should establish this as a reliable method of dating, it will 
undoubtedly be of enormous value for prehistoric archeology. 

To the archeologist, dating is of vital importance, and the subtle 
methods which the scientist is now evolving—and may continue to 
evolve—will be of great value in throwing light on many problems 
of chronology. 

CONCLUSION 


The foregoing account of the kind of work that is carried out in a 
museum laboratory has of necessity been selective, since space has only 
permitted the discussion of a limited range of problems. No reference 
has been made, for example, to the use of scientific methods in problems 
of authenticity. However, the selected topics will serve to demonstrate 
that the work involved is very varied, both as regards the type of prob- 
lem itself—whether it be of conservation or of scientific examina- 
tion—and the new methods of investigation used by chemists and 
physicists to solve these problems. In this fascinating field of activity, 


604 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


the newest materials and techniques are being adapted to conserve 
and to examine the antiquities which are brought to light by the exca- 
vation of the archeologist. The concept of museum laboratories has 
now become firmly etsablished, and the spirit of cooperation thus 
engendered between the scientist and the archeologist is of mutual 
advantage. The archeologist learns more about the technical aspects 
of his material and is assured that the treasures which he excavates 
will be preserved by the best possible means. In return, the horizon of 
the scientist is considerably broadened and his field of interest enlarged 
beyond the confines of his laboratory by the knowledge that his studies 
are correlated with the historical development of mankind. 


REFERENCES 


. CALEY, HE. R., Journ. Chem. Educ., vol. 28, p. 64, 1951. 

. WERNER, A. H. A., Museums Journ., vol. 57, p. 159, 1957. 

. Climatology and Conservation in Museums, Museum, vol. 13, p. 202, 1960. 

. Ona@AN, R. M., Museums Journ., vol. 56, p. 265, 1957. 

. Ciba Technical Notes, No. 218, 1961. 

. ORGAN, R. M., Studies in Conservation, vol. 4, p. 4, 1959. 

WERNER, A. EH. A., Museums Journ., vol. 57, p. 3, 1957. 

OrGAN, R. M., Studies in Conservation, vol. 4, p. 96, 1959. 

MULLER-BECE, H., and Haas, A., Studies in Conservation, vol. 5, p. 150, 1960. 

. WERNER, A. E. A., Chronique d’Egypte, vol. 338, p. 273, 1958. 

. PLENDERLEITH, H. J., Technical Report in Enkomi-Alasia, by C. F. A. 

Schaeffer, pp. 381-389, Paris, 1952. 

12. RicHarps, E. H., and Harttey, K. F., Nature, vol. 185, p. 194, 1960. 

13. Brown, M. A., and Briin-Sroyie, A. E., Proce. Prehistoric Soc. 1959, No. 6, 
p. 188 ; and Archaeometry, vol. 2, supplement, 1959. 

14. Turner, W. 8S. E., and Rooxssy, H. P., Glastechnische Berichte, vol. 7, p. 17, 
1959. 

15. Young, §., Oriental Art, vol. 2, p. 43, 1959. 

16. AITKEN, M. J., et al., Radioisotopes in physical sciences (Copenhagen Confer- 
ence) RICC/37. International Atomic Energy Authority, Vienna (1960). 

17. Sayre, E. V., Application of science in examination of works of art, p. 153, 
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1959. 

18. Britt, R. H., and Mott, S., Proc. Rome Conference Internat. Inst. Conser- 
vation, p. 260, London, 1961. 

19. Physics and Archaeology. Interscience Publishers, New York and London, 

1961. 


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HP SOSDNAMRONH 


ee 


INDEX 


Abbot, C. G., x 
Accessions, 11, 67, 95, 106, 136, 197, 211 
Bureau of American Ethnology, 67 
Freer Gallery of Art, 106 
Library, 211 
National Air Museum, 127 
National Collection of Fine Arts, 95 
National Gallery of Art, 197 
National Museum, 11 
National Zoological Park, 136 
Adams, Cynthia L., vii 
Aircraft propulsion, A review of the 
evolution of aircraft powerplants (C. 
Fayette Taylor), 215 
Allen, Maj. Gen. Brooke E., viii 
American Historical Association, 221 
Anderson, Clinton P., regent of the 
Institution, v, 5, 37 
Andrews, A. J., vi 
Anglim, J. E., vi, 38 
Antiquities, Scientific methods in the 
examination and conservation of (A. 
KE. A. Werner), 593 
Appropriations, 5, 6, 197 
National Zoological Park, 6 
National Gallery of Art, 197 
River Basin Surveys, 6 
Archery, A chapter in the evolution of, 
in America (Paul E. Klopsteg), 567 
Arctic Ocean, The opening of the 
(James T. Strong), 391 
Astrophysical Observatory, vii, x, 71 
Astrophysical Research, Division 
of, 71 
Publications, 81, 221 
Radiation and Organisms, Division 
of, viii, 88 
Report, 71 
Staff, 88 
Table Mountain, Calif., field station, 
eal 
Avrett, E., viii, 73 


Baker, Thomas G., 27 

Bass, William M., 42, 57, 59 

Bassler, R. S., 41 

Battison, E. A., vii 

Bayer, F. M., 41 

Beadle, George W. (The place of genet- 
ics in modern biology) , 399 

Bedini, S. A., vii, 41 

Beggs, T. M., Director, National Col- 
lection of Fine Arts, viii, 94, 104 

Benjamin, C. R., x 

Biebighauser, Ernest E., 221 

Bishop, P. W., vii 

Blake, Mrs. Doris H., ix 


Blaker, Mrs. Margaret C., 67 
Blanchard, Ruth E., librarian, v, 214 
Bliss, Robert Woods, 94 
Boardman, R. S., vi, 30 
Bory, B. S., vii, 38 
Bow, Frank T., regent of the Institution, 
Wa ds 
30wers, Alfred W., 60 
3owman, T. E., vi 
Bows and arrows: A chapter in the eyo- 
lution of archery in America (Paul 
BH. Klopsteg) , 567 
Boyle, W. E., vi 
Bradley, James C., Assistant Secretary 
of the Institution, v, 94 
Bredin, J. Bruce, ix 
Briggs, R. E., viii, 77 
Brink, A. S., 32 
Brooks, Overton, 5 
Brown, John Nicholas, regent of the 
Institution, v, 5 
Brown, Lionel A., 60, 63 
Brown, W. L., x 
Buckles, William G., 53 
3ureau of American Hthnology, vii, x, 
42 
Archives, 67 
Collections, 69 
Editorial work and publications, 68 
Exploration and fieldwork, 42 
Illustrations, 68 
Library, 68 
Report, 42 
Researches, 42 
River Basin Surveys, 46 
Staff, x 
Burnham, Mrs. Sophy D., 225 
Byrd, Mrs. Mabel A., vi 


Cahill, James F., viii 
Cairns, Huntington, ix, 196, 210 
Caldwell, Warren W., 54, 59, 63 
Campbell, J. M., ix 
Canal Zone Biological Area, viii, x, 180 
Buildings, equipment, and improve- 
ments, 184 
Finances, 185 
Plans and requirements, 185 
Rainfall, 183 
Report, 180 
Scientists, students, and observers 
at, 180 
Visitors, 183 
Cannon, Clarence, regent of the Insti- 
tution, v, 5, 241 
Cannon, W. F., vii, 40 


605 


606 


Carmichael, Leonard, Secretary of the 
Institution, v, viii, ix, 1, 99 

Carriker, M. A., ix 

Cartwright, O. L., vi 

Casey, L. S., viii, 122 

Chace, F. A., Jr., vi, 35 

Chafe, W. L., vii, 45, 69 

Chapeile, H. I., vii 

Chase, Mrs. Agnes, x 

Chief Justice of the United States (Harl 
Warren, Chancellor of the Institu- 
tion), v, ix, 5, 196 

Chile, The great earthquakes of May 
1960 in (Pierre Saint-Amand), 387 

Christenson, L. D. (Tropical fruit-fly 
menace), 441 

Cifelli, Richard, vi, 31 

Civilization and the landscape (Sylvia 
Crowe), 537 

Clain-Stefanelli, Mrs. Elvira, vii, 33 

Clain-Stefanelli, Vladimir, vii, 33 

Clark, Ailsa M., ix 

Clarke, Gilmore D., 94 

Clarke, J. F. G., vi, 27 

Clarke, R. S., Jr., vi 

Cochran, Doris S., vi 

Cole, G. H., ix, 23 

Collins, H. B., Jr., vii 

Collins, H. R., vii, 48 

Collins, J. A., Chief, International Ex- 
change Service, ix, 195 

Colombo, G., vii, 78 

Colvin, William B., 60 

Compton, Arthur H., 5 

Conger, P. 8., vi 

Cook, A. F., viii, 88 

Cooke, C. W., x 

Cooper, G. A., vi, 29 

Cooper, Mrs. Grace R., Vii 

Cooper, Ralph S. (Rocket propulsion), 
299 

Cott, Perry B., ix, 196, 205 

Cottons, The history and relationships 
of the world’s (Sir Joseph Hutchin- 
son), 497 

Cowan, R.S., vi, 28 

Crabill, R. E., Jr., vi 

Crawford, Frederick C., x 

Crocker, W. H., vi, 40 

Crowe, Sylvia (Civilization and the 
landscape), 537 

Cutress, C. E., vi 


Dale, Chester, ix, 196, 197 

Dalquest, Walter W., 33 

Daughters of the American Revolution, 
National Society of, 221 

Davis, D. R., vi, 40 

Davis, R. J., viii, 78, 87 

Dawson, E. Yale (The rim of the reef), 
265 

Day, J. Edward, Postmaster General, 
member of the Institution, v 

Deignan, Herbert G., ix, 41 

Deignan, Mrs. Stella Leche, 224 

DeFelice, J., viii, 74 

deLint, P. J. A. L., viii 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


DeLong, Dwight M. (Man in a world 
of insects), 423 

Desautels, P. E., vi 

Desmond, Annabelle (How many peo- 
ple have ever lived on earth?), 545 

Dillon, Douglas, Secretary of the Treas- 
ury, member of the Institution, v, 
ix, 196 

Docent service, 38, 224 

Doolittle, Lt. Gen. James H., viii, 2238 

Drake, C. J., ix 


Earthquakes, The great, of May 1960 in 
Chile (Pierre Saint-Amand), 337 
Echinoderms, The evolution of the (H. 
Barraclough Fell), 457 
Edelen, Mrs. Eloise B., 68, 

Hdwards, J. L., viii 
Hider, R. A., Jr., vi 
Histad, V. B., viii 
Hsch, Doris A., vii, 41 
Establishment, The, 4 
Ettinghausen, Richard, viii 
Evans, Clifford, Jr., vi, 22 
Evolution of the echinoderms, The (H. 
Barraclough Fell), 457 
Executive Committee of the Board of 
Regents, Vv 
Report, 227 
Exhibitions, 34 
National Collection of Fine Arts, 
99, 103 
National Gallery of Art, 203 
National Museum, 34 
Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition, 
Service, 99 
Hxploration and fieldwork, Bureau of 
America Ethnology, 42 
National Museum, 22 
River Basin Surveys, 42 


20 


Feidler, Ernest R., ix, 196 
Feinstein, Bernard R., 26 
Fell, H. Barraclough (The evolution of 
the echinoderms), 457 
Field, W. D., vi, 27 
Ewers, J. C., vi, 38 
Finances, 5, 227 
Audit, 240 
Endowments, summary of, 231 
Executive Committee Report, 227 
Freer Gallery, 230 
See also Appropriations 
Finley, David E., 94 
Finnegan, Ellen J., vii, 41 
Fireman, E. L., viii, 74 
Fleming, Robert V., regent of the In- 
stitution, v, 5, 241 
INboe OL Sky dite, val, ZC 
Franklin, F., viii, 77 
Freeman, Monroe E., 224 
Freeman, Orville L., Secretary of Agri- 
culture, member of the Institution, v 
Freer Gallery of Art, viii, x, 105 
Attendance, 111 
Auditorium, 111 
Building and grounds, 110 
Changes in exhibitions, 108 


INDEX 


Collections, 106, 108 
Library, 109 
Photographie laboratory, 110 
Publications, 110 
Report, 105 
Staff activities, 113 
Friedmann, Herbert, ix 
Fruit-fly, tropical, menace (L. D. Chris- 
tenson), 441 
Fulbright, J. William, regent of the In- 
stitution, v, 5 


Garber, P. E., viii, 122 

Gardner, P. V., vii 

Garrick, J. A. E., 27 

Gazin, C. L., vi, 22, 31 

Genetics, The place of in modern biol- 
ogy (George W. Beadle), 399 

Gettens, Rutherford J., viii 

Gibson, G. D., vi 

Gifts. See Accessions; also Gifts and 
grants (monetary) 

Gifts and grants (monetary), 185, 197, 
240 

Gingerich, O., viii, 73, 87 

Glass, Modern (S. Donald Stookey), 328 

Goins, C. R., Jr., vii 

Goldberg, Arthur J., Secretary of Labor, 
member of the Institution, v 

Goldberg, L., vii, 71, 87 

Goldberg, Mrs. Arthur, 226 

Grabar, Oleg, x 

Graf, John #., ix 

Graham, D. C., 41 

Grant, Richard E., 29 

Greenewalt, Crawford H., regent of the 
Institution, v, 5 

Greenwell, F. M., 25 

Greenwood, Mrs. Arthur M., x 

Greeson, O. H., chief, photographic serv- 
ice division, v 

Griffith, F. O., vii 

Grimmer, J. L., viii, 140, 165 

Grossi, M., viii, 79 

Guest, Grace Dunham, x 


Hale, M. E., Jr., vi 

Hamarneh, 8. K., vii 

Hamid, S., vii, 76 

Hancock, Walter, 94 

Handley, C. O., Jr., vi, 25 

Harrington, John P., 67, 69 

Harrison, J. H., viii, 92 

Haskins, Caryl P., regent of the Insti- 
tution, v, 5, 241 

Hathaway, Anthony W., vii 

Hayes, Bartlett H., 94 

Henderson, BH. P., vi, 29 

Herber, HE. C., x 

Hersey, David, 224 

Hilger, Sister M. Inez, x, 69 

Hobbs, H. H., Jr., vi, 24, 40 

Hodge, P. W., Vili, 73, 77 

Hodges, Luther H., Secretary of Com- 
merce, member of the Institution, v 


607 


Hoffman, John J., 59 

Hopkins, P. S., Director, National Air 
Museum, viii, 131 

Hotton, Nicholas, III, vi, 5, 32 

Houston, C. O., Jr., vii 

Howell, A. B., 41 

Howell, EB. M., vii 

Howland, Richard H., vii 

Hull, EF. M., ix 

Hume, I. N., x 

Humphrey, P. S., vi, 40 

Hunsaker, Jerome C., regent of the In- 
stitution, v, 5 

Huscher, Harole A., 49 

Husted, Wilfred M., 60, 64 

Hutchinson, Sir Joseph (The history 
and relationships of the world’s cot- 
tons), 497 


Ide, John J., x 
Insects, man in a world of (Dwight M. 
DeLong), 423 
International Hxchange Service, ix, 186 
Foreign depositories of govern- 
mental documents, 189 
Interparliamentary exchange 
the official journals, 191 
Packages forwarded, 195 
Publications received, 195 
Report, 186 
Ireland, R. R., Jr., 41 
Irvin, John N., IT, ix 
Irving, Laurence, ix 
Izsak, I. G., vii, 79, 87 


of 


Jacchia, L. G., viii, 72, 76, 78, 87 

Jackson, M. H., vii, 41 

James, William R., 166 

Jamme, Albert, ix, 23, 24 

Jellison, W. L., ix 

Jensen, Richard E., 54, 59 

Johnson, D. H., vi 

Johnson, Lyndon B., Vice President of 
the United States, member of the 
Institution, v 

Judd, N. M., ix 

Junior League of Washington, 38, 224 


Kainen, Jacob, vii 

Kalkofen, W., viii, 72 

Kendall, E. C., vii 

Kauffman, EF. G., vi, 30 

Kellogg, A. Remington, Assistant Secre- 
tary of the Institution, v, 41 

Kennedy, J. A., director of personnel, v 

Kennedy, John F., President of the 
United States, Presiding Officer ex 
officio, v 

Kennedy, Robert I'., Attorney General, 
member of the Institution, v 

Kier, P. M., vi, 30 

Killip, E. P., x 

Kirwan, Michael J., regent of the Insti- 
tution, v, 5 

Kitchin, J. W., 32 

Klapthor, Mrs. Margaret Brown, vii 

Klein, W. H., viii, 88, 92 


608 


Klopsteg, Paul E. (Bows and arrows: 
A chapter in the evolution of arch- 
ery in America) , 567 

Kloster, Donald E., 34 

Knez, BH. I., vi 

Kozai, Y., vii, 79, 87 

Kress, Rush H., ix 

Krieger, H. W., ix 

Krook, M., viii, 72, 73 


Lachner, E. A., vi 
Landscape, Civilization and the (Sylvia 
Crowe), 537 
Lassoyszky, Karoly, 88 
Latterell, R. L., viii, 92 
Laughlin, R. M., 46, 69 
Lautman, D. A., viii, 79 
Lawless, B. W., Jr., vii, 38 
Lectures, 223 
Lea, John §., 218 
Leonard, E. C., x, 41 
Lewis, L. C., vii, 40 
Lewis, Wilmarth, 94 
Library, Bureau of American Ethnol- 
ogy, 68 
Freer Gallery of Art, 109 
Main Smithsonian Library, Report, 
PALL 
National Gallery of Art, 208 
Life, The soil as a habitat for (Sir John 
Russell), 449 
Life and existence, some mysteries of 
(R. E. Snodgrass), 517 
Liller, William, 71 
Lindsay, G. Carroll, curator, Smithso- 
nian Museum Service, v, 39, 224, 226 
Livingston, Jerry L., 57 
Loehr, Max, x 
Loening, Grover, Viii 
Lundeberg, Philip K., vii, 5 
Lyon, Rowland, viii 


MacKay, FE. W., x 

MacManus, Ruth B., 216 

Madison, Lee G., 56, 59 

Mallory, Oscar L., 60 

Mamay, Sergius H., 33 

Man in a world of insects (Dwight M. 
DeLong), 423 

Mangroves: Trees that make land (Wil- 
liam M. Stephens), 491 

Manship, Paul, 94 

Marchand, Paul, 28 

Margulies, M., viii 

Marron, Harvey, 224 

Marvin, U. B., viii, 74, 88 

Matternes, J. H., 35 

Matthews, L. Harrison (The shark that 
hibernates), 415 

McCall, F. J., vii 

McClure, F. A., x 

McCrane, Marion, viii, 166 

McCrosky, R. E., viii, 73, 75, 76 

Mellhenny, Henry P., 94 

McIntosh, Allen, ix 

McNamara, Robert 8., Secretary of De- 
fense, member of the Institution, v 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Meggers, Betty, ix, 22 

Melder, K. E., vii, 41 

Mellon, Paul, ix, 196, 197 

Metcalf, George S., 22 

Meyer, R. B., viii 

Michaels, Andrew F., buildings man- 
ager, V 

Miller, Carl F., 49, 61, 66 

Mitler, H., viii, 78, 88 

Mitrakos, K., viii 

Moore, J. P., ix 

Morrison, J. P. B., vi 

Morton, C. V., vi 

Moyniban, M. H., resident naturalist, 
Canal Zone Biological Area, viii, 185 

Muesebeck, C. F. W., ix 

Muller, Jon, 59 

Multhauf, R. P., vii 

Murray, Mrs. Anne W., Vii 

Museum of History and Technology, 
vi, x, 3, 4 

Museum of Natural History, vi, ix, 2, 4 


National Air Museum, viii, x, 121 
Accessions, 127 
Advisory Board, viii, 121 
Exhibits, 122 
Repairs, preservation, and restora- 
tion, 122 
Report, 121 
Special events, 122 
Staff, viii 
National Collection of Fine Arts, viii, 
94 
Alice Pike Barney Memorial Fund, 
97 
Art works lent and returned, 96 
Catherine Walden Myer Fund, 95 
Henry Ward Ranger Fund, 97 
Report, 94 
Smithsonian Art Commission, 94 
Smithsonian lending collection, 97 
Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition 
Service, 99 
Special exhibitions, 108 
Staff activities, 101 
National Gallery of Art, ix, 196 
Accessions, 197 
Appropriations, 197 
Attendance, 197 
Building and grounds, 209 
Curatorial activities, 205 
Educational program, 206 
Exchanges of works of art, 202 
Exhibitions, 203 
Extension services, 207 
Gifts, 197 
Index of American Design, 208 
Library, 208 
Organization, 196 
Personnel, 197 
Publications, 206 
Report, 196 
Restoration, 205 
Traveling exhibitions, 204 


INDEX 


Trustees, ix 
Works of art on loan, 202, 203 
National Museum, vi, 8 
Buildings and equipment, 40 
Collections, 8 
Docent service, 38 
Exhibitions, 34 
Explorations and fieldwork, 22 
Organization and staff, changes in, 
40 
Publications, 218 
Report, 8 
Staff, vi 
National Zoological Park, viii, x, 1382 
Animals in the collection on June 
30, 1962, 141 
Births, 132 
Collection, status of, 141 
Cooperation, 172 
Exchanges, 138 
Friends of the National Zoo, 167 
Gifts, 186 
Information and education, 167 
Maintenance, construction, and 
grounds, 177 
Personnel, 166 
Plans for the future, 178 
Police department, 175 
Purchases, 188 
Reorganization, 165 
Report, 132 
Safety subcommittee, 176 
Veterinarian, report of the, 168 
Visitors, 174 
Neuman, Robert W., 53, 59, 64 
Newland, K. E., viii, 122 
Newman, M. T., vi, 24 
Noonan, T. W., viii, 73, 88 


Oehser, Paul H., chief, editorial and 
publications division, v, 222 
Ostroff, Hugene, vii 


Page, R. M. 
radar), 315 

Parker, Kittie F., x 

Pearce, F. L., vi, 31 

Pearce, J. N., Vii 

Pearson, Mrs. Louise M., administra- 
tive assistant to the Secretary, v 

People, How many have ever lived on 
earth? (Annabelle Desmond), 545 

Perry, K. M., vii 

Perrygo, W. M., vi 

Peterson, M. L., vii 

Pleissner, Ogden M., 94 

Pope, John A., Director, Freer Gallery 
of Art, viii, 105, 120 

Pope, Mrs. Annemarie H., viii 

President of the United States (John 
F. Kennedy), Presiding Officer, ex 
officio, v 

ler, ID) den =e 

Price, L., viii 

Publications, American Historical As- 
sociation, 221 

Astrophysical Observatory, 81 
Bureau of American Ethnology, 220 


(The early history of 


609 


Daughters of the American Reyolu- 
tion, 221 

Distribution, 215 

Freer Gallery of Art, 110 

National Collections of Fine Arts, 
221 

National Gallery of Art, 206 

National Museum, 218 

Radiation and Organisms, 91 

Report on, 215 

Smithsonian Annual Reports, 217 

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec- 
tions, 216 

Special, 218 


Radar, The early history of (R. M. 
Page), 315 
Radiation and Organisms, Division of, 
viii, 91 
Publications, 91 
Report, 88 
Staff, viii 
Ranck, Gary L., 25 
Reed, T. H., Director, National Zoologi- 
cal Park, viii, 179 
ee The rim of the (E. Yale Dawson), 
Regents, Board of, v, 5 
Annual meeting, 17 
Executive Committee, v, 227 
Rehder, H. A., vi 
Research associates, collaborators, and 
fellows, ix 
Rhodes, Katherine N., x 
Ribicoff, Abraham A., Secretary of 
Health, Education, and Welfare, 
member of the Institution, v 
Riesenberg, S. H., vi 
Riggs, R. B., Jr., viii, 75 
River Basin Surveys, 46 
Appropriation, 6 
Fieldwork, 42 
Report, 46 
Staff, x 
Washington office, 49 
Roberts, F. H. H., Jr., Director, Bureau 
of American Ethnology, vii, 42, 43, 70 
Robinove, Charles J. (What’s happen- 
ing to water?), 375 
Rocket propulsion (Ralph S. Cooper), 
299 
Rolff, J., viii 
Rosewater, Joseph, vi, 40 
Roth, Rodris C., vii, 33 
Roth, Waldfried T., viii, 166 
Roy, Edgar L., treasurer, v 
Rudd, Velva E., vi, 28 
Rudmann, Joseph E., vii, 41 
Rusk, Dean, Secretary of State, mem- 
ber of the Institution, v, ix 
Russell, Sir John (The soil as a habitat 
for life), 449 
Rustgi, O. P., viii, 78 


Saint-Amand, Pierre (The great earth- 
quakes of May 1960 in Chile), 337 
Saltonstall, Leverett, regent of the In- 

stitution, v 


610 


Satellite-tracking program, 80 

Sawyer, Charles H., 94 

Sayre, Reginald J., 28 

Schaller, W. T., x 

Scheele, C. H., vii 

Schmidt, John W., 38 

Schmitt, W. L., ix 

Schultz, L. P., vi, 27 

Schwartz, Benjamin, ix 

Schwarzchild, Martin, 223 

Science Information Exchange, 223 

Scientific methods in the examination 
and conservation of antiquities (A. E. 
A. Werner), 593 

Secretary of the Institution (Leonard 
Carmichael), v. viii, ix, 1 

Setzer, H. W., vi, 28, 24, 25 

Setzler, F. M., ix 

Shark that hibernates, The (L. Har- 
rison Matthews), 415 

Shropshire, W., viii, 92 

Skalafuris, A., viii, 72 

Slowey, J., vii, 79 

Smith, A. C., Director, Museum of Nat- 
ural History, vi 

Smith, G. Hubert, 58, 59, 65 

Smith, H. Morgan, ix 

Smith, L. B., vi 

Smithsonian Art Commission, 94 

Smithsonian Museum Service, 224 

Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Sery- 
ice, 99 

Snodgrass, R. E., ix, 517 

Snodgrass, R. E. (Some mysteries of 
life and existence), 517 

Snyder, T. E., ix 

Soderstrom, T. R., vi, 28, 29 

Soil as a habitat for life, The (Sir 
John Russell), 449 

Soper, C. C., x 

Southworth, R. B., viii, 76, 87 

Squires, D. F., vi, 27, 40 

Stephens, William M. (Mangroves: 
Trees that make land), 491 

Stephenson, R. L., vii, 56, 62 

Stern, Harold P., viii, 5 

Stern, W. L., vi, 29 

Stevenson, J. A., x 

Stewart, T. Dale, vi, 22 

Stirling, M. W., x, 69 

Stookey, S. Donald (Modern glass), 323 

Stratton, Mrs. Janet, 225 

Strong, James T. (The opening of the 
Arctie Ocean), 391 

Stroop, P. D., Rear Adm., viii 

Sturtevant, W. C., vii, 44, 45 

Swallen, J. R., vi 

Switzer, G.S., vi 


Talbert, D. G., viii 

Taylor, C. Fayette (Aircraft propul- 
sion: A review of the evolution of 
aircraft powerplants), 245 

Taylor, Frank A., Director, Museum of 
History and Technology, vi 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1962 


Taylor, Theodore W., Assistant to the 
Secretary, v, 94 

Taylor, W. R., vi 

Taylor, W. W., Jr., ix 

Tilles, D., viii, 74, 87 

Tillinghast, C. W., vii 

Tobin, W. J., ix, 24 

Tretick, Julius, vii 

Turner, G. T., vii 


Udall, Stewart L., Secretary of the 
Interior, member of the Institution, v 


Van Beek, G. W., vi, 28, 24, 25 

Veis, G., viii, 79 

Verville, Alfred V., x 

Visitors, 6 
Air and Space Building, 6 
Canal Zone Biological Area, 183 
Freer Gallery of Art, 6 
National Gallery of Art, 6 
National Zoological Park, 174 
Natural History Building, 6 
Smithsonian Building, 6 

Vogel, R. M., vii 


Walker, E. P., x 

Walker, John, ix, 196, 197 

Waring, A. J., Jr. x, 69 

Warren, Earl, Chief Justice of the 
United States, Chancellor of the In- 
stitution, v. 5, ix, 196 

Washburn, W. E., vii, 33 

Water, What’s happening to (Charles 
J. Robinove), 375 

Watkins, C. Malcolm, vii 

Watkins, W. N., x 

Wedel, W. R., vi, 22 

Weiss, Helena M., registrar, vi 

Welsh, P. C., vii 

Wengenroth, Stow, 94 

Wenley Archibald Gibson, 94, 105 

Werner, A. E. A. (Scientific methods in 
the examination and conservation of 
antiquities), 593 

Wetmore, Alexander, ix, 25, 26 

Whipple, F. L., vii, 5, 87, 93 

White, J. H., Jr., vii 

Whitney, C. A., viii, 72 

Whitney, John Hay, ix, 196, 197 

Wilding, A. W., chief, supply division, v 

Wilson, Druid, 30 

Wilson, Mrs. Mildred S., ix 

Wood, John, viii, 75 

Woodring, W. P., x 

Wright, F. W., vii, 73, 77, 88 

Wright, James F., viii, 166 

Wurdack, J. J., vi, 28 

Wyeth, Andrew, 94 


Young, Rodney, 223 
Zadunaisky, P. E., vii, 75 


U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1963 


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