Pte “A@ansapesea®>” EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY TO THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1896-97 BY e.. We POW HL DIRECTOR Tesi Sa FU AGE os — te Acker» SI. WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1899 } ' + ee Ta | § at , # re ens A ' oan j ve Amoere bs ee 9 eet : a ' : ie ‘ By Tas ‘ , “on ne ri as 7 , a j . 7 * a » ui y ie! Pah) ’ oun A ‘ as ee re saan 17,0 i ry pe.’ 3 ra pa hs ; i - a " oa ua 4 a} ~ * , 5 ' > ’ | v - 4 ae ie oe A \ - : ‘ ri ; 2 it Lhe? ae Bee ae eis sg Ay AE Hn A he Bact = “AF ‘ F “a . : - ‘ ; ’ ~ , 7 aa ¥ ve 03 ’ . : Y ‘ S ‘ , , e . “ i, a ' ene a yy 7 ‘ PLA Good 4 Ay , wad ae | . Ne + , * 7 « = t _ ’ oan) Fe ae Nye KY) LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, | BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, , Washington, D. 0., July 1, 1897. Str: Ihave the honor to submit my Eighteenth Annual Report as Director of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The preliminary portion comprises an exposition of the operations of the Bureau during the fiscal year; the remainder consists of two memoirs on anthropologic subjects, prepared by assistants, which illustrate the methods and results of the work of the Bureau. Allow me to express my appreciation of your constant aid and your wise counsel relating to the work under my charge. I am, with respect, your obedient servant, Director. Honorable 8. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Ill CONTENTS Page LAU OICUNCCLE Can 05 2 lS are NE ae Ree Sea IR Sagi el XXV heldsreseanciiandeexploration.s-. 9-52-2622. aeec- =o - clo ee eee XXVII (QETGE: DAYLE S SE seer ee ee ge een a ennai AEN SENT subs Moke DOr isint eile toloryas sensor Se ase ays eee hrm eee a ee XXX Wiorksinutechnlopys=an ater ese eae. aco seen eee ees XXXIV Niiorksintsoci gloria ou peeee cores ste a aa tky 22m Rhea een XXXIX Nox keep Hole yg rece ee eee eee ae ao. alata wha emer ees oiaee XLI Wonks imi sop Ol Opa e rotamer nec eee ee eek oe cues Saas Eea5 (Rainy Descripiivecuinglomyossces person en as ee et eek eee XLV DG ena piv gests) tome gee a Ion (Soh yak ate ate oo See ES XLVI Wollec tin tserreramere ey. Cee aes ees tks eee eee, Men Me ee oP ae yn XLVI Retsil Oe seer es ee Ieee yaw eee raat. ee Siar XLVI NS CEU ANON: ae eee .cQeaeeee fo sao ss. oee cee eiend sec 36 AC tL DSC se eee ee ak ee Lk ER 37 Glowes!andimit tonemeeeer eer se oot) oe ow eee 38 OD MEW CAT: t= eee ME © ei i Ne ee ee ee te 40 BODES == renee te ee kee. oe . 40 DOcks ANGuNOOUANAT i oh eo3 058 o) oon ae ee cheese eee 43 lo bbin 2 Uae eee a ee es ee! d Jo ln Ie bos ae eee 43 \Wiul BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Sketch of the western Eskimo—Continued Page Persons) adornment. 2-2... 2: .-=see san bee cam Sa ee eee aoe Sep oe eee , 44 Mabrets 3.2 ual soccce Soccer se ome ce pase easels ce eseiec arom seme eeiaies 44 AUER TIGL A 8 moe aco Jan pen oohos Uacanene cto sg eaemeeeet goods sabe 50 ICG GEM GUGH eats ao bee ao cn eer oar ae be Gooner gS sang ences ce 52 Hair:ornaments and\combst-2s-saese-= 2-22 See anne ee eee deen 57 Bracelets < oc 52ics i285 ce oases oa oe me a ee sioke eer oe 58 Belis‘and beltibwitons 3222 Ses ee seeen te te ters sete eae hte eee ae 59 Uiensildiand implements == one seen eee ae ee ere meee 63 DUAN PS oie 22 oeteee ae oe noon = ape ia = tet elet ate a la ees 63 Dippers; ladles}and spoons/scesa) seem == eee re ee ee eee 65 ‘Wooden dishes; trays and) buckats2-- 22-2. 2.2 sen ene eee 70 Pestles)..2..5 225235 sesso sa ose eee eee ee See Sek Enc uae geet octes Caen. 73 Blubber hooks;andeatriers -.22 2. sane esac nas oe es eee eee ; 73 Ib Aaseee ayant DIOL Be ee ee Irian ooo Gaerne seaoceees noes: 73 Rakes?! 2 23 c.5co meme ecu cs ty aa cl see eee er oes eenerey ay eich Hote eet Srte tect 74 LEAT VO yy es ooien Gocco a heeds Gags ops cuse ae see addwes yp das G2 85s 75 Bone breakers) 2s.o5 4 oes see eee ane cae ~ Dae Soe ettes es ane 75 Mab aka obriesabeyle (Ne) oeeenm er aa store saa occas eae teeter 7a Briony Wenbers =a oer ele a rete sec elal ae a eters ae eee eet 77 Snow shovels'and.ice pieks' 2 soso pe 2-5 ae eee eee 78 jay EY Te) I ete ee ap et ES SOS OO ae acme ab nee a easaeicde Bosc 79 Implements used in arts and manufactures ....-....-. -.-----. ---..----- 80 ivory and. bonenworkin® t00l8\--<-lascuae son ae aan ese eee ee ee 80 Drillsvorillibow;s.andsicaps ese ses ees sae se ee ere ee ea eee 81 RMIT B wae eos nto rors ee basis oe cee nein oe Oa ies Meee iin Seis teem ee Emin 85 CHIBSIB eee os. c cee sown fete see em ans Seem sateen Ort oa ete 86 Polishing tan desi Sh eyhOO Sie ee seat eee eet ea ee 87 Wredowsandimanllse = © )22n 0 eon see soe a eepmetiete cey ae eee ta . 88 AUTO WSN Ahh SULA LEN OLS ence ema clea ei ielee miele al leat ala 88 Beaver-tooth tools*--2--.-- 368 a Cares ames 2 Sa ate eerste 89 Birch-bark tools -=...3-.=-----=-- a a ss SE As See pa les ye at 90 SUID GD AC Ca hee See OE Res ey ese ane Sc commen 91 Tool bags and handles ..-.-........----..----.: yas Face) Ieee os 93 Tool boxes.----. See eta ae ssid Saas cae Pace mee ocins ee eee eames ees 93 Wionlenis WOrkhOxes 2-- = conm vane aeenie ee ee ames ne he eee ere ae 98 Handles for workboxes and water buckets. ...-.........------------- 100 Neeulecases, oacc te see Saris ee se eee amine as Bs eee eter soe me US Women's!housewivies? i 2ss2- 1 Gasca acetone eno es eae e seen ese 104 Needles: andibodikins:.- =. ou sso ssa= ee acinar ee es pole i eee 106 Boot: SOleLeveasers teen ctecc eee eat ore past ane ieee an ateee = See eeetee 108 Wromien Ss niiven se n15 28 ee auitece Sey aere cic ein seas ee eis oat eee ata 108 Thimblesiandthim/ble holders=-2- 2 2 /s-see-- ses a= eee 109 Implements for making thread and cord......---.-.----------------- 410 PME TOSST IG LOS eee a ote ale tte ete ret a i ea 2m oc 112 Veter GY Yo Ses poe sod Jes fone ceoonoaass Soe Sa oS ese SoS SSc 2 116 fontine and hunting Implements =..- sone. sooner: == =~ ~ ate PEN yey 9) 07Gb yee Te ee eee Sci Sees Saye Bee = Si) See 118 IBITOESMOTES ANG NOUS, saa ee oom as = Sos sae eek St >,. 25 aset os ten a eee 2. aaa Hole: tales. oe 8G. See re Oe eee See ce Dent Scope of Alaskan folklore ..........--- Spe Ah ee ee tect A Blood lesends trom StiMichas): 72 226s— Sesion senate) Oh eee Talestof Ghepayven'. Sos cance «saareered eee meme ee es 2 a ee Dhevereabions.- 282. eecegenk Seek Nowe ene 2. 2 = ee RAVeNtakes awe: 2-2 Moke ett ta 2te2 Sooo, hoc The Raven, the Whale, and the Mink ..-_....-..----.--2-2- +--+. The Red Bear (from St Michael and Norton sound)..--....-.--------- DheiGianthtesse seas aeea aa See eee as Sebo s oo 55 5cea cee eee Sele ’ The One=who-fnds-nothung 2 S22 Sse et... eee the one "Woman site e ee eases camer. - = 52-2 oc io. eee The circlingioticnamest= sete seeds 2. | The dwarf peoples esses ae eeen-eeceees <2 220. sds oo ae eee ee The Sun and the Moon (from St Michael) ..--....--...----.--------.- CONTENTS Sketch of the western Eskimo—Continued Folk tales—Continued The Sun and the Moon (from the Lower Yukon) ...-.....-..--..----- Orizinvotelandiand peoples. - oo s os ae ia cinla)wocigein/ ais ne em wae esc Therion ovoh the Inehitby Raven 2.2. 25.5 2. cocc.1- Gee -seenn tees = Mreshedubears GromeAnadrervelcy )\22..- (1. o2e2 ecg sa)remede see eee sees a Thevlastiof the: Thunderbirds-----..- 22-2. bese. oa: eA iste neee 4a Loe ynG lei? Teel DEG LS ene te eS ee te ae Am Ps ea LNG EP Ry D ON -pSbestene ose becsleeseaeeeeeae asa reea ater a ite oe es Origin of the Yu-gi-yhik’ or I-ti-ki-tah’ festival .............--...--- (OMyGri GE ALM Cgeh Ase Goss sgse ses OSSER LAS See ee EEe ne ae oie eesacat GUNG SHEN TAP EE She om ae Ae eee erence ee eet se - eee ote ea ne ON EE id es Le oe oe See APS CERES Se SOMES a Renee nite Sanh Aas EI RW AT EO keto a Era cee ee ane eee bopper oeee rs pace ce Sees iasrae Mheydiscontenbtad 'Grass-plamt << 2-0 - * > i he & 5 ih is a : ad a) J : 7 ri ¥ : are * FY A 4 “ 7 ns) ¥ he & pied ca 28 5¥ ~ “ a be i ea fiw . 7 ; re A ve . . ‘ foals viele gt Cw ee el Ny ae ; A 4 a . an od ‘4 Me ; a TAL > me pe ; 7 ‘2 ‘ a Ea ee Pe a | ; J Sie a ; i < ' a 1s ' es .- ie F i) ee is Ml is . ay Peay oy ‘ ’ Ooo di JB Y OPP gis S Nase ee ee eRe ; i Ty ey . . a" Ne : ; 4 vi : che Ale aly iat $ + * . = 4 vies A fF = , at " 7 i 4 we? f LA ; ; ‘ q ; ky ' ’ , t ‘ } 4 ' v, if . ba ‘ 5 2 y h 3 ve i¢ bg B \ j ett “= J Se 1! Sa page dor 4 Ape Bg - ‘ \ ; Lee FPS . i ‘ } ¢ i PA Tie. f 7 ts “ % : ‘ i | ‘ : J ys. * f J : ; 4s ay iy : ILLUSTRATIONS’ 5 NEN) Saecisieose de bos eooreee ns) Beco 555m Ge Sooner ha, eRe Sco SCE . Malemut family from Shaktolik .-.-.-----------------++------------ . Kinuguimut male, Su-ku-uk, age 25...--.---- -----.--------2-2 +7207 . Kinugumut male, Komik-sever, age 23. ..-.----------------- +--+ +++ . Kinugumut male, Kyo-kudsee, age 16.----..---------------+++-+---- . Kinugumut male, Iser-kyner, age 20.-----.----------------- +--+ ---- . Kinugumut female, Kok-suk, age 23... ... -------------+--2+ 2555 e07> . Kinugumut female, Unger-keé-kluk, age 22....-..------------+----- . Kitugumut female, age 22 .----------- ---- -------«----- 7 reer sntete . Siberian Eskimo: a, Woman of Mechigme bay. }, woman of East Pini thekem ocd ee sone J astoiece ne POSH Or acm n aac ein ae Fe DEC Si oocS . Eskimo men—Mechigme bay, Siberia ------------------------------ . Cape Prince of Wales and Icy Cape men..---. ----------------+---- . Typically dressed women and children from East cape, Siberia.-.- - XY. Typical dress of Kayiagmut and Kuskokwogmnt men and women.. XVI. Man’s birdskin frock. (64273) ...--------------------+---- +--+ 077+ XVII. Front and back of man’s deerskin frock. (49107) .----------.------ XVIII. Front and back of woman’s frock. (7510)-----.-------------------- XIX. Front of man’s fishskin frock. (38817).-.--------------------+-+---- XX. Men’s gloves: 1 (64271), 2 (1728), 3 (48135), 4 (64287), 5 (44350), 6 Cede (ASO) eee etre eats etal aoe oem re ci XXI. Boots, waterproof mittens, and straw socks: 1 (49082), 2 (88814), 3 (48127), 4 (43345), 5 (49083), 6 (48381), 7 (48182), 8 (38871), 9 (38779), 10 (129822), 11 (48315), 12 (49164) ..---.---------------- XXII. Labrets: 1 (176070), 2 (31277), 3 (176069), 4 (36869), 5 (36871), 6 (176074), T (37038), 8 (16210), 9 (48757), 10 (16205), 11 (16204), 12 (16203), 13 (76681), 14 (176067), 15 (76678), 16 (48749), 17 (33506), 18 (37663), 19 (44903), 20 (44902), 21 (48898), 22 (45200), 23 (176068), 24 (63839), 2s (CUNY). 6 door sae ebs soceeae eo msoacc CH SaSeDS Ou PSC Sore XXIII. Kotzebue Sound Malemut men and women with jabrets--=- -------- XXIV. Earrings: 1 (4573), 2 (48306), 3 (38170), 4 (37271), 5 (4574), 6 (37270), 7 (4572), 8 (38051), 9 (24701), 10 (38168), 11 (4569), 12 (43667), 138 (36839), 14 (37517), 15 (37264), 16 (4570), 17 (4568), 18 (36862), 19 CL UEREIIRD fs Rg Oe ee ero ee ae ce ee ei ea ile XXY. Earrings and other ornaments: 1 (37002), 2 (37745), 3 (37006), 4 (37007), 5 (43743), 6 (37003), 7 (36003), 8 (38417), 9 (37258), 10 (37254), 11 (38410), 12 (87356), 13 (43730) .----. ------------ ------ 2520700 XXVI. Women and children of Cape Smith..----------.----------------77- 60 19 66 1The figures in parentheses following the titles of th objects in the catalog of the United States National Museum. xI e illustrations refer to the numbers of the XII PLaTE XXVII. XXVIIL. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXIT. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Belt fasteners: 1 (44428), 2 (37206), 3 (37043), 4 (48629), 5 (37212), 6 (44641), 7 (36920), 8 (48724), 9 (37034), 10 (43880), 11 (45183), 12 (36911), 13 (63835), 14 (44529), 15 (43723), 16 (37468), 17 (48719), 18 (87484), 19 (38565), 20 (37833), 21 (37012), 22 (48194), 23 (87990), 24 (43615), 25 (37209), 26 (37332), 27 (37989), 28 (38553), 29 (37706), 30 (37333) ....-. - Lamps and pots: 1 (63545), 2 (38078), 3 (64222), 4 (63544), 5 (63566), 6 (380761), 7 (63570), 8 (49196), 9 (63543), 10 (127018), 11 (49110), 12 (44338), 13 (63548) Ladles and dippers: 1 (38629), 2 (45054), 3 (45100), 4 (38631), 5 (38635), 6 (33062), 7 (45007), 8 (88604), 9 (45513), 10 (63575), 11 (63576), 12 (48129) Spoons and ladles: 1 (33280), 2 (63227), 3 (37340), 4 (37475), 5 (37116), 6 (35961), 7 (63852), 8 (37118), 9 (36355), 10 (35959), 11 (36358), 12 (38062), 13 (86359), 14 (36357), 15 (63278), 16 (38508), 17 (38527), 18 (45051), 19 (38503), 20 (43491), 21 (38637), 22 (35960), 23 (37120), 24 (388632), 25 (38638)... ...- Trays and pestles: 1 (63719), 2 (127007), 3 (48844), 4 (38678), 5 (37868), 6 (388683), 7 (38844), 8 (38677), 9 (127019) Trays and buckets: 1 (63243), 2 (38654), 3 (38685), 4 (33066), 5 (37143), 6 (37355), 7 (63245), 8 (38642) ...-.. ..-.-..----.---- Implements and utensils: a, Water bag, mouthpieces, blubber hook, and carrier: 1 (44605), 2 (35982), 3 (37432), 4 (36488), 5 (33213), 6 (48954), 7 (30774), 8 (16135), 9 (87375), 10 (38708), 11 (30773), 12 (35203). b, Root picks: 1 (16132), 2 (44414), 3 (S8081) io. Soo). st ecm seca pers -aeinctin melee ae Fire-making implements: 1, 2,3 (33166), 4,5 (36325), 6 (49067), fou StGOL); 9) (B8601) oo 25 soe aen te seen eee aise eo ses oes teres Snow shovel, pick, rake, and maul: 1 (63600), 2 (48994), 3 (63650) 54: (G38601) 222 22 c oo escapee eas Jones oye See a, Ivory working tools: 1 (63274), 2 (65483), 3 (37980), 4 (63319), 5 (63316), 6 (43821), 7 (33604), 8 (48087), 9 (46145), 10 (48179). b, Drill bows: 1 (44206), 2 (44209), 3 (44467), 4 (33189), 5 (33186), 6 (33191), 7 (45017), 8 (63804), 9 (44208), 10 (48021), IB (6B 1322 Se ne teeenetessdcic toa Joe amacp cea BbuGoS OBE Sess Drills, drill caps, and cords: 1 (45563), 2 (126986), 3 (33171), 4 (63323), 5 (33170), 6 (38798), 7 (89625), 8 (89627), 9 (44203), 10 (33172), 11- (38084), 12 (63720), 13 (48585) 14 (48565), 15 (49177), 16 (45520), 17 (63663), 18 (33147), 19 (33174), 20 (37962), 21 (33653), 22 (33149), 23 (36321), 24 (48927), 25 (16176), 26 (45383), 27 (386322), 28 (44561), 29 (126995), 30 (63506) Wood-working tools: 1 (48705), 2 (38292), 3 (46147), 4 (48706), 5 (36427), 6 (88494), 7 (44981), 8 (48704), 9 (36508), 10 (48552), 11 (38201), 12 (36420), 13 (45150), 14 (48542), 15 (43883), 16 (45163), 17 (33026), 18 (86554), 19 (82882), 20 (48847), 21 (36366), 22 (64154), 23 (38294), 24 (89634), 25 (64155), 26 (32878), 27 (63320), 28 (45488), 29 (63318), 30 (36507), 31 (ABDO Tee oo Nee oe Se ee oat oe Wedges and adzes: 1 (38836), 2 (16067), 3 (44601), 4 (48873), 5 (63619), 6 (48872), 7 (127023), 8 (48182), 9 (38258), 10 (33082), 11 (37865), 12 (45069), 13 (33260), 14 (33083)........---...-. Arrowshaft straighteners and point setters: 1 (33039), 2 (63723), 3 (44383), 4 (44415), 5 (33048), 6 (38492), 7 (64159), 8 (48680), 9 (48723), 10 (63790), 11 (43924), 12 (44745) ......-.-..-----. Tool bag and handles: 1 (64151), 2 (44169), 3 (41398). 4 (48531), 5(63305)7'6: (48529) 57 (48089) 25 == < -- ose descsenneeeneee= Page 90 94 ILLUSTRATIONS PLatTin XLII, Tool and trinket boxes: 1 (49103), 2 (63240), 3 (36240), 4 (87561), 5 (43887), 6 (36239), 7 (36243), 8 (36241), 9 (49015), 10 (36244), fii) (GIA) 5 ha a se ee ae ae XLIII. Bueket and box handles: 1 (44691), 2 (48685), 3 (63824), 4 (48270), 5 (88752), 6 (36375), 7 (48461), 8 (63809), 9 (24431), 10 (38776), 11 (44716), 12 (63801), 13 (33279), 14 (48137), 15 (48164), 16 (33273), 17 (43820), 18 (38751), 19 (33220), 20 (63884), 21 (129218), 22 (44190), 23 (48163), 24 (48809), 25 (63879), 26 (L871) SS ats ee ee ee cae rs Pe ae SO SR XLIV. Thimble guards, needle-cases, and boot-sole creasers: 1 (48496), 2 (63421), 3 (36459), 4 (86456), 5 (86463), 6 (36464), 7 (48299), 8 (36455), 9 (36453), 10 (86454), 11 (44011), 12 (48664), 13 (36452), 14 (44840), 15 (43861), 16 (64165), 17 (63827), 18 (64167), 19 (48570), 20 (44017), 21 (37237), 22 (36885), 23 (36878), 24 (45459), 25 (24481), 26 (33462), 27 (36880), 28 (48560), 29 (45168), 30 (64164), 31 (38448), 32 (33699), 33 (48505), 34 (48980), 35 (36742), 36 (36758), 387 (387807), 38 (33214), 39 (36721), 40 (44137), 41 (48546), 42 (63806), 43 (16189), 44 (48289), 45 (38364), 46 (38449), 47 (47738), 48 (33677), 49 (45140), 50 (43389), 51 (48543) ..---- XLV. ‘“ Housewives” and fastenings: 1 a (37778), 3 (43662), 4 (36690), 5 (37791), 6 (36695), 7 (37786), 8 (37189), 9 (37783), 10 (45142), 11 (43663), 12 (49001), o (37318), 14 (64288), 15 (38691), 16 (44021), 17 (38198), 18 (48795), 19 (37767), 20 (38221), 21 (38402), 22 (36419), 23 (37310), 24 (37457), 25 (38376), 26 (38241), 27 (37739), 28 (35972), 29 (43694), 30 (38387), 31 (16343), 32 (GitEU) ie Seer case Beem noSeee nae SROHSe- Heino Sees coonSEse ee XLVI. Bodkins: 1 (33251), 2 (37804), 3 (38385), 4 (37752), 5 (37621), 6 (36286), 7 (36631), 8 (36634), 9 (48535), 10 (36632), 11 (37776), 12 (43388), 13 (36626), 14 (48798), 15 (48948), 16 (38495) ........ XLVII. Fish and skinning knives: 1 (36315), 2 (63771), 3 (63773), 4 (87957), 5 (43892), 6 (36506), 7 (48829), 8 (48828), 9 (38256), 10 (43482) -- XLVIII. Thread- and cord-making implements: a, Grasscombs: 1 (44779), 2 (44777), 3 (44419), 4 (48120), 5 (33145), 6 (63657), 7 (48842), 8 (38079), 9 (48877), 10 (48918). b, Thread shuttles and needles: 1 (24463), 2 (24464), 3 (36449), 4 (48261), 5 (48287), 6 CAB TO AoA) Ou (S644) teem me ae saat learn i= aai=\saisin ee XLIX. Skin serapers: 1 (30825), 2 (63851), 3 (64181), 4 (63850), 5 (48651), 6 (63868), 7 (48624), 8 (44084), 9 (63849), 10 (44983), 11 (44982), 12 (48882), 13 (43408), 14 (64176), 15 (38252), 16 (63405), 17 (38828), 18 (38086), 19 (38485), 20 (45927) ...--..--.----.---. L. Skin-cleaning tools: 1 (43433), 2 (32890), 3 (88755), 4 (43767), 5 (48256), 6 (36520), 7 (44771), 8 (63800), 9 (65353), 10 (63351), 11 (63833), 12 (63666), 13 (387967), 14 (45780), 15 (32885), 16 (EGS err teksto Then Cae ND) ao an oe eso ae oes acer ss ae LI. Nets, snares, and traps: 1 (38622), 2 (33716), 3 (43291), 4 (44255), 5 (126033), 6 (46072), 7 (387651), 8 (63815), 9 (33820), 10 (33812), 11 (126993), 12 (63590), 13 (63590), 14 (63258), 15 (126993), WB (GRU oo eer ange Gon ece ee nce >See Sc One e Seekoaeo Seis LIT. Braining clubs and seal-capturing implements: 1 (63745), 2 (63676), 3 (38476), 4 (38143), 5 (87598), 6 (63270), 7 (63788), 8 (63787), 9 (48503), 10 (48167), 11 (33143), 12 (48561), 13 (45113), 14 (38500), 15 (63777), 16 (44411), 17 (45003), 18 (45005), 19 (45047), 20 (63876), 21 (63781), 22 (44142), 23 (64218), 24 TOS weeeaiabope) 20) (Ga tO) saoa2 = 25m am m2 ie L1II. St Michael hunter casting a seal spear .....-..- --------------- XII Page 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 XIV PiLaTeE LIV. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Small seal spears and lines: 1 (175669), 2 (33980), 3 (36110), 4 (33872), 5 (36103), 6 (37350), 7 (43748). 8 (36081), 9 (175673), 10 (160337) -- LY. Spears and lances: a, Large spears: 1 (33911), 2 (29780), 3 (48150), 4 (33973), 5 (36067), 6 (33888), 7 (45415), 8 (43429). b, Lances: 1 (175672), 2 (48379), 3 (45419), 4 (45431), 5 (37388), 6 (37389). LVI. Hunting and fishing apparatus: a, Float, float-plugs, and mouth- pieces: 1 (37820), 2 (37239), 3 (44627), 4 (36499), 5 (37822), 6 (36498), 7 (43981), 8 (44806), 9 (43509), 10 (44629), 11 (45169), 12 (44305), 13 (43510), 14 (44770), 15 (37329), 16 (36209), 17 (33298), 18 (63340), 19 (44285), 20 (33452), 21 (33451), 22 (36195), 23 (63663), 24 (44284), 25 (37818), 26 (33627), 27 (36209), 28 (44432), 29 (43515), 30 (45126), 31 (63342). b, Cord attachers: 1 (16192), 2 (37054), 3 (37060), 4 (37068), 5 (37824), 6 (37052), 7 (38149), 8 (48817), 9 (37055), 10 (37036), 11 (129271), 12 (44709), 13 (37064), 14 (43624), 15 (33650), 16 (49009), 17 (43382), 18 (33630), 19 (38006), 20 (37218), 21 (37228), 22 (33445), 23 (37057). LVII. Objects used in hunting: a, Lance points, ete.: 1 (48389), 2 (45758), LVIII. LIX. LX. LXI. 3 (37657), 4 (48181), 5 (43870), 6 (88517), 7 (36294), 8 (44051), 9 (37618), 10 (36312), 11 (44217), 12 (37662), 13 (63863), 14 (44321), 15 (126915), 16 (37390), 17 (88459), 18 (38607), 19 (46076), 20 (16173), 21 (33159), 22 (44657), 23 (36333), 24 (37389), 25 (37388), 26 (37581), 27 (37390). b, Spear heads, points, finger-rests, etc. : 1 (44405), 2 (63497), 3 (126912), 4 (16125), 5 (387377), 6 (44699), 7 (44703), 8 (44746), 9 (38529), 10 (48820), 11 (33632), 12 (48471), 13 (63334), 14 (36343), 15 (37951), 16 (44421), 17 (43461), 18 (43461), 19 (48276), 20 (44077), 21 (45171), 22 (43865), 23 (45173), 24 (63842), 25 (63844),26 (63843), 27 (33465), 28 (44812), 29 (45170), 30 (37671), 31 (48293), 32 (33641), 33 (37417), 34 (36097). -.-. -- St Michael man casting a bird spear -..-..---.-.----.-----.------ Bird spears: 1 (36159), 2 (33879), 3 (48387), 4 (48354), 5 (36129), 6 (45426), 7 (33845), 8 (48350), 9 (29852), 10 (33848), 11 (36076) -. Bows: 1 (36038), 2 (36033), 3 (33886), 4 (160541), 5 (45679), 6 (36034), 7 (48374), 8 (33884), 9 (73172), 10 (45736), 11 (36029) -- Hunting and war implements: a, Arrows for large game and: for war: 1 (126990), 2 (1760934), 3 (63584), 4 (176093 d), 5 (45433), 6 (176093b), 7 (129327), 8 (16415), 9 (36179), 10 (16415), 11 (63584), 12 (63584). b, Arrowpoints, strengtheners for hows and quivers, and wrist-guards: 1 (48259), 2 (48974), 3 (63374), 4 (33634), 5 (49065), 6 (48717), 7 (48200), 8 (38530), 9 (63860), 10 (43950), 11 (44078), 12 (63331), 13 (63276), 14 (63328), 15 (63326), 16 (46097), 17 (48446), 18 (63375), 19 (44079), 20 (63755), 21 (48872), 22 (63864), 23 (63753), 24 (86300), 25 (44048), 26 (38450), 27 (24596). c, Bird arrows and quiver: 1 (36140), 2 (176094 a), 3 (45482), 4 (33833), 5 (35821), 6 (33824), 7 (33827), 8 (176095) - - LXII. Boxes for arrowpoints and paints: 1 (38015), 2 (44458), 3 (33019), LXIII. 4 (44450), 5 (48253), 6 (37557), 7 (38475), 8 (24607), 9 (33024), 10 (45514), 11 (24347), 12 (43489), 13 (38336), 14 (387342), 15 (48252) 16\(S7S42), 17 (49480) -< - 20 oe on ne oe ee Objects used with guns and in hunting: 1 (49187), 2 (33209), 3 (44326), 4 (44612), 5 (33210), 6 (44117), 7 (48977), 8 (86323), 9 (44773), 10 (48512), 11 (36407), 12 (43513), 13 (63349), 14 (64197), 15 (37433), 16 (86486), 17 (43923), 18 (43854), 19 (48154), 20 (44772), 21 (44966), 22 (38100), 23 (43490), 24 (48450), 25 (37966), 26 (36490), 27 (37363), 28 (33079), 29 (44963), 30 (44388), 31 (86026) 03214827) 53 (AS480) oso 8 22. 2 Soe ee Page 137 139 162 PiatE LXIV. LXV. LXVI. LXVII. LXVIII. LXIX. LXXI. LXXII. LXXIII. LXXIV. LXXV. LXXVI. LXXVII. ILLUSTRATIONS Hunting helmets, visors, and snow goggles: 1 (44528), 2 (38659), 3 (44330), 4 (88658), 5 (72906), 6 (32945), 7 (63626), 8 (44256), 9 (32942), 10 (461387), 11 (63825), 12 (63269), 13 (48996), 14 (36351), 15 (33186), 16 (37351), 17 (45072), 18 (160337), 19 (44349), 20 (38718), 21 (38711), 22 (38713) ....-..----.------ Nephrite knife sharpener, dagger, and sheath: 1 (48586), 2, 3 (CN GOT2) Sates sees aenoao ss ~2 eee eon es elastase sneer Cord or drag handles: 1 (37693), 2 (44537), 3 (48190), 4 (33620), 5 (63689), 6 (38556), 7 (48567), 8 (44885), 9 (45251), 10 (48666), 11 (45176), 12 (44890), 13 (43970), 14 (33657), 15 (45026), 16 (37384), 17 (46162), 18 (44191), 19 (44151) --.-.-.----------- Ice pick, scoops, and fish spears: 1 (48344), 2 (48343), 3 (33860), 4 (36070), 5 (49051), 6 (49049), 7 (49141), 8 (49142), 9 (36024), SOM BBER Wee a aeis ese aa paneer ace cen pap me corse os Bacrcs Jeccroe Fishing implements: 1 (16303), 2 (44096), 3 (37349), 4 (87348), 5 (63513), 6 (38377), 7 (33037), 8 (33036), 9 (338376), 10 (37946), 11 (45115), 12 (44930), 13 (48298), 14 (37253), 15 (38413), 16 (36378), 17 (37253), 18 (44745), 19 (48852), 20 (63281), 21 (43401), 22 (63265), 23 (33915), 24 (45402), 25 (33816), 26 (45441), 27 (33900), 28 (33899), 29 (33038), 30 (44075), 31 (33915), 32 (63513) Fishhooks and sinkers: 1 (46318), 2 (46264), 3 (37413), 4 (44370), 5 (64199), 6 (45255), 7 (44482), 8 (45261), 9 (49172), 10 (44475), 11 (49172), 12 (44509), 13 (44953), 14 (44508), 15 (64188), 16 (63630), 17 (44125), 18 (48305), 19 (44954), 20 (44493), 21 (63634), 22 (44371), 28 (44480), 24 (44371), 25 (126983), (44939), 27 (44938), 28 (63512), 29 (126984), 30 (38816), 31 (126989), 32 (63897), 33 (126989a) . Objects used in fishing: 1 (45422), 2 (48998), 3 (37347), 4 (48699), 5 (63377), 6 (63737), 7 (63744), 8 (38808), 9 (38867), 10 (127943), 11 (88498), 12 (49148), 13 (32988), 14 (176092), 15 (38825), 16 (GESTS egos cee el eA Re a ey ee ee Setting fish trap through the ice on the Yukon, near Ikogmut.-- Net-making implements: 1 (43967), 2 (49183), 3 (63204), 4 (63303), 5 (48811), 6 (36373), 7 (48539), 8 (44487), 9 (387428), 10 (49004), 11 (48283), 12 (44202), 13 (44996), 14 (63652), 15 (48832), 16 (33176), 17 (33257), 18 (36413), 19 (44385), 20 (44607), 21 (18722), 22 (48460), 23 (44569', 24 (33267), 25 (38276), Dy (A LALO) oe eee ga wnt wen ele moe = mm Net-making implements: 1 (36681), 2 (33050), 3 (37459), 4 (36416), 5 (86398), 6 (44413), 7 (48726), 8 (38662), 9 (37927), 10 (37928), il (126988), 12 (63307), 13 (19408), 14 (44787), 15 (49013), 16 (38211), 17 (48938), 18 (44448), 19 (48286), 20 (63654), 21 (49000), 22 (33095), 23 (44994), 24 (44573), 25 (44463), 26 (45014); 27 (48583);-28'(388501). -_-.---+---------- -----.-- Objects of grass and spruce root: 1 (37603), 2 (57926), 3 (44234), 4 (36190), 5 (38204), 6 (82977), 7 (35962), 8 (32968), 9 (166949), 10 (127890), 11 (176077), 12 (176078), 13 (38467), 14 (32964), 15 (32945) Malemut family with dog sled .-.-...----. -------------------- Model of sled frame with other objects used in transportation: 1 (63587), 2 (63656), 3 (43849), 4 (63371), 5 (127004), 6 (44375), 7 (63361), 8 (49076), 9 (44736), 10 (63829), 11 (63698), 12 (43857), 18 (48725), 14 (16251), 15 (49146), 16 (48104). --..---- Model of umiak with matting sail, (38882) XV age 166 170 173 176 178 184 187 XVI PLaTE LXXVIII LXXIX. LXXX. LXXXI. LXXXII. LXXXIII. LXXXIV. LXXXV. LXXXVI. LXXXVIJ. LXXXVIII. LXXXIX. XC, XCI. XCII. XCIII. XCIV. XCV: XCVI. XCVII. XCVIIL. XCIX. Cc, CL CLI: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Page Model of umiak frame and appurtenances of umiak and kaiak rigging: 1 (45284), 2 (48587), 3 (37016), 4 (37672), 5 (49185), 6 (44443), 7 (37300), 8 (37461), 9 (387301), 10 (387001), 11 (37247), 12 (43538), 13 (35998), 14 (48705), 15 (44711), 16 (38284), 17 (24698), 18 (33407), 19 (44980), 20 (44755), 21 (44531), 22 (386421), 23 (37426), 24 (86424), 25 (37939), 26 (63665), 27 (33219), 28 (45380), 29 (38277), 30 (36392), 31 (33386), 32 (44759), 33 (63878), 34 (127014), 35 (46304), 36 (44758), 37 (48169)5(38) (68883). =~ 2 =~ Sle eee 218 Kaiaks: 1 Nunivak island (76285), 2 Nunivak island (160345), 3 St Michael (166932), 4 King island (160326), 5 Cape Espenberg (129575), 6 Cape Krusenstern (129574)-.....-. 220 Paddies and boat hooks: 1 (33893), 2 (36023), 3 (43347), 4 (36022), 5 (45408), 6 (73169), 7 (86071), 8 (36057), 9 (45406), SON CEE) Rea hos Soa oonodo ait SSoede pay agestiobo coe 223 Siren) Koch hn LC) aU oes onencsc sree oacces Sie conom= see 245 Winter view Of RaZDiMBSIcy: cect aan. (eee ee eeeoe . 2aT Eskimo dwellings: a, House at Plover bay. 0b, Noatak sum- HII) 655 sooses soe pceees cob ees ose ae asec 259 Women of ‘Plover: bay, (Siberia. -22252--)025=- sase-qns~aee) 200 Summer camp at Cape Lisburne .....--.-.-...--------2---- 263 Tobacco and snuff boxes and snuft-making implements: 1 (48797), 2 (88334), 3 (48247), 4 (6580), 5 (36268), 6 (33013), 7. (36270), 8 (36276), 9 (35956), 10 (36620), 11 (36267), 12 (48839), 13 (386282), 14 (36281), 15 (36284), 16 (16094), 17 (37559), 18 (36280), 19 (43824), 20 (87857), 21 (37539), 22 (36260), 23 (43952), 24 (36274), 25 (44957), 26 (37540), 27 (1636), 28 (33097), 29 (7074), 30 (48737) ...--.-..---.--.- 270 Fungus ash boxes and tobacco bags: 1 (24744), 2 (37907), 3 (48255), 4 (64186), 5 (44059), 6 (38665), 7 (64187), 8 (63721), 9 (44960), 10 (38472), 11 (36249), 12 (48559), 13 (88664), 14 (S1858)) at Se ates eae ealcece ee ona tee ieee sae 272 Pipes and pipe mold: 1 (44393), 2 (38785), 3 (63511), 4 (48172), 5 (38790), 6 (63785), 7 (38788), 8 (45327), 9 (43963), 10 (32869), 11 (48171), 12 (43999), 13 (48076), 14 (49192) ...... 280 Ivory pipestems: 1 (7506), 2 (2292), 3 (154073), 4 (2282)....-. 283 Snuff tubes: 1 (44471), 2 (56807), 3 (38435), 4 (37498), 5 (36821), 6 (38039), 7 (38042), 8 (36818), 9 (36817), 10 (36789), 11 (37316), 12 (35978), 13 (49026), 14 (86825), 15 (37811) .-.---. 284 Graveyard iatéRaz bing key a ce -5= sie inom sere cite are ae 317 MSkimoyplaterarmM Orn Soec whee ocnnemteysinelgae Esiosin ists sarasota 330 Dolls: 1 (44871), 2 (24869), 3 (64209), 4 (37707), 5 (36216), 6 (38577), 7 (63518), 8 (63378). ..-------- is ssa eee 342 Snow knives: 1 (36377), 2 (38359), 3 (37285), 4 (36578), 5 (43501), 6 (127407), 7 (48890), & (127398), 9 (36514), 10 (36591), 11 (36568), 12 (37425), 13 (36555) .....-..---.-.-- 344 Masks: 1 (48989), 2 (48985), 3 (33131), 4 (43779) .... ...------- 396 Masks):) 1 (33108)-2) (8310f) ee: ace) 2 2 en oa eeeeeee 398 GR: N@BIO) eo oas pen oercort ee srmomona csonre ean oo a> oc 401 Masks: 1 (49020), 2 (64242), 3 (38733) ....-.-.---.----:------ 404 Masks: 1 (64248), 2 (38862), 3 (88645), 4 (88811)....-..-..---- 406 Masks: 1 (64260), 2 (33111), 3 (33105), 4 (33107) .....-.------- 408 Masks ali(G3162)s2i(37G00)l een twin 2 2 3-1 ee eee 410 Masks: 1 (33126), 2 (48913), 3 (37864), 4 (64238) .........----- 412 PuateE CIII. CIV. CV. CVI. CVII. CVIII. CIX. CX. CXI. CXII. CXIII. CXIV. CXV. CXVI. CXVII. CXVIII. CXIX. CXX. CXXI. CXXII. CXXIII. CXXIV. CXXV. CXXVI. CXXVII. CXXVIII. CXXIX. CXXX. CXXXI. CXXXII. CXXXIII. CXXXIV. CXXXV. CXXXVI. CXXXVII. CXXXYVIII. CXXXIX. CXL. CXLI. CXLII. CXLII. CXLIV. CXLV. CXLVI. CXLVII. CXLVIII. CXLIX. CL. CLI. 18 ETH ILLUSTRATIONS Finger masks and maskoids: 1 (1621), 2 (64258), 3 (37895), 4 (64252), DCO LaLa Ol (L206) pce nae te = 28 ects meee sea aaa eis tok Finger masks: 1 (24746), 2 (38648), 3, 4 (36231)....-...--.-.-.---- Finger masks: 1 (38451), 2 (33125), 3 (33121)....-....---..------- Belts and armlet: 1 (87921), 2 (64221), 3 (176071). ...--....--.----- Objects etched with mythologie figures: a, Spear rest with figures of thunderbirds catching whales. (48169.) 0b, Ivory pipestem with etched figures of the man-worm and the pHayabes kyo bpees lh on (Gy: NOY GD Ee eeen a See ce eecs ce hemce se scien ace aoc GRR INTE = eRe eitleth alt myiasis Saale ele WE cote sls el a a ale Alabaniny NOrbnerd: portions. ose eae =e en eee) ee ee ee PNONURENTNL (ae create een we an hae oy ees ae a eee alee ae ean eel UAW EA OIE TE or ee Me nie teint seni atcals cl ageman Me ails sl satssiae bonis Snell e PE ISAS Loe ie ois re sienna oneness mn ea ean are inte ote ee Mai era aS er epee cree fac Seaver a no mite aa te eae ielaypis ate ete mim ow seat pie (CUMIN Zeb ol yb ee eS ss ae es Se Se sae Ono ee coosce Gooe California 2 (with inset special map) ..--.-.----.-----.--------- Gilorsde te beeen weer eeemis onary eatin = aces Oot aes pees, § WOOT ALLO Ne oe eee erase esta nai Siatoie are pct n Sip femrmsciae bates NorthsDakota 2nd south Dakota tl) 22235 522.22 2520. eee eee mem North Dakota aud south Dakota ai esscae - fe cc ne oactn ecm. cine = North Dakota and South Dakota 3 -.....-..--..-+----=----.----- TUT) 27 cision hSia go HELE pa Sees ae oc eee BASES Saeco reas TGR GWE pacha sation OHS SOREL SERO Se AcE Coe ee GES taeecore TOC imdnwasdetatle sete mere etesaee es tare = fale cin cley= inreeeinem = a Indian Territory and Oklahoma 1..-.....----..----------- ------ Indian Territory and Oklahoma 2....-...------------------+----- Indian Territory and Oklahoma 3...---..------.---------------- Rea aS eee ee ae rere eta ee ee eee aeeintes aetna TL Oy TES VEE neyo 6 EEE don OSE aes ces Bese Oeoe Gees EAS pESIpeEerse Wire higamt Ile sae nea aol == eee ewan em a lee = Michigan 2) ose en eo.ee nance as <= ena ose ncio= mown el=mimimnn Michigan, Saginaw bay to Lake Erie .----...-------------------- Michigan, region about Mackinaw and Detroit.-.----..---.------ INEEGCTO ill Aaa a cuscaooeSeed meses Saree EN esereGoser aeesinse pemeae IWIN OU ey ese eee SSS SC SEE See SSD een ee aes Minnesota, northern portion.......-....-----.------------------ MUSHIRS Ip lthe ae Peete easels alne Sees se aS a meme cla = = Sacre lam ee es Setar eit ares mee: he male clete rel = wim iell= sol IMiSHOULICRE Eee ee eerie alist ee Sie eter cee sig tenes WE EE Behn bans ROMS gon ae Aae eee eee emeirear Detar Mon tamnaiatiscee mses eens oats osaks Heme seb esie- cote esiccee seem INGDIas a eee a eens ee oot aan else a. ae olsen em oe ner Nebraska, eastern portion .......----------------- -------------- ING VC die eee ess wa cline aie See Sinn oe oo elena (oes ala New» Méxicoslmeers beso rarest a coca nc cence cemcewlom=a=necneacms II et BH SOOMARMTeEwWWHS H Ss) a WR ER eR eee SOEBDN ADU w bo bo XVII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY No. PLATE CLIT Now) Mexico) 2222522: osestesesememe sen neneee aces ee eee ae 45 CLI. New Mexico’and Texas; detaill~=---2- -saeenean = see ee eae eee 46 MCLDV2- New" York 22 2/2-< 5:25 22 Soe ee ee ee ee 47 CLV. North Carolina, portion Of-222 2) oa. cas= sons. = ose nfseetoe eee eee 48 CLV. Ohio .222... 2222.55.22 t0 eo besleaeie sane semeescceneseesaaee Bon Sane 49 CLVII.. Ohio, detail... 2.25202. ce eee eres se ccaache esa reese ease ues 50 CT VALU Ore gr ora ee ee ee fea ert re 51 CIUX? Oregon 2/2 pee 2 a anceceene a ee eeeeeee e el ee ene eee 52 CLX.: Pennsylivaniay t.2 7.22212 st aces ee ee oe on eens oer eee eee eae 53 CLXI. Tennessee and portions of bordering states -..........-.-------- 54 CLI: Tennessee; detail; --- te scee eee ete. on ake eeeae eee ee eee eeee 55 CLXIII. Tennessee and Alabama, portions of.....---..-..---------------- 56 CLXIV.., Texas, portion.0f .5 =. 20252 es See ceeeses ses e ee elsoeee aces sane 57 CERY. ‘Utell... o25 sskloeccee as oc Sees demas doles locies Sete new emeec eames: 58 CLAY TUitah 2 (22 ee Gs- = ota ses seen en ene seaeot eNom see sac ae ae wee 59 CLV. Washinton (<3 2 seen toca seas e ee ene ante ee 60 COX VIN. Washinetonr2'.f.5 tes +2 ose se ce aie see ok eae eee see eee eeee 61 CLXIX, Washington, along Admiralty inlet ...-..--2:2.22--5-----------. 62 CLS Washington, morbhwesternecnsasa-—.aaennaasnieee een ee nene ae 63 CLAXST Wisconsin os sana sc ome esa aa eet ere nee era a ae 64 CLAS Wisconsinie. so) aee = soe cee coe se ean eee ee ee ee 65 CI XESS WWyomin ote. 2 S228 sc seca eeee me aeayee cee eae ae oneteee nents 66 CLA XLV. Wyoming 222.2 asec eke anes een oak aieaien Se 2 = teetesio stn amines oe 67 Figure 1. Scheme of color on masks and mask-like objects, grave boxes, and — totem markings iF. 2-2 <3 tue So: = See See eee eie enews oe cere 26 2. Man’s hood from Kofligunugumut. (38657).....-...---.---------- 32 3, Mos-skinieapic-sesene seine = osc 22: sees Geos eee eheEee ernie. BB 4. Man’s hood of reindeer and marmot skin and mink fur. (37903). -- 33 5. Man’s wolf-head summer hood from Point Hope. (64270)...--..--. 34 6, Karflaps, “(B7398) etee oer echa ee steel eee ee en er eee 37 7. Fish-skin clothing bags: 1 (87631), 2 (37401) .-.--...-.-.---..----- 43 8. Clothing bag of sealskain., “(48099) 0222 ae aoe one Beer e d4 9. King island man with labrets of lignite. .........--..-:--.-------- 47 10. Kotzebne sound Malemut men and women...---...---.--------.--- 49 11. Tattooing on women. (a, South of Yukon month; b, East cape, Siberia; c, Head of Kotzebue sound).-...------ Se tals espe meta x 50 12. Tattooing on a St Lawrence island girl -....-.-....-...----.------ 50 13. Tattooing on a woman of St Lawrence island ...........---.-.----- 51 14. Tattooing on a woman’s arm, East cape, Siberia...---..----.------ 51 15. Ciredlar forms of tattooing. sents. cae eee eee ene eee 52 16. Hair combs: 1 (36374), 2 (48260), 3 (126985), 4 (45484), 5 (44765), Bi (OST 22) ix Sa acme Baceee cata a ae Maree a= eae a aor 57 Ui wLvory beliifastener: a(44523) eet ee see eee ee eee noe ae oeieaee 61 18) amp from: Point) Bartow... 2. 2-.2- cscs ee See eee nese ae eee 63 19. Ivory carving representing a lamp and stand...--....-...----.---- 63 20;7Marrowispoont,, (C1519) i222 255-2 ere ne see eam cosa Sosa eee 69 21. Snow beaters: 1:(48995), 2 (49175), 3 (48161), 4 (44998), 5 (48162)... 77 22. Snow shovels: 1 (36973), 2 (49143)..-----.......-.---.- ee eee 78 23.) Mallets): 1) (48999) 5:2 (48909), /3/(48885)- =. 22. . 22. 2 =e eee eee 79 24, Wood chiselsi: (43737) ,2(3689T) 2-250. J--u2 cist cee ie oe eens 87 25. Knife sharpeners: 1 (48858), 2 (33047), 3 (46109), 4 (63529), 5 (48817) . 90 26. Flint lakers: 1 (63786), 2 (64153), 3 (87600), 4 (37615), 5 (48554). ...- 91 27. Wooden) trinket) box. a(S090b) (ee sac s\22-2 =>. =; oo 5 ae eee ee 96 28. ‘Trinket box: @(@90%5) canes nie sacias « os osc .ice ce dceaee eens 98 Figure 29, 30. ol. 32. 33. 34 35. 36. 37. 38 39. 40. 41, 42, . 45. 55. 56. ILLUS Boot-sole creaser. (7521) .- Diner -uwisterss (44688) 02325 ese TRATIONS Sinew spinner from St Lawrence island...................----.-... Stretched sealskin ....__..- Model of a deer snare. (48208) Etching on ivory showing deer snares. (7521)...--..--..--...-... CERTCLETETURG? "(GREET Ne IS a are anna este) a tA bh 9 oy cies Fox or wolf trap with sinew spring. (7510)......-...---.----..-. Metnrmiotiimanran (S146) ome nt ese ee eye ike eee ee noes LN Sealskin float. (129381, old number 48330)...........--...-------- Condtapiacher 1 (708) tern nater eee ane ee = eee ee een Cord attacher, obverse and reverse. (7509)........--.-----.------ Spearpoints for birds and fish: 1 (38499), 2 (38783), 3 (44574), 4 (43361), 5 (126916), 6 (63333 Throwing sticks: 1 (49001), Ni (45198 (4537) oes ee oe ee 2 (38670), 3 (33897), 4 (36013), 5 (24355), 6 (45396), 7 (49002), 8 (168581), 9 (166946), 10 (15644), 11 (36018)... . Fish arrows: 1 (160341), 2 (43680), 3 (49044), 4 (48340), 5 (48338), 6 (63578), 7 (48341), 8 (49037), 9 (33858), 10 (36161) .-..........-... . Ivory ornaments for hunting helmets: 1 (37419),2 (38325), 3 (36477), 4 (49014), 5 (32954), 6 (36428), 7 (36408), 8 (43808)............---. Corditan dle ofayonywm iol ()psacect sass eects es ee ee COREE NS Nearer a Cen Wooden net float. (63505) .- Ivory marlinspike. (16143) 66. Snowshoe from St Lawrence 67. Ice staff. (45424) ........_- 685 Leerstalte s(olte)ecn ease ee 69 . Mesh of dip-net made of sinew. (48923) ................---.---..- - Mesh of dip-net made of wil - Mesh, float, and sinker of herring seine. (33871) ..........---.---- . Herring seine with stretcher at one end, and with float and sinker. lowe Wenlies a(CSH Pp) Aik oe ole ee ake . Sealskin-cord herring seine with stone sinker. (176090) ......---- . Marlinspike with bone point. (33100).-..........-....-.-..-...-- . Wooden paint box. (38338) - Wooden paint box. (35954) . Clay pot from Hotham inlet 2. Sled used on the Siberian shore of Bering strait. (Gia 0}21:9) nies ele, 3. Snowshoes from Norton bay. . Snowshoe from Cape Darby. D. Snowshoe from:Tey cape. (63604) 20. 2225-62. eee eno eee cee es -n- (CEN ees See | ee (48092) ...--- 348. shires ete, se eet SIAN cee (GS280) eee oe ame ace eens = . Ice creepers: 1 and la (63881), 2 (46260), 3 (44254), 4 (126982), 5 (C2012) Ree eee eee et eRe Ae ea) an ek oe ee Hope) ee eeaces ate esa . Kaiak paddles from Point Barrow and King island: 1 (89246), 2 (160826)0 tose eee cb aoe ath Ua ie er os SOM ARI, TAY 5. . Ivory spear guard for kaiak. . [vory spear guard for kaiak. - Plan of house at St Michael GFGORE YEN sa ees ose ee eee (UTEDRBDN i oias soa: eee one XxX Figure 75. 76. 77. 78. 79: 80. 81. 82. 83. 84, 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94, 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104, 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120, 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY . Page Storehouse at Sti Michael. 2.004. 2.25. Soc coae bewcnctaceccesseeses ete Kashim«at St'Michael 25 ie. toe soe sec Seis oe oa a eeer eeeeeies 246 Section! of kashim at StiMichael a2 2 eaciee ee saan eee eee 247 Section’ of kashim/at Mushunnlecso--oeeecceee aaccee ceaaee se ekieeee 250 Carved lamp isupport':2222. 0 2 sassee = cen eee eae ee eeeaecece sence toe Section of house ‘at Tenituk 22-5 2. Pee sae aeedesnsasceeses | 208 Section of /honseratlenitulses pees ace e coee nate eet eee 253 Sectionio£ house/at CapeiNome a. = a eee sr aoe

-1s aoe eel 344 Figure 130. 181, 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154, 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. ILLUSTRATIONS XxI Page MeCiani Cal GOleme (O06 IL) tase quasar nese anc cee eee ecwcs neescicnes 344 Moy bear withrdogharmess, (63644)2<- 2-2 s2sscs .c<.<-02-2-2ce5e- 345 oydossandisled. me (GS0e")) s-<---aeecaao cons sence sence seeds ce-ins 345 UGK eit ol CRED asda aeeeeer osesearasoar ASSES Sone aR RenS OEE 346 Toy kaiak from St Lawrence island. (63449)...................- 346 ivoryamareotumaniand beat. (Stto0)t-2-- ssiece cose ee ss2-- 52 346 MDramph and lesup (Gti) kocsis = Seercne ose estan meee aceon 351 Wromitandles (Gss0S) aot sss ss cmos eowet a sea Seceecn te eemeulae a 351 Ivory baton for beating time on a stick. (45282).............-... 352 Wand used in “Asking” festival. (33804).........--.-.-.------- 359 Plan of kashim during mortuary ceremony....-....-...---..---- 366 Maskoid representing a seal-head with rising air bubbles. (33115). 414 Eagle-feather wand used in dances. (49061).......-.-..---..---- 414 Eagle-feather wand used in dances. (45446)..-.-...---.---.----- 415 Armlet worn during dances. (45336)..-...-..------------.-----. 416 Loonskin fillet worn in dances. (49079) ....-.-..--------.-..---- 417 Remdeer-skim) Mlletiws (SO19a) seme seen see eases nen ves cis eee 417 Woman with ermine fillet and eagle-feather wands.--.-.-.....---- 418 WirstleitromMcoomuts © \(S6198) cscs 2s sakise cee: eae daa 419 Armletwerm wo dances:, \(4869D)neso2-ceo- cee -e nce o-- cee 420 Herchsrom ay Malemot Kaiak? See tees2 6c 2 eo. seees soe 436 Graphite fetich used in right-whale fishing. (48384)........---- 439 Witaleietiencotewoods 1(G4220\ ta cece pte caiscn cine ose cis sce ae 440 Shamansidolltetich se (Siats) esac aceaes tn anos eee scl eclssae sos 441 Drawing of a composite animal in a wooden tray. (38679)-..---- 444 Drawing of the pdl-rat-yik in a wooden tray. (45494)...--..-... 444 Drawing of the pal-rat-yik onan umiak. (160261)....----....--.. 445 Ivory carving of a composite animal, (44143)...........-......- 446 Ivory carving representing the man-worm, (43550)--...----.---- 446 Ivory.carving of a mythic animal. (7518)..--.-------.---------. 447 Ivory drag handle representing a composite animal. (7511)-..-.- 447 Ivory carving of a mermaid-like creature. (7520)...-.......-.-- 447 Ivory float handle with mermaid-like figure. (7514)....-.....-.- 448 Carving representing a mermaid-like creature. (36336)..---.---- 448 Ivory carving showing the face of a walrus inua. (48561)....-.-. 448 Drawing of a mythic creature in a wooden tray. (38642)........ 448 RPO OF VE DIRECTOR XXIII EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY By J. W. Powe tt, Director INTRODUCTION Researches relating to the American Indians have been carried forward during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1897, in accordance with the act of Congress making provision ‘for continuing researches among the American Indians, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution,” approved June 11, 1896. The operations have been conducted in accordance with a plan submitted on June 13,1896. The field work of the regu- lar officers of the Bureau has extended into Arizona, Indian Territory, lowa, Maine, New Brunswick, New Mexico, New York, Oklahoma, and Ontario, while operations have been car- ried on by special agents in California, Colorado, Idaho, Oregon, Utah, and Washington state, as well as in Argentina, British Columbia, Chile, and Mexico. The office researches have dealt with material from most of the states and from various other portions of the American continents. A classification of ethnic science has grown up in connection with the classification of the aboriginal tribes through the opera- tions of the Bureau, and this has been perfected from year to year. During recent years, and particularly during the fiscal year just closed, the researches have been shaped by this classi- fication of the subject-matter of the science. The primary lines xxV . XXVI BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY of investigation relate to (1) Arts or esthetology, (2) Industries or technology (including archeology), (3) Institutions or soci- ology, (4) Languages or philology, and (5) Myths and opinions or sophiology, as well as the requisite classificatory work involv- ing researches in somatology and psychology. The end of research in the Bureau of American Ethnology is the discovery of the relations of the aboriginal American tribes among each other and among the peoples of the world. The simpler relations are ascertained by direct observation and defined by the aid of generalization; and continued observa- tion and generalization have led to the establishment of prin- ciples which aid in defining the more complex relations. The salient principles developed through the researches have been set forth in previous reports; they serve to define the general science of man, to distinguish the essentially human charac- teristics from those of the lower animals, and to outline the primary categories of activities which characterize mankind. The recognition of the essentially human activities affords a means for classifying tribes and peoples. The classification in terms of activities represents a decided advance beyond the plane of classification in terms of physical characteristics, and raises the science of man to the level of the older sciences in their modern aspects—e. g., to the plane occupied during recent years by physical astronomy or physical geology. At the same time the classification leads to the recognition of the lines of human development, and serves to define their trend; and thereby it prepares the way to clear comprehension and accurate definition of the natural stages in human develop- ment, i. e., the four principal culture grades. Since each new recognition of relation extends the view of the student, the definition of the culture grades reacts on knowledge of the primary activities, and conduces to still more accurate and extended survey of the course of activital growth. The lines of development discerned among the American aborigines were set forth in terms of the activities in the last report; it was there shown that in each of the five categories the activities developed along convergent lines. For the pres- ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXVII ent it suffices to observe that the conclusions have been veri- fied and extended through the researches of the last year. As heretofore, the special researches are commonly initiated in the field and completed in the office, giving rise to (1) field research (including exploration), and (11) office research, which together constitute the original scientific work of the Bureau; while the demands of the public service and the needs of the collaborators give rise to (III) work in descriptive ethnology, (IV) bibliographic work, (V) work in collecting, (VI) publica- tion, and (VII) concomitant administrative and miscellaneous work. FIELD RESEARCH AND EXPLORATION At the beginning of the fiscal year the Director was engaged in a reconnoissance of shell mounds and other antiquities on the coast of Maine; here he was joined by Mr Frank Hamil- ton Cushing, and a number of shell mounds were surveyed and excavated with suecess. Later in the season the Passama- quoddy Indians still living in the vicinity were studied with some care, and their industries, especially in house building, were investigated; subsequently some of the older men of the tribe were employed to collect material for and to erect an aboriginal wigwam, which was afterward transferred to the Zoological Park at Washington. During July and August Dr J. Walter Fewkes was occu- pied in making surveys and excavations of ruins, chiefly in Arizona, with the primary object of collecting prehistoric mate- rial for the enrichment of the National Museum, but with the secondary purpose of investigating those activities of the abo- rigines recorded in the produets of their handiwork still extant. His operations were notably successful. Early in July Mrs Matilda Coxe Stevenson proceeded to Zuni pueblo for the purpose of investigating certain ceremo- nies not adequately studied hitherto, to the end that they might be incorporated in her monograph on the Zuni Indians. She remained throughout half of sthe fiscal year, and was able to complete her researches in a satisfactory manner. Incident- XXVIII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY ally, she obtained at Zuni and Sia a number of sacred masks used in the religious ceremonies of the people of those pueblos, which have been transferred to the National Museum. Toward the end of July Dr Albert S. Gatschet repaired to eastern Maine and adjacent porticns of New Brunswick in search of linguistic material among the tribesmen still living on St Croix river. His mission was successful. A large body of vocables, paradigms, and texts representing the Passama- quoddy dialects of the Algonquian linguistic stock was secured, and he was able also to trace definitely, for the first time, the derivation of many of the peculiar place names of eastern Maine. From the middle of August until the middle of December Mr J. N. B. Hewitt was occupied in collecting material repre- senting the languages and mythology of the Iroquoian Indians located in central New York and southern Ontario. His work was eminently productive, yielding a large amount of material of exceptional use for comparative studies in the philology and sophiology of the Indians. Toward the end of September Mr James Mconey repaired to Indian Territory and Oklahoma, where he spent several months in collecting information and material relating chiefly to the Kiowa Indians. The primary purpose of the trip was research concerning the peculiar heraldic system of the tribe; another purpose was the continuation of study of the use of peyote or “‘mescal” (a toxic plant corresponding measurably with hashish) in the ceremonies of the Kiowa, Apache, and other Indians; later in the season advantage was taken of his presence on the ground to make a collection representing the Kiowa camp-cirele for exhibition at the Tennessee Centennial Exposition at Nashville. In April Mr W J McGee visited the Muskwaki Indian settle- ment near Tama, Iowa, with the object of beginning a special study of the social organization of this little-known tribe. Although preliminary only, his operations were successful. Incidentally he collected a quantity of aboriginal material for the National Museum. Early in 1896 Mr J. B. Hatcher, of Princeton University, was ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXIX commissioned as a special agent of the Bureau to obtain photo- graphs and other data pertaining to the aborigines of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. He reached the field and commenced operations in the course of a few months, and reports of prog- ress were received early in the fiscal year. His field work was completed in June. The photography was moderately suc- cessful only, but the pictures were supplemented by a small though interesting collection of objects representing the handi- work of these southernmost representatives of the American aborigines. The success of the work, due primarily to Mr Hatcher’s energy and intrepidity, was promoted through the courtesy of various officials of Argentina and Chile, special eredit being due to Dr Estanislao Zeballos, formerly minister plenipotentiary from Argentina to the United States. On December 17, 1894, Dr Willis EK. Everette was given an honorary commission to collect linguistic and other material among the aborigines of Oregon, Washington, British Colum- bia, and western Mexico, and from time to time he has sub- mitted valuable linguistic material produced by his researches in these provinces. Especially noteworthy contributions dur- ing the year relate to the Téné or Athapascan Indians of Oregon. Early in September Mr E. T. Perkins, jr., of the United States Geological Survey, reported the discovery of certain remarkable Indian carvings in Snake River valley, Idaho; and Mr Perkins was temporarily detailed, through the courtesy of Honorable C. D. Walcott, Director of the Survey, to make studies and photographs representing these carvings. The work was completed about the close of October. Early in 1897 Mr H. 8. Gane, of the Geological Survey, while on a temporary furlough, made a trip through the San Juan country in southwestern Colorado and northwestern New Mexico, under a commission from the Bureau, for the purpose of reconnoitering and photographing prehistoric works. His notes and pictures were duly transmitted and have been found of special value. The information and material obtained by means of these field operations have been utilized in large part in the prepara- XXX BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY tion of reports; other portions have been added to the archives for use in prospective investigations, while most of the objective material has already been arranged in the National Museum in such manner as to be accessible for study. The scientific results of the work are set forth in other paragraphs. OFFICE RESEARCH Work in EstHEeTo.tocy During the greater part of the year Mr Frank Hamilton Cushing was employed in arranging and cataloguing the remarkable collection of relics exhumed from salt marshes in western Florida during the previous fiscal year and in prepar- ing his report for the press. The objects collected embrace a wide variety of domestic implements and utensils, weapons for use in war and the chase, fabrics for apparel and fishing, appurtenances to water craft, etc. In addition, there were many objects such as are used in primitive ceremony, compris- ing elaborately painted and carved masks and effigies. “Many of the industrial devices are painted and carved in a manner remarkable for wealth of imagery and delicacy of execution. An important part of Mr Cushing’s work was comparative study of the designs, in form and color, found in connection with the ceremonial and other objects; and substantial progress ras made in the interpretation of the designs. Most of these are zoic. The bear, the wolf, the wild-cat, the woodpecker, and different water birds and aquatic animals are represented in carvings and paintings with a fidelity to detail which ren- ders them not only readily identifiable but really artistic. Some of the effigies approach the natural size, and are attached to other articles in such manner as to indicate that they were worn as masks or crests, probably in dramatic ceremonies analogous to those of the Indians of the pueblos and of other primitive peoples. These elaborate carvings are associated with wooden masks, shaped to fit the face, bearing painted and carved designs of corresponding character, but more or less conventionized in form and color. The realistic or partially conyentionized forms displayed on the masks are imitated not ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXXI only on other ceremonial objects but also on the industrial devices, and the degree of conventionism increases as the representations are reduced in size or distorted to fit forms determined by various conditions, so that an unbroken series of stages in the development of convention may be traced all the way from the essentially realistic representation of the animal head to the design carved on the arrowshaft or toma- hawk handle, which, at first sight, would seem to be decorative merely. The sequence displayed in these esthetic designs is, indeed, paralleled in other collections; but the remarkably rich assemblage of aboriginal handiwork from the Floridian salt marshes, in which such perishable materials as wood, bone, plant fiber, feather work, paint, and even leathern thongs are preserved, is especially noteworthy for the completeness of the sequence and the large number of links represented. Accordingly the series of objects would seem to establish the view already advocated by different collaborators of the Bureau that higher esthetic decoration originates in symbol- ism, which may gradually be transformed through conven- tionizing, either in the interests of economy or to meet other industrial conditions. During the previous year Dr J. Walter Fewkes made a col- lection of fictile ware and other aboriginal material among the ruins of Arizona and New Mexico, which was regarded as rich beyond precedent. During the year just closed he made explo- rations yielding astill larger body of material, which has been subjected to preliminary study, and has already been arranged in the Museum. As during the preceding year, fictile ware was the predominant material. This ware is characterized by symbolic and decorative designs, represented sometimes by modeling or by inscribed figures, but more commonly by colors; and for the first time material has been obtained in sufficient quantity to afford presumptively complete series of designs for certain groups of aborigines at certain periods antedating Caucasian invasion, so that various stages in the development of esthetic designs may be traced nearly as definitely as in the Florida collection. In general, the course of development traced in this way is parallel to that made out on the Florida XXXII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY coast. The course of development is from the essentially (though often crudely) symbolic to the conventional, and through various stages of conventionizing to forms and colors which, at first sight, would be regarded as decorative merely; accordingly the collection is important as a source of new light on the development of artistic concepts. At the same time, that course of developmental succession which it so clearly attests has been used successfully in tracing certain movements of the aboriginal population. It has long been known that, while most of the traditions of the Pueblo peoples recount migrations in a southerly or southeasterly direction, there are subordinate indications of a northerly or northeasterly drift from snowless lowlands or from saline and shell-yielding shores, and at least one of the collaborators (Mr McGee) has found indications of a culture migration from the once populous val- leys of Sonora, with adjacent refuges in the form of entrenched mountains, northward into the region of cliff houses, whence the mesa-protected pueblos seem to have sprung. Now, Dr Fewkes is able to trace a similar northward drift of the esthetic designs characterizing the aboriginal pottery of the Pueblos. This application of the researches in the development of esthetics among the American Indians is essentially new and is highly suggestive. Some of the results of the work are already incorporated in reports prepared for publication; others are held for comparison and elaboration as the research progresses. While in Zuni, and afterward at Sia, Mrs Matilda Coxe Stevenson gave special attention to the masks and other regalia used in ceremonies, and, as already noted, obtained a number of especially sacred masks. She found the ceremonial regalia to be essentially symbolic. The masks themselves rep- resent zoic deities, and their appurtenances are designed to express real or ideal attributes of the animals deified, while the associated regalia and insignia, including apparel and the paint applied to faces, bodies, and extremities, are symbolic of similar or related concepts. All of the symbols are conven- tionized in greater or less degree, yet the accompaniments of voice and gesture, and even the terms of the ritual, are designed ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXXIITI to emphasize the symbolism, i. e., to concentrate attention on the idea symbolized and divert attention from the conven-. tionism. Primarily the ceremonies and regalia are dramaturgic, and the use of the more important regalia is limited to the cere- monial representation; yet to some extent the mystical or sacred characteristics are supposed to cling to the actors in the mystical drama, and in some measure affect their every- day life; sometimes the actors are thereby strengthened in their positions as shamans, and they, as well as others, may continue to wear the less important regalia, or carry about their persons miniature symbols of the specially deific objects. In this way the devotional sentiment and the symbolism in which it is crystallized are expressed in everyday life and commonplace manners; and the devotion and symbolism find some expression in ordinary handiwork and still clearer expression in the more unusual handiwork involved in making and decorating the many articles connected with ceremonial rites. The observations are highly significant., in that they indicate the characteristics and the dominant influence of devotional sentiment among primitive peoples; they are espe- cially useful, too, in that they aid in interpreting the symbolism depicted on prehistoric relics and corroborate the interpretations already rendered. In 1877 Mr E. W. Nelson, an acute observer and trained naturalist, was commissioned to make collections for the United States National Museum in Alaska and adjacent territory in North America and Asia. In connection with other duties, he was authorized to make ethnologic studies and collections among the Eskimo and other Indians at the cost of the Bureau soon after its institution. He spent some years among the tribes, obtaining vocabularies and other linguistic material and making large collections of esthetic and industrial handiwork. He also prepared a preliminary draft of a report on the eth- nology of the region covered by his operations. On his return to Washington the collections were transferred to the National Museum, but failure of health prevented him from completing the preparation of the report, so that the collections have hith- 18 ETH——III XXXIV BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY erto remained without adequate explanation. During the pres- ent fiscal year he returned to Washington from a prolonged absence, chiefly in Mexico, and at once undertook the com- pletion of the long-delayed report. Through the courtesy of Museum officials the collection was brought together for renewed study and the preparation of necessary illustrations. Mr Nelson’s original manuscripts were placed in his hands and, before leaving the city in April, he had practically com- pleted a general paper with illustrations of typical objects rep- resenting the handicraft of the hyperborean tribes with whom he came in contact during his sojourn about the Arctic border. The memoir is particularly valuable in its full description and illustration of the decorative designs characterizing Eskimo art. The Eskimo are distinctive in many respects, but in none more strongly than in their artistic development; they are clever draftsmen and fairly deft carvers of wood, bone, and ivory; many of their implements, weapons, and utensils are graved with artistic devices or sculptured in artistic forms, and the graving and carving apparently represent a highly conven- tionized symbolism. Mr Nelson’s motive is accurate descrip- tion and faithful illustration of objects rather than analysis and synthetic arrangement of designs; yet his memoir is a rich repository of material from which the course of development represented by Eskimo art may be traced. It is appended to this report. Work 1n TECHNOLOGY While in contact with the Passamaquoddy Indians on the coast of Maine, the Director and Mr Cushing had opportunity for studying certain primitive industries yet retained by this partially accultured people. Conspicuous among these were the industries connected with the building and furnishing of domicils. The long persistence of domiciliary industries among these Indians may be explained, at least in part, by the fact that the birch-bark wigwams are remarkably serviceable and economical, so that they were only slowly displacéd by the little more commodious and much more expensive houses of civilization. At the same time, there are strong indications of ceremonial observances in connection with the erection of ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXXV habitations, which doubtless serve to prolong the retention of the aboriginal type. There is a single model for the dwellings of this branch of the Algonquian Indians. The structure is rectangular in plan, about 12 by 15 feet, with a narrow doorway in one end. The end walls stand vertical, while the sides, after rising vertically for 5 or 6 feet, are continued upward to form a curved roof, interrupted by an orifice over the center of the earthen floor for the exit of smoke. The framework is of light arbor-vite poles, neatly cut and shaped by stone implements and fire, the uprights set in the ground and lashed to the horizontal pieces by means of withes or splints. The walls and roofs are made from large sections of birch-bark, carefully overlapped shingle- wise and skilfully sewn together with slender splints of ash. The door is a dressed deerskin attached to a light crossbar, while the smoke-hole is provided with a shifting wind-guard which may be so adjusted as to draw out the smoke and exclude most of the rain or snow in case of storm. The wigwam con- structed in this way is practically wind proof and nearly rain proof, strong enough to resist the force of storms and the weight of winter's snow, and is capacious and commodious in almost the highest possible degree in proportion to the material employed in construction. It lasts five years or more without repairs, and with occasional repairs as needed may last a generation. As a means of studying the house and house building, two aged Indians were employed to set up a wigwam near the field of work in Maine, and with a view of extending the study and at the same time perpetuating this form of aboriginal handi- craft, they were afterward engaged to re-erect and furnish the structure in Washington. It was at first designed to place it in the National Museum, but in view of the limitations of space it was afterward decided to locate the building in the National Zoological Park. While supervising the work of the Indians on the wigwam, the Director and Mr Cushing observed them using a curved knife, held in the hand with the blade projecting toward the body (the handle being flattened to fit the face of the thumb, by which the attitude of the curved blade is controlled), and XXXVI BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY drawn toward the body in use; and the resemblance of the implement to that found among the primitive peoples of Japan and the similarity in use were at once noted. At the same time Mr Cushing, who was fresh from the tidal marshes of Florida in which curved knives of shell are entombed, was enabled to interpret more clearly the Floridian shell knives and tooth knives, and infer the manner of their use, which must have been prevailingly centripetal or inward, rather than centrifugal or outward from the body like the tools of civili- zation. This simple discovery throws strong light on the development of primitive industries, and removes difficulties hitherto encountered in the interpretation of primitive imple- ments and workmanship. Then, on examining the shell mounds and house mounds on the Maine coast, Mr Cushing was enabled to explain the occurrence of certain split teeth of the beaver found in such associations as to suggest habitual use; for he found, on attaching them to handles similar to those of the curved knives, that they constituted surprisingly effective implements for shaving and carving wood, for opening the skins and severing the tissues of animals, and indeed for per- forming all of the multifarious functions of the knife. At once it became evident that the beaver-tooth knife was much more efficient, and among hunters more economical in making and carrying, than the knife of chipped stone; and, on investigat- ing the history of the curved steel knives made by smiths for the Indians in accordance with their own designs, it became evident that the beaver-tooth knife was the prototype of that in use by the tribesmen today. At the same time, the con- nection between the shell knife of the Florida coast and the beaver-tooth knife of the Maine coast seemed so close as to indicate similarity in origin, the animal substance used in each case being that possessing at once the advantages of accessi- bility and of economy in manufacture and use. Connected in bearing with the foregoing researches are those conducted during the year by Mr W J McGee. During pre- vious years he visited the Seri Indians of the Gulf of Califor- nia and collected various specimens of their handicraft. The collection comprises a series of stone implements, of which a ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXXVII number were observed in use, representing a stage in the devel- opment of stone art which has hitherto been obscure. Initially, these implements are natural pebbles picked up from among the quantities of similar pebbles shingling the beach; yet they are used for breaking the shells of crustaceans; for crushing bones of fish, fowl, and animals; for pounding apart the tough tissues of larger animals; or perchance for crushing and grind- ing mesquite beans, cactus seeds, and other vegetal sub- stances. Originally selected almost at random, the stone is commonly used but once and then thrown away; but, if the habitation happens to be located near, the fitter stones are used over and over again, perhaps proving so serviceable that when the always temporary residence is changed they are carried away as a part of the domestic property of the matron. Eventually the stone becomes battered and worn by use, so that its shape is changed; then, if rendered less useful by the change, it is thrown away, while, if made more service eable, it is rooted to become a highly esteemed piece of property, always carried by the matron in her wanderings and buried with her body at death. The series of implements collected, and the much larger series seen in Seriland, but not collected, show no trace of predetermined design in form or finish. The implements are fairly uniform in size, apparently because the users are fairly uniform in strength and the uses fairly uniform in force required, and they are fairly uniform in shape because of similarity in applications; but as a whole the’ series is char- acterized by absence of design, by fortuitous adaptation rather than that complex invention represented by even the simplest chipping or flaking. The culture stage represented by the series has already been designated protolithic. It is to be noted that the Seri Indians have no other stone industry, save a little known and apparently accultural custom of chipping stone for the sole purpose of making arrowpoints, and that their knives, scrapers, awls, needles, and ordinary arrowpoints are made from shell, bone, wood, and other substances of organic origin. Now, on assembling the industrial devices of the Florida marshes, the Maine shell mounds, the Seri Indians, and the more primitive survivors of the Algonquian tribes located in XXXVIII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY the Maine woods, and comparing these with the corresponding devices of the American tribes generally, it is found that the industries involving the use of stone for implements or weapons fall into a highly significant order, which, despite some over- lapping of phases, seems to represent the normal course of industrial evolution. The first stage is that in which stone is used in natural or fortuitous condition, without predetermined design or invention, as among the Seri Indians; this is the protolithic stage. It is noteworthy that, in the typical case, and presumptively in others, the prevailing industrial devices of this stage are of organic material and approach in form and function the biotic armament of lower animals. They are the readiest substitutes for, and the direct analogues of, teeth and claws. The second stage is that represented by wrought stone, shaped largely or wholly in accordance with predetermined design, whether by battering (undoubtedly the original method) or by flaking and chipping; it may be called the technolithic stage. This stage is represented by most of the American tribes. It is clearly to be noted that this arrangement of stages in the development of primitive industry is based wholly on research among the American Indians and among the relies of their prehistoric ancestors. It is not designed to supplant or discredit classifications based on the industrial devices of other countries. It is constructive and not destructive, and is formu- lated merely as a contribution to scientific knowledge concern- ing the aborigines of the Western Hemisphere. Another line of research in technology, conducted chiefly during the year, though the results were incorporated in a paper accompanying a preceding report, relates to primitive surgery and medicine. The work, which was based on a col- lection of Peruvian crania, was conducted by Mr McGee. Its details are significant, in that the interpretations are based on the primitive sophiology known to have prevailed among the aborigines up to the time of Caucasian invasion, rather than on the more realistic philosophy by which civilized practi- tioners are guided. The stages of development of curative surgical treatment, as traced in the course of the researches, need not be repeated; suffice it to say that the investigation " ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXXIX appears to illumine the previously obscure origin of surgery, and at the same time to throw much light on the origin and development of medical treatment in general. In earlier paragraphs summarizing the results of researches concerning the origin and development of the arts, incidental allusion is made to the intimate relation between the esthetic and the industrial. The relation is double—indeed, manifold— and reciprocal. In the first place, the industrial device is usually a medium for esthetic devices, graved or carved or painted upon it, usually as symbolic invocations to mystical powers whereby the efficiency of the implement or utensil may be augmented; while, in the second place, the execution of the esthetic devices constitutes an important and, in some lands, apparently a preponderant part, of the occupation of primitive people. Accordingly, the researches in esthetology, carried forward during the year by various collaborators, including Messrs Cushing, Fewkes, and Nelson, and Mrs Stevenson, have thrown light on the motives and other causes underlying industrial development. ; Work IN SocloLocy In continuing the examination and digestion of material col- lected during the eighteen years of the existence of the Bureau, the Director has given special attention to the principles under- lying the social organization of the American aborigines. A portion of the results are summarized in a chapter on Regimen- tation incorporated in a preceding report. The researches are still in progress. Mr W J McGee has continued the comparative study of social organization with special reference to the Seri and Papago Indians. In the former tribe the social organization appears to rest wholly on kinship traced through the female line; and one of the consequences of this organization and of the peculiar isolation of the people is found in a singular mar- riage custom, which has been noted in previous reports. ‘The Papago Indians, on the other hand, have an organization based primarily on kinship traced in the male line, but dis- playing also certain indications of transition into some such XL BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY artificial system as that which, on further development, matures in civilization, i. e., sometimes the gentes are united in such manner that a single kinship group combines two totems; the kinship terminology is incomplete in such way as to suggest curtailment through disuse; through seasonal migrations and other causes there is a constant breaking up of family groups, followed by intermingling in new combinations in the form of colonies of patriarchal or even feudalistic character; there is clear recognition of patriarchal property right in the waters in which the material values of their arid territory inhere; while the governmental control, though nominally vested in patri- archal shamans, is really regulated by an officer selected through popular approval, who may be designated the people’s attorney. It is noteworthy that the Spanish invaders of the Western Hemisphere assimilated the aboriginal much more completely than the Anglo-Saxon invaders of more northerly regions, so that in many instances the social institutions pre- vailing in Mexico today have sprung from aboriginal germs. This is especially true of the patriarchal organization charac- teristic of the Mexican provinces remote from the greater cities and railways, which differs in no essential particular from the organization still found among the Papago Indians and recorded in their time-honored traditions. Now, the comparative studies of the Seri and Papago social organizations, with the analogue of the latter among the mod- ern Mexicans, gives opportunity for clearing up certain misap- prehensions concerning primitive society. In barbaric culture, in which descent is reckoned in the male line, the govern- mental control is vested in an elder man (whose seniority may be either real orassumed), so that the organization is patriarchal, and it has been inferred, without adequate observation and with undue influence growing out of the convenience of anti- thetic terms, that in savage culture, in which descent is reck- oned in the female line, the social organization is matriarchal. The case of the Seri Indians is perhaps the most striking among many examples, indicating that, even when descent is traced exclusively through the female line to the extent that the father has no control over his wife’s property or his own children, the ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XLI tribal control is, nevertheless, vested in male rulers, who may be either shamans of exceptional shrewdness, or warriors of exceptional valor and cunning. Accordingly the term ‘“ matri- archal” can be regarded as erroneous and misleading only when applied to this culture stage. This becomes especially clear in the light of the observations among the Papago Indians and the mixed-blood Mexicans, in which the rule is patriarchal, but in which there is an associated matriarchy, for the wife of the patriarch occupies a position among the women and children of the group corresponding to that of her spouse, primarily among the men, but secondarily among all; so that patriarchy and matriarchy are in reality complementary aspects of that culture stage in which descent is traced in the male line. Con- fusion is avoided by designating the more primitive organiza- tion as maternal and the more advanced as paternal, and by restricting the terms patriarchal and matriarchal to their legit- imate functions, as indicated by the usage of southwestern peo- ples. The details of the researches on this subject are too extended for summary statement; but the principles developed through the study are important as a means of interpreting observation and thus guiding special research and contributing to scientific knowledge of the aborigines. The work is still in progress. Work In PHILoLocy Linguistic studies were pushed forward energetically during the earlier years of the existence of the Bureau, partly as a means of classifying the Indians in such manner as to guide grouping on reservations. A considerable portion of the mate- rial collected was, after the immediate practical use, placed on file for comparison and study with a view to the discovery of the principles of linguistic development. During the fiscal year the Director has reviewed these records in conjunction with those pertaining to sociology and sophiology, and has made progress in developing the principles of philology and applying them to the ethnie problems presented by the Ameri- ‘an aborigines. In ‘primitive society language grows in two ways: On the one hand there is a steady enrichment and difter- entiation due to the coining of expressions for new ideas; on XLII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY the other hand there is a spasmodic enrichment and modifica- tion, both in terms and in grammatic structure, produced by the shock of contact (whether peaceful or inimical) with other peoples—the changes consequent on conquest being especially important, as has been shown by different philologists. At the same time both the lexic and the structural forms—i. e., both words and sentences—are simplified through the natural tend- ency toward economy in expression. These and other proc- esses connected with the growth of language have been indicated in some detail in earlier reports. Now, on examining the aboriginal languages of America, it is found that many of them are interrelated in such manner as to indicate specific courses of development, and in all such cases the dominant process has been the union or blending of more or less diverse elements, both lexic and structural. This blending can be explained only as a record of intertribal con- tact, and the cases are so numerous—indeed, they are charac-: teristic of all of the aboriginal tongues—as to indicate that practically all of the native languages have been built up and shaped chiefly by the combination and blending of antece- dently distinct and presumptively discrete tongues. This con- clusion as to the development of oral speech in America is corroborated by the simpler history of the development of the so-called gesture speech, which was widely used by the Indians as a partial substitute for, and convenient supplement to, oral speech as an intertribal language. When the course of devel- opment ascertained by these comparisons is so extended as to apply to the entire assemblage of native American peoples, it at once becomes evident that the sixty linguistic stocks and five hundred dialects extant at the time of the discovery (themselves the product of long-continued combination and blending of distinct tongues, as the researches have shown) are indubitable records of still more numerous and still more widely distinct languages of an earlier time, and the more carefully the record is scanned the more numerous and the more distinct do the original components appear. It is accordingly a necessary inference that a large number of distinct, albeit simple if not inchoate, tongues originally existed in North America, and that ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XLIII the subsequent history has been chiefly one of linguistic inte- gration. It is a corollary of this proposition, which is but the generalization of all known facts relating to the aboriginal languages of America, that the Western Hemisphere must have been peopled by the ancestors of the modern Indian tribes before the birth of language among them. Both the main proposition and the corollary run counter to earlier opinions entertained in this and other countries; yet they are not only sustained by the unprecedentedly rich collection of linguistic facts preserved in the Bureau archives or published in the reports, but by the cumulative evidence obtained through the researches concerning the arts, industries, institutions, and beliefs of the American aborigines. A more detailed report on this subject is in preparation. Dr Albert S. Gatschet has continued the collection of lin- euistic material pertaining to the Algonquian Indians, and has made progress in the preparation of the comparative dictionary of Algonquian terms. The new material collected during the year was obtained chiefly among the Passamaquoddy Indians living in the woods of Maine and adjacent parts of New Brunswick. Advantage was taken of an opportunity to obtain a Nez Percé vocabulary, representing the Shahaptian stock, from Lewis D. Williams, an educated member of the tribe, who spent some months in Washington during the earlier part of the fiscal year. This record is deemed of special value, not only in that it is more complete than those representing the same stock already on file, but in that it affords means of checking and clearing up doubtful points in the earlier records. In addition to collecting a rich body of material relating to the languages and beliefs of several Iroquoian tribes, Mr J.N.B. Hewitt made considerable progress in the systematic arrange- ment of material collected during preceding years. One of the more important lines of his work was a study of the pro- noun with special reference to its function in primitive lan- guage and its relation to other parts of speech. His researches indicate with greater clearness than others hitherto conducted that the pronoun occupies a much more prominent position in primitive speech than in the highly developed languages of XLIV BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY cultured peoples. The preparation of a special paper on the subject was commenced toward the end of the year. Another line of work by Mr Hewitt, originating in the collection of mythologic texts, was a comparative study’ of the creation myths of different Iroquoian and Algonquian tribes. The pre- liminary results of this study are especially significant in their bearing on conclusions derived from the study of language. On comparing half a dozen versions of the Indian cosmogony he was able to detect unmistakable indications of interchange of such sort as to prove that originally independent myths have undergone considerable coalescence and blending, so that the myth, like the speech in which it is crystallized, is a com- posite of many elements. Coupled with the features indicating coalescence there are indeed certain features indicating differ- entiation, chiefly in the direction required to adjust the mythic personages to the local fauna; but the indications of differen- tiation are far subordinate to the evidence of coalescence or integration. A number of typical myths representing the aborigines of the northeastern United States have been brought together with a view to publication so soon as the general discussion is completed. Work IN SOPHIOLOGY The scope and extent of the researches in sophiology dur- ing the fiscal year are in some measure set forth in the foregoing paragraphs; for the various demotic activities are interdependent, and neither arts, industries, institutions, nor languages can be developed without the concomitant develop- ment of opinions, whether mythic or rational. Important additions to the material representing the symbolism and cere- monies of the Indians have been made through the labors of Mr Cushing in Florida, Dr Fewkes and Mrs Stevenson in Ari- zona and New Mexico, Dr Gatschet in Maine, and Mr Hewitt in New York and Ontario, as already noted. Mr James Mooney continued his researches relating to the Kiowa Indi- ans, giving special attention to their heraldic and calendric systems, and to the use of peyote in their ceremonies. It is well known that dreams and visions, commonly induced by fasting, play an important role in connection with the beliefs ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XLV and religious usages of primitive peoples; it is known also that among some peoples drugs are used to intensify the abnormal condition attended by visions; but there is probably no better examvle of this custom than that afforded by the Kiowa and some neighboring tribes in their use of peyote. The mental effects of the drug are something like those pro- duced by hashish; its influence is so strong and so certain that the Indians using it have come to rely on it for the production of the ecstatic state regarded as essential to the proper per- formance of their ceremonial rites, while, in turn, the rites have been so adjusted to the effects produced by the drug that they are, in Mr Mooney’s opinion, completely dependent on it for their existence. Although the researches concerning the subject are not complete, preliminary announcements have been made concerning the results of scientific examination of peyote and concerning its influence on the religious practices of the tribe. In connection with his work on this subject, Mr Mooney completed during the year a memoir on the Kiowa calendar system, which has been incorporated in the seventeenth annual report. This memoir is deemed noteworthy as a remarkably exhaustive rendering of what may be called the autobio- graphic history of an important tribe. In his comparative studies of the Seri, Papago, and other tribes, Mr McGee was led to consider the course of develop- ment of myth, or of the explanation of phenomena in terms of the supernatural. It is significant that, so far as can be ascertained, supernaturalism is a more potent factor in deter- mining conduct among the warlike Seri than among the peace- ful Papago, and the examination of other tribes indicates that the relation is general—i. e., that the tendency toward super- natural explanation, with its concomitant effect on conduct, is gradually rectified by intertribal contact in a manner akin to that in which myths and languages are blended. The studies are still in progress. Descriptive ETHNOLOGY The preparation of material for the Cyclopedia of Indian Tribes was continued during the year under the immediate XLVI BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY supervision of Mr F. W. Hodge. As other duties permitted, Mr Hodge continued extracting and placing on cards material relating to the Pueblo Indians and other southwestern tribes. The greater part of the work on the cyclopedia performed during the year was that of Dr Thomas, who continued and nearly completed the revision, extension, and final arrange- ment of the voluminous body of material relating to the Algonquian Indians, the largest and most diversified of the aboriginal stocks of the territory of the United States. In his detailed report Dr Thomas acknowledges gratefully the facilities afforded by several libraries of the national capital, especially the Library of Congress, whose rich store of rare literature has been most courteously made accessible by Librarian Ainsworth R. Spofford. Some additions to the cyclopedia were made also by other collaborators, particularly Mr Mooney. BIBLIOGRAPHY The bibliographic work of the Bureau was interrupted in 1895 by the death of James C. Pilling, who had prepared a series of reports on the literature relating to the languages of several aboriginal stocks (which were issued as bulletins during preceding years), and who had partially completed a similar report concerning the aboriginal languages of Mexico. During the last fiscal year an arrangement was made whereby this portion, at least, of the bibliographic work may be com- pleted. The task was generously undertaken by Mr George Parker Winship, librarian of the John Carter Brown Library, in Providence, already a contributor of valuable material to the Bureau. Mr Winship began operations toward the end of the year. ‘The material pertaining to Mexico, brought together by Mr Pilling, was transferred to his custody, and by the end of the year he was able to report substantial progress in the work. COLLECTING The chief work of the year in this department was that of Dr J. Walter Fewkes. Already in the field at the beginning of the fiscal year, Dr Fewkes proceeded to an extensive ruin ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XLVII on Chevlon fork of Little Colorado river, early in July. Later he excavated another ruin of imposing dimensions near Chaves pass. His work was successful beyond precedent, yielding one of the finest and most extensive collections of aboriginal fictile ware and associated artifacts ever made in the United States. As noted in earlier paragraphs, the material is especially rich in symbolic painting and other expressions of the remarkable religious beliefs of the Pueblo peoples during prehistoric times. A noteworthy collection of ceremonial masks was made at Zuni and Sia by Mrs Matilda Coxe Stevenson, and has been duly installed in the National Museum. In the course of his field operations, Mr Mooney obtained additional material illus- trating the handiwork and ideas of the Kiowa Indians; and toward the close of the fiscal year, while temporarily detailed to make and arrange collections for the Tennessee Centennial Exposition at Nashville, he brought together and, with the aid of the Indians, constructed an exhibit showing in miniature the characteristics of the Kiowa camp-circle, the significance of which is not generally understood. Toward the end of the year Mr Hatcher reported the transmission of a small collec- tion representing the primitive industries of the aborigines of southern Patagonia. In April Mr McGee obtained an interest- ing collection of aboriginal matting and wooden ware from the Muskwaki Indians, near Tama, Iowa. The greater part of the collection has been transferred to the Museum. Among the articles is a carved wooden dish corresponding in form, dimen- sions, and ornamentation with an earthenware type frequently found in the mounds. The specimen is of peculiar interest in that its form was determined by the curved beaver-tooth knife with which it was fashioned and in that its esoteric and essen- tially prescriptorial symbolism was ascertained, so that it explains one of the most persistent forms of aboriginal ware. Several other collaborators made minor collections, and a few others were acquired from correspondents. One of these is a series of iron tomahawk pipes, made for the Indian trade by the French pioneers and long used by the tribesmen in lieu of the aboriginal weapons of stone, shell, wood, and copper; another was a particularly fine collection obtained from XLVIII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY the mounds of Missouri and the adjoining part of Illinois by Colonel F. F. Hilder; still another was a series of stone implements from the mounds of northern Ohio, which are regarded as especially desirable for purposes of comparative study in the National Museum. PUBLICATION Mr Hodge has remained in charge of the details of publi- cation, and it is gratifying to be able to report activity, almost beyond precedent in the history of the Bureau, in this branch of the work. At the beginning of the year the Fourteenth | Annual Report was partly in type, the Fifteenth was in the printer’s hands, and proofs of illustrations had been received. The Sixteenth Report was in nearly the same condition. The editorial work was pushed forward successfully. About the end of the calendar year the Fourteenth Report was issued, in two volumes, and the distribution was at once commenced. The demand for the document was unprecedented, so that the edition was practically exhausted within three months. It may be observed that this report was more extensively noticed and reviewed, both in scientific journals and the ephemeral press, than any preceding publication by the Bureau, and that the tone of the reviews has been favorable or still more highly commendatory, without exception so far as known. Meantime the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Reports received constant atten- tion, and both were completed and published about the end of the fiscal year. The demand for these documents also is pressing, and they, too, are being favorably received by the reviewers. The manuscript of the Seventeenth Annual Report was transmitted for publication on June 18, 1897. The accompany- ing papers comprise ‘The Seri Indians,” by W J McGee; “Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians,” by James Mooney; ‘Navaho Houses,” by Cosmos Mindeleff; together with a fully illustrated account of an ‘Archeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895,” by J. Walter Fewkes. The material for the Eighteenth Report also was brought together, and the editorial work was well advanced before the end of the year. It is accompanied by two memoirs, each of ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XLIX considerable magnitude, so that it becomes necessary to issue it in two volumes. The first of these is “The Eskimo About ae Strait,” by E. W. Nelson, and the other is the ee 5 ’ ’ 2 1 “Indian Land Cessions in the United States,” by C. ee with an introduction by Cyrus ‘Thomas, which ae , y been described in earlier reports. The former is fully illustrated by photographs and drawings, representing the people and the extensive collections made by Mr Nelson; the latter is accom- panied by numerous maps. MiscELLANEOUS Library —The additions to the working library of the Bureau were unprecedented in number and value, particularly in respect to standard works of reference; meantime the nor- mal growth due to accessions through exchange has continued, At the close .of the fiscal year the contents of the library comprised 7,138 volumes, in addition to several thousand pamphlets and periodicals. Illustrations —During the earlier part of the year the prep- aration of illustrations for reports was continued under the direction of Mr DeLancey W. Gill, the photographic work being executed by Mr William Dinwiddie. Toward the end of the calendar year Mr Dinwiddie retired from the Bureau, and on January 1 Mr Wells M. Sawyer, formerly of the Geological Survey, was placed in charge of the illustrative work, includ- ing photography. ‘This arrangement has been found satis- factory, and the illustrative work is now carried forward acceptably in all of its phases. Mr Henry Walther has aided Mr Sawyer efficiently in cataloguing and classifying negatives and prints, as well as in photographic printing. Exhibits—As noted incidentally in earlier paragraphs, an exhibit was prepared for the Tennessee Centennial Exposition in Nashville. It comprises half of a Kiowa camp-circle, repre- sented in miniature, occupying a semicircular area with a radius of about 20 feet in a central portion of the Government Building. The installation of the material was completed in time ag the formal opening, and before the end of the fiscal year it became evident that the display will be generally regarded as attractive and successful. 18 ETH——IV L BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FINANCIAL STATEMENT Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1897, “‘for continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or com- pensation of all necessary employees” (sundry civil act, approved PUNSM BOG) locs aoa sete fos eee Bee eer eee eer eee $45, 000. 00 Salaries or compensation for services.-..-.-.-.-------.---.-- $32, 259.15 Traveling and field expenses ............---------- $3, 859. 34 Drawings and illustrations.......-.....--.-------- 1, 429. 70 Officementtall 22s) tao ean ean eee ale a eee 999. 96 Ethnic material (specimens, etc.)...--..----------- 378. 22 Office:furniture s22- 3-352 eee eae eee 21.00 Publications) for library !.-- =<. ---22---:------------ 1, 474506 StAtLONeTYian— ee ane ata cee erento evans eee ce 330. 60 IU Te eit ears omoraadas Sto 5506 Scag Ree Seer = 216. 39 Tem porary Services. -c cee sae ac ene ite ee ee 1, 231. 66 SDD PILES Samana eee ee rete ata caren eee clatter oa RGPOLts eee eee toee Nera te ale ewes ase ae ie esa nes 517. 40 Miscellaneous, Seco emcee sels Hee oe cleoeiane ee 314. 05 ————— 12,522.81 44, 781. 96 Balance, July 1, 1898, to meet outstanding liabilities. ...-.......-...--. 218. 04 CHARACTERIZATION OF ACCOMPANYING PAPERS Supsects "TREATED The two memoirs appended to illustrate the results of the work of the Bureau are of somewhat special character. The first relates to the Eskimo about Bering strait, who were visited and studied by Mr Nelson with the primary purpose of collect- ing their typical productions for the National Museum; accord- ingly, the primary motive of the memoir is description and illustration of the handiwork of the Eskimo; but while engaged in making the collection the author availed himself of oppor- tunities for observation of tribal habits, as well as of the vil- lages and their surroundings, and the data so obtained are incorporated in the description, which is thereby made to pre- sent a general picture of the Eskimo on both sides of Bering strait in their various aspects. The second memoir, on Indian Land Cessions, treats of the aborigines in their relations to white men, rather than to primitive conditions; yet the facts set forth in the maps and schedules are requisite to full under- standing of the characteristics and movements of the native tribes. In geographic distribution, the first memoir relates to much of the coastwise portion of Alaska, and to the corresponding area occupied by similar peoples in Siberia, while the area cov- ered in the second paper is practically conterminous with that of the United States, exclusive of Alaska. At the date of Mr Nelson’s visit the Alaskan Eskimo were comparatively little affected by contact with American whalers, missionaries, and traders, and revealed comparatively little evidence of acculturation through earlier contact with the Russians; accordingly, the portion of this interesting people gathered about Bering strait and described in the accompany- ing memoir may be regarded as fairly representative, and LI LII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY about as nearly in aboriginal condition as any portion of the ereat Eskimauan stock thus far studied. Naturally the memoir on land cessions deals with tribes after more or less complete acculturation. Tar Esximo Asout Brerine STRAIT On the acquisition of Alaska by the United States, questions as to the resources and capabilities of the newly acquired territory were agitated; and, as a natural and necessary step toward answering these questions, the late Spencer F. Baird, then secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, instituted a series of meteorological observations on the Alaskan coast. In carry- ing out the plan, Mr E. W. Nelson was stationed at St Michael in 1877; and his observations were continued, with brief inter- ruptions, until 1881, when he was made naturalist of an expe- dition to the northern coast of Siberia. Throughout his stay at St Michael and during several exploratory trips made there- from, and while acting as naturalist of the later expedition, Mr Nelson, under instructions from the Smithsonian Institution, availed himself of opportunities for collecting products of Eskimo handicraft; at the same time, under the inspiration of noteworthy scientific zeal, he constantly sought opportunity for observation and inquiry concerning the habits, customs, social regulations, beliefs, and ceremonies of the tribes with which he came in contact. After the institution of the Bureau, Mr Nelson was, at the instance of Secretary Baird, commis- sioned to extend his inquiries and collections under the auspices of the Bureau; through this special incentive, the product of his work was tateaalle increased in quantity and value. With the close of the expedition, the material and the records relating thereto were transferred to Washington, and the collections were duly installed in the National Museum. Unfortunately, failure of health prevented Mr Nelson from immediately elaborating his records for publication; and he was compelled to eae the capital and repair to the arid regions of southwestern United States and Mexico, where he slowly regained strength. His inclination and abilities led him to resume resez Be Ns in natural history as his restoration ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT LIII to health progressed, and he became a collaborator of the Agricultural Department attached to the Biological Survey. In 1893 he was so far recovered as to offer, for the first time, some promise of arranging his manuscript, and illustrating it from the collections, in a form suitable for publication; and during the winter of 1895-96 this plan was largely carried out. The descriptions of the territory, the tribes, and the objective collections are incorporated in the accompanying memoir; the linguistic collections made in connection with the other lines of work are not yet finally elaborated. The Eskimauan family or stock constitutes one of the most remarkable peoples of the world. They are noteworthy as the most northerly and most characteristically Arctic inhabit- ants of America and part of Eurasia; they are conspicuous for the vast linear extent and extreme narrowness of their range—a range merely skirting the coasts of Arctic water from Greenland to Siberia; they are remarkable for close similarity throughout their extensive range—in language, beliefs, industries, and a peculiar esthetic development—and equally remarkable for dissimilarity from neighboring peoples of other families; and most students have been puzzled by the apparent absence of definite social organization, and, in some cases, by the apparent absence of fiducial ceremonies. Several of these characteristics of the Eskimo receive new light through the intimate acquaintance enjoyed by Mr Nelson with the tribes about Bering strait. The memoir fully illustrates and empha- sizes the delicate interrelation between the Eskimo and their severe environment; the implements, utensils, weapons, cloth- ing, and habitations are of local material, and of type deter- mined, at least in large measure, by material and other local conditions; the principal elements of belief and ceremony reflect climatal and other local factors in a conspicuous degree; while the special manifestations of capacity include endurance of cold and wet, deftness in making and handling water craft, ability for forced marches through sun and storm, skill in improvising shelters, ete. On the whole, the Eskimo afford a peculiarly instructive example of adjustment to surroundings, and of enforced albeit slow—progress in making conquest of environment in their strife for existence. LIV BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Distributed with fair uniformity over a practically continu- ous coast, the Alaskan Eskimo illustrate the social structure and relations of the social groups of which the stock is composed. These groups correspond in all essential respects to the tribes of other aboriginal stocks, save that the tribal distinctions are less conspicuous; each is characterized by a distinct dialect whose special features are apparently emphasized by purposive intonation and other devices; each has a distinct, albeit perhaps indefinite, organization and governmental personnel; in many cases there are consistent distinctions in dress, decoration, and industrial devices; and the groups intermarry among each other, but avoid union with alien tribes. It is noteworthy that cer- tain physical distinctions appear to accompany these demotic distinctions in some instances; yet it is hardly less significant that the somatic distinctions are inconstant and only partially consistent with the demotic distinctions. One of the most important facts developed by the work is the existence of a regular gentile organization, with corre- sponding totems, among the Alaskan Eskimo north of Kusko- kwim river. As usual among the American aborigines, the totems are zoic, including the wolf, otter, ermine, gerfalcon, raven, bear, etc. The totems are represented by symbols on implements and utensils, by marks on clothing, and, at least in some cases, by tattoomg. Unfortunately, the concomitant social structure was for the most part concealed beyond reach of any inquiries the author was able to make. The discovery of the totems and of their connection with a definite kinship system is especially noteworthy as practically the first of the kind; hitherto observers among the western Eskimo have apparently failed to penetrate the well-concealed and probably decadent social foundation, while it would appear that among the eastern Eskimo the primitive features are so far masked by more advanced or cultural features as to elude detection. Inpian Lanp CEssions When the Bureau was instituted in 1879, it was deemed desirable to investigate the subject of aboriginal land tenure, and, partly as a means to this end, partly because of the ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT LY inherent interest in the work, to examine into the transfer of the aboriginal holdings to conquering nations. Detailed inquiry was assigned to Mr Charles C. Royce, who prepared for the first annual report a brief paper on the Indian land cessions of Indiana, which served to illustrate the methods and purposes of the inquiry. The investigation was continued, and yielded a more elaborate memoir on the land cessions of the Cherokee Indians, published in the report for 1883-84. With the extension of the research, many difficulties were encountered; in some cases the cessions were imperfectly recorded; in the greater number of cases the cessions were made in advance of the execution of trustworthy surveys and maps, so that the boundaries of the ceded territory were indefinite; in numerous instances the cessions were defined by metes and bounds, beginning at temporary or shifting objects as starting points which were lost or changed before surveys were made; and, in many cases, the original areas were modi- fied after the extension of the public land surveys into the districts, and the modifications were sometimes made without definite record. These and other obstacles to the work not only retarded its progress materially, but sometimes introduced elements of uncertainty in the results. In the effort to over- come the obstacles and minimize the uncertainties, Mr Royce engaged in extensive correspondence with state and county officers, visited doubtful localities, and personally examined various state and county records; he also examined personally numerous unpublished papers, letters, maps, plats, and other records in the offices of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs and the Commissioner of the General Land Office; and it isa special pleasure to acknowledge the constant courtesy of the officials of these sister bureaus throughout the considerable period covered by the inquiry. In 1885, Mr Royce, having extended his work practically throughout the United States, and having made his material nearly ready for publication, retired from the Bureau and the work. Various circumstances, including a change in the law relating to the publications of the Bureau, delayed the final preparation and printing of the material; and in 1894 it was LVI BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY placed in the hands of Dr Cyrus Thomas, who was commis- sioned to bring the schedules and maps up to date, to prepare a general introduction, and to revise the material in the light of later history. In this task Dr Thomas, like Mr Royce in the earlier stages of the work, was courteously given access to records, and otherwise assisted by the Indian and Land offices. The tabulation is brought up to 1895. The views of primitive men, like the American aborigines, with respect to land tenure are essentially unlike the views prevailing in civilization, especially in that advanced culture in which individual land tenure is customary. To the primi- tive man, land is a free and common possession, like water in more advanced culture, and like air in current thought; each tribe, indeed, recognized its range, but did not regard the land as an element, much less a basis, of value; and within the tribe the interest in the range was: common and indivisible. This distinction in fundamental views of land tenure has always formed one of the most serious obstacles in the way of har- monious association between peoples of unlike culture grade; and much of the strife between Caucasian and native on American soil has grown out of the failure of each to grasp or even to perceive the fundamental principles of the other. Accordingly, the history of the acquisition of lands by white men may be regarded as a history of the slow acquisition of the first principles of civilized land tenure on the part of the red men; and there is, perhaps, no more striking mark of the intellectual progress of the Indian through contact with the Caucasian than that afforded by the now fairly common instances of the acceptance of land ownership in severalty. The essential difference in fundamental ideas concerning land tenure between white men and red should be constantly borne in mind in dealing with the motives and considerations of land cession on the part of the Indians. Reviewing the history of America’s acquisition of lands from the Indians in the light of the fundamental differences in view between the two peoples, it becomes evident that despite the pitiably frequent cases of personal and temporary injustice to the weaker race, the general policy has been guided by a deep- ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT LVII grounded recognition of the principles of justice and right on the part of both peoples; it becomes equally clear that the weaker people have suffered the more from the contact simply because they are the weaker, and it becomes still more clearly evident that the recognition of the rights of the aboriginal land-holders has grown stronger and firmer with the passing of generations from the first settlement to the present, that the Sympathy for the weaker race has increased with mutual understanding, and that the justice shown the red man is more richly tempered with mercy today than during any earlier decade. While the primary purpose of the research maturing in this memoir was strictly ethnologic, and while it was carried for- ward with the chief object of elucidating aboriginal character- istics, it is thought that the memoir will be practically useful to historians, students of civilized institutions, and other classes of citizens, including especially those makers and interpreters of our laws more directly concerned with proprietary rights and tenures. 18 ETH——Vy 2 Cr ee aie ia 5 Sees > 4 hes 3 ies eS a » - Oy as _ THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT BY EDWARD WILLIAM NELSON cw © re i J A : “ee F ok i iS > ’ ~ ik Tes ‘ 7 oe ae ¥ r ay y pf y v! or ane re i “as maki C 5 7 | \ a { é p , ; ” ‘ z . »! ‘ < j : 7 ® ") , . s s ‘ * * < a } CONTENTS Page Nip C GLORY Reena see Ne aco eee Wy io bs os SS bewe teen ce Res ames aoe i) Bivetchrotthenyestern MaWGIMG) so 525oSsscs5-=(-veeee qe deee as Se yes aac 23 Geographic featuresof, their range). 1... .. ..22-=1--5---s22+ «eeee---22--- 23 Diswboiion Gt tribes'and dialects.o_ 2. =. --22i2s222----ee see -e- Se 5-- 24 LURES) CH GHATACLOLIBCICS See oo nea cena e Canad aen eee a oe eee ee a ewe 26 Glothin gree eee oe aes sects ile een ae aicisal ee sane sen eeiwsins nosien ete e ss 30 Ganments im meneral. nao. 2.5 ote ae ease sees tees soe ena 30 Miaterproot: farm enise, coias ser sa etesee ee eals a oat oes Bao 36 INR Eee ae oe ceiaas SepOen Babe Rees Sena Sa aeRO bE aro Caeeee ese 37 GloveRan Gu mittens): 4-1 sfe see eee sare aay eee nee Sivas nates e eee = 38 HOD aw eA Tseeroee Ase eee ees t ec ae eet a el Smee ction Sate 10 IBD OLB AC Seere ere ae em Sern eye cht Seo cr hs ore ck ern eis 40 DOCKS aN OMDOOt- paddy ee ses eee ce fe ese oes eas 43 (Bike qeuhitee ye eee eee oe eee ge ofeded scien Oaocee One ome ae eee 43 Rerson wad armel eee rae eee ee emeiaa) ace asses Lecce cat neaisc 44 VET DY IO Seca car S Say Seen es SE Dees Coa SNES Sear Bae See nee ae 44 Tattooing 50 nls) aimGl Gh aae Neh eo 6. ees eects anneal Sas coor ee pr 250 Se tase oer 52 Hate Oe aMenes ANGs COM DAG ean. ome oe oa Se = a esis eee Se BYE STAC GLOLS ee yaaa et . eos se ae eee 109 Implements for making thread and cord......------------.-----.---- 110 Skin-dressinp tools: = 2.2252 2 teecstasecs cece as -ae soa eee as See ee eee 112 Rela hat dU eet [ nn epee Seemed, ate ome ones Ue eb neces ates ode 116 Hinting and limiting: ap heme Seo ete ee eee 118 Aimal traps san Gisn ates se. y~ Se see es ae ee ee 118 Bird snares and nets... ..--.----- ee E 131 Sealispears! on. 2-cascen tase eo caene mess SCRE eee ane ae eaten 135 Wialrnk and while spears sense nt aoe nar nee force eee rae tet 137 UC aa ieee ares pate oe ae oso oeeer tema ot ga Soke cite 140 WEY) SeeESs eos eae See aa SRS AC osic Seo anweash Cocteene AAS ce acs 145 Sh Gphee nibh (ey ee eee Ge eee ns on eo eee oo she beaks facsete oct 17 Throwing sticks). 25 2cesee2 + Sesec= o> se ssceee aes poeeee ae ae oe eee a) ee Lh eae PAE One Sees SS Joe DOSE COD COO OO EOR SSA ass anoponco mete: 155 CATT OW Si. cose ce eevee oe a ee = Sains inte sia) ee ee eee eae ee es eras 157 Arrows tori largeirame essa. ae cee eee = See ee eee re ete eietaen 157 BinWarrows) .21ssoS)eos-ayaeece sian ee ee eee oa ec eee etal 159 WisALTOWs) 222-6h en a. base aloe cs eces anne er eee eects te eee 160 ASRONGHONNIS? pe eee nee eee ae eee een ee ee nee eee 161 (UTI OS SS Se SS ms en SROs aen SDUe Heise See aS See Soscb+ seca 161 Aout REL) Se So 8 Soo Se a geneso te sae S eS esse 161 Boxes for arrow- and spear-points- .- .--.-.------- .------------------- 162 Lashes} ne 91 (SS Se Be a os ee Rae, ee aie es SS nec a saree ee 163 Te heyaualayeay ene UMC CU eee 58 Seance es ape sesa SaaS 166 Snow Porwlen’ coc eee ee ane reese k ope orn emer eee aire Caen eereats 169 Muntingyand skinning kuivesiccy-----sle-c=-. yaee eeeee eee ee ee 171 Drag bandlesi2 . == eee Traditional showensiol ashese jasc. oe ae a eee ee Animaleym boheme ose 0p centsee rte nts oh eee pea ee Folk tales: -2..22 jh setts ee one aoe Re oe ee ee is nee Scope:of Alaskan\folklove)--- ose s--c'2- eee een anes eee eee aeeeee Blood:legends from) St. Michael’ 520 !2 2 lose See ee ee es eee see Tales. of the:Ravent. <<. 22/4622) -ketacettt.- ae eek eaae toe eee The Raven, the Whale, and the Mink ........-.-.--22126-- 22-22. The Red Bear (from St Michael and Norton sound) .---...-.--.------ The (Giants cae oe eee ne ee EPS eden Oat rae eae eee The One=whe-fnds-nowin py eae ee eae ee elt one hel Lone Woman. soa ese. ee Ge ee eee U eee eee eeecee Phe circlinpyosr iraness. 2322 jan oa ato an eee ee The.d wart people\ic. 2526 e225 cscs oe ae a oe eee eee eee The Sun and the Moon (from St Michael) -...-.--.- --22. 522.226. -.-- The Sun and the Moon (from the Lower Yukon) .----..--------.---.- Originvof Jand'and!people:-—.-=- =~. 2-2 oe ee es oe ans eeaeae sae eee Theibringing or the lich tibyiRaveniss-c os oe. 2 Jase soak ee eee The Red! Bear:(from Amdreivslkey) =. snc seeee = weee-2 esac ee case cess Thetast Opihe planner indas wer ec tae ee eee eC The Dand-of theiWeads.0 2. 2+ tase seen seat eae eee one oe aele ee The stranve boy voues -\3.0> veseeencew asc ase ase daa eee ae Origin of the Yu-gi-yhik’ or I-ti-ka-tah’ festival ....-.-........-----. Oxiginiof winds: s: 22. dssee sSoe aos ooo eee sie ne see sas ees ee eee Mb SiScep NPM ON Ae = mee cle ells a ee ee a eA ee he! Ov lacie a ae eee ee a eo ee a eee ee Taleof Ale-chik- cha! “pik. 2. sess js-e ase ease eee eee eres The discontented /Grass-plant a= eo- ee n= eee oe mace es eee Bee MN eh sya Riera ne ene SR eh ra aS is mys a ry a my fee The Wand ol Darkness ees Cooke oe eae ea ee eRe ee ee ae ee The Raven andthe Marmot! .-2: -¢ <2.5s.;22 22 222 52 oe eee ee eee The shanian in dike Moon 2. ese se ee er eee ee The Manewonm's2i3..2- 4s cen. cee eas eee a as woe anes eee Mirration legend... -23 3.5 st /-s-2> sSacedese ces ose Sone EOE Origin of the people of Diomede islands and of East cape, Siberia. --- Page ILLUSTRATIONS' Page Prats I. Group of Kiiugumut from Port Clarence. -..--.--...-------- Be aoe 19 II. Distribution of the Eskimo about Bering strait -......--.---....--- 23 Il: Malemut family from'Shaktolik:.---: 222226 2-22 te se ee eae 25 LV. Kinueumut male, Su-ku-uk, age2o0 <2. 222-2 oss ews ee se eee 27 VY. Kinugumut male, Komik-sefier, age 23.. ..-......--...----:-:---.--- 29 VI. Kinugumut male, Kyo-kudsee, age 16 -.---.-.-........ SSS SEE: ROR. 31 VIl. Kinugumut male, Iser-kyner, age 20.......----...2..--225:----1-.-- 33 VIII. Kinugumut female, Kok-suk, age 23..-..........--...22--..-+------- 35 IX. Kinugumut female, Unger-keé-kluk, age 22 -...........--..-..----. 37 X. Kinugumut female, age 22 .............-2-2-2-52 Br erry aaa ee es 39 XI. Siberian Eskimo: a, Woman of Mechigme bay. b, Woman of East GANS osareseassyoscspese Eo Sesrapeeagesemereeareeees see erica 40 XII. Eskimo men—Mechigme bay, Siberia........-...-.--..----.,.----.--- 43 MM. ‘Cape: Prince of Wales ‘and Icy cape men... >= =: .5 22250 -2.55---b 22-5 45 XIV. Typieally dressed women and children from East cape, Siberia - ---. 47 XY. Typical dress of Kaviagmut and Kuskokwogmut men and women. -. 49 RV Mans DILOsKintnOCks (G42fan 2. 2cnccrs ceed ene ates = est ee 5: 50 XVII. Front and back of man’s deerskin frock. (49107) .......-...---.---- 53 XVIII. Front and back of woman’s frock. (7510) ------ > OES ee 55 REX. J Frontiof man’s fishsikin\trock:, (388L7)\.-s222<. (pti) 43427454. Sen eee eee ae ae eee Scheme of color on masks and mask-like objects, grave boxes, and ORE MUMORICIN OSS - (oa tess ra = ao eens Some eeeeecie atm aot mete area . Man’s hood from Konigunugumut. (38657) ...--..--..------------ HOSSEIN Ly) mc pater se Nae Lets So OE nels Saige seme ie mon eee Man’s hood of reindeer and marmot skin and mink fur. (37903)- -- Man’s wolf-head summer hood from Point Hope. (64270) -..-..-. - War Uapsen(oalago)) sae ctos sacs smoke See ae cet see ae Sale meee tase Fish-skin clothing bags: 1 (37631), 2 (37401) -..-....-.--.-------.- ; Clothing bac of sealsliings)(48099)2 222s a2 nace oes ice esa . King island man with labrets of lignite ...-.........-.----.------ . Kotzebue sound Malemut men and women -----.-.----.-,---. ------ . Tattooing on women. (a, South of Yukon mouth; b, East cape, Siberia; c)Head of Kotzebuesound) 2: 2-2 2... 2228222222 62+. 52. 2. Tattooing on.a St Lawrence island girl --........-----.----------- . Tattooing on a woman of St. Lawrence island ......-...2--..----- . Tattooing on a woman’s arm, East cape, Siberia .........---------- PAC InGUl are OWNS Ot tihfOOINee . c=. oes. 4a eseee sede eecSse een ceec . Hair combs: 1 (36374), 2 (48260), 3 (126985), 4 (45484), 5 (44765), BPR ee CS bc ee a ei ea ee ee SE Ony Welmtagtenuen. «(445g a-s. cece asec keesee woes Qockiescec domes EN PP uO Me OMENS BIRO Sen oe Sects eens ob ace beec ees . Ivory carving representing a lamp and stand .........-..---.---.- feMarmow Spoon. ({DLO))sona-- an eae more ase a oely eens scene eessseene . Snow beaters: 1 (48995), 2 (49175), 3 (48161), 4 (44998), 5 (48162)... - 7 MNOWwsshovels:. 1 (S6913); Ai(49143)) - 2. 2 Sea eeees os. eee s rMiaetsies (48999), 2 (489090 Si(4 8885) u- le oos. bo Sceomtonscca= 2s NNOOMCHISEIS® 1 (AS731)5 2: (SO09U ie amice (Game spits,» (Set88) ena wearer ase 2 ac Ss moe Jo ReeE pasa AbEee : Fox or wolf trap withisinew spring. (7510) ...-...-+.-.-=--+----. - MSE MOW Lap o) Go Ub) eae eet te aa Sa Ae nnn Swan oe de a ene . Sealskin float. (129381, old number 48330) ..-..--..----.-----.---- Cord attachennn (Golan naeee eee Sans oe eee coma s ae eels . Cord attacher, obverse and reverse. (7509)--..- . Spearpoints for birds and fish: 1 (38499), 2 (33 (43361), 5 (126916), 6 (63333), 7 (45519), 8 (45787) ......---. -2.. 202 16 ILLUSTRATIONS [ETH. ANN. 18 Page Figure 43. Throwing sticks: 1 (49001), 2 (38670), 3 (33897), 4 (36013), 5 (24355), 6 (45396), 7 (49002), 8 (168581), 9 (166946), 10 (15644), 11 (36018).... 154 44. Fish arrows: 1 (160341), 2 (48680), 3 (49044), 4 (48340), 5 (48338), 6 (63578), 7 (48341), 8 (49037), 9 (33858), 10 (36161) ...--.---.-------- 160 45, Ivory ornaments for hunting helmets: 1 (37419), 2 (38325), 3 (36477), 4 (49014), 5 (32954), 6 (36428), 7 (36408), 8 (48808) ..---..-----.---- 169 46. Cordhandle-ob ivoryeus (iol) ease ste ae ae eee eee eee ees 172 47. Tomcod fishing through sea i¢e at’ St Michael......-..---.---.---. 174 48. Grayling heals; iia) ew ecys ets cera sacs 4s ee eee pre oes ci ee 180 49.- Seining on Kotzebue sounds ete sag seta eteeeee cos eek Maes 186 50. Mesh of dip-net made of sinew. (48923) .........-..-.-----.----- 187 51. Mesh of dip-net made of willow bark. (48925) ....-..---..--.---- 187 52. Mesh, float, and sinker of herring seine. (33871)..-.-...---------- 188 53. Herring seine with stretcher at one cud and with float and sinker. (ABSED rate Boh 4 Sop Satake he py ee oe ei a 189 54, Sealskin-cord herring seine with stone sinker. (176090) ...-..---- 189 55; Woodeninet toat:, (63505) 2-2-8 ao - eae n- nse eee ee sees aout aseete 190 pb. Lvory, miarlinspike: 5) (16143) 2s seo 8 hoe ea ene See er 193 57. Marlinspike with bone point. (33100) ....-.-....--.---.---.------ 193 58: Wooden paint Nox. (98000) as 2e~c nce saan ea see eee aes 200 59) Wooden paint boss e(S0904) cence ae meses team eee San one eee 200 60 Clay: pottrom Hotham imlete- =. «20 Susns 2. aer yes on oe eee ce ee Oe 61. Kayla Ininter withihand sladis-ce ac 8 ee ae ee ee 207 62. Sled used on the Siberian shore of Bering strait. (176084)..---. -- 208 63. Snowshoes from Norton bay. (45400)....-............---..-..-.-- 212 64. Snowshoe from Cape Darby. (48092) .....-.....---..-.-------<---- 213 65; Snowshoe trom Teyycape. (63604)... -.-+ 2). .---+-b--- esse a- ete 213 66. Snowshoe from St Lawrence island. (63236) ........-....-.-.-.-. 214 OV.leeptaite (40824) ono sore pean iets SE ca eenieiee ons, Seb ease 215 GS s-leershaly CB LIS) Vacate or ei ee Poa ene sa eee ee ic ee oe 215 69. Ice creepers: 1 and la (63881),2 (46260), 3 (44254), 4 (126982), 5 (GODT A bei nt Sa EO ee Ie EES 5 CE Be MMe ot RENE 216 70. Forms of umiak paddles: a, from Kotzebue sound; b, from Point Ope! sce Sie cine Rees ce ed ne te ae ee eee Demme ERE oe 224 71. Kaiak paddles from Point Barrow and King island: 1 (89246), 2 (160326) nea eens aac een acne Meee Scie aeons ieee eae 225 f2. Ivory spearpuard for kaiak. (176086). 20552 2..2ccesenc eo e-=~e- 227 73. Ivory spear guard for kaiak. (176086b) ......-...---.:.-.--..---. 227 (i. .2) Je Sees ee 260 89. Frame for summer lodge, Hotham inlet ...............-.-.-...---- 261 90. Arrangement of summer camp at Hotham inlet......-.-.-.....---. 262 NELSON] Figure 91. ze 93. 94. 95. 96. Cre 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121, 122. 123. 124, 125. ~ 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134, 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 18 ETH ILLUSTRATIONS Summer lodge at Cape Thompson....--..--..--..--..2.-----+----- Sites of ancient villages at Cape Wankarem, Siberia ..........-.-- Fungus used for making ashes to mix with tobacco, (43366)....-. Pipe from Kotzebue sound. (48133) ....----.-.--..--------------- Pipe from Cape Prince of Wales. (7516)-..-...---..-..-.---..----- RESPILATOD CLONE WAGWa) er ((GOOI0) anise me mae) emg eat eet sie as Lancet pointed with nephrite. (38797) .----. .----.--.2--.--0- +2 Backancrat cern me (Aol) ce ssce so cloc bn Soe eek eee ee eae ae Position in which the dead are buried at St Michael -.-.....-..--- Method of disposing of the dead at St Michael .....-..-.-..-..---- Position of burial of the dead on the lower Yukon. ....-....-.--.---- Gravesboxes,. Yukon deltiat.- soa. so. scecesice seas sera sees aeeee BUM pos auekiaZ DING ys cena aso s Saeco sees eta aoe cee Memorial images at Cape Vancouver...- -.-.-------5-25 .0c--0---< Monument board at a Big lake grave .....--.----.----....---.---- GianerDoss bi Cape A OMeIeee haan ae aa nes eee ee teen a ene eee Graverom Sp lbawrentenglanG.+22ocnisstaeeecee sae sees asles cae Arrowpoint showing wolf totem signs. (43689)..-....--..---.---- Spearhead representing a wolf. (58442)..-.....---.---.----.----- Spearhead representing a wolf. (48751) ..........---.---.-------. Spearhead representing an otter. (43750) .......----.-----..----- Spearhead representing an ermine, (36080) ...-.....--.-----.---- Gerfalcon totems on bow and seal spear. .....----.---------------- Simpletormns of ibe-raren covet ones se eee asec ee ee inate Raven totem tattooing on a Plover bay boy -..---.----.----------- Raven totems on smoke-hole cover... ---.----. ---- <<. .----+ ------ Wolf totem signs'on 4 storehouse door ..-......--..-...--.--.----. Tobacco board with bear and loach signs. (48922)....---.-------- IDFR NER) GME ra A) | U0) <2 SoeenGh 66 Coe cnc ee Seo Gas S one SEore tenes Boy with toy sled, St Lawrence island... ..---.--.---2..---.---.---- LOGS (RIS be onoeeinos Smads oareOrenebe Seoseebas aco eSSr aa sOose5 Top from: Cape Prince of Wales: (43371), .---. -.---..2-----5-s--26 LOviNOOd PEC Kens ( Golde) tessa cee ieee oes ls tan aceje Somies a sont SU GOMSIIEOEINGs(AS OL etait a at eee ee te se ans Sime Toy representing a murre swimming. (63478) ........------------ IERAGIIIIES XCHTG ERs Sanh Aes See Soe Snore See ReAee roar Srene ae WisodentdollS(Gssto eae 5 = cee ean cote patsoe te alos elas eeeie tins POUT Saoo) ease oneal aan aan eae ene een sores aes Wiondenidolinmn(siSia) se ene aaa ee ear e oe ene ae oan Meachanicawaollon (Gable) meemaeeee span eaeioce aaa eM os Seisaenroe Toy bear with dog harness. (63644) -...-.-...:..--.-.-2-- .-..---- Toy dors andialed.) \(Ga38%)i 2---sa0se-n--esn os ote oe Seep see Poyibeary (GISGi) ess sm ae snean eee ena ate eke sek Soe cee ens Toy kaiak from St Lawrence island. (63449).......-.---..--.---- Ivory image of man and bear. (37750)...-..-..--.=.---.----.----2 Drum Handley “Gates sesame aoe c ee s= ses io a ate eis = epenin ere a eee Drum handles, 1(3as0s les cee see eae as a eee sew ise snc e == Ivory baton for beating time on a stick. (45282)....-...---.------ Wand used in asking festival. (33804) .....-..-.--..-.----------- Plan of kashim during mortuary ceremony....---~.----.---------- Maskoid representing a seal-head withrising air bubbles. (33115). Eagle-feather wand used in dances. (49061)....-.--.------.------ Eagle-feather wand used in dances. (45446)--...----.-----..----- Armlet worn during dances. (45336) .--.---.-----.--------------- Loonskin fillet worn in dances. (49079) ..-.---..-----.---+.------ 2 18 Figure 146 147. 148, 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 255. 156. 157. 158. 159, 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. ILLUSTRATIONS [ETH. ., Reindeer-skin fillet: (86195) /2> sake sas = eee. saeee ee een Woman with ermine fillet and eagle-feather wands-..-.....--- aoe Wristlet from 2icogmiut. (S618) ome eer msemiee ete oleae aaa miele Armiet! worn\in dances: s(28G95) eee eetstee = aera ote aie a aisle ete ret RKetich from a) Malemimt dca ree rea se ae anim nie =f lta nial ieiaial= Graphite fetich used in right-whale fishing. (48384).....-....... Whale fetich of wood!< (64220) {peters eek oes etee tetas Shaman’s' dollfetioh. 4 (37372) = aac oe eee ete eee Meee ee Drawing of a composite animal in a wooden tray. (38679)-...---. Drawing of the pdl-rai-yik in a wooden tray. (45494) ........---. Drawing of the pdl-rat-yik on an umiak. (160261)..--..-.--..-.- Ivory carving of a composite animal. (44143) .-...... Rane ect Ivory carving representing the man-worm. (43550)...-..-------- Ivory carving of a mythic animal. (7518) --.............-......- Ivory drag handle representing a composite animal. (7511)....--. Ivory carving of a mermaid-like creature. (7520)......-..--..-.- Ivory float handle with mermaid-like figure. (7514) .......---.-- Carving representing a mermaid-like creature. (36336).......--. Ivory carving showing the face of a walrus inua. (43561)-...---- Drawing of a mythic creature in a wooden tray. (38642).....-.- ANN. 18 Page 417 418 419 420 436 439 440 441 JONAYVID LYOd WOYS LNWNDNANIX JO dNOYD | 3LV1d 140d3Y IWNANNY HLINSSLHDIS ASOIONHLA NVOINSAWVY JO NvayuNa THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT 4 By EpwarpD WILLIAM NELSON INTRODUCTORY The collections and observations on which the present work is based were obtained by the writer during a residence of between four and five years in northern Alaska. The fur-trading station of St Michael, situ- ated about 65 miles north of the Yukon delta and some 200 miles south- ward from Bering strait, was my headquarters during the greater period of my residence in that region. On June 17, 1877, I reached St Michael and remained there until the last of June, 1881, except during the time consumed by a number of excursions to various parts of the surrounding country. Owing to the fact that my official work was that of procuring an unbroken series of meteorological observations, whatever I did in other branches of science had to be accomplished in odd moments or during the short periods when the agents of the Alaska Commercial Company kindly relieved me of my duties by making the necessary observations. During the first year I explored the district lying immediately about St Michael. The next year my investigations were extended over a wider field, and on the Ist of December, 1878, I left St Michael in com- pany with Charles Petersen, a fur trader, each of us having a sledge and team of eight dogs. We traveled southward along the coast to the mouth of the Yukon, and thence up that stream to Andreivsky, which — was Petersen’s station and the second trading post from thesea. From this point we proceeded southwestward across the upper end of the Yukon delta, passing the eastern base of the Kusilvak mountains and reaching the seacoast just south of Cape Romanzof at a previously unknown shallow bay. From this point we proceeded southward, keeping along or near the coast until we reached Cape Vancouver, opposite Nunivak island. The second day beyond this point, Peter- sen, who had accompanied me thus far, said the weather was too bad to continue the journey and he therefore turned back. From the last-mentioned point I proceeded, accompanied by an Eskimo, to the mouth of Kuskokwim river. After traveling some dis- ance up its course we turned back toward the Yukon, which we reached at a point about a hundred miles above Andreivsky. Turning up the river the journey was continued to Paimut village, the last Eskimo settlement on the Yukon. At Paimut I turned and retraced my steps down the river and thence along the coast back to St Michael. 19 20 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ETH. ANN. 18 This expedition completed a very successful réconnoissance of a region previously almost completely unknown as regards its geographic and ethnologic features. A very fine series of ethnologie specimens was obtained and many interesting notes on the people were recorded; some of their curious winter festivals were wituessed, and several vocab- ularies were procured. On November 9, 1880, in company with a fur trader and two Eski- mo, I again left St Michael on a sledge expedition. We proceeded up the coast of Norton sound to the head of Norton bay, where we remained for some days. Thence we traveled along the coastline past Golofnin bay to Sledge island, south of Bering strait. Owing to the fact that the people of this district were on the point of starvation our farther advance was prevented and I was forced to give up my contem- plated trip to Cape Prince of Wales and the islands of the strait at this time. We turned back from Sledge island and reached St Michael on April 3, after an extrémely rough journey; but the series of notes and ethnologic specimens obtained on this reconnoissance are exten- sive and valuable. On November 16, 1880, in company with another fur trader, I left St Michael and crossed the coast mountains to the head of Anvik river, down which we traveled to its junction with the Yukon. At this point is located the fur-trading station of Anvik, which was in charge of my companion. Bad weather delayed us at this point for some time, but we finally set out, traveling up the Yukon, crossing Shageluk island, exploring the country to the head of Innoko river, and return. ing thence to Anvik. From the latter place I descended the Yukon to its mouth and went back to St Michael along the coast. On the way down the river I stopped at Razbinsky and witnessed one of the great Eskimo festivals in commemoration of the dead. As was the case in all my sledge journeys, the main object in view “was to obtain as large a series of ethnologic specimens and notes on the character and customs of the people as was possible. Unfortu- nately my limited time on these trips prevented any extended inves- tigation into the customs and beliefs of the people, but the series of specimens obtained is unsurpassed in richness and variety. At the close of June, 1581, the United States revenue steamer Corwin called at St Michael on her way north in search of the missing steamer Jeannette. By the courtesy of the Secretary of the Treasury, Captain C. L. Hooper was directed to take me on board as naturalist of the expedition. During the rest of the season I was the guest of Captain Hooper and received many favors at his hands. We left St Michael and sailed to St Lawrence island, where the Cap- tain had been instructed to land me in order that 1 might investigare the villages which had been depopulated by famine and disease during the two preceding winters. ‘Che surf was too heavy on the occasion of this visit to risk landing at the desired points, so we passed on to Plover bay, on the Siberian coast. Thence we coasted the shore of Siberia to NELSON] SCOPE OF THE WORK 21 North cape, beyond Bering strait, taking on board a sledge party which had been left there early in the season. We then returned to St Lawrence island, where a landing was effected and a fine series of valu- able specimens obtained, after which we departed for St Michael where the collections were transferred to the Alaska Commercial Com- pany’s steamer for shipment to San Francisco, and the Corwin once more returned to the Arctic. During the remainder of the season we visited all of the Arctic coast of Alaska from Bering strait to Point Barrow, including Kotzebue sound. The ethnologic collection obtained during my residence in the north numbers about ten thousand specimens, which are deposited in the United States National Museum, under the auspices of which my work in Alaska was done. With the exception of a comparatively small number of specimens obtained among the Athapascan tribes of the lower Yukon and among the Chukchi of eastern Siberia, the entire collection was obtained among the Eskimo. Since my return from Alaska Mr Johu Murdoch has reported on the collection and observations made by the International Polar Expedi- tion at Point Barrow.! Although my collections cover many of the objects found along the northern coast, I have been more explicit in describing those from other regions visited by me rather than to duplicate the work of Mr Murdoch. The preparation of the present work has been delayed from various unavoidable causes, but despite the length of time which has elapsed since my observations were made, but little has appeared regarding the customs of the Eskimo in the region visited by me. This being the case, the data collected at a time when the life of the majority of the natives had not been so greatly modified by intercourse with white men as at present, are of particular value. Since then the introduction of missionary schools and the gold-mining excitement have resulted in greatly changing the status of many of the people, and as a natural consequence their old customs and beliefs are rapidly falling into disuse or are becoming greatly modified. In this work I have confined myself to recording the information obtained and have made no attempt to elaborate any of the matter by generalizations. However imperfect my observations were in many cases, I trust the information gained will serve as a basis for fuller investigation of a very interesting field. I was placed under great indebtedness for favors received from the Alaska Commercial Company and its officers at St Michael during my residence at that point. Through the cordial assistance of Mr Rudolph Neumann and the late M. Lorenz, who volunteered to carry on my meteorological obserya- tions during periods of absence from St Michael, I was enabled to accomplish much work that would have been impracticable without such aid. I am also indebted to Mr Neumann for several of the tales from St Michael. ) Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1887-88. 22 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ErH. ANN. 18 The fur traders, one and all, furthered my work with voluntary assistance. ‘To Messrs McQuesten, Petersen, Fredericks, and Will- jams I owe many favors. I am particularly grateful to the late Pro- fessor Baird for the opportunity to accomplish the field work which resulted in the accumulation of the material on which the present report is based. I have also to extend to the authorities of the National Museum my appreciation of their courtesy in placing the entire Alaskan ethnological collection at my disposal during the prep- aration of this report, and for other favors. To Professor Otis T. Mason and Dr Walter Hough, of the United States National Museum, T am under special obligations for their unfailing courtesy and cordial assistance during the preparation of this work. I wish also to express my sense of obligation to Mr Wells M. Sawyer, illustrator of the Bureau of American Ethnology, for many suggestions and other favors while arranging the illustrations. ALPHABET The following alphabet is used in writing all Eskimo names of places, etc, in this memoir: a as a in father. kn anasal sound formed in the roof of a as @ in what, the mouth by the blending of the Fy as a in hat. k into the n. Hit as aw in law. 1 as Zin lull. ai as ai in aisle. Van aspirated /. au as ow in how. lh a harsher aspirated sound than (’, bas bin blab. m as min mum. eh as ch in church, n asnin nun. das din dread. i as ng in sing. dj asjin judge. o aso in note. (:) as ein they. 6 aso in home, with a short pronun- & as e in then. ciation. if as f in fife. p as p in pipe. g as g in get. ph an aspirated p. g’ an aspirated g. r as r in roaring. gh a harshly aspirated g. 8 as s in sauce. h as in ha, sh as sh in should. h’ =a soft aspiration. t as ¢in touch. hl a sound formed by placing the | tl as dle in little. tongue in the position assumed at ts as fs in tsar. the end of the pronunciation of | u as uw in rule. 1 and then giving an aspirated | i as win pull. continuation of the sound. a as wu in but. i as i in pique. vi as v in valor. i as i in pick. Ww as. w in wisli. j ag 2 in azure. hw thew sound, beginning with an aspi- k as k in kiek,. ration. k’ asoft aspiration of the k sound. y as y in you. kh a hard palatal prolongation or aspi- | z as 2 in zone. ration of k. The color scheme used in the drawings representing totem marks. grave boxes, masks, etc., is shown in figure 1, page 26, ae 5 an ke ge « ' i . « 1 sy pad OFT P9°%” }) mossnmet) cera a meas sieqmadsa) ~ LQ Z 40 9. nuTesea[eYseus: utaysuaspy) : aumngsvy"o surges”) 1Loyn bag Wd LHOd3y¥ IWOANNVY HLN3SLHOIS ADOIONHL]A NVOINAWY JO NVaNNa ~srounyyeg 1BrT "OD -¥ ROLY (OLL UITJU}SUES)'D 9) i?) " “O 5 by 78 0 O1 02 Sjueyo Kaauns jseo9's'p pue dew Snsuag qO| SJJoujeg UA] WOd} palidwo9 Le ies a NVOSVdVHiVY IHOWNHO LINA OWIMS3 GN3941 8681 NOSTAN ‘M ‘3 Ag “LIVHLS ONINSS LNOSY OWIMSA4 3HL 340 NOILNGIYLSIAC UAPHNATY ee ) od oN ie aUrON) ONV1SI ONIM 40 WAMINN ,OLL T Oo Of OZ sjueuos AaAuns jseo09's'p pue dew snsuay uO] SJJO4Jag ULA| WOU palidwo7 = —_—_m NVOSWdVHLV IHOMNHO LINA OWI-MS3 GNA4931 8681 NOSTAN ‘M ‘4 Ad “LIVHLS ONINAG LNOAV OWIMSA SHL AO NOILNEIYLSIG GONV1S!I ONIX 40 NAMINN PULTA i ey . = = | =)! NAH, > | wn a 8B } LY > S cs) “26, pioqodst zo) 2Q¢7z40 HY .9_ ynuTeSe[eYysays yozemgy WaIsweshnL ao aummMaQsvy ~ Ss ‘ouIqeg 77 Qs1T")O OQ) a OBI ASOIONHL]A NVOINSWY 4O NVvaYNG Id LYOd3ay¥ IWONNV HLINSSLHDIS SKETCH OF THE WESTERN ESKIMO GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THEIR RANGE That portion of the western Eskimo described in the present work is found mainly within the limits of the area which I have designated elsewhere as the Alaskan-Arctic district. This region includes the treeless coast belt, from 3 to 100 miles in width, which extends from the peninsula of Alaska northward to Point Barrow, including the adjacent islands. The Eskimo penetrate the interior of the country to the forested region along the courses of the larger streams. Their range into the interior is mainly along Kuskokwim, Yukon, Kowak, and Noatak rivers. On all of these streams they are found several hun- dred miles from the coast, and at their upper limits are in direct contact with the Athapasean or Tinné tribes. In addition to the Eskimo of the Alaskan mainland and adjacent islands, within the limits just mentioned, I visited also the Eskimo of the neighboring Siberian coast from East cape to Plover bay and St Lawrence island. The lives of these people adjacent to the Tinné, as well as those of the Siberian coast who are in constant contact with the Chukchi, have been some- what modified by their surroundings, although in their language and customs they are still unmistakably Eskimo, The people of the Siberian coast and of St Lawrence island are the most aberrant group of Eskimo encountered within the area covered by my work. = The belt bordering the Alaskan coast of Bering sea belonging to this district is mainly low, and much of it consists of broad, marshy tracts which are but little above sea level. This is particularly the case in the large, roughly triangular crea lying between lower Kusko- kwim and Yukon rivers.’ To the northward of this the country is more broken or rolling in character, rising gradually in many places to low, mountainous masses, several hundred feet in height and coming down to the coast at intervals as bald headlands, The islands of Bering straits are small and rocky and rise precipitously from the water, as does much of the adjacent Siberian shore. St Lawrence island is large and has an undulating surface with rocky headlands at intervals along the coast. North cf Bering strait the country is generally rolling, with flat areas about the head ef Kotzebue sound and north of Iey cape. South of the strait the coast country has a mildly arctic climate, but to the northward the results of a more rigorous environment appear in both plant and animal life. The climate of the Siberian coast is much severer than that of the adjacent Alaskan shore. 23 24 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ETH. ANN. 18 Everywhere south of Point Hope a plentiful arctic vegetation is found. Although the country is destitute of trees, along the courses of streams and in sheltered spots on the southern slopes of hills a more or less abundant growth of willows and alders is found. This is the case even at the head of Kotzebue sound, directly under the Arctic circle. Over a large portion of the low, gently rolling country are beds of sphagnum interspersed with various grasses and flowering plants. Inland, along the water courses, there occur spruce and white birch in addition to the plants which are found nearer the coast. The villages of the western Eskimo are located always near the sea or directly along the water courses, such situations being necessitated by their depend- ence for the greater portion of their subsistence on game and the fish obtained from the waters in their vicinity. Driftwood is abundant along most parts of the American coast within the region discussed in this work, and the food supply also is more abundant than is found in most regions inhabited by the eastern Eskimo, so that the conditions of life with the Alaskan people are much more favorable. The shores of Bering sea north of the Kusko- kwim mouth are icebound from early in November until about the end of May or early June of each year.. North of Bering strait the sea ice | is present for a somewhat longer period. Although the aborigines living along the American coast from Point Barrow to Kuskokwim river are not separated by physical barriers, they are divided into groups characterized by distinct dialects. DISTRIBUTION OF TRIBES AND DIALECTS The Shaktolik people told me that in ancient times, before the Rus- sians came, the Unalit occupied all the coast of Norton sound from Pas- tolik northward to a point a little beyond Shaktolik. At that time the southern limit of the Malemut was at the head of Norton bay. They have since advanced and occupied village after village until now the people at Shaktolik and Unalaklit are mainly Malemut or a mixture of Malemut and Unalit. They added that since the disappearance of the reindeer along the coast the Malemut have become much less numerous than formerly. Various Russians and others, who were living in that region in 1872 and 1873, informed me that at that time there were about two hundred people living in the village of Kigiktauik, while in 1881 I found only about twelve or fourteen. At the time first named the mountains bor- dering the coast in that neighborhood swarmed with reindeer, and in addition to the Unalit many Malemut had congregated there to take advantage of the hunting. During November, 1880, I found a family of Malemut living in a miserable hut on the upper part of Anvik river. As stated else- where, these people have become spread over a wide region. About the middle of March, 1880, between Cape Nome and Sledge island, I bm. 7 eet eget ts ee htt ere eee = ; ey Deer ae a vies of Ay ay ~~ > = = EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. III BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY y ii ny HY v) hits wil yy MALEMUT FAMILY FROM SHAKTOLIK NELSON] TRIBES AND DIALECTS 25 found a village occupied by a mixture of people from King island in Bering strait, Sledge island, and others from different parts of Kaviak peninsula. These people had united there and were living peaceably together in order to fish for crabs and tomcods and to hunt for seals, as the supply of food had become exhausted at their homes. There are few places among the different divisions of the people living between Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers where a sharp demarkation is found in the language as one passes from village to village. In every village in this region they have had friendly intercourse with one another for many years, and intermarriage has constantly taken place. They visit each other during their festivals, and their hunting and fishing grounds meet. All of these causes have aided, since the ces- sation of the ancient warfare which served to keep them separated, in increasing the intercourse between them and have had a tendency to break down the sharp distinctions that existed in their dialects. The language used in this region, south of the Yukon mouth, is closely related to that of the Unalit along the shore of Norton sound north of the Yukon. The greatest distinctions in language appeared to be in the curious modification of the sounds of the vowels, these being lengthened or shortened in a different manner, thus causing the pronunciation to be differently intoned in the two districts. The Nunivak island people and those living at Cape Vancouver, however, appear to speak a lan- guage quite sharply divided from that of their neighbors. As it is, one of the natives from any portion of the district south of the Yukon mouth, except on Nunivak island or Cape Vancouver, can readily make himself understood when visiting villages of the lower Yukon or among the Unalit of Norton sound. The distinction between the Unalit and Kaviagmut Eskimo, or the Unalit and the Malemut, is considerable, and people speaking these tongues do not readily com- municate at once, although if takes but a short time for them to learn to talk with one another. The dialect of the people of Point Hope appears to differ but slightly from that used at the head of Kotzebue sound. There is such a general resemblance between the dialects spoken by the Eskimo of the Alaskan mainland that a person belonging to one district very quickly learns to understand and speak other dia- lects. My Unalit interpreter from St Michael accompanied me on the Corwin, and when at Plover bay, on the eastern coast of Siberia, man- aged to understand a considerable portion of what the people of that point said. He had great difficulty, however, in comprehending the language of the St Lawrence islanders, and in fact could understand but few words spoken by them. Both at East Cape and at Plover bay, on the Siberian coast, there were many words that I could understand from my knowledge of the Unalit tongue gained at St Michael. The people of St Lawrence island and Plover bay are closely related and the dialects spoken by them are very similar, so that they have no diffi- culty in communicating with each other. 26 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT ETH. ANN. 18 The Point Barrow Eskimo occupy the coast from Cape Lisburne to Point Barrow. The Malemut inhabit the country from Point Hope around the shores of Kotzebue sound to beyond Cape Espenberg, and thence south to Unaktolik river. From this point southward to tie Yukon mouth, including St Michael island, are the Unalit or Unalig- mut. The people of Cape Prince of Wales, Port Clarence, and King island are the Kiiugumut. The people occupying the coast from Port Clarence and around to Cape Nome, Golofnin bay, and Nubviukhechug- aluk, including the interior of the peninsula back from the coast country as well as Sledge (Aziak) island, are Kaviagmut. The people of the Diomede islands and of East cape, Siberia, are a group of Eskimo of whom I failed to obtain a special designation. South of this point the Eskimo of Plover bay and the neighboring coast form another group. The people of St Lawrence island form still another group, and of these also I failed to record any special designation. ; The people of the lower Yukon, from Paimut down to the vicinity of Pastolik, including the Yukon delta, are the Ikogmut. The Magemut are the people occupying the low, marshy country back from the lower Yukon, between it and the Kuskokwim, extending from a line just back of the Kuskokwim northwesterly to the coast between Cape Romanzof and the Kusilvak branch of the Yukon mouth. The Nunivagmut are the people of Nunivak island and the main- land at Cape Vancouver. The Kaialigamut are the people occupying the coast northward from Cape Vancouver to Kushunuk, Kaialigamut, and the adjacent villages. The Kuskokwagmut are the people occupying the villages along the lower Kuskokwim and the adjacent country to the north of that point to a line where begin the other divisions already named. i Fic. 1—Scheme of color on masks and mask-like objects, grave boxes, and totem markings. —————} SSS ———— =——=> BLUE BLACK BROWN | PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS The Eskimo from Bering strait to the lower Yukon are fairly well- built people, averaging among the men about 5 feet 2 or 3 inches in height. The Yukon Eskimo and those living southward from that river to the Kuskokwim are, as a rule, shorter and nore squarely built. The Kuskokwim people are darker of complexion than those to the northward, and have rounder features. The men commonly have a considerable growth of hair on their faces, becoming at times a thin ~ SZ °8¥ ‘WN-NY-NS ‘3JIWW LAWNONNIY Al ALW1d 140d3Y IVANNY HLIN3SSLHDIS ASOIONHL]A NVOINSWY JO NvauNna NELSON] SOMATIC FEATURES il beard two or three inches in length, with a well-developed mustache (plates Iv, v). No such development of beard was seen elsewhere in the territory visited. The people in the coast region between the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the Yukon have peculiarly high cheek bones and sharp chins, which unite to give their faces a curiously pointed, triangular appearance. At the village of Kaialigamut I was impressed by the strong develop- ment of the superciliary ridge. From a point almost directly over the pupil of the eye, and extending thence inward to the median line of the forehead, is a strong, bony ridge, causing the brow to stand out ‘sharply. From the outer’edge of this the skull appears as though beveled away to the ears, giving the temporal area a considerable enlargement beyond that usually shown. This curious development of the skull is rendered still more striking by the fact that the bridge of the nose is low, as usual among these people, so that the shelf-like projection of the brow stands out in strong relief. It is most strongly marked among the men, and appears to be characteristic at this place. Elsewhere in this district it was noted only rarely here and there. All of the people in the district about Capes Vancouver and Roman- zof, and thence to the Yukon mouth, are of unusually light complexion. Some of the women have a pale, slightly yellowish color, with pink cheeks, differing but little in complexion from that of a sallow woman of Caueasian blood. This light complexionis so exceptionally striking that wherever they travel these people are readily distinguished from other Eskimo; and before I visited their territory 1 had learned to know them by their complexion whenever they came to St Michael. The people of the district just mentioned are all very short and squarely built. Inland from Cape Vancouver lies the flat, marshy coun- try about Big lake, which is situated between the Kuskokwim and the Yukon.. It is a well-populated district, and its inhabitants differ from those near the coast at the capes referred to in being taller, more slender, and having more squarély cut features. They also differ strik- ingly from any other Eskimo with whom I came in contact, except those on Kowak river, in having the bridge of the nose well developed and at times sufficiently prominent to suggest the aquiline nose of our southeru Indian tribes. The Eskimo of the Diomede islands in Bering strait, as well as those of East cape and Mechigme and Plover bays on the Siberian coast, and of St Lawrence island, are tall, strongly built people, and are generally similar in their physical features (plates x1, x11). Thesearecharacterized by the unusual heaviness of the lower part of the face, due to the very square and massive lower jaw, which, combined with broad, high cheek bones and flattened nose, produces a wide, flat face. These features are frequently accompanied with a low, retreating forehead, producing a decidedly repulsive physiognomy. The bridge of the nose is so low and the cheek bones so heavy that a profile view will frequently show 28 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT “ (ETH. ANN. 18 only the tip of the person’s nose, the eyes and upper portion of the nose being completely hidden by the prominent outline of the cheek. Their eyes are less oblique than is common among the people living southward from the Yukon mouth. Among the people at the north- western end of St Lawrence island there is a greater range of physiog- nomy than was noted at any other of the Asiatic localities. The Point Hope people on the American coast have heavy jaws and well-developed superciliary ridges. At Point Barrow the men are remarkable for the irregularity of their features, amounting to a posi- tive degree of ugliness, which is increased and rendered specially prominent by the expression produced by the short, tightly drawn upper lip, the projecting lower lip, and the small beady eyes. The women and children of this place are in curious contrast, having rather pleasant features of the usual type. The Eskimo from upper Kowak and Noatak rivers, who were met at the summer camp on Hotham inlet, are notable for the fact that a considerable number of them have hook noses and nearly all have a cast of countenance very similar to that of the Yukon Tinné. They are a larger and more robustly built people than these Indians, how- ever, and speak the Eskimo language. They wear labrets, practice the tonsure, and claim to be Eskimo. At the same time they wear bead-ornamented hunting shirts, round caps, and tanned deerskin robes, and use conical lodges like those of the adjacent Tinné tribes. Among them was seen one man having a mop of coarse curly hair, almost negroid in character. The same feature was observed in a number of men and women on the Siberian coast between East cape and Plover bay. This latter is undoubtediy the result of the Chukchi-Eskimo mixture, and in the case of the man seen at Hotham inlet the same result had been brought about by the Eskimo-Indian combination. Among the Eskimo south of Bering strait, on the American coast, not a single instance of this kind was observed. The age of the individ- uals having this curly hair renders it quite improbable that it came from an admixture of blood with foreign voyagers, since some of them must have been born at a tine when vessels were extremely rare along these shores. As a further argument against this curly hair having come from white men, I may add that I saw no trace of it among a number of people having partly Caucasian blood. As a general thing, the Eskimo of the region described have small hands and feet and the features are oval in outline, rather flat, and with slightly oblique eyes. Children and young girls have round faces and often are very pleasant and attractive in feature, the angular race characteristics becoming prominent after the individuals approach manhood. The women age rapidly, and only a very small proportion of the people live to an advanced age. The Malemut and the people of Kaviak peninsula, including those of the islands in Bering strait, are tall, active, and remarkably well €% 85 ‘YSN3S-MINOY SIVW LNWNONNIX A 31V1d 41YOd3Y¥ IWANNY HLN3SSLHOSIS ADOIONHLS NVOINSWY 4O NvayNns NELSON] INSENSIBILITY TO EXPOSURE 723) built. Among them it is common to see men from 5 feet 10 inches to 6 feet tall and of proportionate build. I should judge the average among them to be nearly or quite equal in height to the whites. Among the coast Eskimo, as a rule, the legs are short’ and poorly developed, while the body is long, with disproportionately developed dorsal and lumbar muscles, due to so much of their life being passed in the kaiak. The Eskimo of the Big lake~ district, south of the Yukon, and from the Kaviak peninsula, as well as the Malemut about the head of Kot- zebue sound, are, on the contrary, very finely proportioned and athletic men, who can not be equaled among the Indians of the Yukon region. This fine physical development is attributable to the fact that these people are so located that their hunting is largely on open tundra or in the mountains, thus producing a more symmetric development than is possible among those whose lives are passed mainly in the kaiak. There were a number of halfblood children among the Eskimo, resulting from the intercourse with people from vessels and others, who generally show their Caucasian blood by large, finely shaped, and often remarkably beautiful brown eyes. The number of these mixed bloods was not very great. As a race the Eskimo are very hardy and insensible to cold. While the Corwin was at anchor in Hotham inlet during the fall of 1881, I found a Malemut woman with two little girls, one about two years and the other five years of age, lying fast asleep on the deck of the vessel clothed only in their ordinary garments. A very raw wind was blow- ing at the time, and it was difficult for us to keep warm even while moving about in heavy overcoats. While I was at the head of Norton sound during February, when the temperature stood at minus 40° Fahrenheit, a boy 10 years of age, with a sled and three dogs, was sent back several miles along the previous day’s trail to recover a pair of Jost snowshoes. He started off alone and returned a few hours later with the snowshoes, his cheeks glowing red from the cold, but without other indication of the effect of the temperature. The men lead a hard and perilous life in the districts bordering the sea, where much of the hunting is done in kaiaks. In spring they go long distances offshore, and are sometimes cast adrift on the moving ice, requiring the greatest effort to return to the land. In:a number of instances that tame to my notice men were forced to spend one or two days fighting their way back to shore in their kaiaks, after having been driven seaward by a strong wind. In addition, the constant wetting and exposure throughout the entire year helps gradually to undermine the strength of the natives; as a result, consumption and rheumatic complaints are common, and but few live to an advanced age. Families rarely have more than two or three children, and it is not uncommon for them to have none. 30 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (EPH. ANN. 18 CLOTHING GARMENTS IN GENERAL The garments of the wester. Eskimo are similar in general plan to those worn by their relatives farther eastward, but vary locally in pat- tern and style of ornamentation. The upper part of the body of both men and women is covered with a frock-like garment put on over the head, and in the greater part of the area visited these garments are provided with a hood. In addition, both men and women wear trousers. Those of the men are made to reack from the hip to the ankle, the feet being clothed with socks of deerskin or grass, over which skin boots are drawn. The lower garments of the women are combined boots and trousers reaching to the waist. Over the feet are sometimes drawn skin boots, but frequeutly a sole of oil-tanned sealskin is attached directly to the trousers. On the Diomede islands, along the eastern shore of the Chukchi peninsula, and on St Lawrence island the women wear a curious garment having a loose waist, flowing sleeves, and very baggy trousers reaching to the ankles. They put this on by thrusting the head and feet into a slit-like opening in the back, which is then laced up. The feet and lower part of the legs are then encased in skin boots tied about the ankles. Usually these combined garments are loosely made, without hoods, and are opened broadly at the neck, with a narrow trimming of wolverine or other fur about the border. They are worn usually with the hair inside, and the smooth outer surface becomes greasy and begrimed so that they present a curious appearance. Small children dressed in these garments waddle about and appear to move with the greatest difficulty. Very young children on the coast named are placed in these combination garments with the ends of the sleeves and legs sewed up, so that nothing but the face of the child can be seen. In addition the women of this region wear a frock-like outer garment reaching down to midway between the waist and kneé and provided with a hood. The hood is trimmed with wolverine skin or other fur, the long hairs projecting halo-like about the face. In front is a broad bib-like flap, usually made from the short-hair skin taken from the reindeer’s legs, which hangs down over the breast. Sometimes, how- ever, these flaps are replaced by a long, narrow gore of white reindeer skin, sewed over the shoulder on each side of the neck and extending down the front. Very little effort is made to ornament the garments among any of the people save those of St Lawrence island, where they are ornamented with tassels made from strips of fur taken from the hair-seal pup and dyed a reddish brown. Rows of the crests and horny bill sheaths from the crested auklet are also sewed along the seams. Similar ornamentation was observed in lesser degree along the Siberian shore. 7 a eS 1 — = | eSy ‘JASYNY-OAM “SIWW LAWNONNIA ie IA 31LV1d 1Y¥Od3Y IWANNY HLNSSLHDIS ADOTONH.LA NVOIMSWY JO NVvaHNea NELSON} SIBERIAN AND ALASKAN GARMENTS 31 The illustration (plate x1vy) from a photograph taken of a party of women and children from East Cape, Siberia, gives an idea of the gar- ments described. The woman on the left wears one of the combination garments with the fur side out, the one on the right having the gar- ment turned with fur inward, and the two central figures wear the frock in addition. Most of the garments worn by these people are made from the skins of tame reindeer, although those of wild reindeer are used to a limited extent. The handsomely mottled coats of the tame deer serve to render some of the clothing rather ornamental in appearance. On St Lawrence island and the Diomedes the skins of waterfowl are sometimes used for making the outer frock-like garment for both men and women of the poorer class. ‘Their boots are usually of reindeer skin, generally taken from the leg of the animal, with a sole of tanned sealskin. Crossing Bering strait to the American shore we find the garments for men and women closely alike in general style over a wide area. They are practically identical in pattern northward to Point Barrow and southward to the Yukon mouth, including King and Sledge islands. The garments worn by the en consist of a skin frock, which is put on over the head and has a hood variously bordered by strips of skin. These borders are made usually of an outer strip of wolfskin with the long hairs standing out like a halo, as before described. Just within this is sewed another belt or band of skin from the wolverine so that the long outer hairs lie back against the wolfskin border, producing a pleasing contrast. These halo like borders, when the hood is drawn up, surround the face and give’a picturesque appearance to the wearer (plates Iv, x11, xva). The back of the hood is made usually of several pieces sewed in such a way as to take the form of the head. | 7 = nr 1 hs | ; ° if 7 NAWOM OGNV NAW LOWSOMYONSNH GNV LOWSVIAVH 3O SS3Yd WOIdAL LINWSOMYAOXSNY LNWSVWIAYY AX “1d LYOd3Y4 IVWNNNY HLN3S3SLHSIS ASOTONHLS NVOINSAWY 40 Nv3aHNE NELSON] LABRETS 49 ‘The people of Kowak and Noatak rivers, like those of Point Hope and the adjacent Arctic coast, wear large labrets, varying from half an inch to nearly two inches in diameter. The materials from which these are made varies greatly, among them being granite, syenite, jadite, quartz, slate, glass, lignite, and wood, as well as walrus and fossil mam- moth ivory. The heads, as already described, may be round, squarely beveled, angular, knoblike, or of various other forms. The photographs of men taken at Point Hope and Kotzebue sound show the appearance of these objects when in place (plate Xx11I and figure 10), Fic. 10—Kotzebue sound Malemut men and women. The specimen from Point Hope, figured in plate xx11, 24, is a knob- head labret made of a dark green stone. Another from the same locality (plate xxi, 15) has a hat-shape base of ivory with a large blue bead on a wooden pin inserted in a hole made in the basal portion of the labret. In wearing large stone labrets, the lip is dragged down by their weight, so that the lower teeth and gums are exposed. It is the usual eustom to wear but one of the larger size at a time, one of smaller dimensions being inserted on the opposite side of the mouth. While traveling with these people in winter, I found that during cold’ days 18 ETH——4 50 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 the labrets were invariably removed in order to prevent the lip from freezing, as must have occurred had they remained in place. The labrets were removed and carried in a small bag until we approached a village at night, when they were taken out and replaced, that the Fic. 11—Tattooing on women (a, South of Yukon mouth; b, East cape, Siberia; c,c, Head of Kotzebue sound). wearer might present a proper appearance before the people. They are also sometimes removed when eating and before retiring for the night. TATTOOING Tattooing is universally practiced among the women of the Bering strait region, but has attained its greatest development on the Siberian coast and St Lawrence island. On the tundra south of the Yukon only part of the women are tattooed, and I was informed that the practice is comparatively recent among them. They claim to have adopted it from the women of Nunivak island, who had straight lines on their cheeks, and also from having seen tattooing on the faces of Tinné women. The common pattern used in this district is a pair of lines across the chin from each corner of the mouth, as shown in figure 11,a. fa0 Fic. 12—Tattooing on a St Lawrence island girl. Malemut women, as well as those from Noatak and Kowak rivers, cross the chin with series of lines of tattooing radiating from the lower lip, as shown in figure 11, b, c; they also frequently have straight lines across the back of the wrist and forearm. On St Lawrence island and BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XVI MAN'S BIRDSKIN FROCK (aBOuUT ONE-SEVENTH) a a a Ps |? ss. i st) ¥ q ard C “ Tins a ‘ yi er NELSON] TATTOOING 51 the adjacent Siberian coast women have the sides of their faces (figure 12) and their arms and breasts covered with finely designed patterns of circles and scroll work, sometimes crossed by straight lines. At East cape, the women ordinarily have six or eight pairs of lines crossing their chins, and on each side of their faces patterns of circles Fic. 183—Tattooing on a woman of St Lawrence islind and spiral lines; also, two or three vertical, parallel lines crossing their temples and extending to the chin. The patterns on the cheeks usually cover a space about four inches in width extending from the ear toward the nose and from the eye to the lower jaw. On the inside of the forearm two long parallel lines usually extend from the elbow to the bor- der of the palm. These are crossed just below the elbow by two short lines, and the wrist is crossed by four lines which sometimes completely encircle that part of the arm (figure 14). On the body the tattooing covers the breast and sometimes the shoulders and upper arms. The pattern shown in figure 12 was seen on the face of a little girl of St Lawrence island. Figure 13, showing the tattooing on the face of a ‘1G. 14—Tattooing on a woman's arm, East cape, Siberia. Fig. 14—Tatt gs East cape, Sil 52 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [BLH. ANN. 18 woman of this island, is from a sketch made and kindly presented to me by Mr Henry W. Elliot. At Mechigme. bay, Siberia, a man was seen who had a double circle connected by radiating lines on each cheek (figure 15, a). At Plover bay a boy had the raven totem over each eye, as shown in the illustra- tions of totem markings. On St Lawrence island a man had circles, representing labrets, near the lower corners of his mouth, and two short, parallel lines on each temple (figure 15, b). BEADS AND EARRINGS The practice of piercing the septum of little girls is still common among the Eskimo of the Alaskan mainland. While the children are small they wear one or more beads about the size of buckshot pendent from this hole so that they rest upon the upper lip. When the girl reaches maturity, the nose beads are not worn, and I never observed any use made by women of the hole in the septum except for carrying ay a Lee a RW a i os a b Fic. 15—Cireular forms of tattooing (a, on a Mechigme bay man; b,on a St Lawrence island young man). small objects like needles, which are frequently thrust through the opening and held in place by the pressure of the wings of the nose on either side. . On the Asiatic coast large boys and young men were frequently seen wearing two or three beads strung on their hair so as to hang down over their foreheads. The hair and the clothing of little girls and young women of the district south of the lower Yukon are highly ornamented with beads. These are hung in parallel strings, held in position as flat bands by means of small, flat, ivory rods, or by strips of heavy skin pierced with holes at short intervals, through which pass the cords on which the beads are strung. Loops of these bands sometimes hang from the earrings over the shoulders to the breast; others are attached to the braids of hair above the ears. To these loops is frequently attached a heavy copper ring. The practice among women of piercing the lobe or outer edge of the ear is common in all the territory occupied by the Eskimo visited by me. In some instances only the lobe is pierced, and in others holes ‘ << / Bie Vee mien (H14TaM1-3NO) MOOYS NIXSYS30 SiNVW 43O WOVE GNV LNOYS ADOIONHLS NVOINSWY JO NV3HNA WAX “Id LYOd3Y IWONNY HLINJ3SLHDIS NELSON] BEADS AND EARRINGS 53 are made along the outer border above the lobe. It is also common for men to have their ears pierced, particularly in the district between the Yukon and Kuskokwim, where they wear huge earrings, from which frequently hang strings of beads, extending under the chin from ear to ear in a long loop. The variety of earrings worn by the women in the vicinity of the Yukon and the Kuskokwim is very great, as shown by the series illustrated in plates xxiv and xxv; they are made of ivory, with occasional settings of beads or other objects. Elsewhere along the coast very much less variety in the ornamentation of these objects was observed. It is interesting to note that the greatest richness of ornamentation and variety in form of earrings is found among the people of the district south of the lower Yukon, which coincides with the elaborate style of their carvings on masks and other objects. Earrings worn by men of the tundra between the Yukon mouth and the lower Kuskokwim are made of ivory and are very large. They are usually rectangular and measure from an inch and a quarter to two inches in length by three-quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter in width. Frequently there are four plane sides, but some of them have the lower end rounded, while others have this portion beveled from each side to the center. They commonly taper slightly from above downward. The front is excavated, leaving a narrow rim of ivory around the border, the sides of the excavation being parallel with the outline of the tablet-like piece forming the ornament. Fre- quently this excavated space is crossed midway by a narrow ridge of ivory, which subdivides the central opening into upper and lower divi- sions of equal size. This sunken area is then filled with some kind of cement, probably made from spruce gum, in which are set various shining objects. The following descriptions cover some of the most interesting forms of men’s and women’s earrings contained in the collection. The speci- men from Kaialigamut shown in plate xxv, 12, measures an inch and a quarter in length by three-quarters of an inch in width and has its outer face divided by an ivory ridge. The excavated spaces are filled with a black cement, and set in each subdivision are three small, square pieces of lead, making six on each earring. The lower end is beveled to a point, and like all of these large earrings has a boss on the pos- terior surface near the lower border, which is pierced with a hole for fastening the ends of little pendants of beads. In addition, this speci- men has a longer string of beads passing beneath the chin to the opposite side. The hook for attaching these ornaments to the ear is cut from the same piece of ivory and extends back and downward nearly to the lower point of the carving. Another example from Kaialigamut (plate xxv, 10) is similar in shape to the one last described, with the lower end beveled to a point. It is two inches in length by an inch and one-eighth wide, and has set in 54 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH ANN. 18 the cemented outer face several fragments of bottle glass. On the back is the usual long, stout hook, and a small pierced knob or boss is provided near the lower point for the attachment of strings of beads. The earring from Nunivak island shown in plate xxv, 13, is an inch and five-eighths long by an inch wide, with the lower end of bow shape. The excavated front surface is not subdivided by an ivory ridge, but has an insertion of some white substance crossed by regular black lines forming a diamond-shape pattern over which is neatly fitted a piece of window glass, Another specimen (plate xxv, 11), from Big lake, is of quadrilateral outline and has an ivory septum across the center forming two sub- divisions filled with cement, in which are set four rounded fragments of brass, one at each corner, with a round bead of iron in the center. A smaller specimen than this, from the same locality, has four white beads set in the cement at each corner of the subdivisions, with frag- ments of glass in the center. Another earring, from Konigunugumut, has small fragments of mica imbedded in the cement. The greatest variety of carving, however, is shown in the earrings worn by women. These are sometimes plane-face, quadrate, or oval pieces of ivory with a stout hook in the back; but, as a rule, the fronts are variously carved and ornamented. A common style of ornamentation consists of a series of concentric rings with a round pit or dot in the center. Their faces are frequently crossed by fine, etched, ray-like lines. Another form is that of the circles and ray-like lines shown in plate xxtv, 18, from Askinuk. All these rings have a stout hook for attaching them to the ear, and a pierced boss near the lower border, on the posterior side, for the attach- ment of a string of beads. From Cape Vancouver was obtained the specimen shown in plate. xxiv, 5, which exhibits another form, consisting of a circle five-eighths of an inch in diameter, with a round hole in the center and a knob on each corner, and a long, narrow bar at its lower edge, all carved from a single piece of ivory. The front is surrounded by a series of seven neatly etched concentric circles. From the same locality is a similar earring (plate XxIv, 1), having the circles spaced in pairs, between the outer and the next to the outer set of which are a series of round, sunken dots. The example illustrated in plate xxrv, 2, from Nunivak island, is an inch and an eighth long by three-fourths of an inch wide. The upper portion is circular, with concentric rings, and the central hole is filled with a little ivory plug; the borders have on each corner a little spur, also of ivory, and below, extending downward, two oblong ivory pro- jections with rounded ends which are pierced by a small, round hole. The front surfaces of these are convex and are covered with a series of five concentric circles; etched lines extend from the outer circle down on the front of the lower projections, and a little cirele surrounds each of the holes near the lower eud. rv a my ota i 7 7 Z bf " : i i= pep hen te > Pa Aa at x yt (H1473M1-3NO) MOOYS SiINVNOM JO MOVE GNV LNOYS WAX “Id LYOd3Y IWNNNY HLN3SSLHSIS ADOIONHL]A NVOINAWY JO Nv3akdNnG NELSON] BEADS AND EARRINGS 55 The specimen from Chalitmut figured in plate xxrv, 6, is small and rounded; it is a little over half an inch in diameter, and has a rounded knob at each corner. The center has a black spot aud two concentric rings with spaced dots scattered around these and a dot in the middle of each corner projection. Another small set (plate xxiv, 8) from Chalitmut measures half an inch in diameter and is rudely oval in shape, with five small circles and dots arranged in the form of a cross on a slightly convex face. A single earring obtained from St Michael (number 129265) exhibits two circles, joined one below the other, and each having the front coy- ered with concentric rings with a piece of lead set in the center. There is a hole at the lower end for the attachment of a string of beads. A pair from Nulukhtulogumut (plate XXIv, 3) measure three-quarters of au inch in width. They are of the usual rounded pattern with pro- jecting corners, and with the center excavated and set with half ofa blue bead, which is surrounded by two concentric circles, the outer one having spur-like etched lines drawn from it to thé corner projections. Another example (plate xxiv, 4) from Kaialigamut, is three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with rounded outline and convex face, in which is set half of a large, amber-colored glass bead. In addition to the styles already described, the country between the lower Yukon and the Kuskokwim affords a considerable variety of these ornaments, upon whieh are carved the features of men, animals, and tunghit. These are usually oval in outline, measuring from half an inch to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, but some are oblong in Shape. A pair from Chalitmut (plate xxiv, 15) are square, with the features raised in relief in the center. A pair from Kushutuk (plate xxIv, 15) are each three-quarters of an inch in length and in shape represent a small seal. The ornamentation of the specimen from Cape Vancouver illustrated in plate XxIv, 16, represents the features of a tunghdk, and on another from the same locality (plate xxtv, 14) is shown the face of a short- ear owl. Northward from St Michael to Bering strait the earrings used are more oblong in shape, being longer and narrower in proportion; they are also less handsomely ornamented, and the entire workmanship is more crude. These measure from half an inch to an inch and a half in length and from an eighth to half an inch in diameter. An oblong, convex-face pair (plate xxtv, 19), from Sledge island, measure a little over an inch and a quarter in length and three-eighths of an inch in breadth, and have half of a large blue bead set in the front of each. Most of the earrings from this island have the faces crossed by deeply incised lines, although there were obtained one or two pairs which are perfectly plain. The specimen from Cape Vancouver shown in plate xXrv, 7, is a disk with a series of concentric circles on its face; another (plate xx1v, 11) 56 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ETH. ANN. 18 from the same locality represents a grotesque human face with tufts tied on each side to represent a woman’s braided hair, while another (plate xxv, 17), obtained also at the same place, represents the features of a seal. The only metal earrings obtained were collected on the lower Yukon. They are made of copper, of the usual round style worn by women, with concentri¢ circles on the face and projecting knobs at the corners. A pair of earrings (plate xxrv, 9), obtained at St Michael by Mr L, M. Turner, show smooth, disk-like faces three-eighths of an inch in diam- eter, back of which project for about a quarter of an inch rounded ivory pins extending downward three-quarters of an inch to roughly truncated tips pierced for the reception of the ends of a string of beads. These are the only earrings of this description that were seen. A pair from Cape Vancouver (plate xxiv, 12) are long, narrow, and ovalin shape. They are an inch long, by three-eighths of an inch wide, and taper down to a narrow, flattened point pierced as usual for attach- ing a string of beads. Extending lengthwise along the median line of the faces is a ridge from which the surface is beveled away on both sides. On this doubly beveled surface is represented, by means of incised lines and dots, a grotesque human face with labret holes below the corners of the mouth, Another pair, from Nulukhtulogumut (plate xxry, 10), are broadly oval in outline with a grotesque human face on the front; they measure seven-eighths of an inch long by nearly three-quarters of an inch wide. Plate xxv, 9, shows a pair from Chalitmut, three quarters of an inch long by half an inch wide, having an oval outline and a slightly con- vex face. An incised line extends vertically through the center, with two pairs of beveled lines extending thence diagonally downward to the border on each side. In the three spaces thus made along each side of the surface are three small circles and dots. From the lower ends of these rings hang two pendants of beads two and one-half inches in length, and a string of beads twelve inches in length connects them below the chin. A pair of rounded earrings from Sfugunugumut (plate xxv, 7) are about seven-eighths of an inch in diameter and have knob-like projec- tions on four corners, each of the latter having an incised dot in the center. The faces are marked by two concentric circles, with a hole in the center, which is plugged with wood. A hole in the lower edge of these rings serves to attach the upper edge of a band over four inches in length, made of seven strings of beads, which are spaced near the upper end by a flattened ivory rod an inch and a half long, pierced with a hole for each string. Near the lower end they are held in place by a similar strip made from a thick piece of sealskin. On the islands as well as on both shores of Bering strait, the women frequently wear pendent from their earrings, in place of beads, strings of the little orauge-color horny sheaths from the angle of the bil! of EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XIX BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (ONE-SIXTH) FRONT OF MAN’S FISHSKIN FROCK NELSON] EAR-PENDANTS—HAIR ORNAMENTS Die the crested auklet, in a double row four or five inches in length and terminating in one or more beads. HAIR ORNAMENTS AND COMBS The tonsure is universally practiced by the Eskimo wherever I traveled among them, whether on the American or on the Siberian coast, with the possible exception of some of them in the upper Kusko- Fic. 16—Hair combs (;%). kwim region. The general style is to shave the top of the head, leaving a narrow fringe of hair about the border, which usually is kept trimmed evenly two or three inches in length around the head. The women dress their hair by parting it along the median line and arranging it in a pendent braid or club-shape mass behind the ear, as shown in the accompanying illustration (plate xxv1) of some women at Cape Smith. Sometimes the ends of the braids are united at the back of the head, or they may be arranged with strips of fur or strings of 58 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ETH. ANN. 18 beads into club-shape rolls hanging down to the shoulders or even over the breast. Very often the strips of fur worn are those of the animal representing the family totem, and when wrapped about the hair in this manner they indicate the gens to which the woman belongs. South of the Yukon mouth the women are especially fond of orna- menting the pendent rolls or braids of hair by hanging bands and strings of beads upon them with ivory ornaments attached, some of which are figured. They usually represent the faces of animals or of grotesque semihuman creatures. The ornament from Big lake illus- trated in plate xxv, 1, is of ivory and represents the face of a wolf. Another (plate xxv, 2), from Konigunugumut, represents a grotesque, semibuman face. On one from the lower Kuskokwim (plate Xxy, 3) there is a representation of a human countenance, while one from Agiukchugumut (plate xxv, 4) shows also a grotesque face. Another specimen from Big lake (plate xxv, 6) is ornamented with a conven- tional pattern. : Combs used by the Eskimo for the hair are made by cutting slots in the straight edge of flat or slightly curved pieces of deerhorn, walrus ivory, or bone. A rather elaborately made deerhorn comb (figure 16,1) is from the lower Yukon. It has a series of teetlr along one edge; the handie has a bear’s head in relief on each side, and a ring of the material is left on the back to strengthen the comb and to afford a better grip for the hand. The upper side of the handle is crossed by parallel grooves and a zigzag pattern formed by a series of circles pierced with central holes. A specimen from Sledge island (figure 16,5) is a flat tablet of deer- horn with a series of teeth in one end and two projecting animal heads carved on the upper end of the handle. Another, from St Michael (figure 16,4), is of deerhorn, with the handle ornamented by lines and dots and terminating in a ring. In figure 16,6, is shown a comb, from the Diomede islands, made from a hollow bone, which has a series of teeth of different sizes surrounding each end. Figure 16,2, shows an example from Nunivak island made from a piece of walrus ivory, and has one end provided with large teeth and the other with smaller ones. Another, from St Lawrence island (figure 16,3), is cut from a paddle-shape piece of bone. It has large rounded teeth and a slender handle, pierced near its upper end. BRACELETS Bracelets of iron, brass, or copper are worn by women and girls throughout the region visited. The men also use bracelets made of a sealskin cord on which is strung one or more large beads of ivory or other substance. They are generally used while at sea for rolling under the end of the sleeves of the waterproof skin frock. In plate xxv, 5, is shown an example of these bracelets from Nunivak island. EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XX BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY MEN'S GLOVES NELSON] ARTICLES OF USE AND ADORNMENT 59 BELTS AND BELT BUTTONS Throughout the Eskimo country from the lower Kuskokwim to the Arctic coast, a favorite waist belt worn by the women is made from the incisors of reindeer. These are obtained by cutting off the tip of the lower jaw, leaving sufficient bone to retain the teeth in their natural position. These rows of teeth are sewed along a strap of rawhide, one overlapping the next in scale-like succession, so that they form a continuous series along its entire length. Some of these belts have a double row of such teeth, and as each set represents a reindeer, it is evident that a long period of hunting is necessary ere a sufficient number can be accumulated. In addition to the belts made of reindeer incisors, they have others made by fastening along the surface of a strap of tanned sealskin a series of smooth brass buttons in close succession, or they ornament the entire length of the outer surface of the belt with circles and lines of beads arranged according to the fancy of the wearer. When worn, the belts are brought loosely around the waist and held in place by a toggle or button, whichis attached to the belt by a short cord tied through a hole pierced in the button for the purpose. These cords are attached to the belt about a foot or fifteen inches from the ends, so that the latter hang down in front of the hips on each side. The belt buttons are passed through a cord loop on the opposite side of the belt and thus hold it in place. They are made of ivory, bone, or reindeer horn, and have very great variety of form. Some are merely rounded knobs, or are made from the tooth of a bear or walrus pierced in the middle, while others are in the form of hooks. Flat button- shape carvings, with squared, circular, or oval outlines are common, but most numerous of all are those made in the forms of seals, walrus, birds, and men. A number of these objects have been illustrated (plate XXvII) in order to show their great variety aud to demonstrate the skill and ingenuity in carving which these people possess. The following notes describe the character of those figured, which are made of ivory except where other substances are indicated. The specimen from Cape Nome, illustrated in plate Xxvu, 1, is a good example of this style of fastener. A similar object, shown in figure 2 of the same plate, is from Chalitmut; this is a fragment of deerhorn, an inch and three-quarters long and three-quarters of an inch in diameter. smoothly rounded, and pierced with a central hole. Another (figure 4), from Kotzebue sound, consists of a long, quadran- gular piece of walrus ivory an inch and a half long by half an inch in width, with a narrow, raised ear or projection on the middle of the inner surface, which is pierced lengthwise for the passage of a cord; the front is marked with incised lines. Figure 5 illustrates a specimen from Chalitmut, which is somewhat similar in shape to the last, 60 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 except that it is round and about half an inch in diameter. It has a flattened projection on one side, which is pierced to receive the cord. Another example from Cape Nome (plate xxvu, 6) is a narrow, oblong piece of ivory, having the front strongly convex and the back slightly concave, with a projection near the middle, through which passes a broad opening for the cord. Another, from Chalitmut (plate xxvu, 25), is a roughly oval, plummet-like piece of ivory, with a stem-like projection on one end which is pierced for the cord; the surface is crossed by incised lines extending around each face and by a similar line around its greatest diameter, between which and the stem are four sets of circles and dots. The specimen from Anogogmut, illustrated in plate xxvil, 16, is a neatly made carving of a seal an inch and three-eighths long, with a projecting ear-like piece on its lower surface, through which a trian- gular hole admits a cord. Another, from Nunivak island (plate xxv11, 15), is a double oval carving, with an angular projecting ear on the lower surface for the attachment of the cord. On the front the double oval surface meets at a narrow neck, each end having etched upon it a grotesque countenance, probably representing the face of a seal. The fastener shown in plate xxvul, 12, from Sfugunugumut, is an inch and a half long, made from walrus ivory in the shape of a white whale, and is pierced through the side. Figure 3 shows a carving from Agiukchugumut, two and a quarter inches in length, slightly resembling in outline the incisor of a bear; on the truncated end is a grotesque semihuman face, and etched upon the sides are lines, circles, and dots, including the representation of fore and hind limbs. It represents some being recognized in the mythology of the Eskimo. Plate Xxvul, 7, represents a neatly made carving, an inch and three- quarters long, in the form of a walrus, the flippers of the animal being conventionally shown in relief. It is from the lower Kuskokwim. Plate xxv, 11, shows a miniature carving, from Sledge island, repre- senting a white bear; it is an inch long and is pierced through the side for the cord. Plate xxvu, 8, illustrates a fastener, from Nunivak island, represent- ing a walrus. It measures two and a half inches in length and is pierced vertically for the cord. An unnumbered piece from Kushunuk is a small carving represent- ing on its front a grotesque figure of a woman; it is pierced on the back for the passage of the cord. Plate xxviI, 10, represents a small carving, from Nunivak island, an inch and three-eighths long, almond-shape in outline, flat on the lower edge and concave on the upper} the latter surface has marked upon it the figure of a fish, with a broad, deeply incised, crescent-shape mouth; it is pierced vertically for the cord. Plate Xxvul, 14, shows a fastener from Cape Nome; it measures an inch and a half in length and represents the heads of two polar bears BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXI BOOTS, WATERPROOF MITTENS, AND STRAW SOCKS (ABOUT ONE-NINTH) NELSON | BELTS AND BELT BUTTONS OL with open mouths and joined at the necks. A hole passes laterally through the bases of the necks for the cord; the heads are divided by a deep, broad incision, separating them from each other at their bases. Another fastener from Cape Nome (figure 17) is a fine piece of com- posite carving. Held in one position it represents the head of a white bear; turned with the other surface upward it represents a seal, the ears of the bear serving in that case for the fore-flippers of the latter animal, while a ridge along both sides of the posterior portion of the seal’s body marks the position of its hind flippers and serves to outline the lower jaws of the bear. This object can also be used as a cord handle. Plate xxvit, 13, from Point Hope, is an excellent representation of the skull of a walrus an inch and a half in length. Figure 21 of the same plate represents a fastener from Askinuk, in the form of a seven- fingered human hand. Another style of button or belt fastener is made from a rounded, oval, or quadrangular flattened piece of ivory or bone, pierced through the center with a single hole for the accommodation of the belt cord. The following fasteners are also illustrated in plate XXVII: Figure 19, from the lower Yukon, is a thin, square piece of ivory, pierced in the center by a hole for the cord; its border is surrounded by a series of etched lines, forming a wave pattern; extending toward the center from each corner are etched the tridentate marks repre- senting the raven totem. Figure 20 is from Cape Vancou- ver. It has a circular face, with four projecting knobs at the corners, and etched upon the front are seven concentric circles; the knobs at the corners are pierced and the holes are plugged with wood; two circular lines surround the holes. Figure 22, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a round, convex-face piece of ivory, with the surface neatly carved in relief with a wave pattern alternating with rings; a large ear-like projection on the back is pierced for the cord. Figure 18, from Anogogmut, is an inch and a quarter long, rounded above and square below, with a slightly oval front, on which, in low relief, is a grotesque human face. The usual ear-like ring on the back serves for attaching the cord. Figure 17, from Nunivak island, is an inch and three-eighths long and an inch and a quarter wide. It is excavated at the back, and on the front has a well-made representation of human features, with the mouth and the eyes pierced, and with lines representing snow goggles across the eyes; on the back is a strong ear for attaching the cord. Figure 24, from Cape Vancouver, represents the head of a salmon; Fic, 17—Ivory belt fastener. 62 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 it is hollow and has an ivory pin passing through its base, to which a cord may be attached. In addition to the button-like objects described, other belt fasteners are made in the form of hooks. These vary from plain hooks, as in plate XXvIt, 30, to the elaborately carved forms shown in this plate. Figure 26, from Agiukchugumut, has its surface marked by incised lines inclosing the eye at the base of the hook, passing thence to a point, where they unite. Pelee 4 = Tn J BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY NELSON] : TOMCOD-FISHING APPARATUS 177 sinker, passes a whalebone leader with a small hook at each end; these hooks have an ivory shank through which is passed a pointed iron spike bent upward at the point. Hanging from the lower end of the sinker is another leader of about the same length as the others with a straight shanked hook of the ordinary style, with four points. The style of tomeod hook used from the Yukon mouth to the Kus- kokwim is illustrated in figure 3, plate Lx1x. This specimen, obtained at Askinuk, has a long, round shank of deerhorn, with a knob at the upper end for attachment of the line, and the lower end is enlarged to a doubly conical base, which has three slits at equal intervals, nar- rowed on the outside and widening within. Above these, on the upper cone, are three similar slits alternating around the surface with the first-named. Into these slits are fitted long, slender, sharp-pointed spines of deerhorn, 35 to 4 inches in length, projecting upward and slightly outward. This hook is moved slowly up and down in the water, and catches the fish by piercing them from below while they are gathered about the ivory sinker. Figure 21, plate Lxvu1, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a common style of ivory-shanked tomcod hook, with four projecting iron points. It varies from the ordinary style in having the shank made in a series of curves instead of being straight. A peculiar style of tomcod hook and sinker, from Cape Nome, is shown in figure 10, plate Lx1x. The sinker is made from an old, stained piece of ivory, fashioned into the shape of a fish. Two blue beads are inserted in rings of ivory near the lower end to represent eyes, and another is inlaid on the lower surface. The tail is formed of a piece of white ivory attached to a truncated end of the dark material by a lash- ing of fine cord; the mouth is represented by a hole, in which is a leader, attached to which, below the sinker, are three orange-yellow pieces from the bill of the crested auklet, which are strung on a fine sinew cord with two blue beads, serving to attract the fish. At the lower end of the leader is a hook, with the upper part of the shank of ivory and the lower of deerhorn. These are fastened together with small bone pegs and a lashing of fine cord around the joint. At the base were four iron points, one of which has been broken off. Figure 26, plate LXv1t, from Cape Nome, is a rod used for fishing for tomcod, with an ivory line guide in the end. Figure 20, plate LXvill, from St Lawrence island, are bone shanks for tomeod hooks, made with two slits on the sides at the lower end, in which may be inserted upright bone barbs; the upper end is broadened and flattened a little and pierced for the attachment of a line. Figure 22 of the same plate, from St Lawrence island, is a rather flat, shuttle-shape rod, notched at each end and having wound upon it a long line made from whalebone, with a set of four tomcod hooks at the ends of leaders, which are of the ordinary straight-shank pattern with four barbed points of copper. Figure 9, plate LXvi, from St Michael, is a deer- 18 ETH——12 : 178 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ETH. ANN. 18 horn guide from a tomeod rod. Figure 12, plate LXVIII, shows another tip for a tomcod rod, from Sledge island. Another set of hooks and sinker from Hotham inlet are shown in figure 5, plate Lx1x. The sinker is of greenish slate, with a rounded ivory tip at the upper end, excavated to admit the pointed end of the stone, which is riveted in place.. There are two holes in the middle of the stone, at right angles to each other, for the passage of the leaders, Only a single pair of leaders are in place, the other set having been lost. Figures 14 and 16, plate Lxvu1, illustrate forms of tomcod hooks, obtained at Stugunugumut, which are used also for catching smelts. When tomcod are abundant along the coast in autumn and spring, smelts also are plentiful, and often are caught on the same hooks; but in some localities special hooks are made for taking smelts, one of which, from Nunivak island, is illustrated in figure 13, plate LXVIII. This has a straight ivory shank, largest near its lower end, in which a recurved copper hook is set aud held in place by a wooden plug. While fishing for tomcod, sculpin of several species are frequently caught in shallow water. A number of hooks made especially for taking these fish were obtained at Cape Nome. Sculpin hooks from the northern shore of Norton sound and from Bering strait are made from pieces of stone and ivory, fitted together to form an oval shank (figure 21, plate UX1X). The surface of the stone is grooved to receive the ivory, which forms the lower end, and is fastened by a lashing. The hook, either of iron or copper, passes through the shank and the point is upturned in front. The shank is ornamented with little tags of sinew cord at the jower corners, to wlich are attached blue beads and the sheaths from the bills of auklets. The stone chosen for these hooks varies consid- - erably, but is usually of some bright color. Sometimes the lower end is made also of stone of another color instead of ivory, as in the speci- men from Cape Nome, illustrated in figure 12, plate LXIx, which is used also as a grayling hook. 2 A sculpin hook and sinker of dark-colored stone is represented in figure 14, plate Lxrx. It was obtained at Cape Nome. The sinker is pierced at the upper end for the attachment of the rawhide line; to this upper end is fastened a finely braided sinew cord, having an orange-yellow piece from an auklet’s bill at its lower end. The other eid of the sinker has a white ivory cap fitted over it and held in place by a wooden peg; in the lower end is a hole in which is a small seal- skin baud, to which are attached some pieces of skin from the legs of birds, and below this extends a leader, terminating in a flat-shank hook. The leader is also ornamented with a blue bead and a piece from the bill of an auklet. The shank of the hook is composed of three pieces, the upper and lower of ivory, and the middle one of stone, neatly fitted in grooves in the ivory and fastened by a lashing; a single- point, copper barb is inserted through the shank and bent upward in front. In the truncated base of the ivory of the shank are two holes below the place where the hook is inserted, to which are hung BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXIX FISHHOOKS AND SINKERS (ONE-FIFTH) NELSON] FISHING TACKLE 179 two short sinew cords, on each of which is strung a blue bead and an orange-colored piece from the bill of an auklet. These various orna- ments are intended as lures for the fish. Another of these sculpin hooks from Cape Nome is shown in figure 22, plate Lx1x. It is attached by a leader to a small ivory sinker, which is yellow on one side and blackened on the other; on the dark side are inserted two white ivory eyes with a dark-colored wooden plug in the center ef each to represent the pupil. On the other side is a hole for attaching the leader; small bits of red flannel are fastened to this end for lures. The other end terminates in a flattened point, in which is a hole for the line. Strung on the leader is a blue bead and an orange-yellow piece from the bill of an anklet. The shank, which has near the end two holes for the line, is made from deerhorn and flattened, becoming larger toward the lower end, where an oblong piece of ivory is inserted just back of the point of the hook, which is a single, sharp-pointed iron barb inserted through the lower end of the shank and bent upward in front. At each of the lower corners of the shank is a short sinew cord, on which are strung a blue and a white bead and an orange sheath from the bill of an auklet. Another sculpin hook from the same locality is represented in figure 8, plate LXrx. Itis made from a stout piece of iron, the ends bent together and the points sharpened and upturned. It is attached to a sinker of gneiss, which is elongated-oval in shape and fastened to the line by a lashing of whalebone, which passes around it from end to end. A small hook from Sledge island (figure 20, plate Lx1x) is made from two pieces of ivory joined by a small connecting rod, on which is strung a flat blue bead. It is shaped to represent a fish. At the lower end are two small, dark-colored wooden pegs set in to represent eyes. A short copper hook projects on the inside. Another sculpin hook, from Cape Nome (number 45281), is made in three pieces. The lower part is of dark chocolate-colored stone, the middle of reddish granite, and the upper part of ivory. They are lashed together in the usual manner, For catching salmon trout and the large-fin grayling, small, orna- mented hooks are made of stone and ivory. These hooks are similar in character to those used for catching smelts and sculpia along the shore of Norton sound and the coast of Bering strait. One of these grayling hooks from Cape Nome is shown in figure 12, plate Lxrx. It is made from two pieces of stone, the upper of which is chocolate- color and the lower reddish white. They are neatly joined together and held in position by a sinew lashing, which passes through a hole in one piece and around a groove along the middle line of the other, A ‘small iron pin is passed through the lower part of the shank and curves upward in front to form the hook. Attached to the upper and lower ends of the shank are orange-yellow sheaths from the beak of an auklet, the lower end having also a blue bead. Figure 21, plate LXIx, represents two hooks from the Diomede 180 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT. [ETH. ANN. 18 islands. One is similar in form and ornamentation to the last pre- ceding specimen, but the lower portion is of yellowish bone and the upper part of greenish-gray stone. The other is similar in shape, but the upper half of the shank is of white ivory, with two encircling grooves in which narrow strips of skin from the legs of an auklet are bound, and the lower half of the shank is of dark-colored ivory. A grayling hook from Unalaklit (figure 48) has a leader of whalebone. The white ivory shank has a dull green spiral band, produced by stain- ing the ivory in some unknown manner, Figure 30, plate LXIx, represents a set of hooks from the Lower Yukon, which are intended for catching losh. They have tapering wooden shanks, split at the lower end to receive the butts of long wooden or deerhorn points, which are lashed in position with spruce root. Most of these hooks are provided with rawhide leaders, but one leader is made from a strip of whalebone. They are held together by thrusting the points into a rounded mass of fine shavings bound together with a strip of spruce root. A hook from the Lower Yukon (figure 15, plate LX V1) has an obovate shank of deerhorn, with a spur-like barb of iron thrust through the lower end. Theupperend is taper- ing, flattened, and pierced with a hole for thereception ofa line. Hooks of this kind are used for small whitefish and losh in the streams back from the coast. Aloshhook from the head of Norton bay (figure 17, plate LXIx) has an obo- vate shank of ivory, bored across through the shank and filled with lead to give additional weight. The lower end has a hole through which is thrust a small, double-point rod of iron, bent upward at the ends to form two barbs. A hook used for catching large whitefish or nelma (fig- ure 10,plate LXVII1) was obtained at Paimut. It has a curved deerhorn shank, broadening toward the lower end, in which are incisions representing the mouth aud eyes of a fish. Between the eyes is inserted a strong iron barb, bent upward at the point. The upper end of the shank is forked like the tail of a fish, and has a hole for the line. A hook for catching pickerel and whitefish, illustrated in figure 19, plate LXVIII, is from Unalaklit. The shank is broad and flattened toward the upper end, where it has two holes for attachment of the line. The edges are serrated. Near the lower end it is slender and has an upeurled barb of iron fastened with a lashing of sinew cord. Another hook, obtained at Sledge island, is somewhat similar to the preceding, but the barb, instead of being fastened by a lashing, is inserted through a hole in the shank, the upper portion of which is broad and has only two notches on the sides (figure 11, plate Lxvu1). Two hooks, from St. Michael, used for catching wolf fish, illustrated in figures 9 and 11 Fic, 48—Grayling hook (4). NELSON] FISH HOOKS AND SINKERS 181 plate LXIx, are attached to rounded, tapering sinkers of ivory. One of them has a deerhorn shank, serrated on the edges, with a stout iron barb inserted through the lower end. The other hook has a rude, straight shank, made from a stick about four inches in length, with a notch at the upper end for attaching the line, which passes downward to the lower end, where a pointed spine of deerhorn is lashed obliquely across it. Another variety of hook is a rudely made specimen from St Lawrence island (figure 25, plate Lx1x). It is cut from a piece of walrus ivory and is provided with a long barbed point. It was used for catching wolf fish, but probably both this and the two preceding examples were also used for cod-fishing. A similar hook from the same locality is shown in figure 29, plate Lx1x. In this case, however, the shank is of wood with a barbed point of bone fitted in a slot at the base. The upper end of the shank has a hole for attaching the whalebone line. This hook was used probably for catching codfish. An outfit for catching wolf fish, illustrated in fig- ure 27, plate LXV, was obtained at the head of Norton sound. It consists of a shuttle-like rod, 28 inches in length, on which is wound a rawhide line, near the end of which a rounded piece of lava, reddish in color, is fastened with a basket lashing. The hook has a straight deerhorn shank, to the lower end of which is lashed crosswise an iron nail with the projecting end pointed, In the fork between the hook and the shank a kind of bait composed of sinew-like material is secured by a lashing. Figure 28, plate LXv1I, shows a similar outfit from Nor- ton sound, with the sinker made of a rounded granite pebble grooved at each end for the attachment of the rawhide lashing Another out- fit (figure 25, plate Lxvi11), from Norton sound, for catching blackfish (Dallia) is a long, slender, shuttle-like rod 20 inches in length, on which is wound a short line of sinew with a small hook at one end. This hook has a straight, rounded ivory shank and is provided with a pointed iron pin through the lower end, with the tip upcuryed. Along the shore of Bering sea and the adjacent Arctic coast con- siderable ingenuity is displayed by the people in manufacturing sink- ers for fishing lines, and a great variety are made. Jor several species of fish the sinker is intended to attract the fish, as well as to serve as a weight for the line, and is made of a variegated white and dark colored stone. Other sinkers, of ivory, have a portion of the surface blackened, and some of the stone sinkers have an ivory cap. A large collection of these objects was obtained, from which typical examples have been selected for illustration. A specimen from the Diomede islands (figure 32, plate Lxrx) is a piece of bone, discolored to a chocolate-brown, pierced with a hole and erooved near the upper end to receive the line. The lower end has a hole for fastening the leader for the hook. The lower end represents the head of a fish, with an incision for the mouth; a blue bead repre- sents one eye and a piece of lead the other, Another example from 182 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 the same locality (figure 16, plate LXIX) is a long, oval stone with a rounded ivory cap, held in position by a deerhorn pin passed through both substances. A hole for the line is in the upper end of the ivory cap and another in the lower end of the stone portion. A similar sinker (figure 1, plate LXIx) was obtained at Port Clarence by Dr. Dall. It is made from a piece of granite and has a cap of chocolate- color ivory, held in position by an iron rivet through the two pieces; the ivory portion has a flattened point, and on the sides a pair of eyes are represented by two inlaid rings of ivory, in which blue beads are set. A similar sinker, from Cape Nome (figure 7, plate LXxrx) is made of stone, with a small ivory cap fastened by ariyet. The long, round stone sinker shown in figure 27, plate LXxIx, was obtained on Sledge island. It tapers below to a blunt point, where it is pierced for a leader. The upper end is truncated, and has fitted on it a long, round tail-like piece of ivory, lashed in position with a strand of whalebone passed through holes in the two parts. In the stone is a hole to receive a long leader for two hooks. Another sinker, of variegated black and white stone, from the same locality (figure 26, plate LXIXx), has an ivory cap fastened with a lashing passed through a hole in the lower end of the ivory and around a groove in the stone. , oe ae g31s 90d HLIM ATINVS LNWIAIVW AXX1 “Id LYOd3SY IWONNVY HLN33LHDIS ASOIONHL]A NVOIYAWY JO NVvV3aund NELSON] BASKETS—SLEDS 205 with a center made from a piece of rawhide; the sides, built up of coils, narrow inward to the top, where they are suddenly constricted to a rolled rim surrounding the circular opening. The basket from the lower Yukon shown in figure 4, plate Lxxtv, has a flat bottom with a cir- cular piece of rawhide in the center. A double strand of grass is twisted into the woof between each of the coils on the sides, producing a doubly ridged surface. The top-has a slight rim around the central opening. A toy basket from the lower Yukon (figure 5, plate LXxTyv) has the . warp varied at intervals with grass cords passed around the surface, about a third of an inch apart, in three parallel rows. These cords consist of three strands, only one of which is woven into the warp, leaving the remainder in relief on the surface. Figure 6, plate LXxIv, shows a basket from St Michael. In this specimen the coil starts from the center of the flat bottom; the sides slope slightly outward and end at the upper edge without being con- stricted, forming a dish shape. Another basket from the coast of Norton sound has the usual flat bottom; the sides slope slightly out- ward, swell around the middle, and then are drawn in again toward the top to form a rim around the opening. On the lower Yukon coiled baskets are made of spruce roots, which form very strong, rigid walls. They vary in form, but all have flat bottoms. A basket of this: kind, from that locality (figure 2, plate LXXIV), is roughly quadrate in form, with rounded corners. The sides are nearly straight, but are constricted abruptly above, forming a neck-like rim about an inch high, which surrounds the square opening in the top. Another specimen, from Sledge island (figure 3, plate LXXIV), is round in shape, with the sides slightly curved and constricted above to a slightly flaring tip around the opening. The most elaborately finished specimen procured is shown in figure 12, plate Lxxrv. This was obtained from the lower Yukon district. It is round in shape, with slightly curving sides, which are constricted abruptly to the neck of a slightly flaring rim. It has a flattened conical top, which has two small sinew hinges, and is fastened in front with sinew cords; a loop of the same material on the top forms the handle. A “housewife” of woven grass, obtained on the lower Yukon, is woven with open-work similar to the bags which have been described. TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION SLEDS The Alaskan Eskimo of the mainland and en all the islands about Bering strait, including St Lawrence island, use dogs and sleds for winter traveling. Plate LXxy, from a photograph taken at St Michael, represents a Malemut family ready to start on a journey. On the 206 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eTH. ANN. 18 American coast and adjacent islands sleds from 9 to 10 feet in length are built strongly of driftwood. Their runners are from 2 to 3 inches broad and from 6 to 7 inches high. They are straight nearly to the front, where they curve up regularly to the level of the bed. Along the sides four or five stanchions are mortised into the upper edge of the runners and project upward about 23 to 3 feet; the ends of bow- shape pieces of wood are also mortised in the top of the runners, and both these and the stanchions are fastened with wooden pins. These bow-shape pieces curve upward and inward about five inches above the tops of the runners, forming the supports on which rests the bed of the sled, which is from 16 to 24 inches in width, and is formed of a kind of latticework. A crescentic or bow-shape piece of. wood is fastened across the front, from which two long, thin, wooden slats run length- wise to the rear, where they rest on the upeurved bows, to which they are lashed. Across these pieces a series of thin wooden slats are lashed by rawhide cords passed through holes and corresponding holes in the longitudinal slats, which extend out to the rear line of the runners and have a long strip of wood lashed along each side. A long wooden rod is fastened firmly to the upturned point of the runner on each side and extends to the rear of the sled, resting on the tops of the stanchions, forming arail. A stout rawhide cord is passed through holes in the top of the stanchions and wound around the rail, holding it firmly in position. The rail usually projects a few inches beyond the last stan- chion on each side, forming handles for guiding the sled. Some sleds also have a crosspiece resting on the last stanchions at the rear. On the sides a stout rawhide cord is fastened at the end of the rail and is passed down around the side bar of the bed and back to the rail again in a diagonal or zigzag pattern along the entire length, thus forming a netting, which prevents articles from falling from the sled. Inside of this netting it is customary to place a large sheet of canvas or of skins sewed together to form a covering for the load. The flaps are folded over the top, and a rawhide lashing from rail to rail holds the load firmly in place. From five to nine dogs are attached to large sleds of this character, and a considerable load can be hauled on them. With seven dogs it is customary, on trips along the.coast of Norton sound, to haul a load weighing 300 or 400 pounds. Smaller sheds, from 5 to 6 feet in length, are used about the villages or for short journeys. Ligure 16, plate LXxv1, represents a model of one of these sleds, which was obtained at the head of Norton sound. A simpler form of sled also is used by the people along the coast from Kotzebue sound to the Yukon mouth. The runners are of the same fashion as those last described, to which a stout crosspiece is fastened on the inside of the upturned ends, and two or three short stanchions, 6 to $8 inches in height, are mortised into their upper edge. A rail on each side is lashed against the crosspiece and extends backward, resting upov and NELSON] SLEDS 207 lashed to the tops of the stanchions to form rails. Crosspieces con- nect the sides of the sled between the stanchions. These sleds are very light, weighing only from 15 to 20 pounds. They are used for short hunting or fishing trips, and are hauled usually by the hunter himself. In the spring they are used by hunters to haul their kaiaks on the sea ice to open water, or to the cracks that are opening. When such a break is reached, the hunter places the sled on the top of the kaiak, back of the manhole, and paddles across to the other side, where he disembarks, places the kaiak on the sled, and resumes his journey. In this manner these people make long trips over the sea ice in search of seals and walrus. Fie. 61—Kaviak hunter with hand sled. When a hunter wishes to make a trip to the mountains in winter in search of reindeer and does not care to take dogs with him, he fre- quently loads his provisions, bedding, and gun on one of these light sleds and drags it to the camping place. The accompanying illustration (figure 61), from a photograph, rep- resents a deer hunter leaving St Michael with one of these sleds for a winter hunt in the mountains backward from the coast. Both of the styles of sleds described are in common use over nearly the entire coast district visited. The runners of the larger sleds are commonly shod with thin, flat strips of bone—sawed from the jawbone of a whale—of the same width as the runner, and fastened on with wooden pegs; the smaller 208 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 sleds commonly have the runners unshod, although sometimes strips of bone are used for that purpose. ! Figure 62 illustrates a sled from Plover bay, Siberia, which is the style used on St Lawrence island and the adjacent Siberian coast. It is modeled after those used by the Chukchi of eastern Siberia. The runners are made from pieces of driftwood; they are suboval in cross section, about 2 inches wide by 14 thick, and taper toward the front. To the front ends of the runners is lashed an overlapping piece of wood of the same width and about half an inch thick, which extends down the under side of the runner and is curved up over the back, reaching midway to the rear of the sled, where it is lashed to the end of a flat piece of wood which serves as the rail. Bowed pieces of reindeer horn are fixed in the tops of the runners, to which they are fastened by whalebone or rawhide lashings. Two flattened sticks extend from the top of the first bow to a little beyond the last one, to form a resting place for the bed of the sled and to which it is lashed. Crosspieces are then lashed to these sticks. On each side a brace is formed by a rod of wood, which is lashed against the side of the stringer and to the Fic. 62 —Sled nsed on the Siberian shore of Bering strait. runner 15 inches in front of the rear end and extending obliquely for- ward under the bed. At the rear end a bow of wood is lashed to the last deerhorn bow under the bottom, forming a curve about 10 inches high above the bed; from each side of this, near the top, another bow extends forward and downward to the base of the second deerhorn bow, where it is firmly lashed. ‘To serve as a shoe, a thin, flat piece of wood is fastened to the lower side of each runner by rawhide lashings passed through the runner and through holes in the shoe, which are countersunk, so that the friction against the surface of the snow or rocks shall not cut the cord. The load is fastened on these sleds with rawhide cords, and the attachment for hauling is made to the forward part of the runners and the first crosspiece. This form of sled is used with dogs by the Eskimo and sedentary Chukchi of the Asiatic coast, and with reindeer by the reindeer-using Chukchi of that region. Figure 1, plate LXxvi, represents another style of sled, from St Lawrence island, used for transporting to the village the meat and blub- ber from the place where the game is killed. It is about 15 inches in length and the same in width, and has two stout, walrus-tusk run- ners about 15 inches long, an ineh and a half deep, and two-thirds of an BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXVI MODEL OF SLED FRAME, WITH OTHER OBJECTS USED IN TRANSPORTATION (THREE-SIXTEENTHS) NELSON] SLEDS—DOG HARNESS 209 inch wide; they have a flange-like projecting edge along the outside of the upper border, and are held together by three rounded wooden crossbars 14 inches long, with two grooves in their ends, held in posi- tion by strong rawhide lashings that pass through two hoies in the upper edges of the runners. The front ends of the runners are curved upward and have a large slot in them for attaching the cord by which the sled is hauled. In the rear end of each runner are two holes, in which are inserted stout rawhide loops, and a hole just in front of the second crossbar serves for another rawhide loop; these loops receive the lashings with which the load is held in place. DOG HARNESS AND ACCOUTERMENTS The ordinary style of harness used for dogs is made of rawhide straps. It consists of a collar with a strap extending down from the back of the neck to the middle of the back, where it meets a strap which passes from the lower part of the collar between the fore-legs and up on each side over the ribs, to be attached to the back strap; at this point is made fast the leading line, which is from three to five feet long, and is attached either directly to the front of the sled or to a single straight leading line fastened to the sled and extending forward to a distance sufficient for the attachment of all the dogs belonging to the team. When the team consists of more than three dogs, they are attached to the main leading line in pairs, with the most intelligent dog in front as a leader. When the load is very heavy, or the dogs are too numerous to work well in a single team, they may be attached to the forward stanchions, sometimes one or eyen two on each side, in addition to the team in front. On the islands of Bering strait and along the Asiatic coast, long- handle whips are used for driving dogs; specimens of these were obtained on Sledge, King, and St Lawrence islands. The handles of the whips from King and St Lawrence islands are round rods of spruce, a little over forty inches in length, and have rawhide lashes fastened to them with sinew cord. One of these whips from St Lawrence island (figure 15, plate Lxxvr) has alash made from a piece of sealskin, with the edges sewed together, forming a round cord, with a slender strip of sealskin at the tip for a cracker. On the handle is a ferule of walrus ivory, rudely represent- ing the head of a white bear; the end of the handleis wedged into the ferule, which projects spur-like on one side. A King island whip (number 45407) has a stout lash made of a piece of walrus hide, with a small rawhide cracker at the tip. At the butt of the handle is a round ivory ferule, sloping to a flaring rim, which extends around it. The use of these whips also extends to the main- land of the American coast at Cape Prince of Wales, and thence north- ward to Point Hope on the Arctic coast. 18 ETH——14 210 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 The Eskimo to the southward of Bering strait use short-handle whips with a long lash, generally of braided rawhide, largest just in front of its attachment to the handle and tapering to a point at the end, which is provided with a sealskin cracker. The ferules used on the handles of these whips vary considerably in form, as is shown in the specimens illustrated. One example, from St Lawrence island (figure 7, plate Lxxv1), is slightly spoon-shape in outline, projecting spur-like on one side. A round ferule from the Diomede islands (figure 11, plate Lxxyr) is of walrus ivory and has a lobe-like projection on each side. Figure 9, plate Lxxvi, shows a round ivory ferule from Sledge island, with a carving representing the head of a white bear projecting on one side. Another, from Point Hope (figure 10, plate LXXv1), is a small ivory specimen with a flattened spur on one side, In many localities I found in use swivels made of bone, deerhorn, ivory, or wood, which were fastened to the cords by which dogs were attached to stakes or other objects, to prevent the cords from becoming twisted by the movement of the animals. Figure 13, plate LXXvVI, represents a large wooden swivel of this kind from Razbinsky, on the lower Yukon. It consists of a round wooden rod, deeply notched on one side, with a hole pierced through the head formed by the notch, through which is inserted a stout wooden rod with a large head. In the opposite ends of the two rods are holes in which cords are fastened. Swivels exactly similar in design, but made of deerhorn or ivory, were obtained on the Diomede islands, St Lawrence island, on Kowak river at the head of Kotzebue sound, and at Point Belcher on the Arctic coast. Figure 2, plate LXxxvI, represents one of these ivory swivels from the Diomede islands. Another style of swivel used similarly to the preceding, as well as on dog harness to prevent the lines from becoming twisted, is made by inserting a large-head rod of deerhorn or ivory in a hole in the center of a square or oval block of the same material, around the borders of which are four holes, to which are attached cords with their ends fastened together a few inches beyond their starting points. Figure 12, plate LXXvI, shows such a swivel from Unalaklit, made of deer- horn, with a square block on the head. Another swivel of this char- acter, with an oval head (figure 6, plate Lxxvyz), is from Cape Nome. A similar speciinen was obtained on Kowak river. A deerhorn swivel from the lower Yukon (figure 8, plate LXxvI) has a head roughly triangular in shape, with two holes for the lines; through another hole in the center is a deerhorn rod with a large head and with a hole at the small end for the attachment of a cord. In addition to swivels, smail, double-eye blocks are also commonly used on dog harness; these are cut from bone, deerhorn, or ivory, and have holes passing through them in two directions. Blocks of this NELSON] DOG HARNESS—BREAST YOKES 201 character were obtained from various localities between Norton sound and Point Hope, on the Arctic coast, and thence across Bering strait to the coast of Siberia, and on St Lawrence island. Figure 4, plate LXxvI, illustrates a small ivory block of this charac- ter, from St Lawrence island. It is somewhat pear-shape, with a hole through one end, surrounded by a lip or bead-like elevation; this hole and a groove on each side are intended to receive a permanent cord. In a direction transverse to this hole is a larger one, through which the cord is passed in making a temporary attachment. Another of these blocks from St Lawrence island (figure 5, plate LXXVI) has an incised groove, forming a neck, between the two holes. Some of these blocks are very rudely shaped, as is shown in figure 3, plate Lxxvi, from St Lawrence island. This example is cut without any attempt to round off the corners. Another very plainly made specimen was obtained at Unalaklit. In addition to the use of dogs for hauling sleds, it is a common prac- tice among the Eskimo when traveling in summer to put their dogs on shore and harness them to a long line attached to the bow of the boat, one of the party remaining on shore to drive the dogs, which travel along the beach and pull the boat. By the employment of this means much labor is saved. BREAST YOKES From Nunivak island southward beyond the mouth of Kuskokwim river the people are in the habit of using breast yokes when carrying heavy burdens on their backs; they are made of flattened pieces of wood, crescentic in form, with a hole at one end through which a cord is fastened; at the other end is a knob-like enlargement, with a notch on its outer side, over which a loop on thé end of the cord can be slipped. Figure 14, plate LxxVI, illustrates one of these breast yokes, which was obtained on Nunivak island by Doctor W. H. Dall. It consists of a flattened board, slightly crescentic in shape, about three inches wide and half an inch in thickness. On the curved front is carved in relief a human face, the eyes, mouth, and nostrils being incised, as are also four parallel lines extending downward from near the corners of the mouth, to represent tattooing; across the front each way from the face is a broad groove which narrows to a point at the outer end, along each edge of which are set six small reindeer teeth. The face, grooves, and tips of the yoke are painted red; the remainder of the front and upper border is black. Doctor Dall obtained another yoke of this kind on Nunivak island; it has a beveled front and a slight ridge along the cen- ter, which is narrow in the middle but broader toward the ends. A yoke trom Chalitmut (number 36023) is constricted in the middle and expanded into a wing-like form toward each end. \ ie, THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ETH. ANN. 18 SNOWSHOES Among the western Eskimo snowshoes are in common use. They are of the greatest service for traveling, both over the sea ice and on land, and are used by both men and women, but more largely of course by men, as their more active life necessitates almost constant travel while hunting, visiting netting places on the ice, or traps on the shore. For traveling on land, where the snow is softer and deeper than on the sea ice, snowshoes with larger and finer netting are used. Figure 63 represents snowshoes, used for land travel, which were obtained near the head of Norton bay. They are made of two pieces of wood, spliced in front where they curve upward at the toe, held together by means of Fic. 63—Snowshoes from Norton bay. two crossbars in the middle, before and behind the foot-rest. The net- ting in front of the first crossbar is hexagonal in shape, and in the rear consists of ten cords passing through holes in the hindmost crossbar and converging to the thong that binds the frame together at the heel. The foot-rest is on a stout netting made of widely spaced crosscords attached to the framework on the sides as well as to the crossbars. This is the general style of snowshoe worn about the shores of Norton sound and thence southward to the Kuskokwim, and up lower Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. Various forms of coarsely netted snowshoes are used on the sea ice at different points along the coast. Figure 64 shows the style of snowshoe used at Cape Darby. The frame is in two pieces, rounded in cross section and tapering in front, where they are curved strongly upward at the ends which overlap and NELSON] SNOWSHOES 213 are lashed together. At the heel the rim tapers backward to a point and is held together by a rawhide lashing; the toe netting is replaced by a cord passing from side to side and two other crosscords which pass diagonally from near the point of the upturned toe to holes in the frout of the crossbar. The foot-rest is made of a strong cord of rawhide passed through holes in the side of the frame and over the Fic. 64—Snowshoe from Cape Darby. front and rear of the crossbars, forming a pattern somewhat similar to that in the shoes used on land. A roughly oval shoe from Icy cape (figure 65) is rudely made and pointed at the heel. The spaces in front and behind the crossbars are filled with fine netting of babiche, which is fastened through holes in therim. The foot-rest is made by rectangular netting fastened through holes in the sides of the framework and over the front and rear cross- bars. These shoes are intermediate in character between those used on land and the ones intended for service on sea ice. A short, stoutly made shoe from St Lawrence island (figure 66) has the framework oblong in cross section, with the corners slightly rounded and turned upward abruptly at the toe, the curve commenc- Fic, 65—Snowshoe from Icy cape. ing immediately in front of the first crossbar. The ends of the side- pieces meet at the toe and are held firmly together by a lashing of whalebone passed through holes. The rear crossbar is close to the heel, which is held in position by the end of the cord used for the foot- rest, which passes through a hole on one side, and, crossing the trian- gular space behind the last crossbar, is tied through a hole in the 214 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 opposite side. The space between the front and rear crossbars occupies almost the entire area of the shoe and is crossed by a stout netting of rectangular pattern, with some of the strands passing diagonally, pro- ducing a combination of patterns. These coarsely netted shoes are intended for use upon frozen snow or on the rough surface of the sea ice, for which purposes they are very serviceable, as the masses of broken ice have many small openings large enough for the foot to pass through, which render traveling very difficult without such assistance. By aid of these shoes hunters are enabled to travel safely and fre- quently to pass over weak places where newly made ice would not otherwise support them. On the Asiatic coast the Eskimo use snow- shoes similar to those from St Lawrence island that have been described, and others rather more elongated but similar in general pattern. Fic. 66—Snowshoe from St Lawrence island. ICE STAFFS When traveling or hunting on the sea ice there is great risk of breaking through thin places which have been concealed by drifted snow. To guard against this danger the people are in the habit, at certain seasons, of carrying a stout wooden staff with a strong ivory or bone point, two or three inches long, inserted in the lower end and fastened by a strong wrapping of sinew. Around the base of this point is fastened a hoop of bone or deerhorn, hung to the staff by a cord passed through a hole above the point. A ring of bone or horn surrounds the base of the point, and between it and the outer hoop strong cross-lashings of rawhide form a sort of netting. In walking over suspicious places in the ice the traveler plants the staff solidly before him previous to taking a step; if the ice be thin the point of the staff goes through, but the hoop comes in contact with a broader surface and prevents the staff from sinking farther. In this way NELSON]> ICE STAFFS AND CREEPERS 215 the weight of the man is distributed over three points, and thus he Fia. 67—Ice stafi'(4). is often enabled to pass over places which otherwise would not support him. These staffs are alsoused in summer travel. During this season the tundras are covered with tussocks and soft beds of sphagnum, which render walking excessively laborious and difficult. By use of the staff the traveler is enabled to walk more safely, and by lessen- ing the weight on his feet, does not sink so deeply in spongy patches of moss or in semi- marshy ground. Figure 67 illustrates one of these ice staffs from Cape Nome. An ice staff from Point Barrow (figure 68) consists of a round wooden staff nearly five feet in length, the lower end being tipped with a cap of ivory, held in place by a pin through its base. Through the upper end is a hole, in which is a sealskin loop for hang- ing the staff on the wrist. ICE CREEPERS Ice creepers are used to prevent the feet from slipping while traveling over the sea ice or frozen snow in spring. In some of them the central groove is deepened to form an oblong slot, piercing through, and on others the points are formed in groups near each end. Figure 69 (3) represents a pair of ice creep- ers from Cape Darby, consisting of small, flat, oblong ivory rods 34 inches in length, with the upper surface slightly rounded and the lower side having a deep, flat groove extend- ing lengthwise along the middle, leaving two high ridges that are crossed by deep grooves, producing a row of pyramidal points along each edge. The ends are provided with two holes, in which are fastened the rawhide cords by which the creepers are attached to the sole of the boot. A pair of ice creepers from St Lawrence island (figure 69, 5) are in the form of flat, ivory bars, about 4 inches long and an inch wide. Hight small holes are drilled into the lower sur- face, in which are inserted small, round-pointed iron spikes; there are Fic. 68—Ice stai? (4). 216 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ETH. ANN. 18 two holes through each end for the cords by which they are fastened to the foot. Figure 69(1 and 1a) show the upper and lower surfaces of a broader and heavier pair of ice creepers from the Diomede islands. They are turned up at the ends to retain them in place on the foot, and have four rows of pyramidal points along the lower surface. Figure 69 (2 and 4), from St Michael and St Lawrence island, respec- tively, represent ivory creepers with a row of pyramidal points along each side. Through the middle, between the rows of points, is cut a Fic. 69—Ice creepers (3). long, rectangular slot, and in the ends of each are holes for the cords by which they are fastened on. Other creepers of similar style were obtained trom Plover bay on the Siberian shore. BOATS The Eskimo of the Alaskan coast, the islands of Bering strait, and the coast of Siberia use large open boats, varying in length from fifteen to forty feet, and made by covering a wooden framework with seal- skin or walrus-hide. These are the umiaks so well known from their use by Greenlanders. Among the people from the head of Norton sound and northward to Point Barrow, these boats are known as u!-mi'-ak; among the Unalit of the eastern shore of Norton sound and southward they are called an/-i-juk. They vary in size according to locality or to the purpose for which they are made, and their pattern also varies slightly with the locality. Originally they were propelled by paddles, after which slender-blade oars were adopted in some locali- ties, and these are still used. Although oars are in common use, yet it is not rare to see umiaks propelled wholly by paddles, as was done in ancient times. Paddles ate ‘a “fe ” “t yer Te iG ' ci as Pee eee 7 ile a oy. = ar Saael TVS ONILLVA HLIM XVINA 4O 1S0OW HWAXX1 “Id LHYOdaY IWANNY HLNSSLHDIS ADOTIONHLA NVOIYSWY JO NV3AYNG NELSON] BOATS, OARS, AND SAILS 217 were seen in use at Cape Prince of Wales on Bering strait, and at points northward and southward from that locality. The oars are held in place usually by means of a rawhide lashing made fast, on the inside of the boat, to the framework. The steering is always done with a large, broad-blade paddle. In ancient times sails sometimes were improvised by sewing together grass mats and putting them up between two long sticks, which were fastened to the framework of the umiak and stayed by means of cords so as to extend upward and outward in V-shape form, one from each side of the boat. Later, after the arrival of white men, a single upright mast with stays and with blocks made from bone or ivory, were adopted in imitation of the rigging used on the ships of the strangers. Sails were next made from the skins of reindeer or other animals, sewed to a proper size and shape and fastened to a yard, which was raised or lowered by tackle made of walrus-hide cord passed through an ivory or bone block or through a hole in the upper end of the mast. Some sails are still made of old deerskins or light sealskins sewed together, but many are seen of light canvas or drilling obtained from vessels or through fur traders. The framework of these boats is formed of neatly-shaped pieces cut from driftwood and lashed together with rawhide cords, which are passed through holes drilled in the wood, as shown in the model, from St Michael, illustrated in plate Lxxvir, 38. The covering is of heavy sealskin or walrus:hide, tanned to remove the hair, sewed into proper shape, and drawn over the framework. In the edges many little slits are cut, through which is passed the cord which lashes it to the frame- work on the inside under the rail. After it is in place the lashings are drawn tightly and permitted to dry; as it contracts the cover becomes as tight as a drumhead, after which several coats of seal oil are applied to the outside and allowed to become thoroughly dry, when the cover becomes impervious to water for a week or ten days, at the expiration of which time it becomes water-soaked and it is then neces- sary to haul up the boat on the shore and, after allowing it to dry, to give it another coating of oil, otherwise the skins would rot. Travel- ing is done by day, and at night the boats are hauled up on the beach and turned bottom up or upon one edge, so that they may dry during the night. When treated carefully in the manner described, the cover of an umiak will last for several years. In comparison with the Norton sound umiaks, I noticed that the boats used by the people of Bering strait have somewhat less sheer to the sides and are provided with flaps of sealskin about two feet wide, which are attached along the rail and folded down inside the boat in fair weather; in rough weather these flaps are raised and held in place by stout sticks lashed to the framework around the sides and their ends thrust into a series of holes or slots along the upper edge of the flap. In addition to these, the people of Bering strait carry sealskin 218 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ETH. ANN. 18 floats, which are inflated and lashed under the rail on the outside, to prevent the boat from swamping. Sometimes umiaks are driven out to sea by storms and their occu- pants are unable to regain the shore, when the dashing spray and the waves soak the cover and the rawhide lashings of the frame until they relax and the boat collapses, drowning all on board. From Kotzebue sound northward the umiaks are very similar to those of Norton sound, but are slightly narrower. At the former place, during the summer of 1881, I saw a number of umiaks, each of which had a figure of a man painted roughly in black close to the bow. The umiaks of the Yukon and adjacent country, and thence southward, are commonly ornamented, on the middle of each side, with the fig- ure of a mythic, alligator-like animal called pél-rai/-yik; the head, with open mouth and projecting tongue, is close to the bow, while the tail reaches the stern (figure 156). The umiaks seen among the Eskimo south of East cape, Siberia, at Mechigme bay, St Lawrence island, and Plover bay, were all very much narrower than those of Norton sound, and with very little sheer to their sides; some of them seemed to have almost perpendicular sides. All of the umiaks used in the latter region are provided with a set of sealskin floats to fasten along the outside below the rail in rough weather, which render the boats very buoyant, and but little water can be shipped even in very stormy weather. With their boats fitted in this manner with inflated floats, these people sail fearlessly along their stormy coasts and cross back and forth between the mainland and St Lawrence island. The oars used in the umiaks of the American mainland are kept in position by means of rawhide stays, which are attached firmly to a notch in the part of the oar which rests on the rail; the stays extend fore-and-aft a short distance and are fastened to the side pieces on the inside below therail. The steering is performed with a broad-blade pad- dle. On St Lawrence island oarlocks have been copied from those seen on whaling vessels. An example of these (figure 34, plate LXxvm1), made of oak, is provided with a pin to fit in a hole in the rail of the boat, and its upper portion is pierced to receive the oar. Figure 19, plate LXXVIII, represents an ivory block, from Sledge island, used for the rigging of an umiak. Another form of these blocks, from the same place, is shown in figure 20 of the same plate. A hand- somely made little block from Cape Nome (figure 21, plate LXXxvIIt), has the head of a seal carved in relief on the lower side. A smaller boat or canoe, called kat/ak, is also used along the Ameri- ' can coast and the adjacent islands; but I have never seen one among the people of the Siberian coast nor among the St Lawrence islanders. It is decked over, except a hole amidships, where the navigator sits. They vary somewhat in size and shape in different localities, but the general plan of construction is the same. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL, LXXVIII MODEL OF UMIAK FRAME AND APPURTENANCES OF UMIAK AND KAIAK RIGGING (THREE-SIXTEENTHS) the +i ae vs |) Norah ’ eae a oI NELSON] KATIAKS 219 The frame consists of small strips of wood running lengthwise and brought together at the bow and stern; they are connected by curved ribs, placed at short intervals and fastened by rawhide cords; the bow has a stem piece of wood, roughly triangular in form; another piece at the stern is flattened, but varies in form according to the style of the kaiak in which itis placed. The railis formed of a strong piece of wood, into which the upper ends of the ribs are mortised, holding the rail in place and forming a support for the deck of the boat, in the middle of which is a circular opening, forming the manhole, surrounded by a wooden hoop, which is fastened to two pieces extending to the bow and stern, and resting on the cross-pieces which support the deck. On each side of the manhole is a short stanchion mortised into the rail and the lower side of the rim of the manhole. The entire surface is covered with sealskins, tanned with the hair taken off, and sewed together with sinew cord. The seams are oiled or coated with reindeer tallow, and the entire surface of the boat is thoroughly covered with oil, which is permitted to dry before the boat is placed in the water. In front of the manhole the deck is crossed from side to side by two stout rawhide cords, three or four feet apart, and one or two similar cords are placed at the back of the manhole; slipped on these cords at the rail, on each side, are spur-like pieces of deerhorn, ivory, or bone, which project upward and form a rest on which may be placed the paddle or the hunting spears. Commencing with the kaiaks in use at Nunivak island, the following descriptions show the different forms used successively along the coast nearly to Point Barrow: Figure 2, plate LXXIX, illustrates a kaiak from Nunivak island, 15 feet 1 inch long, 14 inches deep, with 29 inches beam. Another kaiak, from the same island (figure 1, plate LXxrx), is 15 feet 1 inch long, 14 inches deep, and has 29 inches beam. These kaiaks are heavily made, the framework being strong and stoutly built, in order to withstand the stormy seas which they have to encounter about thisisland. A similar form is in use on the coast of the adjacent mainland, The manhole is placed a trifle back from the center; the rim is lashed to the rail by rawhide cords; the cross-pieces which support the deck are upcurved toward the middle, forming a ridge, on the top of which is lashed a stout stick extending each way from the manhole to the bow and to the stern, where it projects as a short, handle-like, quadrate spur; below this the stern slopes downward, with a slight slant toward the front. The wooden parts on top of the bow are cut out, forming a large, round opening just above the rail, around which the skin coyer- ing is cut away. On some of the kaiaks this opening is made to repre- sent the eye of some mythological animal, the mouth of which is painted in black on the outside of the covering. In front of the stern are two loops of cord, which are attached to the central ridge, and hang on each side, so that the shafts of the spears, which lie on the ivory rests, may be thrust into them and their points placed under the crosscord to 220 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 hold them firmly in place. The cross section of these kaiaks is slightly rounded along the keel, with a stronger broken curve along each side to the rail. Figure 3, plate LXx1x, shows a kaiak from St Michael. It is 16 feet 84 inches long and 12 inches deep, with 273 inches beam. The kaiaks of Norton sound are made lighter and narrower than those from Nunivak island. They are essentially the same in the plan of framework except that the projecting stern extends out even with the spur-like point of the top-piece, which reaches back from the man- hole.. In the bow this top-piece extends forward to the upturned point of the stem, leaving a broad, slot-like interspace. When these kaiaks are covered, the covering follows the point of the stem and of this cen- tral piece So as to leave an open space. The same is done at the stern, so that there is a slot-like opening there. This projecting point at the stern serves as a handle for lifting the kaiak, as does the projecting point of the centerpiece at the bow. The central ridge, produced by the stick fastened along the top of the upturned crosspieces of the deck, is similar to that in the kaiaks from Nunivak island. Figure 4, plate LXXIrx, represents a kaiak from King island. It is 15 feet 3 inches long, 134 inches deep, and has 284 inches beam. These kaiaks are comparatively short and broad, with an upcurved bow very similar in form to that of the Nunivak island type, and with the same kind of circular opening through the bow piece. The stern is quite different, however, as it extends back from the manhole nearly straight for a short distance and then curves regularly down to the level of the keel point. These kaiaks are strongly made; they are used in the stormy waters of the strait, and sometimes are taken even to the Sibe- rian coast of the strait and to St Lawrence island. The kaiaks of Nunivak island and of Bering strait are curiously alike in general form, corresponding in a broad bottom and in the strength of their framework. The Nunivak island kaiaks, however, are sometimes twice the size of those used in Bering strait, and at times the bow is very strongly upeurved and the projecting end piece on the top of the stern extends out, or out and down, so that the point reaches halfway to the level of the keel. At Kushunuk and Askinuk, as well as along the southern border of the Yukon mouth, the Nunivak island style of kaiak is in use, but to the northward it gives way to the type used in Norton sound. South- ward from Nunivak island there is a decrease in the size and height until they reach their minimum in the Aleutian islands. The kaiaks in use on the shores of Kotzebue sound are much smaller and slenderer than those found elsewhere along the Alaskan main- land, and are built on a somewhat different model. This style of kaiak is found from Kotzebue sound northward to Point Barrow, but at the latter place they are made about one-fourth longer than in Kotzebue sound, and as their width is but little greater, they are proportion- ately slenderer. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXIX rs - es. as KAIAKS (ABOUT ONE-FORTIETH NELSON] KAIAKS 221 A kaiak from Cape Krusenstern (figure 6, plate LXXxIx) is 17 feet 3 inches in length, 8 inches in depth back of the manhole, and has 18 inches beam. Another, from Cape Espenberg (figure 5, plate LXxIx), is 14 feet 4 inches long, 13 inches deep, and has 24 inches beam. These are examples of the Kotzebue sound kaiaks. They are long, slender, and sharp-pointed at both ends; the manhole is placed somewhat back- ward of the center, and the deck is flat from the rear of the manhole to the stern. Just in front of the manhole the deck is sprung upward by means of the upcurved cross-pieces so as to form a rising slope, which extends back to the rim of the manhole. This curving surface is brought to a central ridge by means of a strip of wood bound along the tops of the upeurving cross-pieces. The manhole is fitted into position along the rear of this raised portion, with its borders sloping down and backward to the lower flat deck behind. ‘These kaiaks lie very low in the water, and the upsprung curve of the deck just in front of the manhole serves to throw off the water and prevent the full force of the waves from striking against the occupant. Kaiaks with two or three manholes are now used to a limited extent along the Alaskan coast. These have been introduced by the Russian traders from the Aleutian islands, but they are rarely used by the natives. They are ordinarily made for the convenience of white men, who can thus utilize native labor to propel them. In journeying on rivers or along the coast, the Eskimo frequently fasten two kaiaks side by side by lashing cross-sticks against the front and rear of the manholes with rawhide cord. A kind of platform of sticks is also made across the deck, on which small loads of goods are placed. These are fixed usually behind the manhole, although at times a load is carried both before and behind the occupant. On one occasion, near St Michael, I saw two kaiaks lashed together in this way, with a man in each, and just behind them was placed a small pile of household goods, consisting mainly of bedding, upon which sata woman. In front a small mast, held in position by guys, had been raised on a crosspiece lashed on the decks near the front crosscords, and a sinall sail, made from parchment-like gut skin, was raised. This odd-looking vessel was making very good time on a small stream before the wind. In rough weather at sea hunters frequently lash their kaiaks together in pairs in order to rest or to prevent accident. When the Corwin reached King island, in Bering strait, one stormy day in the summer of 1381, the islanders lashed their kaiaks in pairs, and came off with piles of furs and other articles of trade heaped up on the decks behind the manholes. The rim of the manhole is made slightly flaring or with the cover constricted just beneath it next to the deck. Around this constriction a cord is passed, which fastens down the borders of the waterproof frock worn by the occupant in rough or wet weather. With this gar- ment Jashed down it is impossible for any water to reach the interior. 222 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [EYH. ANN. 18 When occupied by skilful paddle-men these boats are very difficult to upset and will ride through extremely rough weather in safety. I was told that some of the most skilful among the coast people could upset their kaiaks and right them again by the use of the paddle, but the old meu said this feat was now becoming rare as the young hunters were degenerating and were not as good kaiak men as formerly. BOAT HOOKS Boat hooks are used by the men on umiaks and kaiaks all along the coast and on the islands, the principal difference in them being in the larger size of those used on the umiaks. These boat hooks are of great service, particularly to men on kaiaks when landing on rocky shores or upon the ice, and those having pointed spurs at the butt are used for fending off ice when paddling about at sea during spring and autumn. Figure 1, plate LXXxx, illustrates a stout boat hook, 6 feet in length, for use in a umiak, which was obtained on Norton sound. The end of the shaft has a strong bone point lashed against a shoulder with rawhide cords; a foot inward from the lower end a strong spur of deerhorn is lashed against the side, from which it projects at a right angle. This is the style of boat hook commonly used on umiaks, the shafts varying from 6 to 8 feet in length. A boat hook intended for use on a kaiak, obtained at Golofnin bay, is shown in figure 3, plate LXxx. It is 4 feet 9 inches in length; the shaft is rounded and tapering, with a long, spur-like hook of walrus ivory set in a notch near its end and held in place by lashing with strips of whalebone passed through holes in the spur and shaft. This hook is flattened triangular in cross section; the inner edge is thin, but it broadens toward the back; it projects backward toward the end of the shaft and ends in a tapering point. Boat hooks of this kind are common from the mouth of the Kusko- kwim to Kotzebue sound, and vary but little in shape and in the form of the spur or hook. The backs of these ivory hooks are covered with conventional patterns of diagonally etched lines, crossed by long, hori- zoutal grooves, This pattern is common on these implements over a wide extent of territory. A specimen in the National Museum (num- bered 73797) was brought from Taku harbor, in southeastern Alaska. It is made of walrus ivory and is marked with the pattern described. Figure 15, plate Lxxvu1, shows an ivory hook from Sledge island, which has two points at one end and the other fashioned into the form of a seal-head. Another small ivory hook of this kind (figure 26, plate LXXVuI) has three walrus-heads along the back. A long ivory hook from Unalaklit (figure 23, plate Lxxvuz1) has etched upon it a conven- tional pattern of straight lines and the raven totem sign. A deerhorn hook from Askinuk (figure 25, plate LXxv1I1) has the back carved to represent the head of a walrus, the outlines of the flippers (HLN3L-3NO) SHOOH LvOd GNv Ss3a1ddvd XXX1 Td LYOdSY IWANNVY HLNSSLHSIS ADOTONHLS NVOINSWYV 40 Nv3aHns NELSON] BOAT HOOKS AND PADDLES 22 being etched on the sides of the hook. A hook from Big lake (figure 22, plate LXXvVIII) has two raised heads extending along each side near the middle. Another, from the same place (figure 24, plate Lxxyv1i1), has the back carved into the form of the head and body of a wolf; with etched lines below on the sides to represent the legs. A boat hook from Sledge island (figure 5, plate LXxx) has a strong wooden shaft, 3 feet 9 inches long, grooved along both sides. It has a double-point hook of deerhorn bound to one side by a rawhide lashing, which passes through two holes in the shaft and through corresponding holes in the hook. The other end of the shaft is heavily grooved crosswise to afford a firmer grasp. These double-point hooks are frequently notched at the ends, so that the points become double, as shown in the specimen from St Michael, illustrated in figure 18, plate Lxxvit. Boat hooks of this style are commonly used for drawing out articles from the interior of kaiaks which can not be reached with the hand. An ivory hook (figure 17, plate Lxxv1it) obtained on Norton sound by Mr L. M. Turner, has a forked point at one end and the head of a seal carved on the other. A boat hook from the lower Yukon (figure 2, plate LXxx) has a round handle, three feet in length, with a deerhorn hook lashed with spruce roots to one side of the end; the lashing passes through two holes in the handle, then through a corresponding hole near the outer end of the hook, and around a notch at the base. The holes in the handle, through which the loops pass, are plugged with wooden pins to bind the lashings. A detached hook for a similar implement from the lower Yukon, shown in figure 16, plate LXxvi1t, has its surface covered with a heavily etched pattern. A short boat hook from the lower Kuskokwim (figure 4, plate Lxxx) has a backward-pointed spur of deerhorn near one end, which is held in place by rawhide lashings through holes in the hook and in the shaft. A pointed spur of deerhorn at the butt is set in a groove in the same side as the hook at the other end, and is fastened by strong rawhide cords passed through holes in the spur and thence around the notched shaft. The ends of the lashings at each end of the hook are inserted in slits made in the shaft with a flat-point chisel of bone or ivory. PADDLES In Kotzebue sound the blades of the paddles used on umiaks are made rounded and very short. North of this district, at Point Hope, the paddle blades are lanceolate in shape, broadest near the handle, and taper downward to a long, sharp point. The paddles used on kaiaks are made in two forms, one having a blade at each end and the other being provided with a single blade. The forms of the blades vary according to locality. The,single-blade paddles have the handles terminating in a crossbar, which is sometimes 224. THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 cut from the same piece of wood, and at other times is formed from a separate piece pierced with a hole, by which it is fitted on the end of the handle. Figure 29, plate LXXVIII, shows one of these crosspieces for a paddle handle from the lower Yukon. It is made of bone, is oval in outline, and is provided with a projecting lip on the lower side, through which is a round hole for putting on the end of the handle. Figure 70a represents an umiak paddle used in Kotzebue sound, and figure 70) shows a form of umiak paddle seen at Point Hope. The kaiak paddles used by the people of Nunivak island and the adjacent mainland are neatly made and frequently ornamented, in red and black paint, with figures forming the private marks or totem signs of the owner. ; The Bering strait islanders decorate their kaiak paddles in patterns of red and black, which probably form totem and ownership marks. Figure 71) represents a double-blade paddle from King island. It is about 8 feet long and the handle is suboval in cross section. The blades are long, narrow, and flat on the surface which is to be used et ——— Fic. 70—Forms of umiak paddles. against the water, and are strengthened along the backs by a ridge down the middle. One of the blades is painted black and the other red, and the handle is surrounded by red and black bands. Another double-blade paddle, obtained at Point Barrow by Lieutenant Ray (figure 71 a), is 7 feet in length, with the blades nearly flat on both sides and much broader and more rounded than those of the preceding speci- men. The backs of the blades have a very slight ridge running down the center. A single-blade paddle from King island (figure 9, plate LXxX) has a large, broad blade, with a central ridge on the outside. The lower two-thirds of the blade is painted black, and a triangular spot of black is marked on each side; the edge of the blade, where it joins the handle at the upper end, is also black, with a ring extending around the handle. All of these black markings are bordered by a narrow line of red and constitute the private marks of the owner. Another single-blade kaiak paddle, from Kushunuk (figure 7, plate LXxXX), has a crosspiece fitted on the top of the handle by means of a _ square hole. The blade is long and slender and is tipped with black for a short distance; this is succeeded by several bands, varying 1n width, alternately of red, black, and uncolored wood. The handle near the NELSON] KAIAK AND UMIAK PADDLES blade is surrounded by a broad, black band, with a another below it. 225 red band above and Figure 8, plate LXxx, represents one of a pair of single-blade kaiak paddles from Kushunuk. It has a long, narrow blade, and the crossbar at the end of the handle is cut from the same piece. The paddle is marked with black lines and bars representing a female phallic emblem, one-half of the figure being on each of the two paddles forming the set. On each side of the crossbar are incised lines repre- senting the mouth, nostrils, and eyes of a semi- human face. On one side the mouth is curved downward, and on the other it is upeurved. The two paddles are exact duplicates as to their markings. u A single-blade paddle from Big lake (figure 6, plate LXxx) is somewhat similar in form to the preceding. On the middle of the blade on each side is painted a red disk, surrounded by a black circle, from which a black band extends up the median ridge of the blade to its upper edge, where a black ring surrounds the handle; from this point to the tip the edge of the blade is painted black. In the vicinity of the lower Kuskokwim the paddle blades are somewhat similar in shape, but vary in the character of the figures painted on them, which indicate the totems or the owner- ship marks of their makers. Figure 10, plate Lxxx, illustrates a thin, sword- shape implement of wood, which was obtained at Cape Denbeigh. It is flat on one surface, down the middle of which extends a small groove, while the other surface is so ridged that the cross section forms a flattened triangle. Itis employed by seal and walrus hunters for a double pur- pose—as a paddle for propelling the kaiak slowly and cautiously toward sleeping seals, and for striking the water with the flat side to frighten a wounded animal and cause it to dive again before it can take breath, and thus become exhausted more quickly. From the Chukehi of the Asiatic coast, northwest of Bering strait, I ob- tained a similar implement made from a long, flat piece of whalebone fitted to a wooden handle. Fie. 71—Kaiak paddles from Point Barrow and King island (7). Strips of bone cut from the jaw or rib of a whale are sometimes 18 ETH 15 226 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ETH. ANN. 18 lashed to the rails of umiaks at the point where the oars pass over them to preserve the cover from wear by friction. One of these strips, obtained at Port Clarence by Dr Dall, is shown in figure 35, plate Lxxvitt. It is flattened below, with one edge turned _ down, forming a slight lip; the upper portion is rounded, and has a projecting shoulder to retain the lashing which binds it to the rail of the boat. SPEAR AND PADDLE GUARDS In Bering strait, where considerable whale fishing is done, small ivory or bone forks are lashed to the bows of umiaks, just inside and between the front ends of the rails; in these the ends of the lances and spears rest, and through them the lines run out. The projecting sides of these forks are usually carved in the form of the heads and shoulders of white bears. They are made in two pieces and are united in the middle by an ivory or bone block mortised in and fastened by wooden or ivory pegs. In some instances the two halves are lashed together by rawhide cords passed through holes; on the outer edges are holes through which pass the lashings which attach them to the bow. Figure 33, plate LXxvi11, shows an example of these lance guards from the Diomede islands; another (figure 37, plate LXx vim) from Cape Prince of Wales, has been illustrated among the mythological figures to show the “thunderbird” which is etched on its surface (see plate CVIIa@). To prevent the spears and paddles from falling off the sloping deck of the kaiak, when not in use, there are used guards consisting of upstanding, spur-like pieces of bone, ivory, or deerhorn, which rest on the gunwale on each side, and are fastened to the crossline of the kaiak, which passes through a hole in the base. This base of the guard is flattened and sometimes heavily scored with grooves to give it a firmer hold against the surface of the skin covering. The guards are made in a variety of forms, the simplest of which is a subtriangular piece with the broad base downward. Figure 4, plate LXXVII, represents one of these guards, which was obtained at Konigunugumut; it is rounded in outline and narrow above, where it ends in the form of a tail of a white whale. Another, from Chalitmut (figure 3, plate LXxvu1), is curved over at the end and pierced with a narrow, pear-shape hole through the tip. Another simple form is a flattened, shell-like piece of ivory, having the bottom curved or flat for resting on the surface of the cover, with a thin, flattened or oval upturned point, the outer side of which is gen- erally covered with etched patterns. Sometimes the inner surface is also ornamented in the same manner, Figure 8, plate Lxxyil1l, from Anogogmut; figure 10, plate Lxxvim, from Kushunuk, and figures 7 and 9, plate Lxxvill, from Sfugunugumut, represent examples of this kind of guard. NELSON] SPEAR AND PADDLE GUARDS POAT In many cases these spear guards are made in the form of various animal figures. : Figures 72 and 73 represent a pair of beautifully made ivory guards from Kaialigamut. One of them (figure 72) has the broad outer sur- face carved to represent grotesque semihuman features, and the upper end represents the face of a seal, while on the two sides are the figures of white whales. On the other (figure 73), on both sides, are carved semihuman faces, and on each side is the figure of a seal in relief, and terminating in the head of a seal. These are all beautifully executed carvings. A guard from Cape Vancouver (figure 12, plate LXXv1i1) is in the form of a hand, with the palm pierced and a tuft of seal hair set in the back and held in place by a wooden plug. Another, from Cape Nome (figure 5, plate LXXVIII), is carved in the shape of the head of a white bear. A rounded guard with truncated end (figure 13, plate Lxxvur) is from Sfugunugumut. A specimen from Agiukchugumut (figure 11, plate Lx xvii) is in the form of the head and shoulders of a human being, with the hands repre- sented by a flipper etched on each shoulder. Another example from Cape Nome (figure 6, plate Lxxv1i1) is in the shape of the head of a white bear, with fragments of blue beads representing the eyes and another bead inlaid on the top of the head. On Nunivak island a somewhat different form of guard is made. It is carved 1n the shape of a seal or other animal, with the body some six or seven inches in length, and has a hole passing diagonally through the side, through which are passed the cross-cords. These figures then lie diagonally along the cover near the rail with the heads point- ing upward. Figure 14, plate LXXVIII, repre- sents one of these guards, which is in the form of a land otter. Figure 2, plate LXXVIII, shows an ivory guard, obtained at Kotzebue sound, of a pattern different from those generally used. The portion which rests on the cover of the kaiak is rounded above and tapers downward to a wedge-shape point; the upright part forms an obtuse point, which curves forward from the base. A similar guard, made from deerhorn, was obtained on Sledge island. For repairing broken ribs or for strengthening weak places in the frames of umiaks and kaiaks, strips of ivory or deerhorn are used as ’ Fic. 72—Ivory spear guard for kaiak (3). Fia. 73—Ivory spear gnard for kaiak (3). 228 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ErH. ANN. 18 splices; holes are pierced through the ends, or a shoulder is left across the upper side to retain the lashings by which they are fastened. | Fig- ures 32 and 36, plate LXXxyIII, show examples of splices for use on umiaks, collected on Sledge island. A small deerhorn splice, from St Michael, intended for use on a kaiak, is shown in figure 31, plate Lxxvi1l. It is pointed oval in outline, and has holes along the middle to receive the lashing. A longer splice, from Chalitmut (figure 30, plate Lxxv111), is slightly hollowed below and convex on the outer side; it has two holes along ' the central line, which is grooved on the convex surface; the latter is crossed by numerous incised lines to prevent the lashings from slipping. When paddling about among the broken ice in spring and autumn there is danger of the skin covering of the kaiak being cut at the bow by floating pieces of ice; to lessen this risk protectors are made from deerhorn and bound on the bow at the water line. Figure 27, plate LXXVIII, represents one of these protectors from Pikmiktalik; it is 74 inches long, and is excavated within so as to form a hollow shoulder. One end terminates in a hollow, spoon-shape point, which rests against the bow above the water line. The lower end has a bar of the material left across it, which rests against the bow below the water line, thus permitting the curve to enter the hollow but not to rest against the interior of the protector. Holes along the sides and three notches across the outer surface serve for the lashing by which it is attached to the bow of the boat. The sides are orna- mented with a conventional pattern of etched lines. A similar bow protector from Cape Nome (figure 28, plate LXXVIII) is made of deerhorn; it has holes along the sides for attaching it to the boat. This protector is not ornamented. The cross-cords for kaiaks are generally plain rawhide lines, but sometimes they are ornamented with beads carved from walrus ivory and strung on them. The commonest form of these represents an inflated sealskin float, generally alternated with round or elongated beads of ivory, and ornamented with etched patterns or having the surfaces of the beads pierced with round holes, in which are inserted small, black wooden pegs. Figure 1, plate LXxxvii1, represents one of these cords from King island. The ornaments strung along it are held in place by wooden wedges, inserted in the holes through which the cord passes. Examples of similar cords were collected at points from Bristol bay to beyond Kotzebue sound. TRADE AND TRADING VOYAGES According to traditions of the Unalit, the people on the coast of Bering strait, in ancient times, made regular summer trading voyages back and forth across the strait. Old men told me of having seen small pieces of cloth which had been brought by the people of East cape, NELSON] TRADING VOYAGES 229 Siberia, and sold as curiosities to the American Eskimo, before the Rus- Sians took possession of the country. They also informed me that the use of tobacco was introduced among them, before they were brought into direct contact with white. men, by means of trade with their Asiatic neighbors, who brought across Bering strait small bundles, called “hands,” of Circassian leaf tobacco. In ancient times intertribal communication along the coast was irreg- ular and uncertain, owing to the hostile attitude of the people toward one another. For this reason trading was then confined to those villages which happened to be on friendly terms. Now the old barriers have been broken down, and active barter between the different communities has become a marked feature of their life. This is particularly the case among the people living between the Kuskokwim and Kotzebue sound. The numerous fur-trading stations which have been established among them, and the visits of trading vessels and whaling ships to the coast of Bering strait, have served to quicken and encourage among them the spirit of trade. In summer the people of Bering strait make visits to the head of Kotzebue sound and to the mouth of the Yukon, carry- ing the skins of tame reindeer purchased from the people of the Asiatic coast, for which they receive in barter skins of various fur-bearing animals that are used in turn for trading with vessels in Bering strait or with their Asiatic neighbors. For the latter purpose beaver and land-otter skins are the most highly prized, as the Chukchi of Siberia will always offer two full-size deerskins for one of either of the’skins named. They cut them into strips for trimming the collars of their deerskin coats, and use them also for trading with the Russians. Parties of traders from East cape, Siberia, and the Diomede islands also make yearly voyages to Kotzebue sound, where the Eskimo of Kowak and Noatak rivers hold a sort of summer fair. After the sea freezes in winter, the Eskimo, who have thus obtained a stock of rein- deer skins, start out with dogs and sledges to travel along the coast and barter for furs. In the winter of 1880 I met, on Norton sound, a sledge party of Eskimo, who were making a trading trip from Sledge island to Kotzebue sound. The Malemut along Kotzebue sound make trading trips southward to the Yukon, and even to their enemies, the Tinné, of Koyunkuk river. The Malemut are the most energetic and enterprising of all the people of this region. They are great traders, and are more courageous and domineering than most of the natives with whom they deal, and are m consequence much disliked by the people with whom they come in contact. When, in 187374, the reindeer suddenly left the shores of Norton sound, these people pushed on in family parties from point to point until, in 1877~78, they had reached Kuskokwim river, Nunivak island, and Bristol bay. During trading voyages there are carried from one part of the coun- 230 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 try to another beads and other articles of use or ornament, as well as pieces of jadeite, which material, according to some of the Eskimo, is found in the mountains inland from Kotzebue sound and also on Kaviak peninsula. Small articles, such as green and red paint and wooden dishes, were sent out from the lower Yukon; and the people of other localities who have a surplus of seal oil, dried fish, and skins of various animals, take them to points where’ they can be exchanged for other desirable commodities. During one winter at St Michael the skin of a Siberian squirrel was brought to me by an Hskimo living on Norton sound, he having obtained it on Bering strait. The skin must have come from the inte- rior of Siberia. z In the month of August, 1879, we were visited at St Michael by an umiak from Cape Prince of Wales, and another from King island. In July, 1881, a number of umiaks arrived from the former place. These all brought deerskins and tanned hides of seal and walrus for trade. The umiaks in full sail, crowded with fur-clad people, dogs, and their various possessions, made a very picturesque sight. Among the men were some Chukchi from the northern coast of Siberia. These were recognized by our officers, who had spent a couple of weeks with them earlier in the season. The Chukchi generally start out on their trad- ing voyages in May, traveling along the shore with dog sleds, hauling on them their umiaks, which are folded, until they reach open water, when the sleds are left at some point and the umiaks set up; then, tak- ing the dogs and goods on board, they coast along the shore of Bering sound and over to the American side. Some of them even visit the Russian fair at Ghigiga, near Anadyr river, during the winter to dis- pose of the furs they have gathered on their summer trading voyages. During one season an umiak came to St Michael from King island, but the people were poorly supplied with goods for trading, having only dried salmon and seal oil. As usual, they were very difficult to trade with on account of their slowness in closing a bargain. A man would bring in a bunch of dried fish, throw it on the floor, and then stand about as if he had no interest in anything going on, until asked what he wished; when the regular price was offered he would almost invariably refuse, and then a long talk would ensue, which ended either by his accepting what was offered or by taking away the fish. This slowness is common with these people. I was at a trading station on the head of Norton bay one winter when a Malemut chief wished to exchange some reindeer skins for various articles. It was in the evening, and after prolonged haggling, and changing one article for another, which lasted until 3 oclock next morning, half a dozen skins were finally bought from him. Weretired and were hardly in bed before the man came back to exchange for other things some of the goods which he had taken. Finally the trader put him off until next day, when he again occupied a couple of hours before NELSON] TRADE AND TRADING VOYAGES Bait he was satisfied. This may be an extreme case, but it illustrates their general metheds of trading. In July, 1881, we found at Hotham inlet a row of over 150 conical lodges set up for over a mile along the beach, which were occupied by Malemut from Selawik lake and natives from Kowak and Noatak rivers. In 1880 Captain Hooper found about twelve hundred of these people encamped at Cape Blossom, but in 1881 the main camp had been located at Hotham inlet.. When we arrived there we saw a small trading schooner lying off the village, surrounded by umiaks three or four deep and the deck crowded by a dense mass of the Eskimo. Tobacco, drilling, knives, ammunition, and other small articles were used to buy from them the skins of reindeer, wolves, black bear, arctic hare, red, white, and cross foxes, etc. As we proceeded up the coast a number of umiaks were seen on their way to the camp at Hotham inlet, and at many points we saw umiaks on trading trips up the coast, and some of the people told. us that they had bought rifles and cartridges from the men of Cape Prince of Wales. At many places from Point Hope to Point Barrow we were offered whalebone, ivory, the skins of reindeer, mountain sheep, Parry’s mar- mot, whistlers, and many white and red fox skins. Whisky and car- tridges seemed to be about the only articles desired by these people in exchange. This was unfortunate, considering the fact that the object of our visit to the coast was to prevent the sale of these very articles to the natives. Near Cape Lisburne we met nine umiaks containing about one hundred people from Point Hope, who were on their way to the vicinity of Point Barrow to trade. Their dogs were running along the shore, keeping abreast of the boats but stopping occasionally to howl dolefully. We obtained two photographs of their camp near our anchorage. While we were anchored in Kotzebue sound in September, several umiaks passed on their way back to Cape Prince of Wales from a trading voyage up the coast. One came alongside the Corwin that had a huge sail made by sewing numberless pieces of deerskin into a strange patchwork. To show the difficulty attending the navigation of these frail boats in Bering strait I will state that, although we made six passages through the strait during the summer of 1881, only once was it clear enough from fog to permit the high land of both shores to be seen. Among the islanders of Bering strait the main articles they had for barter were coils of rawhide line, tanned sealskins, and handsomely made, water- proof sealskin boots. At Hast cape and along the Siberian coast, including St Lawrence island, the articles of trade among the Eskimo were walrus ivory, whalebone, and the skins of white foxes and rein- deer. The St Lawrence islanders make frequent trading voyages to the Siberian coast, where they obtain reindeer skins for clothing. Formerly these people went along the American coast as far as Cape 232 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ETH. ANN. 18 Nome, but this has not occurred recently. On a clear day the head- land on the Siberian skore is visible from St Lawrence island, some 40 or 50 miles away. During the summer of 1879 the Tinné from Anvik, on the lower Yukon, descended the river in several umiaks and visited St Michael to exchange their wooden tubs and dishes for seal oil and other products of the coast district. UNITS OF VALUE AND MEASUREMENT—NUMERATION UNITS OF VALUE The skins of mammals, being the most valuable portable property among the Alaskan Eskimo, give the most convenient standard of value. In very early days, before the advent of the Russians about the Yukon district, the skin of the full-grown land otter was consid- ered the unit of value. Equaling it was the skin of the large hair seal. Of late years the skin of the beaver has replaced the otter skin as the unit of trade value. All other skins, furs, and articles of trade generally are sold as “‘a skin” and multiples or fractions of “a skin,” as it is termed. In addition to this, certain small, untanned skins, used for making fur coats or blouses, are tied in lots sufficient to make a coat, and are sold in this way. It requires four skins of reindeer fawns, or forty skins of Parry’s marmot or of the muskrat, for a coat, and these sets are known by terms designating these bunches. Thus: Four fawn skins = no-ukh'-kit. Forty Parry’s marmot skins = chi-gikh'-kit. Forty muskrat skins = i-lig!-i-witkh'-kit. The pelt of a wolf or a wolverine is worth several ‘‘skins” in trade, while a number of pelts of muskrats or Parry’s marmot are required to make the value of ‘a skin.” The foregoing terms are of the Unalit, but similar ones are in use among all the Eskimo of this region. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT All units of linear measurement among these people are based on body measurements—mainly of the hand and the arm, which form the readiest standards. - Such units of measurement are used also by them for gauging the size and length of all of their tools, implements, and, in fact, of nearly everything made by them. As the length of a man’s hands and arms are usually in proportion to the length of his body, it is evident that bows, arrows, spears, boat frames, etc, when made by him according to a fixed number of spans or cubits, will be in direct proportion to himself, and thus especially suit- able to his use, whether he be large or small. NELSON] UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 233 The following terms are from the Unalit, and cover the units of measurement commonly in use, although others probably exist: Large, an-to!-tk. Small, mih!-t-lin/-u-tik. Ni-g’in’' is the measurement of the length of the mesh in the largest seal nets used for the large hair seal or mik-lik. It is found by measuring a line from the tip of the extended thumb of the right hand across the palm of the hand, the fingers being closed, Ni-ki-shun' nt-g’in’ is the mesh of the small salmon (nii-ka’) net. This is the dis- tance from the wrinkle or line dividing the first and second joints of the right fore- finger to the line midway between the base of the thumb and the forefinger. Tu-bukh-chun' ni-g’in' is the size of the mesh used for nets for the large sea whitefish (tu-buk’). It is found by taking the width of the extended first three fingers on the palmar surface at the ae Tiig-i-jik'-whtkh-chun' ni-g’in' is the size of the mesh for the large salmon (ttig-i- shik'-whik), and is measured from the base of the extended thumb along the inner surface of the hand to the tip of the extended first finger. I-ka'-thlu-tikh'-pikh-chun ni-g’in’ is the mesh for the herring seine (herring =‘-ka’- thlu-tikh'-pik). The width of the inner surface of the two extended first fingers at the first joint. Stokh-chun’ ni-g’in' is the mesh used in nets for the white whale (s’to'-ik). The tips of the extended thumbs are placed together and the measurement taken on the palmar surface across both extended hands along the line of the thumbs. Tun-tu-shun' ni-ghik', The length of the rawhide line used for a reindeer snare is obtained by passing the cord twice around the sole of the left foot and drawing the double loop up to the groin while sitting on the floor with feet extended. Kai-okh'-hlikh-chun' ni-g’in’ is the mesh used in nets for the Arctic hare (kai-okh'- hlik). It is determined by the width of the palm at the base of the fingers. A-kiij'-t. gikh-chun' ni-ghik'. The length “of the cord used for snaring ptarmigan (d-kij'-i-gik). The distance from the tip of the outstretched forefinger along the palm and the inner side of the forearm to the point of the elbow. Pé-lok'-téikh-chun' kii’-bvi-shd, the mesh used in nets for beaver (pd-lok'-tik). The distance around the head on a line with the middle of the forehead. U-niig'-ti-mun is the distance from the tip of the extended left thumb, with fingers closed, along the inside of the extended arm to the armpit. IC okh-kog'-t-nik, the distance measured from the end of the left thumb across the palm of the closed hand, thence along the upper side of the outstretched arm and across the chest to the inner end of the right collar bone. Tuj'-i-mun’, same as the last, but extended to the point of the right shoulder. I-ku'-yig-i-niig'-ti-miik, same as the last, but extended to the point of the right elbow, the right arm being extended and flexed at the elbow. L-qu'-yi-gig'-i-nik. This is the measurement used for making the stem, or bow- piece, of a kaiak. It is found by measuring from the tip of the extended forefinger, through the palm of the hand and along the inner side of the arm, to the point of the elbow, with the added width of the left forefinger, which is placed crosswise on the angle of the elbow. Ai -hig'-t-niik is a measurement need for making boot soles, the height of kaiak frames, etc. It is a span, or the distance between the outstretched tips of the thumb and the second finger of the right hand. Kin-# is the height of a man’s knees from the ground; used in making dog-sleds. Yiig'-ti-nik. The distance from the tip of the extended left thumb, along the arm, across the chest, and to UE tip of the extended right thumb. This is the most com- 1 Ni-g'in' is the name given to the gauge used in measuring meshes of nets of any kind. 234 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [BTH. ANN. 18 mon unit of measure used among these people. It is the regular measurement used for all objects having considerable length, such as rawhide lines, nets, cloth, ete. It is adopted by the fur traders, and is called a ‘fathom.’ By it cloth and other trading goods of that character are sold, the end of the article to be measured being taken in the left hand, with the extreme end opposite the tip of the left thumb, then the edge of the cloth is slid through the right hand and raised until it is drawn across the chest, under the chin, by the outstretched right hand; then the left hand drops its end and takes a new hold at the point of the right thumb, and so the operation is repeated until the desired length is obtained. CHRONOMETRY The Eskimo divide their time by moons, each moon being designated by the title of the most characteristic local phenomenon which accom- panies it. The following lists of months from various localities agree in this. By the ‘‘moons” all time is reckoned during the year, and dates are set in advance for certain festivals and rites. In addition to the moons, the year is frequently divided into four seasons according to the regular occupations that occur in each—but this is indefinite and irreg- ular as compared with the other method. In counting years they are referred to as winters—the winter being the most impressive part of each year in this high latitude. The following are Unalit terms: A year, dthl-hdn'-i. A moon, i-gha'-luk. Spring, w/-pi-nikh'-kik. Summer, ki-tk’'. Autumn, wh-shu'-tk. Winter, wk-shuk’. Long ago, t-ka’. Very long ago, ti-ka'-mi. 5 Thirteen moons are counted to a year, but I failed, unfortunately, to obtain the complete series. In the following lists the moons arearranged as they correspond with our months; as a matter of course, this corres- poudence is not perfect, but is very close. January, WVi'-wik. ‘To turn about,” from an ancient game played with a top. February, Nai-ikh'-chik. Time first seals (nat/-yik’) are born. March, 7't-gig’t-lukh'-chik. The time of creeping on game. From the custom of hunting seals on the ice by stalking. April, Kip-nikh'-chik. The time of cutting off. From the appearance of sharp lines where the white of the ptarmigans’ bodies is contrasted with the brown of the new summer neck feathers which begin to appear at this time. May, Kai’-dkh-tig'-o-wik. Time for going in kaiaks. The ice opens at this time so that the hunters go out to sea in kaiaks. June, No-dkh'-chiig'-i-wik. Time of fawn hunting. July, Kon-in'-ni-g’e'-niit in-tj'~i-vi-tit. The time of geese getting new wing feathers (molting). August, Kuj'-u-gut in-ij'-i-vi-it. Time for brooding geese to molt. September, Am-i-ghai/-ghi-wik. The time for velvet shedding (from horns of rein- deer). October, Ku'-bvi-jikh-pig'-ti-wik, Time for setting seal nets. November, Uk'-whi-tig'-i-wik, Time for bringing in winter stores. December, Chaw'-i-tig'-ti-wik. Time of the drum—the month when the winter fes- tivals begin. NELSON] NAMES OF MONTHS OR MOONS 2a Very often several different names may be used to designate the same moon if it should chance to be at a season when different occu- patious or notable occurrences in nature are observed, and I have used the most common terms, On the lower Yukon, near Mission, the following terms are used for the moons: Jannary, U-i'-wik. The season for top-spinning and for running around the kashim. January (last part, and first part of February), A-ki-luh’ st-a/-qu-wik, Time of offal eating (from a-ki-likh-stakh-tok, ‘‘he boils offal”), This name comes from the scarcity of food likely to occur at this time and the necessity that arises during such periods to eat scraps of every description. Another name used for this moon is I-ga-luh'-likh, the cold moon. February-March, Kup-nikh-chiik. The time of opening the upper passageways into the houses. This term was said ta come from the time long ago when they claim it was much warmer than now and when the sun began to melt the snow a month earlier than at present. March-April, Tin'-ti-mi-dkh'-lhu-tig'-ti-wik. Birds come. April-May, Tin'-ii-mi-ag'-ti-wik. Geese come (tin-ti-mi-tik, goose). May-June, Mdn-it' dn-u'-tit. Time of eggs (mdn’ ik). June-July, Nik'-stig’-o-wik. Time of salmon (niik'-sik). July-August, U-ko'-go-li-sog'-ti-wik, Time for red salmon (u-kog'-o-lik). Also, Tin’- ti-mi-at’ in-u’-lit, Waterfowl] molt. August-September, Tin'-ti-mi-dt tiv-u'-vi-dt, Time for young geese to fly. September-October, Am-i-gai/-gu-wik. Time for shedding velvet (d-mi/-vik) from reindeer horns. October-November, Chup'-whik. Mush ice forms. November-December, Ka'-gi-tdgh’-ti-wik. Time of muskrats (ka-qi'-tak). December-January, Chai-tigh'-ti-wik. Time of the feast (chai‘ik). Among the Eskimo just south of the Yukon delta the following moons are recognized : January, Wi/-wik. Fromthe game with atop; also the time of a certain festival in which the dancers wear straw fillets stuck full of feathers. February, d-gdh-likh'-lik, The time of much moon (long nights). March, Un-dgh-o-wik. Time of taking hares in nets. April, Kup-nikh’-chiik, Time of opening summer doors. May, Tin-mi-dgh'-ti-wik. Arrival of geese. June, Chi-stigh’-i-wik. Time of whitefish. July, Tiig-i-yik'-pik ka-gu'-ti. The time of braining salmon. (The fish are struck on the head when lifted from the water.) August, Tin-ti-mi-wit in-w'-ti. Geese molt. September, Ku’-gi-yutl’ in-w'-ti. Swans molt. October, Tin-u'-tit. The flying away (migration of birds). November, Am’-t-gha'-ghiin. Time of velvet shedding (from reindeer horns). The name for December was not obtained. NUMERATION The following notes and numerals are from the Unalit Eskimo, but are typical of the system in use among all the Eskimo with whom I came in contact, except those of the Aleutian islands: Kit-stchi’, count. Kit-sichi’-nik, counting. Kit'-stchi-ok, he counts. 236 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [BTH. ANN. 18 The intertribal communication between the mainland Alaskan Eskimo and the constant trade carried on among them have developed consider- able quickness in the use of numbers up to two or three hundred; this is quite general with, both old and young. Going beyond the numbers ordinarily used in trade, however, the most intelligent among them become quickly confused. In order for them to count correctly it is necessary to have the objects lying before them, and these are placed in groups of twenties as they are counted. If required to count abstractly they soon become con- fused after reaching one or two score; in this, however, there is great individual variation. About the Bering strait region most boys of 10 or 12 years of age count objects very readily up to-one hundred and over, and some men can reach four hundred, but it is only among the most intelligent natives of this section that four hundred can be counted, and it is rare that attempt is made to exceed that number. The Eskimo system of counting is based on a series of fives, rising in this way to twenties. The fingers and toes furnish the counters for computing numbers, as is explained below. Among the Unalit Eskimo, as elsewhere among these people, there is great variability in indi- vidual power. The most intelligent men and boys can count very readily up to two hundred or more, while others seem incapable of counting to twenty without blundering and repeated mistakes, like a stupid, slow-witted child. At every mistake made by such persous they are compelled to return and commence at one again, being unable to hold the numbers clearly enough in mind to take them up at intermediate points. Not even the most intelligent among them seem capable of counting readily beyond the number of his fingers and toes without the aid of objects directly before him. For this purpose I usually provided gun caps or matches, which served very conveniently as markers. In counting such small objects they commonly placed them in groups of five, and as four of these were completed they were swept into a single large group of twenty; in this way successive twenties were completed and kept separately. When making twenty the person would sometimes count the fives, commencing each time at one, but the most intelligent usually counted on to twenty, using the numerals of the regular series as given in the list. When an Eskimo was asked to count up to twenty without using fingers or toes, his eyes would seek, involuntarily, for something with which to tally, and even when asked to count five his eyes would turn at once to one of his hands, though he might make no visible use of his fingers. In using the fingers and toes for counting, the closed hands are held in front of the waist, palms down, and thumbs near together. Commenc- ing with the little finger of the right hand, as one, they pass to the left, opening or extending each finger in succession as its number is called NELSON] SYSTEM OF NUMERATION etl until the right thumb, or number five, is reached. Passing thence to the little finger of the left hand for six, the fingers of this hand are opened successively until the left thumb and ten are reached. As ten is said the two hands, thumbs near together and fingers all outstretched, palms down, are extended a little from the body. Then the right foot is advanced a little and the right forefinger points at the little toe of that foot as the counter says dt-khakh/-tok. This word ordinarily means ‘it goes down,” and is used here both to indicate the descent in counting from hands to feet as well as having, at times, an acquired meaning in this connection of eleven. The toes are counted from right to left until the right great toe is reached, when both hands with open fingers, palms down, are extended toward the right foot, which is advanced a little more as the counter announces fifteen. The counter then lets the left hand fall by the side and points at the left great toe, saying, gukh/-tok, meaning “it goes over,” and sometimes conveying in this connection the acquired meaning of sixteen, as well as the going “‘over” of the count from one side of the body to the other. The other toes of the left foot are then enumerated from right to left, and as the small toe is reached, if the person be sitting, he extends both feet in front of him, doing the same with his hands, palms down, and says twenty; if he be standing, then the open hands are extended downward with a slight motion and the number is spoken. The use of dt-khakh'-tok and gukh'-tok for numerals, as given above, is not uncommon among the intelligent people who are able to count readily up to twenty in a single series of numerals. Among the igno- rant and slow-witted twenty is reached by making up four series of num- bers running from one to five. In cases of this kind these two words are used between ten and eleven and fifteen and sixteen, simply to convey their regular meaning. They are most commonly used in count- ing the fingers and toes, when their application is quite natural; but often they are used in counting various other objects, and seem to be in a transitional state toward becoming the regularly recognized numer- als. When used as numerals, as noted above, their meaning in that sense seems to be recognized by everyone. Two is usually mél/-vi-ghik, but it is often replaced by ai/-pa, which means second, or a pair. This latter word is used commonly to desig- nate one of a pair, such, for instance, as in speaking of the close friend of another person, who is referred to as his ai/-pd. The name for the right arm and hand taken together is téi-hlik!-pike The term for five is té-hli/-mik. The right hand alone is called tii-hlik'-pim ai/-hi (ai'-hik = hand, either right or left). Nine is ko/-lin-o-gho-tai’-lin-un, from ko-lin’, ten, and tai/-tik, not, or lacking; i. e., ten lacking one. Ko-lin’, ten, is from ko-hli’, the upper half or the upper part of the body, or the count of the fingers. The word half is ko/-kédn. Twenty is yu-i/-nik, trom yuk, man, and means ‘a man completed.” 238 THE ESKIMO AIOUT BERING STRAIT (ETH. ANN. 18 When the person reaches twenty he will very often say yu-i-nakh'-tok, meaning “the man is finished.” If he is asked how many fingers and toes he has counted he will reply “yu-i/-nik.” When forty is reached a singular change takes place in the naming of the twenties. For instance, forty is mdl/-a-ghu-i'-pi-dk, from miil’-t- ghik, two, and i/-pi-dk, a set of animal’s Jegs and paws, with the toes, this last coming from 7/-pik, the name given to the combined leg, foot, and toes of any mammal. Thus forty becomes ‘“‘two sets of animal’s paws.” In this way each succeeding twenty is designated by combin- ing one of the cardinal numbers with ?¢/-pi-k up to four hundred. At this point a change occurs, and the idea of a man is combined with that of the animal, as follows: Tour hundred is yu-i/-ndém yum i-pi’. This may be analyzed as follows: yu-i/-ndém, twenty; ywm, of a man’s; 7-pi’, sets of paws; or, “twenty sets of man’s paws,” this meaning twenty times twenty. The following tables of Unalit numerals, with explanatory notes and the facts already given, will render plain their system of counting. The first column in the first table gives the numerals as commonly used when counting the fingers and toes; the second column gives the forms used in counting exterior objects or to express a complete num- ber. These two sets of numbers are sometimes interchangeably used, so that no invariable custom defines their usage. INSU LEE 05 SEAS Or Moca gen IAS d-lau'-tsik. 2. mal’-ti-ghiik, or ai'-pd....-.-..--.. mil-ti-ghik, or ai'-pa. Si pine-aahurile) cea -toc eee es eee pin-ai’-yun. AP RGU an alt mais belorala'ase Sea sta’-miin, Ds TERRE 2S oc eee ces se aes téi-hli'-miin. 6. a-ghu-bin'-ghitk =... 2.2. .00-05 +20 a-ghu-bin'-lign. 7. mil-ti-ghun'-lign ......----.------ midl-ti-ghun'-lign. 8. pin-at-yun'-lign... 2. --26 nas -=- pir-ai-yun'-lign. 9, ko'-lin-o-gho-tai'-lin-iim...--.. ---- ko'lin-o-gho-tai'-lin-iin. LOM 0=Urtls. steise