J yi U nh, eee ; ; a ‘ hed ® D a) ’ a! A , P i 1 yi { Fi A j on | ’ a : : ; } ” Aaa ( ; iP : 1¥ @ - cal oa v 7 1 ae ' ii eeu | ah n a ’ i j roe l eV | i i ; i A i" on : " ro ' od) * f - AG 0) | t i { 1) ) i LZ 4 ‘e , we (as aT y . era ; } f Uy ’ eT A y a i a, . Meh, 9 aT Aa es ee i on ae sf me Ps echt ¥ ' (=e AA Wh GL: j ys 7 PAY ‘a rf ht i i 1 i6 v? ' i i? Jd ‘ \! i i, i :. iy F ] Al? 7 P| Ls } Tu vial i On PEAY a) re N A : ih i ii R as i pa hh EY Pid) hs pe A vy a ours |! : tS \ so) ; : (a a ae rane ri vn f hay Mi 0s Of . To) i 1] % oly faa fi ; : thee 4 ae bat Me hai tad \ ins ‘i i" } 1 a if 0 files q ont uy pa ay ? ry " a ay i « ® ue ¥ i cn ot ] : ' ‘ ; ri y Pree hs Oe Pa : a j hays oF ii ' 1 7 Ty, 4 : a ne 7 ui a - i ie i : 4s" vie 1 { iy ' Ps nes aA ; Cg ‘ : reve in SUP ry ian . ; : Ng uh | ; : aay * ith min i , ) ere eek 1 ¢ : _ hye Ny ' \ : 5 j i ’ j ri 7 | " : rhe 4 Lat fw é f . zi : i “se i a ; 1 q | + i } i : y " , " ly a) { i iv é : : i j p uf } j ' { : ‘ . wo y a fi vod, : : 1) he a" % 4 if : yy ' een ; j i : i 1 ‘ay - ’ ; 4 y at t a \ i a i r 7 : [ i J a {; L! ’ pm) oy, ey } ; ib) j a5 Ty j , { ee ! yy - " ; af ; } | , vi ‘ ; t 7 i ne ¥ ‘a Vay a roy a st : f i Hi 1 - A ae i an - i + i : i a, jib \ V f Lay 4 RS es 1 | ‘ f i, ; a d yi! ip ul i ( i: ; 4 . ve Wik uy i Kt iy ic ul : : win & je THIRTIETH ANNUAL REPORT BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY _ SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1908-1909 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1915 aioe (1s m4) Ae ee Loris Sty ere Hoa aue] LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Bureau OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, Washington, D. C., July 50, 1909. Str: I have the honor to submit herewith the Thirtieth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, com- prising an account of the operations of the Bureau during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1909. Permit me to express my appreciation of your aid in the work under my charge. Very respectfully, yours, W. H. Homes, Chief. Dr. CHartes D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. i) Lh ee 0 Aa a worried aera, eit CrMOee madi wal epee © : WO Oe gels OY OP ettindany dinivitet ont ihirwromal deel nb camo all anil Doma satu ualansl iil initial Mi tuna odt to Heed hnuak whol oxen sift lie etoneoqo of Te Tider Tie eleny 2001 Og oul hohe thsi teven sity ae wilh vile Hie ie? w edie il oy abr A oy) aun Jaret , gael yar voherts Aris * ae a band jy Hed cya gal v3 Awl sant MW “") oi ipa ing eos an! Y ie mn nnn Raa Sa | a CONTENTS REPORT OF THE CHIEF Page PRBBGSO LN WON ke eee nee a tee eee ee ee cee eee wes amon 9 NRRGIRL TERRE CHES |-aes Sasa ous Aero ace mene awa awk e acwcechentoces 21 Collections. :.......-.-- Bea eS So nee ee aoe oe Sales es Soisix ow ae < 21 IEYE eu eee eto a me Pee Semin Ss Se ye oe crea ine ase chews Saad oe Se 22 Urea OMB eer str er a 2 ye Se Be nc ee irae SER eswisia's = 23 ayer ene a ase ee ay) lsef a = is ala ate wain aw ioe santene dase ness seeees 23 PT BiEIn ir CHM SGN Laan 8 $2 oe ae sas occa cies 15a eats eactedesacessecsese 24 Note'on theiaccompanying ‘papers... - -.. .. 2.2.52 225 ns encennse se veeeee 25 ACCOMPANYING PAPERS Ethnobotany of the Zui Indians, by Matilda Coxe Stevenson (Pls. 1-3)... -.-- 31 An Inquiry into the Animism and Folk-lore of the Guiana Indians, by Walter E. ERPS at (de Fg: Sy (SS £1 aS 0) NO MPR i oe ee ne 103 List of publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology .-........-......- 387 NING Pee ester Me arte icin See ene iat seis se ne hoes es Sew eee wes Oncwe es teees 427 » f EP SCEE: ; vanes cml ena af fpe ai rT ere ee re evalua cot aka quae il "ca el Mea ‘ott it sa tm vy! ' tndinndD: neared nner i a fie Oly OR IPE, CECH ee ie cn-5 a Se ro, Gat = ih a : ‘4 i ha 7 am i } a - a * hea 7 . = ~ au a 7 = — we — i— & cms — << = — ae - 7 — 4 ane = - i=} = = 5 = : eave 2 , THIRTIETH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY W. H. Hotmes, Cuter The operations of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1909, conducted in accordance with the act of Congress making provision for continuing researches relating to the American Indians, under direction of the Smithsonian Institution, were carried forward in con- formity with the plan of operations approved by the Secre- tary June 18, 1908. As in previous years, the systematic ethnologic work of the Bureau was intrusted mainly to the regular scientific staff, which comprises eight members. As this force is not large enough to give adequate attention to more than a limited portion of the great field of research afforded by the hundreds of Indian tribes, the deficiency was supplied in a measure by enlisting the aid of other specialists in various branches of ethnologic work. By this means the Bureau was able to extend its researches in several directions at a comparatively modest outlay. RESEARCH WORK The work of the Bureau for the year comprised: (A) The continuation of various unfinished researches among the Indian tribes and (B) the summarizing for publication of available data from all sources. (A) The unfinished researches were in continuation of systematic investigations already in hand and were essential 9 10 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY to a reasonable rounding out of the work among the tribes. These researches were distributed as follows: Regular force: Matilda Coxe Stevenson, the Pueblo tribes; James Mooney, the Great Plains tribes; J. N. B. Hewitt, the Iroquoian tribes; J. R. Swanton, the Southern tribes; F. W. Hodge, literary researches for the Handbook of the Indians; J. W. Fewkes, archeology of Southwestern tribes; W. H. Holmes, technology of the tribes; Cyrus Thomas, bibliog- raphy of Hawaii. Collaborators: Franz Boas and eight assistants, the lan- guages of the tribes; Ales Hrdlitka, the physical anthro- pology of the tribes; Frances Densmore, ceremony and songs of the Ojibwa tribes; J. P. Dunn, linguistics of the Algonquian tribes of the Middle West; N. B. Emerson, the Hawaiians; H. M. Ballou, the Hawaiians; H. E. Bolton, the tribes of Texas; J. P. Reagan, Northwest Coast tribes; Alice C. Fletcher, the Omaha tribe; Francis La Flesche, the Omaha tribe; W. R. Gerard, etymology of Indian names. (B) The summarizing of the materials now available relating to the tribes was initiated by the preparation of the Handbook of the Indians, which assumes to cover the whole ground in brief articles arranged in alphabetical order. Its preparation has led to a clearer understanding of the work done and to be done, and the researches now in hand contemplate the preparation of a series of handbooks, each to be devoted to a full presentation of a single branch of the subject, as follows: (a) Handbook of the Tribes: History, distribution, settle- ments, population, etc., of each stock, tribe, and minor group. Preliminary assemblage of the data is embraced in the present Handbook of American Indians, of which Part 1 is published and Part 2 almost ready. (b) Handbook of Languages: Part 1 now in press, Part, 2 in preparation. As several hundred languages are to be con- sidered, a number of years will be required to complete the work. (c) Handbook of Race History: Physical and mental char- acters, physiology, pathology, medicine, etc. Researches in hand, but requiring extensive additional investigation. ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT iat (d) Handbook of Social Systems: Organization and cus- toms of society, the family, clan, tribe, confederacy, govern- ment, etc. A large body of material is already in hand, but much additional research is necessary. (e) Handbook of Religions: Religious customs, rites and ceremonies, folklore, etc. The large body of data in hand requires much elaboration, with additional research. (f) Handbook of Technology: Arts, industries, imple- ments, utensils, manufactures, building, hunting, fishing, etc. (g) Handbook of the Esthetic Arts: Painting, sculpture, ornaments, music, drama, etc. (h) Handbook of Sign Language. (7) Handbook of Pictography. (7) Handbook of Treaties and Land Cessions. (k) Handbook of Games and Amusements. (1) Handbook of Burial Customs. (m) Handbook of Economics: Food resources, culinary arts, medicinal resources, ete. (n) Handbook of Archeology. The extensive researches of past years need to be supplemented by much additional exploration. (0) Handbook of Geographical Names. (p) Handbook of Hawaii. Researches initiated by the preparation of a bibliography of 6,200 titles now nearly ready, and a work on mythology now in press. (q) Bibliographies. (r) Dictionaries. (s) Grammars. (t) Portfolios of portraits, etc. ; The body of data in hand relating to the Indians probably surpasses that heretofore obtained relating to any primitive people, but still falls short of the rounding out that should characterize the work of the American nation, dealing as it does with a race and a culture which are rapidly disappearing. During the year researches were carried on in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, South Carolina, Indiana, and Oregon, and were incidentally extended to the Argentine Republic, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, California, Washington, and British Columbia. iby BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY The chief devoted his time while in the office to the administrative work of the Bureau, giving the necessary attention to his duties as curator of the Section of Pre- historic Archeology and to the National Gallery of Art in the National Museum. During the year considerable prog- ress was made in the preparation of a work, already well advanced, on the stone implements of North America. Having been designated by the Department of State to represent the Smithsonian Institution at the First Pan- American Scientific Congress, held at Santiago, Chile (at which he represented also the George Washington Uni- versity), on October 29 the chief took passage on the Hamburg-American steamer Amerika for England, sailing thence by way of Vigo, Spain, and Lisbon, Portugal, to Buenos Aires. After spending ten days in the Argentine capital with members of the delegation, making official visits and pursuing studies in various public institutions, he traversed the pampean country by rail to Mendoza, and thence up the Mendoza River to Las Cuevas at the base of the cumbre or crest of the Andes. Taking coach at this point he crossed to the Chilean side and soon reached San- tiago. The three weeks spent in Santiago were taken up _ largely with the affairs of the delegation, including official duties and attendance on meetings of the congress. The section of the natural sciences, including anthropology, met daily, and on December 28 the chief acted as chairman of the section. His contribution to the program of the congress was a paper on ‘“‘The peopling of America,” an abstract of which follows: Discussion of the problem of the origin of the American aborigines involves consideration of several important questions, as follows: (1) Evolution of the human species from lower forms. (2) Geographical location of the original home of the race. (3) Dispersal to the various land areas of the globe. (4) Differentiation of the subraces physically and culturally. (5) Chronology of the racial history. In the present state of our knowledge we can not assume to dispose finally of these several questions. It is most important, however, that the whole subject should be passed under review at frequent intervals, and the data assembled, classified, and critically examined. ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 13 The writer's views, formulated after careful consideration of the various phases of the subject presented, considering more especially the North American evidence, are expressed in the following summary of probabilities: (1) That the human family is monogenetic; that is to say, the present subraces have been derived by differentiation from a common stock. (2) That the precursor—that is to say, man before he reached the human status—occupied a limited area. (3) That this area was tropical or subtropical and was situated in the Old World rather than in the New. (4) That multiplication of numbers led to wide distribution, and that isolation on distinct land areas finally led to the differentiation of the subraces. (5) That the separation into distinct groups began at an early period, but not until after the typical human characters had been developed. (6) That the human characters were acquired in Tertiary time, and that dissemination extended to distant continents, mainly in Quaternary time. (7) That the pioneers of the present American race belonged to the well-differentiated Asiatic subrace and that they reached America by way of Bering Strait. (8) That the early migrations included few individuals and occurred at widely separated periods; that the movements were slow and by means of the ice bridge in winter or by skin boats in summer. (9) That the culture of the immigrants in all cases was very primi- tive, not rising above the hunter-fisher stage. (10) That successive migrations involved numerous distinct groups or tribes, so that the American race is a composite of diversified Asiatic elements more or less completely amalgamated. (11) That the result was a new people and a new culture, essentially American. (12) That the Eskimo—forming a widely distributed ethnic group occupying the northern shores of both continents—acquired their physical characteristics and peculiar culture under the influence of Arctic conditions, and that they are the descendants of marginal tribes early forced to the northward from southern Eurasian sources of population. (13) That occasional accessions of population may have resulted from the accidental arrival of yoyagers from other lands, though not in numbers large enough to affect the race perceptibly. (14) That in the present period prior to the Columbian discovery occasional vyoyagers from southern Asiatic culture centers or from Japan or China may have reached American shores and left an impress on the culture of middle America. 14 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (15) That the peopling of America with the present race was accomplished in late Glacial or post-Glacial time rather than in early Glacial or Tertiary time. (16) That much of the recorded geological evidence of great human antiquity in America is unreliable and requires critical revision. (17) That the aboriginal peoples will soon disappear as the result of interminglings with other races and failure to accommodate them- ‘selves to new conditions; that America will be fully occupied by a cosmopolitan people embodying the best elements of every civiliza- tion—a race of superior capacity and force, destined in its full fruition to surpass all others in the grandeur of its achievements; and that the activities of the present and of future Pan-American scientific congresses will contribute a worthy share in the accomplishment of this great result. At the closing session of the congress the chief was made a member of a committee of five to arrange for the next meeting of the congress, to be held in Washington, District of Columbia, in October, 1912. While in Santiago much attention was given to the National Museum, which contains a great deal of material illustrating the ethnology and archeology of Chile, and a number of private collections, rich chiefly in Peruvian antiquities, were visited. The homeward trip from Santiago included excursions to Bolivia, where the small National Museum was visited and where studies were made of the ruined city of Tiahuanaco; to Peru, where a brief period was devoted to a study of the rich collections of the National Museum; and to Panama for a short stay. Washington was reached on February 11, and reports were then prepared for the institutions which the chief represented as delegate and for publication in scientific journals. The services of the chief were enlisted during the early months of the year in the preparation of the Institution’s exhibit to illustrate the history of the Pacific Coast states and the Pacific islands at the Alaska-Yukon-Pacifie Exposi- tion at Seattle. Before leaving for South America in October he designed a number of lay-figure family groups, which were elaborated by the sculptor during the winter months; and on his return from the South he attended to the com- ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 15 pletion of these groups and to the construction of a model of the Santa Barbara mission establishment, California, for the exposition. On May 4 he proceeded to Seattle to assist in setting up the exhibits, stopping en route to select a site on the southern rim of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado suitable for the erection of the monument to the late Maj. J. W. Powell recently provided for by the Congress; at Los Angeles, to examine the collections in the Southwestern Museum; at Santa Barbara, to study the plan of the mission; and at San Francisco, to visit the museum of the University of California. While in Seattle visits were made to Tacoma, Washington, and to Victoria, British Columbia, for the pur- pose of examining collections of ethnological and archeological material preserved in these places. The chief returned to Washington on June 11. During the year the chief made studies of a more or less elaborate nature in the following museums: Blackmore Museum, Salisbury, England. University of La Plata Museum, Argentine Republic. Faculty of Philosophy and Letters Museum, Buenos Aires, Argentine Republic. National Museum, Buenos Aires. National Museum, Santiago, Chile. National Museum, La Paz, Bolivia. National Museum, Lima, Peru. California University Museum, San Francisco. Southwestern Museum, Los Angeles. Ferry Museum (Tozier collection), Tacoma, Wash- ington. University of Washington Museum, Seattle, Wash- ington. . Provincial Museum, Victoria, British Columbia. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. Academy of Sciences Museum, Philadelphia. Early in the year the Bureau was urged by the officers of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association to contribute data relating to the history of the Indian tribes of the region for the meeting of the association convened in St. Louis June 15, 1909. The chief contributed a paper entitled 16 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY “Remarks on the aboriginal history of the Mississippi Valley ”’; and Mr. James Mooney and Dr. John R. Swanton were designated to attend the meeting and present papers dealing with kindred subjects. ; Mrs. M. C. Stevenson, ethnologist, remained in the field, in New Mexico, during the entire year. Having established headquarters at Espafiola, she devoted her time largely to investigations among the local Pueblo tribes, interrupting the work for short periods to record valuable data commu- nicated by visiting members of the Zuni tribe. Her researches included detailed studies of the history, social organization and customs, religion and religious practices, and arts and industries of the Santa Clara and San Ildefonso tribes; and progress was made in the comparative study of these varied subjects among the numerous Pueblos. Aside from the more systematic ethnological work, Mrs. Stevenson gave much attention to her unfinished papers on “The preparation of cotton, yucca, and wool for the loom by the New Mexican tribes” and on the ‘‘ Medicinal and food plants used by the Zuni Indians.” Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist, was engaged chiefly in continuing the editorial work on Part 2 of the Handbook of American Indians, carrying along the proof-reading toward the close of the alphabet and writing and inserting many articles on lesser subjects that it had been found essential to include. In this work he had the assistance especially of Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, who prepared articles pertaining chiefly to the Iroquois tribes; of Mr. William R. Gerard, of New York, who revised and rewrote numerous articles involving the etymology of Indian terms; and of Dr. Her- bert E. Bolton, of the University of Texas, who continued to supply, to the end of the alphabet, articles relating to the tribes of Texas. The work of completing the second part of the Handbook of American Indians did not proceed as rap- idly as was hoped at the beginning of the year, owing to the fact that the burden of the administrative work of the Bureau devolved upon Mr. Hodge when the chief was called to South America and later to the Seattle Exposition, as ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT liz previously mentioned. In the Handbook work Mr. Hodge had the clerical assistance of Mrs. Frances 8. Nichols. It is now expected that Part 2 will be ready for distribution in the near future. Mr. Hodge represented the Bureau on the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publica- tion, and served also as a member of the subcommittee on bibliographical citations. In addition he prepared answers to many inquiries from correspondents, oftentimes requiring considerable research. Dr. Cyrus Thomas, ethnologist, devoted his time during the year to work on the catalogue of books and papers relating to the Hawaiian Islands. This catalogue, in the preparation of which Prof. H. M. Ballou, of Boston, Massa- chusetts, is joint author, has grown to an extent not antici- pated at the outset. During the last and next preceding fiscal years Professor Ballou examined, for this purpose, the libraries of Boston and other cities of New England, and also of New York. He also visited Hawaii, where he made a careful examination of the public and private libraries of Honolulu, obtaining thereby considerable early mission and official material of a bibliographical nature not found else- where. During the same period Doctor Thomas visited Boston and Worcester twice, searching the libraries chiefly along special lines to which Professor Ballou had not given exhaustive attention; he also devoted considerable time to an examination of the libraries of Washington. In addition to these researches considerable bibliographical material has been obtained by correspondence. As a result of this work the number of titles in the catalogue reaches some 6,200— more than eight times the number in the largest catalogue in the same field hitherto published. Hon. George R. Carter, former governor of the Territory of Hawaii, has given much encouragement to this work; in fact, with Professor Ballou, he formed the leading spirit in its inception, though the be- ginning of the work for the Bureau was undertaken quite inde- pendently. Doctor Thomas has appended a subject or cross- reference catalogue of about 3,200 titles. In addition to this work Doctor Thomas assisted to some extent in the preparation 15961°—30 era—15——2 18 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY of Part 2 of the Handbook of American Indians, and attended to such official correspondence as was referred to him. Mr. James Mooney, ethnologist, during the entire year was occupied chiefly in an investigation of the subject of the Indian population north of Mexico at the period of first disturbance and occupancy of the country by the whites. A preliminary study was condensed for introduction into Part 2 of the Handbook of the Indians. The final work is expected to appear as a bulletin of the Bureau. The inves- tigation is being carried out in detail for each well-defined geographic section, and for each tribe or tribal group sepa- rately, from the earliest period to the present, with careful sifting of authorities and consideration of Indian habits of living. No such detailed and extended study of the subject has ever before been attempted, and the result must prove of interest and importance. The usual share of attention was given also throughout the year to the preparation and proof-reading of various articles for. the Handbook of the Indians and to routine correspondence. On request of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association, Mr. Mooney, together with Doctor Swanton, attended the meeting of that body at St. Louis, June 17-19, as representatives of the Bureau, and presented papers on the ethnology of the central region. During the year Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, was engaged as follows: The months of October, November, and December, 1908, were spent in Oklahoma, Texas, and Louisiana. In Oklahoma the Natchez linguistic material collected by Gallatin, Pike, Brinton, and Gatschet was gone over with one of the four surviving speakers of the Natchez language, and about fifty pages of text were recorded. In Texas the Alibamu Indians were visited in an endeavor, partially suecessful, to determine the relationship of the Pascagoula tribe, formerly resident near them. In Louisiana the linguistic material collected by Gatschet and Duralde was gone over with some of the surviving Attacapa, Chiti- macha, and Tunica. On the way to Washington Doctor Swanton visited Columbia, South Carolina, to examine the early archives of that State. The most important result of ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 19 the expedition, however, was the discovery at Marksville, Louisiana, of.a woman who remembers a large amount of the Ofo language formerly spoken on Yazoo River. As large a vocabulary of this language as possible was recorded. In the office Doctor Swanton completed the proof-reading of his work “Tlingit myths and texts,” which was ready for the press at the close of the year. He completed also a bulletin dealing with “Indian tribes of the lower Mississippi Valley and adjacent coast of the Gulf of Mexico,” and read proofs of the same. Additional work was accomplished as follows: The editing of the late J. O. Dorsey’s material on the Biloxi language (in press), and the proof-reading of the same; the copying of texts collected during the field expedi- tion above referred to, and incorporating the linguistic material then obtained with the material previously col- lected in the Natchez, Attacapa, Chitimacha, and Tunica languages, and the copying on cards of the Ofo vocabulary; the reading of galley proofs of sketches of the grammar of the Haida and the Tlingit for the Handbook of Indian Languages; assistance rendered Doctor Thomas in_ pre- paring for publication a bulletin on the languages of Mexico and Central America, and work incidental to the preparation for publication of Byington’s Choctaw Dic- tionary. Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist, was occupied in the office during the entire year. For a large portion of the time he was engaged in amending and transcribing the Onondaga text which, with a long supplement, is to form Part II of his Troquoian Cosmology, and in supplying an interlinear ren- dering and a free translation of the text. From his researches in connection’ with the preparation of articles for the Hand- book of American Indians he arrived at facts which greatly modify hitherto accepted views regarding the location and interrelations of the tribes around Lakes Huron and Michigan. In this connection he pursued extended studies of the early history of the Potawatomi, Mascoutens, Kick- apoo, Sauk, Foxes, Miami, and the “ Nation de la Fourche,” or “Tribe of the Fork,” in an effort to identify these tribes with those known to the early Hurons by names which occur 20 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY . in the writings of Champlain, Sagard, and the Jesuit Fathers. The expulsion of the Potawatomi, Sauk, Foxes, and the Tribe of the Fork from their earliest known habitat in Michigan by the Neutrals and their Ottawa allies—not by the Iroquois, as commonly asserted—was determined, and the most probable course of their retreat fixed. Similar research was conducted among early records to determine as far as possible the iden- tity of the tribes whose names are recorded on the Dutch “Carte Figurative” of 1614, which represents them as living along the’ middle and upper Susquehanna River and its western affluents. As these names were erroneously identi- fied as Spanish in origin, and as such adopted without ques- tion, much confusion and many inaccuracies have arisen in recent historical works. Mr. Hewitt continued the collection and elaboration of linguistic data for the sketch of Iroquois grammar as exem- plified in the Onondaga and the Mohawk, with parallel illus- trative examples from the Seneca, Cayuga, and Tuscarora. He also partially rewrote the articles “Seneca” and “Sauk”’ for the Handbook of American Indians, and endeavored, so far as was feasible, to incorporate in the remaining galley proofs of this work the results of his later researches. Mr. Hewitt was also called on to prepare data of an ethnologic nature for official correspondence. At the beginning of the year Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, eritole- gist, was in the field, having just completed the excavation and repair of the cliff-ruin known as the “ Spruce-tree House,” in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. Before the close of July he returned to Washington and commenced the prepara- tion of a report on this work, and undertook to complete the reports of unfinished researches of previous years. During his stay in Washington his services were enlisted in the build- ing of a large number of models of the ruins for the Alaska- Yukon-Pacifie Exposition at Seattle and in supervising the painting of panoramic views of the Cliff Palace in Mesa Verde National Park for the same purpose. In June Doctor Fewkes again took up his work among the Mesa Verde ruins, and by the close of the year had made excellent progress in uncovering and reenforcing the crum- ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 21 bling walls of Cliff Palace, the greatest of the ancient ruins of its kind in the arid country. The funds for the actual work of excavation and repair of these ruins were furnished by the Department of the Interior, which has control of the park. Being the essential feature of the park, it is most fortunate that these important and interesting ruins are now receiving adequate care and protection, since in recent years the progress of destructive agencies, especially the activities of relic hunters, has been very rapid. SpeciaAL RESEARCHES As in former years, a number of collaborators were engaged in conducting researches of a special nature in various fields. Dr. Franz Boas, honorary philologist of the Bureau, continued his labors on the Handbook of Languages, assisted by a number of students. Prominent among these is Dr. Leo J. Frachtenberg, who at the close of the year was engaged in studying the language of the Siletz tribe on its reservation in Oregon. Part 1 of the Handbook of Languages is now in press, and the work of Doctor Boas for the year included the proof-reading of this volume as well as the prep- aration of a portion of the text of Part 2. Miss Frances Densmore continued her researches relating to the music of the Chippewa, and a paper dealing with this subject was submitted for publication as Bulletin 45. A number of valuable phonographic records were obtained. Mr. J. P. Dunn, who was assigned the linguistic work among the western Algonquian tribes, left unfinished by the late Doctor Gatschet, continued the study of the Miami language among tribal remnants in Indiana and Oklahoma, and submitted a number of preliminary papers. COLLECTIONS The collections acquired by the Bureau and transferred to the National Museum during the year comprise fifteen accessions, the more important being as follows: Collection of West Indian antiquities, purchased from C. W. Branch, St. Vincent, British West Indies. 2, BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Indian relics from Moosehead Lake, Maine, presented by Mr. J. D. McGuire. Cache of. flaked stone objects from Moosehead Lake, Maine, purchased from T. Wilson. Collection of bones, pottery fragments, etc., obtained by Mr. J. D. McGuire and Dr. Ales Hrdlitka at Piscataway, Maryland. Archeological objects collected by Dr. J. W. Fewkes, ethnologist, during the excavation and repair of Spruce-tree House in the Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. Pottery fragments from Coden, Alabama. Stone implements from Tiahuanaco, Bolivia, and an earth- enware vessel from Nazco, Peru, collected by Mr. W. H. Holmes. Fragments of earthenware of the variety known as “‘salt vessels,”” from the vicinity of Shawneetown, Illinois, pre- sented by Mr. R. Moore, of Equality, Illinois. Ethnologica of the Chitimacha Indians, collected by Dr. John R. Swanton. PUBLICATIONS The editorial work remained in charge of Mr. J. G. Gurley, editor, who for a short period had the assistance of Mr. Stanley Searles. Work on the publications of the Bureau during the fiscal year may be briefly summarized as follows: The proof-reading of the Twenty-sixth Annual Report and of Bulletin 34 was completed, and these publications were issued. ‘The Twenty- seventh Annual Report and Bulletins 39, 41, 42, 43, 46, and 47 were prepared for and submitted to the Government Printing Office. Of these at the close of the year Bulletin 42 was issued, while Bulletins 39 and 41, also Bulletin 38 (the proof-reading of which occupied much time during the year), were substantially ready for the bindery. The Twenty- seventh Annual and Bulletin 483 were in galley form, and considerable progress had been made in the composition of Bulletins 46 and 47. The preparation of nearly all the man- uscript of Bulletin 40, Part 1, was finished, and most of the volume was in type. ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT ; 23 At the close of the year manuscripts duly approved for publication as Bureau bulletins were on hand, as follows: Bulletin 37 (partially edited). Antiquities of central and southeastern Missouri, by Gerard Fowke. Bulletin 44 (partially edited). Linguistic families of Mexico and Central America, by Cyrus Thomas, assisted by John R. Swanton. Bulletin 45. Chippewa music, by Frances Densmore. The distribution of publications continued as in former years. The Twenty-sixth Annual Report was issued in July, and Bulletin 34 in December. During the year 1,676 copies each of the Twenty-sixth Annual Report and Bulletin 34 were sent to regular recipients, and 3,000 volumes and pamphlets were transmitted in response to special requests, presented largely by Members of Congress. The number of requests for the Bureau’s publications greatly exceeded those received during any previous vear. ILLUSTRATIONS The preparation of illustrations continued in charge of Mr. De Lancey Gill, with Mr. Henry Walther as assistant. Illustrative material for six bulletins and one annual report was completed during the year; of this material 498 illus- trations were photographic prints and 77 were drawings. Proofs of the illustrations of three bulletins were examined and approved. Portrait negatives of 22 visiting Indian dele- gations to the number of 196 were made. The total output of the photographic laboratory was as follows: New nega- tives, 473; films exposed in the field and developed in the office, 454; photographic prints, 3,498. LIBRARY The library continued in charge of Miss Ella Leary, librarian. During the year 1,459 volumes and about 700 pamphlets were received and catalogued, and about 2,090 serials, chiefly the publications of learned societies, were received and recorded. As the law now permits the binding of miscellaneous publications belonging to the library at the 24 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY expense of the allotment for general printing and binding, it was found possible to bind a much larger number of vol- umes than in previous years, and thus to save many valuable works that were threatened with destruction. During the year 2,194 volumes were sent to the bindery, and of these all but about 500 had been received before the close of the fiscal year. In addition to the use of its own library, which is becoming more and more valuable through exchange and by limited purchase, it was found necessary to draw on the Library of Congress for the loan of 513 volumes. The library of the Bureau now contains 15,511 volumes, about 11,000 pamphlets, and several thousand unbound periodicals. LINGUISTIC MANUSCRIPTS Mr. J. B. Clayton served as custodian of manuscripts. The Bureau now possesses 1,678 manuscripts, mostly linguistic, 19 having been added during the year, mainly by purchase. All of these are of great value, and the number includes four by Miss Frances Densmore on Chippewa music, four by Mr. J. P. Dunn on Miami and Peoria linguistics, one each by Miss Alice C. Fletcher on the Omaha Indians, Mr. D. I. Bushnell on the Choctaw Indians of Louisiana, and Mr. Paul Radin on the Winnebago Indians. The card cata- ° logue of manuscripts is complete to date. W. H. Houmes, Chief. NOTE ON THE ACCOMPANYING PAPERS The present annual report is accompanied with two memoirs, namely, Ethnobotany of the Zuni Indians, by Matilda Coxe Stevenson, and An Inquiry into the Animism and Folk-lore of the Guiana Indians, by Walter E. Roth. The contribution first mentioned may be regarded as supplementary to Mrs. Stevenson’s memoir on The Zuni Indians, published as the accompanying paper of the Twenty-third Annual Report of the Bureau. In recent years much attention has been devoted to study of the various uses to which plants have been put by the Indians. This is the second paper devoted exclusively to the subject which the Bureau of American Ethnology has taken in hand for publication. That plants play an important part in the daily life of the Zuii, as indeed of all Indian tribes, is shown by Mrs. Stevenson, who finds that in Zuni belief plants are verily a part of themselves. Plants, indeed, are regarded as sentient beings, for the initiated of the Zuni can talk with them, and the plants can talk with the initiated. Plants also are sacred, for some of them were dropped to earth by the Star People; some originally were human beings, others are the property of the gods, and all are the offspring of the Earth Mother. Therefore so interwoven with plant life, in both a religious and an economic way, are the customs and beliefs of the Zuni people, and so dependent are they on the products of the soil, that their culture may be said to have had its origin in concepts pertaining to the vegetal kingdom. Mrs. Stevenson, like Dr. Washington Matthews before her, finds that plants used by the Indians in medicine are not employed entirely in a shamanistic way, experience having shown that many medicines derived from plants have medicinal value, and are properly and effectually prescribed by the native doctors, although we may not presume that the medical practices of the Zuni, notwithstanding the relatively high degree of culture of that tribe, have passed beyond the empirical stage. Mrs. Stevenson describes the various uses to which plants and their parts are put by the Zuni, in medicine, food, weaving, dyeing, and basketry, in the decoration of pottery, in the toilet, in folk-lore and ceremony, and in names pertaining to the clans. It is trusted that these results of Mrs. Stevenson’s studies will suggest to others the need of giving special attention to this interesting and important phase of the ethnology of our Indian tribes. 25 26 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY The second memoir, by Walter E. Roth, who has long been a resi- dent of British Guiana and a student of its aborigines, treats of the religious and mythological beliefs of those people. Like Indians generally, the natives of Guiana had no idea of a supreme being in the modern conception of the term. For example, the terms em- ployed by the Arawak for the Christian deity—and the same may be said of the other tribes—‘‘show signs that they have been adapted to express a conception to which they could have been introduced only within modern times . . . because in none of the Arawak myths and legends relative to the creation, even in those published by clerics, is there a single reference to the All-Maker.’”’ According to one writer, some of the Orinoco tribes considered the Sun as the supreme being and first cause; it was to him they attributed all tem- poral blessings. Others, on the contrary, believed that everything depended on the influence of the moon, while some of the tribes wor- shipped both the sun and the moon. Various writers, evidently misled by certain conceptions derived by the Indians from missiona- ries, have attributed deific powers to Alubiri and Kororomanna, who were in fact tribal heroes of the Arawak and Warrau, respectively; and similar powers have been ascribed to other beings to whom the Indians did not, originally at least, attribute supernatural force. Doctor Roth devotes a chapter to the discussion of the beliefs, tales, and traditions associated with these tribal heroes, one of whom, Amalivaca, is known throughout a region of more than 5,000 square leagues. Evidences of a spirit, idol, and fetish cult are very scarce, but they are recognizable in familiar spirits and in the kickshaws of the medicine-man. Certain ceremonial performances, in which dancing “to the sound of very noisy instruments”? (which Doctor Roth iden- tifies as trumpets) is the chief outward feature, were held in front of idols. The same instrument was sounded under palm trees that they might bear abundant fruit. Toads were regarded as sacred and were kept under pots in order to obtain rain and fine weather. By some of the tribes frogs were regarded as the gods of the waters, and, like the toads, were beaten when rain did not fall. Beyond mention of certain snake dances, there seems to be nothing akin to actual worship and similar ceremonies in connection with these animals. Figurines representing human personages and various animals, including birds, reptiles, and fishes, the author does not regard as examples of a fetish cult, although their real significance so far has not been satisfac- torily explained. In the belief of the Guiana natives man was either brought to the earth from cloud-land or was created here—in the latter case from animals, snakes, plants, or rocks. On the other hand, certain plants were derived from human beings or from bush spirits, or grew upon ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 27 a wonderful tree, while some animals arose from the spirits of men. The body of man was originally considered immortal; it was reno- vated by a change of skin or by a fountain of youth, and the immortal character of the body was assured by its transformation into stone. The body is the abode of several spirits—the shadow, head, heart, pulse-beat, blood, spittle, footprint, and bone spirits possessed by both men and the lower animals. Stages in the conception of spirit immortality are shown in the mortuary customs: the attitude in which the corpse is buried; flattery and adulation; festivals and feasts; furnishing the dead with the means of capturing the assailant; supplying the dead with dogs, women, weapons, ornaments, and food; eating his flesh and bones; exhuming his remains for witchcraft and prophecy; abandonment of place of sepulture, ete. Spirits which have assumed anthropomorphic forms may reach their final destina- tion direct, or only after passing through trials and ordeals. The conception of a future existence conditioned on conduct in this life is probably a borrowed one. Spirits are good or bad according as they help or harm the Indians, and not according to the bodies whence they have been derived, as has been generally supposed. Individuals can be relieved of the presence of undesirable spirits by the use of rattles and by blowing. Dreams are caused by spirits which reside in the head. Imbeciles are in intimacy with good spirits, hence their words and actions are regarded as signs of divinity and their doings and sayings are oracular. The cult of familiar spirits reached a high development among the Island Carib. Though presented with offer- ings, these spirits could be invoked only by the medicine-man, and being more or less intimately associated with human bones, were often called into requisition for purposes of witchcraft and prophecy. Doctor Roth assembles the available information regarding the vari- ous spirits, and incorporates in his memoir the myths and _ tales respecting them. Of prime importance among these are the bush spirits; there are also spirits of the mountain, spirits of the water, and spirits of the sky, all of which are treated and the related myths given. Omens, charms, and talismans, with the beliefs respecting them and the strange uses to which they are put, are described by the author, who presents also a chapter on restrictions as to game and food, visions, arts and crafts, and nomenclature. Sexual life (puberty ordeals, courtship and marriage, and childbirth ordeals); the medi- cine man, his practices, insignia, and supposed power; the terrible spirit known as Kanaima and its influence over human beings, are adequately treated. The closing chapters of the memoir on these hitherto little-known tribes of Guiana are devoted to miscellaneous beliefs concerning men and animals; animism of recent introduction, and miscellaneous folk-lore independent of animism. 28 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY So successfully has Doctor Roth gathered from the available sources his information regarding these aborigines of northern South America and the adjacent isles that students of the American Indians will await with great interest his proposed work on the general ethnology of the tribes of that region. F. W. Hopes, Ethnologist-in-Charge. November, 1914. ACCOMPANYING PAPERS Py ; = ey Se See BAMIAS DUTY as ey e7 —= —— ® . ‘s ¥ is * - i j oe « 5 , 7 pat i Vy “ap Ce Sits i tk iw HOO a a - ieee eS Beg) 2 Fi ETHNOBOTANY OF THE ZUNI INDIANS BY MATILDA COXE STEVENSON Wess TET 4O- 7HAT Cet ah ai ee CONTENTS Page Lin Heoyaltv ena al 27S See ee ey eS eee ge ae ae 35 Medical practices‘andmedicinal:plants:.:-....2--<--.<< -aasalip AmuTAATSULo haeciut) cach’ mh GA iittaa plies > sd estos | ikaw’ aay 1 toden) vied | encase Delf bp eat w it — 1) —sye 1 tet GNNOYDSYHOS SHL NI YSAIY INNZ ‘HLNOS S3HL WOYS O183Nd INNZ bt 3LV1d LYOdSY IWANNY HL3ILYIHL ASOIONHL]A NVOIYAWY 3O NV3YHNG ETHNOBOTANY OF THE ZUNT INDIANS By Matitpa Coxm STEVENSON INTRODUCTION PPV si is perhaps no tribe of North American Indians which has interested the intelligent world more than the Zuni, who live in an arid country in the extreme western part of New Mexico. Their great community pueblo (pls. 1, 3) occupies the site of one of the seven villages inhabited by the tribe at the time of the invasion of the Spanish conquerors, before the middle of the sixteenth century. Although the Zuni form a distinct linguistic stock, according to Powell's classification, it is known from a study of their prayers and rituals that they are a composite people, some having come from the north, while others came from the south. According to their traditions they journeyed from the far northwest in quest of the ‘middle place of the world,” and on reaching their goal were contented to remain. The migration legend of the Zuni relates that they were driven from their homes at this ‘“‘middle place” by a great flood that covered the earth, to To’wa yil’linné (‘corn mountain’), a beau- tiful mesa of red and white sandstone, about three and a half miles to the eastward. The pueblo ruins on the summit of this mesa would seem to indicate that the height was occupied for a considerable time. There are also on the mesa many interesting shrines to the Sun Father, Moon Mother, and Gods of War. The Zuni again took refuge on To’wa yil’linné when the Spaniards first invaded their country, and again at the time of the Pueblo revolt against Spanish authority in 1680. These sojourns on the mesa, however, were mere episodes in the life of the Zufi people, for they returned each time to their valley homes where they con- tinued to elaborate their philosophy and system of rituals. They held so tenaciously to their autochthonous institutions, resisting all external interference, that they lived, as it were, a life unto them- selves. Such was the condition of the Zuni in 1879, when the late Mr. James Stevenson, of the Bureau of Ethnology, accompanied by the writer and others, made his first visit among these people, who at once took the visitors into their confidence, inviting them to be present at all social and ceremonial functions. 35 36 ETHNOBOTANY OF THE ZUNI INDIANS [BrH. ANN. 30 The long winter nights were devoted by the Zuni to the ceremonies of their secret fraternities, exhorting their most benevolent gods; rain priests in retreat invoked their anthropic deities for rain to fructify the earth, and elders taught the youths, sitting attentively at their knees by the flickering firelight, the mysteries of their life and religion. Of all the secrets of their lives none is more strictly guarded or more carefully transmitted than the knowledge of healing. The “doctor” instructs in the lore of plants, and the relation of plants to man and beast. Many changes have taken place at Zufi since the year above noted. Houses then lighted by day with tiny wmdows formed of a mosaic of translucent selenite, and at night by the light from the family fire, now haye modern triple windows, factory doors with transoms, and hanging lamps. There has been a gradual decrease in the atten- tion given by the youths to instruction in the tribal religion, and with few exceptions the men of today perform the elaborate rituals with only a superficial knowledge of the esoteric meaning of all they do and say. The days of the Zuni seers are numbered, and with the passing of the few that remain the curtain will fall forever on the underlying principles and teachings of their rituals, although their outward form may survive, in one form or another, as long as the Zufi remain a communal people, for their religious beliefs, though fraught with fear of their gods, are the pivot upon which they turn with all their hopes and joys. To the present time the Zuni have persistently refused to accept the religion of the white man, except when compelled to do so outwardly under the early Spanish régime, always declaring that they would never renounce their own beliefs, and that ‘‘one could not have two religions and be a man.” The Zuni live with their plants—the latter are a part of themselves. The initiated can talk with their plants, and the plants can talk with them. Plants are sacred to the Zuni, for some of them were dropped to the earth by the Star People; some were human beings before they became plants; others are the property of the gods, and all, even those from the heavens, are the offspring of the Earth Mother, for it was she who gave the plants to the Star People before they left this world and became celestial beings. The Zuii love their plants. The breath prayers to their rain-makers carried by the spiritual essence of the plumes planted in the earth are invocations to these gods to send the rains to fructify the Earth Mother that she may give of the fullness of her being, and make the world beautiful by her gifts. (See pl. 2.) Vegetation is symbolized by blue-green on the sacred dance-kilts worn by the personators of the rain-makers, and there are many other designs on fabrics, ceramics, and ceremonial objects, symbolizing the fullness of the earth. STEVENSON] INTRODUCTION 37 In all the poetic conceptions of the Zuni one great object is para- mount—food to support the physical man. Thus—May the rain-makers water the Earth Mother that she may be made beautiful to look upon. May the rain-makers water the Earth Mother that she may become fruitful and give to her children and to all the world the fruits of her being, that we may have food in abundance. May the Sun Father embrace our Earth Mother that she may become fruitful, that food may be bountiful, and that our children may live the span of life, not die, but sleep to awake with their gods. While it was generally observed by early travelers among the Indians that they employed plants for medicinal purposes, it was long believed, even by scientific students, that the practices of Indian doctors were purely shamanistic. The late Dr. Washington Matthews, however, declared from the beginning of his ethnological investigations that the Indians employed many plants of real value in medicine. Mr. Stevenson made the same assertion, and the writer discovered in the beginning of her researches among the Zuni Indians in. 1879 that they had many legitimate plant medicines, among which was a narcotic, of which more will be said later. In addition to their use in medicine and for food, plants are em- ployed by the Zuni in weaving and dyeing, in making basketry, mats, brushes, rope and cords of various kinds, and also in pottery decora- tion, in the toilet, and in ceremonies. Clans, individuals, and loeali- ties are named for plants. In this memoir medicinal plants will be first considered. Where a common name is known, it is given; where the native name or its derivation is omitted, it is because the writer did not succeed in recording the data. The specimens of plants dealt with in the following pages were collected largely by the writer and Me’she, the late younger-brother Bow-Priest of Zufi, who gave his heart not only to the collecting of the plants, but to their classification according to the Zuni system and to their use by his people. After careful study of the plants with Me’she, the writer at various times verified the information through others, both men and women, especially versed in plant lore. Usually the Zuni have a name for each species of a genus of plants, but in some cases they employ the same name for different genera. This is not due to their lack of appreciation of the botanical difference, but to the fact that two or more plants may serve the same purpose or have similar characteristics. Some plants are curiously associated in name with animals, others are named from the medicinal qualities attributed to them, while others receive their names from those of animals to which they are believed to belong. Of the last-mentioned class there are, for example, the cougar, the bear, the badger, the wolf, the eagle, and the shrew medicine, these animals being assigned 38 ETHNOBOTANY OF THE ZUNI INDIANS [eTH. ANN. 50 to the six cosmic regions—north, west, south, east, zenith, and nadir. There are also medicines belonging to the hummingbird and others of the feathered kingdom.* The plants here noted are probably only a portion of those employed by the Zuni, and it is probable also that the medicinal plants may be used in the treatment of a greater number of diseases than it has been possible to determine even after a long period of close study. This memoir is presented as preliminary therefore to more extended comparative ethnobotanical researches among the Pueblo tribes of the Southwest. The writer is pleased to make acknowledgment to the following gentlemen for courtesies extended during the preparation of -this paper: Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist-in-charge of the Bureau of American Ethnology; Mr. W. H. Holmes, head curator of anthro- pology, United States National Museum; Dr. Walter Hough, curator of ethnology, United States National Museum; Dr. Frederick V. Coville, curator, United States National Herbarium; Dr. J. N. Rose, associate curator, division of plants, United States National Museum; Mr. Paul C. Standley, assistant curator, division of plants, United States National Museum (who kindly furnished a complete classifica- tion of the plants mentioned in the paper); Mr. E.S. Steele, editorial assistant, division of plants, United States National Museum; Dr. Rodney H. True, in charge of drug-plant investigation, Department of Agriculture; Miss Alice Henkel, assistant in drug-plant investiga- tion, Department of Agriculture; Dr. George Tully Vaughan and Dr. Henry Krogstad, of Washington; and Mr. John P. Harrington, of the School of American Archeology, Santa Fe, New Mexico. The writer desires to express her indebtedness also to her Zuni friends, especially the late Nai’uchi, elder-brother Bow-Priest, and the most renowned medicine-man of his time, if not of any period, among his people; his son, Halian, an associate rain priest; the high priest, also a prominent medicine-man, and his son Hun’ki, the two being members of the medicine order of the Galaxy fraternity, one of the original organizations of the Zuni; Cantina, a member of the Eagle-down fraternity; Zuni Nick, a member of the Great Fire fraternity; Tsi’nahe, a member of the Sword Swallowers fraternity, and his wife, a member of the Shu’maakwe, and others—to all these she owes a debt of gratitude for their friendly interest and for their earnest, conscientious, and voluntary aid. 1 The association of plant medicines with animals has caused some students erroneously to believe that these medicines are part of, or are prepared from, the animals or birds which bear their respective names- i (SYHANVW NIVY) INVNNVMN SHL 30 SONVd @ 3LW1d 1LYOdSY IVANNYV HISILYIHL ADOIONHL]A NVOINSWY JO NvaH"nd MEDICAL PRACTICES AND MEDICINAL PLANTS Medical treatment is older than intelligence in man. The dog hunts the fields for his special grass medicine; the bear dresses the wound of her cub or fellow-bear with perhaps as much intelligence, as primitive man observes in his empirical practice. Primitive man does not know why his medicine cures; he simply knows that it does cure. He believes disease to be the result of malign influence, including that of his fellow man, to whom he attributes the power of sorcery which he himself is unable to overcome; hence he must summon the aid of the beast gods, who alone possess the power of combating the malevolent practices of the sorcerer,’ while he admin- isters their medicine. The plants of the gods could not effect a cure, however, by the mere use of the medicines concocted from them; during the treatment of the patient prayers and supplications must be offered to the gods to whom the medicine belongs. Aithough the therapeutics of the Indians is largely associated with occultism, these people have discovered through the ages and brought into practical use numerous valuable plant medicines; but in the first stages in the use of plants it was not understood that they were endowed with healing properties, except as they were associated with the gods, and the old conception is still adhered to. The plants regarded as the sole property of man no doubt were discovered at a later period. The Gods of War and other anthropic deities have their particular medicines, which are employed by those privileged to administer them. ‘The rain priests possess medicines of celestial bodies, and of sacred birds, and they also make use of Datura meteloides (see pp. 89, 90). This precious plant, which is believed to have been once a boy and a girl, may be used only by the rain priests and by the directors of the Little Fire and Cimex fraternities. There are other plant medicines belonging to medicine orders of the secret fraternities that are not the property of the gods. While all legitimate medicines have come into use by accident or through experiment, there is a great difference in the Zufi mind between the medicines of the gods and those that have become known to the fra- ternities through members who have given the secrets of their immediate ancestors one to another or to the fraternity at large. A high ethical standard is recognized by the members of the fraternities. 1 The beast gods were originally human beings who preceded the Zui to this world. They brought with them the knowledge of mystery medicine (healing of ills produced by witeheraft) from the undermost world. See 93d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 49. St) 40 ETHNOBOTANY OF THE ZUNI INDIANS [prH. ANN. 30 If, for example, a member of a fraternity gives his medicine to a fellow member, it is customary for the recipient to return the favor in kind. These medicines are usually presented with the under- standing that they may be introduced into the medicine order of the fraternity to which the recipient belongs. Again, a man may present his medicine to an individual to be held in inviolate secrecy by him; or a man may forever hold secret the medicinal properties of plants the knowledge of which has come to him through inheritance for generations. Many medicines of this last-named class are adminis- tered in the most practical manner. Mention has already been made of plant medicines associated in the Zui mind with animals. ; The Zuni assert that the reason of the late Nai’uchi’s great success _as a doctor was his exclusive knowledge of certain medicinal plants. Only those in affluent circumstances could afford to command Nai’- uchi’s services, because of his exorbitant charges. The secrets per- taining to plants often sell at a considerable price. There are also among the Zuni medicines free to the people at large, which may be administered by laymen, one member of a family prescribing them for another or for a neighbor, without the advice of a “doctor.” In some cases the theurgist makes no use of medicine, but, acting under the influence of the animal gods, with the mind’s eye he pene- trates the flesh, locates the cause of the disease which has been ‘‘shot” into the body by means of sorcery, and extracts it by sucking; or he may merely manipulate the spot with his hand and draw the malevolent substance from the body. This is so dextrously done that, although the writer has been seated beside the nude theurgist innumerable times, she was never able to observe that he had secreted any object in his mouth or hand until Nai’uchi, in an almost dying condition, treated a patient who imagined a sorcerer had injured his eyesight. It was then evident to the writer, who sat by the side of the old man, that the pebbles he was supposed to press from the patient’s eyes were held in the most remarkable manner in the palm of his right hand, which apparently was held in a natural position. Such treatment is usually practiced on one who imagines that he has been face to face with a wizard or a witch and so subjected to malign influence. It is when a theurgist realizes that a person is genuinely ill that he brings his plant medicine into use. It is usual for the doctor to treat the patient with his personal or fraternity medicine for ordinary ailments; if the disease does not yield, he knows that his patient is not suffermg from some minor enemy, such as ants,' but has been 1 Ants causé many cutaneous troubles because of their anger over the disregard shown for their houses. “ Ants shoot tiny pebbles into the flesh,’ the Zuii say. STEVENSON] MEDICAL PRACTICES AND MEDICINAL PLANTS 41 bewitched by man. Then he acts in the capacity of theurgist, employing the medicines of the gods, whom he invokes for their spir- itual presence and bestowal on him of power to heal the disease. Medicines supposed to belong to the gods are administered with much ceremony, for the medicines themselves are of virtue because they are the property of certain gods who must be present in spirit and give power to the theurgist to act for them, otherwise the reme- dies would not be efficacious. The use of Datura by the Indians has long been known. In the dark age of medical science ‘‘the Royal Society of London gravely inquired of Sir Philberto Vernatti, ‘Whether the Indians can so pre- pare the stupefying herb Datura, that they make it lie several days, months, or years, according as they will have it, in a man’s body, and at the end kill him without missing half an hour’s time ?’’’! There can be no question as to the early use of antiseptics and narcotics by the Zuni, as well as by other primitive peoples,? but with civilized man it remained for Lister to revolutionize surgery by the introduction of scientific antiseptic treatment. Datura stra- monium was introduced to the medical profession in 1762 by Baron Stoerck, of Vienna, and it was given a place in the homeopathic pharmacopeea about a century ago when Hahnemann established its action and therapeutic uses. It is claimed that the European gypsies in the middle ages employed the smoke of Datura stramonium to delude their dupes. The Zuni rain priests administer Datura meteloides that one may become a seer, and the Zuni “ doctor” gives the root of the plant to render his patient unconscious while he performs simple operations—setting fractured limbs, treating dis- locations, making incisions for removing pus, eradicating diseases of the uterus, and the like. The narcotic is seldom employed by the Zuni for the extraction of bullets, as men, they say, are not like women, and they must be men. In such cases the Zuni “ doctor” makes an incision with his flint knife in the form of a cross, after s 1 Bigelow, Amer. Medical Botany, 1817, vol. 1, pp. 21-22. 2The Pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona generally, the California Indians, the Mohave, the Pima, and perhaps many others, make use of Datura meteloides and D. stramonium. See Dodge in Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1870, p. 423, Washington, 1871; Palmer in Amer. Jour. Pharmacy, 4th ser., vol. 8, p. 589, Phila., 1878. In 1879 the present writer obtained a specimen of Datura meteloides in powdered form and submitted it to Prof. F. W. Clarke, chief chemist of the United States Geological Sur- vey, but the quantity was not sufficient for analysis, and it was not until 1902 that she learned the identity of the drug. In 1891 Mr. James Mooney, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, found the peyote (A nhkalonium lewinii, “mescal button’’) extensively employed in ceremony by the Kiowa and other tribes of the southern plains for the purpose of bringing about aneestatic state. In 1894 Mr. Mooney brought to Washington a quantity of peyote, which was subjected to analysis by Dr. E. E. Ewell, of the Department of Agriculture, and subsequent investigation showed that the peyote possesses properties unlike those of any other known drug. “‘The study of Anhalonium lewinii,”’ say Doctors Prentiss and Morgan (Mescal Buttons, Medical Record, Washington, Aug. 22, 1896), “is of comparatively recent date, the subject having been brought to the attention of the medical world in 1888 by Doctor Lewin, of Berlin, who published at that time the results of his observations upon the drug. In 1894 Doctors Lewin and Heffter, of Germany, reported the results of further study of the subject.” 49 ETHNOBOTANY OF THE ZUNI INDIANS [pre ANN. 30 which the four sections are laid back, the flaps to be restored to place after the missile is extracted. While powdered piion gum (Pinus edulis Engelm.) is in general use as an antiseptic, the Zuni employ other plants also for this pur- pose. — As these could be procured only in the form of powder and in very small quantities, analysis was not possible. Doctor Matthews observed a Zuni Indian cleanse a wound with a decoction of red willow; the wound healed in a short time. Achillea lanulosa Nutt. Yarrow. Carpuacem. Thistle family. Ha'tsenawe, ‘cold leat’ (ha ha’li, leaf; ko’chi, a species of rat). The blossoms are combined with those of other plants, including the blossoms of the native squash, in the preparation of pats, or cakes, by the Shu’maakwe,’ who make them annually with great ceremony in the fraternity chamber. This plant belongs solely to the Shu’maakwe, when combined in the pats, which are regarded as a specific for rheumatism and swellings. It is in great demand by the people generally, and there is seldom a time when male or female theurgists are not treating patients with it in their homes. A portion of a cake is broken into a small quantity of water and the infusion applied externally, the theurgist praying in a low tone while he rubs gently with the medicine.‘ 1See 23d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 20. 2 For ceremonial use of Erysimum, see p. 92. When this plant is employed ceremonially it bears the name ha’lini tsan’na ‘leaf long small’ (ha