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AY

State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

THIRTY-NINTH ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES,

.
Compliments of the

-Commissioners of Inland Fishertes.

:

JIS OE Sa Vite lpe re MOM Uae So

PROVIDENCE:
E. L. FREEMAN COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS.
1909.

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State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

THIRTY-NINTH ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES,

MADE TO THE

GENERAL ASSEMBLY

AT ITS

JANUARY SESSION, 1909.

PROVIDENCE:
E. L. FREEMAN COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS.
1909.

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CONTENTS.

PAGE.
General report upon the work of the Commission, and the financial state-
MEINE PLOT Bis srayeia cities yrenetelous aisig slclavete Lie scene! wicjelabcleys oe tlie epee eee 3
The stocking of ponds and streams with fresh-water fishes............... +
Collection of data and statistics relating to commericial fisheries.......... 5, 28
Fish traps set in Rhode Island waters, and list of trap owners............ 6, 32
The continued examination of the physical and biological conditions of the
MB Byte teem tcpeh Sie re sas ee aici avers ait) so etieweside oye) # svehamited we al Grays teleueeeset 1 al
Bchibitionsob ohe results of seatarmine. . .. 0... classe aes eles cine eee 13
ERROR ACPO WM Oat LO DSUECLSe.teraynjeiisi<iadee ks Geko: 26) 01) olteo;rn0e $ /alavciles wathe. gis siete a sehen 16
Title of special papers published in the Annual Reports of the Commissioners
of Inland Fisheries of the State of Rhode Island.................... 163
Special Papers:—
The Fishes of Rhode Island, VII. The Life-History of the Common
eb doy el 4 Oe Dray se calcul this Js-atercietieee Wa Seem caIaae a eras 43

Notes on the Crabs Found in Narragansett Bay by Walter E. Sullivan. 56
A Method of Fish Culture and of Transporting Live Fishes, by A. D.

INU UGE 0 thon sha htc eae eC er a ee hh SLU Ue tRNA 14 ya. aa 79
A Method’ of Lobster Culture, by A. D. Mead. ......5... 052.4 02. c8u8 107
evisedehobstermlbaiwy. te nse are ccsiirs fay sse oils: s1 aa srs cec ee aren OEE ee 1B 37/

General Index to the Annual Reports of the Commissioners of Inland Fish-
enesion theotate of Rhode Island. .....\u< scsi a aoe vale Mae = eke ene 143

Twhve © Rae

To the Honorable the General Assembly of the State of Rhode Island
and Providence Plantations, at its January Session, 1909:

The Commissioners of Inland Fisheries herewith present their an-
nual report for the year 1908.

The programme of work of your Commission during the past
year included:

The stocking of ponds and streams with fresh-water fishes.

The collection of data and statistics relating to the commercial
fisheries.

The enforcement of the State laws governing the fisheries, par-
ticularly those relating to the lobster fisheries.

The continued examination of the physical and biological conditions
of Narragansett Bay with reference to the development of the fish-
eries.

The exhibition of the results of sea-farming experiments for the
purpose of awakening interest in the development of the fishery
industries.

The distribution of copies of the laws of the State relating to
fisheries.

The active co-operation with the fisheries authorities of other
States, of the National Government, and of other countries.

The propagation of lobsters at the rearing station at Wickford.

The continued scientific investigation of fisheries problems for the
purpose of ascertaining fundamental facts upon which new and
effective methods of developing the fisheries industries shall be
established.

4 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

The financial statement for the year 1908 is given at the end of this
general report.

Your Commissioners also beg to call the attention of your Honorable
Body to the interesting fact that it was just forty years ago, at the
January session of the General Assembly in 1869, that the Committee
of Investigation of the Fisheries, appointed by the Governor under a
resolution of the General Assembly, submitted their report which led
to the immediate creation of the Commission of Inland Fisheries.
This committee was composed of Alfred Reed, Albert S. Gallup,
8. S. Foss, C. H. Tompkins, and E. D. Pearce, with Newton Dexter
as secretary.

It is a noteworthy fact that the original Committee of Investiga-
tion and the Commissioners of Inland Fisheries from the creation of
the Commission to the present time have served without salary. To
the sort of interest in and devotion to the cause which this gratuitous
service implies is due, we believe, the success of its work and the
sympathetic support of the people of the State.

STOCKING STREAMS.

Forty thousand (40,000) yearling trout have been bought and
distributed, under the direct supervision of your Commissioners, to
various appropriate streams. On the first page of the report of the
Committee of Investigation before referred to occurs the significant
remark: ‘‘and the art of man unrestrained by law has not yet been
able to wholly extirpate trout, so favorable are our brooks and
ponds to the propagation of the young of fresh-water fishes.” At
the present time there is no doubt in the minds of any who are
familiar with the facts that, were it not for the continual introduction
of trout and the regulation of the fishing, trout-fishing in Rhode
Island would be merely a memory. By reason of this constant
attention the trout-fishing has continued good, and in some years, in
some streams, it has been really remarkable.

J

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. a)

DATA ON COMMERCIAL FISHERIES.

Again reverting to the report of the special Committee rendered
in 1869, we find that these gentlemen were keenly aware that the
salt-water fisheries of the State were a valuable asset which ought to
be conserved: ‘‘before taking leave of the subject of fisheries in our
State we feel it our duty to call the attention of your Honorable
Body to the existing condition of affairs in regard to our sea-coast
fisheries. While it is right and proper that the river fisheries should
be protected and measures taken to increase the supply, it is easy to
show that in real importance and commercial value the products of
our Bay and shores vastly exceed them. Our markets, and through
them the people, depend chiefly upon the salt water for their supply
of fish. That this supply is variable and by no means what it should
be either in quantity or price is indisputable.

“That the demand for fish, clams, and oysters has increased within
the past few years is no doubt true, and this fact has doubtless had an
effect upon the market prices; but the chief cause will be found to be
in the steadily decreasing supply of the more common kinds of shell-
fish and sea fishes.

“Take, for example, the clam, one of Rhode Island’s most boasted
institutions. Within a few years the price has increased three-fold,
while the quality and quantity has certainly deteriorated in the same
proportion.

‘This seems to us a subject of grave consideration, and we take this
occasion to recommend to your Honorable Body the advisability of
appointing a committee of disinterested men who shall examine into
the whole matter thoroughly and report at the earliest possible
moment, as it is a subject which has been procrastinated much too
long for the public good.”

The complete statistics of our commercial fisheries for the last
forty years would be of incalculable value, not principally as an histor-
ical reference, but as a guide to proper regulation and encourage-
ment of particular branches of the fisheries.

6 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

But the gathering of complete reliable statistical data—and un-
reliable data is worse than useless—is an expensive, laborious, and
extremely difficult task. During the last twenty years the Com-
missioners of Inland Fisheries have been giving an increasing amount
of attention to this work, and much valuable material has been col-
lected and recorded.

More attention is now being giving to the matter than ever before.

The trap-fishing in the bay and other waters of the State is one of
the most important industries. During the past eleven years the
statistics of location .and ownership have been annually collected and
published in detail in the reports of your Commission. The increase
in the number of traps during these years is remarkable, and if it is an
index of the growing demand for the products of the industry, is
significant of its future importance to the State and the people.

Leaving out of account the traps at Block Island, the following
table gives a summary of the numbers in the consecutive years from
1898 to 1908, inclusive:

Number of Number of

Year. traps. Year. traps.
TSO Se ns. Nee Recess carat syeteks 119 NO OAR i ect eet Seer ee 214
ICAO Ea eta cain Glaicks ign’ Hiyall OO Sires eee a= Posen ee oneee 234
NG OOM eee wae erect 135 LOOGE A. 22 AA aN ere ve, 243
12) OME Ree ire eee oa Wk eae uk eve es 151 UOT poe stan DR ee 265
LOO2 Sas. Ree ee es 161 1K) O Noir ale tee cower Ate ake Myon 271
TCT OS Hee ei EOP vei oh nae AY 195

It is to be noted that the growth in numbers has been constant and
fairly even; the yearly increase being 2, 14, 16, 10, 34, 19, 20, 9, 22,
and 6. The increase has been general in the various portions of the
State, though in some quarters it has been greater than in others.
This is indicated in the following table:

Prov. East West Mt. Hope Sakonet East Off-
Year. River. Green. Passage. Bay. River. Passage. Shore.
SS arte reece 2 f 6 26 9 34 15 25

OOS Nea a 38 32 12 87 22 73

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 7

Unfortunately there are no accurate statistics showing the actual
amount of the yearly catch of fish in the traps and their value. Some
general idea of the importance of the fishery, however, may be in-
ferred from the fact that the shipment from Newport alone by
regular transportation lines was, for 1908, 48,814 barrels of fish,
exclusive of lobsters and other shell-fish and large fish like sturgeon,

horse-mackerel, swordfish, ete.

STATISTICS OF LOBSTER FISHERY.

The statistics of the lobster fishery, which have been gathered for
the last five years, are more nearly complete than those of any other
branch of the fisheries of the State, and, for several reasons, these data
are just now of paramount importance. For many years this in-
dustry had been evidently waning,so that the outlook had become
extremely serious, and numerous and various remedies were suggested.
This was the situation in 1901 when the General Assembly passed
laws that could be enforced and placed their enforcement in the hands
of the Commission of Inland Fisheries. These laws, designed to pro-
tect young lobsters and egg-lobsters, have, since 1901, been con-
scientiously enforced as far as possible by your Commission and their
deputies. In 1900, also, the lobster propagating establishment at
your Commission’s Wickford station began to get practical results,
which have increased in importance from year to year. Since the
work of propagation and enforcement of the laws regulating lobster
fishery began there has been a remarkable increase in the catch of
lobsters. This is a fact which is commonly known to all those
interested, and one which requires no statistical proof. However,
statistics do confirm this fact and would seem to answer definitely
the much-discussed question whether or not artificial propagation
and protective regulation can be effective in maintaining the lobster
industry.

The total catch of lobsters in the State has increased from 376,994
pounds in 1904 to 1,471,344 pounds in 1908,* an increase of 1,094,350

*This number will be considerably increased by returns from some districts from which we
have been unable to get reports.

8 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

pounds. That this unparalleled increase is not spasmodic or acci-

dental is evidenced by the steady increase in consecutive years:

1904 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908.
376,994 499,300 671,914 929 423 1,471,344

That the increase is not referable to the introduction of statistics
from additional localities is shown by the statistics from Newport

alone, which are summarized as follows:

1904 1905. 1906. 1907 1908.
226,994 301,659 353,573 581,189 665,009

It is known that the total number of lobster pots has very greatly
increased, and to this fact one might be inclined to attribute the in-
creased catch. The facts are otherwise; for, while the number of
pots has increased from 7,935 in 1904 to 20,011 in 1908 (more than
250 per cent.), the catch per pot has not shown a proportionate
-decrease. On the contrary, despite this great multiplication of pots,
the catch per pot not only shows no decrease, but has actually in-
creased approximately fifty per cent. The following is the catch per
pot for the past five years:

1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908.
48— 54+ 59-++ 76+ (4—

Making allowance for the usual feeling of uncertainty in depending
upon statistics where the issue is close, there can be no reasonable
doubt that vast improvement in the condition of the lobster industry
in this State in the last decade is real. For a sharp contrast with the
situation here, we introduce the following quotation from the ‘‘ Fishing
Gazette,’ which needs no comment, but which recalls the statements
of ten years ago regarding the condition of our own lobster industry:
“The market for canned lobster continues somewhat depressed not
only in the American market but also abroad. Stocks are fairly heavy.
Newfoundland advices are that lobsters are almost completely fished

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES, 9

out around the whole coast. Canners who once put up three thousand
cases cannot produce two hundred now.”

“The St. John’s (N. F.) ‘Trade Review’ says: ‘There is no use
mincing matters. The present deplorable condition of our lobster
fishery is due entirely to the cowardice of the government, who are
afraid to carry out the law. They have a regulation calling for a
defined length of lobster for packing, but they know that this law .
is broken every day in the year; but, fearing to lose the fisherman’s
vote, they will not prosecute. Thus it goes on year after year, the
available lobsters becoming smaller and smaller, until at present it
sometimes takes the meat of thirty or forty fish to fill a one-pound
ean.’”’ (“Fishing Gazette,” Jan. ’09, p. 103.)

ENFORCEMENT OF LAW.

That the fishermen, anglers, and the dealers should realize that the
sole object of the laws relating to the fisheries is to permanently
increase the catch of fish is a fact of the utmost importance. Without
the co-operation of the better class of those concerned in the fisheries,
the effective enforcement of fisheries laws is, of course, impossible.
That the legislation relating to trout, bass, and other game fish and
the legislation regulating the lobster fishery have been shown to be
decidedly beneficial is now appreciated by the better class of fisher-
men and dealers. The most important result of the work done by
the Commissioners or deputies is the protection of the honest fisher-
men against the ignorant or unscrupulous, and therefore the value of
the work cannot be measured by the number of prosecutions and
convictions.

Two deputies have been employed throughout the year, and four
during part of the year. There have been four prosecutions under the
lobster law. One case is still pending, and three have settled for the
full amounts—$35.00, $115.00, $50.00, respectively.

The lobster industry at present is one of considerable importance.

It is nearly four times as large as it was five years ago, and there is no
2

10 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

apparent reason why it should not continue to grow. According to
the statistics by Chief Deputy William P. Luth, there are now engaged
in the occupation 341 men using 226 boats and 20,011 pots. Their
present income at wholesale is approximately $150,000.00, so that the
fishery is equivalent to a five per cent. interest-bearing capital of
$3,000,000.00. On account of the present importance of the industry
and the increased difficulties and expense of enforcing the protective
legislation, your Commissioners have recommended to the considera-
tion of your Honorable Body certain changes in the present law which
they believe will facilitate its enforcement and give a fairer return to
the citizens of the State,to whom these valuable natural resources
belong, and upon whom rests the responsibility and expense of
maintenance. These recommendations are embodied in “An act in
substitution of Chapter 969 of the Public Laws, passed at the January
session, A. D. 1902, entitled ‘An act in substitution of Chapter 857
of the Public Laws, passed at the January session, A. D. 1901,
entitled ‘“‘An act for the better protection of the lobster fisheries,” ’ ”’
introduced into the Senate. The provision in the act substituting, for
the present method of measuring the lobster from tip of bone on head
to the end of tail, the measurement of the body shell alone, will be
of great convenience to fishermen and deputies alike. It leaves the
legal length of the lobster unchanged, and has the distinct advantage
that it will do away with the common practice of stretching of
lobsters just under the legal length. This practice has not only given
rise to irritating disputes, but has been the means of destroying great
numbers of young lobsters which are killed by the stretching, whether
they prove to be of legal length or not. The new method has been in
force for a year or more in Maine, and has proved very satisfactory.
The provision in the proposed law requiring all persons engaged in the
lobster fishery to be licensed is also strongly recommended by your
Commissioners. It should also be stated that the Conference of the
Fish Commissioners of the New England States, held in Boston in
December, 1908, at the instance of Governor Guild, formally and

unanimously resolved to approve of the licensing of lobster fishermen

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. uN

as an admirable procedure, and that the Fish Commissioners of Maine
and Connecticut, at least, have recommended the provision to their
respective legislatures. Some of the advantages of the license pro-
vision aré: The greater ease and accuracy of keeping track of lobster
fishermen; the providing of an appropriate punishment for willful
violation of the law, by revoking the license; the partial compensation
to the State for the use of these natural resources and for the expense
of the enforcement of the protective legislation. The provision in
the proposed act which limits the privileges of the lobster fishery to
citizens commends itself to the approval of your Commissioners on
the general ground that the fishery is one of those natural resources
of much importance which has not been developed by individual
enterprise, and also on the ground that the citizens of the State,
through their General Assembly, are bearing the expense of the
maintenance and development of the lobster fishery. Of the 171
lobster fishermen in Newport in 1908, 16 were native-born citizens,
17 were naturalized citizens, and the remaining 138 were not citizens
of this country. Your Commissioners do not base their reeommenda-
tion upon the individual character of the men at present engaged in
the business, but upon the general principle of the prerogatives
of citizenship, which in this case are brought into special prominence
by the extraordinary increase in the value of the fishery and the high
proportion of foreign fishermen.

PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF THE BAY.

Your Commissioners have for several years collected information
with reference to the temperature and density of the waters at
different localities and at different seasons, the occurrence of animal
and plant forms which serve as food fishes or as a direct menace to
the food animals, and to the occurrence of known and unknown
species of various kinds whose economic value is undetermined.
During the past year the occurrence of the “‘red water”’ in the Provi-
dence river, due to the phenomenal multiplication of the small

12 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

animalcule Gymnodinium or Peridinium, was unpleasantly evident to
the residents of Providence and adjacent towns on the shore. The
phenomenon has frequently recurred, and while the odor from the
water and the dead fish is intensely disagreeable, the apprehension
expressed by some people that the red water might render sea food
dangerous to health is unfounded. The organism is normally pre-
sent in the waters of the Bay and is not pathogenic, but, rather, con-
tributes to the regular food supply of higher forms. The disagreeable
manifestation occurs only when it is phenomenally abundant.

The chemical and bacterial pollution of the upper waters of the
Bay is unfortunate, and every practical means should be employed to
prevent it. In general the waters of the Bay are remarkably pure
and the food wholesome; and, considering the high present value of
the fisheries and the much higher prospective value, it is folly to
neglect any opportunity to clean up the dirty corners. In connection
with the subject of the physical examination of the Bay it may be
mentioned that the interesting question whether or not the firing
of heavy guns in target practice at Fort Gréble prevents the sque-
teague from entering the Bay has been taken up seriously. The
trap fishermen in that locality have several times observed that when
the firing commences the fish which have been coming into the traps
in the lower Bay suddenly decrease in number, while those in the
middle and upper parts are at that time unaffected. But the most
serious alleged result is that the whole season’s catch is very greatly
diminished by the interference with the early summer migration into
the Bay. The question is not one to be settled off-hand, and a differ-
ence of opinion exists regarding it. The attitude of the fishermen is,
however, entirely reasonable, and your Commission has taken up the
matter with the United States Bureau of Fisheries and introduced the
question into the discussions of the International Fishery Congress at
Washington last September. <A joint committee of members of the
United States Bureau of Fisheries and your Commission has been
appointed, and the question will receive the serious consideration

which it deserves.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 3

EXHIBITION OF RESULTS OF SEA—-FARMING.

With the gradual tightening of economic conditions, the increased
demand for the products of the sea, and the perfection of effective
methods of aquiculture, we are inevitably tending toward an appre-
ciation of the enormous natural resources of our Bay. Those who
have studied the situation have long recognized this fact. It is
definitely stated in the report of the Investigation Committee of
forty years ago. Your Commissioners have seen it clearly, and for
that reason have put a great deal of hard work into the creation of
actual methods of cultivation of species heretofore used for food but
not cultivated. The results obtained in clam culture are positive,
and prove that a new and very productive industry is within our
very grasp. The oyster culture developed by individual enterprise
to high efficiency under the nose of the people of some States before
they woke up to its value is only an example of what is possible in the
culture of other marine animals. In this connection it is illumin-
ating to know that in Japan the yearly products of the seaweed
industry alone are over three million dollars.

Under the present conditions in Rhode Island, clam culture, for
example, cannot be established until the people generally realize its
prospective value and the almost criminal neglect of the present
possibilities. Realizing, therefore, that the opening up and the
development of these resources of wealth depend upon bringing the
facts to the realization of the people, your Commission has systemati-
cally endeavored in every way to exhibit the facts in the reports, in
the public press, and in the form of specimens of products of exper-
imental tests. An exhibition of specimens illustrating the results of
clam culture and the growth of the scallop, a model of the apparatus
elaborated by your Commission for the rearing of lobsters and fishes,
have been exhibited annually at the agricultural fair at Kingston and
have been, by the special request of the United States Bureau of
Fisheries, several times exhibited at international expositions: at

14 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Buffalo, St. Louis, at Jamestown, and are now en route for the inter-
national exposition at Seattle.

DISTRIBUTION OF COPIES OF THE LAW.

The laws relating to the fisheries have been put in the form of a
convenient pocket edition,with summaries and abstracts of the most
salient points, and these copies have been widely distributed; for it is
well known that many times the regulations are broken by persons, not
informed of the law, who have no malicious intent. Copies of the
law may always be had on application to the secretary of the Com-
mission.

CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER STATES AND COUNTRIES.

In the act of our General Assembly, passed March 21, 1871, creat-
ing the Commission of Inland Fisheries, the duties of said Commis-
sioners were not only ‘‘to introduce, protect, and cultivate fishing in
our inland waters,” but also ‘‘to co-operate with Fish Commissioners
of other States.”

This function of the Commissioners is by no means unimportant.
There is much to be learned from conference with other authorities,
and more important still is the concerted action of people whose
territories are contiguous and whose interests are the same. For
years your Commissioners have taken a very active part in the ad-
ministration and in the deliberations of the American Fisheries
Society.

The International Fishery Congress, that distinguished body
composed of representatives of nearly every civilized nation of the
world, held its fourth session at Washington last September, when the
delegates were welcomed by the President of the United States and
the Secretary of Commerce and Labor and were the guests of the
United States Bureau of Fisheries. At this congress a former mem-
ber of your Commission, Doctor H. C. Bumpus, presided. Several
members of your Commission were elected to membership, took active

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 1155

part in the discussion, and submitted formal papers. Through an
International Jury of Awards, prizes were offered for original papers
submitted in competition on various topics. Through one of its
members your Commission submitted two papers based on the work
accomplished at the Wickford station, and both papers received
awards: the one for ‘“‘The most Useful, New, and Original Principle,
Method, or Apparatus to be employed in Fish Culture or in Trans-
porting Live Fishes,” the other for ‘‘The Best Original and Practical
Method of Lobster Culture.’ In giving an account of the proceedings
of this congress the English Journal of Science ‘‘ Nature’? makes the
following favorable comment upon the method of fish culture worked
out by your Commission: ‘‘the method is a wide departure from those
previously employed, and marks the greatest advance in fish culture
within recent years. It may be added that it has for several years
demonstrated its practical utility.”

At the close of the congress at Washington the foreign guests made
a tour of inspection of the principal fisheries industries of New Eng-
land, and about fifty delegates, including representatives of about
twenty nations, were entertained at Wickford by your Commis-
sioners on September 29th. We are glad to acknowledge the cordial
co-operation and assistance of our friends at Wickford, particularly
the Lewis Brothers and the Wickford Oyster Company, who very
materially assisted in making the visit enjoyable and profitable to
the distinguished foreigners.

At the conferences of the Governors of the New England States,
held last December in Boston at the invitation of Governor Guild,
your Commissioners were represented, and took part in the discussion
of the subjects of clam and lobster fisheries. Two subsequent con-
ferences of the representatives of the Fish Commissioners of the
several New England States were held at Boston, and discussions of
these problems were continued through four sessions. While these
conferences were advisory in function, they nevertheless brought into
definite form many matters of common interest to all the States and
gave to the representatives of each State a better understanding of the

16 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

point of view of the others. The unanimous opinion of those present
was expressed in the form of resolutions upon the general advisability
of certain methods of procedure. The method of measuring lobsters
and the licensing of lobster fishermen advocated in the act now under
your consideration was approved by this conference. Also, upon
motion of a Commissioner of another State, the conference formally
resolved to approve of the method of lobster propagation worked out
and practiced by the Rhode Island Commissioners at Wickford.
Your Commissioners have been fortunate in the cordial official and
personal relations with the Commissioners of our near neighbor,

Connecticut, as well as with Massachusetts and Maine.

PROPAGATION OF LOBSTERS.

The efforts of your Commissioners at the experiment station at
Wickford have been mainly concentrated upon the rearing of lobsters
and the further improvement of the methods. The reasons for this
peculiar method of lobster propagation and the development of the
method were fully stated in the report of last year and need not
here be repeated. During the year many improvements have been
incorporated into the apparatus and method, and the method has
been tested for tts adaptability to the hatching and rearing of young
fishes as well as of lobsters. The success in both directions has been
most gratifying. The output of lobsters reared to the “bottom
stage’? and liberated in the water of various parts of the Bay was
ereater than ever before.

The lobster-propagation experiments at our Wickford plant were
undertaken as a continuation of earlier experiments begun at Woods
Hole by the United States Bureau of Fisheries, and though the two
years’ preliminary work at Woods Hole were not productive of actual
results, they were important in clearing up many fallacies, and the
present operations of your Commission at Wickford belong to this
long-continued series of systematic experiments, which completed its
tenth year with the conclusion of last summer’s work. The figures

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF “INLAND FISHERIES. 17

of the actual output of ‘‘bottom stage’’ lobsters during these ten
years are given below in tabular form, and they are, we believe, a
contribution to the argument for sustained and continuous experi-
menting in developing efficient methods.

1898, “several specimens” (Woods Hole) 1904........... 50,597, (Wickford).
1899, “several hundred’? (Woods Hole) 1905.......... 103,572, (Wickford).
GOD, ceacceocc du econo Ae (\naoltsioel) AIOSG Ses oo ccc 189,384, (Wickford).
TOKO) ey ahaa Reae eerie 8,974 (Wickford) 1907.......... 294,896, (Wickford).
NGO 2B fan a o00"@Wicktord)) 190822. 2.5... 23221 0n2 sm Wwaecktord)s
NGO BRP ele feaenes.c25 3 aoe 13,500 (Wickford)

With regard to the evidences of increase in the lobsters of the Bay
as a result of the propagation and liberation of a million ‘bottom
stage”’ lobsters from Wickford, we have in previous reports mentioned
the frequent catches of small lobsters in the upper part of the Bay,
where for many years previous they have been apparently absent.
The operations of the beam trawls in the Bay during the last winter
have contributed further evidence. Though the trawls have a large
mesh which let escape the small lobsters under ordinary circumstances,
yet there have been caught, entangled in the seaweed and twine, a
large number of small specimens from two to eight inches in length.
Sometimes twenty or thirty, or even more, are caught at a single
haul. Of special interest in this connection is the fact that, as gathered
from many inquiries, the catch of such young lobsters has been very
slight in the east passage of the Bay and very heavy in the west
passage, where the majority of our lobsters have been liberated.

CONTINUED INVESTIGATION.

The successful outcome of the investigations and experiments of
your Commission with regard to clam and lobster culture does not
by any means exhaust the possibilities. It is evidence, on the con-
trary, of the ultimate economic value of continued scientific investi-
gation even when the first results have apparently no practical

application. The possibilities of future development are far greater
3

18 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

than the past achievements, and with this fact in mind your Com-
missioners plan to protect and maintain the fisheries which we have
_ now, to develop further those operations well under control, and to
continue the investigation of new possibilities of developing our
fishing resources.

State of Rhode Island in account with Commission of Inland Fisheries.

1908. Desir.

Oct. 1. To paid American Fish Culture Co., for 40,000 trout and
GA Ae NHOL OI? ERVIN, wend dadsoniococeseh tobe oddose $1,142 10
Dec: 31. “Toexpensesiof ‘Commiissionerse/:¢.1)5 acs as) as eee 899 64
Bis | Mo Maboratony tes son se casein nee Tetae Otay eee ees 5,827 07
31. ( Worere lobsters: 5; Sores sectere icine seca gtesne eect ea ae 1,080 55
31... To*deputies underlobster law o-s.10-cisiscane yn oe ee eee 2,805 70
Bike APOAMESAL CXPEMSES hse mratcieyate nists Pare ene lots\ sitchen niche a) See 41 50
$11,796 56

1908. Cr.

Jans 2.) By received trom) State Mreasumen.- (oc \tae. me oe lee ie $59 24
3. e rf on 41 50
3. ‘ rT “c “ 23 00
8 ‘3 ‘f ‘f ns 40 70
10. “t i ef Fy 5 As
15 = s Pe nf 45 35
29 * i a : 83 10
29 C 7 ‘i iy 70 35
29 - a 12 43
29 Ss i “ we BO RA CoS a ert ONS Ba 1 80
29. a ss ss ss Ey sehr Mes Gere oe: 26 90
30 f i 20 00
30 £ a x : 31 06
31 % eS H + 43 79
31 ce ry , iS 2 50
31 i ue : 7 00
31 oo i cs 7 00
all ; os if Lea eae ne actsnt e vchoeer 14 75
Feb. 14. oh af s if ard dc) Boa Sa ane A 22 50

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REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

By received from State Treasurer. ..........:...:......

cc oc ing “ec
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ce “cc oe ins
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20 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

April 29. By received from State 'Ereasureny heryias saci tae nt ae $82 40
29. He of " 4 SE er oust bith Grp SOON SORERE 83 20

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20. . se S A oh HS ro ese Smee DP Riaterarore 9 09

June

3
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3. a ye Pee ace shi aye etc Cin fo) 1 50
3. S i e eit sel nats Shh Oepaaa ken TANT 35 00
3 1 os rt ef AS cel A ake a RON 23 90
3 F oi sf ay “RPE ION cad ue eay ee 20 00

June

July

3.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

By received from State Treasurer. ...:..4:..:0...0:.53%
“ce cc “ec “
“ee ins ce “<
ins “ec cc “ee
cc ce “ee ig3
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cc ce a3 a3
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ce (a3 ce a3
“ce ee “cc “ce
ce ce ce “cc
ce cc is3 ce

22 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.
July 15 By received from State Treasurer....-.......-.-.-.---- $20 00
15. $e ae a Hy Be en ONG Fh, ae oR 12 50
15. ee te “ ss ASSES ea ERE RS 20 00
G5. a i oe Hi Baie cr otro eae rCC 24 30
15: ce is ci is RE RS SRS cea 2s 13 50
i “ & a ef Hevcpste ees Nr hata eee es 1 35 00
15. ie ee & de ch neater Uk ix nian an ae 70
5: “ ch se « Eo sth aaa Ie ear aa 8 82
ey < ef a ES een nena rey 19 80
ily. a ‘e ee a Be ips OR aE Steric 49 78
1, ee cf ot tig leecher kee s ieee pee 6 62
15). ry ae « ne LCA aa aia Rea lk GER ERTS 33 95
Ne He a a COP, At NS Socrepa ee aha (ame 15 00
lee of ee o re Ped AONE TSS Bie Sasa 6 20
in ne SCONE bars ets device eee eNeTE 90 85
75
75
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29. a ci ss a eo SEAGIG 11 20
29. i a id es UN et Nalases niches 7 00
96
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10
" ss < ut SFE ae A hort ne Sea 146 70
Me : C ee NAR cage URN Ee 3 25
Nee Ob eps ct GAs as eno 58
gs es Hs mie Bea 18 chose a lean 5 23
ef “ a oY eR Sone o bo CMe ORIN 35 00
“ o ef ss APY Seer aries Sen et ote ates 20 00
a ff « m RN ee Dein oP hate RS 20 00
ne ‘ a af Be SA ot Mies Teneo REELS 20 00
uy ce ss ss Be eee hoo tae ey eC 20 00

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Aug.

Sept.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

By received from State Treasurer. ..............+....-:

a3 ce oe a3
ce (as ce ce
“cc ce cc ce
ce ce ce cc
ce ce ce (a3
“cc ce a3 “
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24 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Sept. 18. By received from State Treasuren. 12222 sensors $14 36
18. ce rm i Per UNL ie et a oc iio CHa ol

30. a a e by Pe eek ence a elial tar seve te 27 95
Oct.

wD wv
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16. fs eae 22 50
16. f Nal ss i 22 50
16 i Eales i 22 02
16 fe Asia ‘ 14 55
16 f Gel ek @ 11 19
16. e Senha : 10 00
16. ; eA Ms “ 60 00
a | ees e 2 40
oat x Ln: H 2 65
21 ; Cette i 4 95
21 : bean f 5 70
21 Ch he : 44 99
21 : RON 18 45

iw)

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REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 25

Octam2le By received from State Dreasurer) 22.22 sshee ase ese. $10 00
2 i aes 9 90
21 be a1 i ss 3 O1
21. “ wes “ 3 40
21 v He ‘ 1 85
21, a fae aL © 1 25
21 a ef a Zi 1 60
21 cs P, i = 24 00
21 & ae ‘ S926

NON NNN NW WNW WD
mrmaaononnrer + &
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(=) Ge) el t=) PS oS Ie oi
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Nov.

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Dec.

16.
16.
16.
16.
16.
26.
16.
23.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.

30.

REPORT OF COMMISSION

ERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

By received from State Preasurer so aetsene tetris niet
“ce cc oe (a4
oe oe (a3 ce
oe “ce “ce ce
“ce cc “e ce
ce oe “ “cc
oe ce “ce “cc
“ oe “c ce
ce c oe “ee
ce “cc ay ce
ce ce ce oe
ce oe (73 cc
cc ce ce “
“ce “e a3 ce
ce “ce a3 (as
as (as oe oe
(a3 “ce ce cc
a3 ce “e ce
oe “e ce ce
ce (a3 ce oe
“ce cc “ce “ee
ce vc “ ce
(3 cc ve “ce
“ ce cc cc
ce “cc “cc ce
a3 a3 “cs iss
“ce (as a3 ce
ce ce “ cc
ce (a3 ce “c
(73 “cc ce “cc
oe (a3 ce ia
“ce “cc cc vc
“ce ce ce “
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$130
35
11
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49
00
50
00
63
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Dec.

30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.
30.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 2h

By received from State Treasurer. ..................... $49 14
se = af os OY Soto ha Oromo bat a nee 31 75
© ss i ELSE ANAS Rae site GUNS ieee 1 43
“ re be i SCS eeREE eal ieee tatee 10 00
. s i r See TSP ISRAELS Stet a oT 20 00
ie 1 ve zs | tsps ACRE NRE eps lo ck = 13 30
‘s : ot : BPD EAB d ore sie neRS Dae E 61 94

$11,796 56
Respectfully submitted,
COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES,

HENRY T: ROOT, President.

28 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

THe COLLECTION OF DATA AND STATISTICS RELATING TO THE
COMMERCIAL FISHERIES.

The difficulty of collecting complete and accurate statistics of
the total catch of fishes has been remarked upon in previous reports.
There are so many and so various channels through which fishes
reach the market or the private consumer that it is practically im-
possible to keep track of them all. This difficulty is not peculiar
to Rhode Island, but applies to the fishing industry generally.
Nevertheless, a fair indication of the relative status of the fisheries
is to be had by comparing the statistics taken year after year from
the same sources. With this word of explanation, the following
tables of the catch of fishes and lobsters, based upon the records of
dealers and transportation lines, ‘are, as heretofore, submitted:

Table Showing the Amount of Fish, Lobsters, and Other Sea Products Shipped
Monthly jrom Newport by the Principal Transportation Companies
During the Year 1908.

x
5
0 ad
1908 i | aae Z
b Z - | B n| wo
DAS bles) 88 legll a | eilecdaee
a wa} Ss 6|8| 4 liars g|a =
el fo) Ey ° e 2 Oo} 4 53] 8 2 °
fy 4 Olalnl|al|Hlalalol| a] &
UERTLIEH a (eer Cord 6b DiC OrolecIaercrr 568 Serena [evens 280|/a0a|(o8 ujlaqnlfosic Tralee
ebruaryei cic cialetnn ole = foe ee wiciatseneeiene 392 S| gete| eres Pomel Wchtalieeoicn ter here «sie | evereal lonets
Marche seh: aceite een ee 951 Cl ome eee etal sre Metis lene asl Noa clic.o ®
PN rallee* Aicy os Sect ReP eee 947 Go) Blac Seva retell teal tare] peredl ee eee ee
Maye Ban es. RES ee el ee 125303 eG4 a level ete eee APoet ate eal ese 1
DMO sind) Bs see eee ee Nee 15,647| 298 | 69| 6] 85]...| 15) 1/ 1] 5]..
MUG 8S sacs ec TR ee 4,331| 1,007 | 56) 7| 81/...| 29] 1| 4] 6l..
PNB USE NL ceo ce eee 31064470 34'S! eS0 | een lites levees) | eed | me ee
September: <).:5 d24cccleave ee mereamccet tens OHA POW ell Wigeall USloesiosol) Allee
Octobers 2 neces Meteo ee eee 3,765 66K)» <6i0 vole alleen aa Shoot e alla c
INOverMm beri arc itches aon eee D546 nee Fee lees 3 ((eme Ula IRN geal Reel te ee
Mecemiberysnwies.aiess tatalerate eee ccenetenseenes 1,088 1
Motals eerie ce oe eC ne 48,814] 2,5174|/287| 21/198} 3] 93} 3] 5] 23] 2] 1

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Table Showing Shipment of Fish, Lobsters, and Other Sea Products from Newport
jor the Last Twenty-two Years.

Barrels Fish.

16,657
15,033
19,306

8,933
18,032
26,832
24,452
17,769
24,622
20,425
52,098
34,065
34,917
38,184
50,500
53,986
54,384
62,106
50,127
60,855
59,674
48,814

764,771

Barrels Lobsters.

834
1,161
2,047
2,650
2,204
2,123
1,399
2,392
2,119
1,728
2,039
1,163
4,143
4,793
4,393
4,342
1,474
1,921

977
1,3064
1,529

2.51741...

49,255

| Barrels Quahaugs.

233

233

Barrels Crabs.

| Barrels Clams.

| Barrels Spawn.

wo

ie)

13

| Barrels Sounds.

Number Sword-
fish.

| Number Sturgeon.

| N

umber Horse-
mackeral.

| Number Turtles.

11

751

ao re b

he :
=| 8 3
a/6|4/a
7) oc o| >
HEI
SE
PA We It (a0) fe}
18)...
il able
WPA) alls oe] lalal
12). 18
Se
28} 2] 18/1380

30 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

The Number of Pounds of Lobster Caught in Rhode Island Waters for the Season
of 1908, Compared with 1904, 1905, 1906, 1907.

Compiled by Wm. T. Luth, Chief Deputy Commissioner.

Fish Markets. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908.
Wholesale.
He MicGinn.)....). deck lo. 420 147,464 182,462 209,204 174,380
¢:. B. Anderson... ... 34,074 31,963 63,398 158,427 123,780
PM escniattalcessic ciel eipka Mae mecea MNT Nit sR eMac a ne neers shel 71,376 125,586
DNV ELAM MON Gry sees ena near ueeys tosis mena nea ese 33,568 101,000
Retail.

Saloons and Restau-

Pants oof cite ante 6,700 45,436 41,850 » 37,814 51,763
Burlingame & Carry 12,000 8,079 6,480 6,300 7,743
Tollefsen & Dewitt... 10,000 15,000 15,100 16,000 18,000
ChASh En pinseeage cy arto O00 20,636 11,500 19,200 17,766
Wi Woyatte as e's) 000 8,004 7,348 7,000 6,291
Ce Smithy 600s. 9,500 10,000 10,135 6,000 4,500
Easterbrooks........ 5,000 6,525 6,550 6,550 6,500
Ipameaster ssc voces 5710, 00 ath need a RRM NEES A ier UC kel So
HealG atone einer 6,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000
“| AEPARN West ssa eto} chee a ean Ta a ROmrY eGR Gyn on Cale Wika Rieu ena RU neh cs (ot. 5,000
JUIN fet tian atic 800 550 DOO ie (aye Asta an Re ete Tete
ONG op steratelnt terete + BOO Teka aicGey | Libasaiar acto | bs he eca sce) tea a ae
Sri HGTV ATA mer ete mv ahano whan STs pu aecais Chantal (eras aie Mee 1,800 4,700

226,994 301,659 353,573 581,189 665,009
Lobsters shipped on commission by fishermen to New York........-..-- 61,763

Wholesale Dealers.

Cap. J. A. Pettey, Sakonnet....... 97,641 163,341 193,243 191,218
EGC Wilcox Liviertome: anya tee tare oeter yh DR rHvs ere enn Me Raga 286,724
Block Island, )

Narragansett Pier,
Watch Hill,

\ 150,000 100,000 155,000 155,000
Point Judith, |

Blookelislamelts ss cjciche ave sinese Cast evscn) GRU RC an CER Rea rennet Se 248,330

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 31

Wholesale Dealers.
Narragansett Pier,

OMIT VICE ERA RUS tere Sat Ng ralaee wd: (| | MURINE UMI MOAT tcl Colo 28,300
Watch Hill,

TNGHED) |S 26 wo cae Shon aC RO REN Le ae ER ERS hohe p es racine 1,471,344

The Number of Boats Engaged in Lobster Fishing in the State of Rhode Island,
for 1908.

Compiled by Wm. T. Luth, Chief Deputy Commissioner.

Sail and power boats. Row boats. Pots. Men.

ING WOKE aie cis aie efectos so) ee 65 54 10,814 171
Blockalslandaensastieriar: ese 25 5 4,075 61
SHIROMMGHS cou bd oGaocoemadne 8 8 25 Dil
iztosnou) dibishtidtisn aogoaucucooce 10 ie 885 18
Narragansett Pier........... 6 2 550 11
AS UMEIVER yr eine, 56 eieleslors © u 5 552 20
Jamestown..... u 4 870 13
SAM Gerstowaeys ese ees cic 3 a= 225 4
litis Herre teetstsr oti ae 3 65 3
Warren and Prudence....... 3 2 280 7
Waekfondien tects, sets .a sg ayhs 2 1 125 3
\ivenie \ 02 bees aire eee 4 2, 445 9
140 86 20,011 341

GOR re ae er eco oat bocce) meer 82 73 12,104 209

Increase over 1907.......... 58 13 7,907 132

32 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

FisH—Traps Set 1n RHopE IsLAND WATERS, AND List or TRAP
OWNERS.

The table giving the number and distribution of the fish-traps for
the past eleven years is given below, and continues to show the same
steady increase in the number of traps in various locations and as a
whole. Especially noticeable is the continued increase in number
in the Sakonnet river and off-shore divisions, where the cordon of
traps is being extended and covers new territory each year. A
glance at the accompanying chart, which shows the location of each
trap, shows that the fishermen are continuing to push their traps a
surprisingly great distance off shore. The West Passage and Hast
Passage divisions show little change; but in these divisions beam
trawling in the late fall and early spring has added materially to
the value of the fisheries.

TABLE SHOWING NUMBER AND GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISH-
Traps SINcE 1898.

The following arbitrary divisions have been made for the sake of

convenience:

I. Providence River—South to a line joining Warwick Point and
Popasquash Point.

II. Greenwich Bay.—South of Providence River division in west
passage to a line drawn east and west touching southern part of
Hope Island.

III. West Passage-—The west passage south of Greenwich Bay
region to a line drawn due west from Beaver Tail and west of a line
connecting the east end of Greenwich Bay boundary and North Point.

IV. Mount Hope Bay.—North of railroad bridge, Tiverton, and
a line connecting Bristol Ferry and Muscle Shoal Light.

V. East Passage-—South of Providence and Mount Hope Bay
divisions and north of a line from Beaver Tail to Brenton’s Point.

VI.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Sakonnet River.—The Sakonnet River south

bridge to a line connecting Flint Point and the breakwater.

33

of railroad

VII. Off Shore.—Traps south of above divisions and not off
Block Island.
e
VIII. Block Island.
Fa S ;
eaales cy a 5
fa 5 80 o i o 3
2 5 g a | a =
YEAR. 5 2 a ae Gs 2 2g a
5 P ry | ie} » i) i 3
i 2 8 2 4 2 f = wa]
= 3 RS 2° 3 Gy Da) = i)
Ay ca S = mn [ea] fo) ~Q ia
ESOS RP cet ir-ns etatee cele: 4 6 26 9 | 34 15 95. eee ay. 119
TREQMEAS ere ee os 3 10 23 11 35 15 a4: a 121
(GV) ee eee 4 16 24 16 | 34 12 99. tare 135
TM PA eh 7 15 24 13 52 14 26) ||Sieeeae 151
(COs ae a 6 22 | 27 13 | 52 14 27) || Sees 161
iO De ts ee nee ea eer 7 21 32 13 72 16), 30). |e 195
TOOL et os See 6 27 33 7 78 14 | 49 6 220
NEOs ae ee eae 6 26 | 33 11 82 20 | 56 6 240
TGOGME te. Late 2.0 6 35 27 11 80 20 | 64 6 249
ASOT Ne RO RE PRS 7 37 30 12: | 87 22 | 70 6 271
OTe oS ee ee 7 38 32 12 87 22 73 i«ii|e nana 271

Compiled by E. W. Barnes, A. M.

34 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

1908.

LIST OF TRAPS AND OWNERS.
*

Off-Shore Traps. (See Charts.)

Atlantic Trapping Company.-2 4. 4.°. +. 3. - « South Cormorant Rock.
Atlantic Trapping Company (00)*.......... South Sakonnet Light.
Atlantic Trapping Company.:..5........ South Narragansett Pier.
Atlantic Trapping Company (00)............... South Seal Rock.
PAGIIIVB ET OS As ceniccerh ch tog eae Pins te. 05 te Breakwater, Point Judith.
Brie trae) WW (OO) ether, Ieee steele! Ss neues oleae Seal Ledge.
Bice tnremmlaiy NV cesta ia pues ale hdc hs eeayort hal a ees ogc ek South Seal Rock.
pre li TAN Verdes chs atureions Sain ROS Pa ate South Sakonnet Light.
ara lapmn any Wee pec oss tear hes Mi stem St cabs a et West Cormorant Rock.
rvelpuaam, PW (OO) eb 2 e's ciwct ls ete ahem ac Below Cormorant Rock.
Brownell’& Chureme oshe geist cae tne aus en ee Coggeshall’s Ledge.
Irony lle ve ere ea cnc yeseet Ss ae ka ie PRON oe Ran Ct a aera a Lower Pier.
BOM Ie yous ahs ores eo aie ee seae ioe ta North Narragansett Pier.
Brownell, J.o2. Se MM MEL Nev UN a: South Sakonnet Light.
Brovanell ae OO) ee yee a seuss nee ieee senate South Seal Rock.
BO ware ine iets oe ce ere eye ahead cae aes South Cormorant Rock.
Galigerth: Go COO) ceri ciate eyecare ons eee emer ene Spouting Rock.
(GO) aH oliw oi Rb eens A Pei MIRE AD ly Bs 14 geadt eee South Lower Pier.
GUTH 6 Ae secre ee heat ge eee alone Mente Bo South Ochre Point.
Cela relay Wer el eh Mauls Siac gett | teeg ne ton ce ae hes ae oe South Ochre Point.
Cottrell, Church délsutherss. oes eee ee Coggeshall’s Ledge.
Cottrell; Churehi® Wiuther so: cheese sere ees ee Easton’s Point.
Cottrell: ‘Church:& Muther.e senate oe Cormorant Rock.
Cottrell) Church &Tathers(O0) aaa ee ecmanee ors ciety. Seal Rock.
Cook Charles: & ‘Co. (O0)}iaese aan i See North Sakonnet Light.
Hasterbrook, ©. :(O0)). ctw eee eeete ay Ly ppopslageicpyee labs 8s Price’s Neck.

* The ciphers indicate the number of traps set in line on one string of leaders.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 35

Mere MO GRANT Len as oleh 4 «cis, ania siefeene aie West Cormorant Rock.
Mere Or TRAN iste a costes be so she 005 ae (o votecre neve beende es vas Brown’s Ledge.
Wet Gis CrAT CIM OT 6 ince ihe se hd 2) o:te a 64 Sor as South Seal Rock.
ett a iran Cy UGGS ee desta oho. G iS ite: win ie cis sos 9 8 RD Easton’s Point.
I GevaP ety y. yi ctel arate Sette tied dea sas a's SEY South Breakwater.
[bye] Ramm, is Ue SERA a aa? Sakonnet Light.
iMeacomiber ide Nickerson... qe le oes a acs ‘sc Ss Spee South of Pier.
Macomber dé Nickerson (00). .2...5.3....6....5+: South Seal Rock.
Macomiper & Nickers0n... 5.) oso. s+ + 5053004008 eaede Seal Rock.
Macomber <)Nickersons 2.27.9. .620% ss; South Coggeshall’s Ledge.
Macomber & Nickerson (0000)............. South Sakonnet Light.
ENA g a ch 1084.3) Sire den leh ee obsle\tayeive*h a3 South Cormorant Rock.
Providence: Kish Company... 2.0... se. os: West Cormorant Rock.
Erovidence Mish Company (00)............ South Sakonnet Light.
ivose aGeorge,(O0)) 2.8.4. s se ened pote bs North Sakonnet Light.
OSC MACEOL EO ashi jiacsen ae taare he ea ahialeyocete | South Sakonnet Light.
JBOSS CLONE ey ee PCN ay eR REE asa ae Cos Brown’s Ledge.
isosey Gray.és Wilbur (OO). i025. 0s. West Cormorant Rock.
pakonnet Oyster Company (00)... ....-..5.2..280-- 0. Seal Rock.
Sakounet, Oyster: Company 4.2.9). 254. s.00-.. Coggeshall’s Ledge.
“SHMSaI, (Cis (C010 Ree eee een eee eon ees sna OTe gL Easton’s Point.
PULSAR Cpe teats feet cc ake oh kia deus kale bhatt oe West Sachuest Point.
‘Tel soar.) 8301010) ae eee tae Bi ere a A a South Cormorant Rock.
WIA M eR TAI GES dN 2 2dshrs. oe reek rs a8) ea cine 4 as veers he 6 South Sakonnet Light.
shewarlsroumens: (OO) ). git sie.0 a boxe 6 ace dae e's x oe ore West Price’s Neck.
NYU, VBS 6 2 A se Breakwater, Sakonnet.
VAY SIIS| Sets ee Relea © Sy ACN Pn Pe Rr Southwest Seal Rock.
NN OeM Gyan). a natedinot s aleve na els 6s West Breakwater, Point Judith.
WaThcxomelig OM. AMR tc cs sa el bale aomaes South Cormorant Rock.
A Vailles creel, Ome cs RU edi eel age ate West Cormorant Rock.
NW eiheeoneneit.Can(OO) ite) css 5.8 wl acide South Cormorant Rock.
\AISU Grape. 45 (ER 0) Sina eR eR a eS eS! North Sachuest Point.
VT Gop. ols BW ore UE OO a aOR MCS LEAL ge Sakonnet Light.

VAVGH tose 1 A/S i RN ROR South Seal Rock.

36 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Viiileop.e #118 028." MI ee bee a ces Many PoE rag oe 5 Chet, le. Easton’s Point.
NIU OSse, lS ea a Weer ee Anes gS Brown’s Ledge.

Midmich'é& Company (00). 2-22.24 200+ tte eee ae eee North Point.
Moricht& Companyiys: seas] Ase ae Below North Point.
Madrich:é& Company: (OO) seat ernst sis kee ee eae Quonset Point.
Nilay: ES aia ees 2 1a dh ARR Zo cae ae ene High Hill Point.
Aimy; Prank (OO)se 225 22 See eeeee a aye oe South High Hill Point.
Anderson CMB As, SP aac a naw eee sce sis es tieleee Coddington Cove.
ATICERSOME CS Wits alee iena' otek react onesie atte ee tops Coddington Cove.
Baker ‘Brothers’ :! :hay es eae as sin na) Oe ao West Viall’s Creek.
Baker 7 Brouners (acts. s0sananr<tet-fel ta efetoneictotote oe ete eee os eae Conanicut.
Baker ‘Brothers (22 0iit cents. ieee rere ee South Wild Goose Point.
Bray tons Gra) tee se ee nek et North Prudence Park.
PSTAVIG OI Greene coat ne Attn edtet dhe cs fale one fein eee SCAN Podjac Point.
Brayton Gr (OO) 2 tett i etate ai tattate al tonsa ated ee ee Pine Hill Point.
@anpenters George: sii. c kn eAes Sahu u ame eee: South Ferry.
Cogvesivalll i, HOO) shinies iene cone ae ee Wood’s Castle.
Coecesiiall sy ease cae sancicte dhe welts Me Lower west shore Sakonnet.
Coeresiall ey Cen sede 2 tices mel ae tesa South Sandy Point.
Wormesi aller ye, BROre. Mes Se 6a eerie Ste ie North Sandy Point.
Corey. Hidl (O00) se Te eae eek ee Lower west shore Sakonnet.
Coreycn MUGS (ON). fete eee lot OE eh Rotated: deren eae Wood’s Castle.
Corey & Allen: (O0)* 2a. 2229522 55 4e6is sees South High Hill Point.
Corey & Allen’ (00)? Se. cre: Pee ees Ae ee eee ene Brown’s Point.
Corey -.@* Martin (OQ) one cates: eh eta South High Hill Point.
Corey '& Margin” (Q000) Gi. 2230... 5 a. ees North Brown’s Point.
Corey..& Martin (OO) ios as Boa ae North Church’s Point.
Cottrell See fh tue eee e seats wee se West Popasquash Neck,
Cottrell; Stu. ce. ek ease eat ew as Selec aes West Popasquash Neck.
WMoorell Se 0's! Pal Caos rel cet octet eae West Popasquash Neck.
Cotmrells See) i. a Rhee Dee eee West Popasquash Point.

(Orovrisiigs) lois (010) eee ame ee OR Rene nA ae Mount Hope Point.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 37

(COUT ELIS Roles cg a aon tet acne Pe South Mount Hope Point.
Soperellesan(OO0). 00.5552. 0 cen... noe Upper East Sakonnet River,
Wo trelewrwOO) seus Me 2 ks i dn ee North Tiverton.
PED ct Iatneste es Creat is yon es cere hs, o/s ss eve acd og ge South Portsmouth.
abies aC TTT Oe caylee sn htegeie as stycceoins' t.-0\s-s « > eee North Tiverton.
AFipr ss MnO MUTA OTA re eecky 6) eo, 05 3.3. coer eis frisies sa ths. «sav 4, BR North Tiverton.
His PMm Oa OMiy yi atoe cher See.) speph olay sye ee <x. k.9.0),0 ore North Tiverton.
Bircham limtone (OOO)s sua May ete a wal ou «'s a aaa McCurry’s Point.
Cragemosr Ne Be (OO)e. sa cree ses as a sss oa toe South Castle Hill.
Crue ar Oser (OOW)se ti ac a cicra der pec tesonse teres tad lo ate East Hope Island.
CET VAIO SE SPAR 2 Ben con dn AieNhe eid MeusNtonael oe og South Hope Island.
CIEE SY [BTEC o/c ee aN Or eee Conanicut Park.
Great JBoss (C000) eee e ee cee Oe ne Scr ieee ae Prudence Park.
(COISEAY AB SOG Stine ot bette ele eee ee eee Southwest Prudence Island.
(Capenyy (Gisee] Ducal 610 a aea arch: Toners ney aene Reece re trae South Sandy Point.
Cian Geoumbar es Comes. 22.084. colts on sleet North Sandy Point.
Gray,,Geoi Bi & Co: (000)... 02.08 .. saeess South McCurry’s Point.
Game St (OO ieee, oes setae d cusnatescsnoro len diond aes North Pine Hill Point.
er reltrammatic Ue Bec PS He) 6.0. ay ota a aes ia bokeh ops pee wenn tee Hull’s Cove.
iHiarvey.Chas.... 052. <5. South Coal Mine, west shore, Rhode Island.
Hae pn) Ge ais sa es salclnce enolase RSE ea eae Castle Hill South.
Fei toring) NING AIR SA 53. cos acs ator dl ola se Suttere eT RE EE Island Park.
aero NINO LPs 5 of nx, vis. s, aal's-o Se) See eee oO Taylor’s Point.
PUI NAE oA TROU Poo 20s atau, $3, aco, vin ces 2 UO Nk ian ba Jamestown.
TEP MPAMIMONG 305063) a Boa oa vx a 5 wes eae ae patie ees aietint Ste Mackerel Cove.
JOLIE Cre See eae ee re re eed ee nO ET, Fox Island.
LTT: (CHGS eo tesnec th SC eget es goa a ROT Tee Fogland Point.
UEC cashes NMEA neat COLO) te rr South McCurry’s Point.
UESiraneem ram Ve ib 2p tS Fag ees ca 8) so) nn nods adsvascratetence South McCurry’s Point.
eer ery amntrie(O() oi2.....5. des wee go a8 apy oe eee Fogland Point.
IDegiee ae RY nS er ee West Viall’s Creek.
lope 2. C10 ee eres CNS Northwest Conanicut Island.
cata oine LGN, weiner Sa on ee Le eee dp Mackerel Cove.

IDR On, cell O76 ee i one ee eee Mackerel Cove.

38 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

TL Bi G00 77) A OR sO ECE Oh ae Mackerel Cove.
JUALIN velec ee GTC Pei eA Ah Mackerel Cove.
TL Sim iF0 ot (00) ae PROPS NUT my EECA floats Brenton’s Cove.
TE rests Ba = eI a alae ese biel Ne 24 oe Packard’s Rocks.
BWSR OSI ies bc wc ER ene hn ESS ee cee ah RTE West Viall’s Creek.
Memiseeros. (OOO)ixoe wee insere cain cumsetamie cee Wild Goose Point.
ewisvbros: (OO) eee ree ue aie pie Peace rete Dutch Island Harbor.
Weis: TOS’ eee ere ce cenneserde ees) stance” North Dutch Island Harbor.
VLhwategal Oy Coys aunty Cee a ety Meena Renee earnest CANE ENE Sandy Point.
Me was Brose Wee ae clen i amine ements incr ale Cater South Sandy Point.
Mewis:! Walsom (OOOO Vee. etib ty cinta eie pele cesta e North Black Point.
Lewis Wilsonn(O00) ise ous aerate. Ges eryee North Sandy Point.
TOKE a MORE frie ene co ie eke as eoaeeher ere ere eer acer ae Buttonwoods.
Woele Mase sey reece cit eek ee 2H) A abs! Se South Chepiwanoxet.
Wocke «Moses 10) a cc abate meester een eal North Chepiwanoxet.
Miaconabersek Aes (OO ise se a Mii ps musa sys tacdey North High Hill Point.
IMErcomipbersendsoseneeer, oi ce. Coma? ie bred ae North Pine Hill Point.
Madison, P: 40) s3.273 COM Uber enya Northwest Hope Island.
Michigan tpl (OO) ies ates aiars, 8 ask eee oe Northeast Hope Island.
Madisonutles (OO)eese ae i Lae hii Raber Ne cei Buttonwoods.
IMIR GISO Tite sriaes rie tre wn het Nie a eles wiaie noche teres el Lae Buttonwoods.
ManchesteridolmMmons 4 2002s o eb. cee South Sandy Point.
Manchesterids Simmons ya). 0) ao. eae North Sandy Point.
IMiannehesbery aie lanai stave he & Hse ai arate! con Pahoa, « Be Quonset Point.
Namchesterwi) ciarey jie cde eigen ven iret lene ghee Viall’s Creek.
IMAGES OTERO ee Uae al a ta MeL NR pepe ec tren cities Asati qe Fox Hill.
Wat Pesom ian bata te sie al pA aeaetceetin: yetey Penhe ol ae Ramen. Ye Conanicut.
Miele Rea Re Sep eeeere anes Uae ar erate th ctoy North Prudence Park.
17 i 170) ae) UA) Deere ee DASA SUR ee ePhi ele Pa Mev eed fe South Podjac Point.
IMomtinty ie) CO 3 da Na ceca an auecget ty cient ee Austin’s Hollow.
Nionb hia fi Oo 2 iach ips ark ole Ry Wace Nba eeijeel tei) ete Austin’s Hollow.
| ES | er Oe RA. ey ASU MEI ets South Black Point.
TENCE Pehl ois a's ealaialalnan Snes. ota eee oath North Sandy Point.

Pramicence: High (Cos) oo 25 soe ee ee Off Wood’s Castle.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 39

PANS PO LOSe, (OOO) eases avs o a). cies Sag hee meee os Wood’s Castle.
TSB) WE SCel 8 Le Saal aan ee st A) a Warwick Neck.
EIOES TEU Tals | A Peg Nance See EE Warwick Neck.
RSG CON VEM AN SCI ss G cectdce 4 + aos Snel See Church’s Cove.
ROR, (Ca ee Re a North Mount Hope Point.
OSE, (GROG oe Serer ake de North Mount Hope Point.
Puese mere a (OO) e aauminn: VPEsMeN it ce eae. db ae North Sapowet Point.
[ERO S2" 1 DIG eg ht aceaenenS Ie Aree Upper East Shore, Sakonnet River.
PAGS, (EUG Sak) Rents A aera South Stone Bridge.
MOSS MMSE TIM Ges 8 ci os alerts .. Upper East Shore, Sakonnet River.
ROC mmo OO) asic e Pe eee oot ic wa 8 North Sapowet Point.
SIDI IEG |. a] Re AUR ea Nr ena 2 Rae South High Hill Point.
Peet Uaypee ELAN ATNNTT GS 2c) een ieee aioe lan= buaye safe s ea Black Point.
Seamer en (OM) iets ob taters, Mekal tacsicas a. North Point Popasquash.
Slagjoginel,, Shae 3 Neledes mike cke cases 6 Pio ar Ort Ras are ae a Rumstick.
rill aly 2S (COT) ae ae a Re ee er Flint Point.
SHES (OnaS. (CORO SU ra Ae ae ga ea me South Greenwich Bay.
‘SusdWitInL) TES RO}SI: | ee Prtga Aan tr ee eR oa East Shore Conanicut.
EVRUMUUIMM SEO SMI: eA ahtce che, succes a kek erat ee eae ee East Shore, Conanicut.
Sein GEO S oe. sh cc ee ave acne ow eicrres Soa ¢ Southeast Prudence.
Shoei US Ee eC SE RTS EP Doan A West Quonset Point.
SPIO ULO, «ACER ae gre re Eee ee ere eT a We ANC Poplar Point.
RSA MINN een Oa EG tec, dea tee Sa East Shore, Conanicut.
Se) JE 0a ohne i cae oP South Sapowet Point.
STOVE) 7A DE 1 SNAG ae ATO a RG pO South Sapowet Point.
MCU ME TELCO: I Uchien tate vein hu lal aeste aces South McCurry’s Point.
TaN OST. cl) a3 hea Reem oer nn a ae North Tiverton.
‘Tee. aah sin (aheged N46 Rigel ar a North Castle Hill.
‘Tno rae eas, SASS SEN iss: SS a North Castle Hill.
PRGTG SEN RE ome Ment ces lar. 1 sty ais! od Whatecaenoetieher ae Austin’s Hollow.
AU ents ees pret Pe pay le So hoa, alk oas'e apuicen mlepees South Saunderstown.
Netlie commie WUE Saag ls yo i aN ane neee Brent Church’s Cove.
AWW ilu rare. a [a ea (0) ()) iene a ee eda es ec A High Hill Point.

Nil llgaste:. 1 (AME CA Sea Se aR Br et Church’s Cove.

40 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

MMI Itee AEH... csiee ohm a cays ese ee South Sapowet Point.
Wilson 0 YS lan. oy dee ele Ae ee Buttonwoods.
‘\N/ TSC 8 0 fa ae ieee RENE a AIP er ars ce South Podjac.

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REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 41

THE CONTINUED EXAMINATION OF THE PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL

CONDITIONS OF THE Bay.

Data relating to the character of the shores and sea bottom, the
temperature and density of the water, the occurrence of animal and
plant life in various places and at various times; facts relating to rare
or unusual animals; information about breeding times and habits
of fishes and invertebrates, and miscellaneous data of similar char-
acter, are continually being gathered together and placed on file.
From time to time the Commission has brought together portions of

these data in the form of special papers. (See index.)

The present report includes the following special papers:

THE FISHES OF RHODE ISLAND.

No. VII. The Life History of the Common Eel, by H. C. Tracy.

Notes on the Crabs Found in Narragansett Bay, by Walter E.
Sullivan.

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THE FISHES OF RHODE ISLAND.-*

VII. THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE COMMON EEL.

BY HENRY C. TRACY, A. M.,
BROWN UNIVERSITY.

Biological Assistant, Wickford Station.

Of all the aquatic animals which have come to the particular
attention of mankind in times past and present, few have been the
subject of greater interest and speculation than the common eel.
Its first and most important claim to man’s attention is based on its
food value. Few of the edible fishes surpass the eel in their value
to man, since it is of nearly universal distribution in both fresh and
salt water, and the palatability of its delicately textured and highly
flavored flesh is everywhere appreciated.

But in addition to its interest from the economic point of view,
considered merely as an article of food, the eel has been the subject
of a unique interest since the time when man first began to speculate
regarding the natural history of animals. The life history of the eel
has been the subject of investigation among scientists from the time of
Aristotle to the present day; while to the popular mind the eel has
always been, and still is, a creature of mystery, and many and divers
have been the myths and superstitions to explain its origin and
habits. ‘To many who are uninstructed in the principles of zodlogy,
the external form of the eel has endowed it with an almost uncanny

* Previous papers in this series are as follows:
I. A List of the Fishes of Rhode Island, 36th Report, 1905, page 38.
II. The Common Fishes of the Herring Family, 36th Report, 1905, page 100.
III. The Fishes of the Mackerel Family, 37th Report, 1906, page 33.
IV. A List of Rare Fishes Taken in Rhode Island in the Year 1906, 37th Report, 1906,
page 65.
V. The Flat-fishes, 38th Report, 1907, page 47.
VI. A Description of two young Specimens of Squeteague (Cynoscion Regalis) with Notes
on the Rate of their Growth, 38th Report, 1907, page 85.

44 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

interest, since its apparent lack of paired limbs, its elongated body,
and its undulating method of locomotion suggest superficially a
close affinity to the reptiles. The idea of ‘‘eating snakes” has
deterred many people from learning the true ‘value of the eel as an
article of food..

The remarkable hardiness and tenacity of life which is character-
istic of the eel has also often excited wonder. This is probably the
source of one of the most interesting of the popular ideas regarding
the eel, namely, that the eel has the habit of wandering around on
land in the search of food, or in crossing from one body of water to
another. The oldest reference in literature to their supposed wander-
ings was made by Albertus Magnus, who remarks, in his book of
animals, in 1545, ‘‘the eel also comes out of the water in the night
time into the fields, where he can find pease, beans, or lentils.”” The
literature for two or three centuries contains many similar statements
regarding the nocturnal perigrinations of the eel. For instance,
Bach, in his ‘‘ Natural History of East and West Prussia,” 1784, stated
that eels were frequently caught in the pea patches in the vicinity
of the water; he also goes on to say, ‘‘these movements explain the
paradoxical fact that in Prussia and Pomerania fish have been caught
upon dry land by the use of the plough, for the peasants, in warm
nights when the eels are in search of the pease, toward morning when
it is not yet day, make furrows with the plough between them and
the water, and these are the nets in which the eels are caught.” It
was Spallanzani, however, who pointed out the error of such opinions .
when he stated that ‘in Comacchio, where for many centuries an
eel fishery of immense extent has been carried on, although these
fish are found in numerous ponds and lagoons, the fishermen have
never yet seen an eel wandering over the land; and once when, on
account of the drying up of the water, the eels died by the thousand,
not one of them made the attempt to escape by a short journey
overland into the neighboring lake or into the river Po.’’*

* The above quotations are from a communication from Doctor Berthold, of University of
Konigsburg, which is given in full in ‘‘ Natural History of Aquatic Animals,’’ by Goode, U.S.
F. C. 1884, page 634.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 45

The popular superstition, however, can readily be excused when
we find no less an authority than Doctor Boulenger, of the British
Museum, writing, in 1904,* ‘‘[eels] can live for many hours out of the
water and are often met with at night creeping through the grass of
meadows from one pond or stream to another.”’

Since the time of Aristotle the natural history of the eel has been a
prolific source of conjecture and discussion. Its breeding habits and
the origin of the young seem particularly mysterious, since no one
had ever been able to find either the eggs or the reproductive organs
of either sex. Many strange fables and theories have attempted to
explain these things. The Greeks, after the custom of their day,
which was to attribute to Zeus all children whose paternity was
doubtful, were accustomed to refer to Jupiter as the progenitor
of the eel. Aristotle believed that eels, in common with other
lower forms, arose spontaneously. This explanation passed current
throughout the learned world all through the Middle Ages. The
explanation which has been popularly very commonly accepted is
that young eels are born alive, either from the adult eel itself or from
some other animal. The parasitic worms which are found in the
intestines and viscera of most fishes have probably been the source
of this latter opinion. In Sardinia, however, the fishermen cling to
the belief that a certain water beetle, in which they find the hair
worm, Gordius, is the ‘‘ mother of eels.” A relic of this ancient idea
has even come down to us, since the country boy of the present day
is often told that horse hairs falling into the water turn into snakes
and eels. This superstition is based on the presence in these waters
of certain aquatic worms which are much elongated and smooth like
the eel. It is not an uncommon belief among New England fisher-
men that eels come from clams and vice versa. The mysterious
crystalline style of the clam is probably responsible for this absurd-
ity. One fisherman was accustomed to predict abundance or scarci-
ty of clams for the coming season by observing the number of small
eels which he saw along the shore in the spring.

* See Cambridge Natural History, Vol. VII, page 603.

46 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

The scientific investigation of the eel question dates from 1777,
when Mondini published a paper which gave an excellent description
of the ovary of the female eel. The further account of the long and
difficult search into this baffling subject is not less humanly inter-
esting than scientifically important, but its details can not be given
here. Jacobyt has adequately and interestingly related the history
of the earlier investigations. Here it is sufficient merely to mention
the discovery of the testes of the eel, which was made by Syrsky no
longer ago than 1873. This discovery was important because it
established the fact that the mature male eel is much smaller than
the mature female, but more particularly because it refuted the
theory that eels are complete hermaphrodites, which up to that
time had been supported by a considerable weight of authority.

The next important advance in our knowledge of the natural
history of the eel was made by Raffaele, in 1888, who described five
species of pelagic fish eggs secured during the months from August
to November in the Gulf of Naples. These eggs, on account of the
character of the larve they produced, he referred to different species
of eels. This was the first description of the developing egg and
early larvee of any species of the eel family.

This left an important hiatus in our knowledge of the life history
of the eel. The development of the larve after about the fifth day
from hatching was entirely unknown, and there was no means of
identifying the eggs and larve with particular adult forms. This
gap in our knowledge did not long remain, however, for a little later
Grassi and Calandruccio, in their epoch-making work on the develop-
ment of the eels, identified Raffaele’s egg No. 10, without oil globules
with a diameter 2.7 mm, with that of the common eel. They also
showed the true character of Raffaele’s newly hatched larve by
identifying them with certain forms which had long been known to
science under the name Leptocephali. These forms had previously
been a puzzle to naturalists. When first discovered (1763) they
seemed to present such radical differences from any adult form that.

+ Report U. S. Fish Commission, 1879.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 47

they were described and named as a separate group. Doubt as to
the genuineness of this distinction was first suggested by the German
zoologist Carus, nearly fifty years ago. He believed them to be larve,
but referred them to the fishes of the genusCepola. It was Theodore
Gill who first suggested the connection of the Leptocephalus forms
to the eel family. Gunther, of the British Museum, believed them
to be abnormal forms and incapable of further development, but in
1886 Delage settled the question by keeping a Leptocephalus in his
aquarium until it completed its metamorphosis into the conger.
But we owe it to Grassi and Calandruccio that the development and
metamorphosis of many of these Leptocephali were described and
referred to the proper adult forms. They pointed out the fact that
fertilization takes place only at great depths. They demonstrated
that a Leptocephalus possesses aS many segments as the adult of the
species to which it belongs and identified the larvee of seven different
species, including the common eel and the conger.

Cunningham (1888 and 1891) made some interesting observations
on ripe congers. He kept in an aquarium a female conger which
was approaching maturity. She ceased feeding in March, and on
July 24th a few large but immature eggs were obtained by pressure.
Her abdominal cavity was very much distended by the developing
ovaries, which grew enormously at the expense of the rest of the
body while in the total weight of the fish there was a great reduction.
The specimen died September 10; her ovaries weighed seven pounds
five ounces. In the case of his attempts to obtain ripe male congers
Cunningham was more successful. He found a perfectly ripe male,
45 cm. long, on December 13. Its eyes were strikingly prominent,
and its mouth short and broad. On December 19, among nine
congers caught, one 48 cm. and one 66 cm. were males. On Decem-
ber 15 he found a small conger dead in another tank; this also proved
to be a ripe male; its length was 51 cm. In all these cases micro-
scopical examination of the milt showed ripe spermatozoa in most
active motion. These had large, well-developed, almost ripe testes.
The specimen which was found to be ripe on December 13 was kept

PuatTe I.

Leptocephalus grassii, sp. nov. = Anguilla chrysypa. Figs. 1, la, 1b.

This plate shows the larva of the common eel of America. Figs. la and 1b are en-
larged from Fig. 1 to show the detail of the head and tail.

One specimen 47 mm. long, Albatross station 2103. One 49 mm. long, Albatross. lat.
SS 2oWN (2, 405W.

This species is distinguished by its broad. well-developed vertical fins, deep and robust
body and absence of all pigment. Body lanceolate, sharp at both ends, deepest in the
middle; segments 65 +40 and 68 +40.

This species very closely resembles Leptocephalus breviceps, which Grassi has shown to
be the young of the European eel. The segments of the European eel are given as 116.
The vertebre of seven young eels taken at Woods Hole during the summer of 1900 range
from 106 to 110, as follows: 35+71, 35+72, 36+71, 36+71, 36+73, 36+74, 42+65.
This number agrees with the number of segments in L. grassi.

The close similarity of this species to Leptocephalus breviceps, the absence of color,
the structure of the caudal, and the difference of this species from breviceps in just that
character, viz. number of vertebrae, in which the American eel differs from the European
eel, make it quite certain that the present species is the larva of the American eel.

Pirate II.

Leptocephalus morrissii Scopoli — Leptocephalus conger. Figs. 2, 2a, 2b.

This plate shows the young of the Conger eel.

One specimen 86 mm. long. Albatross station 2588.

Body gradually tapering from the head to behind the anus, where the depth is 10.33
in the length; fins very low; tail pointed; head pointed; jaws equal; profile nearly
straight; nostrils approximated; pectoral well developed; three or four pigment cells
over the eye; two chromatophores below the pectoral; a series of eight pigment spots
above the alimentary canal; a pigment spot beneath the alimentary canal opposite the
second one above; a row of pigment cells along the base of the anal, beginning about
two segments behind anus and extending to caudal; several chromatophores at base of
caudal and two at base of dorsal near tail; none at base of any other dorsal rays or
along the back; sides with a series of linear spots on the myocomma beneath median

line; segments 69 +73.

* These plates and descriptions are taken from the paper by Eigenmann and Kennedy, Bull. U.S
Fish Com., X XI, 1902, pp. 84, 90.

nw
‘

48 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

in the aquarium until it died on June 24th. It yielded fluid milt on
March 17, but the specimen itself was evidently degenerating, since
it had become quite blind and its body was covered with abrasions
and inflamed patches. It had taken no food since its first examina-
tion on December 13—that is, for a period of six months—and before
its death had become very thin and feeble and somewhat crooked
as well as blind.

Eigenmann (1901) described accurately the eggs and early stages
of the conger which were taken off the American coast, in the tile-fish
area, by Doctor Porter E. Sargent, of the U. S. Fish Commission, on
July 31, 1900. The ripe conger egg had not previously been de-
scribed, though Hermes and Schmidtlein had both seen it. The
eggs taken by Doctor Sargent were 2.4 to 2.75 mm. in diameter, and
the yolk was made up of transparent spheres like the eggs of certain
fishes of the herring family. It contained from one to six oil spheres
of variable size. The first of these eggs hatched on August 3. The
larvee developed from 65 to 71 segments in front of the anus. On
August 5 color spots began to develop. Among their most striking
characteristics were, the large fourth ventricle of the brain, a large
cesophageal pouch, long fang-like teeth projecting forward, the
position of the anus near the body and remote from the margin of
the ventral fin fold. The identification of these eggs rests on purely
circumstantial evidence. The egg of the common eel having been
previously identified as the egg without an oil globule, these eggs with
the oil sphere must be those of the conger, since the conger and the
common eel are the only eels in this region. Adult congers were
abundantly taken on the trawl at the bottom over which the eggs
were secured.

Eigenmann, 1901, identified the larva of the American eel. He
found that one of the species which he had under consideration,
‘which he named Leptocephalus grassi, was identical with the larva
of the European eel, except that it had only 105 to 110 segments,
while the Leptocephalus of the common eel of Europe had 116.
This corresponds with the difference in the number of segments of

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 49

the two adult forms so that there is little doubt that EKigenmann’s
identification of Leptocephalus grassi with the American eel is correct.

Very recently, 1906 and 1908, important additions to our knowl-
edge of the life history of the eel have been made. These have
thrown a great deal of light on questions relating to the time and
place of its spawning, its migration, the physical and _ biological
conditions of its environment, as well as its development and rate of
erowth. This recent work we owe to the Danish investigators
Schmidt, Petersen, and Gemzée, working under the auspices of the
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.

In the present condition of our knowledge regarding the eel there
still remain certain rather considerable gaps—for instance, nothing
is known of the seaward migration of the eel after it leaves the coast;
also its appearance at sexual maturity, the ripe eggs, and the earliest
larval stages in the case of the common eel are alike unknown. Yet
in spite of these obvious deficiencies, investigation has been carried
far enough to leave no room for doubt regarding its main features, and
it is now possible to give a connected and quite detailed account of
the most important events in the biography of the eel.

It has long been a matter of common knowledge that in late
autumn great numbers of adult fresh-water eels of large size and -
bright silvery sheen set out on a migration down the rivers toward
the sea. This migration has been observed in all the rivers of north-
western Europe, especially on the continent, where it is responsible
for an important eel fishery. In this country, this autumnal hegira
toward the séa has been observed in most of our rivers, and, in fact,
it has at times attracted considerable public notice because in many
cases the migrating eels have crowded down the rivers in such multi-
tudes as to fill the sluiceways, choke up the mill-wheels, and thus to
cause a temporary shutdown. The connection of this conspicuous
phenomenon with the other known facts in the life history of the eel
has never been entirely clear until recently. What becomes of the
eels after leaving the fresh water had long been a mystery. The
Danish naturalists, however, have been able to secure certain direct

50 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

evidence which, when combined with what is known regarding the ap-
pearance of the eggs and young, leaves little doubt as to the ultimate
destination of the autumnal migration. These eels, there is every
reason to believe, have approached nearly to sexual maturity, and
after leaving fresh water move out quite directly toward very deep
water of the ocean, where they deposit their eggs. In the Baltic
- Sea the migrating eels are caught in considerable numbers; in fact,
a considerable fishery by means of eel traps exists in these waters.
These traps, however, only catch eels when set in a certain direction;
that is, when the opening of the traps is in the path of the migrating
fish. The experience of the practical fishermen has shown that the
eels move parallel to the coast from the East Baltic in a westerly
direction, and thence outward into the North Sea. These observa-
tions of the fishermen were confirmed by the experiment of tagging
the eels with a silver label. Interesting facts were revealed by this
method. Every tagged eel which was re-captured had moved
toward the open sea, and in no cases was there shown any movement
in the reverse direction. The eels usually kept fairly close to the
coast, though in isolated cases some had wandered away and crossed
considerable depths.

These observations are the last glimpses of eels that we have after
they leave the coast; so that, in the absence of direct data relating to
their later fate, we have to rely upon indirect evidence only, though
fortunately this is of such a nature as to leave no doubt regarding
the most important bearing of the facts. The large silver eels of
the autumn migrations are never seen again; yet later, out in the open
ocean where the water is very deep, 500 fathoms or more, there are
found the eggs and young larve of the eel. These were found by
the Danish investigators all along the 500-fathom line, from the
Faroes to the northwest coast of Spain, and especially to the south-
west of Ireland. This region lies along the steep slope where the
north European plateau shelves rapidly off toward the great Atlantic
depths. Eggs and larve of the conger eel have been taken by the
United States Fish Commission on the tile-fish grounds which are

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. ol

situated in a corresponding region on the American side of the
Atlantic. A specimen of the larva of the common eel was taken by
the U. 8. Fish Commission steamer Albatross, November 5, 1885,
about one hundred miles southeast of Atlantic City, N. J. There is,
therefore, little reason to doubt that the eels in their autumnal
migration are moving toward their spawning grounds, which they
find on the edges of the continental shelf in 500 fathoms or more of
water. The truth of this conclusion is further supported by other
considerations, such as, for instance, the fact that the large silver eels
are never observed moving from the sea into fresh water, and the
fact that no eggs or larve of any eel have ever been found anywhere
except in the places mentioned above.

The above facts and also the fact that no sexually mature female
eel has ever been found, lead to the further conclusion that the eel,
having once reached the spawning ground, probably reproduces its
kind and then dies. This inference is also substantiated by the
above-mentioned results of Cunningham’s attempts to rear ripe eels
in an aquarium.

The history of the young larvee, as it has been made out by Doctor
Schmidt, is of very great interest. As was stated above, the larval
eels are found in regions where the depth of the water is about 500
fathoms. In such places, in May and June, the young eels, then
about three inches long, are to be found. They are then in the stage
called ‘‘ Leptocephalus,” which is quite unlike the adult. They are
almost perfectly transparent, without any color spots; in shape they
are very much compressed, so that they have very high, ribbon-like
bodies; the anus is far behind; the head is extremely small, the eyes
are very large relatively, the snout pointed; the teeth are long,
slender, fang-like, and situated on the margins of the jaws and point
forward. During the succeeding months the changes which take
place result in the transformation of this strange creature into the
young eel. The body becomes reduced in height and expands side-
wise so that it loses its ribbon-like form, ‘‘the hindmost portion of the
gut disappears,” and the anus gradually advances forward, the head

52 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

increases in size, the eye becomes relatively smaller, and the slender
spike-like teeth are lost. These changes are completed by autumn.
Some doubt exists with regard to the particular water level which
these creatures normally inhabit, but it seems most likely that they
usually remain somewhat below the surface, probably rising at night
and sinking lower down in the daytime.

A remarkable feature of the later stages is the reduction in the size
of the larva. Instead of growing larger as it becomes older, it grows
smaller and smaller, so that an individual which had been over three
inches long may shrink to the length of about two inches, and the
ribbon-like form may dwindle into a thread-shaped body. This
phenomenon of the reduction of the size of a larva while undergoing
metamorphosis has been observed in the case of certain other ani-
mals, and is probably due to the fact that the larva, during this
gradual transformation, which, in the case of the eel, according to
Schmidt, requires about a year for completion, does not take any
nourishment. All the observers, Grassi and Calandruccio, as well
as the Danish investigators, agree regarding this abstinence from
food. A.C. Johnson “investigated over thirty specimens from the
North Sea and the Danish waters and found the alimentary canal
empty in all of them.”

Later in the autumn and winter the larve approach the shores,
meanwhile gradually assuming the true eel-like form. The time of
their entrance into the mouths of the rivers depends partly upon the
distance of those mouths from the 500-fathom line, and to some extent,
probably, upon the temperature of the water. In France, England,
and Ireland, they may begin to enter the streams as early as January
and Feburary; in Denmark and Norway, in March, and chiefly in
April. In this country the exact time of their arrival has not been
accurately noted; but the writer has seen them in Rhode Island
streams, particularly in the Taunton and Warren rivers, in the latter
part of April and early May.

During the entire period of its larval history the young eel remains
almost perfectly transparent. As Gill says, ‘“‘the body is so diapha-

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 53

nous that only by the closest attention can it be detected and then
chiefly because the eyes are prominent and of distinctive color.
Indeed, the first thought on seeing a school of leptocephalines may be
wonder that so many eyes are floating about. The diaphanous con-
dition is undoubtedly an efficient protection against many of the
dangers the larval eels encounter. Nevertheless it is only a partial
protection. The course of the young fishes riverward is beset with
danger, and this increases as the coast is approached. Fishes of the
high seas. intercept many, still more become the food of the large
fishes of the banks of the coast, and of such is especially the cod.
That voracious fish rises to them and inflicts great slaughter.”” Dur-
ing the later stages the diaphanous character begins to be lost.
Gradually the pigment is developed, first on the end of the tail, later
in the neck, and lastly over the greater part of the dorsal and lateral
aspects.

‘““The young eel or elvers that in spring commence their ascent of
the streams, which become their homes, must be the offspring of old
eels which left the streams not during the last autumn, but the one
preceding that; consequently, about a year and a half must intervene
between the time that a parent eel begins her procreative duties and
that when the offspring is ready to take up its life under similar con-
ditions. This isa history very different from any ordinary fish’s, and
so far as known, unique outside of its genus.”

The rate of growth of the eel in fresh water has been investigated
by Gemzée, by a study of the annual growth-rings on the scales. He
found that the young eel in Danish waters lives and grows for two
years after its arrival on the coast before the scales begin to develop.
At the end of that time it is about seven inches long. The scales,
according to his observations, grow only during the warm months
(June to September), so that each year they acquire a new growth-
ring. Consequently, the age of eels may be determined by count-
ing the number of growth-rings on the scales, and adding two years
for the time which the young eel spends in fresh water before the de-
velopment of its scales, and finally adding a year and a half for the

54 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

time during which the leptocephalus metamorphosis is being com-
pleted. By means of this method, Gemzée ascertained that the male
eels remain in fresh water four and one-half to eight and one-half
years, and the females somewhat longer, from six and one-half to
eight and one-half years. Adding to these figures the year and a half
which was passed in the ocean in the larval stage, ‘‘it appears that a
female eel must be from eight to ten years old before it assumes the
livery of maturity and descends to the ocean to reproduce its kind.”

The literature regarding the natural history of the eel is enormous,
but most of the older papers are of little scientific worth. The
following list comprises some of the most important of the recent

papers on the subject:

1880. Jacosy, L., Die Aalfrage (Berlin, 1880), translated in
Report U.S. Fish Com., 1882, 463.
[This paper gives an interesting and detailed account of
the older investigations of the subject. ]
1888. Rarran.eE, Pelagic Eggs and Larve of Fishes occurring in
the Gulf of Naples,
Mitt. Zodl. Stat. Neap. B. VIII.
1891. CunnincHaAM, J. T., Reproduction and Development of the
Conger,
Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass. Vol. II, No. 1, 1891.
1895. CunnincHaM, J. T., The Larva of the Eel.
Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass. (2) III, 1895, 278.
[This contains a summary of our knowledge of the larval
forms of the European species of eels.]
1896. Grass, G. B.,
Proc. R. Soc. LX, 1896, 260.
Mon. Zo6l. Ital. VIII, 1897, 233.
1901. Ercenmann, C. H.,
Bull. U. S. Fish Com., 1901.
[This describes systematically the Leptocephali which have

1901.

1906.

1908.

1908.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 55

been taken on the American coast of the Atlantic, in-
cluding the larvee of the common eel and of the conger.]

EIGENMANN, C. H.,

Bull. U. 8. Fish Com., 1901.

[This paper describes the eggs taken by Doctor Sargent of
the U. 8. Fish Commission, on the tile-fish area. Their
development is followed through the first few days after
hatching. |

ScumipT, Jous, Contribution to the Life History of the
Eel (Anguilla vulgaris).

Rapp. and P. V., Conseil Int. Expl. Mer., Kopenhagen, V,
1906, 1387-274.

[Reviewed by V. Franz in Zodlogischer Centralblatt, 8
December, 1908, 712.]

GrEMzOoEz, K. J., Age and Rate of Growth of the Eel.

Report of the Dan. Biol. Stat. to the Board of Agriculture,
Kopenhagen, XIV, 1908, 10-39.

[Reviewed by V. Franz in Zoél. Zent. 8 December, 1908,
713.]

GILL, THEODORE, Recent Discoveries in the Life History
of the Common Eel, presented to the Biological Society
of Washington, October 17,1908. Published in Science,
December 11, 1908, 845.

[Contains a brief and non-technical account of the recent
work on the life history of the eel.]

NOTES ON THE CRABS

NARRAGANSETT BAY.

WALTER E. SULLIVAN, A. M.

The crabs have long been objects of observations, but much
relating to their life history is yet unknown. This paper is intro-
ductory to a study of some of the common crabs of Rhode Island.
Such a study seems warranted not only because of the scientific
interest involved, but also on account of their increasing commercial
value. In this paper a list of the crabs found in these waters is
given with enough description for identification, some facts regarding
their economic value, and a review of the papers relating to the
development of several species from the time of hatching until they
have reached the young crab stage.

In making a list of the crabs I have grouped and described them
in a form which I have found convenient for identification. <A
description by groups rather than by species is employed, because it
seems much simpler first to observe to which tribe a particular species
belongs and then separate it from the five or six species belonging to
that tribe, rather than to separate it from a large number of species
described individually. In this method less detail is necessary.
The descriptions are based largely on ‘“‘Synopses of North American
Invertebrates,” by M. J. Rathbun. Other works used for occasional
reference are given in the bibliography.

With a study of some of the common forms in view, the following

questions were drawn up for the adults: 1. What is the normal

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 57

habitat? 2. What is the distribution? 3. What is the economic
value of the species? 4. What is the season in Rhode Island?
5. When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation? 6. How
long does the female carry the eggs? 7. What is the extent of the
hatching season? Some of these can be answered definitely, others
in a general way, while still others require further observation before
any answer can be given. The distribution given is from Rathbun
(00); the common names and the notes on the habitats are from
‘‘Fauna of New England,” by M. J. Rathbun, and “Invertebrates of
Southern New England,” by Verrill and Smith.

‘LARVAL Forms.

The crab, like the lobster and related forms, is hatched from the
egg in a form little resembling the adult. In its earlier stages, the
z0éa, it is characterized by a well-developed abdomen and long dorsal
and rostral spines on the carapace. These stages, usually four or
five in number, in each of which one or more moults occur, occupy
a period probably of not more than one month. The next stage, the
megalops, shows many of the characteristics of the young crab. The
carapace becomes flattened, the spines are much modified—the dorsal
spine in many instances disappearing entirely—but the abdomen is
still extended. After several moults the megalops assumes a typical
crab form.

The series of changes from the time of hatching to the young crab
are a subject of much interest and offer a wide field of investigation.
Many of the descriptions now available are incomplete, including
but one or two stages, usually the first zoéa or the last zoéa and the
megalops. ‘This fact can be explained by the difficulty experienced
in keeping the young forms through the successive moults. One
can usually obtain a number of zoéxe at the surface in a tow net
during the spring and summer. In this method, however, one is
never sure that the earliest stages are present. The most successful
_ method has been to raise the first stages from the egg and supplement
these with the forms taken in tow.

58 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

During the summer of 1908 a few observations were made on some
zoee taken at the lobster hatchery at Wickford. On the morning
of August 2 the water around the float was “alive with young crabs.”
One could find any number of them between the timbers wherever
the sunlight fell on the water. Some of these were put in bottles
with a cotton screen over the top, and the bottles lowered into the
water. These all died in two or three days. Others were put in
bottles with the bottoms broken off and a screen over both ends.
These lived through several moults, and were only removed when
they had reached the young crab stage. Still others were put in a
lobster car lined with a canvas bag, and the water admitted through
filters. Twenty of these specimens, when measured, September 21,
gave an average length of 8 mm., and an average width of 9 mm.

Each day for eight successive days a number of these zoéze were
killed and preserved (corrosive sublimate, Zenker’s fluid, and forma-
lin were used. Specimens killed in corrosive and preserved in alcohol
were the most satisfactory). In using this method exclusively an
error was made, as many important factors, as pigment and behavior
were overlooked. The specimens were also somewhat contorted.
These details are noted, that, in further work by others, similar errors
may be avoided.

Later, when these forms were studied they proved to be the late
zoeal and megalops forms of Neopanope texana sayi. The iden-
tification was based on the young crabs raised from these larve.
This form has been described by Birge, 1883, and a summary of his

paper is given later.
Economic VALUE.

The crab fisheries of the United States now hold an important place
in the fish industry along the coast. This is especially true in the
Chesapeake Bay region (The Crab Industry of Maryland, by W. A.
Roberts, Report of Bureau of Fisheries, 1904, gives statistics, meth-
ods of catching, packing, shipping, and canning), which furnishes a
large per cent. of the crabs caught along the Atlantic coast. Long

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 59

Island also has a crab industry, but it does not assume the propor-
tions of the Maryland industry. (Crab Fisheries of Long Island, by
F. C. Paulmier, 56th Annual Report of the N. Y. State Museum.)

In Rhode Island the crab fisheries are practically confined to
Narrow river, near Narragansett Pier. The season is through the
months of July and August. Almost the entire catch is consumed
by the hotels at Newport and Narragansett Pier. One of the oldest
dealers in Providence says that one thousand dollars would probably
cover the value of the industry to the fishermen. The entire catch
along the coast is worth more than $320,000 (Mayer). The value of
the importations for Rhode Island is approximately $1,500. Local
dealers state that the crabs of this vicinity are superior in quality
to the Maryland crabs. There is no apparent reason why the in-
dustry could not be carried on successfully on a larger basis in this
State.

The most important crab from a economic standpoint is C al -
linectes sapidus, the “blue crab,” or ‘‘paddler.” This
species has always been first, both on account of its abundance and
the fine quality of its meat. Other forms almost equally good are
Cancer irroratus, “rockcrab,” andCancer borealis,
“Jonah crab,” a related species of which is the common edible crab
of the Pacific coast; Carcinides maenas, “‘greén crab,”
which is very common on the European coast; Ovalipes occel-
latus, “lady crab,” and Pinnotheres ostreum, “oyster
crab,’ which are used in small quantities. The other crabs, which
at present are not regarded as edible, are to be considered as of much
economic importance, as they furnish a large part of the food of cer-

tain fishes.
BRACHYURA. (True Crabs).

This sub-order of the decapod crustacea includes the true crabs.
They have in general the following characteristics: body depressed,
abdomen rudimentary and folded in a groove under the cephalo-

60 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

thorax, antennz short, never more than one pair of feet chelate,
abdomen of the male narrower than that of the female.

They are divided into four tribes, Cyclometopa, Oxyr-
hynca, Catometopa, and Oxystomata. The three
first each have several representatives, while the last has an occasional

species in this vicinity.
(Tribe) CYCLOMETOPA.

The Cyclometopous, or Cancroid, crabs can be de-
scribed in brief as follows: the carapace is usually broader than
long, arched in front, and bears no rostrum; the epistome is short.
Its three families, Cancride#x, Pilumnide, and Portu-
nid «, have representatives in Rhode Island and include a large per
cent. of the most common crabs.

(Family) CANCRID Latreille.

This family is characterized by longitudinally folding antenne and
by long outer maxillipeds which overlap the epistome. One genus,
Cancer, is common in this vicinity.

(Genus) CANCER Linneus.

Cancer is distinguished from the other genera in having its
buccal cavity completely closed by the outer maxillipeds. We find
two species, C. borealisandC.irroratus.

Cancer borealis Say. ‘‘ Jonah Crab.”

Plate I. Figure 1.*

Cancer borealis Say. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

* The figures copied were taken as 1ollows:
Figures 1, 2, 9, 25, 26, 27, from United States Fish Commission Reports.
Figures 6, 13, 15, from Ratbbun’s Invertebrates.
Figures 3, 4, 5, 8, from Benedict & Rathbun.
Figure 12, from Dekay.
Figures 16, 17, from Mayer.
Figures 16 and 19, from Paulmier.
Figures 7 and 21, from Verrill & Smith.
- Figures 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, from Birge.
Figures 33, 34, 35, 36, and 37, from Williamson.
The others were taken from specimens by H. D. Clough, who did all the photographie work.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 61

The carapace, which is rounded, has nine dentate teeth along the
anterolateral margin on each side. The carapace is quite rough.

Habitat: rocky shores from low-water mark to deep water.

Distribution: Atlantic coast as far south as North Carolina. It is
most abundant in the northern part of this region.

Economic value: edible.

Season in Rhode Island:

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?

How long does female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

Cancer irroratus Say. ‘Rock Crab.”

Plate I. Figure 2.

Cancer irroratus Say. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

This species differs from C. borealis in being slightly smaller,
in having a smoother carapace, and in having the teeth along the
anterolateral margin granulate. In color it is a dull red sprinkled
with dark brown spots.

Habitat: under large rocks near low water mark; also occasionally
on sandy bottoms.

Distribution: Atlantic coast to Florida.

Economie value: edible.

Season in Rhode Island:

When are eggs laid, and how long after copulation?

How long does female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

LARVAL FORMS.

Two zoéa stages, the megalops, and a young crab stage of Cancer
irroratus are briefly described by Smith, Verril & Smith, 1. c. p. 530.

(Family) PILUMNIDAE (Leach).

This family answers to the general description for Cancride,
but differs in that the antenne are folded transversely and the outer

62 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

maxillipeds do not usually overlap the epistome. It includes the
genus Panopeus, the mud crabs, all of which are comparatively small.
These will be discussed under the generic divisions as given by
Rathbun (1900). Four genera are found in Narragansett Bay.
These are EHurypanopeus, Neapanope, Eupano-
peus, and Hexapanopeus, with one species under each.
The two first mentioned are the most common. (As these species
are quite similar one should use ‘The Genus Panopeus,”’ by Jas. E.
Benedict and Mary J. Rathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIV, pp.
355 to 385, in a critical study.)

(Genus) EURYPANOPEUS A. Milne Edwards.

Eurypanopeus depressus Smith. ‘‘ Mud Crab.”

Plate I. Figure 3.

Panopeus depressus Smith. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

Panopeus depressus Smith. Benedict and Rathbun, 1891.

E. depressus is distinguished from all the others by the
flattened carapace which has transverse granulate ridges, the promi-
nent, semispooned fingers of the small hand, and the black or dark
brown color of the fingers running back on the hand far behind the
gape of the claw. The terminal segment of the abdomen is rounded.

Habitat: under stones on muddy and sandy shores.

Distribution: Cape Cod to the Gulf of Mexico.

Economic value: food for fishes.

Season in Rhode Island.

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?

How long does the female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

LARVAL FORMS.

Eurypanopeus depresus Smith.

From Birge, 1883.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 63

“The zoea is readily distinguishable from that of the allied species
(Neapanope texana sayl) by the following characteristics:
The spines on the carapace are much shorter proportionally, es-
pecially the frontal spine; the antennez are shorter, more strongly
curved, and armed at the tip with short spines; the telson is much
shorter. Otherwise the zoéas closely resemble each other, and their

development is nearly parallel.”
(Genus) NEAPANOPE A. Milne Edwards.

Neapanope texana sayi Smith. ‘‘ Wud Crab.”

Plate I. Figure 4.

Panopeus sayi Smith. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

Panopeus sayi Smith. Benedict and Rathbun, 1891.

This crab has a hexagonal carapace which is somewhat narrower
and more convex than the carapace of E. depressus. The
fingers are black or horn colored. The terminal segment of the
abdomen is triangular.

Habitat: under stontes on muddy and sandy shores.

Distribution: Cape Cod to Florida.

Economic value: food for fishes.

Season in Rhode Island:

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?

How long does the female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

LARVAL FORMS.

Faxon (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Vol. VI, No. 10) describes this
zoéa, asfollows: ‘‘It differs from all the other zoéa with which I am
acquainted in the structure of the second pair of antenne, which
consist of a single monstrously developed spine equal in length to
the rostrum. The carapace has, in addition to the dorsal and rostral
spines, a pair of short lateral spines. In the middle line of the back,

well towards the eyes, is a well-marked hump.”
5 .

64 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES,

Birge (Studies from Biological Laboratory, Johns Hopkins Univ.,
Vol. II, No. 4) gives the following characteristics of the different
stages:

“First Zoéa.—(Pl. VII, Fig. 28) In larval skin.

“Second Zoéa.—(Pl. VII, Fig. 29) Moulted from the larval skin,
four swimming hairs.

“Third Zoéa.—(PI. VII, Fig. 30) Six swimming hairs. First ap-
pearance of abdominal legs under skin. Long spine on fifth abdomi-
nal segment.

“Fourth Zoéa.—(Pl. VI, Fig. 31) Eight or more swimming hairs.
External abdominal legs. Spines on anterior abdominal segments.

“Last Zoéa.—Twelve or more swimming hairs. Divided telson.
Mandibular palpus.

‘“‘First Megalops.—(PI. VII, Fig. 32) Immediately after moult from
last zoéa. All the long spines are entirely lost. The carapace be-
comes vertically flattened. The telson loses its fork and becomes a
simple plate.

‘First Crab.—Three spines on each side of the carapace. An-
chylosed segment for fifth walking leg.”

(Genus) EUPANOPEUS Rathbun.

Eupanopeus: herbstii Milne Edwards. ‘‘Mud Crab.”

Plate II. Figure 5.

Panopeus herbstii Milne Edwards. Verrill and Smith, 1874.
Panopeus herbstii Milne Edwards. Benedict and Rathbun, 1891.

In E. herbstii the carapace is subquadrate. The front is of
moderate width and has sinuous lobes. It is slightly larger than the
preceding species. The anterolateral teeth point slightly forward.

Habitat: on oyster beds in brackish waters.

Distribution: Cape Cod to Gulf of Mexico.

Economic value: food for fishes.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 65

Season in Rhode Island:

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?
How long does female carry eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

(Genus) HEXAPANOPEUS Rathbun.
Hexapanopeus angustifrons Benedict and Rathbun. ‘Mud Crab.”

Plate II. Figure 8.

Panopeus angustifrons Benedict and Rathbun. Benedict and Rathbun, 1891.

The carapace is hexagonal and convex. The front is very narrow,
much produced and divided into four lobes; the middle lobes being
separated by a prominent V-shaped notch. The dactyl of the large
hand has a large basal tooth.

Habitat, on oyster beds.

Distribution, Cape Cod to Gulf of Mexico.

Economic value, food for fishes.

Season in Rhode Island.

When are the eggs laid and how long after copulation?

How long does female carry eggs?

Extent of hatching season.

(Family) PORTUNID Leach.

This family, with the exception of Carcinides, has the last pair
of legs modified for swimming. Carcinides has the last pair
of legs narrow, with the terminal segment lanceolate. The carapace
is widest at the anterolateral marginal spine. There are usually from
five to nine anterolateral spines. We have the four genera, Calli-
mechedc, Portuntus; Ov alipes, Carcinides, with one

species each.

66 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

(Genus) CALLINECTES Stimpson.

Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. ‘“ Blue Crab.” “Paddler.” ‘‘ Edible
Crab.”

Plate II. Figure 9.

Callinectes leastatirs Ordway. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

This is the common edible crab of the Atlantic coast, and is prob-
ably the best known of all our crabs. The carapace is decidedly
transverse, the anterolateral margin is cut into nine sharp teeth.
The abdomen of the male is J-shaped.

Habitat: muddy shores to deep water; brackish waters of estuaries.

Distribution: Atlantic coast to Gulf of Mexico.

Economic value: edible.

Season in Rhode Island:

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?

How long does female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

Much information regarding this species will be found in ‘‘The
Genus Callinectes,”’ by M. J. Rathbun, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. Vol.
XVIII, pp. 349-583; ‘Monograph of Genus Callinectes,” by Albert
Ordway, Jour. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, pp. 567-583; ‘The
Life History of The Blue Crab (Callinecte sapidus),” by W. P. Hay,
Report of Bureau of Fisheries, 1904, pp. 397-413; ‘“‘Callinectes
hastatus,” by E. W. Barnes, Report of R. I. Commission of Inland
Fisheries, 1904, p. 69. Hay includes a brief description of the larval

forms.
(Genus) PORTUNUS Fabricius.
Portunus sayi Gibbes. ‘Gulf-weed Crab.”

Plate II. Figure 11.

This is a southern crab found occasionally at the surface on gulf-
weed. One male was taken at Wickford the past summer. The

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 67

general shape of the carapace closely resembles Callinectes,
but it is longer in proportion to its width than is Callinectes.
It differs in having the abdomen of the male triangular, in being a
smaller crab, and in color. Port unus is brown and dull yellow in

color.
(Genus) OVALIPES Rathbun.

Ovalipes occellatus Herbst. “Lady Crab.”

Plate III. Figure 12. :
Platyonichus occellatus (Latreille). Verrill and Smith, 1874.

This crab differs from the two preceding species in that the carapace
is not as broad proportionally, the length and width being about equal,
The anterolateral margin is cut into five similar teeth. It can be
readily recognized by its color, which consists of a white ground color
dotted with red.

Habitat: in sand at low-water mark and off shore to ten fathoms.

Distribution: Atlantic coast to Gulf of Mexico.

Economie value: edible.

Season in Rhode Island:

When are eggs laid and, how long after copulation?

How long does female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

LARV# FORMS.
Smith describes the megalops stage of this species. Verrill &
Smith, 74, p. 533.
(Genus) CARCINIDES Rathbun.

Carcinides masnas_ Linnzeus. ‘Green Crab.”
Plate III. Figure 13.
Carcinus granulatus Say. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

This species differs from the other species of this family in having
the last pair of legs narrow, with the last segment lanceolate. The

68 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

carapace is slightly broader than long, and has the anterolateral
margin cut into five acute teeth. The color is green with occasional
blotches of yellow.

Habitat: under stones toward high-water mark to a few fathoms.

Distribution: Atlantic coast to North Carolina.

Economic value: edible.

Season in Rhode Island:

When are the eggs laid and, how long after copulation?

How long does the female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

LARVAL FORMS.

The following is a brief summary of pages 140, 141, and 142 of
Williamson’s paper:

“On the Larval and Early Young Stages and Rate of Growth of the
Shore-crab. (Carcinus meanas Leach.),”’ by H.C. Williamson, 21st
Annual Report of the Fishery Board of Scotland.

“The Zoea of Carcinus menas is readily distinguished from the
other Zoea by—(1) The absence of the lateral spines of the carapace.
Many of the other common Brachyura have a strong lateral spine
on the carapace. (2) The colouration. The zoea of Carcinus has
to the naked eye a greenish or olive appearance. (3) The structure
of the abdominal joints. The lateral part of the terga of the 2-5
abdominal segments extends backwards in the first zoea in a rounded
expansion over the beginning of the succeeding segment. The pos-
terior edge of this plate is minutely notched.

‘A useful character for separating the different stages is the num-
ber of setze on the exopodite of the first or second maxilliped, but
this is not constant.

“In the I Zoea (Pl. VII, Fig. 33) there are 4 sete.

‘In the II Zoea (Pl. VII, Fig. 34, there are 6 sete.

“In the III Zoea (Pl. VII, Fig. 35) there a 8 sete.

“In the IV Zoea (Pl. VII, Fig. 36) there are 10 setz.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 69

‘“‘Characters of the Megalops (Pl. VII, Fig. 37) and Early Young
Stages.

“The megalops can be readily distinguished from the Megalops of
other species. It has to the eye a dirty-greenish or olive colouration.
Microscopic examination shows the presence of a large black chroma-
tophore on the dorsum, and also that there is no dorsal spine on the
carapace. The intensity of the pigment varies.

“The abdomen projects in a line with the cephalo-thorax; it has
five pairs of functional pleopods.

“The First Young stage has none of the characters of the Megalops.
The general form of the carapace and pereiopods has changed towards
the adult condition; the lateral teeth of the carapace are now present,
though not fully developed.

“The carapace is longer than it is broad.

“The abdomen is tucked in under the thorax; the five pairs of
pleopods are present but in a degenerate condition.”

(Tribe) Catometopa.

TheCatometo pous or Grapsoid crabs have the cara-
pace broad anteriorly, and often nearly quadrilateral. The anterior
margin may be truncate or arcuate, but is never rostrate. The front
is bent downwards. The epistome is short. From this family we
have the familiar ‘“‘fiddler crabs,” the “oyster crab,” and other
familiar forms. These represent three families, Ocypodide,
Grapsids, and Pinnotheride.

(Family) OCYPODID Leach.

The carapace is hard and firm, moderately convex or depressed.
The third maxillipeds have the fifth joint articulated at the front
inner angle of the fourth. The front is of moderate width or narrow.
The eyestalks are often greatly elongate. Two genera have been
found in Narragansett Bay, Ocy pode and Uca.

70 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

(Genus) OCYPODE Fabricius.

Ocypode albicans Bose. ‘‘ Ghost Crab.”

Plate III. Figure 14.
O. areneria Say. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

The carapace is almost quadrilateral. The eyestalks are stout.
The chelz in the male are somewhat unequal, but much less so than
in the fiddlers. The color is a dull yellow. It isasouthern species,
and usually only the young are found so far north.

Habitat: sandy beaches above the tides, in burrows.

(Genus) UCA Leach.

Ueca differsfrom Ocy pode in having slender eyestalks, and the
chela in the male extremely unequal. This genus contains the fid-
dler crabs Uca pugilator, Uca minax and Uca pugnax.

Uea pugilator Bose. ‘‘ Fiddler Crab.”

Plate IV. Figure 15.
Gelasimus pugilator Bose. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

In this species the carapace is nearly quadrilateral. The palm of
the large cheliped is smooth (see Plate IV, Fig. 16).

Habitat: salt marshes near high-water mark, in burrows; also.
muddy and sandy flats and brackish water.

Distribution: Cape Cod to Gulf of Mexico.

Economic value: food for fishes.

Season in Rhode Island:

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?

How long does the female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

Ueca minax Le Conte. ‘‘ Fiddler Crab.”

Plate IV. Figure 19.

Gelasimus minax Le Conte. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 71

This is the largest of the fiddler crabs, and is less common than the
other two. It differs from U.pugilator in having an oblique
ridge (Plate IV, figure 8) on the palm of the large claw and from
U. pugnax in having red spots at the joints of the legs.

Habitat: salt marshes; frequently where the water is most of the
time fresh.

Distribution: Cape Cod to the Gulf of Mexico.

Economie value: food for fishes.

Season in Rhode Island:

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?

How long does the female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

Ueca pugnax Smith. ‘Fiddler Crab.”

Plate IV. Figure 17.

Gelasimus pugnax Smith. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

U. pugn ax differs from U. pugilator in having an oblique
ridge on the palm of the large claw, and from U.-minax in lacking
the red spots at the joints.

Habitat: burrows in salt marshes; also on muddy or sandy flats,
and beaches, and the muddy banks of estuaries.

Distribution: Cape Cod to the Gulf of Mexico.

Economie value: food for fishes.

Season in Rhode Island:

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?

How long does the female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

(Family) GRAPSIDA. Milne Edwards.

This family differs from Ocypode in the following manner: the
third maxillipeds have the fifth joint articulated at the apex or front
outer angle of the fourth; the front is usually broad; the eyestalks

are of moderate size. The chelipeds of the male are nearly equal.
10

72 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Occasionally species of two genera, Planes and Sesarma, are
found in these waters, but neither form is common.

(Genus) PLANES Leach.

Planes minutus Linnaeus. ‘‘Gulf-weed Crab.”
Plate 1V. Figure 20.

This is a small pelagic form, common in the gulf stream. The
carapace is slightly longer than broad. The antenne are covered
by the front. It is much smaller than Sesarma, a female bear-
ing eggs measuring but 14 mm. in length and 13 mm. in width.

It is found at the surface among the floating gulf-weed.

(Genus) SESARMA Say.

Sesarma reticulatum Say.

Plate V. Figure 22.

Sesarma reticulatum Say. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

Smith gives the following description of this species: ‘‘a stout
looking reddish brown crab with a squarish carapace; large claws,
stout and nearly equal.’”’ There is a sharp tooth just back of the
orbital angle.

Habitat: salt marshes , in burrows.

(Family) PINNOTHERID Milne Edwards.

In this family the front, orbit, and eyestalks are usually very small.
The buccal frame is arcuate anteriorly. All of its representatives
are small. Two genera, Pinnixa and Pinnotheres, will be
described.

(Genus) PINNIXA White.

The carapace is convex, much broader than long, and firm in
contrast to the more or less membranaceous carapace of Pin-

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. to

noth res. Twospecies, P. chetopterana and P. Say-
ana, while not recorded for Rhode Island, may be expected to be

found occasionally.

Pinnixa chetopterana Stimpson.

Plate V. Figure 23.

P. cylindrica Stimpson. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

This species answers to the general description of the genus. The
propod (next to the last distal segment) of the third walking leg is
as broad as long, or nearly So.

Habitat: in the tubes of the annelids, Chetopterous and Amphi-
trite.

Distribution: Cape Cod to North Carolina.

Pinnixa sayana Stimpson.
Plate IV. Figure 21.

P. cylindrica Smith. Verrill and Smith, 1874. (Given as P. cylindrica Say,
but later corrected by Mr. Smith).

P.sayana differs from P. chetopterana in having the
propod of the third leg distinctly longer than broad.

Habitat: in the tubes of large annelids.

Distribution: Cape Cod to North Carolina.

(Genus) PINNOTHERES Latreille.

Pinnotheres differs fom Pinnixa in having a rounded
carapace, and in that the third leg is about the same length as the
others. It is represented by two species, P. ostreum and P.
maculatus. In both of these species it is worthy of note that
the females live in the gill chamber of certain mollusks, the former
in the chamber of the oyster, the latter in the chamber of the mussel
and scallop, while the males are free-swimming.

74 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Pinnotheres ostreum Say. ‘‘Oyster Crab.”

Plate II. Figure 6.
P. ostreum Say. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

The carapace of the female is thin and membranaceous. The
surface is smooth and shining. In color it is white, tinged with pink.
The males, which are smaller than the females, are brown with a
central dorsal stripe.

Habitat: female in the gill chamber of the oyster; the male free-
swimming at the surface.

Distribution: Cape Cod to Florida.

Economic value: edible.

Season in Rhode Island:

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?

How long does the female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

LARVAL FORMS.

The first zoéa, as figured by Birge (‘‘On the First Zoea Stage of Pin-
notheres ostrem” by E. A. Birge, Am. Nat. Vol. XVI, p . 589-591,) differs
from other Brachyura in the absence of the dorsal and lateral spines.
Conn. (‘Larval Skin of Decapods’”’ by H. W. Conn, Johns Hopkins Studies,
Vol. III, No. 1.) points out that the antenna is lacking entirely, and
is not rudimentary as Birge has drawn it.

Pinnotheres maculatus Say. ‘Mussel Crab.”

Plate II. Figure 7.

Pinnotheres maculatum Say.

This crab is slightly smaller than P. ostreum, about the same
shape, but has a thicker and firmer carapace. The males are very
small; in color they are nearly black, with spots of white.

Habitat: female in the gill chamber of the common mussel and

scallop; male, free-swimming at the surface.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 75

Distribution: Cape Cod to Gulf of Mexico.

Economie value:

Season in Rhode Island.

When are the eggs laid and, how long after copulation?
How long does the female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

(Tribe) OXYRHYNCHA or MAIOIDEA.

The carapace is rounded or narrow anteriorly, but always has a
rostrum. The epistome is generally large. This tribe includes the
large family of MAIIDA® Leach, or “spider crabs,’’ which has rep-
resentatives from three genera, Pelia, Hyas, and Libinia.

(Genus) PELIA Bell.

Pelia mutica Gibbes.

Plate Il. Figure 10.

Pelia mutica Stimpson. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

The carapace is much longer than broad, somewhat flask-shaped,
and prolonged in front into a long beak. The meral joints of the
walking legs are flattened. The eyestalks are short.

Habitat: gravelly and shelly bottoms of bays and sounds.

Distribution: Cap Cod to Gulf of Mexico.

Economic value: food for fishes.

Season in Rhode Island:

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?

How long does the female carry the eggs?
Extent of hatching season:

(Genus) HYAS Leach.

Hyas coarctatus Leach. ‘‘ Toad Crab.’’

Plate V. Figure 24.

Hyas coarctatus Leach. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

76 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

This crab is larger than Pelia mutica and the carapace is
broader in front than in the preceding species. The rostrum is broad
at the base, and deeply cleft. The meral joints of the legs are
nearly cylindrical. The legs are slender and weak.

Habitat: sandy and gravelly bottoms, 5.5 to 906 fathoms.

Distribution: Atlantic coast to North Carolina; most abundant
north of Cape Cod.

Economie value: food for fishes, especially the cod.

Season in Rhode Island:

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?

How long does the female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

(Genus) LIBINIA Leach.

The carapace is convex, covered with spines, and evenly rounded
behind the frontal region. There is a distinct spine in front of the
orbit. The rostrum, which is not as long as in the preceding genera,
is forked at the end. The legs are long and well developed.

This genus includes the spider crabs L. dubia and L. emar-
ginata. They are sluggish in movement, and are usually covered

with vegetable growth and mud.

Libinia dibia Milne Edwards. ‘‘ Spider Crab.”

Plate VI. Figure 25.
L. dubia Milne Edwards. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

This and the following species are very similar. They differ in
the number of median spines. The number for L. dubia is six.
The rostrum is longer and more deeply divided in L. dubia than
in L.emarginata.

Habitat: muddy shores.

Distribution: Cape Cod to Gulf of Mexico.

Economic value:

Season in Rhode Island:

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 7

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?
How long does the female carry the eggs?
Extent of hatching season:

Libinia emarginata Leach. ‘‘ Spider Crab.”

Plate VI. Figure 26.

L. canaliculata Say. Verrill and Smith, 1874.

Libinia emarginata, which is the more common of the
two species, has nine median spines.

Habitat: muddy shores and flats.

Distribution: Atlantic coast to the Gulf of Mexico.

Economie value:

Season in Rhode Island:

When are the eggs laid, and how long after copulation?

How long does the female carry the eggs?

Extent of hatching season:

(Tribe) OXYSTOMATA.

Occasionally a species from the femily Calap pid @& is found in
Narragansett Bay, but as it is typically a southern group only a brief
description will be given. A good description of this tribe will be
found in ‘‘The Brachyura and Macrura of Porto Rico,” by M. J.
Rathbun, 1901.

Calappa flammea Herbst. ‘ Box Crab.” ‘‘Shamefaced Crab.”
Plate VI. Figure 27.

The carapace is strongly convex, rounded in front, much broadened
behind by a pair of shield-shaped expansions. ‘The front is small and
somewhat triangular. The cheliped are large, with cockscomb-like
crests on the upper margins of the hands.

78

1901.

1892.

1893.

1905.

1904.

1874.

1903.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

LITERATURE.

Benepict, J. E. and Ratusun, M. J. The Genus Panopeus. Proc.
U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. XIV, pp. 355-385.

Birez, E. A. Notes on the Development of Panopeus sayi, Smith.
Johns Hopkins Studies. Vol. VII, No. 4.

Birce, E. A. On the First Zoea Stage of Pinnotheres ostreum. Am.
Nat. Vol. XVI, pp. 589-591.

Conn, H. W. Larval Skin of Decapods. Johns Hopkins Studies.
Vol. III, No. 1.

DreKay, J. E. Zodlogy of New York, pt.6. Crustacea. 1844.

Faxon, W. Bibliography to accompany “Selections from Embryolog-
ical Monographs,” ete. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl. Vol. IX. No. 6.

Faxon, W. On Some Points in the Structure of Embryonic Zoea.
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodél. Vol. VI, No. 10.

Hay, W. P:. The Life Ear of the Blue Crab (Callinectes sapidus).
Report of the Bureau of Fisheries for 1904, pp. 397-413.

Mayer, A.G. Sea-Shore Life. 1906.

Ratupun, M. J. Synopses of North American Invertebrates. Am.
Nat. Vol. XXXIV, Nos. 398, 402, and 403.

Ratusun, M. J. Fauna of New England. 5. List of the Crustacea.
Occasional papers, Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., VII. 1905.

Ratusun, M. J. The Brachyura and Macrura of Porto Rico. Bull.
U.S. Fish Comm., Vol. XX (second part).

RatuBun, M. J. Catalogue on the Family Periceride in U. 8S. Nat.
Mus. Proc. of U.S. Nat. Mus. Vol. XV, pp. 231-277.

Ratupwn, M. J. Catalogue of the Crabs of the Family Maiide in U. 8.
Nat. Mus Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., Vol. V, pp. 63-103.

Pauutmigr, F.C. Higher Crustacea of New York City. Bull. 91, N. Y.
State Mus.

Roserts, W. A. Crab Industry of Maryland. Report of Bureau of
Fisheries for 1904, pp. 417-432.

Verrit, A. E., and Smrru, 8.1. Report upon the Invertebrate Animals
of Vineyard Sound. Rept. U. 8. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries
for 1871 and 1872.

Witiramson, H.C. On the Larval and Early Young Stages and Rate
of Growth of the Shore-crab Carcinus mzenas. 21st Annual Report

of Fishery Board of Scotland.

TA. *

ali.

Aye eee Sib. Sales re

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te ¥292 29955
so

aoestieg

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

oo oe

Puate I.

Cancer borealis.
Cancer irroratus.
Eurypanopeus depressus.

Neapanope texana sayl.

i
ANA 84 °
‘ li ee
Nt * = \

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q

Higa)
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10

Puate II.

Eupanopeus herbstii.
Pinnotheres ostreum.
Pinnotheres maculatus.
Hexapanopeus angustifrons.
Callinectes sapidus. (reduced.)
Pelia mutica.

Portunus sayl.

PLATE III.

Fig. 12. Ovalipes occellatus.
Fig. 13. Carcinides masnas.

Fig. 14. Ocypode albicans.

Puate IV:

Fig. 15. Uea pugilator.

Fig. 16. Claw of Uca pugilator.
Fig. 17. Uca pugnax.

Fig. 18. Claw of Uca pugnax.
Fig. 19. Uca minax. (reduced.)
Fig. 20. Planes minutus.

Fig. 21. Pinnixa sayana,

22

24

PLATE V.

Sesarma reticulatum.
Pinnixa chaetopterana.

Hyas coarctatus.

a

been ts.
BP S@ *

Puatre VI.

Fig. 25. Libinia dibia.
Fig. 26. Libinia emarginata.

Fig. 27. Callapa flammea.

PuatTe VII.

Figures 28 to 32 are larval stages of Neapanope terana sayi.
Fig. 28 First. Zoea.
Fig. 29. Second Zoea.
Fig. 80. Third Zoea.
Fig. 31. Fourth Zoea.
Fig. 32. Megalops.
Figures 33 to 37 are larval stages of Carcinides maenas.
Fig. 33. First Zoea.
Fig. 34. Second Zoea.
Fig. 35. Third Zoea.
Fig. 36. Fourth Zoea.
Fig. 37. Megalops,

*

A METHOD OF FISH CULTURE AND OF
TRANSPORTING LIVE FISHES.”

By A. D. MEAD, Ph. D.

Member of the Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries.

PRESENTED BEFORE THE FourtH INTERNATIONAL FisHERY CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, 1908,
AND AWARDED THE PrRizE OF Two HuNDRED DoLLARS IN GOLD OFFERED BY THE UNITED
States BurEAuU OF FISHERIES FOR A REPORT DESCRIBING THE MOST USEFUL, NEW AND
ORIGINAL PRINCIPLE, METHOD, OR APPARATUS TO BE EMPLOYED IN FisH CULTURE OR

IN TRANSPORTING Live FISHES.

CONTENTS.
Essential principles and development of the method..................... 81
Adaptation to fishes and other pelagic forms.....................0.-0000: 83
UCC UMUnETNCItc: weep LRM re Ss sie ts desi< . aeilsss Gbateon Sc ai eared ree 83
Requirements qatienede ee eo OEE ep RC EROE RE TR acs uae tre ee 85
NGapialpiinysormiiesmethods 9.4 .'s.0464 sis Age Ne hae ay as «lee enn ieee 87
PACS | AUPE GU mews eA MG kab)" Sas, esc fy) 4 uw oegerdlar eles ecualeos aie Se EMER Ne 88
CC S10 (35/21 IMC TE)S, 013 0 FIG) 1 ea aPC Ar Acs. CE 88
MD Sta SRGipSt RUC RUE y: Sele Si ys. WY Loi. dat eis Say oyeuaratan Sale pea ene oo a 90
Rossililityotevaniatl Oya ie he pt). tos cad ead eiete ent AP ee Pee ere 95
PAT CC AULCIOMG at 1A. Mera it chee dnis Ge «cid 2 kocsis hake Benen Manna ie Re Boal vay ss 95
ANSGLASHCON Ley EV ESY = OXON ell ee a aR TOR es ere Pee Aree een ro tS 96
General application of the method in fish culture......................... 104
Application, intransporcactom, of, live fishes: .... 25 sees: pele eae boos co 105

*Reprinted by permission of the Secretary General of the Fourth International Fishery
Congress.

11

A METHOD OF FISH CULTURE AND OF TRANSPORTING
LIVE FISHES.

By ASD? MrAn, Pa Ds

MEMBER OF THE RHODE ISLAND COMMISSION OF INLAND FISHERIES.

.

ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE
METHOD.

The method and apparatus herein described as a novel and practical
method of fish culture have gradually developed through eleven years
of continuous experimentation at the marine station of the Rhode
Island Commission of Inland Fisheries. It may be said, indeed, that
the method and the station have developed together. The aim has
been throughout to provide as simply as possible the essential features
of the natural environment, biological and physical, for aquatic animals
while kept in confinement, and to introduce as little as possible the un-
natural features which are frequently considered necessary in artificial
culture. Upon this principle there has been sought a feasible method
of providing water agreeable to the particular species in regard to the
various component salts, well aerated but not over aerated, having
the proper temperature, density, and current, and containing appro-
priate food in available condition; while providing at the same time
for the elimination of waste products of animal respiration, and avoid-
ing the dangerous chemical and bacterial impurities almost invariably
present where the water is passed through systems of piston pumps,
closed conduits, and storage tanks, and is aerated by means of forced
air.

The first step in the development of the method was a very direct
and simple concession, namely, that of going to the ocean instead of

82 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

trying to bring the ocean into a house on land. The floating labora-
tory and hatchery was therefore adopted as a feasible method of
circumventing, if not surmounting, many difficulties.

During the first and second seasons of work, it was clearly demon-
strated that the starfish (Asterias forbesii) could be reared in the
course of the summer (four months) from the larval stage to over 50
millimeters measured from mouth to tip of arm, (nearly twice the
length of sexually mature specimens captured in June, the breeding
season, and therefore a year old), in cars of appropriate shape floating
in the water between the pontoons of the houseboat. In this case,
living food was supplied at first in the form of small barnacles which
had set on boards, and later, as the starfishes grew larger, clams,
oysters, and mussels were given them to eat. The conditions in
these cars were completely adequate for the healthy life of these
slow-moving animals, and were abnormal only in that the young star-
fishes were protected from their enemies (excepting always their
cannibal brethren) and were better fed than they often are under
natural conditions. In many cases where they were especially well
fed they far outstripped in rapidity of growth individuals found along
the shore. They throve splendidly and were perfectly healthy.

This way of raising starfishes may hardly be dignified by the term
“method,” and yet the better condition of these specimens as com-
pared with those usually seen in an aquarlum—even in an aquarium
where many fishes live for a long time—is a striking fact. It suggests
also that there is often something the matter with aquarium water
which, whatever the cause, makes it unsuitable for the rearing of very
sensitive animals.

At the floating laboratory, animals with the burrowing habit can
also be kept confined and protected and under constant observation
by simply putting them into a box of sand suspended in the water.
Specimens of the soft-shell clam (Mya arenaria) may in this way be
very successfully and rapidly reared, and they give every indication
of being in a perfectly normal environment. Indeed, in our experi-
ments, when they were kept just under the surface of the water and

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 83

in the tidal current, they grew more rapidly than in the most-favorable
shore locality I have ever seen. In one experiment with clams rang-
ing from 5 to 17 millimeters the increase in bulk during five weeks and
two days was 1,861 per cent.

In the case of sessile animals like oysters, Crepidula, Anomia,
Molgula, Botryllus, sea anemones, tubicolous worms, ete., and of those
which spin a byssus like the mussel, young clams, and pectens, it is
only necessary to provide the proper surface for them to set on and
protection from predatory animals. In case of the hatching of such
eggs as those of the flatfish, Wenidia, Fundulus, and the lobster, with
which we have had experience in the course of our operations, it
would seem that the term “‘hatching”’ could hardly be used in a transi-
tive sense, for, if the eggs are provided simply with water of proper
constitution, temperature, and conditions for respiration, the eggs
inevitably hatch themselves. These non-pelagic eggs, in fact, belong
to the same category as the sessile or slow-moving animals and may
be treated accordingly. The method of stripping and swirling lobster
eggs has been given up with us and instead the ripe-berried hen-
lobsters are allowed to crawl about in the rearing cars with the result
that the eggs hatch most satisfactorily. Similarly the eggs of the
flatfish (Pseudopleuronectes) were hatched with almost no loss by
placing them on a piece of scrim which formed the bottom of a box
about 6 inches deep floated on the top of the water in a protected pool.
The eggs of Menidia and Fundulus are hatched successfully by

practically the same treatment.

ADAPTATION TO FISHES AND OTHER PELAGIC FORMS.
REQUIREMENTS.

In the development of the method of fish culture with which our
station is identified the installation of a laboratory directly upon the
water and the confining and rearing of animals in cars placed in the
water marked the first step. For many animals of the types we have
mentioned, the slow-moving, or creeping, the burrowing, and the

84 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

sessile animals, this is all that is necessary for rapid and healthy
growth. For pelagic animals, however, like the young of most fishes
and the larval forms of crustacea and other marine invertebrates, it
is not sufficient. The very peculiarities of structure and instinct
which adapt these creatures to their pelagic life make it difficult to
confine them for a long time even in relatively large inclosures of the

water in which they normally live.

One is baffled now by one peculiarity and now by another. The larvee
or fry are often strongly heliotropic, and in going toward or away from
the light soon strike the boundary wall of their confine, and when they
are numerous, as they must be in practical culture, die from the effects
of crowding, if, indeed, they are spared to this fate by their can-
nibalistic comrades. Often in the blind struggle to go toward the
light regardless of the boundary wall, they gradually work their way
to the bottom and become entangled in debris or covered with silt.

If, for the sake of good circulation of water, the tidal current is
allowed to pass through the car, as in the case of sessile or bottom-
living forms, the pelagic fry are apt to be swept against one side, or to:
collect in eddies, with disastrous results. If, on the other hand, the
current through the inclosure is not supplied, the water becomes stag-
nant and not well aerated, and since the time required to rear most
animals to a considerable size is long, the stagnation under these

circumstances is almost inevitable.

The minuteness of many larval animals constitutes a fourth diffi-
culty, for perforations or meshes large enough to permit sufficient cir-
culation frequently permit also the escape of the fry, while meshes too
small for the fry to go through become clogged with silt and do not
allow free circulation.

The fifth difficulty in the rearing of pelagic fry in inclosures of this
kind, depends upon the fact that normally they capture their prey
‘“‘on the fly.”” A dilemma presents itself: If the fry are fed upon
smaller animals or plants, these too must be pelagic, involving all the
difficulties over again, while, if artificial food is used, there is no pro-

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 85

vision for keeping it in suspension, in which condition only would it
be available.

REQUIREMENTS SATISFIED.

After the first step was taken and the excellent results of rearing
bottom-living animals in native water was recognized, it seemed most
desirable to follow up the advantage gained in the rearing of other
forms by extending and developing the procedure so that it would be
applicable to pelagic fry. Fortunately we were able to hit upon a
method which solved at once all the main difficulties arising from the
peculiarities of pelagic existence of larvee and other free-swimming
animals. This method consists essentially of creating and maintain-
ing within an inclosure of “‘native’’ water a gentle upward swirling
current. It obviates the several difficulties which we have enumera-
ated as peculiar to pelagic fry in the following ways:

It effectually prevents the crowding of the fry to one wall of the
car, for the force of the current carries them round and round con-
tinuously, nor can they work their way to the bottom, for the current
has an upward as well as a rotary direction. Even the cannibalistic
propensities, which are so pronounced in the larval stages of lobsters
and some other animals, are rendered innocuous to a great extent by
the forced separation of the fry and are mitigated by the availability
of other food.

The current being wholly internal, and its main component circular
in its course, it does not force the fry strongly to one side nor allow
them to remain in one place as does the tidal current passing through
the inclosure. The pressure of the current against the sides varies,
of course, with the rapidity with which the outside water is drawn
into the car, with the extent of the area through which the water can
pass out, and with the rapidity of the current. Since any or all of these
factors can readily be controlled there is no difficulty in obtaining a
proper adjustment of current for the requirements of particular
cases.

86 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Stagnation is prevented even when no new water is admitted from
the outside, for the water in the car is constantly being turned over
and the lower strata brought to the top and aerated. When, there-
fore, the water of a car of considerable size is kept cool by being sunk
into the ocean and shaded from the sun and is continuously forced to
the surface so as to be relieved of all waste gases as well as recuperated
with oxygen, there is comparatively little need of continuous or fre-
quent renewal. It is at least reasonable to suppose that, in what we
may call (after Birge) the “‘respiration”’ of a small inclosed body of
water containing a considerable quantity of animal life, the elimination
of the waste or toxic gases is necessary, and that aeration which is
accomplished by forcing more air into the water only partially fulfills
the requirements of respiration. The analogy with the physiological
process of respiration would seem to be real. In case of small, very
thin, flat animals, where the ratio of surface to the bulk is large,
respiration may be continuous and direct without special internal
apparatus, and, likewise, shallow water with a large expanse of surface
has been found by experiment to need no aeration in order to main-
tain animals alive for a long time. On the other hand, in bulky
animals, the respiratory apparatus provides always for the elimina-
tion of gaseous products of metabolism as inevitably as it provides
for the acquisition of oxygen. Likewise the bringing of the lower
strata of water continuously to the surface fulfills these two necessary
requirements.

For keeping larval forms which are not exceedingly minute, win-
dows covered with screens about 16 meshes to the inch in the bottom
of the cars allowing for intake, and similar ones in the sides for the
exit of water, are satisfactory. A much finer mesh can be used in
this case than would ordinarily be practicable, because the water is
drawn in through the bottom screens with considerable force by the
upward tendency of the current. It is possible by means of a filter
device, which will be described hereafter, to hold fry which would
pass through even very fine screens.

The rotary upward current keeps the particles of food suspended

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 87

in the water even when artificial food heavier than water is used.
When, on the other hand, a pelagic live food is used, it is also, of
course, readily available, because it is kept in motion and suspended.
The important problem of the distribution of food for pelagic forms

is solved by this method in a most satisfactory manner.

ADAPTABILITY OF THE METHOD.

Before describing the apparatus as at present installed at our
station where is it applied to the hatching and rearing of young fishes
and invertebrates, a word should be said to indicate its general
adaptability to various requirements. In any protected body of
water, whether river, lake, pond, or in the ocean itself, the apparatus
can be quickly and cheaply installed. For experimental work the
containing cars may be small. Dr. V. E. Emmel, by use of this
method, succeeded for the first time in the difficult task of making
mutilated lobsters of the first stage live to regenerate their appendages.
His apparatus consisted of an ordinary “‘paper’’ bucket provided
with screens and the apparatus for keeping the water in motion. On
the other extreme the units in our regular installation at Wickford,
are square boxes measuring 10 feet on a side and 4 feet in depth,
and having a capacity of approximately 12,000 liters (figs. 4, 6, 17).
The capacity of a plant of this sort is capable of unlimited extension by
the addition of units. At present the plant at Wickford has a capa-
city of 24 units of the size mentioned. The method is capable of
application to aquatic animals, fresh water or marine, varying in size
from those literally microscopic to those of a foot or more in length.
We do not foresee that there are any strictly aquatic animals the
requirements of whose young may not be fulfilled by means of this
method.

We have developed and applied the method mainly in connection
with the hatching and rearing of larval lobsters, but we may assert,
without fear of contradiction by anyone familiar with the rearing of

lobster fry, that we have done this not because of the comparative
12

88 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

ease of rearing lobsters. In the case of all species of fishes which we
have attempted to rear the problem is easier than in the case of

lobsters.

APPARATUS.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

The apparatus as at present installed has proved capable of rearing
the larval and young stages of fishes and of invertebrates belonging to
several different groups. The main features are as follows: A house-
boat consisting of two decked pontoons, 4 by 4 feet square in section
and 50 feet long held 8 feet apart, the intervening space decked and
covered by two houses 10 by 10 feet square and 10 by 20 feet, re-
spectively, flanked on either side by two floats attached to the house-
boat and made of 6 by 6 inch spruce timbers bolted together and
buoyed up by barrels. The spaces between the timbers of the floats
are divided into areas 12 by 12 feet, to contain the hatching cars, and
into alleyways about 2 feet wide, to contain the supporting barrels.
(See diagram and figs. 2 and 3.)

The inclosures for confining the fry are in the form of 10-foot square
boxes (fig. 6) having two windows in the bottom and two windows in
two sides, the windows screened, in the case of lobster fry and very
small fishes, with fine-meshed bronze woven wire.

In each box or car a pair of propeller blades, adjustable to various
angles, are horizontally placed, attached to a vertical shaft with
proper bearings (figs. 9, 14, and 20). By the revolution of the pro-
peller blades, the water is kept in circular and upward motion (fig.
4). The propeller shaft carries at its top a gear, which engages a
similar one with half the number of teeth borne on a horizontal lon-
gitudinal driving shaft. The paddle shaft can, however, be instantly
thrown out of gear by a lever (figs. 21 and 22). The longitudinal shaft
transmits the power to all the propellers in one float (figs. 2 and 3, and
diagram). It receives its power from a shaft running transversely

across the float, the two shafts being connected by mitered gears

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 89

(fig. 20). The transverse shaft of the float is connected to a similar
one across the house boat, by a set of universal ball joints and an
extensible shaft and sleeve device, invented for this particular pur-
pose, which allows for several inches of variation in the length of the
shafting system (figs. 2 and 17). The transverse shaft on the house-
boat runs through the side of the house, and inside the latter is con-
nected with the engine by two sets of pulleys and belts which greatly
reduce the speed (diagram).

A small gasoline engine furnishes the power. The engine speed
of 324 revolutions per minute is reduced to about 36 revolutions
per minute in the transverse shafting; then, by gears, to 18 revo-
lutions in the longitudinal shafting, and to 9 revolutions per minute
for the propeller blades within the boxes.

Four horizontal driving shafts running lengthwise of the float are
each 634 feet long. The transverse shafts connecting these back to
the engine have a combined length of 43 feet. The four large floats
are only skeletons in structure. Both they and the houseboat to
which they are attached float upon the water and are subjected to
considerable motion from the waves and from the swells of passing
vessels. A too rigid construction, therefore, is not permissible.
Indeed, a friend of the station who is familiar with mechanical con-
struction facetiously observed that any reputable engineer to whom
we might submit the plans of our apparatus would without hesitation
assert that it probably would not work. However, it runs con-
tinously with hardly an hour of interruption for three or four months
at a time.

Several devices have been adopted which together make sufficient
allowance for the inevitable rocking movement of the floats and for
the warping of- the light timbers viz., comparatively light shafting
(1 inch), which in long pieces is flexible; adjustable hangers; large-
tooth cast gears; and the sliding shaft and universal joint which has
been mentioned. No trouble with the running of the apparatus has
ever arisen from the motion of the water, though the latter is some-
times strong enough to break out the screen windows.

90 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

DETAILS OF STRUCTURE.

Houseboat.—A brief description of the houseboat with its materials
and dimensions is as follows: Two pontoons 52 feet long, 4 feet wide,
and 4 feet deep, of 3-inch hard pine caulked, completely decked with
2-inch hard pine caulked; each pontoon with 3 bulkheads and 4 water-
tight compartments accessible by hatches, painted all over, copper
paint below water line; pontoons placed 8 feet apart securely fastened
by crossbeams and heavy knees at each end; houses 10 by 10 feet
near each end of the boat, with floors of 2-inch hard pine, roofs, sides,
doors, shelves, closets, of North Carolina pine, painted outside,
natural-wood finish inside; roof of house 7 feet from floor and having
a slight crown, covered with canvas and painted. An annex to the
house (fig. 1) on one end, made of lighter material and of the same
dimensions, has been added to give additional space for the engines

and tools.

Floats—The four side floats, so-called, are merely skeleton rafts,
buoyed with barrels, whose construction may be seen in the diagram
and in figures 2and 3. _ Pieces of 6 by 6 inch timbers, spliced together
if necessary, are bolted’ together to form a rectangle 19 by 754 feet.
Parallel with the long sides and 21 feet inside are similar timbers,
running the whole length of the raft. This makes an alleyway on
each side for the supporting of barrels, and the spaces between the
barrels are available for small rearing boxes used in preliminary ex-
periments. Across the inner long timbers are placed 6 by 6 inch
beams at intervals of 12 feet, dividing the whole raft into six compart-
ments 12 by 12 feet square for the reception of the rearing cars.
Except for occasional spaces this completes the lower part of the raft.

Upon these beams short vertical pieces are set at the corners of the
ear pools to form a rest for the seven upper crossbeams which run
parallel with the lower ones (diagram and figs. 2 and 3). These upper
crossbeams of 4 by 6 inch stock support a longitudinal shaft beam, also
4 by 6 inches, which runs the whole length of the float through the

middle and upon which are fastened the shaft hangers.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 91

The two floats on either side of the houseboat are fastened rigidly
together with bolted timbers. The inside floats are attached to the
houseboat by means of D irons and eyebolts, to allow about a foot of
up-and-down motion. The floats are built comparatively light and
_ of cheap wood, in view of possible future change of plans as a result

of experience.

Rearing boxes.—The rearing boxes are square, made of seven-
eighths-inch spruce tongued and grooved boards, nailed to a 2 by 3
inch frame with galvanized nails. The inside dimensions are 10 by 10
by 4 feet. The angles between adjacent sides and between the bot-
tom and sides are truncated by boards 9 inches wide and beveled on
the edges (figs. 7 and 13). The vertical corner frame pieces are
left projecting above the top of the box about 2 inches, to serve as
corner posts for fastening the box in place. Ring bolts are put into
the four lower inside corners of the box for use in raising the box for
cleaning.

Window cases 9 by 36 inches are placed on two opposite sides of the
box to receive the movable window frames (figs. 5,6, and 7). Two
similar removable window frames 22 inches square are placed in the
bottom about 3 feet from the diagonally opposite corners of the box
(fig. 6). The size of the mesh in these screen windows varies, accord-
ing to the size of the fry under experiment, from 16 to 2 meshes to
the inch. The material is usually woven bronze or copper wire or
galvanized “‘iron.”

In the middle of both sides of the box not having windows a broad
slot is cut from the top to within about 8 inches from the bottom.
It allows the box to be raised above the water, even though the shaft
beam is low (figs. 5 and 6). When the box is down the doors (seen
in fig. 6), which are fastened on the side of the slot referred to, are
fastened shut by strong outside buttons. :

It should be said here that this construction was adopted to save
rebuilding the floats which had formerly held canvas bags, in which
case the low shaft beam was not in the way. In the case of new con-

92 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

struction, the shaft beams should be high enough to escape the box
when the latter is raised out of the water (fig. 5).

The boxes are buoyant and have to be forced down into position,
where they are held fast by two planks across the top at the end of the
box (figs. 4and 11). The planks are mortised into the corner posts :
before referred to, so as to prevent lateral movement, and are fastened
down to the beams of the float by heavy adjustable cleats secured by
bolts (fig. 10).

The boxes are painted inside and out.

When a box is to be raised, the cleats are loosened, the planks re-
moved, and ropes from the drums of a transportable windlass are
hooked into the ring-bolts of the bottom corners (figs. 4 and 12). The
doors are then opened and the hand windlass put into operation. One
man alone, has raised a box in fifteen minutes, and two men in five
minutes. These boxes, the windlasses, and many other things, were

designed and constructed by the superintendent, Mr. E. W. Barnes.

Propellers.—The size and shape of propeller blades found to be
most satisfactory vary according to the requirements of different fry.
The form of those most used for lobster fry is shown in fig. 6.
They consist of two wooden blades, each 4 feet 2 inches long,
and 8 inches wide at the base, tapered to 5 inches at the apex, and
painted all over. Along the middle line the thickness is about 14
inches, but from this to either edge is a long bevel which leaves about
one-half inch at the edge (fig. 18). Each blade is fastened with iron
straps to a piece of galvanized gas pipe, which is screwed into a four-
way cross coupling (fig. 18). The latter admits also the vertical gas-
pipe shaft running upward toward the gears and a short vertical steel
shaft below which sets into a socket consisting of a short piece of
large gas pipe fastened to the bottom of the car by a flange. This
serves as a lower bearing or guard to the propeller shaft (fig. 18).

The upper part of the propeller shaft is continued by means of
couplings through the longitudinal shaft beam and carries a mitered
gear at the top (fig. 14). In order easily to disconnect and take out

the propeller a heavy iron sleeve coupling is inserted into the pro-

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 93

peller shaft. The two pieces of the latter are held into the sleeve
coupling by set screws (fig. 19). As the set screws would be too
heavy for galvanized piping, the lower part of the propeller shaft is
continued upward by means of a piece of ordinary cold-rolled steel
shafting (fig. 19). This is more easily shown in the figures than

described.

Driving shafts and gears.—The gear on the top of the vertical pro-
peller shaft engages a similar gear with half the number of teeth on
the longitudinal driving shaft (fig. 4). The latter is supported
above the shaft beam by adjustable hangers. All the gears are
cast instead of cut and have large teeth (fig. 20). For our
purposes they are probably more satisfactory, and are certainly
much cheaper, than cut gears. A nice adjustment is not necessary
and the speed of all the shafting is low, being 36 to 18 revolutions for
the horizontal shafts and 9 for that of the propeller.

The longitudinal driving shaft connects by means of mitered gears
to a transverse shaft running back toward the house boat and engine
(diagram and figs. 2, 3,and 7). Between this and the transverse shaft
of the houseboat is a pair of ball joints of the common type and the
peculiar extension device referred to before (figs. 7 and 17). The
latter consists of a sleeve made of two heavy castings fitting loosely
over two pieces of square shafting. The two sleeve castings are pro-
vided with flanges and are held together by screws, and, to avoid their
accidentally slipping off into the water, one end is made fast to the
shaft with set screws. Several holes are bored through the sleeve
for convenience in oiling. This device allows the square shafting to
slide back and forth in the sleeve easily and it has the advantage of
being very cheap. It is also very strong, because the shaft has a

bearing on the sleeve on all four of its surfaces.

Shafting, pulleys, and engine on houseboat.—The transverse shaft
on the houseboat connects with that on both pairs of side floats in the
manner described, and is itself connected with the engine within the

house by two sets of ordinary pulleys and belt drives in which the

94 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

speed of the engine is greatly reduced. Two engines are set up ready
to connect with the shaft, so that if either one gives out the other may
be used. The engines are 24 to 3 horsepower, Fairbanks-Morse
vertical type of gasoline explosion engines, and have proved exceed-
ingly satisfactory.

Boxes with filters for holding minute larve.—As a modification of the
usual form of box or car, to be used for rearing larve so small that
they would go through any screen with meshes large enough to permit
an adequate renewal of water, the following has been adopted: The
ordinary boxes are carefully caulked in all the seams, and their win-
dows, save one of those in the bottom, are covered with canvas. A
gravel and sand filter, made by putting about 4 inches of gravel and
sand into a shallow box with wooden sides and heavy galvanized one-
fourth-inch mesh wire in the bottom, is placed over the other bottom
window (fig. 13). When the car is in place, an old-fashioned bucket
chain is rigged on the longitudinal shaft, and the water is thus con-
tinually lifted and poured into the hatching box through a short
trough. The buckets are painted with asphalt inside and the trough
is lined with canvas to prevent contamination of the water from con-
tact with metal or wood. The new water is added, therefore, at the
top of the box gradually—about 34 gallons per minute (figs. 15
and 16).

The amount of water passing through the bottom of the filter does
not create an appreciable outward current, and, at any rate, the fry
are held above the bottom by the upward trend of the current created
by the propellers. Two or three cars of this type have been operated
for periods of four to ten weeks at a time. Several varieties of very
young fishes and larval invertebrates have been reared with highly
satisfactory results. Among the many hundreds of thousands of
animals only three or four dead specimens of any kind have been
observed. ;

Canvas lining for boxes.—A further modification of this method has
been adopted in order to prevent the escape of certain very small

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 95

animals like crabs, which seek out and crawl into very narrow cracks
in the wood. It consists of putting into the box, a large canvas bag
as a sort of lining and arranging the filter pump as usual (fig. 16).
This apparatus has also proved satisfactory.

POSSIBILITY OF VARIATION.

So detailed a description of the apparatus as at present installed
and in use might without a further word leave the impression that this
apparatus alone fulfills the requirements of this general method of fish
culture. On the contrary there is hardly a feature of the whole out-
fit that has not been represented, at one time or another during
our experiments, by other materials or other forms. The present
boxes, for example, have replaced bags of canvas and of serim and
bobbinet, not because the latter failed to give good results, but because
they were less durable and otherwise objectionable. Three forms of
power transmission have been operated successfully during the devel-
opment of the plant. It is obvious that the gasoline engine might
under other circumstances properly give place to a different kind of
motive power, such as steam or hot-air engines or electric, spring,
weight, or water motors. For use in small experiments weight or
spring motors, properly governed for speed, have much to recommend
them, for individual cars could be independently operated in various
localities without the inevitable expense and annoyances of running
the engine and the apparatus for power transmission.

PRECAUTIONS.

There are, moreover, precautions to be taken in the construction of
the cars and other devices. New wood, especially pine, and certain
metals, particularly copper and galvanized iron, which are frequently
used as screens, are apt to injure, and often prove fatal to young
animals even when under other circumstances the circulation through
the car would be ample. A very striking instance of the effect of

small quantities of copper and zinc-plated screening was furnished in
18

96 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

an experiment made a year ago in our station by Dr. V. E. Emmel, in
rearing fourth-stage lobsters to the fifth stage.* Ninety fourth-
stage lobsters were put separately into glass jars, one lobster into
each jar, and the whole crate of jars submerged in the water about 2
feet below the surface. A screen of woven copper wire was placed
over the wide mouth of each jar to keep the lobsters from escaping.
All these lobsters were found dead twelve hours later. Galvanized
copper wire screen was then substituted in a new experiment and in
twenty-four hours the whole lot were dead. Finally a cloth screen of
bobbinet was used, and out of 75 lobsters which were fed, only 1 died
before molting into the fifth stage. Of 15 which were not fed 4 died
at the end of a month. These difficulties, if recognized, may in
most cases easily be overcome.

TESTS OF EFFICIENCY.

The method and apparatus which have been herein described have
been developed, as we have said, mainly in connection with the rear-
ing of lobsters through their pelagic larval stages. But as proficiency
in this work has increased we have come to realize that the method is
equally well adapted to the rearing of a great variety of fishes and
aquatic invertebrates.

Hatching and rearing lobsters.—While the hatching of lobster eggs
by this method presents no difficulties, and young lobsterlings, after
reaching the fourth stage, can also be cared for without the use of
special appliances, the larval lobsters, on the other hand, during the
three free-swimming stages of two or three weeks’ duration, seem to
incarnate nearly all the perverse and intractable characteristics
which, from the view point of fish culture, are difficult to deal with.
They are pelagic and are safe only when floating, yet in confinement
they persistently tend to go to the sides and bottom of the inclosure.
They are comparatively slow of movement and weak in their instincts
of self-preservation and of seeking food, yet their most distressing

* Report of Rhode Island Commissioners of Inland Fisheries for 1907, page 104.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 97

characteristic is cannibalism. A method of artificial culture, there-
fore, which will successfully cope with the various difficulties involved
in the rearing of larval lobsters might, a priori, be expected to answer
the requirements of the culture of fishes, few of which, perhaps, offer
so many difficulties. While the report on the special method of rearing
lobsters is given in another paper, it may be here said, as indicating
the general efficiency of the plant, that during the months of June and
July, and the first few days in August of this year, we hatched and
reared through their successive larval stages more than 320,000
lobsters (counted) by means of the apparatus as above described.
Fishes incidentally reared —While the apparatus was occupied with
the rearing of lobsters time and car space were not available for ex-
periments on the rearing of fishes, but, incidentally, it was demon-
strated that the young of many fishes would thrive and grow in the
ears. Upon raising cars which had been down for two or three weeks,
there were nearly always found in them a considerable number of
small fishes of various species. Since all the water of the car must in
these cases have entered through the screen windows of one-sixteenth-
inch mesh, the fishes must have come in when they were very small.
The following is an incomplete list of these fishes found in the cars.*
It should be mentioned that among these fishes and the other young
specimens placed in the cars there was no evidence of illness or mor-

tality.
Species. Size. Dates.
mm
Mummichog (Fundulus sp.)........ 5-25 | Throughout season of 1907 and
| 1908.
Silversides (Menidia sp.).......... 4-21 |June 27 to July 8, 1908.
Hake (Umopnyeis: Sp.) ce ae 3 oe: 28 July 26, 1907.
Pipefish (Syphostoma fuscum).......| 15 July 6, 1908.
30 Aug. 6. 1908.
114 , Aug. 7, 1908.
Ho | Do.
144 | Aug. 8, 1908.
66 Aug. 21, 1908.
73 | Do.

* From data collected by H. C. Tracy.

98 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Species. Size. | Dates.
mm
Kingfish (Menticirrhus saxatilis)....| 41 | Aug. 4, 1908
Squeteague (Cynoscion regalis)...... 4.2 | July 23, 1908.
19 | July 30, 1908.
12.5 | July 28, 1907.
6.5 Do.
25 Aug. 8, 1907.
18 Do.
20 Aug. 9, 1907.
29 Aug. 13, 1907.
31 Do.
37 Aug. 26, 1907.
Puffer (Spheroides maculata)........ 4 (?) 1908.
3.5 | July 9, 1908.
18 Aug. 3, 1908.
Flatfish (Pseudopleuronectes ameri- | 10-21 | From about June 15 to about
CONUS err A eee! .eaerieee 2 July 1, 1908, from 10 to 50
were found in every car when
raised.
RautogsCloutogatonitis) 1.4.56) oe 2 July 8, 1908.
4.8 July 9, 1908.
20 July 25, 1908.
11 July 28, 1908.
20,18 | Aug. 3, 1908.
20,24 | Aug. 4, 1908.
12.5 | Aug. 7, 1908.
8,9 | Aug. 9, 1908.
| 23,25 | Aug. 10, 1908.
21,41 | Aug. 11, 1908.
8 July 28, 1907.
0) July 25, 1907.

Anchovy (Stolephorus mitchell) —From July 6 to the last of August .
1908, small anchovies continually entered the cars through the fine
screens. In many instances hundreds of them, from 2 to 20 milli-
meters long, were found in these cars. In August, several cars were
fitted out with coarse screens, one-fourth inch mesh, and several
thousands of anchovies entered one of the cars in a single night.
Within the cars they lived and grew. Great numbers of very small
specimens between 2 and 10 millimeters in length were taken in
July. Mr. Tracy points out a fact of particular significance, namely,

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 99

that in the tight filter cars many specimens from 2 millimeters to 8
millimeters were found which must have been dipped up by the chain
of buckets as eggs or as very small fry, since the fry of 10 millimeters
are so quick and wary that they would hardly be caught in this
way. ‘There is no doubt whatever that the young anchovies of all
sizes thrive perfectly well in the cars provided with screens, and also
in the filter cars, and it is more than probable that the eggs of this
species frequently hatched in the cars.

About 20 anchovies placed in one of the filter cars on July 28, 1908,
were doing well at the date of writing (September 19, 1908), and
showed a very considerable growth.

Hatching and rearing fishes.—Near the end of the season for rearing
lobsters during the latter part of July, when the pressure of other
work was relieved, some of the large cars were reserved for definite
experiments to test the practicability of the method and apparatus
as applied to the hatching and rearing of fishes. Unfortunately at
this time of the year there were comparatively few fishes whose eggs
we could obtain, and we were unable, therefore, to exercise much
choice in our material.

On July 17, a quantity of eggs of the ‘‘Silverside’”’ (Menidia) were
obtained, and, after being fertilized, were put into a car with the filter
and bucket-chain rigged as already described. A_ short-bladed
paddle was used like that in fig. 14. This was hung about 2 feet
from the bottom, the lower bearing being dispensed with.

The egg masses were teased apart into small clusters and placed on a
piece of cloth mosquito netting which was tacked to a piece of soaked
wood, so as to form a bag, and suspended in the water. The bag thus
formed, was held extended and kept from collapsing by a coiled piece
of insulated electric wire on the inside. (Practically the same method
has been used very successfully in the hatching of the flatfish, Pseudo-
pleuronectes). The eggs hatched in about ten days with apparently no
mortality. The young fishes readily escaped through the netting and
seemed to thrive perfectly well in the car, where they were kept until

100 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

August 21, when they were transferred to another similar car, which,
however, had a canvas lining. Here they have continued to live until
the date of writing (September 19,1908). There has been no evidence
of mortality of any kind during the experiment, although little atten-
tion has been given to the feeding, and the fry have had to depend
upon the living pelagic food which entered with the water from the
chain of buckets.

From the time of hatching to the transference of the fry to another
car, specimens were taken out daily and preserved. The average
daily measurements are here given:

Mm. Mm. Mm.

JMU FB oo Mond oe Seon PAU SUS tA eae 7 90F PP Anieustelley eee eeone
Vulva Teele ee AP SOm| PAU SIStroyae ta. a: CaO Auiousteli2peesener 8.80
Janlive2 Ole eer Hotey4 | ONAN Daqoonaino oth® || ZAuOanh US oe sess. 9.20
dfilhasiike, We uo cig exc GAPAL | ANU REIE ZV gockoo np ice) || Jlibrearisie te ese a 8.77
ANDFEATISHY Wes Sil 6 oe GHIO | PAM CUStICy ee S00) |) August lore aees 9.30
ANI SUStH2 n-ne er cs: ie lOM ANI oust Oem ee 7.98

INVER Bho ooo bus (olosy knrauisig O52 65 a6 oe 8.23

On the afternoon of July 27, a portion of the eggs which had re-
mained unhatched in the experiment thus described were transferred
to another similarly rigged rearing car (known as S 4), and these eggs
hatched within the next day ortwo. The measurements of specimens
taken daily from this new car compare in an interesting way with those
given in the previous table. Although they came from the same
batch of eggs, and differed only in being slightly younger, they grew
more rapidly than the first lot and soon so far outstripped those in
the original car that the difference was noticed upon casual observa-

tion.

This difference was doubtless due to the fact that the second lot had
more to eat because there were fewer specimens in the car, for, as we
have said, the fry had to depend for their food upon the pelagic fauna.
By towing in these cars with a small bolting cloth net the absence of
copepods and larval animals was conspicuous, especially when com-

pared with the towings taken from a neighboring control car which was

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 101

in all respects, similarly conditioned except that it supported no young
fishes. In the latter the pelagic life was abundant. It was evident
that the swarm of young fry used up the supply of pelagic food as
fast as it came into the car.

The following table gives the daily average length of specimens of
Menidia in this second experiment:

Mm Mm Mm
afar 2ife set ahs AF O24\ AUPUSH SD... 0... ¢-¢6 | August 10s, -545.. OeOe
Athy 2Se onoc ace ce 4 Ol |e ameustes....-2. 8.72 | Auieustlilensoase 10.34
July 290 Ls ast s ne O04) Aneust o.2...... 9.00.) August 12 9. oe 10.12
Fuly7S Ole oer si2ih 8) che G2 0en | PaAmeust:G.-:-.-.... 9.98. | Augustiigses eso: 10.74
analy vessel. DIOL WAUSUSt sce... 9:82) | August 4s 10.21
AWIEQUEW Mose ooid one Cadi || AWIUEIHR ooou6 oe 1002) | PAugust lopeneeeeee UE 2,
ANUIAUISH Ins ane a oe CDS MAM PUSt Oks etin cs 9.200), Auoust 7 i ae 10.26

The regular measurements were discontinued after this date. On
September 8 the average measurement was 14.83 millimeters and on
September 14, 14.45 millimeters. In all of these measurements
different groups of individuals were caught up, and the averages,
therefore, seem to show a decrease in size rather than an increase
when there is not considerable rapidity of growth.

A few eggs of Fundulus heteroclitus were fertilized on July 27 and
were placed in the original filter car. They were floated near the
surface in a shallow bag of netting somewhat similar to that de-
scribed in the case of Menidia. The eggs hatched on August 5 and 6
and the fry all lived in healthy condition until they were taken out
at intervals and preserved. The daily averages of length for the
first ten days are as follows:

Mm. Mm. Mm
AUSUSGOnsses es 4.92.) Aupust)9)......... 5-56 | August 1859... 5.98
August Gi ev. Ae. HAO | ivr Mesos wear |) wearin Whe ok ke 6.25
INOUE Sad e.cc8 CPLR eAIoUSt elle cee OMS Si FPA oTIStal Oe meEen ee 6.30
ANUICANEIH tel peels eioie Deo AULUSG LZ sce... OOo

Specimens of this lot have continued to live in one of the cars until
the date of writing (September 19).

On July 17, 56 young toadfish, measuring from 15 to 17 milli-
meters, which had been raised from the eggs in a small car, were

102 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

transferred to the original filter car. At more or less irregular inter-
vals during the next four or five weeks, specimens were taken out and
measured. The following table of individual and average measure-
ments indicates the rate of their growth:*

Mm Mm
July 17" (S6ispecimens)..=. 150-1705) Ausustin sos.) see 26.0
Jrulivid OR eest-rew: ee ores et pe 19.0 ANTES Fil ZL aa Ae ono 26.5
Jule oileeer Merny eos cites 22.5 PNIUIADISTH PIS eNe i dco WenS-0 8 {i90F33 77)
Auisustle noc. bic See celss 18. 7—22.0

In order to test these cars with as many kinds of fishes as possible,.
we introduced the young of some other species in lieu of fish eggs, which
could not be obtained in great variety at this season of the year. On
July 17, a lot of pipefish taken from the brood pouch of a male were
put directly into the original filter car. The individuals appeared to
be of practically equal length and measured 10 millimeters. They
apparently all lived and, like the other specimens in the cars, con-
tinued to thrive, showing no sign of disease, until they were taken out,
on August 21.

The following data show the rate of growth as indicated by the
average sizes at the end of irregular periods. No food was given to
them except that which came in with the water by means of the

chain of buckets.

Mm. Mm. Mm.
July eee ere 1050") July 305). 2042.) 4430 1 August loess eee 67.2
duly INS boo ote claws & Tee i Afwibyeilee Geos ) Gkioll |) AMM Eh 20a cSeco0 a 69.4
Af 720) ween ey orole Ger 21.8 | August 2........ 52.6 | September 8....... lees
Julyg2de mere 24.5 | August 6........ 61.6 | September 14...... [7070
IWR PAS 7 o Sayeed rs ae Pf) | INOCAUISG (hoacona oo Gtsie@
NURS coe cace eae Aad: || PAE, I sees sd (a4!

On August 21 the remaining specimens were transferred to another
filter car with canvas lining, where they remained alive and well up
to September 19.

On July 21 another pipefish was caught with a brood pouch full of
young which measured 10 millimeters. These young were placed, to-

* | am indebted for these measurements to Mr. H. C. Tracy.
+ Average, 30.21 mm. Fifty-four specimens out of 56 put into the car were recovered.
} Measurements taken after transference to new car.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 103

gether with the second lot of Menidia, in a filter car rigged with a
chain of buckets like the original one. These specimens lived and
thrived equally well. No food was given them except on one or two

occasions. The data of growth is as follows:

Mim. Mm. Mm.
Sutlysr 2s ate save 33 NOn sWeAupust.G...5..-. 37. Salseptember senate 59.0
live ean oe ee a 19.0 | August 8........ 41.8 | September 14...... 62.8
YT SOF ce 2. 5:3 240 Auioust et... 4159
PMUSUISGHOMe seis hc. ole | IS USt pene. 9 452 |

On August 8 and 10 a number of young bluefish were caught in the
seine and were placed in one of the rearing cars which had been pro-
vided with coarse window screens of one-fourth inch mesh. When
put into the car there were already present in the water several thou-
sand young anchovies, about 20 to 25 millimeters in length. These
the bluefish ate during the first day. On several occasions a few
Menidia and Fundulus were given them to eat. On August 12, they
were given as much raw meat as they could eat, and this they de-
voured ravenously. They were fed on meat again on August 15, and
on Menidia two days later. The average size of these bluefish on
August 18, about ten days after they were put into the car, was 140.8
millimeters, an average increase of about 10 millimeters. On Septem-
ber 1, they were measured again, having been fed meantime on several
occasions with Menidia, Fundulus, and other small fishes. The
average length on this date, September 1, was 174 millimeters. This
measurement and the two which follow were taken from the nose to
the end of the fin rays, whereas the previous measurements were
taken from the nose to the base of the fin rays. Between September
1 and September 8, the specimens were not fed. On September 8
they measured 175.1 millimeters, showing an increase during seven
days of 1.1 millimeters.

On September 8 a quantity of live fishes was put into the car to
serve as food for the bluefish, and during the next seven days, the
bluefish showed an average growth of about 10 millimeters, the average

length being 184.3 millimeters.
14

104 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

The filter cars which have been described, and in which the pre-
viously mentioned eggs and young fishes were kept alive, have also
proved themselves capable of maintaining a considerable variety of
other fishes and invertebrates, among which are the following:
Tautog, flat fish, anchovy, oysters (both old and young), scallops,
anomia, crabs, barnacles, polyzoans, Botryllus, Nereis larve, ete.

Crabs and scallops—On August 2, 1908, a very large number of
zoee and megalops of the oyster crab were found floating at the
surface of the water. A considerable number were caught with a net
and transferred to one of the filter cars, in which they have remained
ever since. On September 19 their average measurements were,
length 82 millimeters and breadth 104 millimeters (Mr. Sullivan).

On August 3, thirteen scallops, measuring between 45 and 65
millimeters in length, were placed in the second filter car after having
a deep notch filed in the shell so that the rate of their growth could
be determined accurately. On September 18, eleven of these speci-
mens were caught out of the car and were in excellent condition. The
notch and the zone of new growth indicated precisely the size and
shape of the shell when the scallop was placed in the box. The in-
crease in length was about 20 per cent. The following table gives the
measurements of these specimens:

Length, Aug. 2. Length, Sept. 18. Length, Aug. 3. Length, Sept. 18.
Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm.
50 60 51 60
44 55 52 64
47 60 46 56
60 68 52 62
45 55

GENERAL APPLICATION OF THE METHOD IN FISH CUL-
TURE.

There are two great problems in the general question of fish culture
to the solution of which the method herein described contributes:

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 105

First, to the problem of hatching and rearing to an optimum size for
liberation quantities of fishes of economic value for the direct pur-
pose of stocking the waters. The comparative ease of hatching eggs
of most fishes has resulted in the establishment of many prolific
hatcheries; on the other hand, the number of establishments capable
of rearing young fishes and the number of species so reared in con-
finement are few. A method of culture, therefore, which is capable
not only of hatching, but of rearing large numbers of fishes of widely
different species marks, we hope, a new step in fish culture.

The second general problem is the ascertainment of the appearance,
habits, requirements, and rate of growth of economically important
fishes in their early stages of post-embryonic development. As
contrasted with the vast amount of investigation of the embryonic
stages of development, which has been facilitated by the abundance of
readily available material in the form of eggs of all stages, the data
relating to the post-embryonic development is almost entirely lacking.
Even the identification of the young of many food fishes abundant in
their spawning season is at present impossible. A method by which
eges of widely different species may be hatched and reared and by
which the unidentified fry caught at large may be reared under obser-
vation, will be able, we hope, to furnish the necessary material for the

solution of this general problem.

APPLICATION IN TRANSPORTATION OF LIVE FISHES.

In our opinion the essential principle upon which this method of
fish culture is based will be found of value in solving the problem of
the transportation of live fishes and, moreover, the method and
even a portion of the apparatus can be modified and adapted so as to
carry this principle into effect. The principle is, briefly, to provide
at the start native “unmodified” water; to maintain a proper tem-
perature and density, and in some cases current; to secure the con-
tinuous ‘‘respiration”’ of the water, including the egress of waste gases
of the metabolism of contained fishes and often of bacteria as well as

106 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

the access of oxygen, and to avoid contact with injurious metallic
substances.

To carry into effect this principle we propose the following method:
To use for transportation an iron tank enameled on the inside with a
vitreous substance in order to prevent contact of the water with the
metal; to use only water dipped from the water in which the animals
have been living, in order to insure its proper constitution; to sur-
round the tank with a jacket into which ice or warm water can be put
to control the temperature (for many animals, at any rate, both
among fishes and invertebrates we have found by experience that a
low temperature is a very important factor in maintaining life when
the animals are crowded into a small amount of unrenewed water) ;
to provide both the current and the continuous respiration by in-
stalling a propeller device of enameled iron kept in motion by means
of a spring motor.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE 1;

General view of houseboat with floats attached. The hatching boxes sunk in
place covered with white shades.

PLATE 2.

General view of the plant from the outer rear corner—starboard side. In
foreground one of the cars shows the propeiler shaft and faint indication of
propeller blades in water. The shaft coming through the side of the engine-
house passes into the extension device seen just outside the first shaft-hanger,
then connects with the longitudinal shafts. Location of rearing cars and the
alleys with barrels.

PLATE 3.

Starboard side, looking aft. Shafting system and general arrangement of cars.

PLATE 4,

One of the cars of the inner float with propeller in motion, showing blades
faintly through the water. From propeller the shafting may be followed back
to the universal joint in the foreground where it joins the transverse shafting on
the houseboat itself. There are shown in this photograph the following struc-
_ tures: propeller shaft 1; sleeve coupling 2; longitudinalshaft 3; adjustable shaft-
hanger 4,7; gear trains from longitudinal to transverse shafts 5; transverse hori-
zontal shaft of float 6; ball joint connecting shaft with that of the houseboat 8;
edge of rearing box 9; brace across corner of rearing box 10; holding-down plank
mortised into corner post 11; shaft beam.

PLATE 5.

Rearing car raised and held up by portable windlass. Showing slot in end of
car through which, when ear is raised, the longitudinal shaft runs1; longitudinal
shaft 2; side window of car 3; portable “horse’’ and windlass 4.

PLatTeE 6.

View into rearing car raised. Several of the cars in position. The length of
the propeller blades is shown by comparison with the young man, five feet six
inches tall, who is holding the propeller. The following are shown: slot in end
of car1; doors for closing the slot when a car is lowered 2; side screen windows
3; bottom windows 4, 5; box covering gear trains which connect transverse and
longitudinal shafts 6; transverse shaft 7; longitudinal shaft 8; towing car 9.

PLATE 7.

Interior of rearing car. Preparing to caulk small cracks before lowering the
car. Side window 1, slot in end 2, and doors 3 with buttons 4 to hold them shut
may beseen. Passing through the slot may be seen longitudinal shaft and shaft-
beam. The gear train connecting vertical propeller shaft and horizontal shaft
and the adjustable shaft-hanger are shown in the foreground. 5, 6, and 7 show
the connection of shaft on the houseboat with that of the float. 8 is the engine

mufHer.

PLATE 8.

Lifting the disconnected propeller out of the water. The upper portion of the

shaft with the sleeve coupling is seen at 1.
PLATE 9.

The propeller removed, showing the disconnected shaft. The upper part of the
shaft and the coupling are faintly visible under the shaft beam. The photograph
shows well the size and shape of the propeller blades and the silt which accumu-

lates during the two weeks it is in operation.

PuatTe 10.

Starting to knock out the wooden cleats at the end of the holding-down planks

in order to release the car and allow it to rise.

Puate 11.

The cleats 1 being removed, the car rises part way through its own buoyancy.
Carrying off the holding-down planks 2 and opening the doors of the slot at end
of car to admit the longitudinal shaft-beam 3 and so allow the car to be entirely

raised. Side windows show well 4, 5.

Puate 12.

Raising the car by means of windlass. Ropes from the drums of the windlass
are fastened by hooks to rings in the lower corners of the ear.

PuatTe 13.

View of the interior of a car, showing filter of gravel and sand placed over one
of the bottom windows. Arrangement for rearing very minute larve or those for
which screen windows would be dangerous. “The car is caulked tight, water is
poured over the top by bucket chains and its only exit is through this bottom
filter. Slot and the doors at end of car show in the upper right-hand corner of
the photograph. The picture shows also the boards used to truncate the angles
between the adjacent sides 1 and between the sides and bottom 2.

PuatTe 14.

“Filter Car” in operation. Short propeller hung about eighteen inches below
the surface. Trough 1 with canvas lining for conducting incoming water; float-
ing shallow bag of scrim 2 used in hatching certain fish eggs. The arrangement
of shafts and gears shows well in the figure.

PuatTe 15.

Filter car, showing bucket chain in operation. One of the buckets has just
emptied itself, and the stream of water is faintly shown running into the trough.

PuatTe 16.

Filter car with canvas lining. Chain buckets on the left. The propeller blades
may be seen in the water.

PuatTEe 17.

Detail of device for extension and universal movement: adjustable shaft-
hanger 1; ball joint 2; square shafting 3, fastened by set-screws into ball-joint at
left 4 and also by set-screws into sleeve 5; set-screws holding sleeve on shaft to
prevent the sleeve from falling off into the water 6; screws through flanges of
sleeve holding the two sides together; oil holes; square shaft which slides in and
out of sleeve 7; shaft-hanger upon side float 8.

PLATE ‘18.

Bottom of rearing car, showing detail of lower portion of the propeller shaft and
its socket in the floor of the car. Propeller shaft, long ascending portion made
of gaspipe 1; short descending portion of shaft made of steel to fit into the socket
2; four way pipe coupling 3; gaspipe to which the blades are strapped 4; strap
holding propeller blades tight 5; socket which receives lower end of the shaft
6; flange screwed to the floor 7; upper steel portion of the propeller shaft discon-
nected from the lower one and hanging down from the shaft-beam 8; view of
shaft-beam from under side 9; window in bottom of car 10; base of propeller
blade showing in section the shape of the long bevel 11.

PuatTe 19.

Detail of a coupling connecting the two parts of the propeller shaft, 1 and 2,
long shaft beam; 3, 4, upper portion of shaft connected with gears; 5, set screws;
6, 7, 8, solid steel shafting, coupling, and gas pipe shafting, respectively; 9, meas-

uring stick, with joints six inches long.

PLATE 20.

Detail of gears at junction of transverse, 1 and 3 and 4, and longitudinal shafts.
2, 5, gear on longitudinal shaft 2, reduces speed one half, sludge pan, 6.

RranrE 217 22%

Detail of device for throwing propeller in and out of gear. By pulling the lever
the propeller shaft and its gear drop.

PLATE 1.

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PLATE 15.

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A METHOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE,

By A. D. MEAD, Ph. D.

Member of the Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries.

Presented before the Fourth International Fishery Congress, held at
Washington, U.S. A., 1908, and awarded the prize of one hun-
dred dollars in gold offered by Hermon C. Bumpus, Ph. D., for

an original and practical method of lobster culture.

* Reprinted by permission of the Secretary General of the Fourth International Fishery
Congress.

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CONTENTS.

PR HERTMOREM yaar als iscsi sc ahaly aoe e oi

Characters and habits of larval lobsters...............-.e-eceeerees

Moulting and the larval stages...
Difficulties in. rearing..........0.556..
Swimming habits...............
ightareacvions menses oe
IPATASIGES ace fac ote ie oats ss

Requisites of water, etc.........
TMOG, UHV) toe |g a Rae or

apa) 6) 6) @) ee, e.m see e018) 6)e) ses 16) 69) 6 i6)i5

Ce) wid 60 60. ele! eel e.e el whe, 0 enue) .b 5 16 @

Se. 6 6:60 6,0 0 © @ 6a) 6. @) 01s) 8) al e.e,61.€ « 6) «

C/ ei 6 \¢..¢ ee ea 60:6 « alma) ela ae siete ele: =

Sa: "9 (ele) «.e)e.8 @ 08 bios mie) as sie) averse ene

Essential features and possible variations. ....................005-
How the method meets the difficulties. ............ccceccecseeees

Ja'04 0} 15-11 Fee Re ae Re eae
Hatching methods... 5.6. 026s cele os
Handling the egg lobsters.......
Precaution as to age of fry......
Circulation current.............
Containers for eggs and fry......
@arcrot gue frye. 24.02 +e. a vaste se ome
SCRECWSE fete ty car sur were ie aiete

RIDES I cre tha am ae aT
Criteria(Of GMicieney ...... 2.65.0. «= ss
Yearly progress and output..........

Manner of determining output...
Summary and interpretation.........

e| eal s/c) 6) 6 0.0) ©) 6elle © 0, 6 66 © 6) #) 0) «16, 9,016

s!.4, 660) 0 a 6)\e)/@'@)0)'e) 6 © 16) € 0 0s) 6) of) 6) ss) ere

6; \Sixe 6 €. 6) 6|,01,6).0) We) 0) O O1@ 6 616).016\5' @ ae oe

a) ’e\0| wie, 010) e106 o)8).0, 6) 66) w) 0») 0l-e\e) sis e) ©

©/al),0\ 01.6) ©, €/.@ 0) 6/\0\'0 8) 0) Bh el © \dhe/.e 616 a ae =

Si) e dhe! @| 6 oa) a 0/6) eke) 0) 010) 6 6616). 0s 8)6)\s 4

€| (sie), 01) (0, 07.0, © 018) 0, 0:0; 6.0.0) ©). 0) 10.8) 0) a ei elss

a Ci e)e © 6,6 6, © 0. O'e vuole ©) 4,06) 6 6) #6) 68

@ 000) @ 6) vw) 6) a wim eee: @\e ee ia ele ee) ee, 4

ele) oe! (vs) .a1 a): @).6 0 0) 01/6) 6.0, 0:0) '6) 01 8).0) C01 ee

S015 0 6) 6) 6/6 0, 0 1 60 e106 6.6. 0,16), 0, 10,0) 5 e118 ae

© (o) Dies epee s5e) ee 'd..6\ 6166.06) O16) 6.8) 0 81018

6) & Of, (6) 0) 08) 6 56), 616: 6, U10)/6) 6 16010) 6) 81.610) 8 lalle

Capacity and eficiency of plant; 5. s.+c0 -1c.c1s anil ie wees
Self-protective ability of fourth-stage lobsters.................

Fifth-stage lobsters.............
Liberation of young lobsters.....
Evidence of increase in lobster supply

Economic efficiency of the method....

(0 2's, 6 e's 6.08 6/0) © (6)0.6)u 6.0 e 6 619!) «le

COR MOCO EM TC eC Ct ar)

S| 6) B) 6) 610, 0). 5) 6810! S)\6:.6' 6, 06,0, e) 6 O16) 0) 0) .0)\6)

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Wie a ee &

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Cee ihre tee ‘.

t (caitial ati nf ig dion
Pe : lt ie ‘ ik apy ao tanl UP
biviié ihe ba » 4rd Wy

.

A METHOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE.

BY A. D. MEAD, PH. D.

RHODE ISLAND COMMISSION OF INLAND FISHERIES.

THE PROBLEM.

Artificial breeding ought not to be content to do as its best only what
nature does unaided. It obtains its real justification only when it is
in a position to surpass nature in her achievements. Only thus can
it accomplish the task set it—to fill up the gaps caused by years of ex-
cessive fishing. (Professor Ehrenbaum, in Mitteilungen des Deut-
schen Seefischereivereins, Bd. 23, Juni 1907.—Translated.)

In the case of the lobster, nature has made adequate provision for
the protection of the eggs up to the very time they are hatched. As is
well known, the eggs laid in July or later in the summer or in the
early fall are carried attached to the swimmerets under the abdomen,
of the female lobster, and there are protected until the following June
or July, when they hatch out (fig. 9). The young lobsters, also, when
they have successfully passed through three moults and have at-
tained the so-called “‘bottom stages’”’ are equipped with structures
and instincts which fit them exceedingly well for holding their own
in the struggle for existence; but there intervenes between the hatching
and the attainment of the first bottom stage a brief period of two or
three weeks in which the young lobsters, having lost utterly the pro-
tection of the mother animals, and not yet having acquired either
the structure or the instinct which would give them a reasonable
degree of individual security, are exposed and helpless to an extra-
ordinary degree.

Those who have studied the question of lobster culture agree that
this short interval may properly be called the “critical period”’ in the

110 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

lobster’s life—the one in which occurs by far the greatest mortality.
That the species has maintained itself without diminution (until the
recent inroads by man) in spite of this unprotected period may be
explained by the enormous productivity of the lobster. A lobster
of ordinary size—say 12 inches—produces at one time, according to
Herrick, an average of about 20,000 eggs, which are so well protected
that practically all of them hatch. This excessive productivity, how-
ever, though a potent means of protection to the species, affords no
protection to the individuals.

To one confronting the problem of lobster culture these cardinal
facts in the natural history of the lobster point out clearly and exactly
the line of attack. We can hardly expect to increase the number
of eggs per lobster (and fortunately the number is at any rate very
large) nor to improve on the natural method of protecting and hatching
the eggs, for up to the time when the eggs are actually hatched there
seems to be little lossin nature. It is during that period directly after
hatching, when in nature the larve are neither protected from with-
out nor equipped for self-protection, that the great opportunity offers
to “surpass the achievements of nature’’ by protecting these in-
dividuals. Not only is this period the weak spot which artificial
culture may be expected to strengthen, but the superabundance of
larve normally produced for sacrifice is advantageous because it
furnishes readily the material for cultivation. Still another condition
particularly favors the cultivation of lobsters: It is that the critical
period between the perfectly protected eggs and the well-equipped
bottom-living lobsterlings is so short (only two or three weeks).
Altogether then, there would seem to be no doubt that the greatest
practical results of lobster culture can be obtained by concentrating
efforts upon protecting the fry through the critical larval period.
This has been quite generally and independently recognized as a fact
by those who have studied the lobster problem, and it has been an
incentive to the many attempts made by experimenters on both sides
of the Atlantic to rear lobsters through the larval stages. It has been,
likewise, the incentive to a continuous series of experiments and

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. TAT «

operations extending over exactly ten years, which have resulted in
the method of lobster culture presented in this paper.

CHARACTERS AND HABITS OF LARVAL LOBSTERS.

It is a necessary preliminary to an intelligible account of the method
itself to sketch briefly the habits of larval lobsters and to indicate
some of the peculiar difficulties which the method has to overcome.

Hatching.—The hatching of the ripe eggs of an individual female
lobster is a gradual process requiring at least several days and varying
with the temperature of the water and perhaps with the lateness of
the season. In the latter part of June, when nearly ripe lobsters are
brought into the warm water of a shallow estuary, the hatching is
accelerated. The fact of the gradual breaking loose of the eggs is
undoubtedly of importance in the economy of the lobster under natural
conditions, for it prevents the possibility of the swarming of the young
fry and the attendant dangers of speedy recognition and capture.

When the larval lobsters first break out of the egg membrane they
are closely coiled in the form of an oval spheroid with the terminal
segments of the abdomen bent over the rostrum. In afew moments
they straighten out and expand and then immediately take up the
pelagic life and instincts which they retain until they reach the so-
called ‘‘fourth stage,’’ after shedding their skins three times.

Mode of swimming.—The young lobsters swim by means of vibra-
tory movements of their exopodite appendages, which stand out
like blades from the thoracic legs, and the swimming is augmented
by irregular jerky strokes of the very muscular “‘tail’’ or abdomen,
which, in all the larval stages, is bent at a considerable angle to the
cephalothorax. The swimming must be charactized as slow and
weak when we have in mind for comparison that of most young fishes.
At any time during the three larval stages the fry can easily be picked
out by means of a small scoop, or even with the hand.

In general, too, the swimming seems to be aimless in direction, so
that the fry are easily carried along by the slightest current. This

i i IP REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

statement, however, though generally true, requires qualification,
for under the influence of special stimuli the movements often become
directive. The larve respond to varying directions and intensities
of light, and, in experimental tests, to the direction of electrical cur-
rents. They avoid, in many cases, light-colored objects if near, and
they are attracted by food to a rather slight degree. They will go
only very short distances, however, after particles of food or living
prey. During all the larval stages they exhibit practically no instinct
of fear and, while they avoid light surfaces, they do not try to escape
capture. The heliotropic and photopathic reactions and what may
be described as the general aimlessness of movement are things to be
reckoned with in developing a practical method of lobster culture.

Food.—The natural food of the lobster must, of course, consist of
pelagic organisms. In an examination by Dr. L. W. Williams of
the stomach contents of larve in all three stages taken from the rear-
ing bags at our station, * a large percentage were shown to have fed
upon copepods and diatoms. The young lobsters, however, are not
distinctly fastidious in this respect, and the nature of the stomach
contents of the fry in their natural habitat would doubtless be found
to vary according to the variety of available pelagic food.

Moulting and the larval stages.—The instincts and behavior and the
general appearance of three successive larval stages are generally
similar in respect to the features just referred to. The stages are,
however, structurally well defined and readily recognized, there being
for each a number of clearly diagnostic peculiarities. (See figures in
text). Among the most obvious and easily recognizable are, for the
first stage, the small size of the larve and the absence of swimmerets
on the under side of the abdomen; for the second stage, the somewhat
increased size, the presence of several pairs of swimmerets and the
absence of “‘tail fins’”’ or the lateral appendages of the penultimate
segment; for the third stage, the presence of both swimmerets and
“tail fins.” All stages have the exopodite swimming appendages and

* Station of the Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries at Wickford, R. I.. on Nar-
ragansett Bay.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 113

the corresponding pelagic habit; none have the functional chelz or
“big claws”’ of the adult lobster.

According to the observations made by Doctor Hadley at our sta-
tion the average measurements of the three successive larval stages
are 8, 94, and 11 millimeters, respectively. There is, however, a con-
siderable range of variation in size, particularly in the second and
third stages, and there is good evidence that in general the larger
specimens are the better fed. For this reason the average size of the
lobsters of the various stages in particular rearing experiments forms,
perhaps, a basis for judging whether the lobsters are doing well or
not.

The length of the combined larval stages varies greatly and is
directly and powerfully influenced by the temperature and food. It
ranges from nine to more than twenty-five days (twenty-one days is
extremely long at Wickford). From the viewpoint of practical
culture, the length of the total larval period is of very great import-
ance, though the duration of the first, second, and third stages sever-
ally does not seem to be so.

DIFFICULTIES IN REARING.

In artificial culture, of course, the fry must be confined in large
numbers, and it is practically impossible to separate them from one
another. Therein appears an initial difficulty which all experi-
menters have had immediately thrust upon them. The fry, under
these circumstances, at once exhibit a most unnatural and vicious
cannibalism which Professor Morgan might well have added to his
enumeration of characteristics impossible of development through
natural selection and the survival of the fittest, for it can hardly be
exercised at all under natural conditions. But whether this evil in-
stinct arises from one or another biological antecedent cause or is a
special inspiration in each particular case, its reality is a constant and
serious menace to lobster culture operations. The cannibalistic

tendencies are manifested as soon as the fry are hatched and continue
16

114 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

throughout the larval period and, for that matter, even far beyond it.
Not only do the larger and stronger specimens devour the weaker, but
individuals of equal strength attack one another, and, apparently,
some initial advantage determines the outcome. During the moult-
ing period, the mortality from these sources is, naturally aggravated,
because it is easy to tear to pieces the soft-skinned, freshly moulted
individuals, while they, on their part, are unable to fend off attacks.

Swimming habits—The comparatively aimless and weak swimming
habit which characterizes the larve of the first three stages would
seem, even in nature, to afford no protection, but for cultural opera-
tions, where large numbers of larve are given the restricted liberty
of a small arm of the sea or are more closely confined in cars of any
sort, it contributes to one of the most exasperating difficulties. For
example, it happened that when the fry in one of the early experi-
ments of this series were placed in a small cove or inlet from the
sea, especially prepared and apparently well adapted to their re-
quirements, they were carried out by the first ebbing tide, and
when, subsequently, a screen was stretched arcoss the gateway they
were carried against it- and left stranded high and dry. In the
many attempts to confine them in various forms of cars, when the
current was allowed to pass through to prevent stagnation, a like re-
sult followed—the unresisting fry were always finally borne against
the sides or bottom.

Once upon the bottom the larval lobsters are utterly helpless; they
lie upon their sides or backs beating the water with their exopodite
with the whole body. They can not crawl;

“fins” and ‘‘kicking”’

their only salvation is to kick themselves loose from entanglement,
and once more rise in the water. When confined in considerable
numbers, even in still water, they inevitably find their way to the
bottom as a consequence of their aimless drifting mode of swimming.
There they accumulate in corners, pockets, or eddies, and, entangled
in debris, they fight and eat one another until, from injury or suffoca-
tion, they all perish. For the full appreciation of these difficulties
there must be, however, the personal recollection of particular rear-

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. Lule

ing bags in which from day to day the precious living larve van-
ished from sight, and of the quarts of bright pink-colored dead speci-
mens mixed with dirt and silt and remnants of unused food that
came into view, when the bag was raised for inspection. In one of
the earlier experiments 5,000 handsome first-stage larvee, appropri-
ately designated from their condition the ‘‘gilt-edged lot,” were
placed in a new scrim bag 12 feet square and about 4 feet deep and
were carefully tended. Out of the number only two individuals
came successfully through to the fourth stage.

Light reactions.—As far as the movements of the larval lobsters are
not aimless, they seem to be directed mainly by responses to light
stimuli, and vary according to the intensity, color, and direction of
rays. They also seem to be modified, indirectly, by background.
Doctor Hadley in a study made at our station of the behavior of
lobsters observed that the character and responses bore a fairly con-
stant relation, not only to the stage, but to the period within the
stage. In cultural operations, where cars are used, the photopath-
ic responses of confined lobsters tend to bring them together into
close quarters, and are often therefore inimical because of the en-
couragement that this gives to cannibalism. In attempts to retain
the fry in ponds or small estuaries, these responses would very likely
tend to carry the lobsters to the shore to be entangled in the vegeta-
tion or stranded at the ebb tide.

Parasites.—External parasites, including stalked protozoa, fungi,
diatoms, etc., are often a plague to the confined larve. They grow
upon the shell and so encumber the larvee that feeding and moving
and breathing are difficult or impossible. Not infrequently, in fact,
the larve are so completely covered with these foreign growths that
they can hardly be recognized.. The parasities are got rid of at each
moult, but often they so weaken the larve that moulting itself is
made impossible. The danger from this source is greatest when, by
reason of the low temperature of the water, the duration of the periods
between moults is increased.

116 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Food.—Not the least of the difficulties connected with rearing
lobster fry is the providing of proper and available food. In small
experiments the live copepods and other pelagic food natural to the
lobsters in these stages can be supplied, but, on a large scale, this is
not an easy matter. Naturally, food which sinks to the bottom can
not be reached by fry which normally swim or float.

Requisites of water, etc.—The foregoing facts regarding the charac-
teristics of the fry in general and the peculiarities which they manifest
when in confinement have to be taken into consideration in any
attempt to rear the lobster through the critical period of its life. To
these considerations must also be added the important question of an
adequate supply of water, uncontaminated by chemical or bacterial
impurities, constantly furnished with the proper amount of oxygen,
and sufficiently free from injurious gases arising from the metabolism
of animal or bacterial content. Finally, in any method of lobster
culture, there must be taken into consideration its practicability
when applied on a large scale and its feasibility with regard to the
cost of operating.

THE METHOD.

ESSENTIAL FEATURES AND POSSIBLE VARIATIONS.

A method by which lobsters can be reared through the larval stage
in such proportions and numbers and at such a cost that it may be
called a “‘practical’? method has been gradually evolved at the
floating laboratory of the Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fish-
eries at Wickford, R. I. Essentially, the method consists of con-
fining the larval lobsters in cars, either of porous material or pro-
vided with screen ‘‘windows,”’ set into the ocean itself, and of main-
taining within the cars, by mechanical means, a continuous gentle
current of water having a rotary and upward trend. In details the
method allows of wide variation. Good results have been obtained
jn small cars made out of water pails; in cars approximately 1 foot, 3
feet, 6 feet, and 10 feet in horizontal diameter and 1, 3, or 4 feet deep;

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 117

and in either square or circular cars of cotton or linen scrim, of bobbi-
net, of canvas, or of wood. Any constant motive power can be used
according to the exigencies of particular cases—steam, hot-air, or
gasoline engines; spring, weight, or water motors; or the water can be
stirred by hand with much labor, but good results as in our early
experience. Various forms of power transmission may also, of course,
be utilized; belt and rope drives over pulleys and sheaves, and steel
shafting with mitered gears, worms, etc., have all been successfully

utilized.
HOW THE METHOD MEETS THE DIFFICULTIES.

The way in which this very simple method overcomes the many
difficulties of confining larval lobsters may be described in general
terms as follows: In the first place the rearing cars are placed directly
in the sea, and thereby all the disturbing factors so difficult to control
in case of aquarium water which has been pumped and forced through
closed pipes, stored in tanks, aerated by air pumps, etc., are at once
avoided and, at the same time, the various known and the subtle
unknown requisites of healthy sea water are assured. ‘The continuous
upward spiral current of the contained water is the panacea of
numerous troubles. By the upward trend of the current the larvee
are kept always afloat, which is their normal condition and the only
one to which they are, by structure and habit, adapted. The
strength of the current easily overpowers their own weak efforts at
swimming, sweeps them round and round, and effectually prevents
their congregating in common response to the stimuli of light.

When the fry are prevented from getting to the bottom and from
congregating anywhere, several difficulties vanish. The effects of
cannibalism, which constitute perhaps the most serious difficulty of
all, are thereby greatly alleviated, for the fry are to a comparatively
great extent prevented from reaching one another, and, of course, the
disastrous effects of their becoming stranded on the sides or lying en-
tangled and fouled at the bottom are also obviated. Another most

118 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

important function of the current is the holding in suspension of solid
particles of food, so that they come within easy reach of the larve.
Incidentally, also, it increases the supply and availability of pelagic
living food for the latter is drawn into the car through the bottom
and kept alive by normal conditions of the water. An adequate
supply of available food is, perhaps, the most efficacious preventive
of cannibalism.

The maintenance of normal conditions of water in a ear is also ac-
complished by thismethod. The temperature and density, of course,
vary little from that of the surrounding water. The water is con-
stantly renewed either through the porous sides or, in the case of
wooden cars, through screen windows in the bottom, egress being
allowed for by screens in the sides. Since the current is internal and
mainly tangential to the sides of the car, the fry are not carried vio-
lently against the ex-current screens, as in the case of a tidal current
passing in one side and out the other. There is not much need of
rapid renewal of water, however, because the water is continuously
brought to the surface by the upward trend of the current, where, by
exposure to the air, it is recuperated with oxygen and relieved of waste
gases due to the metabolism of contained animals or the decom-
position of unused food.

In a word, it may be said that by this method the pelagic lobster
fry may be kept in confinement and under observation in inclosures of
natural water, protected from their usual predatory enemies, main-
tained in natural pelagic condition by being prevented from going to
the bottom, provided with either living or artificial food held in sus-
pension, and that the tendency to cannibalism, always evinced when
the fry are confined, can be considerably mitigated.

APPARATUS.

The particular form of apparatus by means of which this method
has been successfully applied to the rearing of lobster fry during the
last few years at Wickford, is in some respects a special adaptation

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 119

to the establishment in connection with which it has been evolved
and certain details of construction are vestiges of former experiments
too good to be cast aside but not to be exactly copied in new con-
struction. As it stands to-day, the apparatus consists of a house-
boat bulit like a catamaran of two pontoons with a “well” or open
space between them, originally intended and used, indeed, for hold-
ing experimental cars. At both ends the space between the pontoons
is decked and on each deck isa smallhouse. The houseboat floats on
the water moored securely in a small cove directly over the channel
in a good tideway (fig.1.) It forms the nucleus of a collection of
skeleton rafts which nearly surround it and which all together occupy
a considerably larger area than the houseboat itself. Four rafts,
19 by 753 feet, lying two on either side of the houseboat, contain
the cars for hatching and rearing lobster larve. The rafts of each
pair are bolted fast together and buoyed by barrels (fig. 1). The
inside rafts on either side of the houseboat are fastened to the latter
with eyebolts sliding over vertical rods to allow solely for up-and-
down motion. Each of the four rafts contains six rearing cars, 10 by
10 feet square and 4 feet deep, so arranged that they can be held down
in place or raised out of the water to be cleaned (figs. 2 and 4). The
rearing cars are provided with removable windows covered with 16-
mesh bronze woven wire screens, to allow for renewal of water and
to prevent escape of fry. There are two windows about 2 feet
square on the bottom and two long narrow ones in the middle of
two opposite sides.

For several years previous to last summer canvas bags about the
dimensions of these boxes and provided also with screen windows were
used almost exclusively. They equaled or perhaps surpassed the
boxes in point of efficiency when they were in perfect condition, but
were less durable and were more difficult to clean.

The apparatus for keeping the water in motion consists of a two-
bladed horizontally placed propeller of about 44 feet radius not unlike
those sometimes in use over restaurant tables (fig. 4); the latter, in
fact, suggested their adoption. The propeller blades are hung inside

120 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

the car near the bottom and are made to revolve slowly—about nine -
revolutions per minute. The motive power for the propeller is
furnished by a gasoline engine situated in one of the houses and con-
nected with the propeller shaft by a system of steel shafting and
mitered gears (fig. 3). Each propeller can be thrown in and out of
gear independently.

HATCHING METHODS.

Handling the egg lobsters—The method now used in hatching the
eggs is simple. The old female lobsters carrying eggs (fig. 9) about
ready to hatch are put directly into boxes and the paddles are set
inmotion. As the old lobsters crawl about on the bottom of the cars,
the eggs hatch out one by one and the larve, caught immediately by
the upward revolving current, are carried up and off the bottom as
they are in the ocean. Twenty or 30, or even 50 or 100, lobsters may
be put in one car. When the number of old lobsters is large, we have
found it well to replace the long propeller by a shorter one hung some-
what farther from the bottom so that the old lobsters will move freely
over the bottom with tail extended and not crowd up into the corners.
Screens, placed over the top of the box, thereby shading them from
the strong light, also help to prevent crowding (fig. 7). As soon asa
sufficient number of fry have hatched out the old lobsters are removed
to another car to repeat the operation. The length of time required
to hatch out a full complement of fry in one box varies, of course, ac-
cording to the various conditions; that is, the number of egg lobsters,
the condition of the eggs, the temperature of the water, etc.

Precaution as to age of fry.—It is of great practical importance to
have a full complement of fry hatch out as quickly as possible—with-
in at least one day—so that all will be about the same age. Otherwise
when the fry moult, the older individuals, having passed through the
moult and recovered their strength and appetites, are very destructive
to the small or freshly moulted larvee. The effects of this discrepancy
in the ages among lobsters of one batch are especially injurious when

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 121

the older individuals reach the fourth stage, for the fourth-stage
lobsters are endowed with strength, sagacity, directive power of move-
ment, and voracity of appetite far beyond that of the other stages.
When, through a difference in age, a number of lobsters enter the
fourth stage considerably in advance of the others they become veri-
table ‘‘sharks,”’ as they are jocularly called by the attendants. On
this account, in the first experiments with wooden cars a considerable
loss was sustained because certain boxes were reserved as hatching
boxes and the fry rather than the ‘‘hens’”’ were periodically removed
(fig. 5). It being impossible to get them all out at one time, those that.
remained were often taken out together with a younger lot and later
on, became ‘‘sharks”’ to this brood.

Circulation current.—For the benefit of the fry there is no doubt an
optimum current within the car. The current can be controlled to a
surprising degree by manipulating the propellers, although the num-
ber of revolutions per minute remains constant. A slight inclination
to the blades makes a current very slow, while the maximum in-
clination creates a current like a mill race. The length of the blades,
the amount of taper from base to apex, and the height of the blades
in the water cause different effects in the character of the current;
for example, the relations of the rotary and the upward components
of the current can be thus controlled and varied within wide limits.
By these and other variations the fry can be made to scatter evenly
at all depths and distances from the center or to occupy various zones
or strata. Experience and judgment must decide the question of
optimum current at each particular phase. In general, it may be said
that a gentle, even, current made by a long, well-tapered blade and
slight angle of inclination is usually best.

Containers for eggs and fry.—When the rearing was done in canvas
bags the old lobsters were confined in crates suspended in the bags,
because, if let loose in the bottom, they were apt to tear the canvas.
The crates were necessarily less spacious and had the objection of
being in the way of the newly-hatched fry, which were sometimes

swept against them with considerable force by the current. To the
17

122 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

other advantages of the wooden car as compared with the canvas
bag must be added its capacity to function as a hatching pen. The
design and construction of these wooden cars, together with many
other recent improvements, should be credited to Mr. E. W. Barnes,

the superintendent of the station.

In the beginning of the experiments at Wickford the fry were
transported from the Woods Hole hatchery by the Bureau of Fish-
eries, with whom we were in cooperation. Later experiments
showed that the eggs could be stripped off in the usual way and placed
in small rearing bags, where they would hatch. From these the
fry were transferred to rearing cars. This method gave place to that
of putting the ripe egg lobsters in shallow crates floated near the
surface in the big canvas rearing bags, and then the two modifica-
tions just described were introduced.

CARE OF THE FRY.

After the fry have been hatched and transferred to the proper
rearing car they respond well to careful treatment, and the degree of
success of an individual experiment depends to a large degree on the
care that is given.

Screens.—Attention to the condition of the screens is worth while,
for the intake and outflow of water can thus be regulated and, in-
cidentally, the fine particles of food can be retained in the car for
longer or shorter time by this means. The screens which we have
used have been made of copper wire, bronze, galvanized iron, gal-
vanized steel, scrim, and painted wire of various meshes and sizes
of wire or thread. None are thoroughly satisfactory. They are all
apt to clog up or to tear easily. It isto be hoped that the perforated
sheet brass or bronze, which has been tried by Professor Gorham to
his satisfaction in small experiments, will prove to be a great improve-
ment.

Food.—An appropriate and available food supply sufficient in
quantity to fulfill the demands of healthy growth is, of course, a

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 123

prime requisite in any fish culture, but in the case of the lobster
larvee even this may not be adequate.

Not only should the fry have food enought for their healthy growth,
but they should never be allowed to go hungry. From hunger to
cannibalism is a short step, and although, by means of the current,
the fry are kept from congregating, and danger from cannibalism is,
therefore, greatly lessened, there still occur chances of individuals
coming momentarily in contact with one another, and, if hungry,
they make the best of these opportunities. When not hungry, and
when the cannibal instinct is not aggravated by the crowding to-

gether, they are fairly peaceable.

The question of the best food for the lobster fry is still open. There
are many kinds that the fry will eat, and fortunately by means of the
stirring apparatus small pieces-of almost any kind can be held sus-
pended and therefore made available, but the fry have preferences,
and, furthermore, the choice must involve the consideration of cost,
the labor of preparation, waste, and the effect upon the water in the
cars of the grease or decaying residue.

In some of the earlier experiments several years ago the highly
Epicurean diet of lobster liver was offered, and the young larve,
innocent of its antecedents and, as it proved, unaware of its conse-
quences, devoured the finely divided morsels ravenously. This
diet did not agree with them and was discontinued partly on this
account and partly because for operations on a large scale there were
financial objections to its use. Shredded codfish, finely cut or ground
fish of various kinds, clams, mussels, raw beef, beef liver, boiled beef,
and many other foods have been tried. The fry are extravagantly
fond of fresh fish, especially the strongly flavored and oily varieties;
but the pieces uneaten foul the car and are therefore objectionable.
Clams cut out and finely chopped or ground have been in very general
use with us. The expense, however, of digging and opening and the
considerable waste in the larger pieces of tough muscle, together with
the amount of decayed residue which accumulates in the course of

124 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

two weeks during which the fry usually remain in one car, are objec-
tions to its continued use.

In a careful series of food experiments at our station Doctor Emmel
decided, after using clam, liver, beef, and some other foods, that
chopped raw beef gave best results, all points considered. However,
with a large quantity of fry to feed, it was found to be difficult to
prepare cheap raw beef finely enough divided for practical use.
Boiled beef coarsely ground (Hamburg steak), boiled, and ground
again, and then beaten up in water with an egg beater, was used with
gratifying results during the latter part of the present season. It
has the advantage that it is easily prepared, even though the cheapest
and toughest is chosen, and that when prepared in this way the
pieces are small and correspondingly numerous. The particles are
readily held in suspension, and when put into the water little by
little with a long-handled scoop or shaken through a fine netting,
(Fig. 6), they form a cloud of light-colored and easily visible particles
and are distributed so evenly that they are available at every feeding
to all the thousands of individuals in the car. Prepared in this man-
ner, the beef leaves scarcely any residue; most of the uneaten finely-
divided pieces are carried out gradually through the windows. In
its use one prime precaution must be taken; it must not be allowed
to become stale or previously soaked with water. Care should also be
taken to put the raw beef into boiling water and so to coagulate and
conserve its albumens.

For the reason alluded to, namely, to keep the larve not only well-
fed but constantly satiated, thereby preventing cannibalism, it is
necessary to feed them often, and we adopted the schedule of feeding
every two hours through the night and day. Even with the best
possible food—and this has yet to be disecovered—there is a ‘‘ knack’’
in feeding, and it is one of the points in the care of the fry which
repays careful attention, for, besides having the advantages just
mentioned, adequate food undoubtedly increases the rate of growth

and shortens the larval period.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 125

Parasitic growth —The dangers from diatomaceous, fungous, and
similar parasitic growths are especially serious when the time between
molts, due to cold water or poor food, is relatively long. For this
reason the temperature is a factor to be considered, when possible,
in locating a hatchery. At our station the duration of the whole
larval period is from nine to (rarely) twenty-one days, most of the
larve hatching in about twelve to fourteen days. We have found
that shading the cars, as Professor Gorham recommended, seems to
prevent to a marked degree the growth of diatoms, and also that in
the wooden cars recently adopted the annoyance from this source is
very slight when the cars are shaded. The insides of all of the boxes
were painted, four of them white and the rest green. We could not
see that either color had an advantage, judging from the output of
fry. Whether the comparative immunity from diatoms of fry in
boxes as compared with those in canvas bags was due to the painted
surfaces of the wooden sides or to some other factor it is difficult to
say. Animal growths, barnacles, molgulas, oysters, mussels, etc.,
were abundant even on the painted surfaces, and were scraped off
each time the cars were raised. Canvas screens on frames (Fig. 7)
set up like the sides of a roof so as to afford shade and to shed
rainwater, which occasionally comes down in such quantities as de-
cidedly to freshen the upper strata of water, are strongly to be
recommended.

RESULTS.

CRITERIA OF EFFICIENCY.

As was stated at the outset, this series of experiments and opera-
tions was undertaken in the conviction that the paramount problem
of lobster culture was to raise the larve to the fourth or lobsterling
stage. It has been constantly borne in mind that a method of doing
this to be practical must be able to produce large quantities and
without too great expense either for the cost of the plant or for
operation. Further criteria of efficiency are, first, the proportion of

126 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

fourth-stage lobsters to first stage, and, second, the number of
‘“‘fours’’ to egg lobsters, provided, of course, that the egg lobsters on
hand do not overcrowd the capacity of the particular plant. In
placing a value upon proportions of ‘‘fourth stagers’”’ to newly
hatched fry, the number of fry dealt with in a single experiment has
been considered; e. g., a proportion of 50 per cent. carried through
in an experiment with 500 or 1,000 fry can not fairly be compared
with the same proportion in an experiment in which 5,000 or 20,000
fry are used. We have allowed ourselves to mark our progress and
the value of the method, first, by comparison with our former results,
and, secondly, with the experiments undertaken elsewhere having the
same end in view.

YEARLY PROGRESS AND OUTPUT.

Since this year happens to be the decennial of this particular series
of experiments and operations, the presentation of a short summary
of yearly results in regard to total output is appropriate.

In 1898 Doctor Bumpus, now the honorable President of this Con-
eress, and at that time Director of the United States Fish Commission
Station at Woods Hole and member of the Rhode Island Commission
of Inland Fisheries, had the faith and courage to undertake a new
series of experiments in rearing the larval lobsters. Judged by the
ingenuity put into them, and the experience and encouragement got
out of them, these experiments during the first year were successful,
though the number of fry reared was small. The total output is
summarized in the report of the work in these words: “Several
lobsters were actually raised to the stage when the characters of the
adult are assumed—the fourth molt.’’*

The next year, 1899, the results were better because of the use of
“a large bag of scrim made after the fashion of a fish pocket and
hanging down into the water from a square floating frame.” The
output is given in the following words: “By the methods above

* Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Rhode Island Commissioners of Inland Fisheries, p.
98.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 127

described, and after many failures, accidents, and reverses, we suc-
ceeded in raising several hundred lobsters to the fourth stage.”
During the following season, 1900, several lots of newly hatched
fry were transported from the United States Fish Commission
Station at Woods Hole to the new floating laboratory of the Rhode
Island Commission of Inland Fisheries at Wickford, R. I. (the two
Commissions working in codperation), where further experiments
with scrim bags were started parallel to those still being conducted at
Woods Hole. At the floating laboratory at Wickford the trials and
reverses of the previous year at Woods Hole were again experienced;
but the experiments were under the eye of the person in charge, by
night as well as by day, because the small houseboat functioned as a
residence. The greatest virtue of the loosely hung scrim bags con-

sisted in the undulatory “‘peristaltic”’

movements, due to wind and
tide, which tended to keep the lobsters off the bottom; but it was
observed that during the nights there were periods of dead calm and
of slack tide, when the fry sank to the bottom and died. This led
to the simple conclusion that if the fry, left to themselves, persisted
in sinking to the bottom to die, they must be stirred up and prevented
from sinking, so after this they were stirred with an oar continually
night and day. The total reared to the fourth stage was 3,425.
The results showed unequivocally that the proper principle had been
discovered, and immediately plans were laid to substitute a mechani-
cal apparatus by which this method could be less laboriously carried
into effect. Curiously enough, some large two-bladed fans revolving
over a restaurant table for the purpose of driving away flies suggested
the type of apparatus suited to the purpose, and this type has been
in use ever since.

The next year, 1901, the United States Fish Commission again co-
6perated with the Rhode Island Commission. Some of the fry were
imported from Woods Hole and some were hatched at Wickford.
An apparatus for using the two-bladed propeller was designed and
installed by Mr. G. H. Sherwood. The results confirmed the correct-
ness of the principle, and the output for the year was 8,974.

128 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

During the subsequent years the method has been developed and
the apparatus again and again remodeled to incorporate the results
of our failures and successes and in the effort to obtain results on a
scale large enough and with cost small enough to deserve the adjective
“‘practical.”” The total outputs for the years are:

SO Semen (a) | TOOD er eet nis PHAVO UW sesaes ones Clie sit!
TSO ES 5 oe eee (b) OO Ste oc ae T3°500) | Ufone e204 SoG
1900.. : 3,425 | OQAS a ah eee DOS OT LOO Skee econo One:
IGOR Soe. eee SO 7A MiG 0 Se eee: 103,572

a “Several.”

o “Several hundred.”
c 24,800 to fifth stage.
d 4,900 to fifth stage.
e 5,481 to fifth stage.

The rearing of considerably over 300,000 lobsters in the small plant
at Wickford recalls the confession of faith written ten years ago, at
the conclusion of the first season’s work:

“We know perfectly well that many others have failed in doing
what we attempt, but until we are thoroughly convinced that the
young lobster can not be ‘brooded’ we propose to continue our

work.” *

Manner of determining output.—It was early realized that ‘‘esti-
mates’’ of the number of lobsters in experimental work are practically
worthless and therefore all the fourth-stage lobsters which are taken
account of at all (many thousands of others have accidentally es-
caped) have been individually counted. Within the last few years,
when the numbers have run up into hundreds of thousands, the
operation of counting individuals has consumed much time, but the
satisfaction of accuracy in results has been sufficient compensation.
A comparatively easy and very accurate method of counting is now
in use. The “lobsterlings” are dipped out of the hatching boxes
with flat woven-wire strainers which take up from one to twenty at a

* Bumpus: Report of the Rhode Island Commissioners of Inland Fisheries for 1898, p. 98.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 129

sweep; these are recorded on an automatic counting register held in
the hand. The count at each sitting is then posted.

It is of little use to estimate the number of a lot of first-stage fry.
More than once the lots so estimated, even by experts, have yielded
not more than 10 per cent. of the estimated number; sometimes, no
doubt, they would run considerably over. For this reason, in order
to ascertain the proportion of newly hatched fry to the fourth stage,
the individuals must be counted both before and after the experiment.
This is a rather tedious process, but it is warranted and necessary
when new methods or new devices of construction are tested for their
relative efficiency.

Tested by this method both the large canvas bags used of late
until this year, and the present boxes have yielded on several tests
40 per cent. of fourth-stage lobsters from lots of 20,000 newly hatched
fry. In one test of the canvas bags 48.2 per cent. were obtained in a
20,000 lot. In testing for relative value of foods in 1907, 40.6 and
39 per cent. were obtained in two respective tests, while one of the
boxes yielded 42 per cent. About 40 per cent. may be considered a
fair yield for lots of 20,000 under the present system of operation.
By using more fry more fourth-stage lobsters can be obtained from a
single car, but the percentage probably falls.

There is another very different point of view from which the
efficiency of the present method may be judged, namely, the number
of fourth-stage lobsters which it will produce per egg lobster under
fair conditions. Toward the latter part of the season two years ago,
when the supply of eggs from the ordinary source had suddenly been
cut off, 56 egg lobsters were received from Noank through the courtesy
of the Connecticut Fish and Game Commission. From these there
were hatched and reared to the fourth stage 84,896 young lobsters,
giving an average of somewhat over 1,500 per egg lobster.

SUMMARY AND INTERPRETATION.

Summarizing the actually obtained results of rearing lobster fry

to the fourth stage by the method herein described: Since the present
18

130 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

method was first put into operation in its crude form where the water
was stirred by an oar, the output has each year (with one exception)
increased. The extremes are represented by the total of 3,425 in
1900 and of 322,672 in 1908. The grand total for the eight years is
1,014,320, more than half of which were produced in the last two
years. With lots of 20,000 newly-hatched fry from 40 to 48 per cent.
(counted) have been carried through to the fourth stage frequently,
and 40 per cent. may be said to be a fair average to expect under
good conditions. From 56 egg lobsters nearly 85,000 fourth-stage
lobsters were obtained, showing an average of about 1,500 per
individual.

In order to interpret these results fairly, there are certain things
which deserve consideration. Even when operating on a practical -
scale, we have been feeling our way over new ground to further im-
provement of the method. Not a year has passed without decided
changes in the method or the apparatus. While this procedure leads
to the best final outcome, it does so at a sacrifice of immediate results.
Accidents, also, of certain classes—for example, the loss of larve
through broken screens—must be charged against the present ap-
paratus and not against the method. Delays in construction, diffi-
culty in getting egg lobsters, etc., may be due to misfortune or to
mismanagement, but do not affect the permanent value of the
method.

Capacity and efficiency of plant.—The plant as it stands to-day must
be judged by the results actually attained; but having watched
closely its operation I may venture the personal opinion that it has
not yet produced to its full capacity and that the 24 cars are capable,
under good conditions and with allowances for inevitable mistakes,
of hatching and rearing 500,000 lobsters in the six or eight weeks
which constitute an average season. This is a conservative estimate
based on the following deductions: If all the 24 cars were filled three
times, allowing two weeks for passing through the molts, with an
average output per car of 10,000 each time (which is considerably
below frequent actual production), the total output would be 720,000.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. ae

With a constant supply of fry sufficient to fill the plant to its full
capacity throughout the season, this estimate could probably be
raised.

As has been stated before, many features of the present installation
are to be considered as vestigial structures and others as designed for
one function and adapted to another in the course of the evolution
of the plant. A new plant, therefore, built to operate the same
rearing cars would be different in many details. The cost of a plant
capable of duplicating the work of the one at Wickford has been
calculated by Mr. E. W. Barnes, superintendent of the Wickford
plant, at approximately $2,000, specified as follows:

Cost oF A REARING PLANT CONSISTING OF 24 REARING Boxes CAPABLE OF TURN-
ING OUT OVER 500,000 LoBSTERLINGS IN A SEASON.

24 horse-power engine......... LAO 24s DOKES cd 3: 5.5 Siva nl sleinid havea $350
Houseboat.................... 300 Miscellaneous supplies......... 200
MOTE? 4 2 ees ee ee 350

GAGE a VR 400 otal ster) oor eek Ree $1,800

The above items have been figured economically, but quite liberally; and in
localities where materials can be readily secured, the cost might be considerably
lessened. The actual cost of rearing lobsters to the fourth stage is a little less
than $3 per 1,000. This includes labor, food, gasoline, and in fact all necessary
running expenses, but does not include the cost of egg lobsters.

This amount would, of course, vary with the time and place where
the plant was constructed and also with the kind of materials used.

Selj-protective ability of fourth-stage lobsters —An acquaintance with
thousands of fourth-stage lobsters from personal observation and
through the special scientific studies of members of our staff increases
even our former estimate of their superiority over the larval lobsters.
Immediately after arriving at this stage they are able to crawl over
the bottom, to burrow and hide, to fight, and to forage in a most
striking contrast to the larval lobsters in any stage of development.
In the first few days of the fourth stage the lobsterlings are good
swimmers—this is their ‘redeeming vice’’—but the swimming is

132 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

strong and bears no comparison with the aimless drifting movement
characteristic of larval stages. The lobsterlings dart hither and
thither in pursuit of food, and for the first time they show a decided
fear and strive to avoid capture. When left in the rearing cars,
which have a strong internal current of water, thousands of these
lobsters are often seen all swimming mightily in one direction against
the strong current for hours at a time; but these same lobsters when
taken out of the car and put into another one provided with sand and
gravel will often take immediately to the bottom and behave as if
they had always lived in this habitat.

It is an interesting and important fact that the tendency to swim
decreases rapidly during their sojourn in the fourth stage and also
that they can be encouraged to live on the bottom by being brought
into contact with it. These facts have suggested two modifications
in the usual procedure in liberating lobsters—first, that of holding
the lobsterlings in special rearing cars for a few days after they reach
this stage, keeping up the current in order to keep the lobsters sepa-
rated and to keep their food in suspension, and, second, that of
liberating them in such a manner that they will immediately touch
the bottom, in which case they are not so apt to make swimming
excursions through the water. An ingenious device for the latter
purpose has been invented by Mr. Barnes. The young lobsters are
sunk in barrels which have the numerous holes for their exit so covered
up that while the lobster can get out predacious fishes can not get
in.

It is comparatively easy to care for fourth-stage lobsters. Space
and plenty of food are about the only requisites. Like the fry, they
are cannibals in proportion as they are hungry and crowded together;
but unlike the fry, they control their own movements and go where
they please, whether swimming, or crawling, or burrowing, and they
have, moreover, a strong instinct of self-preservation.

Fifth-stage lobsters—There is much to be said in favor of rearing
lobsters to the fifth stage before liberating them, and this is not
difficult to do, but requires space. In some experiments conducted

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 133

without great care 80 per cent. were carried from the fourth to the
fifth stage in large lots of several thousand. In addition to the
advantage in the matter of size, strength, and bottom-loving instinct,
which favors the fifth-stage lobsters, an additional advantage lies in
the fact that the duration of the fourth stage can be shortened by
abundant feeding. Doctor Emmel showed in a most convincing
manner that by feeding alone, all other conditions being identical,
the duration of this molt can be varied from an average of eleven to

an average of twenty-four days.

Liberation of young lobsters.—Every visitor at the rearing plant
asks the embarrassing question, “‘What proportion of the liberated
lobsters live to grow up?’’ Only once was a definite and satisfactory
answer given to this question and that by a new recruit on his first
day’s duty.

In 1901 when the experiments began to indicate that a large num-
ber of lobsterlings could most likely be liberated from our establish-
ment, investigations were started to find out whether the physical
conditions of the waters of Narragansett Bay were such that the
young lobsters could live here throughout the year. Of this there is
now no doubt, for the specimens reared from the egg have year after
year been kept over winter in cars sunk or floated in the harbor at
Wickford. Several were kept for three successive years and finally
were lost through accident.

EVIDENCE OF INCREASE IN LOBSTER SUPPLY.

The young lobsters have been liberated mainly in the upper half
of Narragansett Bay, because for many years previous to our opera-
tions small lobsters have been conspicuously absent from these pre-
cincts, according to the statements of fishermen. Within the last
three or four years a great many reports have come in of small lobsters
from an inch to 4 or 5 inches in length being caught in the lobster
pots and escaping through the slats when the pots were drawn up;
also of small lobsters up to 8 inches in length dug out of the mud in

134 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

the early spring by the clam diggers. These reports have been num-
erous and are increasing and apply to those particular districts in the
upper part of the bay in which our lobsters have been liberated.
They have occasioned remarks of surprise by the fishermen, because
this region has been so long barren of small lobsters. Whether this
can be taken as good evidence of the effect of liberating in these
waters about half a million of young lobsters reared to the bottom
stage (the number up to two years ago) is at present of course entirely
a matter of opinion.

ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF THE METHOD.

At the end of an account of the method of rearing lobsters and of the
results actually attained, a brief speculation with regard to the
efficiency of the method from the economic standpoint may be
permissible.

It is often true in biology that one can draw conclusions as to causes
and effects from observation and comparision of normal occurrences.
In the breeding of animals we seem to have a case in point. Fishes
which produce many thousands of eggs at a time, but whose young
are left almost utterly unprotected, often do not maintain so great a
numerical abundance as do other species (like the dogfish), which
produce only a very few individuals at a time, but give the young a
high degree of protection.

While the relative values of the larval and fourth-stage lobsters
can not, for a long time at any rate, be determined accurately by
direct experiment, it would seem that a comparison of the breeding
habits of the lobster and the crayfish would, as Ehrenbaum has
pointed out, furnish data for a tentative valuation. Where the
lobster produces at one time 20,000 fry (Herrick got an average of
21,351 eggs from 414 observations of 12-inch lobsters), the crayfish
produces approximately 100 young (Ehrenbaum), which it protects
to a stage comparable with the fourth-stage lobster. Assuming,
then, that the 100 young fourth-stage lobsters and the 20,000 newly-

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 135

hatched lobster fry are of equal value for maintaining the species, the
ratio of individual values would be 200: 1. Our method of artificial
culture is capable of obtaining 8,000 fourth-stage lobsters from 20,000
fry. It is able, therefore, by taking advantage of the lobster’s great
productivity, to obtain 80 times as many young of this particular ad-
vanced stage as are necessary for the maintenance of the species under
natural conditions.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLaTeE 1.

General view of houseboat with floats attached—looking forward. The ends
of the pontoons show 1 and 2. On the after deck is one of the large propellers.
The shaft is seen coming through the side of the engine house and running out
over the floats. The general relation of the rearing cars, alleyway, and barrels
is seen in the right-hand floats. On the left, one of the cars is raised for cleaning.
Tn the distance is the houseboat “ Biophore,”’ and beyond is the Wickford Light.

PLATE 2,

Floats from outer corner, looking forward and toward houseboat. The appear-
ance of the car in the water and the gearing of the propeller shafts are clearly
shown in the nearest car. The blades of the propeller show faintly through the

water.

PLATE 3.

Inside the box, toward one corner. The rippling of the surface of the water is
due to the current created by the propeller blades. The gearing immediately
connected with the propeller shaft is clearly seen. It consists of a sleeve coupling
for disjointing propeller shaft 1, a lever for throwing shaft out of gear 2, a train
of mitered gears for reducing speed of propeller shaft 3, adjustable hangers 4.

5 truneated corner of box.
Puate 4.

One of the outside floats—car raised. The size and the shape of the propeller
is well shown. The upper blade shows the upper side, and the lower one the
under side with the iron straps holding blades to gaspipe. The vertical shaft of
the propeller is shown over the shoulder of the person standing beside the pro-

peller.

PLatTe 5.

If the fry have to be transferred, they are scooped out on a flat net of this style
and immediately shaken off into a tub of water, thence taken to the car prepared
for them. The evidence of the current within the car is well shown here. In the
foreground the detail of the portable windlass with its drum and crank appear.

PLATE: 6.

Feeding by means of ground food shaken from a piece of netting. This pre-
vents the larger pieces of food from getting into the car, and also tends to prevent
any sticking together of smaller pieces. Incidentally, the photograph shows the

mechanical construction of the terminal car of a series.
ry PLATE 7.

Method of counting fourth-stage lobsters. The awning is laid aside. The
lobsters are caught up in the wire dipper and shaken off into a bucket of water.
In the left hand is held the automatic counter, which does not show in the natural

attitude of counting. The general aspect of the floats is well shown.

Pruate 8.

Improved towing car designed by Mr. Barnes from an old model. Two barrels
ballasted with Portland cement are connected by two-inch furring, covered with
canvas and painted. The canvas cover (also stayed with furring) can be brought
closely together over the top. The two objects in the car are wire cages for
keeping separate the kinds of animals and for preventing their crowding into one
place. The renewal of the water is provided for by an opening in the bottom, and
the intake can be adjusted. The egg lobsters are towed in this car, and fishes of
various kinds have been towed for many miles with the most excellent results.

PLATE 9.

Female lobster bearing eggs. The eggs are carried in this position throughout
the winter and are hatched in the early summer.

19

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eit
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PLATE 2.

as » « 4
es a’
SrA k eh

a!

PLATE 3.

PLATE 4.

PLATE 5.

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Peat :

Ast OS oy, nd

7
; 10 GF

PLATE 6.

PLATE 7.

PLATE 8.

hy

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Fe rts itn
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PLATE 9.

Stute of Rhode HSsland and Providence Plantations.

JANUARY SESSION, 1909.

CHAPTER 487.

AN ACT IN SUBSTITUTION OF CHAPTER 969 OF THE PUBLIC bi May 7,

LAWS, PASSED AT THE JANUARY SESSION, A. D. 1902, EN-
TITLED “AN ACT IN SUBSTITUTION OF CHAPTER 857 OF THE
PUBLIC LAWS, PASSED AT THE JANUARY SESSION, A. D. 1901,
ENTITLED ‘AN ACT FOR THE BETTER PROTECTION OF THE
LOBSTER FISHERIES.’ ”

It is enacted by the General Assembly as follows:

Section 1. No person, either as principal, agent, or servant,
shall, at any time, catch or take any lobster from any of the
waters in the jurisdiction of this state, or place, set, keep, main-

tain, supervise, lift, raise, or draw in or from any of said waters,

or cause to be placed, set, kept, maintained, supervised, lifted,

raised, or drawn in or from any of said waters, any pot or other
contrivance designed or adapted for the catching or taking of
lobsters, unless licensed so to do as hereinafter provided. Every
person who shall violate any of the provisions of this section
shall be fined twenty dollars or be imprisoned not more than
thirty days, or both, for each such offence.

Sec. 2. The commissioners of inland fisheries may grant
or refuse to grant licenses to catch and take lobsters from the
waters within the jurisdiction of this state (in the manner, at
the times, and subject to the regulations provided in this act),
to such citizens of this state as have resided in this state for at

least one year next preceding the granting of such license, as

Penalty for
catching, pos-
sessing, ete.,
any lobsters,
unless licensed
so to do.

To whom li-
censes may be
granted.

138

Each person
licensed under
the provisions
of this act shall
at all times
while engaged
in pursuit so
licensed wear
upon his per-
son the badge
issued him.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

they may think proper. Whenever any such license shall be
granted, the same shall be granted to expire on the 15th day
of November next succeeding the granting of the same, unless
sooner revoked as hereinafter provided, and each person to
whom such license shall be granted shall, for each license, pay to
said commissioners the sum of five dollars for the use of the state-
Said commissioners, in their annual report to the general as-
sembly, shall state the number of licenses granted, with the
names of the persons licensed and the amount of money re-
ceived therefor. Said commissioners shall issue to each person
licensed as aforesaid a certificate stating the name of the per-
son to whom such license has been granted and the date of ex-
piration of such license, and shall also issue to each person so
licensed a metal badge in such form and bearing such inscrip-
tion as said commissioners shall determine. If any person
licensed as aforesaid shall, at any time, be adjudged guilty
of any violation of any of the provisions of this act, after full
hearing by said commissioners or a majority of them, the said
commissioners or a majority of them shall revoke the license
issued to such person, and such person shall thereupon cease
to have any authority thereunder.

Src. 3. Each person, licensed under the provisions of this
act, shall, at all times, while engaged in the pursuit so licensed,
wear upon his person the badge issued to him as provided in
the preceding section, and shall, upon demand of any of said
commissioners or any of their deputies, exhibit said badge
and the certificate issued to him as provided in the preceding
section. Every person violating any of the provisions of this
section shall, for each offence, be fined five dollars.

Src. 4. No negative allegations of any kind need be averred
or proved in any prosecution brought under this act, but the
respondent in any such action may show his license by way of
defence.

Sec. 5. No person shall catch or take from any of the

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

waters within the jurisdiction of this state, or have in his pos-
session within this state, any lobster, cooked or uncooked,
which is less than four and one-eighth inches in length, measured
from the forward end of the bone projecting from the head to
the rear end of the body shell. No person shall have in his
possession within this state any female lobster bearing eggs,
or from which the eggs have been brushed or removed. Every
person violating any of the provisions of this section shall be
fined five dollars for each such lobster; except that any person
licensed under this act catching and taking any such lobster and
immediately returning the same alive to the water from which
it was taken shall not be subject to such fine. The possession
of any such lobster, cooked or uncooked, shall be prima facie
~-evidence that the same was caught and taken in violation of

this section.

Sec. 6. Each and every “‘lobster pot,” so-called, set, kept,
or maintained, or caused to be set, kept, or maintained, in
any of the waters in the jurisdiction of this state, by any person
licensed under this act, shall be plainly buoyed. Every person
violating any of the provisions of this section shall be fined
twenty dollars or be imprisoned not more than thirty days for
each such offence, or both.

Sec. 7. No person licensed under this act shall use any
pots for catching, or cars or other contrivance for keeping, lob-
sters unless the same and the buoys attached thereto are plainly
marked with the name or names of the owners thereof, or the
person or persons using the same, and the license number or
numbers of such person or persons. Every person violating
the provisions of this section shall be fined twenty dollars or be
imprisoned not more than thirty days, or both, for each such
offence, and all pots, cars, and.other contrivance used contrary
to the provisions of this and other sections of this act shall be
‘seized by any officer engaged in the enforcement of this act, and

‘said property shall be forfeited.

139

No lobster
shall be taken
from the
waters of this
state which is
less than four
and one-eighth
inches.

Each and
every lobster
pot set, kept,
or maintained
in the waters of
this state by
any person
shall be plainly
buoyed.

Penalty for
using any pots
for catching or
cars or contri-
vance for keep-
ing lobsters un-
less the same
and the buoys
attached there-
to are plainly
marked with
the name or
names of the
owners thereof,
or the persons
using the same,
and the license
number or
numbers of
such persons

140

Close time on
lobster be-
tween Novem-
ber 15th in
each year and
the 15th day
of April next
succeeding. -

Penalty for
mutilating any
uncooked lob-
ster.

Deputies to be
appointed.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Sec. 8.
year and the fifteenth day of April next succeeding, no person

Between the fifteenth day of November in each

shall catch or take any lobster from any of the waters in the
jurisdiction of this state, or place, set, keep, maintain, supervise,
lift, raise, or draw, or cause to be placed, set, kept, maintained,
supervised, lifted, raised, or drawn, in or from any of said waters,
any pots or other contrivances designed or adapted for the
catching or taking of lobsters. Every person violating any of
the provisions of this section shall be fined twenty dollars or be
imprisoned not more than thirty days for each such offence, or

both.

Sec. 9. No person except the commissioners of inland fish--
eries and their deputies shall lift or raise any pot, belonging to
any person licensed under this act, set for the catching or taking
of lobsters, except with the permission of the owner or owners.
thereof and license so to do under this act. Every person violat-
ing any of the provisions of this section shall be fined ten dol-

lars for each such offence.

Sec. 10.

by severing its tail from its body, or have in his possession any

No person shall mutilate any uncooked lobster
part or parts of any uncooked lobster so mutilated. Every
person violating any of the provisions of this, section shall be
fined five dollars for each such offence, and in any and all
prosecutions under this section the possession of any part or
parts of any uncooked lobster, so mutilated, shall be prima

jacie evidence sufficient to convict.

SHG. EL.
point at least two deputies, whose duties shall.be the enforcing

The commissioners of inland fisheries shall ap-
of the provisions of this act. Each of said deputies appointed
as aforesaid shall be, by virtue of his office, a special constable,
and as such deputy may, without warrant, arrest any person
found violating any of the provisions of this act, and detain

such person for prosecution not exceeding twenty-four hours.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Said deputies shall not be required to enter into recognizance
or become liable for costs.

Sec. 12. For the purpose of enforcing the provisions rela-
tive to the protection of lobsters, the commissioners of inland
fisheries and their appointed deputies may search in suspected
places, or upon any boat or vessel that they may believe is used
in the catching or transporting of lobsters, and may seize and
remove lobsters taken, held, or offered for sale in violation of
the provisions of this act.

Sec. 13.

act shall enure one-half thereof to the use of the complainant

Fines incurred under any of the provisions of this

and one-half thereof to the use of the state.
Sec. 14.

jurisdiction with the superior court over all offences under this

The several district courts shall have concurrent

act, and to the full extent of the penalties therein specified ;
parties defendant, however, having the same right to appeal
from the sentences of said district courts as is now provided
by law in other criminal cases.

Sec. 15. Chapter 969 of the Public Laws, passed at the
January session, A. D. 1902, entitled ‘An act in substitution of
Chapter 857 of the Public Laws, passed at the January session,
A. D., 1901, entitled ‘An act for the better protection of the

”)

lobster, fisheries,’”’ and all acts and parts of acts inconsistent
herewith, are hereby repealed.
Sec. 16. This act shall take effect upon and after the first

day of January, A. D. 1910.

141

Deputies may
search in sus-
pected places
or upon boat
that they may
believe is used
in catching lob-
sters in viola-
tion of this act.

Fines, how to
enure.

District courts,
jurisdiction of.

GENERAL SUBJECT INDEX

TO THE

REPORTS OF THE COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES

OF THE

STATE OF RHODE ISLAND.

1898-1908.

N. B.—For all fishes not mentioned in this index, see Index to List of Fishes of Rhode
Island, Report for year 1905, page 96. For all crabs not mentioned in this index, see Notes

on the Crabs of Narragansett Bay, Report for 1908, page 56.

PARLIN SE ESCUOLUS =. cic ecaly ahs) s¥sliey «,cvekSuei aie Coe) lortals je) eiarae male eia. «aie ae < 1907

VAC CELSECULU ATES roca tes othe aes REIS ee a ie Oa ee 1 1906

PANG TI CSM Eos Lean, RS Ste Ath eT Body ate ne ok ea a ree

AMEeTICAMVSOLE ME MEN(SEC SOLE), <u. 6 a-sce cere a ao cles so eee rere 1907

PALIN OCICS AUIS VOMIVUS: J. 5 3/2 aT RPA Ae aad ie ea eae 1906

Anguilla chrysypa (See Fishes of Rhode Island, VIT)......... 1908
Orci Caulwel Gc MINOT] at fis eps verse ravers cl eaena eters eens seer erect 1901
(See Lobster, and Clam.)
Artificial Culture and Growth of the Lobster.—Paper by Prof.
Bhrenvaum, blelipoland.%, 46 c0 ccs sessed a. aoel asus Das 1907
20

Page.

15
12
91
68
83
67
66
ii
19
10
15
15
53
83
62
66
43
16

14

144 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Report
for the
Year.

: : § 1905
AWTS CHRON IDSUSS Js OA So COME SHU AR DA RO US AbLo ogo Ubas HHS z6c | 1906
Bibliography of the Eel Literature............. Parehons custveis econ 1908
Bibliography of Literature on Crabs.............+.+..-+---- 1908

{ 1898

| 1901

Brolowical( Surveys icc ts aici sielee1«! eet oteteleeyeaysNalons Gretel aye oner leiden ae
: 1905
1907

| 1908
| 1908

{ 1897

1898

| 1899
! 1900

1901

1902

| 1904
| 1905

{ 1899

| 1900

1 1901
| 1905

1 BYOyANTUWCO}: aedeh chen eC PSII oo OS RcLeN IG OIbIO REALS Ginwoto Dols moles & 1906
Breeding Periodsiof Marine Amimals). 20.0). ).-. . 2 seis meee 1898
IB Witte rtd y Maye saictet.Sathcys estil died aetael lado drteten yale elier eee sen LOO

TES TRG Ka ASS tether rc ie heea x ceclenue pero Aedes mata dehe aoe eieuaielies ac ialle Cauievererene

ere eB Sa ce id esc naa ve late cease roe eid such sn omatsdaten cbetreietetseets

Cannon firing, Effect on Abundance of Fishes................ 1908
CORAL POS NA Woe) a eee ela taiay slaps nai ecelcol eee) sroeen ese alial ste seven vege 1905

@hubyMiaelksera ly Were Uriel evi o hain CUS LAAN ata at pee NEA nk

Clam—
oS PACAP UTE CL ATIC CUO Tit feaahesa tape chine re ner tot en Stabe eter a Re tare ta eae 1906

fo MeN und ance ots Imi SGOeceruvsevercie era emer A ers 1908
Pe Antittcralubentiltzatiomiy ery rrae eirecien ie eer cre nore ara

<~ Attachmentioti Glam knees ate cia ony earn eer < 1898

Page.

APPENDIX.

Clam—Continued.

“ce

“cc

IBTECIN GI SEASON. cee: + eccmee as «

FEXPEGTGN DUANA NO Late teen coi Piatt 2 NEEL AE SEEMS 4 on Hd Ale ORC E Rta RNG

FURtG Of. ULEO WAG ya acl at ae aie odo ko ord test aoe ees

IBVESUSy LTA Cis sereyacia des ceo chore ake eR ore ster oes 1

Colture-—Colleotion of Young ..5 di. 4 <-s'srie sire ale as

Bperments'in Methods 7... s)..2)).2 6... ease 258

es BypgMir-eAlexanderty.cmey eerie shee ineocee

Points Bearing on Clam Culture..............

Rad dlert@rabse psc oy teats cris cheese a sreaae eee:
Exhaustion of Clam-beds, Causes of.................

Report
for the
Year.

{ 1898
' 1900
4 1902
| 1903
{ 1898
} 1898
| 1900
| 1903
{ 1900
1 1903
(1898
1899

1898
1900
1901

{ 1899
4 1901
| 1902

91

105

146 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Report
for the
Clam—Continued. Year. Page.
SEM OAH OOM suse Mice eds ac is yal a eranesia ate Pa dh ee aneen nee reliote au rae 1901 23
( 1899 34
| 1900 22
“i aGrowth and Age of Clamsa. jan oc). cssnecees eee
rowth and Age of Clams 1 1903 35
| 1906 83
{ 1899 29
| 1900 38
} 1901 2
af Ch ha tevOl Growler crea sk ius Micki ore ;
Growth, Rate of Growth 1902 33
| 1903 54
| 1904 28
Bs 1898 78
Habits of the Young Clams... 0.0.20. «2025s se oes 1899 03
“Life History of the Common Clam.—Paper by Prof.
Jamies Hi Mello oe artes 2 ro cet weal easieta ye Cre eerneteneke 1898 78
i Micration of Youngs to the Mud ir: cere tec eee 1898 84
{ 1898 78
: | 1901 21
ée
Naturalbiistory,ot the Clamaca-..s4-5 come sain eee 1 1902 99
| 1903 29
‘« Observations on the Soft-Shelled Clam.—Papers by
A. D. Mead, Ph. D.—
Hirst iPaper xa etc jceses ekg weet eee rae Here 1899 20
Second Papers (cess i 2 eee ose renee aan 1900 21
MbirdPaper: sei «sa. a, ace, ect aeetanhe eye oe eee 1901 20
PourthyPaperni.st ace Sever aisre Wleve esses oferta ee 1902 29
Bifth Paper's aketiys disse cece Ghee tomo ra aise Coe peel 1903 29
: ( 1899 27
1900 20
1902 26
| 1903 27
sé )
SetakorClamsy: ya. toa tris mam eelain series eens centers 1 1904 26
1905 105
1906 $1
| 1907 92
ce Sexe oft Claas sasfuis errs an siete ei oecetecy Wea le sero cretepa eras 1900 24
«« Shore in Narragansett Bay Suitable for Clams......... . 1899 21
{ 1899 23
¥ : | 1900 23
Spawning of Clamasy: okies. soc. oe vine ere eens ere ; 1901 21

| 1903 30

APPENDIX.

Clam—Continued.
“Statistics of Yield of Clams in the New England States,

(CUETTO a bolo) Re ees 6 DiGi De niche Clore ire bay OC rercae
‘« Summary of Natural History of the Clam and of Methods
GMO LIRUUIEG Sea ocx 55 wr avwracerufalenh uaale) «dle hares on aire we sexe»

“Survey of Shores ior Clam:Sets)... 0523. Gata. 220 ac:

Se benscity of ile: Gl YOUNES. 2i..0) 2 2b cer eee wesc eee

Bnemysotmthewlobsteria. nian smvacreieckeic ceria mnie er i
Commercial Fisheries, Importance of (See Statistics)..........

Commissioners of Fisheries, State and National..............

Comiissioners of Rhode Island Fisheries, Establishment of....

Committee of Investigation of Fisheries, 1869................

Conger (See Eel.)

Congress, International Fishery. (See International.)
Co-operation of State Fish Commissioners.................06
MEIPemOE NEN EW (SPCCIES. 2%. vin .c(sie fierce’ bats ce eis ee dS oe Ge eenibiats
Monepodard: mhode Island 224.5254 .0n-ed wane bem cet ome os

(Chablo). ER VG CIA) sea. 6 ee eee eR ere Me caro et St er, Pam irece

The Natural History of the Crab.—Paper by EK. W. Barnes. .
Distribution..... See eiero eB ohne ne TRONS oe hee
IS TECGUNIEE SEASOM ofa ade c.f 4 Seine ho oh Sn aetna Ss oe
NVI RILIONIS y)ariteateo,<)a) oaths jared icc avolay es eleyase og, Weta evs a eteerays
Ifo rita oer eran es ott agen sieves aches epee ches oes eee
Soft-Shelled Crab Industry in Rhode Island..........

Report
for the
Year.

1899

( 1897
| 1898
| 1898
4 1900

1905
| 1905
| 1906

1900

1907
( 1907
{1907

1908
1908

147

Page.

20

29

19
21

148 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Report
for the
Year.
Crabs.—Notes on the crabs of Narragansett Bay. Paper by
Walter E'S ulllivanm.7) 20a tee ee seeneee ase as 1908
Reairey- al HOT Se Mie Melee ear Lae re pte Feu te Leesan a eee Se 1908
HE COmOmMIG) Vale ah tye is, bt ja lea ey ay ot Hirt lots (eile SCRE IE tet res 1908
Classiticatiore te io anita cca satis) a eet PIES | WAR DEE Es: 1908
Billiograp hiv cnc) ences a sates qaraycre mice care ae tenet re Pae TER ee 1908
COMA 8 true ARC Aa sat Nic 1S estes bed shape daveutteaniet aitel ay eae ia okey area Ra eer 1906
Culture. (See Clams, Fish, Lobster.)
1900
cGjU 1] REYSTS SH TS) Va a Se mo Pe MS TaD a oe PIG ee ath VAR ele 2 } 1905
CUMOSETON MEGAILS, \VOUME OL : iy. larry. Sack Sy Mats ceria utes elton 1905
(See also Squeteague.) 1907
D.
1905
DESY ALES e COMMUN Corts lens healers etna iste Rect ee Reo ore eee 1906
Diatoms, List of, in Rhode Island.—Paper by Lothrop and Ma-
SOT EPs eaisslian sl 8 A sich te Res ay ante Region Seeamome patie keyeice aah aLeatake atone eens 1899
; 1904
A) STOR S To Maniy eens teas vere cc os, sbaicenauet gate ree tere deker ey Cinema ae Reet 1905
Dredging by Fish Hawk, in Narragansett Bay................ 1898
E.
Hel ‘Common., (See Fishes of RiT:; VET) tip setosiee we emer 1908
el Conger, |(See Wishes of dh. Le Vilb yea na oem aremiertarecke 1908
Exhibit at Louisiana Purchase Exposition.................... 1903
Hxhibitjat Jamestown Exposition... r c-eseaaeeeie ie aie ie ae OO
Hxhibit ati the Pan’ American Exposition. 4.) ./).5..2/..2205-- 1901
( 1904
ae : : Ae | 1905
Exhibit for Washington County Agricultural Association....... J 1906
| 1907
(See Sea Farming.) | 1908
( 1897
| 1898
Extermination of Fishes by Over-fishing..................... + 1899
| 1900
(1905
F.
: : 1905
File Scie SUE parties Nauti tny incl ARS Aare AS Ghd EP OTA GCS A rt eit EAN pre
( 1907

Ie Cuil Gure sate cese ley srouce oxo anaras a eae eee eae aa eo REO ee Yole te ieieate

Page.

APPENDIX.
Report
for the
Year.
Fish Culture, A Method of.—Paper by A. D. Mead............ 1908
Fisheries, Commission of. (See Commission of Fisheries.)
Fisheries, Commercia]. (See Commercial and Statistics.)
HUTS ES MONS UNO ceacy acter Mere S08, oy ces ace ototitenen che auctte rots ahs Feat vara tenors. 6s 1899
NA GIMOMELO MUISTIOLSscns sees dete eo sins spe ares eo erenern ie akeere 1900
Hishessofeubode Island) ist Of. sa accel on ecc clec era a 1905
Fishes of Rhode Island, The.—Papers by Henry C. Tracy—
IeivAS List.of Hishesiof Rhode Islandss. #s..2.s66- 0002: 1905
II. The Common Fishes of the Herring Family.......... 1905
III. The Fishes of the Mackerel Family................. 1906
IV. Rare Fishes Taken in 1906....... sete maha ENED pets 1906
eee nem bla BISDP Sis ce mu eulene sa ahaa eis hai ssecoed wre ihe Setar 1907
VI. A Description of Two Young Specimens of Squeteague
(Cynoscion regalis), with notes on the rate of their
TOM Ue es eS Cree SS oO, wir Se thera T eee wee 1907
VII. The Life History of the Common Eel............... 1908
Bisheslransportavion of live Bishes-.. s.)..s 2+ ce sale aes: 1908
(See Fish Culture, A Method of.)
{ 1900
: | 1905
Bi rsEs OEM Se eck sutca ate ee et se eh terete Ske aes oh eae ‘ 1905
| 1907
1905
Ha teHs helene sECUst yay ve ciecs cistorct ess ier crores ie crete ove Oisroneeerstae ie 1907
1907
1905
Hiounders tthe: Hour-spotted . =) ta chis seo fe Se asin nae ee ; 1907
1907
( 1905
HiGun ders lhe: Winter crete tetetetenetetst on hcbonen-tovetace sists ein oka ore 1907
1907
1905
]Plaqunayelse, AM ovehistbhonl cals) eared SOI ae casei Screen Sioa atic 1907
( 1907
Foreign Notices of Methods of Rhode Island Fish Commission.
(See Lobster, Foreign Notices.)
BiricatemMackereltne rcs cr varctcys oy ois 15 cha ctoko meee stan See Devens i ace
1906
G:
GOOSEVEIS IN or ates Hote sae IENG ha ae aS BAe gad Sia aa eney me asente 1905
PN OLLI Our rahe aya hd ark ioe eat ek tem! EN tornte Se dials Puen 1899
GU TROCUICUIE PICHUAUILU Geshe 5 ei cisrn sal ches Shakeel aia 40 doe ole ace OS 1908

(See Red Water Plague.)

149

HEX0) = REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Report
for the
Year.

lal; { 1900
j 1905
, 1907
| 1907

1905

Artal eA rvrans ois vesastogencse Neto cetetece weet kre oleh orancon teens eee 1905
1906

BATT Gon Rettevss coat aMne rss ergs Mt tel eT Rt heh RN aed TLS Aa a ea ge

, 1898
LEICA UNIVE a ae OIA. Gor HOOD E TAS 6 6 COCO 1b BOA Oo Ot 4 1905

iHerrine Hamily, Common Bishesion ic y).cpe)--0ie +1> «1 see pet 1905

1905
Flap POGLOSSOUES PLATESEOLOES), = a\e\eiaie aia/ala)e aim win) = =/=)-\cPe}aia) ee! eisielsiee 1907
1907

( 1900

|
LAO OGLOSEUS LP) POGUOSSUS seks ciate! sis olayereteletaleie/etetaiele eteketeovene crete) ets { Hee

HTOTSCUMAG Ke Telilarsiteters, occa aece tae Sareea Tee fess vous beret aronens me rotouateels
+ 1905

1902
1903

| 1905

fiternational Wishery Coneresss) occ pcssic) «sinc cvon.n'o =o aleeunal glee 1908
Visit to Experiment Station, Wickford.................. 1908
Interstate Conferences of Fish Commissioners...............- 1908

1905
eciragsfrs nett ee iain estore terme ces ehenceectaee Reuse oeues oases eter ale pe Reece meee 1905

Laboratory and Equipment of the R. I. Fish Comm........... { 1902

Page.
59
89
61
70
67
94
66
Hil
52

100
89
62
74
59
89
61
70
il7/
21
64
60
51
83
83
32

110

APPENDIX.
Report
for the
Year
( 1900
MeO OCEM ROLLS LEDIGQUUR. aalshe'. 3 s'd WR Aawe cle eid abl Da Fae eA lscebal ete < 1905
( 1906
: : 1907
lawe bieheries Laws ot rhode, Island. 25). o.6 a6 6 «ovis = ofeie a ses +a
RNG VASECMODSUCLPLIGW 5 ancvavcite crotens tis, srern sone 4 el coerce (oi coe Beare 1908
Leptocephalus, special paper, Life History of the Eel.......... 1908
Leptocephalus conger, special paper, Life History of the Eel..... 1908
Light, Influence of, Upon Larval and Adolescent Stages of Ho- { 1905
MULLS OITCEN TCO TUUS SS cI 5 vaite na aie t rac to okey esis foyetiel es a Ssaredel sf ee Re EN 1906
1905
POUITEELTELCLM) EX UEQUNCW cine vaianhel tints otal siete 2S e tig < Hee a ae OAs tere ten 1907
1907
Line Fishing, Influence of Trap Fishing Upon................ 1899
Hist oF. Crabs or Narragansett Bay... 0. gens. cece eee en de 1908
lhishonmMatomsine Rhode lsland! yeas ee et ae eieiele ie oe) 1899
rstronehishes! or hnodesslamdayac same snes ciaeiecies ters ere aie 1905
ra KE82 (KOS oe Pere Oo a rites eke Os EET CIC tere: og Cnr: Oka ener 1905
listo io luscaymekihodesslandess-s 5 941s eee ses eee 1905
istrotenarer bushes Lakensine 90687 eerie eens a= oe 1906
1900
TROUOLESESTURUNLCATLCTUSUS Gs Pe OTR N ON Sad SLND OR Sates OIE Ie eo 1905
1906
Lobster—
“ Abnormal An pend ages tr fci peer rie ceiel) eine ee 1906
{ 1898
1899
1901
AYUMI COM remiss fie ier: auiit ae ct aa ne ae ects + 1902
(See Statistics of Commercial Fisheries.) 1905
1908
| 1908
Ia INGE atolollenele coadacascnundosuioococbboucc 1908
Boats, Number of Engaged in Fishery.............. 1908
1902
oe
Breedimowklabts ac fee meus doe sec ae sacle eee elon 7 1905
es (CATUTO CE ers Ce ORR MR ee att Teeth Any 1905
( 1902
| 1905
:
rr sate : 1906
ns Ar titielalMelatehing een. samen jae setae ae 4 1907
| 1907
| 1908

151

53

152

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Report
for the

Lobster—Continued. Year.
Culture.—Continued.

“

ce

oe

Artificial Culture and Growth of the Lobster.
—Paper by Prof. Ehrenbaum, Helgoland. 1907

Early Experiments in Rearing............ 1898
1908
Evidence of Value of 52)5..s cree ence ce 1908
1908
Experiments in-Germany ................ 1903
: : 1904
Experiments on Later Stages............. } 1906
( 1900
| 1901
| 1902
Experiments with Stirring Apparatus...... | fase
| 1903
| 1904
| 1905
Foreign notices of methods of R. I. Fish 1907
Commissionysee 2 sce eee eu
1908
1899
HOO eee eincts ad che Srerektti peep omnaeee 1900
i 1905
The Problem of Feeding in Artificial Lobster
Culture.—Paper by Victor E. Emmel,
BP aD cis AR a casita Sneha ft ee eae 1907
Fourth Stage, Number of—
Ber Eee obsters oe screen. oe coer 1906
( 1902
| 1903
Mhiberatiomol Enyce ee sa ee ee { 1905
| 1906
L 1907
Method of Lobster Culture.—Paper by A. D.
Mead. 3.e ch Ris ia oe, Teepe oe eee 1908
( 1898
| 1901
Mortality ofibiryitgo- ore actrees cei J 1901
1904
| 1904
Report on Lobster Culture in 1905......... 1905
Report on Lobster Culture in 1906........ 1906
Report on Lobster Culture in 1907........ 1907
Report on Lobster Culture in 1908........ 1908
( 1902

Distributions osc oes ate hoa Cree ites eee rere 11905

Page.

146

148

107

WEL

123

APPENDIX.
Report
for the
Lobster—Continued. Year.
ce EN@TIVES ae Peete =, eR Ponca lca etd oan 1905

Feeding, The Problem of, in Artificial Lobster Culture. 1907
Fifth Stage—

ay Experiments in Rearing of............. 1906
oe HalbitsrOl sty apie heey eee 1906
aS Number liberated by R. I. Fish Commis-
Slonssinces GOO seen ssc ee eee 1907
Fishermen, number and income of.................. 1908
“ IN UO ANDY Olay a atc a ias 028 onetonk rms sy yee alae 1908
IBGeEY. Im TICIPOlGNE Na es yo mcalan sd oes Maree setae 1907
Fishery, Value of in Rhode Island.................. 1908
os Statistics of Men, Boats, and Pots.......... { 1908
1908
ROGUE er ee eer ene Ce A itenieness ae ee acers 1905
Fourth Stage—
Number liberated by R. I. Fish Com-
WUssion since LS9Se 2 25... tae te: 1908
Growth. 23. ...2. Oe A RAR Oe Ce Ree ae
Sema OFF SOX CH ays. hay iyectmns Noches svat oc la mney Bic ae ales eae 1905
Larval Lobsters—
ie Peeding Habiters satiate. site. aes ae
( 1899
| 1901
i, 1905
HOOP cistern a tae ster eee: < 1905
| 1906
| 1907
Horm, Changes: s envio ane i 1904
1900
e ; | 1°01
Habitec a5 tence ta ee eee 1 1902
| 1905
* s ( 1905
Influence of Light Upon........... 1 1906
\ 1900
fs Lengthy Gf Stagesso- -.9- .e eee 1901
! 1905
( 1900
| 1901
\ Moulting 2.5 2))sssk ent Jade Ip eee { 1904
| 1905

153

Page.

103
98

88
89

97
10
11
25
10
10
31
124

17
125
153
186

68
146
44
38
146
208
175
98
46
65
36
62
136
237
181
63
36
148
67
37
39
125
259

154

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Report
Lobster—Continued. for the
Larval Lobsters—Continued. Year.
( 1900
ve Parasites 2b Ge 200s yeaa ocr: | LS
1903
| 1905
“ : 1904
Regenerationic «2205. Eee diese 4 1905
ss Stomachs Ol. eae eee eee 1906
1900
ee SETUCHUINE! erepsentty rere eis aor mel ae 1901
} 1905
“« Light, Influences of —Observations on Some Influences of
Light Upon the Larval and Adolescent Stages of Ho-
marus americanus.—Papers by Philip B. Hadley—
irst<Paper itis.) erorlewiee rs mone eae 1905
Second Papers. h vs eee ee sens nomena 1906
Larne Na : 4 1902
Wimits, of Size andyNcee et.al as eee a 1 1905
hawakeviseGeWobsternluaweerme coer seer 1908
ee CPP NOTCEMENC Ole ota atone vote een lok ore eek 1908
(See Protection.)
1902
Bi MINT SP TSVULOTIS: <2 esta foes rns, Savy ws, aye atta das saies eNom as al deus ae ji
(See Tagging of Lobsters.) 1905
6 : 1901
IM rrbetlantiye ss soSo 1h cay tee Mee leet Sean APS ores VaR oie 1904
(1904
| 1905
coe Morale fi lever’ he ce en Nts and oe A ora, ao ob nat a ae on ate one tege 1905
| 1905
| 1905
‘* Natural History of the Lobster—
Habits and Growth of Young Lobsters.
First) Paper by Dr: A.D. Meade...) oo. ee 1900
Habits and Growth of Young Lobsters.
Second Paper by Aq Di Meadiaie eerie 1901
Habits and Growth of the Lobster.
Third Paper by Mead and Williams........... 1902
Natural History of the Lobster.
Paper by i. Wi. Bames. icc. io Sissies. we sa 1905
“Number of 4th-and 5th-Stage Fry Liberated Since 1900. 1907
(1901
| 1902
s) (Observations ons late Stages. x-men re sie eiete = +

APPENDIX.

Report
for the
Lobster—Continued. Year.
Me Color Changes of Late Stages.................. sis
( 1904
£6 IBotss Number Olas. «aiapeteneaieie croc vorel elem otote neler sie; ofeters 1908
Me sca Oateb per Lob, LIOL—1908 3. «<a ais ascretenereve «ee 1908
1905
- EMRLECULO Tiley ps Ne Ses e ePen siea a keine Bele ae eee es | 1907
1907
1905
as “ Legal Restrictions (See Lobster, Law) .... < 1906
; 1908
( 1902
ss UCU GN (CREO WW ULN yer agate Worms thal otal wie tiny ont chee laeuera ee 1905
1906

a Regarding the Rate of Growth of the American Lobster
Paper by, bnilipeb. Hadley...+-s..ssscee oe) 1905
1904
sf MREPENELAUION ss testers deus ote o ee ietsys + Pcletedale aches? | 1904
1905

ss Regeneration of Lost Parts in the Lobster—Paper by
Waetoribl. Hanmel 5.5022, fas renee ote orale ulentiolns 1904

7 Regenerated and Abnormal Appendages in the Lobster
—Paper by Victor E. Emmel.................. 1906

“ The Relation of Regeneration to the Moulting Process
of the Lobster—Paper by Victor E. Emmel...... 1905
“f DEXEH ELOPOLtlON: Ob. sais, .)..5icelatacane ace eptie tie swievciae ote 1902
: SEP UM NAD e hh taal conan Eakin teln® Grint ptleaas Geraci 1905
“ Sizerat, Mauri tive emesis ters cree ctore erate ies eee eae 1902

(See Limits of Size and Age.)

<6 Soh aoa le oe eG ANA Alin ins gigs doe Be Soke oor 1905

“ce

Stomach—The Stomach of the Lobster and the Food
of Larval Lobsters.—Paper by Leonard W. Wil-
tein ats fil Od cy D ere eee a oi Bolo seria he 1906

Statistics of Commercial Fisheries.................. + 1903

155

156 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Report

for the

Lobster—Continued. Year.
ieee

1903

1904

@Pacomeof lobsters. -0se oe aoe Sees 1905
ie

1906

| 1906

HOOK GOW se. o.:'n:0:0,8 Ceres seickettad b> Otek sat alee ipoGgale barat cae } ne
‘ 1905
1907
1907

“ce

ID NG PEE OLIN ERR es Aenean Aer De cooIe cbc Se Polen SAG

(1897

| 1899

Misi lke re lias teh x bes traps aia dP Rete: ee ee CRs Mey ners Pe Lane tetera ce / 1901
| 1905

| 1906

| 1906

(1899
1900
| 1901
| 1905
1905
| 1906

Rishestos MackerelsHamily. ssqee sie a ace eee

Meena Gemeente ees ais uct Bren N a aecaey Sede a tetris CAS ta Ree eras

1904

IMenhadenvDisease cs )sres cto toca Bien Gaws Cero Deen ee 1905

1906

( 1905

Mollusca: histiof im Rhode Island tec. ei. oor arenes < 1905

1905

WORTHY US MSHI o0 occ cocotbo dng sooo boo OU OR DOSS USAGE 1906
Mya arenaria.

(See Clam.)

N.

Narragansett Bay. (See Biological, Dredging, Physical, Provi-
dence River, etc.)

! 1902
NUCH A) 10 ERA a oh ee en OR Se Mee reer hana cohe Sto RSS LANG

Page.

114
150

45.
39

69:

APPENDIX. ys

Report

for the
Year. Page.

1898
SOB SRG EM cian seme fek oi Saeco notarial onag. chops ob seta cto bcs d WAe wr Aeakwo Ge le Rate 1901 ‘a
ANS: 8G OG Moy? SWIG es cop8ee coboogoodenaosdugboodneoeae 1 Pa =
: ; 1901 18
Aippont Judith: Pond hec.sccsee< cats as ssahseasheece vas ‘cae ay
@iabipersmets cistern et ene a's wakes eVat eee aie oie: & archangel MARE 1908 13

|
1905 90
HEIUT COLLECT LYSE CLCNILALIEG © am, wo tfere startin ihvehe Se (ois) Aa e,-+, 6 oie a eee eineaa rads 1907 63
1907 76
( 1905 90
PE RELCE LYS COLON GMS aint <a oin x = eit, vet's «w/o s) wisi eterate, sista a ois aletel sus 1907 63
1907 77
Ein Eloy \ il 0s Be ene a ere Aen ah ee ee ee ; oom i
1898 32
| PST ar Na CELL 0 RM, A eC, ca A en ie ee 1900 56
1908 Bi
(See Red Water Plague.)
Eby lopodarot tthode Wsland).it..6.2:0c% <i ees 6 oe oe ale sc-etese ons 1906 69
(1898 15
1901 18
1902 24
Physical Examination of Narragansett Bay.................. / 1903 23
| 1905 29
1908 11
| 1908 41
(See Dredging.)
{ 1901 18
Atebome Uudithy FON: se0<n. 2c dbosk sae ek eae eee es 1902 24
1903 26
1905 uY/
Ol OC KAMP ae otters ere hicin, holes slates cies Chore ete aae ret oR Steno ere - 1905 21
1905 86
PRollutiontotNarragansett Bays... cee ss ee eee se Aen Oke 1908 12
‘ : . ‘ : ae ( 1898 17
Providence River, Physical and Biological Conditions of....... 1 1908 12
( 1905 90
Pseudopleuronectes @Mericanus. 2 00. coe cece cece cee et ens 1907 65
1907 79
C

PICTO PIGICOMMGACEL eae see sa AO SS nee ree Se eo Pee oe ynee oe

{ 1905 48

158 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Report
for the
Year.
1900
Buffer, SMOObhias Hee c ieee inc iiarsie'seiernlsce «once iea is leletas ete couse ona 1905
1806
‘ 1905
EAE -NOBEGUS MINED here ark Aete is Sysaafaenge! lee eer eyoetae smehe wetn eet 1 1906
©:
(TED ATE Yea eI OR ee BRA eee NE PA ICP CRE NT May ER neg a 5 ne a 1900
Habits and Life History of the Quahog.—Paper by A. Kk.
15S DIC VER WA Mena EAU ARE ors Cae dean MeN OD Bice ute Tt Ptr 1902
R.
RaresbishesiPakeny 1m O06 2. ces cree eien es > wire see ieberectereroren ee 1906
1898
| 1900
FCUUW ATED PLAGUE nc! Screg ate ate mice eee. oid a me lalers teen aaedt ee tare, eine 1 1901
| 1902
(1908
pRerenetationsim the lODstere vac. « cu! shes tt sts esya a) stete eo smells 1904
Relation to the Moulting Procesa:........-0.. .g22- 2 os. 1905
Rerenerated (ApPenGages . .. j<\-istjacveyescrse eteese re toversfeve et dees aes 1906
Fre lie tirana eel Sieehe eT avy ves isla us Aye ante eta elwasesl Rane 1898
Restrictionxor theswobstenmishenies’. alte ae) ee etl
(1907
R. I. Commission of Fisheries, Establishment of.
(See Commissioners. )
1905
Reo aerta Daa hecho tee rc vent fade ee sererrsae tonal eaves ate whales Otetenaie eaten ee 1907
1907
8. 1898
Satin tay OLR WAGER caviar Srcicis'.s so aneiarartte'cielaier olor tehedalahalee eine Getabohope chats iss
1905
1897
| 1898
Salmon lean docked. \ ayy owes sen paso as cua ear erore ae ear re + 1899
1900
1905
( 1905
Seri Danser eke h pare r taht haitahe fotos e tated Ue deta le meals encteshaye tao) ieee ace ant <~ 1907
( 1907
- 1905
Sand Mo arnicely eet. es-y va sels hapa er cielo ais fale Panay Siapa soos pele eee ee
Seabbard ish bike iy yucca ere cue tsrela Sete ude pee pede ce alate sepa ahe hens ees sree

Seallop —Habits and Life History of the Scallop.—Paper by
Jona thansRisserinrs.; serve cc. cucscte, cpenepeier: teria ie ea earege ten olen 1900

Page.
58
80
68

67
67

6

49

65
31
56
17

APPENDIX. 159

Report
for the
Year. Page.
( 1897 5
1898 10
1899 16
1900 18
Soupr seat. a NCAR ee | co eee ET EEL Ce { 1904 11
| 1905 17
| 1905 21
1905 73
| 1906 19
Sea Harmine Exhibition of Results of:......:.............-- 1908 13
(See also Exhibit for Washington Co. Agricultural Asso’n.)
: 1902 45
SOOM OM AT pe MPC pre rt creat never cyalere o, he Sicescane acre crevelovars extnetneks 1 1903 39
pavemey IISpEY OL J APIAM chess) victeha/oicse ore siajelers sisi s axaie-eycisig,e e's 1908 13
1905 68
ISELENENUOTICE I tts HoT Acacia yaielevate ie oi ccc Re erates» steely Ys duerelale lenenals 1906 67
( 1900 10
1901 9
1902 15
1903 26
(STRGNEI. CAS 3 coy RR PRCT Ce ED eC eng nee { 1904 10
1905 4
1905 54
1906 18
| 1907 32
1900 18
SSS) eT NOY 252s cite coos cayBpe Nasass2 a ix) Seeaswanevandylohsvone et unece craeenane 1905 53
1905 91
Solevalshne wAtn ri caaae cvs. sy aveuet sce arare 4. acer eudienn sevesim e niel enses ciatsiates } 1907 68
1907 83
) 1905 64
SPMD NIACICORC |. 2 2BE.-. 4. snicedecheh aah cerning ORAM Acie eurutye tren. eh ) 1906 33
; 1897 6
Spawn eround Of Hishes:..5 00 «<<. esiee'as asses =e oor } 1905 29
1897 5
1898 11
1899 9
1899 16
SeRChed CVIGHRN cine Sesto «7/2 hs ee Ree emer nes thee oe 4 1900 18
1904 11
1904 15
1905 al7/
(1905 75
SIO UIET AOR peek a In esto Sep AAI ae ao she aka aide o, dtare Gaeta 1907 85

22

160 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Report
for the
Year. Page.
Starfish— 1897 14
te IDIStrilo ution elec es ere SG eee ere ere eter } 1898 34
1898 38
is : 1897 25
1 Dy oVsh ac Us Ae RRR Ans A RRR EL oie ae inirte cicnc classe ee nite 1898 68
1897 19
< 1 Occ s ere nae epee Reames yes SAU HUTND AVM caida Nye SIRE OER eu A 1898 42
1898 YG
(
Ey spBlee cling Eiabrtss ic ites ree eon eee tae 1 a es
1897 25
es Warval (Periods. Att kun circ Sorc Creare ae Iie 1898 47
1898 53
je Methodsiof Destruction: .). 0.) ehicle-ritie sec eee tee = / ihe es
Ce SNe ioe Like, i. eta atah Mth Nea Salata meter By ates ee
se Raterom Grow hese cis crickets Geo crease ae ae =
te FRE SOMETAGION: 3,5. fare host oe aia anathema eee ; ae ao
Re
e DIZE ANG GA Oe s2 52h rntecrnde reich opty Sea Rea So MO ae fa
es Spawning Season sea aS
PF SEASOMNE Hos o Aopen er ROEM cen Pte. 1 1898 44
“ . { 1897 14
RPRCIER 2h hisiays. dle! id's oie bahar wish GRIESE tite aa SECS EO 1 1898 38
oy POM Echo he ce crate SoCo pte eee Nee Me ee NC ar a I a 1898 47
1897 24
| 1898 47
ig yf TAEDA EGS OOS So 0th aR IN Jy wee esa etek oe cid BAe
4 1898 50:
| 1898 53
( 1897 7
1898 7
1899 10
| 1900 10
1901 Mal
|
Statistics of the Commercial Fisheries......................- ae a
| 1904 12
| 1905 15
| 1906 20
1907 33
L 1908 28

By Years Since IS87i cot Sti oc ee a eee 1908 29

APPENDIX. 161

Report

for the
Year. Page.
( 1905 48
PMU MEE PRU U MER coh, «0 ah Sysa is wie,'o seer in, s AION Sod ui e|oist acer elehete, aps a RO 1 1906 65
1905 17
PS TERE RCEN EVR AOR A 56 0 2 <a, crchs ev eikt) corcbetiny Cs ago] anend Gane (oad a” Sratyo Raceoratapenaig ives } 1905 49
1906 21
( 1904 15
: | 1905 17
SRUOING DIT) 103 tone RGA ca? eRe OF Been OD TE a Oe EERE ye ; 1905 65
| 1906 21

12
1900 57
PR NIORAetrelee te nieces tere Be were e ass aha cue Mt. Aine bobre Ghee 1905 51
1906 65
( 1897 5
1898 11
1900 17
BEELER tn Sep eh es cs cP ey Sica ees apaih Neuen Shan ave ovnter apn a? { 1901 12
| 1904 ll
| 1905 17
| 1905 78
Temperature of Water. (See Physical Examination.)
A j 1905 67
PREIFOR GMT dass ey specave cee asa ayers et wdetsas sees clube « said oo sunt eeatewerne 1 1906 66
( 1898 99
| 1899 42
Mle p Wists a, 38 Sitite osyotioeesel aren ibias Ee ie: Reta ee { 1900 45
: | 1905 17
| 1905 94
Times of Arrival and Departure of Food Fishes............... 1899 9
(See List of Fishes of Rhode Island.)

; 4 1900 58
WERAERUUTIS LEDLUT US. 0.2 cisiteissG os S'S eate saa © cage Ae ele e ee eNe 1 1905 65
ELYAMSPOLUSUONOL Wive FISHES. 5. ae «ace. s ave duoaisiede shajsiers sole id ais 1908 105

{ 1898 9

; 1903 16
PREPAID Sy oe Reals eicin, a4 alk als ani case Raleale ROS ein ee ee Rane 1904 14
| 1905 21

a ee : 1908 7
DIStrIbUGIONS OLY b racaisis sree rees | Sail he soe e ahet aye alee a! het } 1908 39
fraps; lnfidence: of, on Line Wishing...; 3.3425 2222s... eles. ee 4

* 41900 16

162 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Report
for the

Year.

1898
1899
| 1900
ae
| 1902
READS MOCAMONIONs W's coat wee tek eee ee aoe ae OR eee 4 1903
| 1904
1905
1906
1907
| 1908

1908
1908

iraps, Number, of; from 1898-19085... 2.226 efominet-

3 ; 4 1905
CEST TTY 25) SUS) CURA Aas ren aa er ars ORME feet ORT ile ot late rl 1 1906

1906

( 1897
189)
1909
1901
1902

Be

MUL G eyes SATs Fics mals Saka rons SES Ae Glare eA ae ear aE { 1904
ics

1905

1900
Meriple= TAM ge... akc jcsstoaats clean iewis is eG sade ans joo sne tea eens en Peecieees 1905

1906
1907
1907
L 1908

ald ( 1905
DEERE GOLIST cas RRC CR CRRER OTL NE OREN AOPOFCOE py CHE Cg) NO 1 1906

Page.
12
11
11
13
18
16
18
22
24
38
32

6
33
79
67

67
67

TITLES OF SPECIAL PAPERS PUBLISHED IN THE ANNUAL

to

ca |

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Ie

18.

REPORTS OF THE COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISH-
ERIES OF THE STATE OF RHODE ISLAND.

Meap, A. D. The Starfish. (First paper.) Twenty-eighth Annual Report. 1898.

Meap, A. D. The Starfish. (Second paper.) Twenty-ninth Annual Report. 1899.

Tower, R. W. Improvements in the Methods of Preparation of Fish for Shipment-
Twenty-ninth Annual Report. 1899.

Bumpevus, H. C. The Extension of the Commercial Fisheries of the State. Twenty-ninth
Annual Report. 1899.

Kettoc, J. L. The Life History of the Common Clam. Twenty-ninth Annual Report.
1899.

Mason, N. R. A list of the Diatoms Found in the Water over the Clam, Mussel, and
Oyster Beds in Narragansett Bay. Thirtieth Annual Report. 1900.

Meap, A. D. Observations on the Soft-shell Clam. Thirtieth Annual Report. 1900.

Meap, A. D. Observations on the Soft-shell Clam. (Second paper.) Thirty-first An-
nual Report. 1901.

Risser, J. R.H. Habits and Life History of the Scallop. Thirty-first Annual Report. 1901.

Merap, A. D. Habits and Growth of Young Lobsters and Experiments in Lobster Cul-
ture. Thirty-first Annual Report. 1901.

Meap, A. D. Observations on the Soft-shell Clam. (Third paper.) Thirty-second An-
nual Report. 1902.

Meap, A.D. Habits and Growth of Young Lobsters and Experiments in Lobster Culture.
(Second paper.) Thirty-second Annual Report. 1902.

Mean, A. D. and Wii11ams, L. W. Habits and Growth of the Lobster and Experiments
in Lobster Culture. (Third paper.) Thirty-third Annual Report. 1903.

Meap, A. D.and Barnes, E. W. Observations on the Soft-shelled Clam. (Fourth paper.)
Thirty-third Annual Report. 1903.

Meap, A. D. and Barnes, E. W. Observations on the Soft-shell Clam. (Fifth paper.)
Thirty-fourth Annual Report. 1904.

Barnes, E. W. Preliminary Inquiry into the Natural History of the Paddler Crab (Calli-
nectes hastatus) with Remarks on the Soft-shell Crab Industry of Rhode Island.
Thirty-fourth Annual Report. 1904.

Meap, A. D. Experiments in Lobster Culture. (Fourth paper.) Thirty-fourth Annual
Report. 1904.

Merap, A. D. Experiments in Lobster Culture. (Fifth paper.) Thirty-fifth Annual
Report. 1905.

25.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Hapuey, P. B. Changes in Form and Color in Successive Stages of the American Lobster
Thirty-fifth Annual Report. 1905.

Emmet, V. E. The Regeneration of Lost Parts in the Lobster. Thirty-fifth Annual
Report. 1905.

Tracy, H.C. A List of the Fishes of Rhode Island. Plates I-XII. Thirty-sixth Annual
Report. 1906.

Tracy, H. C. The Common Fishes of the Herring Family. Plates VII-XII. Thirty-
sixth Annual Report. 1906.

Barnes, E. W. Methods of Protecting and Propagating the Lobster, with a Brief Out-
line of its Natural History. Plates XIITI-XXVI and XXVIII, XXXI, XXXII
XXXVI. Thirty-sixth Annual Report. 1906.

Haptey, P. B. Regarding the Rate of Growth of the American Lobster. Plates XX VI-
XXXVII, and XL. Thirty-sixth Annual Report. 1906.

Haptey, P. B. Observations on Some Influences of Light upon the Larval and Early
Adolescent Stages of Homarus Americanus. Plates XXXVIII-XL. Thirty-sixth
Annual Report. 1906.

Emmet, V. E. The Relation of Regeneration to the Molting Process in the Lobster.
Plates XL-XLI. Thirty-sixth Annual Report. 1906.

Tracy, H. C. The Fishes of Rhode Island, III: The Fishes of the Mackerel Family.
Thirty-seventh Annual Report.

Tracy, H.C. A List of Rare Fishes taken in Rhode Island in the year 1906. Thirty-

seventh Annual Report.

Wivurams, Dr. Leonarp W. List of the Rhode Island Copepoda, Phyllopoda, and Os-
tracoda, with new species of Copepoda. Thirty-seventh Annual Report.

Emmet V. E. Regenerated and Abnormal Appendages in the Lobster. Thirty-seventh
Annual Report.

Williams, L. W. The Stomach of the Lobster and the Food of Larval Lobsters. Thirty-
seventh Annual Report.

Hapury, P. B. Regarding the Behavior of the Larval and Early Adolescent Stages of the
American Lobster. Thirty-seventh Annual Report.

Barnes, E. W. Lobster Culture at Wickford, Rhode Island, in 1906. Thirty-seventh
Annual Report.

Barnes, E. W. Lobster Culture at Wickford, Rhode Island in 1907 Thirty-eighth An-
nual Report, 1907.

Tracy, H.C. The Fishes of Rhode Island V. The Flatfishes. Thirty-eighth Annual
Report, 1907.

Tracy, H. C. The Fishes of Rhode Island VI. A Description of two young Specimens
of Squeteague (Cynoscion regalis) with Notes on the Rate of their Growth. Thirty-
eighth Annual Report, 1907.

Emmet, Vicror E. The Problem of Feeding in Artificial Lobster Culture. Thirty-eighth
Annual Report, 1907.

Tracy, H.C. The Fishes of Rhode Island VII. The Life History of the Common Eel.
Thirty-ninth Annual Report 1908.

SuLuivan, W. E. Notes on the Crabs Found in Narragansett’ Bay. Thirty-ninth An-
nual Report, 1908.

Merap, A. D. A Method of Fish Culture and of Transporting Live Fishes. Thirty-ninth
Annual Report, 1908. (Paper Presented Before the Fourth International Fishery
Congress, Washington, 1908, and Awarded Prize of Two Hundred Dollars in Gold.)

Meap, A. D. A Method of Lobster Culture. Thirty-ninth Annual Report, 1908.
(Paper Presented Before the International Fishery Congress Washington, 1908, and
Awarded Prize of One Hundred Dollars in Gold.)

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