Ss hs o ase Ne were pM rh Boe ee Bea a a mated - : CRS DED a AX rot . aie " Mens She, ba es PAY te ne iy ‘ ¢ ciel Saat 9 ae ren — 8 ee eer : Sot ira Aulaies iain i ae OT. < + Ls ~ io = Ay WN HARSH Yui wit Me i i NANI ( nA DA NY ae : hy ip bay . GR ce. os z 4 + wae may 7 AE State of New York—Department of Agriculture TWENTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE New York Agricultural Experiment Station Paice sel TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT 1882-1907 ALBANY J B. LYON COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS 1908 ede Si -. vo 1882-1907. ORGANIZATION OF THE STATION. MEMBERS OF BOARD OF CONTROL. iii Governor Alonzo B. Cornell, Ex-officio..... AG ATIve i che orenteone he 1881-1882 Polat, JG SHEL Stee eae sens ie ea Genevate nan ee: 1881-1887 Nee Mea @urtis.. 2. osi3 3 OTs aa nea Rahs, Seti Ogdensburg .........1881-1891 ie avieiyellc IBEW ATS oes ony Oxca Cro icapeaeaoce CR eee ee eae nee ee IocheSter- 4) satan = ae T881-1889 WWeeAr Annis Tonge... 5: = co ee ae eGliminaeache: eee cede Cees 1881-1890 “ZiT S. ~ WIG CART cGecrichts Cree cee nce ee ee gece ES lini ipa eae cet aie 1881-1893 = YORU CT RSS SS ve aa ee ea Spencerport .........1881-1882 7 Dov ntl LES1 ) cee WhicaS eee een. . LOST. 1003 Metzen OOGWar det caan o-cicias shoe elec Wockpoxteen-eretae 1881-1888 PERV RENhelkcGelenm 2 Ath Coote ne ees Tare: ois ea ai North Hector........1881-1885 Governor Grover Cleveland, Ex-officio........ Ailinaisay:- 24. aetecree casces 1883-1884 {Gitta GVA Dy ovate WS es es oe ee ama caw: soe 1883-1887 TB rile let eel XK OLICLON.)0\ csetices eye ns slo es + o's PN Danian eee = ..... 1885-1890 ea SM C8 1a) AEN ease oe ae Corning Pn rag asteisest sis)s) Pe Tart. WAY NAV dl her ce a ee rere Geneviaie oe nage 1887-1889 CingiFles” CWES a hae een econo Ree eee eee Geneseo. eee 1887-1896 GREIF TPES Si. AY INI Ses AR re el nen a a Reterborom. tee ee T888-1893 COTES TEA BTR oe ee ae ee Ronda sete ere T&888-1895 WAVPail Miva: ( Cel 2315) ma oe er er KOGHEStEr aise et ee 1889-1900 EMT N ONTO aS t5 ison tattarescsabaseeve oe wee ae Genevawee Pe T&go0-1896 Ayden! “TE aa OMe Sea ots Welt siee soccer anne 1899-1896 Governor Roswell P. Flower, Ex-officio....... Alife cat se te 1891-1894 Seplemebiettlcamm Ome pe soe se ietee wnlorern cee (Cenevat nes fs 1891- Saliva Deals ateliSeesen. ioe ote oviees: aco ta ce Middle Hope........ 1893-1896 ETONMETN Ey VEG et dr 5s tc cote oe ek ier ooo alee iP orsdamue sere ase 1893-1900 errata e Olney tise SNe ashe ee b naeooe es Watertown ......... 1893-1896 Governor Levi P. Morton, Ex-officio......... (Allaire eras keen aes 2 1895-1896 suns: (Cae Chr Ie eae est oe Syracuse er eto 1895-1902 Perveton Prank’ S. black, Ex-officio.........:Albany .........0. 5. 1895-1898 Brera DA DELAIty «cy 1. one's vg = a ves #'0's Canandaigua ........1&96-1902 Pus eval “(Co “SYel p13 Dns ae pe Be ee owville tea y. > 52 S1S90—1905 (CLE 8S G2 a ea Chie RC eaNe it Seer rmee 1896-1902 0 iar SLED sic Pe ee Gamdenteoeeee Sere 1896- Seiad s DAVISON > «sos scot assc cs stan eee ve Millbrook ...........1896-1900 Governor Theodore Roosevelt, Ex-officio....., Albans cea cree oe 1899-1900 Peer wOMSEMDIEY <8 ss occa e ce he es owes « Portvallevees- 2 e - LO00— sem i tidle.. 2... Pee eee eee.) NOt StOCKhO lines - 1500-1903 iv TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. Martin. AA Wen. e2% canon os ade ies oes ee Rayette)t. inet 1900-1903 Governor Benjamin B. Odell, Ex-officio...... WAT Dany: Sireracl. cere IQ0I-1904 Nicnsy JENSeNs. ita Bae ahd steele eee eee Binghamton ........ 1902-1905 AhOtias, Baa 1SOiisres doen Rak porn tenet Elaltis@ornershsccees 1902- edward A; call aici som chin to neha a oreo oatte Albany... 2 oeeeeas ors 1902. Vin OAS © lint y. ces a acsacciskh «aes aia be sieiere meio Perrys: tacaccrr-cneerae 1903-1907 rvanign RoUsest. Fo Sioy hee cade Sh %, Datos sitions ee Rochesteted seacoast 1903- (hraidesy We NVahiss so... s teen, ssiivat «ule aveeeetoene Queenss.'.2-5te. vee 1903-1906 Commissioner Charles A. Wieting, Ex-officio..Cobleskill ........... 1904- Governor Frank W. Higgins, Ex-officio....... TEND E Nahi gPeae seers Ma Beak c 1905-1906 PAE EC 4 Grau ews «tires Ss ss ako dh ey a a ete Genevala ca tee 1906- Governor Charles Evans Hughes, Ex-officio... Albany ............. 1907- Wallis’ G: Johnson? 25% sui nee eee meee New York, Citye-3..- 1907. TREASURERS. Roberteals SSiwiallisyst aoe ee 1882-1885 William Slosson.......... 1885-1886 SECRETARY AND TREASURER. Walliam: O*Hanlon..:...525% 1887-— MEMBERS. OF STATION STAPE: DIRECTORS. E. Lewis Sturtevant....... 1882-1887. Lucius L. Van Slyke, acting. 1895-1806 Peter, Colliers 2 e520 5e 1887-1895 Whitman H. Jordan....... 1896- AGRICULTURIST. Grewe Churchill eae 1884- ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. Henry H. Wing, assistant. .1882-1884 Charles S. Plumb, asst... .1884-1887 William P. Wheeler, asst. .1896- BOTANISTS. Joseph’ C,Arthut'ssss. seas 1884-1687... PredaGrStewart ois er kes 1895- ASSISTANT BOTANISTS. Frederick H. Blodgett..... T809-1G00%! *-Elarnyy We Stace tyne ore 1902-1906 G. Talbot French..........1906- John G. Grossenbacher..... 1907- CHEMISTS. S. Moulton Babcock....... 1882-1887 Edwin F. Ladd.............1888-1889 Pucwuisplee Van, Sly ket... << 1890- * Died before expiration of term. fh Sacn aa se ta % a A a an iJ ne ate Aa 2 CFE Se eS. } NEw York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ASSOCIATE CHEMISTS. dwineh Hatt: Sec. ss. 1904-1908 Alfred W. Bosworth....... 1907- ASSISTANT CHEMISTS. with es Eadde (io. ce sy ise4-Tooen. Jo Arthor WeClere... 2. .%s-. 1896-1902 William H. Whalen....... Tseg-Esor... weed Dis Raller ese is ose. 1897-1905 William I. Tibballs........ FOOO-1SOE g eeawinebs Hart: . Schoen. 1897-1904 Patiekie Seymour. fe. 22... 1890-1891 Firman Thompson......... 1897-1899 Robert B. Armstrong......1890-1891 Charles W. Mudge.........1899-1905 ROVE MY OUNS «7.5 fosw te 3 1890-1891 Andrew J. Patten.......... IQOO-1905 Christian G. Jenter........ Peg -1o05 —y. -BrankwAtoUrien. guccec ves 2 1903-1905 Abram .oKnisely.. 24... o.. 1891-1897. Alfred W. Bosworth. ......1905—1907 BeoiinicniAndOws.-..... 0.8: 1891-1892. Ss William E. Tottingham. ...1905-1906 William H. Andrews...... Legi=Teg2e Artic, W).Clark.c..c esse 1905- William H. Andrews.......1895-1905 Ernest L. Baker........... 1905- Benjamin wl. Midtrray..)..... 1891-1804. Anton (R. Rose... .2...52. 1906- Walitamp bs Cadyee. pico... 1892-1895 Morgan P. Sweeney........1907- vimasaDer COOK. dsc cig ocho estoe=sinojont iy Yfavanets; IDS (Chisels Seine 1907- «Pac PEST Tee 5 T892—1803).. “Otto: McCreary... oon se. 1907— le rehya el. Seeley... ks aoc. Tea Tego - erey Ws Hint sec pi ere a. 1907. BACTERIOLOGIST. Slarry, Aw tarding s<. 5.5.0: 1899- ASSISTANT BACTERIOLOGISTS. HBO Rem NOR TSE. us ccae TOOO=1OOaae Vianting je brtchaiecs: sae: 1903- Niohiekies NicholSonis.c..2. OOS -TOUSECS -Jamese Kee Wilsons ses. ets 1906- DAIRY EXPERT. Georee. Ae. Smite cs. cs 1898- EDITOR AND LIBRARIAN. Hicariceitlene Tall jan’ ates ck 1897— ENTOMOLOGISTS. PeeAtWOOUMOIEHINe. s,s. 5: TeOt—T90R") ) eercival, J. .Parcott: sac. si 1903- MictOLy Esl Owe . 0 «2c 1S04-1903 ASSISTANT ENTOMOLOGISTS. Percival vie Parrott... ..-c0.. r9eo0-1902 ~=39s Harold E. Hodgkiss....... 1904- Howard O. Woodworth....1902-1903 William J. Schoene........ 1906- vi Emmett S Gott «)eenel\9).¢ Charles E. Hunn, acting. .. 1889-1892 Antoine deB. Lovett Milton H. Beckwith Charles E. Hunn Wendell Paddock.... Charles P. Close Heinrich Hasselbring Oscar E. Liess Stephen D. Anderson William P. Wheeler, First assistant Frank E. Emery, Sys) oe 0 « Supterintendent of farm.1888-1890 Fred M. Rolfs Lore A. Rogers....... Harry J. Eustace Robert Watson Frank E. Newton Jennie Terwilliger A. H. Horton, Computer and mailing TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. HORTICULTURISTS. Tae ae 1882-1889 Spencer A. Beach.........1891-1905 UlysseseP. ‘Hedrick. 55. 1s 1905- ASSISTANT HORTICULTURISTS. aetes 1883-1884 Nathaniel O. Booth........1901-1902 See 1885-1888 Nathaniel O. Booth........1904- Stas 1892-1893 + +Vinton A. Clark...........1902-1904 .....1893-1900 Richard Wellington... .....1906- Denies 1896-1899 Maxwell J. Dorsey........1907- pare IQ00-I90I MISCELLANEOUS. AE 1884-1885 George W. Churchill, eats one 1885-1886 Acting pomologist.......1890-1892 Orrin M. Taylor, sete 1888-1896 Foreman in horticulture. . 1902- F. Atwood Sirrine, Special “Agents. .e- eee 1902- STUDENT ASSISTANTS. seer 1809. ienry. J. Ramsey. sons. s1OOse ...+.1899-1900 ~=William J. Schoene........ 1905-1906 ee IQOI—Ig02 STENOGRAPHERS. hed ree 1882-1884 George A. Menard.........1906. Bs its 1884- Willard if. Patching. eee too0. Mei 1897°- ; : CLERKS. Julia A. Hoey, junior clerk. 1905- clk. 1890- PABLE-OF CONTENTS. Anniversary exercises: PAGE. LS TSrRUr yee’ Sass 3 Tae pectehece ok ie cats Serar nr aa ON as Pe ny ae I LTV IRE NGC TOES SG SSS nh oa ae a eee 2 Addresses : SRE eDy Vie NAL PROSE one Pot lcs e «2 nae eedtie ab todawlagele,d atm sare s ses 3 rome emist (OT Canin st hs cc. 5.n bc wlavtghe sa das, Macuales cases othe 4 Le CIPS CLT Val SRS Bo 6 LS 3 1 a ee ag IO Meta S OU CTO SEE INNS aco oa. 6:00 be wd ose ier Bee Dia har ae 13 Seon MpOMaAINES A Psa ee ee de nee bed ev aie ode ele es I4 Reternteie oeay Vice AGO LEC Yan aes circ ciety eye sercla # p44 eye © « wlwisal Sake tometer. VVOOUWanGL, 56 en aces raise trate clcis/ss vs we es 15 LL CVEL Gos. oyael Baga GREE 0 Cy US gia ger ab Rae ea 15 Pests VV ticitin Ode. cE MOMmpPSON, ss. te wd. epee ciate 's <'c.toe so 22 WP MeArae cra eRe eS Pe, overs kt ns cid vee e Depew e Pele es 31 Review of Station work for 25 years: @he- Station? ls history and work, W. Hi. Jordan... 2.0... 53 Investigations in animal nutrition, W. H. Jordan ......... 66 Experiments with poultry and swine, W. H. Wheeler. ..73, 102 acterialocieal, investigations, HH. A. Harding. 2.0.2 ...+... 110 Perigicalentnestioatiqns. b G) Stewart. 2c ise... gece sls 119 Results of work done by Chemical Department, L. L. SMB” SSIS fs a die” oa eae a 163 Investigations by the Department of Entomology, P. J. LP SET 0 ot Sen cane re Sao Nee enc ke 238 Peeearemviea feldscrops: ote tially: sce oe ants de ad oho 207 PPpricwitutal investications, N: ©.- Booth <...5. 2... 2.59% 292 LESS SASS Go ae See eee on cn oe ere ea 353 Tats “c rs ANNIVERSARY EXERCISES NEW YORK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION ANNIVERSARY FIELD DAY August 29, 1907 Program President of the day Retro emir WV ISOM cers rests wc mus care eos President Board of Control 10:00 A. M. Greetings GET, AVIS SIN OS Si op Stara Naa a a . Mayor of Geneva Addresses Fem hares, Mvansluchess Oy. 0. 2. 2 os Governor of New York 15D STEN Sao yl Oras sar 2 01 Rae a Member of Congress Hom sherman Moreland. 1223... .. 6. Member of N. Y. Legislature leoter. 1 land ersin. 2. cea ens N. Y. Department of Agriculture 2:00 P. M. Addresses Relehimeetew VVi.1 GOGETCY atic s a Seo os Master New York State Grange Rete UEZ ea IVVOOU WAC: ons. 5 oie ce eGo een save tees Member First Board of Control of Station Dr. William Oxley Thompson........ Pres. Ohio State University “National and State Aid to Investigation ” Dr. L. H. Bailey, Dean New York State College of Agriculture . “ Lessons of the Day” TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPport. to INTRODUGLORY= : Ideal weather marked the day set apart for the exercises cele- brating the twenty-fifth anniversary of the establishment of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station. A clear blue sky, bright but not dazzling sunlight, and an exhilarating atmosphere made the prospect of a day upon the green lawns of the Station an inviting one; and thousands of farmers and other friends of the institution accepted the invitation to join with Board and Staff in celebrating the day. As preliminary to the exercises at the grounds, the city of Geneva united with the Station in welcoming Governor Charles Evans Hughes, upon his arrival from the east on the 9:o1 A. M. train of the New York Central railroad. Waiting the Gov- ernor’s coming were the Mayor and other officials and dignitaries of the city, members of the Board of Control and Staff of the Station, many invited guests of the day, the Geneva City Band and Company B of the New York National Guard. Under this escort the Governor was conducted to the Armory, where a short informal reception was held. After the reception, automobiles were provided for the leading members of the party for a ride through many of the principal streets of the city and visits. to the Country Club and the White Springs farm. The owners of many automobiles in the city placed their machines at the disposal of the Experiment Station for the purpose, and the line of machines decorated with flags made an interesting and picturesque sight, which was enjoyed by the citizens and residents along the route who were out in the highways, on the streets or on the porches of their house to see the vehicles with their distinguished visitors pass. There were ten cars in the procession, which were occupied by the following: Car 1, Lewis — Governor Hughes, Colonel Treadwell, T. B. Wil- son, W. H. Jordan, Mayor Rose, Mr. Lewis. Car 2, Fast — Mr. Payne, Senator Raines, Mr. Moreland, Colonel . Wilson. Car 3, Jordan— Dr. Thompson, Dr. Brown, Dr. True, Prof. Downing. Car 4, Burrall— Dr. Arthur, Prof. Wing, Dr. Babcock. Car 5, Clark — Mr. Flanders, Mr. Godfrey, Mr. W. K. Payne. Car 6, Chew — Prof. Bailey, Prof. Davis, Mr. Barry. *This account of the exercises is taken, in part, from the description given in the Geneva Daily Times of August 29, 1907. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMEN?T STATION. 3 Car 7, Truslow — Mr. Ives, Mr. Schraub, Mr. Nicholas. Car 8, Chase — Mr, Johnson, Mr. Dusenbury, Mr. Rouse. Car 9, Dey — Captain Stacey, William O’Hanlon, W. A. Gracey. Car 10, Blaine — Mr. Haviland, Mr. Woodward, Mr. Hallock, Mr. Henderson. BIG TENT CROWDED. On arrival at the Experiment Station the visitors found the large tent filled with people to its utmost capacity, probably three thou- sand being assembled within the canvas covering. People from the city were there as well as farmers and residents of the ad- jacent rural sections. The Experiment Station by its association and relation to the farming and rural communities naturally in its field day attracted to its celebration many of that constituency. GREETING TO THE GOVERNOR. As Governor Hughes walked into the tent, followed by the other distinguished visitors, the entire assemblage rose to greet him. Hats were thrown into the air and handkerchiefs were waved on every side. The audience remained standing until the Governor and party had taken their seats on the platform. The exercises were called to order by Hon. T. B. Wilson, president of the Board of Contru} of the Experiment Station, who acted as president of the day. Mr. Wilson first introduced Mayor A. P. Rose, who gave a greeting in the following words: MAYOR ROSE’S GREETING. “ GENTLEMEN, FRIENDS AND GUESTS.—Geneva esteems it an honor to welcome a company of such eminent and distinguished men. New York State cannot equal, in its productions, the cotton of the south nor the corn of the west, but to-day this little city claims the pre-eminence over the whole country for its magnificent collection of able, distinguished, learned and practical agriculturists, and men eminent in science and statesmanship, gathered here from the length and breadth of the land, to do honor to our Experiment Station. This Station is not a local affair but belongs to the whole State, and yet, on account of its location, we Genevans cannot but consider that it belongs to us in a special sense, and you must permit us to take a special pride in it. We trust that when you leave our city you will go away convinced that no mistake was made when this Station was located here twenty-five years ago. And the pride that 4 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. we take in it as a local institution will be doubled when we remem- ber that it had the power, as a magnet, to draw within our borders you, our eminent and distinguished guests. And, therefore, wel- come, thrice welcome.” Dr. W. H. Jordan, Director of the Station, then gave the follow- ing address, reviewing briefly the history and work of the Station: STATION ISEORY: W. H. JORDAN. LADIES AND GENTLEMEN.— In the name of my associates I give you a cordial greeting and a hearty welcome to these grounds. You have come to visit what is your own. ‘The ostensible reason for asking you here is that this Experiment Station has passed its twenty-fifth birthday. But this institution is not old — it is young, and has not even attained its full stature and vigor, and the real reason for your invitation to pay us a visit lies deeper than the mere matter of age. The underlying purpose of this occasion is that you may pause for a moment and give us your attention and interest. JUST A PUBLIC SERVANT. An institution like this, standing apart from a college or uni- versity, appoints few feasts. It has no family of devoted sons that it can call home annually to give cheer and inspiration — indeed it has no calendar of special days. It is just a public servant with its assigned duties, duties that if well met will be performed quietly and without ostentation. Real scientific investigation has few ele- ments of popularity. SOME MAIN FACTS. It would be ungrateful, however, on such an occasion as this for me to withhold a generous recognition of some of the main factors that have been efficient in the upbuilding of this Experiment Station. Something more than ten years ago I wrote: “It is a matter for congratulation that the Station is well located, both agriculturally and socially. It is in the midst of one of the most fertile and prosperous farming regions of the State, which has an almost world-wide reputation for its production of nursery stock and fruit. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 5 “ Moreover, the Station has a desirable social environment. The -village of Geneva is one of the oldest in the State, and has long been the home of cultivated people who have received the Station as an institution in which they have a peculiar and abiding interest. This is fortunate, because the prosperity and efficiency of any work which calls together a body of educated men is greatly enhanced by a loyal local support and agreeable social relations.” I have seen no reason for revising these statements and to-day I desire to express again, for myself and associates, our sense of obligation to the people among whom our lot is cast. FREEDOM FROM PARTISANSHIP. The main element in the life of any public institution is its board of management. It behooves me to refer to my superior officers with due and becoming deference and discretion, but I make bold to place on record this one statement, which is, that during the eleven years that I have been connected with the Station I have not heard from any member -of the Board, either in the meetings of the Board or outside, a single suggestion that savored of per- sonal or partisan advantage. No further comment from me is necessary as an evidence of the singleness of purpose that has animated this Board. INTIMATE RELATIONS WITH FARMERS. Our work and influence have been greatly strengthened with the people and brought much closer to farm practice through the inti- mate relations we sustain with the State Bureau of Farmers’ Insti- tutes. The Station staff and the institute lecturers meet annually ' for several days’ discussion of the newer phases of knowledge, a conference that is unquestionably of great mutual advantage. My acknowledgments would not be complete if I neglected to mention gratefully the cordial and helpful attitude toward us of the New York State College of Agriculture; and last, but not least, of the agencies with which we have joined hands, are the agricul- tural organizations of the State. Chief among these, and most comprehensive, is the Grange, to whose unwavering support we owe much. No less should be said of the fruit growers’ organi- zations and other special groups of farmers whose confidence and support are invaluable. 6 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. HISTORY OF THE STATION. Doubtless there may have been an expectation that on this occa- sion the history of the Station and the results it has accomplished would be presented more or less in detail. The history of the Station may best be read in what the institution now is and what it stands for, and its results in common with those of similar institu- tions are exemplified in the greatly increased application of exact knowledge to agricultural practice. Nevertheless a few facts may be interesting and pertinent: The Station began its operations on the first day of March, 1882. The building equipment then consisted of a mansion house and an ordinary set of farm buildings; we now have fifteen buildings devoted to our use with five more assured and others whose per- spective is definitely outlined in the field of hopeful expectation. The sum annually available for maintenance for the first few years was $20,000; it is now nearly $90,000. The staff at first numbered five persons; it now numbers thirty-one. In the beginning there was here no laboratory or other equipment — now we have seven laboratories equipped for work of a special character, to say nothing of barns and other buildings of a modern type. These are the material evidences of growth. VAGUE IDEAS AT FIRST. The essential fact to consider is the touch we have with agri- cultural practice. I once asked a member of the first Board of Control what that Board expected the Station would do. His answer was, “ We did not have very clear ideas.” Not only were the internal conceptions of the Station’s functions dimly outlined at first, but the public, while expectant, was to a large degree sus- . picious that the new: effort was fanciful in its origin and would be ‘impractical in its results. In the earlier days there were those who lost no opportunity to criticise. A Buffalo editor wrote of an early report something like this: “It is said that figures do not lie. If this be true, the report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station contains a tremendous pile of truth.” CALLED IT A HUMBUG. The able and versatile paper, The Sun, published an editorial in March, 1887, in which the following language occurs: “It is enough to make an earnest American despair of the future of democ- New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 7 racy in America to see the ease with which a few men, hating to work for their own living and determined to live on the Govern- ment, succeeded in putting a law through our Legislature to set them up, with $22,000 a year income, in the fraudulent business of conducting agricultural experiments to improve New York farm- ing. From top to bottom, the bill, the Station, and its operations have been a fraud on our farmers and taxpayers. The contrivers of the Station had no more care of our farmers than the Washing- ton claim agents had for the heroes who died in battle to save the Union when they put through Congress their pauper pension bill for the benefit of themselves and the relatives of deserters and non- combatants.” The editorial ends with this: ‘In the name of New York’s insulted farmers and in the name of good government, we demand of the Legislature to abolish the Geneva Agricultural Ex- periment Station. It is a humbug.’ So much for the Sun whose dyspeptic utterances were expressive of a sentiment then somewhat prevalent, but whose editor evidently donned the mantle of a false prophet. . CHANGES OF 25 YEARS. What a change a quarter of a century has wrought! ‘The agri- cultural scientist now feels that his right to live and labor is recog- nized. Members of the staffs of our college and two stations very nearly man the programs of our larger agricultural conventions ; they are listened to with respect and confidence from the farmers’ institute platform; there is evidence that the bulletins they write are sometimes carefully read; and their advice is freely sought concerning troublesome farm problems. A COMPARISON. I wish that in a word I could, by way of comparison, throw before you in perspective the agriculture of fifty or even twenty- five years ago and the agriculture of to-day. Within a half century farm practice, in many of its features, has passed from under the sway of tradition and superstition into the domain of exact knowl- edge. We now know in part why soils are infertile; we are able to trace the income and outgo of fertility and so conserve the National fundamental resources ; the processes of nutrition are now not altogether a mystery and more or less rational systems of feed- ing man and beast are possible ; commercial standards are established in dairying and have displaced the unbusinesslike and unfair meas- urements of former days; milk sanitation is an accomplished fact 8 . TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. than which nothing is of greater importance to the dwellers in our cities; boundaries have been set to the depredations of many fungus and insect pests that otherwise would devastate orchard -and garden, and best of all the new basis of agricultural practice demands a high order of intelligence on the part of the practitioner. The supreme test of any movement that we call progress is the quality of its reaction upon men and women and nothing will per- manently elevate and dignify agriculture that does not uplift the intellectual and moral status of those who dwell in the open country. Surely the changes that have come to agriculture will bear this test and I am glad to believe that this institution has had some small part in what has been accomplished. Permit me a word concerning the policy around which the Sta- tion’s activities are centered. A prominent newspaper in comment- ing on this occasion stated that our Station “has done its work in a quiet way.” I am grateful that this institution has so impressed itself upon an observing editorial mind. Some of us have little respect for science with a brass band attachment, for it savors of sensationalism and chicanery. We place our faith rather in those who abide in the atmosphere of conservative scholarship, who, working in a patient and truth-loving spirit, find their satisfying reward in advancing knowledge. THE REAL FUNCTION. But what do we regard as the real function of this institution? The State undertakes to do three things for agriculture, investigate, teach and enforce law. In co-operation with our sister station at Ithaca, it is for us to investigate, but what we should do is often seriously handicapped by what we are asked to do. Just now we are in danger that investigation will be displaced by popular demon- stration. A strenuous and widespread movement is now in progress for the exploitation of agricultural knowledge, sometimes, I fear, without proper discrimination as to what knowledge is soundly ripened. It is a question, too, whether in this movement we are always recognizing the boundaries of individual initiative and responsibility. Whatever is done for the farmer or any other class should have as its chief end the cultivation of individual grasp and power and governmental aid should go no farther than to secure this result. But because of this trend of effort it requires courage, sometimes it seems hardly possible, for us to put aside these activi- ties that most quickly react upon the public minds, and by so doing, ‘ZQQI NI SONIGTING NOILVLIS —] aLWIg ‘L061 NI SONIGING NOILVLS —]] JLV1g ’ 4 4] a ’ ad . + et 2 . q ’ 2 . eo, =/ 7 . o yi . Al i ch aes ( Fi itn: ¥ to 4 > a ole. . a it pe _ ie J 1} : 0S. _ . Plies i - an CT A 1 =.* : a9 ; i A ae +b 2 : 0 1 o - ye ‘ iy 4 i . Ve y Be bye ‘ ee | - a — F 7 f : “y - ] eq Ly ; / 5 ; ce i‘ o cs ry . Ly ¥ Pe ts) i ¢ oP iay ry ' - ~ . = 9 1 en ’ ~_ f oe = 7 ; 7 Sa 7 : s be . 7 : r ‘ A, MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF N.Y. AGRICULTURAL BXPERIMENT C©OMYVAUNPFwHWRY o jo 11,11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 PRINCIPAL BuilOincs STATION AoMINISTRATION BUILOING CHEMICAL, LABORATORY Biorogicat & DAIRY Bui. DING Direcror’s RESIDENCE RESIDENCES GREENHOUSES HorsE BARN CATTLE BARN Stock BARN ANNEX MANURE SHED Povitry Houses Stomace Bujtoing Tce House Fruit sTomACe FRUiIt CELLAR Snop_ WATER TOWER HorticuituRAL STORAGE Map oF Station From Brock ACCOMPANYING. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 9 as some fear, endanger our popular support. It is real menace to research work that the worth to agriculture of the men of the colleges and stations is so largely judged by popular efforts. I do not know how it is with Director Bailey’s associates, but if the members of the Station staff were to meet all the calls they have for speaking and for visitation to different localities in the State, dust would settle on the crucible and the microscope. We do not complain because we are asked to do these things but we want you to feel with us, that if this institution is to remain true to its real function, we must be allowed to spend a generous share of our time behind the closed doors of observation and reflection, whether in the field or laboratory. This, then, is the policy of this Station as I undersstand it, to hold mainly to the work of real in- vestigation and leave teaching and popular glemonstration largely to other agencies. GOVERNOR HUGHES INTRODUCED. In closing his remarks Dr. Jordan introduced Governor Hughes in the following words: “ LADIES AND GENTLEMEN.— I appreciate the patience with which you have listened to me; for you are anxious to greet the speakers who are to come. Agriculture and this institution are greatly honored by the presence here of the Chief Executive of our State. Our Governor stands to-day in the forefront of public attention not only in this State but in the Nation. There is now going on a far-reaching adjustment of our political and governmental relations, a readjustment which has the support of a lively public sentiment. Such times, that are always more or less critical, demand, not op- portunism, but constructive statesmanship. We welcome Governor Hughes here to-day because he is exhibiting the qualities of leader- ship that the times demand and that the people admire, and because, in common with other trusted leaders who are with us, he stands for the application of the simple principles of common honesty to all the affairs in which the people are interested. We deem it a privilege to felicitate our distinguished guest upon his personal and official honors. Ladies and gentlemen, I have the honor to pre- sent Governor Hughes.” CHEERS FOR THE GOVERNOR. When Governor Hughes arose to speak there was another demon- stration. The audience again arose and Senator Raines proposed 10 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REporT. three cheers for the Governor, which were given with a zest that manifested a genuine enthusiasm. After addressing the president of the day the Governor spoke as follows: ADDRESS OF GOVERNOR CHARLES EVANS HUGHES: “LADIES AND GENTLEMEN.— It is very agreeable to visit Geneva upon this congenial errand. As I have been driven through the streets of your city and along your beautiful lake, where so much is presented to charm the eye and so many manifestations are found of thrift and intelligence, of prosperity and contentment,] have not only been interested in the exhibition of a model city but I have been surprised at the extraordinary self-restraint which was shown in the control of the pride which those who were displaying the advantages of Geneva must have felt. You may well be proud, Genevans, proud of a location almost matchless, proud of a city of beautiful homes, proud of a situation in a country so beautiful, proud of your prosperity, and to-day we assemble to express as citizens, not of Geneva, but of the Empire State, our pride in a great institution doing efficient work and having a noble aim. RESULTS OF SPLENDID EFFORT. “T like no part of my work better than the visiting of the insti- tutions of the State. To me they represent, not acres, not buildings, not equipment, but human efforts for the benefit of mankind. We think too much of institutions in an impersonal way. We think too much of the physical manifestations of the activities, we pay too little attention to the hard, steady work which makes them successful, and whatever’ need there may be throughout this State of here and there correcting an error of administration, of here and there perfecting an adjustment or obtaining a more efficient service, and doubtless there is need of it, no one can see the activities of the government of this great State in its varied institutions without thanking God for the splendid efforts of our citizenship for the benefit of all the people. (Applause.) HONORS UNHERALDED. “To-day I think not so much of the Geneva Experiment Station as a sort of entity, which has achieved its twenty-fifth birthday. I rather think of the line of patient, quiet it may be, but effective investigators who have been living their lives here, doing their work New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. FI through these years, honorable, careful work, in order that one of the great and important activities of our State should be further advanced. Oh, it is a noble thought to think of the men whose names are not heralded abroad, whose acts do not furnish headlines for the newspapers, but who in their different fields of activity are making this the Empire State, so all honor to the twenty-five years of honorable and careful effort at Geneva. (Applause.) FARMER NOT OBJECT OF CHARITY. “ Now I do not believe that the farmer regards himself an object for State charity. (Applause.) So far as I have observed the farmer is a pretty independent citizen. He generally has a mind of his own. In fact I do not know what our fund of intelligence and rationalism would amount to if we did not draw upon the farmers for a continual renewal of the supply. (Applause. ) “When you get out where a man has a little elbow room and a chance to develop, he has thoughts of his own. His thinking is not supplied to him every night and every morning and he is less of a machine and more of a man, so that I do not think that the farmers need to be looked upon or want to be looked upon as de- pendents of the State. They do not come to the State government asking alms; they are self-reliant, they are intelligent. What we want in connection with agriculture is what we want in connection with every other field of noble effort; we want training, we want intelligence, we want scientific method, we want direction, we want the way shown and then the man in a way can walk in it. (Ap- plause.) There is no reason why the same care and attention and skill and scientific consideration should not be devoted to agriculture as to industry and the technical trades. The men who are running away from the farms too frequently make a mistake; and some day in New York,— and the day is rapidly approaching — many a young man will wake up to the fact that he has a pretty good chance on the farm and that he may be more of a man and to a greater degree independent and happy in life, if he stays where his happy lot was cast in connection with his father’s farm or another which he may be able to procure. “Dr. Jordan has said that there is not much popularity in scien- tific method, or with relation to the scientific method. Well, of course, they do not go around, so far as the scientific method is concerned, with quite the same parade that attaches to some other activities, but I tell you if your test of popularity is what people I2 TWENTY-FIFTH AN NIVERSARY REport. are thinking in their minds and what the average American citizen wants, the scientific method is the only thing that is popular, whether it is in agriculture or in government. (Applause.) NARROWING THE FIELD OF FAILURE. “We are constantly trying to narrow the field of failure. We are constantly trying to increase the opportunities for success in every line of knowing. Knowledge is power. I remember that Wendell Phillips, in one of his impassionate addresses (I do not know as I can quote the exact words at this moment) said something like this: ‘The age of bullets is over, the day of men armored in mail has passed, but the day of thinking men has come.’ And when the farmers of New York are all intelligent, thinking men in regard to their own particular work, and taking advantage of the results of experimentation and availing themselves of agricultural education, New York will regain the place which it once had, and which some years ago it lost, of being the first agricultural state in the United States. (Applause.) It is first to-day in many important depart- ments, first with reference to its dairy products, first in reference to hay and apples, first with reference to other matters. It is not first with reference to the value of farm property, but were the same intelligence and earnestness applied in that direction as has been applied in industry and engineering, it cannot fail to attain the supremacy. Scientific method; what is it? Why, the scientific method is nothing but a patient, careful, persistent pursuit of truth, that is all. The man who is content with anything but the truth, the man who will be desirous of obtaining anything that does not square with the verities of the situation, he is not a scientist, he has not the noble ambition of the scientist. The scientist is the man that will go through any danger and will endure any amount of toil and will pursue unfailing the one ambition of his life, the attainment of truth in his line. That is what we need regarding agriculture. We don’t want it in a haphazard way. It is impos- sible for one individual farmer in connection with his farm, to con- duct a variety of experiments which will enable him to know what the advantages of this or that particular training might be. I do not know whether this is true, or not, but I should assume, from ac- quaintance with other lines that if the farmers of the State had pursued many of the experiments of our friend, Dr. Jordan, for the last few years, they might have been wiped out before they got through with the experiments. You have got to experiment and ‘AUOLVUOEV'] IWOINAHD —]]] ILvIg New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 13 take your failures in order that you may have your successes, and the State says with reference to agriculture, “We will have a place where we can find out the truth in regard to matters pertaining to the interests of large numbers of our citizens. We will have men there that will work until they can see what things can be ac- complished in certain ways; how these destroyers themselves can be destroyed ; how fertility can be increased; how particular advan- tages can be gained, and then when they have reached the truth, we will provide for its dissemination and meanwhile we will provide an opportunity for educating young men who are going onto the farm, broadening their outlook and giving them a proper perspective, I love that word perspective. We have got to have things in their true relations and a man’s happiness in life is more dependent on his perspective than on anything else. Some men hold a little thing, not of much importance in itself, so close to their eyes that the whole world outside is hidden. If we can only see things in their true relations how happy would be those who have the good fortune to be farmers. How many of those there are who are now suffer- ing from ills that could easily be gotten rid of, if they only saw things in their true relations. SCIENCE IN GOVERNMENT. “What I want to say in conclusion is that this same scientific method, which we admire in the work of this Experiment Station, which promises so much for the agricultural interests in our State, we want to see applied everywhere through the administration of government. We cannot, as I said the other day, as human beings dealing with the affairs and interests of human beings, have things done with exact regard to scientific formulae and I[ tell you, my friends, what you want, what the citizens of this State want, more than anything else, in connection with their government is the ascertainment of the truth, the dealing with things in a true and hon- orable way, the standing for the truth and the readiness to account to the people according to the truth.” ADDRESS OF CONGRESSMAN PAYNE. After the protracted applause which followed the Governor’s address, Dr. Jordan introduced as the second speaker of the morn- ing, Hon. Sereno E. Payne, of Auburn, Member of Congress. Mr. Payne said in part: 14 TWENtTy-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY Report. “Tam glad that Governor Hughes has discovered Geneva with its beauty and evidences of prosperity. He is a great discoverer. As you know he has discovered some things down at Albany which have not been thought of before. There is one thing about Gov- ernor Hughes that when he makes a discovery he generally acts. Now that he has discovered Geneva and the Experiment Station I am sure that you will hear from Albany more loudly than before. After hearing him speak I have begun to feel that he too is a farmer or at least an‘agriculturist, and the farmer is the greatest man in the country especially at election time. “The farmers comprise more than half of the people of the United States. As so large a part of his family belongs to this class Uncle Sam has spent considerable time in looking after them. One way that he has attempted to do this is by distributing seeds. I have the honor of opposing this way of looking after farmers, believing that the farmers of my constituency are perfectly able to buy seeds for themselves. Originally the idea of this appropriation was all right, as it was based upon the idea to send out rare seeds which would benefit agriculture in the various parts of the states, but in later years this idea has been distorted.” From this point the Congressman reviewed the various kinds of work that the Federal Government has undertaken for the benefit of the agricultural interests of the country, speaking of the founda- tion of the land grant colleges, the annual appropriation to experi- ment stations and agricultural colleges and the extensive work of the Department of Agriculture. He also spoke of the improvements in rural conditions by the introduction of the rural free delivery and rural telephone. REMARKS OF SENATOR RAINES. The last speaker on the morning program was Hon. John Raines, State Senator from the district which includes Geneva. In intro- during Senator Raines, Dr. Jordan spoke of the Senator’s resolu- tion, expressed by letter, not to speak at the exercises; but said he felt compelled to pay tribute to him as a most loyal friend of the Station, who from his position had been able to do much to pro- mote its interests. Senator Raines responded briefly, and after some jocular remarks relative to his relationship with the Governor, expressed his satisfaction at having been able to serve the Station and his pleasure at the cordial relations existing between this insti- tution and its sister Station and College at Cornell University. New York AcricuLturaL ExperiMENT STATION. 15 AFTERNOON PROGRAM. The address of Speaker of the House, Hon. Sherman Moreland, was necessarily omitted, owing to his absence, but the other speakers were as given on the program. The remarks of Messrs. Godfrey and Woodward were quite informal, and though valuable and en- tertaining, especially the reminiscences by Mr. Woodward, are not capable of reproduction in print in a way to do them justice. The papers by Mr. Flanders, Dr. Thompson and Dr. Bailey fol- low in full: i NEW YORK STATE’S POSITION IN AGRICULTURE. G. L. FLANDERS. I anticipate that a very important question for the consideration of those interested in agricultural matters in this State to-day is the question of the relation of the agricultural productions of the - State of New York to the agricultural productions of the United States, and this same relation may be carried a step further as one of interest by making a statement as to the relativity of the agri- cultural productions of the United States to the agricultural pro- ductions of the rest of the world. The Hon. O. P. Austin not long since in an address said: “ But the real cause for anxiety in determining the rivalry of these coun- tries is as to the growth of their producing power.” To determine whether or not these countries are increasing their production with such rapidity as to indicate that they may take the markets of the world from the United States, he compared the wheat crop of 1901 with that of 1892, showing that during the ten year period Australia had increased her production of wheat 20,000,000 bushels, Argentina 36,000,000, Canada 43,000,000, India 39,000,000, Russia 53,000,000, United States 232,000,000; that of the United States being more than the increased production in Australia, Argentina, Canada, India and Russia combined. In this, he thought the response was easily found in the fact that the United States produces three- fourths of the world’s corn, three-fourths of its cotton, 40 per ct. of the provisions entering into international commerce and more than 4o per ct. of the exported wheat. 16 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. The agricultural strides in the United States in the last forty years have been something remarkable. The last census shows that, by the use of machinery, the time for producing a bushel of wheat has declined from 4 hours and 34 minutes to 41 minutes, and the cost of human labor to produce this bushel from 3534 cents to 10% cents; that the human labor now required to produce a bushel of wheat is 10 minutes, while in 1830 it was 3 hours and 3 minutes, and that the cost of production has declined in that length of time from 1734 cents to 3% cents. In the earlier period it required 35’4°hours to prepare a ton of hay for market, and it has now been reduced to 11 hours 30 min- utes; while the cost of production has been reduced in that length - of time from $3.06 to $1.29, and in the two operations, the mowing and curing of the grass, the time of human labor per ton has been reduced from 11 hours to 1 hour 39 minutes, and the cost from 8314 cents to 16% cents. To summarize briefly this great saving, due to improved methods and machinery, it was found for the seven crops of the single year of 1899 that the following amounts were saved in the production of the following named crops: COfnwt st cE lane ohh ae. Gee ee eee $523,276,642 NVA AILS oh .'s poccs’, dole iota ee een etchene Rectan eae 79,194,867 ats Msi xcs Bel eaiak sn cea ne ee ete een a 52,866,200 RVC. kyo peo e hin eet eyes ee osisee a Sane ee a es 1,408,950 Barley: eietets Hees ate ate, ahi 5 ae ee 20.26- -".- OI5% COAESS PALS tsne pierce en See ea 18.1% “ 4.32% Buckwheatetove: 26 48 ee eee 25.58. a 3cOr Yet as to the amount of the products, New York produces prac- tically as much in 1900 as she did in 1850. This is true of oats and buckwheat, while in the case of corn and cattle the product of the State of New York in 1900 exceeded that of 1850, never- theless the difference in the relation of the agricultural produc- tions of the State of New York and the United States in the period mentioned is due almost entirely to the increased production in _ the United States. Thus it will be seen that New York has grown to be less and less of a factor in the cereal and meat markets owing to the great progress made by the country as a whole; that she has had to turn her attention in other directions in order to main- tain the position. which she should occupy among the states of the union, having practically 1/10 of the population. To-day New York stands first among the dairy states of the Union, as will be seen by the following table: 1900 ae canes a ‘nile Value eV, cl 64,457 1,501,608 772,799,352 $55,474,155 He ages take sss 32,600 943,773 487,033,818 35,800,100 NVEISP eines. 1550.5) 25,246 998,397 472,274,264 20,779,721 Ie a ene 17,74O™ . oi BER aca clot eee Witte et. os 103700 3 Fea FIG. oe pes ees alts 67. 15,6005 1,007,664 457,106,995 29,638,619 WasSSioc ek 3's (T4sQOO, -) SSeS ee oe oe ot DMG hile ears st PAG LTO ets Seger 309,617,046 16,903,087 ONG 6. 5: 12,768 818,239 425,870,394 25,383,627 Loy eee ae adaaee MSP 1,423,648 535,972,240 27,516,870 BINSMAIG Ai, SNe Piet bagaye S¥ete 861,023 251,342,098 15,510,978 Iie Meaes ck ye, See ays bet 765,380 258,207,755 15,042,360 Sintah-e Sa aA Re 753,032 304,017,106 16,623,460 Per AS Oc elas Pek sete 676,456. oo. sn See From every point of view New York ranks the leading dairy State. It stands second as a fruit producing State, California alone being ahead of her, as will be seen by the following table: New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT -‘STATION. Al WS IPENC CLIT Ail $28,280,104 Malerae OE Ie ONE. Sara os. dae eel ew Sle eS 15,844,340 eminioyd Welilley eters a aha oe wae eee ses 9,884,809 COIS Se Se he i ei ee 8,901,220 ld erik Ss 5,850,362 These five states produce 52.3% of all the fruit in the United States. As a dairy State, New York has produced, as shown by figures collected biennially by the Department of Agriculture since 1892, butter in factories as follows: SME EN atest con ad Sof ye, 6 «in we cca2 tess 19,497,357 TDM ges SEES ies eo SOM a re re 23,218,626 Me MEME ees At ceoe es, eand os Alay aboeion.c 21,420,094 TODS. (RS i ee a ane are re Pe ea a 30,580,088 TOW y 8 6 6O eae Cs Pea ee Sere eee 20,193,311 GLOVE oo ah SRA ERA eee Re ae a 49,919,794 PHO Hier Otte ae ar Line case aya eae of She * Rpt. 3:49-62 (1884). 70 Twenty-rirti ANNIVERSARY Report. not fed to excess, were not detrimental to the production of milk nor to its quality for human consumption. It is true that in the early stage of the experiments the grains were fed injudi- ciously and exerted an ill effect upon the appetite of the cows. After the improper method of feeding was corrected, no difference could be observed in the milk as between the cows that were eating even putrid grains and those that were fed on the soundest kind of food. This should not be taken as an argument for feeding putrid material, because when the appetite of the animal and her general health are taken into consideration, there is always danger from such a food. It does mean, however, that many of the notions held by the public were not based upon accurately observed facts. A later test of wet starch waste, or slump, confirmed the conclusions of the first test, at least so far as acidity of food is concerned. This wet feed was fed after it had acquired 0.2 per ct. of free acid and during the same experiment hay and dry feed to which acetic acid had been added were given as one ration. The presence of this acid, either that from fermentation or that which was added, had no injurious effect whatever upon the health of the animals or upon the character of the milk. Indeed, the presence of a small amount of acid seemed favorable toward stimulating the appetite of the animals. THE FOOD SOURCES OF MILK FAT. One of the most elaborate and conclusive studies in animal nutri- tion that the Station has conducted was an investigation? into the food sources of milk. fat... The popular notion had for a long time prevailed that fat in the food was the source of the fat of milk. On the other hand it was held by certain scientific investigators that milk fat arises from the fatty degeneration of the proteid tissues of the udder. Previous investigations of this problem, including one made at the Station, had been inconclusive, because the rations fed were such that the fats present in the ration and the fat equivalent of the digestible protein of the ration were generally enough to ac- count for all fat in the milk. The plan of the Station experiment involved the extraction of practically all of the fat in the materials of the ration so that only the fat equivalent of the digestible protein was to be considered outside of the carbohydrates. Experiments with two cows demonstrated beyond any shadow of a doubt that the carbohydrates in the food must have served as raw material for the *Buls. 132 and 197; also in Rpts. 16:49-522 (1897) and 20:29-60 (1901). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 71 production of a large proportion of the fat in the milk. This con- clusion is not irrational in view of the fact that Lawes and Gilbert and other investigators have demonstrated the formation of fat in swine and other animals from starch and sugar. THE INFLUENCE OF THE RATION UPON THE COMPOSITION OF THE CARCASS. At one time the influence of the ration upon the composition of the animal’s body was much discussed and one: experiment!? was instituted at the Station for the purpose of comparing rations heavily nitrogenous with one of a much wider nutritive ratio. One ration consisted of hay, bran and cottonseed-meal, and the other of hay and corn meal. These were fed to lambs. At the end of the experiment one lamb of each lot was killed and a mechanical analysis was made of the carcass. It was found that the carcass of the corn- fed lamb contained a much larger proportion of fat than the carcass of the lamb that was fed cottonseed-meal. This result is in entire accord with the outcome of Station investigations at other experi- ment stations. * Rpt. 7:300-303 (1888). EXPERIMENTS OW id se One SUMMARIZED BY WW. Pe WHEELER: This Station was one of the first to conduct any experiments with poultry. Some preliminary work was done in 1888 and since that time experiments in a limited way have been regularly continued. The first experiments were undertaken to get some of the more general facts in relation to the food requirements of fowls. Al- though reports were then available from considerable work done with larger animals in this country, and from much more in Europe, very little was on record concerning poultry, and there was an especial lack of reliable data in regard to nutrition. COMPARISON OF RATIONS WITH LARGE AND SMALL HENS. Feeding trials in 1888 to secure data upon which to base subse- quent investigation,’ were with rations largely of grain as usual, and contrasted chiefly as to protein content. Each ration was fed to two lots of hens, one representative of the smaller and the other of the larger breeds. A preliminary trial showed that the smaller hens ate about half as much as the larger when not laying, and about three-fourths as much when laying. Of the two rations then com- pared the average consumption was about alike, and the smaller hens took about seven-tenths as much food as the larger, calculated on the basis of dry matter. More eggs were produced under the ration containing corn meal with a nutritive ratio slightly wider than that of 1:7 than under the other ration with a ratio slightly narrower than that of 1:4, though the only fowls suffering in health were those fed freely on the wider ration. Account was kept of manure collected. Analyses were made of a number of eggs and only slight differ- ences found in food value as related to the breed from which they came or in regard to the ration fed. "Rpt. 7:59-66 (1888). [72] - New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 73 LOSS OF WATER AND CHANGE IN SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE EGG. Observations” were made as to the gradual loss of water by eggs exposed to the air for a month. The rate of loss increased slightly with rise in temperature, but was influenced more by character of shell, being slower with eggs of heavy shell and faster with lighter- shelled eggs. About 500 determinations of specific gravity of eggs were made. Although there was a regular diminution in specific gravity with age, the rate varied with the character of the egg. It was concluded that certain methods advocated for determining the freshness of eges by immersing them in solutions of definite specific gravity would be far from infallible. There was little difference in specific gravity of eggs noticed from hens fed differently, and there was a slight though constant difference between white-shelled and brown-shelled eggs which was accounted for by the average lighter shell of the latter. The relative proportion of white and yolk was observed for a number of eggs. Some variations were found, but as a rule the proportion was close to the average which showed the white to con- stitute a little over 64 per ct. and the yolk a little less than 36 per ct. of the edible portion of the fresh egg.- SUGGESTION AS TO SUPPLY OF EGG SHELL MATERIAL. It was estimated® that the amount of lime in the shells of eggs from one pen very greatly exceeded the amount in the ordinary food, indicating that this excess is derived from some other source than the ordinary grain and vegetable food. Later, determinations were made of the phosphorus in yolks, white and shells of eggs from hens fed bone with ordinary food, and from others fed crushed oyster shell, to note any suggestion of possible differences in character of the mineral matter. No particu- Jar differences were observed, but the shells of eggs from bone-fed hens contained a slightly larger amount of phosphorus. THE NUTRITIVE RATIO OF THE LAYING HEN’S RATION. Feeding experiments* with hens were made the following year to study the relative effects of rations containing larger and smaller * Rpt. 7:66-7o (1888). * Rpt. 8:64, 65 (1889). *Rpt. 8:56-62 (1889). 74. TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY Report. proportions of protein. Neither ration fed was extreme, the aver- age nutritive ratio for most of the time being about 1:4.3 for one ration and about 1:5.8 for the other. On the average for all hens fed the effect on egg production was not greatly different for the two rations, but when the type of hen was considered the difference Was more apparent, hens of smaller and more active breeds laying better thoughout under the wider ration and those of heavier breeds better under the narrower ration. During the more productive months about 26 per ct. more eggs were obtained from the smaller hens under the wider ration, and from the larger hens about 21 per ct. more were obtained under the narrower ration. Analyses made of the eggs showed, as in 1888, little difference in the general composition as influenced by the breed or by the two rations fed. FEEDING TABLE FOWLS.® During the winter months another feeding trial was made with cockerels and capons, for the earlier two months of which little difference was found in the rate of growth or in the amount of food required for it. Later in the season, after February, increase in weight was not obtained at a profit (the cockerels making some- what the poorer showing) though it was considered that feeding at this stage might often be justified as carrying the fowls to a time of better market price. POULTRY MANURE. Account © was kept of the manure collected from pens of laying hens under different rations and from pens of fattening fowls. Analyses were made of a number of samples and also of some col- lected the preceding year. Manure from fattening fowls had a higher fertilizing value than from laying hens with similar food. Manure from hens fed a nitrog- enous ration was of greater value than from hens fed a more carbonaceous ration. It was found that over 40 per ct. of the nitro- gen originally in the dung was lost in drying, though it was rapidly dried. Suggestion was made in the report that freshly collected poultry manure be at once mixed with some dry absorbent. "Rpts. 8:63, 64 (1889); 9:136 (1890). * Rpt. 8:62, 64 (1889). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 75 THE EFFECT OF A RATION WITH MUCH CORN AS MODIFIED BY TYPE OF HEN, Continuing the study of effects of rations varying in composition a feeding experiment’ was made in 1890 with four lots of hens. The rations were contrasted as to protein content, influenced chiefly by the free use of corn in one ration. Neither ration was con- sidered an extreme, the average nutritive ratio of one being about 1:3.9 and of the other about 1:5.2. To a certain extent the cumu- lative effect of the rations was involved, for these hens had been during the year preceding under rations similarly contrasted. With hens of the larger breeds the two rations seemed about equally efficient, for while there was for the whole season a slightly larger production of eggs under the wider ration, there was during the six months of heaviest production a margin in favor of the hens having the narrower ration. With the hens of smaller breeds the wider ration containing the corn meal proved more emetent 101 those. under ‘it~ laid’. about 50° per -ct. more eggs than similar hens under the more nitrogenous ration. The consumption of food was about alike under both rations. Better average health was maintained under the more nitrogenous ration. ‘The smaller hens, though using less food per fowl, required much more per pound of live weight. Handling and weighing during the feeding trial indicated that the fowls under the more carbonaceous corn meal ration continued fatter, but when- fed freely for several weeks after the laying and molting seasons were over, the hens having the narrower ration became somewhat fatter and carried less lean meat, as dissection of nineteen typical individuals showed. It was found also that the bones were slightly heavier in the hens that had: been fed the wider ration. While this did not signify much in a positive way it showed that the continuous feeding for two years, commencing before maturity, on a ration about 60 per ct. of which was corn and corn meal did not result in more excessive development of fat or lack of bone than the use of considerably narrower rations. Perhaps the chief interest in this result lies in the fact that at that time prominent writers, probably influenced by unfavorable results from the excessive or unvaried feeding of corn to certain animals, especially the young, were advising against any use of this grain, urging with little qualification that Indian corn was less efficient ‘Bul. 29; also in Rpt. 9:123-135 (1890). 70 TWEnNTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY Report. than other grains, and used in any quantity would produce excessive fat, while a narrower ration would make lean meat. In an experiment of feeding pens of hens and of young cockerels largely or altogether on corn and corn meal the vice of feather eat- ing, and in one instance cannibalism, soon developed, while similar pens under more varied rations remained in good Condition. In two instances the vice disappeared with change of food. AN EXPERIMENT IN FEEDING FAT. In connection with the unfavorable opinion concerning the use of corn it was held that corn contained too much fat, and that any ration containing much fat was injurious and inferior to any similar ration with less fat. To observe what ill effects might follow the use of a ration carry- ing an unusual amount of fat a feeding trial® with sixteen hens was made. ‘Two rations were fed, the one including all the tallow that was readily eaten with ordinary food, and the other a similar one except that linseed meal was substituted for the tallow. The proportion of fat to total dry matter was that of 1:8.1 in one ration and 1:29.5 in the other. The nutritive ratio of the ration with tal- low was about 1:6.8 and of the more nitrogenous ration about 1:4.8. For most of the time and on the average, egg production was . slightly in favor of the more nitrogenous ration both in number and size of eggs. But for about six weeks of the hottest weather (July and August) more eggs were obtained from the tallow-fed hens. For about four and one-half months covering the better part of the laying season the amount of dry matter in the food for every pound of eggs produced was 4.3 pounds for the fat ration and 3.4 pounds for the more nitrogenous ration. There was but little difference as to fluctuations ‘in live weight, though the hens having the fat ration held to somewhat heavier average weight during all except the earliest periods. INFLUENCE OF FOOD ON THE MOLT. Except in the matter of plumage® the tallow-fed hens seemed throughout in better general condition than the others. The chief difference noted was that the hens having the more nitrogenous linseed meal ration molted earlier in the season, more rapidly and * Bul. 39; also in Rpt. 10:194-199 (18091). * Rpt. to:19g5 (1891). ~ tty oe New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 77 nearly all at the same time. By the first week in October only a few of the fat-fed hens had begun to molt while several in the other iot were in new plumage. In reporting the experiment it was suggested that a highly nitrog- enous ration be fed at the approach of molting time. THE SOURCE OF MATERIAL FOR THE EGG SHELL. It had generally been thought unnecessary to consider the mineral constituents of foods when feeding most animals, but it became an important matter when feeding numbers of laying hens in confine- ment, for considerably more than one-third of the total dry matter of an egg is mineral, chiefly lime. For some time there had been active discussion among poultry- men over the question whether oyster shell could be of any use to the hen as a source of material for the egg shell. It was becoming more generally known that ordinary foods, principally grain, sup- ply an insufficient amount of lime. Some experienced men whose opinions deservedly carried much weight, strongly maintained that the carbonate was too insoluble to be an available source of lime, and sought to supply the known deficiency by feeding large amounts of clover and similar foods comparatively rich in this constituent, although a ration carrying enough lime in such bulky foods would be otherwise inefficient. Several limited feeding trials made in connection with the study of this subject gave suggestive but inconclusive results. In 1891 another experiment!® was made after some preliminary work such as partial analyses of the soluble contents of a number of crops, gizzards and intestines and of large oviducts, inactive, and taken at time of active shell formation from hens that had been fed oyster shell and from others that had not. These examinations gave no conclusive information; but considerable free acid was always found in portions of the digestive tract, enough to dissolve carbonate of lime. After a pen of hens had been confined for ten days’in a clean pen where nothing edible could be obtained except the intended food more detailed account was kept, for a period of ten days following, of the amount and composition of both food and product. Again after the close confinement for twenty-three days detailed account was continued for a period of twelve days following. Similar work with ducks was discontinued as they did not lay well enough to supply conclusive results. * Bul. 38; also in Rpt. 10:182-189 (18091). 12) TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. Sy i = During the first period eggs were produced by the hens at the rate of one pound for every 3.9 pounds of dry matter in the food, and during the second period one pound for every 2.6 pounds. The change in live weight during either period was slight, no more than might occur at any time within a few minutes. The eggs laid during the first period contained calcium equiva- lent to 48.43 grams of carbonate of lime, mostly in the shell. The ordinary foods and drinking water given them contained calcium in different combinations enough to make 7.62 grams of carbonate of lime. Of the lime in the eggs over 84 per ct. was unaccounted for by any food except the oyster shell taken by the hens, which contained 93.8 grams carbonate of lime. In the eggs laid during the second period there was found cal- cium, mostly in the shell, equivalent to nearly 88 grams carbonate of lime, while the food and drinking water contained calcium in different combinations equivalent to only about 10 grams of car- bonate of lime. Over 88 per ct. of the lime in the eggs was unac- counted for except by that in the oyster shell eaten, which contained 181 grams of carbonate. The margin was so great that no other conclusion seemed pos- siple except that the egg shells were constructed from material derived in large part from the oyster shell. In connection with this experiment another feeding trial was carried on with a pen of hens under similar conditions except that clear glass in small fragments was fed instead of oyster shell. Fewer eggs were laid by these hens, and with thinner shells. During one period the eggs and shells contained about 1.6 grams and in another 1.2 grams more calcium than was found in the food and water. The glass eaten contained, in one case twelve and in the other thirty times this amount, but it was not considered that any of this was available, being combined in the form of various silicates unaffected by ordinary solvents. It was thought more probable that the small amount was obtained from pebbles of limestone swallowed long before, for a few small. rounded fragments of such were found in the dung, and these had been subjected to conditions that in the one case made oyster. shell available. The hens having access to oyster shell took this to the proportion of from about 5 to 7 per ct. of the total water-free food while those without shell ate glass to the proportion of 30 per ct. of the water- free food and would ravenously take very much more if permitted, apparently all that could be swallowed. Other hens given glass r= New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 79 mixed with bone and shell were always satisfied with a moderate amount. It therefore seemed not improbable that in this one case they were instinctively searching for what the glass alone failed to supply. SKIM MILK PROFITABLY USED. To learn whether skim milk could be freely utilized for poultry feeding without ill effect, many chicks had been grown to maturity with this only for drink. None were sickly and the few losses were accidental. Unusually early and full feathering, especially among Asiatics, was attributed to the free use of the skim milk in the ration. To get information as to the possibility of feeding it to chicks as profitably as to calves and pigs, two lots of the chicks!’ were fed in confinement where all the food could be accounted for. Except for the close confinement they were reared by ordinary farm methods and were brooded by hens so long as necessary. The sweet skim milk constituted on the average about three- fifths of the total food. For the whole time that the feeding trial covered, one pound increase in live weight was made for every 3.4 pounds of dry matter in the food, very slightly less by one lot and very slightly more by the other. Allowing for the gain in weight made by the hens while they were kept with the chicks the figure would be reduced to about 3.2 pounds for each lot. The result compared favorably with the showing made by other farm animals of lower market values per pound than poultry. Chicks averaging 2.4 pounds in weight at from ten and one-half to eleven and one-half weeks of age were grown at a cost for food of 5.3 cents per pound in one instance and of 5.4 cents per pound in the other, a cost very considerably below the market value of the poultry. While the foods and products have fluctuated con- siderably in price since then there has been no occasion to modify the conclusion then made that some of the skim milk of the farm could be profitably used for growing chicks. THE USE OF SALT IN THE RATION FOR FOWLS. Salt in some quantity is a necessity to the living animal. Some foods contain all that is probably needed, but the amount in others is small. In order to guard against any possible deficiency it is well ™ Bul. 39; also in Rpt. 10:189-193 (1891). 80 ‘TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. to feed some salt, especially if it increases the palatability of the ration. Moderate quantities of salt had been fed to poultry with apparent advantage, but the limitations of its use were not known. A feeding trial’? was therefore made with twelve hens to get some suggestion as to the approximate limit of its safe feeding to mature fowls. For one lot of hens salt was mixed in the food, increasing in amount by periods of feeding. Until it was fed at the rate of .063 oz. per day per fowl (nearly one-half pint per day for 100 hens) no bad effects were noticed. With this amount, however, diarrhea attacked a few of the hens, but the trouble disappeared when the amount of salt in the food was reduced about one-third. When the hens were allowed free access to boxes of coarse barrel salt, not enough was eaten to show ill effect, either by hens that had been fed salt freely for two months or by those that had been without any for the same time. . Little significance was attached to the egg yield from these old hens fed at an unproductive time of year, but twice as many eggs were obtained from the salt-fed hens as from the others, so there was no indication of unfavorable effect in this direction. When reporting the experiment it was suggested that salt at the rate of one ounce per day for 100 mature fowls could be fed without risk. In later feeding it was found that five ounces of salt in every 100 pounds of food was a safe proportion. The Station has not advised the feeding of any salt to young chicks or until they are two or three months old. : PRESERVING EGGS. At different times tests'? were made at the Station of a number of methods recommended for preserving eggs, and also of some modifications of these methods that seemed likely to be equally or more successful. No tests were made of cold storage, but only of those methods that could be used with little expense on a small scale. No method of dry packing was found to give satisfactory results whether the eggs were turned regularly or not, and most methods were worthless. The best results were secured by keeping the eggs immersed in solutions either of lime, lime and salt, water glass (from 10 to 20 per ct. solution) or a proprietary solution con- sisting largely of water glass. On the whole, preference was given ® Bul. 39; also in Rpt. 10:200, 201 (1890). * Report 10:201, 202 (1891). rrr ee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. St to a solution of lime and salt (to which a little boracic acid was added) of a specific gravity somewhat lower than that of eggs, because the common materials could be cheaply obtained in pure condition and the preserved eggs were easier to clean than those from more costly solutions which gave no better results. Though of course no preserved egg could grade with a fresh one, little a Bh oes y difference in quality of eggs, as tested by many individuals, could 3 be detected between those preserved in the few efficient solutions. 3 P >. _ THE FEEDING OF CAPONS. Some years ago after general agricultural development brought a condition where the margin of profit in winter feeding of beef cattle and swine in this State had been so small that the chief ad- 4 vantage was the possibility of thereby using coarse fodders and by- products on the farm, the demand for other animal products at- tracted more attention. The unusually high prices quoted for capons led to considerable discussion in the agricultural and poultry press relative to the profit in producing them. This discussion was not free from exaggerated statements of interested individuals, and little satisfactory information was available. To get some data concerning the growth and food cost in fitting capons for market several feeding experiments’* were made during the two seasons. Six lots of capons and one lot of cockerels were fed for several months and several lots of capons for shorter periods of several weeks. Birds of several breeds and crosses were used, chiefly Asiatics, but none of the smaller breeds. No special comparison of breeds was attempted, although for the most part each lot’ was of one breed. To all of these fowls sweet skim milk was fed nearly all of the time in place of water, and much of the time constituted about 60 per ct. of the total food, supplying generally from 12 to 15 per ct. of the total dry matter in the ration. Detailed reports were published giving records of the food, its composition, the rate of growth and food cost of growth by short periods, and also charts showing graphically the increasing cost of added weight as the birds approached maturity, the food cost per pound weight at different stages, and the relation existing through- out growth between the cost of production and the market value. * Bul. 53; also in Rpt. 11:236-270 (18902). zs 82 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. On the average for the eight lots of capons for which records were kept the longest time, from hatching to maturity, the lowest cost per pound live weight was at the average weight of four pounds. Largely because the market prices were always lower for the smaller fowls the cost of food to grow the birds to four and one-half pounds in weight represented the highest proportion (a little over 50 per ct.) of their market value found at any time from earliest marketable size as broilers to the heaviest capons. From the time the capons weighed five pounds until they weighed ten and one-half pounds the total cost of food consumed did not at any time reach half of their market value. Although the cost of every pound added to the weight was greater as the birds approached maturity than it had been for any earlier increase, the prices for the largest fowls were so much higher than for the smaller that the margin over cost of production was always greater with the nearly full-grown capons. On this account the later feeding was justified, so long as there was a regular increase in weight, until the spring months, at which time the greatest demand for capons and highest - prices usually prevailed. COCKERELS AND CAPONS COMPARED. One lot of capons’® was fed for comparison with a lot of cockerels taken from the same flock of chicks. For the whole period that record was kept for the cockerels — nearly six months —they in- creased in weight about 30 per ct. faster than the capons, but the rate of growth was much more irregular. At the average weight of six pounds the capons had cost for food 12 per ct. more than the cockerels; but more food was required on the average by the cockerels, so that at nine pounds’ weight they had cost over 8 per ct. more than the capons. As the cockerels grew faster and larger than the capons they averaged about ten and one-quarter pounds in weight before the capons had reached the weight of nine and one- half pounds, and at the heaviest weights had cost no more for food. At the average prices then existing in New York State markets the cockerels could have been sold at the greatest profit at about six pounds’ weight, and the capons not until they had reached the weight of nine pounds, at which weight the difference between the cost of food and the market value was two and one-half times as great as for the cockerels. In some markets and more generally in “Bul. 53; also in Rpt. 11:259, 260 (1892). pacer a New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 83 recent years better relative prices have prevailed for such poultry as well-fed cockerels, so this difference found at the time in favor of capons would often be much smaller. CONTRASTED RATIONS FOR CAPONS WITH MORE AND LESS NITROGENOUS GRAIN FOOD. Two similar mixed lots of capons,'® including birds of several breeds and crosses, were fed rations contrasted chiefly as to propor- tions of more and less nitrogenous grain products. Wheat, ground oats, wheat bran, wheat middlings, linseed meal, skim milk, crushed bone and, part of the-time, alfalfa were used in both rations. With one corn meal was fed to the extent of about 35 per ct. of the total grain food, and in the other the amount of wheat bran was in- creased till it constituted on the average about 47 per ct. of the grain food. The skim milk supplied about 54 per ct. of the total food and over 12 per ct. of the total dry matter in the corn meal ration, and about 65 per ct. of the total food and over 18 per ct.. of the dry matter in the wheat bran ration. The average nutritive ratio of the one ration was a little narrower than 1:5 and of the other a little narrower than 1:4. The capons having the narrower ration made on the whole a little faster gain in weight and grew somewhat larger, but the rather slower increase under the wider ration was made at less cost, not- withstanding a higher price for corn meal than for wheat bran, for less food was required for the same gain. On the whole the results under the two rations were but little different, though during most of the time the capons fed the corn meal ration could have been sold at a little better profit. KEEPING MALES WITH LAYING HENS. It was commonly known among experienced poultrymen that hens kept away from male birds would lay well, but occasionally men who had kept fowls for years expressed surprise when such a result came to their notice. Some poultrymen were of the opinion that where there was no male, laying was deferred and not so many eggs obtained, though few or no comparable data seemed available to support any conclusion. It was also the common thing to find where a few hens were kept:in very limited quarters solely for the eggs, the noisy presence of a cock was endured, while un- * Bul. 53; also in Rpt. 11:264, 265 (1892). 84. TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. favorably commented upon, under the supposition that without him there would be no eggs. ay To get some information as to this question of relative egg pro- duction, an experiment’ with four pens of pullets was made. Two similar lots of cross-bred pullets were used and two similar mixed lots of pure bred pullets. With two lots, one of each type, cockerels were kept and the other two were kept without any male bird. All the pullets used had been separated from males for some months before laying maturity was reached. A cockerel was put with each of the two lots of pullets two months before any began laying. Some pullets in each of the two pens in which no male was kept began laying about a month before any in the corresponding pens with cockerels began to lay. Most of the birds were of Asiatic blood and rather persistent sit- ters. The broody hens were not given any special discouragement, and there were about the same number on the average in the con- trasted pens. Of the cross-bred pullets the lot without a male laid better for the whole time that record was kept (about nine months) and also during the best part of the season. Of the other lots (Minorcas and Brahmas in each) the one without a male laid best during the first few months, but fell behind the other lot later on; so that the total production per laying hen was somewhat less, though the product per fowl was about alike for the contrasted lots. It was thought that this falling off might be partly due to the devel- opment of the feather-eating vice in the one closely confined lot and the treatment necessary to suppress it. On the average for the whole time nearly 11 per ct. more eggs were obtained from the two lots without males than from the other two lots. During the best part of the laying season, for a period of 112 days, from the pens in which cockerels were kept eggs were obtained at the rate of one pound for every 4.2 pounds of dry matter in the food, and from the contrasted pens at the rate of one pound of eggs for every 3.9 pounds of dry matter in the food. Records as to food and product for the greater part of a year showed the best average result from the hens kept without males, indicating, so far as the one trial could, that there was no advan- tage in egg production derived from keeping a male bird. Besides the expense of feeding the useless cockerels, fewer eggs per hen were obtained. “Bl. 57; also. ine Rpt. 1is270—-262 smeo2)). __ New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 85 THE FOOD COST OF THE GROWN PULLET. To get some data as to the approximate food cost represented by grown pullets produced under ordinary farm methods, records'® were kept, from the egg, of food for the sitting hens, of food for the chicks of both sexes up to marketable size, and for the pullets to nearly laying maturity. : One hundred and more eggs from each of two breeds, Cochin and Leghorn, the latter of small-sized strain, representative of different types, were incubated under hens. As would usually, and preferably, be the case the Cochin chicks were hatched earlier in the season than the Leghorn, the Leghorn eggs having the advantage of season and a higher percentage of fertility. Sixty-five per ct. of the Cochin eggs and over 83 per ct. of the Leghorn eggs passed or the last testing. Of the tested eggs about 78 per ct. hatched for E the Cochins and about 92 per ct. for the Leghorns. Counting all be losses and accidents in hatching, a fraction over 46 per ct. of all * Cochin eggs set were represented by strong chicks and a fraction over 75 per ct. cf all Leghorn eggs set. Considering the cost of food for sitting hens and allowing grocery value for eggs used, each Leghorn chick cost 40 per ct. less than a Cochin chick. Sexes were separated when the Cochin chicks were about 15% weeks old and averaged a little over 4 pounds in weight, and when the Leghorns were’about 12 weeks old and averaged a little over 1.8 pounds in weight: At the time of separation the Cochin cockerels averaged about 4% pounds in weight and the pullets about 3.6 pounds. The Leghorn cockerels averaged about 2.1 pounds and the pullets less than 1.7 pounds. The food cost of the increase in weight made by the Cochin chicks was over 12 per ct. less per pound than for that made by the Leghorns. The cost of food for the Leghorn pullets during the next 3% months after the sexes were separated was 35 per ct. less per fowl than for the Cochin pullets. Deducting from the cost of growing all the chicks the market value of the cockerels at the time they were removed, would give a net cost for each Leg- horn pullet in November 20 per ct. greater than that of a Cochin pullet. With the Cochin chicks the sexes were in about equal num- bers, but there were 37 per ct. more Leghorn pullets than cockerels —an unusual excess. Had the numbers been equal, at the same poultry value and proportionate cost of growing, the net cost of hy rT. ee NET ee ese UT yee ee “e es ih cit. oa * bse a ig ’ “Rpt. 12:214-218 (1893). 86 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. each Leghorn pullet would figure the same as that of each Cochin — the average weight of the former being a little over 2.8 pounds and of the latter a little over 5.5 pounds. With the prices then prevailing this cost was a little less than 14 cents. THE QUESTION OF MECHANICAL CONDITION OF THE FOOD. In some form grain must usually constitute the larger part of the food for poultry, and among the questions constantly brought to attention was that concerning the relative efficiency of ground and whole grain. There were many reasons that would favor the use of whole grain, among them the saving of time in feeding and the expense of grinding with the possibility of inducing exercise by scattering the food. If ground foods were fed there was the possibility of often using cheaper by-products and in mixtures of ground grain more nitrogenous materials than any of the ordi- narily available whole grains. The general practice of successful poultrymen was to feed both whole and ground grain. To get some data suggesting the relative efficiency of whole grain and of ground, feeding experiments’? were made, using one ration containing only whole and dry grain and another in which for the first season three-eighths and for the second one-half of the grain food was ground and moistened. There were fed for two successive years on the contrasted rations four lots of hens, two pens of Leghorns representing one type, and two pens of Cochins representing another. With the exception of using wheat bran and wheat middlings instead of ground wheat, the same grains were fed ground that were fed whole in the contrasted ration. Corn, however, was cracked to the size of the smaller grains fed, which were wheat, oats, buckwheat, barley and flaxseed. Fresh bone was regularly fed to each pen and some succulent vegetable food and part of the time skim milk, During the first season the consumption of food was greater under the whole grain ration for both breeds, and during the second season was still somewhat greater for the Leghorns, but about alike under both rations for the Cochins. During both years egg pro- duction by the Leghorns was greater under the ration with ground grain, the difference being slight the first year and more pronounced the second year. The excess was only a little over 3 per ct.- the first season and over 17 per ct. for the second. With the less active * Buls. 90 and 106; also in Rpts. 14:494-516 (1895) and 15:666-687 (1896). SC ataty Je meee iin, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 87 Cochins, egg production was better both seasons under the whole grain ration, the excess being about 36 per ct. the first year and about 33 per ct. the second. For the same egg production there was taken by the Leghorns under the whole grain ration about 19 per ct. more food during the first season and about 23 per ct. more during the second season. By the Cochins there was used for the same egg production during the first season over 20 per ct. more food under the ration with ground grain and nearly 30 per ct. more during the second season. During 154 days of the first year covering the chief part of the laying season, there were produced by the Leghorns under the ration with ground grain about 8 per ct. more eggs at the rate of one pound of eggs for every 3.3 pounds of dry matter in the food as against one pound of eggs for every 4.2 pounds of dry matter in food under the whole grain ration. During a period of 140 days covering the chief part of the second laying season about 13 per ct. more eggs were produced under the ration with ground grain, at the rate of one pound for every 3.2 pounds of dry matter in the food as against one pound for every 3.7 pounds of dry matter in the food under the whole grain ration. During a period of 182 days, including the chief part of the first laying season, about 35 per ct. more eggs were produced by the Cochins under the whole grain ration. For the same egg pro- duction 20 per ct. more food was used under the ration with ground grain. For the second year during a period of 259 days, covering most of the laying season, 15 per ct. more eggs were produced under the whole grain ration; and for the same production 17 per ct. more food was used under the ration with ground grain. In this experiment as in others the results varied with the type of fowl as with the character of the ration. It was thought that one reason for better results from the whole grain ration with the naturally inactive Cochins was the much greater amount of exercise induced by feeding the grain scattered in straw. FURTHER EXPERIMENTS WITH THE WHOLE AND GROUND GRAINS IN COMMON USE. ’ Feeding experiments” with chicks and also with capons were made in connection with this study of relative efficiency of the ordi- ” Bul. 126; also in Rpt. 16:561-578 (1897). 88 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. nary whole and ground grains. In these feeding trials it was chiefly sought to compare rations of foods ordinarily available and com- monly used, contrasting the whole and ground grain foods. While there were minor differences in chemical composition the rations were made to correspond as closely as possible without feeding unusual products and not omitting the grains and by-products in general use. ‘The differences were much less than would exist be- tween the two types of rations commonly fed. There were fed wheat, cracked corn, barley, oats, granulated oatmeal, fresh bone, skim milk, dried blood, wheat bran, wheat middlings, ground cats and corn meal. Two lots of chicks (of several Asiatic breeds) were fed from hatching to the age of three months, and afterward four lots of capons for about six months. The grain food of one ration con- sisted entirely of whole or cracked grain and of the contrasted ration entirely of ground grain. Skim milk was fed freely to both lots, some fresh bone and part of the time blood meal, and also for the chicks some green forage. Considerably more food was eaten by the chicks under the ground grain ration and the growth was faster. Although more food was taken for the same increase in weight under the ground grain ration the cost of growth was less owing to the lower prices for the ordinary ground grain products than for whole grains. The chicks fed ground grain from the start averaged one pound in weight at six weeks of age, and those having whole grain aver- aged one pound at seven weeks of age. At ten weeks old the lot fed ground grain averaged two pounds in weight, and the lot having whole grain 1.8 pounds. When the lot having whole grain aver- aged three pounds in weight at thirteen weeks of age the lot having the ground grain averaged 3.3 pounds. The chicks of both lots, and later the capons from these same lots, remained in equally good health throughout the trials. The cockerels were caponized and continued under the con- trasted rations for several months longer. For a little more than two months after caponizing the lot having the ground grain con- tinued to make somewhat the faster growth; after that the other lot increased in weight faster and attained at maturity practically the same average. The greater consumption of food found with the chicks under the ground grain ration continued with the capon’s and more food was taken for the same rate of gain, so the cost of added weight was somewhat greater under the ground grain ration. 2 ba ay Ay 38S 4 ee ee ee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 89 As the birds approached maturity a less expensive gain was made by birds of equal age under whole grain, but birds of equal size had made cheaper gains under the ground grain ration. The average weight of ten pounds was attained by the capons fed ground grain when 6.5 months old, at which age the contrasted lot averaged but 9.5 pounds in weight, although the total cost per fowl for food from hatching was slightly less. At nine months of age the ground grain lot averaged 11.5 pounds in weight, which average was not reached by the whole grain lot until ten months of age. At equal weights the total food cost from hatching was in favor of the lot having ground grain. In the other feeding trial two lots of capons, similar in every way, were used. These were not fed the contrasted rations until caponized, and had been grown together on a common ration. For the whole time that these capons were fed as well as during the earlier periods of most rapid growth more food was consumed under the ground grain ration. The growth was also enough faster to make the ratio of gain in weight to the dry matter in the food slightly in favor of the ground grain, as well as the cost of added weight. The results from these feeding trials were on the whole some- what in. favor of the rations of ground foods; for faster growth was made, and at the prices then prevailing, at less cost. In the matter of healthfulness no difference appeared. ANIMAL FOOD FOR POULTRY — THE IMPORTANCE AND ECONOMY OF EES USE. The necessity of having enough nitrogenous matter in the food to supply material for the growing body was known and the fact was becoming more generally recognized that this must be derived from a limited bulk of food. To make up for the small proportion of protein existing in the foods that must be utilized, products of various kinds rich in nitrogenous constituents were used to im- prove the ration. Different results with rations of similar “ com- position,” so far as proportions of ordinary groups of constituents went, seemed often due to varying palatability of the foods used, but not always. To get some suggestion as to the relative efficiency of the con- stituents grouped as total protein in the grains and animal products, a number of feeding experiments?! were made. In the first series ** Buls. 149 and 171; also in Rpts. 17:45-63 (1898) and 18:75-124 (1899). go TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. four lots of chicks, two lots of pullets, two lots of cockerels and two lots of ducklings were fed on contrasted rations in one of which all of the protein, except a small proportion derived from skim milk or skim milk curd, was supplied by vegetable food, mostly grain, and in the other much of the protein came from ani- mal products, principally animal meal, with a little fresh bone, skim milk and blood meal. Feeding was begun with two lots of chicks when four days old and with two other lots when three weeks old. After the cockerels were separated, in one case at twelve weeks and in the other at twenty weeks of age, the pullets were continued on the contrasted rations, and two lots of cockerels were fed for twelve weeks. The nutritive ratio of the ration containing animal food was on the average somewhat the wider, but the total amount of protein supplied per fowl was about the same under both rations. For the whole period in each case, and especially during the earlier stages of growth, more food was eaten under the ration in which about two-fifths of the protein was supplied by animal food, and growth was much faster. As the birds approached maturity the difference in rate of growth became less or for a time was reversed, but never enough to permit the birds under the vegetable food ration to overcome the advantage that had so long been with the contrasted lot. The most noticeable result was the much more rapid and more profitable rate of growth under the animal food ration. Several pullets in the lot fed animal food commenced to lay nearly a month before any in the contrasted lot. The contrasted feeding with the ducklings was begun so soon as they had learned to eat and was continued by weekly periods for ten weeks, and after modification of the ration, for five weeks longer ; one lot being also fed another month on a reversed ration. The grain mixtures used in the “ vegetable food” ration being less palatable to the ducklings than to chicks, it was modified by addi- tion of corn meal, etc. The ration in which about one-half the protein was derived from animal food had, on the average a some- — what wider nutritive ratio, but owing to greater consumption sup- plied more protein per fowl. Except at the start, however, more protein per pound live weight was supplied by the ration containing, aside from the skim milk, only vegetable food. With the ducklings the ration containing the large proportion of animal food gave much better results from the start, permitting rapid growth with vigorous health, while under the contrasted ration growth was slow and uneven and a lack of vigor apparent. oe See New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, gi Although growth was seriously checked under the inefficient ration, the possibility of a fairly rapid growth under a better ration later was not altogether prevented. When the ducklings that had been fed the poorer ration for nearly sixteen weeks were changed to the animal food ration for a month there was at once a much more rapid increase in weight, but the birds never attained the full size reached by the other lot. The average weight of one pound was attained by the ducklings having the animal food three weeks sooner than by the contrasted lot, and at seven weeks of age the average weight of three pounds as against one pound. The average weight of about 4.5 pounds was reached at nine weeks when the average for those fed the vegetable food was about 1.5 pounds. The rations in which from 40 to 50 per ct. of the protein came from animal food gave in every trial more economical results than the rations in which most of the protein came from vegetable food— as usual chiefly different grains. In this first series of experiments the effects of the rations com- pared were plain enough, but it was not certain how much the re- sults were influenced by the difference in palatability of the two rations. This difference: was not very apparent with the chicks and cockerels, but was quite evident in the case of the ducklings. With the foods then available this inferior palatability of the one ration could not be entirely remedied except by addition of too large a proportion of materials that could not class as vegetable. During the next season a second series of feeding experiments was continued in which a similar contrast of rations was provided, but by using an exceptional variety of grain foods rations were made which did not seem to differ as to palatability. There was little difference in the protein content between the two rations, but in the one vegetable food only was used, while in the other about 37 per ct. of the protein was derived from animal food. Ten lots of chicks were fed these rations, also six lots of imma- ture pullets, two lots of ducklings, two lots of young hens and two lots of old hens. The results of feeding were like those of the first series of feed- ing trials. With every two lots of chicks contrasted, those having the animal food ration consumed more food, the excess varying from 12 to 34 per ct., and made a faster growth by from 22 to 100 per ct. The amount of dry matter in the food required for each pound gain in weight varied from 3.6 to 4.4 pounds under the animal food ration and from 4.3 to 6.8 pounds under the vegetable Q2 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REport. food ration. By chicks having animal food the average weight of one pound was reached by different lots from one to three weeks sooner, and the average weight of two pounds from three to four weeks sooner than by contrasted lots. With each two lots of young pullets fed those having the animal food made faster growth than those having only vegetable food. In only one period was more food consumed by any lot under the ration of vegetable food, the excess in this instance being about 5 per ct., while in other instances there was a difference in consump- tion of from 14 to 37 per ct. in favor of the animal food, and in but one period was less food required under the vegetable food ration for the same increase in weight. . The two lots of ducklings were fed the contrasted rations for a month, commencing when they were one week old. By the end of four weeks’ feeding those having only the vegetable food suf- fered so in health (one-half having died, and the survivors not gaining in weight), that a modification of the ration was made during three weekly periods by addition of some animal meal. After a few days on the changed ration there were no further losses, and the rate of growth rapidly increased. A fairly vigorous con- dition being restored, the birds were put back on the ration of vegetable food for two weeks, during which time the rate of gain in weight rapidly diminished. These retarded ducklings at ten weeks of age were then fed the standard animal food ration and at once began to make a steady and fairly rapid growth, increasing in weight during the five weeks about 140 per ct., though they never attained to quite the average weight reached by the contrasted lot at an earlier age. The ducklings having the animal food continued from the start in vigorous health, making a steady and rapid growth, which during the first month was at the rate.of one pound gain in weight for every 2.6 pounds of dry matter in the food as against six pounds required by the other lot. Up to ten weeks of age they made one pound gain in weight for every 3.3 pounds of dry matter in the food. With the help of three weeks on the modified ration the lot started on vegetable food only averaged during the nine weeks five pounds of dry matter in the food for each pound gain in weight. The average weight of five pounds was attained about a month sooner by the one lot, when the other lot averaged but little over two pounds in weight. The two lots of young hens, or pullets in their first laying season, New YoRK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 93 iS Bick were fed these rations had been grown on rations similarly contrasted which had been fed to them since they were hatched. _ The vegetable food ration, however, which the one lot had while a growing included some skim milk and curd. The records under the es final rations cover about seven and one-half months including the greater part of the laying season, although some of the pullets in EF, Bich lots had been laying for several weeks under the first ration, those having the animal food starting a few weeks the sooner. Under the final rations over 30 per ct. more eggs were laid and — ahout 13 per ct. more food was consumed by the hens having animal | _ food, at an average rate of 3.7 pounds of dry matter in food for _ each pound of eggs. The contrasted lot produced one pound of _ eggs for every 4.3 pounds of dry matter in the food. bet The two lots of older hens in their second laying season had been treated alike under average rations until this feeding trial 4 began. During six and one-half months covering the greater part of the laying season the hens having the ration with animal food laid over 36 per ct. more eggs and ate nearly 15 per ct. more food than those of the contrasted lot, one pound of eggs being produced for every 4.3 pounds of dry matter in the food as against a ratio of one pound for every 5.5 pounds for the hens under the vegetable _ food ration. With the two lots of ee hens already under cones a rations the difference in egg production was apparent from the start. With these older Hore no great difference in laying was shown on the average for the first twelve weeks, although for the first eight weeks production was considerably greater under the vegetable food ration; but after this more than twice as many eggs were laid by the hens having the animal food, no decrease in pro- duction occurring with them during the last twelve weeks of the trial. During several months cockerels were kept most of the time in the several pens. They were fed separately and alternated fre- quently to obviate any general differences attributable to individual males. Eggs were tested several times as to fertility and hatching power. With the younger hens there were more fertile eggs, fewer weak germs, and a larger proportion of chicks hatched from the tested eggs from the lot fed animal food. With the older hens the percentage of fertile eggs was larger from those fed animal food, but there was little difference in the vitality of the germs. From two other lots of older hens fed for a few months these > 04 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. same contrasted rations the eggs showed no difference in percentage of fertility; but there were fewer weak germs in the eggs and more chicks hatched from tested eggs from the hens fed animal food. No general differences appeared in the size attained by the chicks hatched from the contrasted lots nor in vigor of the growing chicks. Little or no difference in nutritive value of the eggs was indicated by chemical analysis. Preferences as to table quality of different lots of eggs as tested by ten families did not coincide, though general opinion seemed influenced favorably by the usually darker colored yolks and firmer appearance of eggs from hens having animal food, while any preference as to flavor was as a rule in favor of eggs produced under the vegetable food ration, which consisted of course almost entirely of grains and grain by-products. In the second series of experiments the results were again plainly in favor of the ration in which about 37 per ct. of the protein was derived from animal food. The contrasted ration in which all of the protein Was of vegetable origin did not seem to any extent in- ferior in palatability. The most noticeable difference as to con- sumption was with the ducklings, but while the amount eaten per fowl was less, the amount eaten per pound live weight was much greater under the ration of vegetable food. While the rations dif- fered little as to protein content there was, as in the first series, considerable difference in the amounts of ash or mineral matter, due chiefly to the large percentage of bone carried by the meat meal used. It was not evident to what extent the results were de- termined or influenced by this factor. In the third series of experiments the eoniraetenet rations differed little as to amounts of the several groups of constituents ordinarily considered. By the addition of bone ash to the one ration, all the organic matter of which was derived from vegetable food, the pro- portion of total mineral matter was made to equal or slightly exceed that in the contrasted ration in which about 36 per ct. of the pro- tein came from animal food. These rations were fed to six lots of chicks, two lots of duck- lings and two lots of laying hens, using in all about 580 birds. Recorded feeding was begun with the chicks and ducklings when about one week old and continued to the age of twelve weeks. The three lots of chicks having the ration with animal food ate more than the contrasted lots by from 9 to 16 per ct. The rate of growth varied a little, but on the whole was nearly alike New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 95 under the two rations. In every instance somewhat less food was required for the same increase in weight under the ration or vege- table food supplemented by bone ash than under the ration con- taining animal food, the average amount of dry matter in the food taken for each pound gain in weight being not far from 4.3 pounds under the one ration and 4.8 pounds under the other. The ducklings having the animal food ate.on the average about 26 per ct. more food than those with the contrasted ration, though during three different periods they ate less. The consumption of food per pound live weight was greater under the ration of vege- table food. Up to ten weeks of age the gain in weight was 65 per ct. greater under the ration with animal food, one pound in- crease in weight being made for every 3.3 pounds of dry matter in the food as against one pound for every 4.3 pounds under the contrasting ration. At ten weeks of age the average weight was 5-7 pounds for the one lot and 3.7 pounds for the other, and at twelve weeks 6.4 pounds and 4.7 pounds, respectively, the advantage being with the ducklings ted animal food; these birds reaching the average weight of five pounds about a month sooner than the others. There was no loss in either lot, and the ducklings seemed in equally good health under both rations.- With the ration wholly of vegetable origin, supplemented by bone ash, the ducklings made a moderate, regular and apparently healthful growth, though much slower than with a ration containing animal food. The chief dis- advantage of the less efficient ration was the much slower growth, for the birds ultimately attained the size of those more quickly grown. The two lots of hens were fed the contrasted rations for seven months, covering the principal part of the laying season. They had been laying well for two or three months before the recorded feeding began. The average food consumption under the two rations was almost exactly the same. For nearly six months there was very little difference as to laying, the average amount of dry matter in the food for each pound of eggs produced being 2.8 pounds for the hens fed animal food and 2.9 pounds for the con- trasted lot. After this time the falling off was more rapid for the hens having the vegetable food ration. No general difference was noticed in regard to molting. A cockerel was kept with each lot for over three months, these males being alternated between the pens by frequent changes and 96 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. fed in part separately. live hundred eggs, in all, from each lot were examined and incubated. Of the eggs from hens fed the ration with animal food, 86 per ct. were fertile, 19 per ct. of the fertile eggs had weak germs, and 77 per ct. of the tested eggs hatched strong chicks. Of the eggs from hens fed vegetable food, 78 per ct. were fertile, 34 per ct. of the fertile eggs had weak germs, and 64 per ct. of the tested eggs hatched strong chicks. No differ- ence in the vigor of the chicks from the two lots while growing was apparent. Summary of the three series of experiments. These experiments with animal food may be summarized about as follows: Of rations which contained practically the same proportions of the groups of constituents ordinarily considered, those wholly and those very largely of vegetable origin proved much inferior for growing chicks to other rations, higher in ash content, containing animal food. When the deficiency of mineral matter was made good by the addition of bone ash, vegetable food rations for chicks equaled or somewhat surpassed in efficiency corresponding rations in which three-eighths of the protein was derived from animal food. For laying hens rations containing animal food proved superior to others in which all or most of the organic matter was derived from vegetable sources. The vegetable food ration supplemented by bone ash proved equally efficient for several months, but egg production held up longer under the animal food ration, and the eggs were better for hatching. Rations containing animal food proved very much superior for ducklings to rations wholly or largely of vegetable origin which, according to the ordinary methods of estimation, had practically the same nutritive value. A ration of vegetable food supplemented by bone ash proved inferior to another ration of similar “ compo- sition’ in which three-eighths of the protein came from animal food. The ash-supplemented ration seemed palatable and equally healthful, but failed to induce a rapid growth, though permitting ultimate attainment of full size. THE PROPORTION OF ANIMAL FOOD IN THE RATION FOR DUCKLINGS. Under ordinary conditions grain or grain products of some sort must constitute the larger part of all rations for poultry, but the grains usually available contain but a small percentage of mineral matter. In the experiments recorded it was found that rations containinge animal food gave better results than those consisting ‘jsa} SuLmMp pop Joquinu sy} Fey ‘sq] c Jystam asvz9av s plo syooM OUIN ‘q004 AdVLAOIA Gay SONITMONG —JA ILvIg Sq] TV JYUSIOM ASPIOAR {PO SYOOM JUIN ‘d00J IVWINY Gay SONTIIONG — IIA ALvIg eepaeenenionehes anes TAAL OT. 4 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 97 largely or altogether of grain food. With abundance of green forage and grit the result was the same. With chicks this advantage did not appear when care was taken to supply abundant mineral matter to the vegetable food ration, made more than usually palatable by using a large number of foods not always available. But with ducklings”? a ration entirely of vegetable origin always proved inferior; and it seems necessary with all except costly or very unusual feeding materials to use con- siderable animal food for the most satisfactory results. In most of the feeding experiments from 35 to 40 per ct. of the protein in the efficient rations was derived from this source. To learn how much animal food in the prepared commercial forms could be used safely, and to get suggestions as to the proportion ordinarily de- sirable, supplementary feeding trials were made. No injury to the health of ducklings appeared at any time when different animal foods were moderately or quite freely used. Two lots, one two weeks old and the other seven weeks old, were fed for four weeks a ration in which 94 per ct. of the dry matter and 98 per ct. of the protein came from animal foods. Growth was about like the normal rate under efficient rations. Later the ration derived over go per ct. of its dry matter and nearly 97 per ct. of its protein from the animal foods. These animal products consisted of “meat meal,” “animal meal,’ dried blood, bone meal and milk “albumen.” Nothing else, besides sand and water, was fed except some green alfalfa. The nutritive ratio of the ration was excessively narrow, not wider than 1:1. No injury to the health of the birds was apparent, though some of them were from inferior and somewhat weaker stock than usual. An experiment with four exactly similar lots of ducklings was made in which the rations differed according to the amount of animal food. The proportion of the total protein of the ration derived from this source was approximately 20 per ct. for the first lot, 40 per ct. for the second, 60 per ct. for the third and 80 per ct. for the fourth. So far as general experience went this grouping seemed to overlap the limits of most efficient feeding. To avoid any differences in amount of ash, and to prevent any possible deficiency of total mineral matter in any ration, bone ash was added to the three rations in varying proportion to compensate for the large percentage of bone carried by the animal meal fed. The re- 22 Bul. 259; also in Rpt. 23:31-44 (1904). 4 98 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY Report. corded feeding was begun when the ducklings were one week old and was continued for ten weeks. During the first three weeks less food was required for the same increase in weight and the rate of growth was fastest for the lot having the “60 per ct. ration.’ Up to eight weeks of age the greatest increase in weight was made by this lot, and the average amount of food per pound gain was no greater than for any other lot. On the average for the entire time the amount of dry matter in the food for each pound gain in weight was greatest for the lot having the most animal meal, or the “8o per ct. ration,” the amount required by the other lots being about alike. During the later periods (and also for a time by the same lot under a more fattening ration) growth was made at a somewhat more economical expenditure of food under the ration in which 20 per ct. of the protein came from animal food, but was slower. Under the rations containing larger proportions of animal food marketable size was reached about two weeks sooner. At twelve weeks of age the largest birds in the lot fed the “80 per ct. ration” exceeded the largest in the lot fed the “ 20 per ct. ration” by about te. pemen The largest in the other two lots were intermediate in size. Results on the whole favored the use for the first four weeks of a ration in which 60 per ct. of the protein came from animal food, and later, rations containing larger and increasing proportions of grain foods. THE IMPORTANCE OF MINERAL MATTER AND THE VALUE OF GRIT FOR CHICKS. With rations composed of the grains and foods in ordinary use the benefit derived from addition of the animal by-products lies in several directions. Almost always they make good a lack of protein and generally they improve the palatability; but sometimes when the ration is palatable enough and supplies enough protein the benefit is chiefly due to the mineral matter they contain. The ad- dition of bone ash alone to rations, otherwise entirely of vegetable origin, was found to bring them equal in efficiency for growing chicks to similar rations with animal food. It was not certain to what extent such inorganic material was of direct nutritive value and how much of purely mechanical assistance. Much of the bone ash was in particles like sand, and when sand was added to the food of chicks better results followed. In collecting information on this point and to get further sug- New YorkK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 99 gestion as to the availability of inorganic lime and phosphorus, a number of feeding trials** were made, and the results of several with chicks were reported. Nineteen lots of chicks were used. Rations without animal food and others with animal food were fed, some in each class having an ash content lower than usual, some a medium content and others higher than usual. To these rations were added in varying proportions clean glass sand, Florida rock phosphate ground to flour, ground oyster shell, bone ash, sand and ground rock, sand and ground shell, or bone ash and ground shell. A brief summary of the results in general from these feeding trials is about as follows: The mixing of sand in the food, both in a ration containing ani- mal food and one without, resulted in better health for the chicks and more efficient use of the food. The addition of raw, ground Florida rock phosphate and sand to rations both with and without animal food resulted. in better growth and more efficient use of the food than when sand alone was added. : The addition of the ground rock to rations without animal food resulted in more rapid growth and more efficient use of food than the addition of sand alone. The addition of ground rock phosphate to rations both with and without animal food was followed by better growth, and on the whole from less food, than the addition of finely ground oyster shell. Food mixed with finely ground oyster shell proved less healthful and less efficient than the same food mixed with fine sand. Mixing bone ash and ground oyster shell in the food resulted in more rapid growth than the mixing of sand alone. But injury to health attributed to the ground shell made the feeding less profitable. In commenting on the results of these experiments when report- ing them, it was suggested that while advantage often followed the feeding of inorganic phosphate from such unusual materials the results were not quoted as recommending the general use of Florida rock and bone ash. Their chief value was in helping better to plan and interpret other experiments. Fine raw or cooked bone is better material for supplying the lack of phosphorus and lime and more profitable to use, especially when so generally associated with other palatable animal matter of high nutritive value; and the advice * Bul. 242; also in Rpt. 22:37-59 (1903). £00 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. was given to feed such when necessary and not bone ash or Florida rock. The insertion of these comments in a conspicuous place at the end of the report of the work was justified, for at once and at intervals after its publication inquiries were received as to how much bone ash and ground rock to feed and where it could be obtained. THE ADAPTABILITY OF CONCENTRATED BY-PRODUCTS FOR POULTRY FEEDING. Because the ordinary grains and coarse foods which must usually constitute the bulk of the ration for poultry do not supply the pro- portion of protein and mineral matter needed at times, concentrated by-products of various kinds are fed. Foods which differ little in protein content as ordinarily determined, or in cost, do not corre- spond closely in efficiency. Sometimes palatability seems the chief cause for difference, and sometimes the condition of the food as affecting digestibility. Often the reasons for different effects are not very obvious. The adaptability of many of these materials cannot be satis- factorily determined except by observing the effects of their use under various conditions. As contributing toward knowledge in this line the results from a few feeding trials in which several con- centrated by-products were freely used were reported. As young birds show the effects of questionable foods plainer than older ones, young chicks and ducklings were used in these trials.2* The general results may be summarized as follows: Of three highly nitrogenous rations fed to ducklings, one con- taining dried blood and bone meal was associated with much slower rate of growth than one containing animal meal and another con- taining “milk albumen” and bone meal, though the same amount of food under each ration gave equal increase in weight. The superiority of the two rations seemed due almost entirely to their greater palatability. . Of four rations carrying much concentrated food one containing a large proportion of gluten meals proved inferior, when fed to chicks, to another having in addition bone meal, and much inferior to others in which most of the gluten meal was replaced by animal meal or by a by-product called “ milk albumen.’ Unpalatability seemed to a large extent responsible for the inferiority of the “Bul. 271; also in Rpt. 24:37-42 (1905). ee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IOI rations containing much of the gluten meals. The poorest ration was also deficient in mineral matter, the gluten meals carrying very little. The rations containing “milk albumen,” which was of higher grade than usual, were more palatable and seemed more healthful than the others, but owing to the higher price for this food at the time it was not profitably used in the desired quantity. The rations containing animal meal were more profitably fed. The results and observations in general, like those from other trials, show a greater disadvantage in the ‘free use of foods of uncertain palatability and healthfulness during earlier stages of growth than at any other time. EXPERIMENTS WITH SWINE. SUMMARIZED BY W. H. WHEELER. CORN SILAGE FOR PIGs.! Some of the first feeding experiments with pigs related to the use cf different coarse fodders that had been sometimes fed and often recommended for feeding pigs by writers and speakers. In the trial of corn silage six pens of pigs (Durocs and Cheshires) were fed during several months in alternating periods of about five weeks, and in a second season two pens were fed during three separated periods and two pens for two periods. Under a ration including silage more food was always consumed per pound gain in weight than when grain only was fed, and in gen- eral the rate of gain in weight was slower the larger the proportion of silage fed. When not more than about 4o per ct. of the total food was silage the rate of growth was sometimes not much behind that under a grain ration. Silage was fed to the extent, in some periods, of from 90 to 95 per ct. of the total food, supplying from 75 to 80 per ct. of the dry matter in the ration. The results in general were that when corn silage constituted an average of about 7o per ct. of the total food the cost of pork pro- duction was considerably more than its market value and nearly 25 per ct. higher than when corn was substituted for the silage. When not much more than 40 per ct. of the total food was silage the cost of pork production was about the same as when no silage was fed. The valuations of foods and the market value of pork were considerably lower that at the present time. In the later trials when silage constituted in different periods from 30 to 40 per ct. of the total food, growth was at a profitable rate and the ratio of food consumption to gain in weight compared not unfavorably with that under ordinary grain rations. In four out of six periods when silage was fed the ratio of gain to food consumption was considerably improved when salt was added to the ration at the rate of from 4% to %4 ounce per day for every 100 pounds live weight fed. In the two periods the rations without salt gave but slightly better results. It was noted that * Bul. 22 (1890); Rpts. 9: 141-151 (1890); 10: 203, 204, 207 (1891). [102] New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 103 though the moisture in the silage ration was six times as much as in the contrasted grain ration 16 per ct. more water was required under it than under the ration of grain. An account was kept of the manure from several pens and the analyses made showed the manure from the silage fed pens but little inferior in value to that from the other pens. From the average records it was estimated, at the valuations then given to the essen- tial fertilizing constituents in manures, that the manure was worth from $1.80 to $1.90 per year for every 100 pounds live weight fed. PRICKLY COMFREY.! Two pens of young pigs when fed a ration in which prickly comfrey (green) constituted about 90 per ct. of the total food and supplied about 58 per ct. of the dry matter lost steadily in weight for three weeks. Two lots of older pigs fed comfrey to the extent of over 50 per ct. of the total food, 15 per ct. of the total dry matter being supplied by it, gained in weight, but not at a profitable rate. Two other lots of larger pigs fed a ration in which comfrey con- situted about 35 per ct. of the total food and supplied 12 per ct. of the dry matter, maintained a profitable rate of growth though inferior to that usually made under ordinary feeding of grain and skim milk. With the four lots by which gains were made, those having salt at the rate of about % oz. per day per 100 pounds live weight required less food for the same increase in weight than those with- out salt, 13 per ct. less in one instance and about 34 per ct. less in the other. CLOVER FOR PIGS.” When fresh red clover was fed for several weeks to a pen of young pigs to the extent of about 9o per ct. of the total food the increase in weight was so slow that there was a loss from the grain fed with it even with no value given to the clover. Four other lots of pigs were fed clover to the extent of from 86 to 88 per ct. of the fresh food and with two of the lots there was the same slow and unprofitable rate of growth. The two other lots, having the same ration, with salt added to the amount of 4 ounce per day for every 100 pounds live weight, made much faster growth but the * Bul. 28 (1891); Rpts. 9: 151-161 (1890); 10: 203 (18971). * Rpt. 9: 152-156 (1800); Bul. 28 (1891). 104 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. increase in weight was not at a profitable rate even with the clover rated at less than $1 per ton. When the clover was fed with corn meal and constituted not more than about 40 per ct. of the total food there was a much more rapid rate of growth and the increase in weight was a profitable one even with the fresh clover rated at over $4 per ton. The ration with the small amount of salt added again gave slightly the better results. ‘SORGHUM FORAGE.! When pigs that had been fed clover were changed to sorghum there was at once an increased consumption of food. The sorghum was fed as cut in the field, the entire stalk and seed. This was fed to the extent of nearly go per ct. of the total food. The increase in weight was much faster than when clover was fed, but under one ration was not at a profitable rate. Under the contrasted ration to which a small amount of salt was added the gain in weight was made at a profit with the fresh sorghum rated at $2 per ton. Feeding trials during another season showed a profitable rate of growth under rations in which sorghum constituted during some periods over 65 per ct. of the total food. But the increase in weight was much faster and at a lower cost for food when the sorghum constituted from ro to 12 per ct. of the total food than under the contrasted rations in which it constituted from 56 to 67 per ct. With the sorghum forage placed at a lower valuation the difference in cost was less. MANGELS FOR PIGS.” Of several coarse foods tried none was eaten entire or without considerable waste except mangels (or beets). In a preliminary trial for several weeks a pen of pigs fed mangels to the extent of about 90 per ct. of the total food, half the dry matter in the ration coming from them, made a profitable increase in weight. Less dry matter in the food was required per pound gain in weight than is usual under rations not including a large proportion of milk. Another lot fed the same ration with addition of a little salt gained only about half as much in weight and at little profit except with a low price for mangels. In further experiments with six lots of pigs, in several separated *Rpt. 9: 156-158 (1890); Bul. 28 (18901); Rpt. 11: 283-285 (1892). * Bul. 28 (1891); Rpts. g: 158-161 (1890); 10: 205, 206 (1891); 11: 284, 285 (1892). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 105 _ periods of feeding, when mangels were fed with grain, usually lin- seed meal, it was found that mangels were sometimes profitably fed even in large proportion. Four lots of pigs fed mangels to the ex- tent of from 95 to 98 per ct. of the total food made steady and fair rates of gain. With two lots of Duroc pigs the increase in weight was at a profitable rate and with two lots of Cheshire pigs the in- crease was less and hardly made with profit. In these periods of feeding there was little difference on the average whether salt was fed or not. In two other periods, with mangels constituting from 95 to 96 per ct. of the food, there was a profitable rate of growth by one lot of each breed, but with salt added to the ration for the other lots (% ounce per day per 100 pounds live weight fed), the growth was slower and unprofitable. Two similar lots, each containing Poland China, Berkshire, Duroc and Chester White pigs and some of Cheshire cross, were fed man- gels freely with linseed meal and some skim milk, with alternating periods when corn meal replaced a larger portion of the mangels. It was found that the increase in weight was made at considerably less cost for food when mangles constituted about 50 per ct. of the total food (about 38 per ct. of the dry matter) than when corn meal replaced them in part so that they supplied only from 9 to 13 per ct. of the total food. Increase in weight was considerably faster under the rations largely of grain but was secured at a greater cost per pound. The mangels being rated at $3 per ton, the linseed meal at $28, and corn meal at $24 per ton. OAT-AND-PEA AND BARLEY-AND-PEA FORAGE.! © Some limited feeding trials with these fodders, while not con- clusive, indicated that only moderate quantities could be profitably used without great waste, and that mixed fodders might vary enough in character to give quite different results. Mixed fodders, espe- cially those including cereals and grasses, are usually in condition for feeding pigs for only short periods. SALT IN THE PIGS’ RATION.” The question of adding salt in small quantity to the ration for pigs that were not fed skim milk or similar products was considered * Bul. 28 (1891); Rpts. 9: 152, 153, 154, 161 (1890); 10: 204 (1891). ? Bul. 22 (1890) ; 28 (1891) ; Rpts. 9: 148-150, 154-161 (1890) ; 10: 203 207 (1891). 106 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. in a number of experiments. It was generally added in quantities varying from about % ounce to 4 ounce per day for every 100 pounds live weight fed. The general results from eighteen differ- ent periods of feeding with several lots of pigs were: With rations of ordinary grain the addition of salt was an ad- vantage, but it was not always when some waste cereal products were fed. When fresh forage, such as clover, sorghum, comfrey, silage and mixed fodders constituted the larger part of the ration much better results almost always accompanied the use of salt. When grain was fed more freely with the coarse fodders considerably better results on the average were obtained when salt was fed, but some- times there was little difference. When mangels were fed in large quantity the addition of salt to the ration was a marked disadvantage in all but one period, which latter did not give results strongly opposed. It was thought that this result was due to the fact that, as mangels contained naturally a much larger proportion of salt that most foods, any added made an injurious excess. WET AND DRY GRAIN. FOOD FOR PIGS.! To get some data on the recurring question as to the relative efficiency of wet and dry grain food two feeding experiments were made, one during summer and one during winter. Four lots of pigs were used, seven and eight in each lot and of five breeds. Only water and several ground grain foods were fed. In one ration the grain was fed dry and in the other after stand- ing twenty-four hours mixed with water. On the average for several months during the first experiment the same growth was made and on practically the same amount of food, and there was little difference for the several periods of the experiment. During the second experiment there was on the average, and dur- ing both periods, slightly greater increase in weight and at slightly lower expenditure of food under the wet grain ration. Results on the whole did not show much difference in favor of the wet food. It had been assumed from observation in other feeding that when grain was fed dry it was more evenly distributed among the indi- vidual animals in the pen, and the fluctuations in rate of growth during these feeding trials were in accord with this assumption. In 1 Rpt. 12: 219-223 (1893). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 107 both experiments increase in weight was less regular and there were much wider fluctuations in the individual weekly gains under the wet food ration. CORN OR CORN MEAL.! A limited experiment was made comparing corn on the cob with an equivalent amount of corn meal for pig feeding. There was not much difference in the amount of food consumed under the two rations, although it was slightly less under the ration with corn meal, but during both of the periods of feeding increase in weight was much faster under the corn meal ration. Over 30 per ct. less dry matter in the food per pound gain in weight was required during both periods by the pigs fed corn meal and the cost per pound gain was from 16 to 18 per ct. less than when corn on the cob was fed. FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH YOUNG PIGS.” Feeding experiments were made to get data as to the relative rate and cost of growth made by pigs fed with and partly by the sow, and when fed separately, and of those kept with the mother for longer and shorter periods. Detailed data were published from 30 feeding trials in this connection in which pigs of six pure breeds and pigs of seven first crosses were fed. - The pigs were fed with the dam until from four to nine weeks old, usually until the age of six weeks, weekly records being kept. Practically without exception much less food (on the basis of dry matter) was required per pound total live weight fed when young pigs were fed alone than while fed with the sow. With very few exceptions, and these during severe weather, the increase in weight made by the pigs after removal from the sow cost much less ‘per pound than during the period just before separation or ever during the first few weeks with the mother. By considering the cost of restoring the weight lost by the sow while giving milk the difference was much greater. In several feeding trials made to de- termine the cost of bringing back the weight lost by the sow (and this weight was very rapidly restored), it was found that the cost per pound was much greater than the cost of increase with pigs, not far from twice as great as the average with young pigs about twa months old. * Rpt. 12: 235, 237 (1893). * Rpts. 11: 286-2900 (1892) ; 12: 224-234 (1803); 14: 476-493 (1895); 15: 659-665 (1896). 108 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. On the average of twenty-six feeding trials, including all of the most normal as to food and season the food cost per pound gain in weight made by pigs during the first period after separation from. the sow was about half as much (51 per ct.) as that during the period immediately preceding removal. The difference from the average cost for all the time with the sow was not much less. It was considered that where sweet skim milk was to be used pigs should have the opportunity to feed in part separately from the mother as young as possible. The best time for separating alto- gether would depend upon the character of the food to be used, the time of year, and the special purpose for which the animals, young and old, were intended. COMPARISONS GF PIGS OF DIFFERENT BREEDS AND CROSSES.! During four years a number of feeding trials were made with different lots of pigs of five pure breeds and of seven first crosses. In all thirty different lots were fed, some of them for only about three months when young, but most of them for from seven to nine months. Weekly records were kept and most of them published _ in reports of the station averaged by periods of from three to five weeks. There was not very great difference on the average in the size reached at any medium stage of maturity, except that pigs of the Small Yorkshire breed were always smaller at the same age than those of the other breeds tried. Pigs of the Yorkshire-Tamworth cross, however, were some of the largest grown, resembling the dam in type, as did also the reverse cross of these breeds, the Tam- worth—Yorkshire, which gave smaller pigs. All pigs of both these crosses were white. The pigs of Yorkshire-Tamworth also were in some respects the most satisfactory of any fed. Some of the largest - grown were of the Tamworth—Poland China cross. In average size of pigs when farrowed there were in order: Berkshire, Poland China—Duroc cross, Poland China, Tamworth—P. China cross, Yorkshire-Tamworth cross, Tamworth—Yorkshire cross, Duroc, O. I. Chester-P. China cross, Tamworth, Tamworth—Duroc cross, Berkshire—Cheshire cross and the Yorkshire, the average weight for the latter breed being 2 pounds and for the Berkshire 3.4 pounds. Of three lots fed at one time the Poland China pigs made con- siderably the more profitable growth, the Duroc next and the Berk- * Rpts. 11: 286-290 (1892); 12: 224-234 (1803); 14: 475-493 (1895); 15: 658-665 (1806). ra New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 109 shire the least profitable. With three other lots of Berkshire, P. China and P. China—Duroc cross no difference resulted from a long feeding trial in cost of pork production, rate of growth or size at- tained and very slight difference in relation of dressed carcass to live weight. In both these trials, however, the P. China pigs dressed to slightly the better advantage. In a shorter feeding trial pigs of P. China—Duroc cross made a more profitable showing than others fed, the Duroc, Poland China and Berkshire pigs following in order of profitable growth. In another trial Small Yorkshire pigs made increase in weight at con- siderably the lowest cost though less pork was produced in the same time by an equal number of these smaller pigs. Pigs of the other lots listed in order of profitable growth were Tamworth—P. China cross, Tamworth, Tamworth—Duroc cross and Poland China. Another long feeding trial showed slightly the more profitable rate of growth by Tamworth pigs, the Berkshire and Tamworth-P. China pigs giving results about alike and nearly as good as the Tamworth, and the Poland China pigs being not far behind. Pigs of Tamworth—Duroc cross made a considerably poorer showing than any of the others. In another extended feeding trial Yorkshire pigs again made in- crease in weight at somewhat the lowest cost per pound, though at- taining smaller size than other pigs, averaging at the close of feed- ing about 30 per ct. lighter than the Tamworths which were con- siderably the largest of any. The Poland China pigs and those of Tamworth—Duroc cross were not far behind the Yorkshire in cost of production. The Tamworth pigs, though the largest at the end of feeding, had attained their weight at a cost somewhat in excess of that for the other three lots. With five lots of cross-bred pigs in another long Peedine trial the most profitable rate of growth was made by those of Yorkshire— Tamworth cross, those of Tamworth-P. China cross following closely. There was~a still further increase in cost of growth for the O. I. Chester—P. China cross. The Tamworth-Yorkshire and Tamworth—Duroc pigs gave nearly the same result in cost of growth which was somewhat less profitable than that made by the other three lots. BACTERIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. SUMMARIZED BY H. A; HARDING. While the Bacteriological Department was not created until 1899, problems involving the activity of bacteria have been studied from the very foundation of the institution. In discussing plant path- ology reference is made to the work with pear blight,! bacteriosis of beans” and sweet corn? and soft rot of cabbage* and cauliflower. PASTEURIZATION FOR BUTTER MAKING. Great interest in the struggle against tuberculosis followed the introduction of the tuberculin test about 1890; and about the same time difficulties were met with in manufacturing a satisfactory grade of butter in the attempts at winter dairying which then began to be common. Pasteurization was an agency employed in solving both problems; so that much interest in this subject was felt by owners of cattle, veterinarians, milk handlers and consumers of dairy products. The mingling of the two dissimilar ideas produced a confusion which for a time prevented progress in pasteurization for butter making and caused severe criticism of pasteurization for the city milk trade. The butter work demanded a cheap and rapid means of destroy- ing the major portion of the germs present, so that those added in the form of a starter might have the desired effect. The continu- ously-flowing Danish machines had been developed to meet this need. The city milk trade required the destruction of the disease germs with certainty, but at the same time the consumer expected a well- marked cream line and objected to any cooked flavor. To avoid changes in the physical condition and flavor of the milk it is neces- *See page 142. *See page 125. ° See page 132. *See page 126. [110] NEw York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. III sary to pasteurize it at a comparatively low temperature, while to have the desired killing effect the milk must be held at the pas- teurizing temperature for a correspondingly longer interval. Ac- cordingly a different type of machine was required for this work. Since the cheapness and rapidity of action of the continuous flow machines are increased by running them at a lower temperature, the public easily confused the two types of machines. The attempt was generally made to use the continuous machines for pasteurizing milk for all purposes, running them at the low temperatures adapted to the other type. The results were bad from every point of view. Believing that the low temperature used would account for the poor results, a careful study was conducted of the germicidal action of a continuous pasteurizer when run at different temperatures.® This work showed that the temperature was really the keynote to the trouble. When the milk was pasteurized at 158° F. the killing action was quite variable and rarely well marked. When the tem- perature was raised to 178° I’. the destruction was so nearly com- plete as to leave little opposition to the germs to be later added in the starter. It was further shown that while pasteurizing at 185° F, did not produce a noticeably greater reduction in the germ con- tent it was not attended with any bad effects upon the butter. Since this latter temperature is sufficiently high to destroy the tubercle bacillus it was recommended for use where there was any danger of this organism being present in the milk. The general utility of pasteurization was shown so markedly while these ex- periments were being conducted that it has been used in our dairy continuously since that time. Its value in combating the spread of tuberculosis was well illustrated in our experience (see p. 112) with tuberculosis in our herd. When the presence of the disease was first detected all of our young stock was found to be infected, and the most probable explanation was a spread of the germs through the use of infected milk. After this date all of the milk which was fed to our calves was passed through the machine at 185° F. Although twenty-five calves were thus raised upon the milk from tuberculous cows not one of them contracted the disease. TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. Among the problems which have confronted the dairyman during the past quarter of a century none has presented greater difficulty * Bul. 172; same in Rpt. 18:127-149 (1899). 112 ‘TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. and few have been more important than that of tuberculosis. The attempt to stamp out this disease a decade ago failed, largely be- cause of the magnitude of the task and the revolt of the public at the destruction of so much valuable property. Then followed a period of conflicting advice which could not fail to bewilder the dairymen. Just at this stage it was discovered that about one-half of the animals in the Station herd were affected with this disease. Taking advantage of this misfortune, it was decided to follow a plan devised by Dr. Bang® of Denmark for ridding the herd of the disease. ‘This plan consisted in dividing the herd on the basis of the tuberculin test and raising the calves from both divisions upon pasteurized milk. The diseased animals were retained for their product and for breeding purposes until they showed signs of physical breaking down, when they were killed. It was shown that when care was exercised the herds could be kept within a few feet of each other and the same men could care for both herds without spreading the contagion.’ In our case the fifteen diseased animals were replaced by an equal number of sound calves within four years. There seems to be no good reason why the results obtained with the Station herd may not be duplicated by any dairy- man who has an otherwise valuable herd which has become affected with this disease. MILK AND CHEESE STUDIES. In addition to the study of the ripening of cheese, which is dis- cussed under its own heading,’ considerable work has been done which is closely related to this subject. Among the abnormalities in flavor or texture which sometimes confront the dairyman there are few which are not commonly referred to the food of the cows. Except in rare instances there is really little foundation for this charge except the fact that it creates less bad feeling to assign as the cause the depraved taste of the animal rather than some negli- gence of its owner. Fishy flavor — We investigated a case? where the output of a. dairy was rendered unsalable because of a penetrating, disagree- *Bang, B.- The struggle with tuberculosis in Denmark. The Veter- inarian, 68:688 (1895). Bang, B. Tuberculosis in cattle. Appendix, Bulletin 75 of the De- partment of Agriculture of the State of Pennsylvania (1901). *Bal. 277; same in Rpt. 25:27-55 (1906). ®*See page 185. * Bul. 183:179-181; same in Rpt. 19:36-38 (1900). ee pial New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 113 able, herring flavor. This flavor was found to be due to the milk of a single cow, the flavor being very pronounced in the freshly drawn milk. The rejection of the product of this cow rendered the remaining output entirely satisfactory. Careful observation failed to show anything in the food which produced this con- dition, nor could germs be found in the milk which would reproduce the fishy flavor when inoculated into the udder of another cow. A case of a similar flavor in another dairy was recently brought to our attention and the trouble located again in the product of a single cow. In this case the cow had been giving milk for a long period and had nearly dried up. The rejection of her milk was followed at once by a disappearance of the trouble. In both these cases the trouble seemed to be due to some physiological disturb- ance of the cow, its exact nature not having been more closely de- termined. Bitter flavor.°— One of the frequent troubles of milk in winter is the formation of a marked bitter flavor. A case of this in the manufacture of neufchatel cheese was found to be due to the milk from a single dairy and probably due to germ action. More recent work with the product of another dairy was rewarded by the isola- tion of an organism, which was present in large numbers and readily reproduced the bitter flavor when introduced into good milk. Sweet flavor.i— There are various objectionable flavors in ched- dar cheese which are referred to indiscriminately as sweet or fruity flavors. While they appear at irregular intervals in the product of any factory, in the aggregate they cause a heavy loss to the dairy industry each year. The study of a large number of cheeses having these flavors indicated that the trouble is probably due to the presence of yeasts. In some cases we were able to reproduce these flavors when making experimental cheese by adding starters of certain yeasts at the beginning of the process of manufacture. Important as this discovery promised to be we were unable to make further progress because of the fact that the methods of recognizing and studying yeasts were not sufficiently developed to permit us to follow the matter and determine the avenue through which these yeasts gained entrance to the milk. Rusty spot'? is the name given to small Scltsas aie -red points or patches which sometimes appear scattered quite evenly through the ” Bul. 183-181-183; same in Rpt. 19:38-40 (1900). “ Bul. 183:184-187; same in Rpt. 19:40-44 (1900). ® Bul. 183:187-193; same in Rpt. 19:44-57 (1900). 114 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. niass of cheddar cheese. While this trouble has been confined to a comparatively small number of factories its effect upon their finan- cial returns when it does appear is marked. In a number of cases the factories have been compelled to quit making cheese. These rusty spots mark the point of growth of Bacillus rudensis Connell,” a species of bacterium which is peculiar in that it produces a marked color. While the affected cheese is entirely wholesome it is un- usual, and, remembering the tales which they have heard of poisoned cheese, the intending purchasers view it with distrust. It was found that an occasional careful steaming™ of all of the factory utensils which came in contact with the milk or curd re- sulted in a decrease of this trouble to a point where it rarely caused financial loss. The question of the original source of the trouble is not settled. If it appeared first in a dairy it would be carried thence to the factory. When it gained a foothold in a factory it would be spread to all the dairies in turn through the whey. It was shown that in a number of cases where the factories had been put in good con- dition by the steaming process they were frequently reinfected by the milk from the dairies. In such factories it was only when a heavy infection was furnished simultaneously by a number of dairies that any financial loss on the cheese was experienced. As favorable opportunities offer the study of the source from which the farmer’s milk becomes infected in such cases is being continued. The results of these studies will be embodied in a later bulletin. CANNERY TROUBLES. Few agricultural industries have developed more rapidly in this State than the canning of fruit and vegetables. In 1900 there were reported 511 establishments in the State of New York engaged in such canning. This was a gain of 352 since 1890. These fac- tories used in a year $5,592,463 worth of materials and turned out products valued at $8,975,321. From the beginning of the canning industry there have been losses because a portion of the goods failed to keep. There is always a small loss, due to leaky cans, but frequently losses occur too large to be accounted for on this basis. These failures are ® Connell, W. T. Discoloration of cheese. Circular of Dept. of Agr., 1897. 4 Bul. 225; same in Rpt. 21:27-53 (1902). —s New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, II5 commonly spoken of by the canners as “swells” and “ sours.” Cans are said to be swelled when the normally depressed ends bulge outward. When such cans explode or are opened the material con- tained is usually decomposed, vile smelling and worthless as food. There are at least two classes of exceptions to this description of the contents: Certain fruits often bulge slightly when held over winter in storage, but on opening they are found unchanged and fit for food; and cans which have undergone souring will often swell if kept for a time in a warm place. The fact that fermentations in general are so commonly caused by the lower forms of plant life has led to the widespread belief that all the difficulties in keeping canned goods could be attributed to the same cause. While it is probably true that a large propor- tion of the swelling and souring is due to the growth of bacteria within the cans, undoubtedly exceptions will be found. The bac- teria which are capable of destroying canned goods are not only of different species, but what is of more importance to the canners, the spores of different species are capable of withstanding different amounts of heating. As a result of this, canners who have been processing successfully at a low temperature for a number of sea- sons suddenly find themselves in trouble when a more resistant species gets into the cans. Swelling of peas.°—In peas, acid is lacking, the amount of sugar and nitrogen is such as to favor fermentation, and heat alone must be relied upon to prevent decomposition. In Ig02 our atten- tion was called to a serious outbreak of swelling in the product of a large factory. In connection with this work we attempted to determine three points: (1) The cause of the trouble, (2) the amount of heating necessary to obviate the trouble, (3) the amount of heating which was allowable without injury to the commercial quality of the peas. It was found that the trouble was due to the presence of a single species of bacteria in the cans, and it was shown that this germ was able to withstand more heat than had been employed in the factory in canning the peas. Work at the laboratory showed that heating infected cans at 240° F. for thirty minutes was sufficient to destroy this bacterium. The reliability of these results was demonstrated first by canning a ton of peas at the factory as an experiment with all the conditions * Bul. 249; same in Rpt. 23:47-61 (1904). 116 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. under careful control, and later by the use of the recommended temperatures in connection with the entire output of a factory for a season. This temperature, continued for this time, was found to be close to the limit of heating which could be done without injury to the quality of the commercial output. TEST OF COMMERCIAL CULTURES FOR LEGUMES. The fact that the leguminous plants alone are able to profit by the presence of large quantities of nitrogen in the atmosphere, and that this ability is, in turn, the result of the assistance of certain . - bacteria living within the roots of the legumes has been known for about twenty years. About ten years ago an attempt was made in Europe to utilize this knowledge in the distribution of the needful bacteria in commercial form, but the effort was not successful. The year 1905 is memorable for the awakening in agricultural circles in the United States of a widespread interest in this subject. As a result of this suddenly awakened interest large quantities of inoculating material were sold to the agricultural public by com- mercial companies at fancy prices before its real value could be determined by the agricultural experiment stations. During the winter and spring of this year inquiries were con- stantly coming to the Station from farmers regarding commercial cultures for inoculating legumes. Many of these inquiries asked specifically concerning the purity and quality of these so-called nitro-cultures. As it was the first season that they had been upon the market, there were no data from which to answer these ques- tions, and accordingly an investigation was planned. A preliminary examination of these cultures failed to show that there were any living bacteria of the desired kind upon them. In order to add greater certainty to the results a co-operative experi- ment was planned in which duplicate tests of these cultures were arranged with three other experiment stations and a large com- mercial firm. As a conclusion from these tests’® all united in pro- nouncing these commercial cultures as worthless for practical pur- poses. Sixteen! experiment stations have not joined in denouncing this propaganda of legume cultures dried upon cotton. * Bul. 270; same in Rpt. 24:45-85 (1905). * Bul. 282; same in Rpt. 25:109-116 (1906). ‘SLNAWINGIXY + NOILVINOON[-VdlvaTy dO NOILYIOT—]]I dvjX - = = eo es Tg Tin ae ree Be = ras we aa ———7 G = Sa = , = = = | | NOLLVINDONI TWIDISILYY YILI¥ NIAI IMNTIVS V VITVITY Pe | “NOILWINJONI TWIDISILUY YILI¥ ATINO $S399NS W WdTVSIV @ “NOILVINJONI WILEY LNOHLIM SS39)NS ¥ WITWIIV al oe We ae Now oe eed Aw a eo es mem mT New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, Fi INOCULATION AND LIME IN GROWING ALFALFA, As has been noted elsewhere (p. 268), this Station has exerted itself for years to extend the growing of alfalfa among the dairy- men of the State. Previous to 1905 some work had been done with marked results in supplying inoculation for alfalfa by soil from our alfalfa field, but in 1905 the matter of determining the real need of inoculation for alfalfa growing was taken up. Observations on nearly 200 fields distributed over practically every agricultural county of the State show that only about one-third’® of: the fields are sufficiently inoculated to meet the needs of the plant in this respect. We have tested the inoculation of the seed with the appropriate germs just previous to sowing and also the application of soil from our alfalfa field as a means of supplying this need. The application of the cultures to the seed was made in our laboratory and the seed sent by express to the farmers for imme- diate sowing. The results were entirely negative. The germs failed to induce the formation of nodules on the growing plants in any noticeable way. On the contrary the application of soil from our alfalfa field at the rate of 100 pounds to 200 pounds per acre gave, almost without exception, uniformly good results in the formation of nodules on the plants. In about one-third of the cases this application made the difference between success and failure in the growing of the alfalfa. In connection with these experiments the effect of lime or ashes applied at the rate of 1,500 pounds of stone lime or its equivalent to the acre was tested in a number of cases. In practically all of these instances the influence of the lime was beneficial, and- in some cases it made the difference between success and failure in the resulting crop. MILKING MACHINES. Notwithstanding the vast changes which have been made by the introduction of machinery into practically all branches of agri- culture, milking cows has until recently retained its primitive place in the division of hand labor. The increasing difficulty of getting sufficient labor on the farms of the State, and the increasing disin- clination of farm help to milk cows, has produced a situation which practically demands a milking machine. * Syllabus of lecture at Normal Institute, Ithaca, November 25-27, 1907. 118 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. Machines which gave promise of accomplishing the desired end began to be put upon the market in 1905, and one called the Globe was purchased in December of that year. It was installed the fol- lowing May and used until it finally broke down in September of the same year. During this time it was used upon eighteen cows with varying success. While it sometimes milked certain cows in an acceptable manner, it often failed to do so, and in some cases was a complete failure from a mechanical point of view.’® The quality of the milk obtained through its use was also poor. A bacteriologi- cal examination of the milk as it came from the machine on thirty- nine trials showed an average of 801,000 germs per cubic centi- meter, while thirty-six trials of hand-drawn milk under the same barn conditions gave an average of 16,800 germs per cubic centi- meter. While the results with this machine were not such as to entitle it to be considered as a successful milker, they were distinctly prom- ising in that they were so near a success that they gave strong hopes for the future. In March, 1907, a Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy cow milker was in- stalled and is at present in use upon twenty-two cows. The machine obtains apparently all of the milk that the cows are prepared to give, since after-milking by hand does not produce more milk than would be normally obtained by the same process applied after the usual hand milking.2° The influence of the continued use of the machine upon the productivity of the cows can only be computed after a considerable interval. The germ content of the milk obtained with this machine is markedly lower than with the machine formerly tested. A large part of this reduction is due to the practice of keeping the milking tubes in a brine solution during the intervals between milkings. A further reduction was brought about by the use of cotton filters to remove the foreign particles from the barn air which entered the machine while in use. When all the details are carefully at- tended to it is possible to obtain milk with a germ content consider- . ably lower than would be obtained by hand milking under similar barn conditions. 7 Syllabus of lectures at Normal Institute, Geneva, Nov. 26-Dec. 1, 1906. * Syllabus of lectures at Normal Institute, Ithaca, Nov. 25-27, 1907. SO ee ae ae ee ele BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS: SUMMARIZED BY FCS ShEWART. During nine of the first thirteen years of its existence the Station had no Botanist, so-called. Nevertheless, considerable botanical work of one kind or another has been in progress throughout the entire history of the Station. Much botanical work has been done by the Horticultural Department. The Botanical Department, proper, has devoted most of its effort to the investigation of plant diseases and their treatment, largely because of the great demand for information along this line. Hence, the present article deals chiefly with plant diseases while other lines of botanical activity are discussed in the section on horticultural investigations. BEANT DISEASES: Owing largely to the discovery of bordeaux mixture in France in 1885, the simultaneous founding of agricultural experiment stations throughout the United States and the organization of a Section of Vegetable Pathology in the United States Department of Agriculture, the past quarter century has been a period of great activity in the study of plant diseases, particularly in their control, in which field more real advance has been made, probably, than in all previous time. In this work the New York Agricultural Ex- periment Station has had its full share. For convenience, the Station investigations on plant diseases will be treated by host plants arranged alphabetically by their common names. APPLE. Since the apple stands first in importance among cultivated fruits in New York it is proper that the Station should give considerable attention to the investigation of apple diseases. The first such dis- ease studied was fire blight,| which causes the new growth of apple * Bacillus amylovorus (Burr.) De Toni. [119] 120 . TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. twigs to die suddenly in midsummer. Although fire blight is quite common and sometimes a destructive disease of apples in New York, pear trees suffer most from it. Consequently, in the inves- tigation of fire blight attention was centered on the pear, and the apple given only secondary consideration. Practically all that was done with the apple was the making of cross-inoculation experi- ments” to determine whether the organism causing fire blight of apple was the same as that causing fire blight of pear. Twigs and fruit of apple were artificially inoculated with pure cultures of bacteria obtained from blighted pear twigs. Likewise, twigs and fruit of pear were inoculated with bacteria from blighted apple twigs. In both cases fire blight was successfully reproduced, show- ing that the disease is the same on the two hosts. The fire blight investigations will be discussed more fully under pear diseases on page 142. Scab,® the most important apple disease, has been given attention commensurate with its importance. Almost all of the work done by the Station on this disease has been in the nature of experiments in its control. Twenty-five years ago almost nothing was known con- cerning the control of apple scab. In 1883 Prof. Burrill,* a noted authority on plant diseases, still living, recommended spraying the trees with kerosene emulsion! Chiefly through experiments made by various experiment stations, led by the Ohio Station,® we have to-day a treatment for scab which, although not entirely satisfactory, is yet thoroughly practicable and profitable; namely, spraying with bordeaux mixture. The earliest experiments of this Station were with hyposulphite of soda as a spray. This reduced the amount of scab somewhat without injury to the foliage. Another fungicide,’ a mixture of copper sulphate, ammonia and water, ruined the fol- iage. Then potassium sulphide and calcium sulphide were tested.$ The former proved of some value, but calcium sulphide was a complete failure. The first experiments with bordeaux mixture on apples at the Station were made in 1894. In the report of these experiments? it was recommended that three sprayings be made as * Rpt. 3:359 (1884). * Venturia inequalis (Cke.) Aderh. *Burrill, T. J. Trans. Mississippi Valley Hort. Soc. 1:206 (1883). *Green, W. J. Ohio Sta. Bul. Vol. IV, No. 9, pp. 193-212 (1891). * Rpts. 4:260 (1895); 5:173 (1896) ; 6:99 (1807) . *Rpt. 6:1or (1887). * Rpt. 7:154-157 (1888). * Bul. 84:19, 29-33 (1895); same in Rpt. 13%663, 673-678. gl eh NEw YORK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I2I follows: (1) After the buds break, but before the blossoms open; (2) immediately after blossoming; (3) from ten to fourteen days after the second treatment. ‘This: is still the standard treatment. Another result of the experiments in 1894 was a considerable addi- tion to our knowledge of the injury to apples (russeting of the fruit) which sometimes: results from the use of bordeaux mixture. Taking advantage of the opportunity offered: by the large number of varieties im the Station orchard, the different varieties of apples were classified according to their susceptibility to spray injury. Further investigation of spray injury was made in 1902’ when the yellowing and dropping of apple leaves were so common in western New York as to cause widespread alarm among apple growers. Although it was. proven that much of the trouble was caused by spraying, orchardists were advised, nevertheless, not to discontinue spraying because, notwithstanding the injury, spraying usually did more good than harm. However, in 1905, when spray injury was more common than ever, many fruit growers began to think seriously of giving up the spraying of apples. This idea became so prevalent that it seemed necessary for the Station to-go yet more deeply into the matter in order to discover if possible the exact cause of spray injury and a way to prevent it. This investigation was conducted in 1906 by the Horticultural Department.1! Some of the principal facts definitely determined were the following: (1) Bordeaux mixture, no matter how carefully prepared, may cause injury to foliage and fruit. (2) It is the copper sulphate, and not the lime, which is the in- jurious ingredient and the greater the amount of copper sulphate the greater the injury. (3) Wet weather favors the production of the injury. (4) An excess of lime in the bordeaux does not prevent spray injury nor even lessen it materially. In the light of these and other established facts the following practical suggestions for spraying were made: “Use less copper sulphate; give the 3-3-50 formula for bordeaux mixture a thorough trial. Spray in moderation; spray to cover the foliage and fruit with a thin film and yet not have the trees drip heavily. So far as possible the bordeaux mixture should be used only in dry weather. Use equal amounts of lime and copper sulphate. Some varieties of * Bul. 220 (1902); same in Rpt. 21 :67-75. ™ Bul. 287 (1907): 122 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. apples may be sprayed without much fear of injury. Others must be sprayed with great care. Distinguish between varieties in spray- ing operations. Many varieties of apples are nearly immune to attacks of the scab fungus. These need comparatively light applica- tions of bordeaux mixture in the average season. Bordeaux mix- ture is the best fungicide known to the apple grower. Its use can- not be given up in fighting the apple scab even though it cause some injury; apple scab causes a far greater loss than bordeaux injury.” In order to test the correctness of an opinion prevalent among New York orchardists in the nineties, namely, that apple trees can be fed so as to enable them to resist scab, one of the Station orchards was for five years devoted to an investigation of the ques- tion whether fertilizing the soil liberally with wood ashes may make the apples more resistant to scab.17 The results show “that with the conditions under which this investigation was made, immunity from apple scab is not at all increased by liberal applications of hard-wood ashes to the soil.” The practice of spraying fruit trees while in bloom having become so common in New York as to threaten (supposedly) the interests of apiarists by the wholesale poisoning of bees, a law was enacted in 1898 prohibiting the practice. Many fruit growers felt this to be a hardship, since they believed that superior results were to be obtained from spraying in bloom. Accordingly, it was arranged that the merits of such spraying should be thoroughly tested in experi- ments made by the Station in co-operation with the Cornell Univer- sity Experiment Station. These tests were made in 1900.18 Briefly stated, the results showed that the claims made for the practice of spraying in bloom were unfounded. Spraying apple trees while in bloom resulted in injury to the blossoms and a decrease in the yield of the fruit. “Even with trees which had a great abundance of blossoms spraying in bloom decreased the yield on the average from one-third bushel to one and a half bushels per tree. Spraying trees at several different times while they were in bloom so as to hit both the early and late blossoms with the spray ruined the crop of fruit.” Investigations on the New York apple-tree canker were carried on during three seasons (1898-1900) and two bulletins on the subject were published.14 This disease attacks the limbs and trunks of ap- “ Bul. 140 (1897); same in Rpt. 16:316—-341. * Bul. 196 (1900); same in Rpt. 19:351—412. * Bul. 163 (1899); same in Rpt. 18:331-360; Bul. 185 (1900); same in Rpt. 19:342-350. Rt Pe oe New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 123 ple trees often causing severe injury. Orchardists had been familiar with the disease for years, but the cause and remedy were wholly unknown. In the course of the investigation it was discovered that the primary cause of canker is a parastic fungus, Spheropsis malorum, well known as the cause of the common black rot of apple fruit. Typical cankers were produced by artificial inocula- tion of apple wood with pure cultures of the fungus obtained from rotten apples. The fungus was also successfully inoculated onto pear, quince and hawthorn wood. The treatment suggested for canker consists in the removal of diseased limbs, thorough spraying with bordeaux mixture, scraping and washing the trunks and larger branches with bordeaux mixture or with a mixture of whale oil soap, slaked lime, wood ashes and water, and the planting of re- sistant varieties. In the autumn of 1902 the apple crop was damaged to an enor- mous extent by an unusual form of decay called pink rot. Many thousands of barrels of apples were completely ruined soon after they were harvested. An investigation made by the Station showed the cause of the trouble to be a white or pinkish mildew! which took possession of the spots caused by the common scab fungus and transformed them into brown, sunken, bitter, rotten spots. It was proven that this pink mildew was unable to force its way through the unbroken skin of the apple and that its principal avenue of entrance is through breaks in the skin caused by scab fungus. This fact being determined the remedy was plain, namely, thorough spraying with bordeaux mixture to prevent scab.1® Other apple diseases investigated are the following: (1) Two decays of stored apples!7 — one a rot similar to pink rot but caused by a different fungus,'* and the other a core decay the cause of which was not definitely determined. (2) The fruit spot, which is characterized by brown, sunken spots on the surface of the fruit with pockets of brown, corky tissue underneath. It was shown that neither fungi nor bacteria are con- cerned in this trouble.’ (3) Blisters on the under surface of apple leaves caused by late spring frost, hence called “ frost blisters.’?° * Cephalothecium roseum Corda. * Bul. 227 (1902); same in Rpt. 21:141-162. * Bul. 235 (1903); same in Rpt. 22:108-116. ** Hypochnus sp. * Bul. 164:215-219 (18900); same in Rpt. 18:176-181. ” Bul. 220 (1902); same in Rpt. 21:57-67. 124 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPoRT. (4) Rust,”! a disease caused by a fungus which in one of its stages attacks the leaves, fruit and twigs of the apple and in another stage inhabits the red cedar producing the so-called cedar apples. This work was in co-operation with the lowa Experiment Station and its object was to determine why the cultivated apple in lowa is exempt from rust so common in New England and on Long Island. Definite conclusions were not reached, but it appears probable that the exemption of lowa apples from rust is due, in part, to the fact that the varieties planted in lowa are chiefly those which are rust- resistant.?” (5) Belting and russeting of apples due to frost.78 (6) A leaf spot caused by the fungus Phyllosticta liumitata.** (7) Powdery mildew, a fungus disease which is sometimes quite injurious to seedlings in the nursery.” ASPARAGUS. In New York there is but one really important asparagus disease, namely, rust,2® which has been destructive every season since its first appearance on Long Island in 1896.27 During 1899 and 1900 a special investigation was made of rust and its control. At the outset it was suspected that a spray of bordeaux mixture would be effective, but it was found that ordinary bordeaux does not adhere well to the foliage. This difficulty was overcome by the addition of resin to the bordeaux. Another difficulty was the lack of suitable machinery for applying the spray, which made it neces- sary for the Station to devise an asparagus sprayer. Although the results of the experiments showed plainly that rust may be largely prevented and the yield and quality of asparagus much increased by spraying, Long Island asparagus growers have not adopted the treatment. Many have attempted to avoid rust by planting such varieties as Palmetto and Argenteuil, supposed to be rust resistant, but the results have been unsatisfactory. The California sulphur treatment” has not been tested on Long Island. ** Gymnosporangium macropus Lk. * Rpt. 14:535-544 (1895). *° Rpt. 14:544. “Rpt. 142545; 152454. * Rpt. 11:663 (1892). ** Puccinia asparagi DC. * Rpt. 15:458 (1805). * Bul. 188 (1900); same in Rpt. 19:122-166. = Cal: Sta. Bals,) 165 and: 172: New YoRK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 125 = BEAN. According to the United States Census Report for 1900 New — York has 129,298 acres devoted to the culture of beans and pro- duces 26.8 per ct. of the dry beans grown in the United States. Three bean diseases — anthracnose,®° bacteriosis and rust®*! were studied in 1892.3 Anthracnose (frequently, but incorrectly, called rust) is a common and very destructive disease, often causing losses of 25 per ct. and sometimes ruining the crop. It being known that anthracnose is transmitted by the seed an effort was made to find _ some seed treatment by means of which diseased seed could be made safe to plant. Experiments were made in which diseased beans were soaked in hot water and various fungicides, but in no case was there any benefit. In another experiment in which sorted and unsorted seed beans were compared, a much greater amount of anthracnose was found in the crop from the unsorted seed. Spraying experi- ments, also, were made. Of the three fungicides tested, bordeaux gave the best results. Four applications very nearly doubled the yield of healthy pods. As a result of the experiments the follow- ing treatment was recommended: “1. Selection of healthy seed. “2. Immediate removal of affected seedlings from the field. “3. Keeping the foliage covered with bordeaux mixture.” During the investigation of anthracnose it was discovered that there is another common disease of beans, considerably resembling anthracnose, which in some cases may be even more destructive than anthracnose. No doubt it is frequently confused with anthrac- nose. The leaves become spotted and yellow and the pods show soft, watery spots either with or without a red border. It was in this investigation that the bacterial nature of this disease was estab- lished for the first time. The germ was isolated and pods of Lima beans inoculated with pure cultures of it. “ These inoculations produced decay at the spots where the virus was introduced, while punctures made at the same time, but not inoculated, showed no signs of decay.” Subsequently, the organism was described and : named by Dr. Erwin Smith.** I a Ee, Oe eee ee ee gre Tne ee ee i ee © Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. & Magn.) Bri. & Cav. * Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers.) Lk. * Bul. 48 (1892); same in Rpt. 11:531-556. * Originally described under the name Bacillus phaseoli (Proc. Amer. Asso. Ady. Sci. 46:288. 1808) which was later changed to Pseudomonas phaseoli and finally to Bacterium phaseoli (Erw. Sm.) (Bacteriain Relation to Plant Diseases 1:171. 1905). 126 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY Report. The true rust of beans was found to be an unimportant disease in New York. Since 1892 nothing has been done with bean diseases except to note the occurrence of a stem rot probably caused by Rhizoctonia.*# BEET. In 1899 the Station made an investigation of a sugar beet disease complained of by farmers in Yates and Ontario counties.2° The: trouble was characterized by the death of the leaves and a browning of the flesh of the root in its outer layers. It was decided that drought was responsible for the trouble. One other sugar beet disease, a root rot caused by Rhizoctonia, was given brief study in 1900.°¢ CABBAGE. Black rot®’ is a destructive bacterial disease in which the leaves show brown or yellowish areas, then wither and fall. Its most characteristic symptom is the blackening of the fine veins in the leaf and the appearance of black streaks in the leaf-stalk and stem. The cause of black rot and the biology of the causal organism were quite thoroughly worked out by Smith®® in the United States Department of Agriculture and Russell and Harding® at the Wis- consin Experiment Station. These investigators had suggested the removal of affected leaves as a promising line of treatment. Their theory was that by promptly removing from the field the diseased leaves as fast as they appear the disease might be checked. Owing to an epidemic of black rot in New York in 1898 there was an urgent demand from farmers for information concerning it, and it became imperative that the Station should undertake some experiments on the control of the disease. It was decided to test thoroughly the leaf-pulling treatment.4° During four consecutive * Bul. 186:11 (1901); same in Rpt. 19:104. *® Bul. 162:165-171 (1899); same in Rpt. 18:153-159. * Bul. 186:12 (1901); same in Rpt. 19:105. * Bacterium campestre (Pammel) Smith. * Smith, Erwin F. Centbl. Bakt. [etc.] 2 Abt. 3:284, 408, 478 (1899) ; ibid. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmer’s Bul. 68 (1898). * Russell, H. L., and Harding, H. A. Wis. Sta. Bul. 65 (1808). “Tn this, as well as all other investigations on bacterial plant diseases undertaken since the organization of the Department of Bacteriology in 1899, the Departments of Botany and Bacteriology have worked in co- operation. New YorRK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 127 years (1899-1902) an acre of cabbage was devoted to the experi- ment, one-half the acre being treated and the other half left un- treated for a check. During the first three years of the experiment so little black rot appeared in the experiment field that no conclu- sions could be drawn; but in 1902 the disease was abundant and the conditions excellent for the test. The results were disappoint- ing. “ The treatment was even more than a complete failure. It not only failed to prevent the disease, but actually reduced the yield by 5.25 tons per acre.” #1 The worthlessness of the treatment was so thoroughly demonstrated that further experimentation with it was abandoned. However, investigations on the disease were con- tinued, one of the chief objects being to determine by what agencies the disease is spread. It was discovered that seed-bearing plants are subject to black rot and that the germ causing the disease is present on the seed of such plants. Moreover, it was proven that the black rot germs may remain alive on the seed for at least eleven months. These were important discoveries, since they show that the disease may be transmitted by the seed. As a cheap, safe and effective method of destroying the germs on the seed the Sta- tion recommends soaking the seed; just before planting, for fifteen minutes in a 1:1000 corrosive sublimate solution or a 0.4 per ct. formalin solution. It is not expected that this treatment will give complete protection against black rot, but it will certainly remove all danger of infection from disease germs on the seed.” Since about 1900 the Station, cooperating with the Vermont Station, has had under investigation a bacterial soft rot* of cab- bage and cauliflower which is especially destructive to seed cabbage on Long Island, where this crop is an important one. Only a pre- liminary report of this work has been published.“ CARNATION. The Legislature of 1894 made a special appropriation for Station investigations in the Second Judicial Department, which includes Long Island and five counties north of New York city. Flori- cultural interests being large in this part of the State, it was decided to use a part of the appropriation for the investigation of green- house pests. The replies to a circular letter of inquiry sent out “ Bul. 232 (1903); same in Rpt. 22:85-107. “Bul. 251 (1904); same in Rpt. 23:62-78. “ Bacillus carotovorus Jones. “ Science, n. s., 16:314 (1902). 128 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. to the florists indicated a general desire for an investigation of carnation rust. Although this disease had but recently made its appearance in the United States it was already widespread, and florists were much alarmed over it. The Station investigations*® included tests of spore germination in fungicides, soaking the cuttings in fungicides, and spraying ex- periments. The spore germination tests brought out the fact that, as a preventive of germination, potassium sulphide is mu¢h more efficient than copper sulphate. Potassium sulphide solution, strength I :3000, completely prevented germination; whereas, copper sulphate solution ten times as strong did not wholly prevent germination. The object of the experiments on the soaking of cuttings was to find a method of killing the fungus mycelium within the tissues without injury to the cuttings. The results indicated that potas- sium sulphide is better adapted to this purpose than copper sulphate or common salt, but definite conclusions were not reached. In the spraying experiments weekly applications of copper sul- phate solution (2 lbs. to 45 gals.) brought 58 per ct. of the plants through to “lifting time” free from rust, while untreated plants under parallel conditions were ail rusty. Potassium sulphide solu- tion (1 oz. to I gal.) gave nearly as good results as copper sulphate, — but bordeaux mixture (1 to 7% formula) and salt solution (8 Ibs. to 45 gals.) proved complete failures. None of the solutions in- jured the plants. In. the light of subsequent events it must be admitted that this work on carnation rust was not productive of any important re- sults so far as the practical control of the disease is concerned. Although copper sulphate and potassium sulphide sprays are fairly efficient, as shown by the experiments, few florists now use either to any great extent. At the present time, carnation rust is com- bated chiefly by giving careful attention to the temperature and moisture in the greenhouse and by the use of rust-resistant varities. In 1897 it was shown by experiment that common salt solution applied to the foliage of carnations or to the soil in which they are grown will neither prevent rust nor give the plants a more vigorous growth. The popular opinion that common salt has value in the culture of carnations is probably not founded on fact.*? In 1899 a brief. study was made of an unusual leaf spot disease ‘3 ly odhiyces caryophyllinus (Schrank) Schroet. “Bul. 100 (1896); same in Rpt. 15:461-495. * Bul. 138:635-636 (1897) ; same in Rpt. 16:423-425. Wee FS tt, Uae OO ee New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 129 of carnations caused by a fungus belonging to the genus Fusa- rium.48 In 1900 the discovery was made that the carnation rust fungus is, itself, frequently attacked by a parasitic fungus, Darluca filum. This is a well-known parasite of various rust fungi, but up to this time it was not known that it attacks carnation rust. Probably the parasite is not a very important factor in the control of rust.” Studies made by the Station on carnation stem-rot have revealed the fact that there are two distinct diseases passing under this name. One is a dry rot caused by a species of Fusarium and the other a soft rot caused by a species of Rhizoctonia. Both kinds of stem rot are common and destructive. It is believed that the discovery of the true cause of stem rot will lead, ultimately, to successful methods of controlling it. As yet, only brief accounts of the investigations have been published.5® A more SS report will appear later. CAULIFLOWER. Cauliflower, being closely related to cabbage, is subject to most of the diseases affecting cabbage. In the work with black rot and soft rot of cabbage described on page 126, considerable attention was given to these diseases on cauliflower. During four consecu- tive years the leaf-pulling treatment for black rot was tested in cauliflower fields on Long Island, but the experiments were barren of results because of a lack of the disease.*' When the treatment was found to be a complete failure on cabbage the experiments on cauliflower were abandoned. Other experiments, on the control of black rot in cauliflower by spraying the plants with resin-bordeaux mixture, were conducted during four years, also. Owing to the absence of the disease nothing was learned as to the value of this treatment. The experiments on cabbage and cauliflower bring out strikingly a difficulty often met in experiments on the treatment of plant diseases. Frequently it is necessary to carry the experiments through several seasons before the disease appears in sufficient abundance to test the value of the treatment. In the latter part of August, 1899, the newly-formed leaves of cauliflower plants throughout eastern Long Island showed black- “Bul. 164:219 (1899); same in Rpt. 18:181. “Bul. 175 (1900); same in Rpt. 19:55-60. © Bot. Gaz. 27:129 (1890); Bul. 186:26 (1901); same in Rpt. 19:116. * Bul. 232:62 (1903); same in Rpt. 21:104. 5 130 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPporRT. ened, shriveled margins. Apparently, the trouble was brought about. by bright sunlight following a period of foggy weather. Some farmers, fearing it might be a new disease, were much alarmed, but it proved to be unimportant. A brief account of it was pub- lished in one of the, Station bulletins.®? CELERY. The only extended investigation of celery diseases conducted by the Station was made in 1892 and the results published in Bulletin 51.53 The purpose of this bulletin was “to give a brief description of some of these [celery] diseases, to state some of the results of investigations made under the direction of the Station in the sum- mer of 1892, and to collate such other information on the subject of celery diseases as may be deemed reliable and important to celery growers.” The subjects treated were center blight, stalk blight, Septoria leaf spot, Cercospora leaf spot, experiments on spraying and the danger from eating sprayed celery. It was discovered that the Septoria leaf spot attacks all parts of the plant above ground, including the seeds. Hence the disease may be transmitted with the seed and, consequently, spraying to be most effective should be commenced while the plants are in the seed bed. It was shown that celery seedlings may be safely sprayed with bordeaux. In the spraying experiment on celery in the field: there was not sufficient disease to warrant definite conclusions as to the value of the treatment. ‘ One of the most important results of the season’s work on celery diseases and their treatment is the establishment of the fact that the copper mixtures prepared and applied as recommended in this bulletin may be used in treating celery diseases with no fear of poisonous results.” Samples of sprayed celery, stripped and prepared as for market, were submitted to the chemist for analysis. The results showed that in order to secure a dangerous dose of copper by eating celery sprayed with bordeaux mixture, for example, one would need to eat 66,400 heads! CHERRY. Of the diseases affecting cherries, leaf spot and fruit rot have received most attention, although other less important diseases have not been entirely neglected. During 1891 and 1892 the United States Department of Agri- ® Bul. 162:176 (1899); same in Rpt. 18:164. % Essentially the same in Rpt. 11:571-585 (1892). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 19k culture codperated with the Station in some experiments on the treatment of the diseases of nursery stock. Most of this work con- sisted of spraying experiments. On cherry stocks tests were made with bordeaux mixture and the ammoniacal solution. The latter injured the foliage some, but the bordeaux did no harm and the trees sprayed with it held their leaves better and made a better growth than untreated trees, which were prematurely defoliated by leaf spot®? and powdery mildew.*® In 1893 the experiments were continued by the Station, but no additional information was gained owing to the scarcity of leaf diseases that year.™ In 1895 and 1896 experiments were made on the prevention of leaf spot and fruit rot®’ in bearing cherry orchards by spraying the trees with bordeaux and eau celeste.*? Unfortunately, very little leaf spot appeared in the orchards under experiment, and there was only a moderate attack of fruit rot. The conclusion reached was that the spraying of bearing trees is of doubtful utility. In 1895 spraying with bordeaux injured the foliage; besides, during a considerable portion of the time when the treatment should be given, the use of bordeaux is objectionable, since it remains upon the fruit and injures its market value. In the spring of 1885 it was discovered that the fruit rot fungus is sometimes responsible for the destruction of large numbers of cherry flowers. A brief study of the fungus was made at this time and the report of this work constitutes one of the early pub- lications on the subject. In rgor the interesting observation was made that the leaf spot fungus may attack cherry fruit-stems as well as the leaves. It ap- pears that this had not been previously known. Other cherry diseases studied more or less are black knot, witches’ brooms® and leaf scorch. “Rpt. 11:654-659 (1892). * Cylindrosporium padi Karst. * Podosphera oxyacanihe (D.C.) De By. * Bul. 72 (1894); same in Rpt. 12:688-603. * Sclerotinia fructigena (Pers.) Schrt. *° Bul. 98:15-17 (1806); Bul. 117:140 (1897); see also Rpt. 15:402-407. © Rpt. 4:280-285 (1885). * Bul. 200:85-87 (1901); same in Rpt. 20:146-148. “ Plowrightia morbosa (Schw.) Sacc. Bul. 40 (1892). “ Exoascus cerasi (Fckl.) Sad. Rpt. 14:532 (1805); Rpt. 15:459 (1806) ; Bul. 191:309 (1900). “Bul. 162:171-176 (1899); same in Rpt. 18:159-164. 132 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. CHRYSANTHEMUM. The common Septoria leaf spot of chrysanthemums being preva- lent among plants in the Station greenhouse in the fall of 1891, an experiment on its control by spraying was undertaken. Three fun- gicides were tested — potassium sulphide, ammoniacal solution of topper carbonate and bordeaux mixture. Bordeaux gave results sufficiently good to warrant the recommendation of its use combined with the careful removal of diseased leaves. CLEMATIS. Stem rot, or the decay of clematis plants at the surface of the soil, has long been known as a destructive disease and a puzzle to plant pathologists. In 1884 the Station botanist made an attempt to learn the cause of this disease.®° A fungus belonging to the genus Phoma was found growing in the decayed roots of diseased plants, and it was suspected of being the cause of the trouble; but positive proof of this was lacking. Up to the present time the cause of the clematis disease has not been definitely determined. CORN. While New York is not one of the so-called corn States, corn is, nevertheless, a very important crop here. Fortunately, it is subject to but few diseases, smut being the most important. In some sea- sons truck farmers on Long Island suffer considerable loss from a wilt disease of sweet corn. Affected plants wilt and dry up without apparent cause. This may occur at any stage of growth, but most commonly about the time of tasseling. The disease is most de- structive to early dwarf varieties. The most characteristic symp- tom of the disease is the appearance of conspicuous yellow streaks within the lower portion of the stem. An investigation of this disease was made by the Station in 1896 and 1897.8 Strange to say, it was found to be an undescribed disease and the organism causing it unknown to science. It soon became evident that the cause of the trouble is a yellow bacterium which multiplies to enormous numbers in the water-conducting vessels of the stem, clogging them and thereby hindering the ascent of water from the roots to the leaves. The bacteria-laden vessels appear as yellow streaks in the white pith of the corn stalk. © Rpt. 11:557-560 (1892). * Rpt. 3:383-385 (1884). * Bul. 130 (1897); same in Rpt. 16:401-416. ‘g19e tod oS €g1¢ ‘Ssurdvids wos, WYOIg ‘SLVIGQ YAAWNOND GAAVYdSNA) INV GaAVAdS —]ITA ALvIg New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 133 Studies were made on the symptoms of the disease and on the biology of the causal organism. Attempts were made to reproduce the disease by artificial inoculation with pure cultures, but the re- sults were unsatisfactory. In experiments on treatment lime and sulphur applied to the soil failed to prevent the disease. It was observed that some varieties of sweet corn are much more suscep- tible to the disease than are others. Subsequently, this corn wilt was studied by Dr. Erwin Smith of the United States Department of Agriculture, who described and named the causal organism®S and added much to our knowledge of it. _ The only other corn disease studied by the Station is a fungus leaf blight® of sweet corn on which brief notes were made in 1896. CUCUMBER. Scab® is a disease which produces sunken spots on the fruit and stems of cucumbers. It is sometimes quite destructive. The earliest studies on cucumber scab were made at this Station” by the botanist, Dr. Arthur, in 1887, shortly before his removal to the Indiana Station, where the work was completed.” The most imporiant work of the Station on cucumber diseases was done during the years 1896-1898, when the value of bordeaux mixture as a preventive of downy mildew was demonstrated. On Long Island the cucumber pickle industry is of considerable mag- nitude. In the early nineties the yield of cucumbers began to drop off until by 1896 the average yield was scarcely one-fourth of a full crop. The main cause of the reduced yield was the ravages of a fungus disease which causes the leaves to turn yellow and die. This disease, downy mildew,” made its first appearance in the United States in 1889 and soon after became widespread. From the apparent success of an experimertt in New Jersey’? and the fact that bordeaux mixture had proven so effective against similar diseases of other plants, such as the grape downy mildew, it was confidently expected that it would control the new cucumber disease, * Originally described under the name Pseudomonas stewarti (Proc. Amer. Asso. Ady. Sci. 47:422-426. 1898), and later changed by same author to Bacterium stewarti (Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases, 1:171. 1995.). ® Felminthosporium turcicum Pass. Rpt. 15:452 (1805). ® Cladosporium cucumerinum Ell. & Arth. ™ Rpt. 6:316 (1887). = Tnd. Sta. Bul. 19o:8-to (188q). ® Peronplasmopara cubensis (B. & C.) Clint. ™N,. J. Sta. Rpt. for 1895:304. 134 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPorT. and the Station made arrangements to put it to the test. The first experiment™ was made at Woodbury, Long Island, in 1896. Ona field of one and one-half acres seven sprayings increased the value of the crop at the rate of $173 per acre. The expense of the treat- ment being $9.50 per acre, there was a net profit of $163.50 per acre. The following year two more experiments were made,’® and in 1898 cooperative experiments with farmers were made in three localities.“ In the later experiments no checks were left. The object was to determine what could be accomplished when entire fields are sprayed under ordinary farm conditions. The disease was kept well under control at a total cost of from $2.43 to $3.39 per acre. Judging from the condition of unsprayed fields in the same localities the spraying was highly profitable. Farmers seeing the excellent results of the experiments soon began spraying. At the present time the spraying of cucumbers is practically universal on Long Island. It is generally conceded that the Station experi- ments saved the Long Island pickle industry. Other cucumber diseases mentioned in the Station publications’$ are: (1) Powdery mildew on field-grown cucumbers; (2) dodder on cucumbers under glass. CURRANT. The Station has under way a rather comprehensive work on cur- rant diseases, but as yet only three diseases have been treated at length in the Station publications, viz., anthracnose,” cane blight%® and-rtustS* Attention was directed to anthracnose at the time of an epidemic of this disease in the Hudson Valley in 1901. It causes the leaves to become specked with brown spots of pin-head size, then turn yellow and fall prematurely, The only really new fact discovered was that the anthracnose fungus attacks the wood of the new canes as well as the leaves. However, it was thought best to publish a compilation of what is known about the disease and its treatment for the information of fruit growers who were deeply interested in it. ® Bul. 119 (1897); same in Rpt. 16:345-375. Bul. 138:636-644 (1897); same in Rpt. 16:425—-433. “Bul. 156 (1898) ; same in Rpt. 17:67-80. S Bul. 164:213-215 (1899); same in Rpt. 18:174-176. ” Pseudopesiza ribis (Lib. Kleb. Bul. 199 (1901) ; same in Rpt. 20:123-141. * Fungus undetermined Bul. 167:292-294 (1899); same in Rpt. 18 :200-202. * Crenartium ribicola Fisch. de Waldh. Tech. Bul. 2 (1906). : New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 135 During a fruit disease survey of the Hudson Valley made by the Station in 1899, it was learned that currants in that section suffer severely from a disease in which canes here and there sud- denly wilt and die. Fruit growers call it cane blight. This disease was originally described by Fairchild,®? who discovered it in the Hudson Valley in 1891 and ascribed it to the action of a sterile fungus working in the wood. Ever since 1899 the Station has had cane blight under observation without learning any very important “new facts about it; but, recently, a thorough investigation of the disease has been undertaken and it is expected that more complete knowledge of it will soon be obtained. Experiments on its treat- ment, also, are in progress. h In the fall of 1906 the Station currant plantation was found to be abundantly infested with a rust fungus hitherto unknown to America. It appeared as a conspicuous orange-colored powder on the under surface of the leaves. With the exception of a single affected leaf it was not found outside the Station grounds. This rust has been known in Europe for fifty years and is there widely distributed. As a currant disease it. is unimportant. The chief danger from it lies in its effect on white pines, which are also at- tacked by it. Doubtless it is a recent importation from Europe, but just how it came onto the Station grounds is not known. In order to stamp out the disease, if possible, all Ribes plants on the Station grounds were destroyed. GOOSEBERRY. The European varieties of gooseberries and their American grown seedlings suffer from powdery mildew*** to such an extent that their cultivation is largely prevented in America, notwithstand- ing their superiority in the size and quality of their firuit. Mildew first appears as a whitish, frost-like growth, covering leaves, young shoots and berries. Later, it becomes brown and felt-like. The efficiency of potassium sulphide spray as a preventive of this dis- ease was thoroughly established by experiments made at this Station Commencing in 1887 tests were made each year during five consecutive years. The results were highly satisfactory. When the remarkable fungicidal properties of bordeaux mixture became * Bot. Gaz. 16:262 (1801). Sta Spheortheca mors-uve (Schw.) B. & C. = Rpts. 6:349; 7:153; 8:334; 9:307; 10:474; 14:354; 15:342-344; Bul. 133 (same in Rpt. 16 :307-315) ; Bul. 161 (same in Rpt. 18:321-330). 136 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. known it was thought by some that this fungicide might be even more effective than potassium sulphide. Lysol and formalin also came into prominence as fungicides about this time. Accordingly, it was deemed advisable to make a series of experiments to de- termine the relative merits of these four fungicides for the control of gooseberry mildew. The experiments were continued through three years, 1897-1899. Each year potassium sulphide gave the best results. Lysol and formalin also made a fair showing, but bor- deaux proved almost valueless. In only one series of tests did the bushes sprayed with bordeaux show less mildew than untreated ~ bushes. Upon the results of these experiments the Station bases the fol- lowing recommendations for the treatment of gooseberry mildew :*4 “Spraying should begin early in spring after the buds break and before the first leaves unfold, using one ounce of potassium sulphide for two gallons of water. This treatment is repeated at intervals of from seven to ten days, depending on the amount of rain that comes to wash off the applications.” In Bulletin 167% there is given an account of a fungus root-rot of gooseberry bushes observed at Marlboro in 1899. GRAPE. Although the grape is one of the important fruit crops of the State, the Station has done very little with grape diseases. One reason for this is that the Cornell Experiment Station made investi- gations*® on the subject in 1894. Another reason is that experi- ments made by the United States Department of Agriculture had shown that the principal grape diseases, black rot and downy mil- dew, may be controlled by spraying with bordeaux mixture. Yet a third reason is that the Station finds it impossible to do all that needs doing. The experience of the Station on the spraying of grapes with bordeaux mixture for black rot and mildew has been entirely satis- factory. Most grape growers, too, have had fairly good results from spraying. However, in 1905 and 1906, when black rot was exceedingly destructive in certain localities, some growers found it impossible to control the disease. ‘ Accordingly, interest in black * Bul. 170:408 (1809) ; same in Rpt. 18:427. © Bul. 167:295 (1899) ; same in Rpt. 18:202. * Cornell Sta. Bul. 76 (1894). eee te a) ay a what al 3 at a io a eee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 137 rot investigations has revived and the Cornell Experiment Station has again taken up the work. In September, 1891, the New York city board of health seized and destroyed large quantities of grapes, on the ground that they had been sprayed with copper compounds and were poisonous. This drastic action aroused grape growers and the Station was requested to investigate the supposed dangerous character of sprayed grapes. Pains were taken to secure the worst sprayed bunches of grapes obtainable from those vineyards from which the condemned grapes came. These samples were analyzed by the Station chemist.” It was found that in order “to get an amount of copper that would be regarded as serious, if taken at one dose, one would need to eat not less than 3,000 pounds of grapes, skins included, or not less than 500 pounds, including berries and stems.” These results are in harmony with those obtained in similar analyses made in Germany and France. The conclusion is “that it is simply an absolute impossibility for a person to get enough copper from eating grapes to exercise upon the health any injurious effect what- ever: HOLLY HOCK. In May, 1889, hollyhock plants in one of the Geneva nurseries and also some on the Station grounds were found to be suffering from a disease new to this locality® Specimens of it were sent to three mycologists, all of whom pronounced it the true hollyhock rust, Puccinia malvacearum. It appears that this fungus had not been found previously in New York. In fact it had made its first ap- pearance in the United States only three years earlier. Dr. Farlow records its occurrence in Massachusetts in 1886. At present it is a widespread and destructive disease throughout the United States. At the Station, unsuccessful attempts were made to control the disease by spraying the plants with potassium sulphide and with a solution of common salt. LETTUCE. No extended study has been made of lettuce diseases. Only three diseases of this plant have been discussed in the Station pub- lications ; viz., a Septoria leaf spot® which was very prevalent on * Rpt. 10:401-403 (1891). * Rpt. 8:335 (1889). ® Bot. Gaz. 11:309 (1886). Rpt. 4:277-279 (1885). 138 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. the Station grounds in 1884 and 1885; lettuce mildew;* and a damping off and leaf rot caused by the fungus Rhizoctonia.” LILY. Two destructive lily diseases were studied in 1895.% One of these was an Easter-lily disease which was causing florists much trouble and loss at that time. It is characterized by the spotting and distortion of the leaves and flowers which gives the plants a sickly, yellowish, rusty appearance, making them unsaleable. The cause of the disease being unknown, an unsuccessful attempt was made to discover it. Finding the problem a very complicated one, involving the treatment of the bulbs in Bermuda, where they are grown, the investigation was abandoned. Subsequently, the subject was taken up by Dr. Woods, of the United States Department of Agriculture, and worked out.*% It was found that the disease is due to a combination of causes, one of which is the weakening of the plants through the use of immature, unrested bulbs for plant- ing and. propagation. This renders them susceptible to the attacks of aphides, mites, fungi and bacteria. The other lily disease studied is a fungus disease* in which elliptical, orange-brown spots appear on the leaves, buds and stem. Attempts were made to control the disease by spraying the plants with bordeaux. While sprayed plants held their leaves somewhat better than unsprayed ones, the difference was not great. Probably the treatment was not commenced early enough. MAPLE. Maple diseases which have been studied and discussed in the Station publications are: (1) An anthracnose®® which attacks Nor- way maples in the nursery. The leaves and young shoots blacken and die, the result being the formation of a bushy top which must be pruned away in order to re-establish the “leader.” (2) Scorch- ing of maple foliage by dry winds. This was conspicuous on Norway maples on Long Island in 1895,% and on both sugar and Norway maples the State over in 1&899.%. * Brenua lactuce Regel. Rpt. 4:279. © Bul. 186:16 (1901) ; same in Rpt. 19:108. ® Rpt. 14:520-524 (1895). *U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Veg. Phys. and Path. Bul. 14 (1897). * Botrytis sp. See Ann. Bot. 2:319 (1888). * Gleosporium apocryptum E. & E. Rpt. 14:531 (1805). * Rpt. 15:453 (18906). * Bul. 162:177 (1899) ; same in Rpt. 18:165. TE nea ee a eS a a ee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 139 OATS. In 1884 the average loss from oat smut on the Station farm was 9.5 per ct., as shown by careful counts made at several different points.° In 1886 the loss was 8.48 per ct. No doubt the loss on many farms over the State was equally large. In 1886 two ex- periments on oat smut were carried out. One experiment was designed to determine whether oat smut is carried with the seed. The other was a test of different chemicals for treating the seed to prevent smut. In the first experiment a quantity of badly smutted oats was divided into four lots and sown in four widely separated parts of the Station farm. On all four plats the resulting crop was badly smutted —in one case there was 30.86 per ct. of smut. So high a percentage of smut in the crop was strong evidence (but not rigid proof) that the disease had been transmitted with the seed. We now know that such is actually the case. In the second experiment an attempt was made to kill the smut spores on the seed oats by soaking the oats in chemicals. Tests were made with copper sulphate, iron sulphate, caustic potash, common salt, saltpeter, cattle urine and a mixture of cattle urine and lime. The results were encouraging. In all the plats from treated seed there was considerably less smut than in the check plat from untreated seed. In one of the copper sulphate plats and in the caustic potash plat there was no smut at all, while the check plat showed 28.81 per ct. smut. Further experiments along this line were discouraged for a time by the discovery in Denmark, in 1887, of the Jensen hot water treat- ment, which soon became popular because of its cheapness. Then came the formalin treatment, which has been tested by many of the experiment stations and is the one now: most generally recommended and used. At this Station, tests of formalin were made in 1897.1 Different strengths of formalin, Ceres powder, lysol and potassium sulphide were compared with hot water. Ceres powder and potas- slum sulphide failed to wholly prevent smut. Moreover, they were expensive. Lysol, formalin and hot water all prevented smut com- pletely, but when cheapness and simplicity of treatment were taken into consideration; formalin seemed to have the advantage. The * Rpt. 3:382 (1884). ™ Rpt. 5:124-130 (1886). . ™ Bul. 131 (1897); same in Rpt. 16:294-306. 140 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. accepted method of using formalin on oats is to sprinkle the seed thoroughly with a solution containing one pint of formalin to 45 gallons of water. ONION. Smut! is a fungus disease which attacks onions grown from seed, killing many of the seedlings outright and stunting others. In Orange County, where the onion is an important crop (about 1,570 acres being grown annually), smut has been very trouble- some. At a Farmers’ Institute held at Goshen, N. Y., in March, 1896, there was a lengthy discussion of onion smut and its treat- ment. The Station mycologist, who was present, explained the transplanting method which the Connecticut Station’* had shown to be a complete preventive of smut. The growers present were unanimous in the opinion that transplanting would not be practical for their conditions. They were positive that it would prove too expensive. Moreover, the market to which they cater requires small onions, so that the increased size due to transplanting would be objectionable. As a result of the discussion a resolution was passed requesting the Station to undertake some experiments on the treatment of onion smut. It was decided to make a thorough test of the sulphur-lime treat- ment discovered at the Connecticut Station,’* to determine whether it was applicable to farm practice. The Connecticut experiments had shown good results but were on a small scale. The Orange County experiments were begun in 1896 and con- tinued five years.1° In the first season little progress was made, owing to an unfortunate selection of land for the experiment. In 1899 the conditions of the test were better but not entirely satis- factory. The first object sought was the proper quantity of sul- phur and lime to use. To this end, sulphur and lime (equal parts by weight) were applied in the drills with the seed in quantities varying from 125 to 1,500 pounds per acre. The best results were obtained on plats receiving 125 and 250 pounds per acre, where the gain over untreated plats was at the rate of 15,000 pounds of pnions per acre. The second object was to determine whether sul- phur alone would give as good results as the mixture of sulphur * Urocystis cepule Frost. * Conn. Sta. Rpt. 19:176-182 (1806). * Conn. Sta. Rpts. 1889:146-153; 1890:103-104. * Bul. 182 (1900); same in Rpt. 19:69-96. SE TT ee ee ee ee ee ‘io New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I4I and lime. Definite conclusions could not be drawn, but it seemed that the efficiency of the sulphur was somewhat increased by the addition of lime. During the last three years the experiments were so planned as to show three things: (1) The increase in yield due to the use of sulphur and lime applied in the drills; (2) whether injury to the crop may result from the accumulation of sulphur in the soil through repeated applications of the treatment; (3) whether lime and sulphur applied broadcast are as effective as when applied in the drills. The conclusions reached were as follows: “ There seems to be no doubt that onion smut can be prevented to a considerable extent, but not wholly, by the application of sulphur and air-slaked lime in the drills at time of sowing the seed. What quantity of sulphur and lime it is best to use has not been definitely determined, but in our experiments excellent results have been obtained from the use of 100 pounds of sulphur to fifty pounds of lime (equal parts by measure) per acre. We recommend the use of this quan- tity until it has been shown by experiment that some other quantity gives better results. “There is no danger of harmful results from the accumulation of sulphur in the soil, provided it is not used in excessively large quantities. Broadcast applications of the sulphur and lime have little if any effect on smut; the application must be made in the drills.” The results of these experiments show plainly that the sulphur- lime treatment is a practical and profitable remedy for onion smut. Yet Orange County onion growers have made no use of it. So far as they are concerned the expense of the experiment was absolutely wasted. The only other onion disease studied by the Station is a bacterial rot common in Orange County in 1898. It appears to have been brought about by the excessively wet weather during July and August of that year. Thorough drainage and clean cultivation are recommended as preventive measures. PEACH. Although several peach diseases have received more or less at- tention at the Station, an extended investigation has been made of none of them. 8 Bul. 164:2090-212 (1899) ; same in Rpt. 18:169-173. 142 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REport. The Third Annual Report!" of the Station contains articles on peach yellows, leaf curl and gumming. In the discussion of leaf curl it was pointed out that the fungus is perennial within the tissues of the twigs, as suggested by the German plant pathologist, Frank.S The article on gumming is a résumé of the knowledge of the subject at that time with the addition of some original ob- servations and experiments, none of which were of much import- ance. An instance is cited in which a violent attack of gumming resulted from hail injury. In the Sixth Annual Report! the perennial habit of the leaf curl fungus is reaffirmed and record is made of an experiment in which the cutting out of all limbs showing signs of leaf curl pro- duced no sensible decrease in the amount of the disease the fol- lowing year. Bulletin 191 "° contains short notes on leaf curl, fruit rot, “ little peach” disease, yellows, brown spot of the fruit and canker of the twigs, trouble with peach trees in the nursery cellar, double peaches, hail injury, Cytospora canker and splitting of peach trunks. The most important of these notes is the one on brown spot."!! In Bulletin zoo, an account is given of an interesting case of imperfect fertilization in peaches.1* It was observed “ that imper- fectly fertilized peaches may attain considerable size and remain hanging on the tree until September. In such cases this trouble may be mistaken for the “little peach”? disease by persons un- familiar with the latter. However, in the “little peach” disease the pit is of normal size and provided with a well-developed kernel ; while in cases of imperfect fertilization the pit is abnormally small and has no kernel, or at least only a partially developed one.” PEAR. Pear diseases have received their full share of attention. The investigations on pear blight published in the Third, Fourth and Fifth Annual Reports! of the Station are quite generally recog- nized by plant pathologists as important contributions to the knowl- ™ Rpt. 3:372-379 (1884). Frank, A. B. Krankheiten der Pflanzen, p. 526. Breslau. 1880. me Rpt. 62353: (1687): 9 Bul. 191:312-319 (1900); same in Rpt. 19:189-1097. ™ Helminthosporium carpophilum Lev. 2 Bul. 200:89-93 (1901); same in Rpt. 20:149-153. "3 Rots. 3:357-367 (1884) ; 4:268-275 (1885) ; 5:259-273 (1886). Ad Send NEw YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 143 edge of this destructive disease. In estimating the value of this work it should be remembered that at the time it was done scarcely anything was known about bacterial diseases of plants. That bac- teria might be the cause of pear blight was first suggested by Prof. T. J. Burrill of the University of Illinois in 1878. Two years later he made inoculation experiments which showed that the dis- ease may be communicated from one pear tree to another by in- troducing into healthy tissue a bit of the bacteria-laden exudate from diseased twigs; also, that the disease may be artificially pro- duced in the apple and quince in the same manner. Little more than this was known about the pear disease when the investigations at the Station were begun in 1884; and the only other recognized bacterial plant disease was the hyacinth disease studied by Dr. Wakker, in Holland, in 1882.75 Undoubtedly, the illuminating pioneer work of Burrill and Arthur on pear blight has been an important factor in the rapid advances which have been made in our knowledge of bacterial plant diseases during the past twenty years. As regards the nature and results of the Station investigations on pear blight, they are best stated in Dr. Arthur’s own words. He says :116 “ The report of 1884 goes over the ground of Professor Burrill’s investigations, confirming his observations respecting the presence and activity of bacteria in connection with the disease, its infectious character as shown by inoculation, and the identity of pear blight and twig blight of the apple and quince. It was found that the disease could also be extended to various pomaceous fruits not tested by Professor Burrill, but could not be induced in plants of other orders. Inoculation in green fruit, taking up an original line of research, was found more certain of results than in the branches, and this with other things led to the belief that succulency has to do with the fullest development of the disease. Reasons are given for thinking that the bacteria accompanying the disease are the cause of it. The probable manner of the propaga- tion of the disease from tree to tree is outlined, and suggestions made as to remedies and preventions. In 1885 a rigid proof is given that the bacteria (Micrococcus amylovorus Bur.), which are always found accompanying the disease, are the actual cause of it. The discovery was made that the entrance of the bacteria into the ™ Trans. Ill. Hort. Soc. for 1878:80 (1879). ™ Bot. Centbl. 14:315 (1883). ™° Rpt. 6:363 (1887). ‘ 144 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. tissues of the trees is effected through the center of the flowers and through the delicate growing tips of branches. An attempt was made to learn why some varieties suffer more from the disease than others, but with indifferent success. The mode by which the disease is normally propagated and spread is more fully stated. Some facts are given about the development of the germs in arti- ficial cultures, and the chemical and other changes which they bring about. In 1886 the proof of the bacterial nature of the dis- ease is reviewed and further strengthened, the forms and trans- formations of the germs are described and illustrated, and the chemical changes they bring about further treated of, including the proof that they do not form a poison-in the branches of the trees. Statistics and experiments are produced to further show the rela- tion of blight to succulency and to explain why the disease varies in different varieties of the same kind of fruit. It is further shown that the bacteria may live and propagate in common garden soil.” The work of the Station on pear scab™’ has had to do almost entirely with experiments on its control. Small experiments with hyposulphite of soda were made in 1886''8 and with potassium sulphide in 1887.18 In 1893 and 1894 extensive spraying experi- ments with bordeaux mixture were made in a 42-acre pear orchard near Geneva. In the experiments of 1893 information was sought on two points :17° (1) The value of dilute bordeaux mixture (1 to ir formula) for the prevention of scab; (2) the best number of treatments to make prior to blooming. The results of the experi- ments furnished satisfactory answers to both questions. By the use of dilute bordeaux, scab was kept so well under control that the net profit from spraying ranged between $4.77 and $6.10 per tree. Three sprayings before blooming gave no better results than two sprayings. The experiments in 1894 were designed to answer three ques- tions 7121 (1) What is the least number of treatments with bordeaux mixture (1 to 11 formula) which will practically prevent injury from the scab fungus in pear orchards, and at what time in the season ought the treatments to be made? (2) To what extent is late spraying liable to cause russeting or roughness of the fruit? ™ Venturia pirina (Lib.) Aderh. 48 Rpt. 5:174 (1886). ™ Rpt. 6:350 (1887). ” Bul. 67 (18904); same in Rpt. 12:694-717. ' 1 Bul. 84 (1895); same in Rpt. 13:649-683. Le ae ee * ee ee 5S New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 145 (3) To what extent will the benefits of spraying one season in- fluence the crop of the next season? Again, satisfactory answers were obtained. It was decided that the least number of sprayings which may be relied upon to control scab on susceptible varieties is three. The first of these should be made after the buds break, but before blossoming; the second, im- mediately after blossoming; and the third, from ten to fourteen days after the second. Although there had been no trouble in 1893, much russeting of the fruit resulted from spraying in 1894 and a considerable study of it was made. As regards the third question, it was found that pear trees which had been sprayed in 1893, and thereby protected from scab, gave no larger yield in 1894 than trees which had not been sprayed in 1893. However, this does not prove that spraying was not beneficial to the trees, because the sprayed trees entered the experiment at a disadvantage, having borne, in 1893, three times as much fruit as the unsprayed trees. These experiments established the treatment for pear scab in New York. Essentially the same treatment is in general use at the pres- ent time. The experiments in preventing leaf diseases of nursery stock in western New York conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture in cooperation with this Station included some experi- ments on the control of pear leaf blight’*? in nurseries. These ex- periments were made in 1891 and 1892 and the results published in the Eleventh Annual Report. In the experiments on pear stocks'** bordeaux mixture proved superior to the ammoniacal solu- tion of copper carbonate and was entirely efficacious. On pear seed- lings'** a comparative test was made of twenty-five spray mixtures —compounds of copper, iron and zinc. Bordeaux mixture was not included. Most of them were untried as fungicides. Six appli- cations were made with each of them, and there was sufficient leaf blight to give them a thorough test; but only a few gave results which would warrant further trial. None prevented leaf blight entirely. Some other pear troubles studied at the Station are the follow- ™ Entomosporium maculatum Lévy. ™ Rpt. 11:643-652 (1893); same in Jour. Mycol. 7:241-247. ™Rpt. 11:673-677; a more complete account in Jour. Mycol. 7:338-351. 146 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. ing: (1) A case of premature coloration and dropping of pear leaves which was ascribed to defective nutrition.?* (2) Trouble with pear trees stored in a nursery cellar.17° The upper portions of the trees turned black. Upon investigation it was found that the trouble had been brought about by sudden thawing of the trees. The sand covering the roots of the trees had become frozen, and in order to thaw it quickly a fire had been built in the cellar. (3) Body blight.177 Studies on this were made in connection with the investigation of apple canker. A full understanding of body blight was not obtained, but it was proven that the apple canker fungus'*S may attack pear wood and produce lesions similar to those found on pear trunks affected with body blight. PLUM. Of the various plum diseases, leaf spot has received most atten- tion. During three years, 1885 to 1887, a considerable study was made of the life history of the leaf spot fungus.’?? While not fully demonstrated, it was shown to be highly probable that the fungus has three different spore forms, one of which is an ascigerous form. Strange to say, this matter stands to-day where it was left by the Station twenty years ago. The occurrence of an ascigerous form in the life cycle of the fungus has been neither proven nor dis- proven. ; Experiments on the treatment of leaf spot were begun in 1887, when promising results were obtained with potassium sulphide used as a spray.!°? In 1891 and 1892 bordeaux mixture and the ammo- niacal solution of copper carbonate were tried on nursery stock. The latter injured the foliage, but the former gave results sufficiently good to warrant further trial. The experiments were continued in 1893 with bordeaux only.%2 This year the beneficial effect of spraying was marked. The sprayed trees held their foliage longer and made a larger growth of tops and roots. = Rpt. 3:369 (1885)- “6 Bul. 200:83-85 (1901); same in Rpt. 20:143-146. “7 Bul. 163 (1899); same in Rpt. 18:331-360; Bul. 185 (1900); same in Rpt. 19:342-350. 8 Spheropsis malorum Pk. 8 Cylindrosporium padi Karst. Rpts. 5:276-281 (1886) ; 6:347 (1887). ™ Rpt. 6:350 (1887). 1 Rpt. 11:659-064 (1892). ™ Bul. 72 (1894); same in Rpt. 12:690-693. New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 147 In 1895 and 1896 experiments were made in bearing orchards, In the first season’s work’? eau celeste soap, which had given promising results in the hands of certain fruit growers, was com- pared with bordeaux mixture and shown to be inferior to it. Hence, in the second season’s work'** only bordeaux was used. At the time these experiments were undertaken the efficiency of bor- deaux mixture for plum leaf spot had already been thoroughly demonstrated by experiments at various experiment stations and by the experience of many practical fruit growers. But the least number of treatments necessary and the best time for making them had not been determined. The Station experiments were planned to throw light on these points. Without going into the details of the experiments the conclusions reached may be stated as follows :1° “Tn some seasons two treatments are most economical, but under conditions favorable to the disease at least three should be given. If but two treatments be made give the first ten days after the blossoms fall, but not later than June 1; make the second treat- ment about three weeks later. The disease may be better con- trolled by three treatments and usually three treatments will be most profitable. Make the third from three to four weeks after the second.” In the summer of 1893 the Station Horticulturist made some interesting and important observations on plum black knot.?°° Plain evidence was found that the summer conidia of the black knot fungus are capable of reproducing the disease through infection of young shoots; also, that the first knots and conidia resulting from such infection appear in June of the following year.1*" Station Bulletin No. 40, Black Knot of Plum and Cherry, which was published in the spring of 1892, is little more than a compila- tion of existing knowledge of the subject. POTATO. Most of the Station’s work on potato diseases has been along the line of spraying to prevent blight and rot. The need of a remedy for these diseases must be evident to all who are familiar with New York potato culture. For example, on the Station farm, *8 Bul. 98 (1806). *4 Bul. 117 (1897); same in Rpt. 16:207-213. *5 Bul. 170:432 (1899); same in Rpt. 18:454. *° Plowrightia morbosa (Schw.) Sacc. *™ Rpt. 12:686-688 (1893). 148 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPoRT. in 1885, the average loss from rot on thirty-four plats of one- twentieth acre each was 65 per ct.488 The variety was White Star. Several other varieties rotted even worse, the loss being as high as 100 per ct. in some cases. (In this connection it should be stated that some varieties were found to be more susceptible to rot than others and that a vigorous growth of vines encourages rot.) The Station makes no claim to having had any important part in establishing the value of bordeaux mixture as a preventive of potato blight. Its chief service has been in showing what spraying will do for the potato crop in New York. Notwithstanding that losses from blight and rot are great and that experiments in Vermont'?? and other states have shown that the disease may be controlled by spraying, New York farmers have been slow to adopt the practice. of spraying potatoes. Moreover, the successful results of experi- ments made on the Station farm in 18911*! and 18921 and on Long Island farms in 1895143 and 1896'** failed to make much im- pression. As late as 1902 but few farmers in New York made a practice of spraying potatoes for blight. The argument advanced was that late blight is not destructive every season and, conse- quently, the spraying is done at a loss in some seasons, because it must be commenced before it is known whether or not blight will appear. For this reason it was quite generally doubted that the spraying of potatoes is profitable one year with another. Of course the weak point in this argument is the fact that spraying is of value not only for late blight but also for the control of other pests such as early blight, flea beetles and bugs, one or more of which is almost always present. Finally, it became evident to the Station authorities that New York potato growers would never adopt spraying until it could be shown by a long series of reliable experiments that it is profitable one year with another on the average. Accordingly, in 1902, a ten-year series of experiments was begun on the Station grounds. *58 Rpt. 4:65 (1885). *° Rpt. 4:230-244 (1885). * At the Vermont Experiment Station the average gain from spraying potatoes during 16 consecutive years has been 114 bu. per acre. ((Vt. Sta. Rpt. 19:267. 1907). ™ Bul. 41:44-46 (1892); same in Rept. 10:485-487. ™ Bul. 49:13-16 (1893); same in Rpt. 11:696—699. *8 Bul. 101:73-78 (1896) ; same in Rpt. 15:498—504. ™ Bul. 123 (1897); same in Rpt. 16:376—400. a” bO6OI ‘LNAWINGAXY] ONIAVYdS-OLVLOg YVAA-NAL NI SMOY AMAL —~ XI aLVIg ‘sq, t4oge “sqT %4zo£ “sql YeQZP ‘splPtA “SHOLVLOG ONIA VudS "‘X FLvIg ‘aioe tod ‘nq O£1 posvatoul potyz ‘ONIAVYdS AO SLINSAY ‘SO6I NI SLNAWINAdMX9 DNIAVUdS-OLVLOg AO NOILVOIOT —']I]T 4dvIN | | ene | aeai es SOK Ma ats pte ar) > "Xs LNAWIYAGXA WASLNOIOA =F B 4 ee Ze Se LNGWIaadXa SBANISNG S.uaWnYVs DH 7 40 Si < oe IN MadXd UVAA-NaL -B aye j— ey ares y \ Be: » yea vi hess | ye 2 | SS aa | Za ||| ees Se | } 2 !\5 | { IP i oz : a ee ase eee ae * f / Ly Ione eh me oe 2 ry NING aD ee Sas ee ee ay OO eal z i ! i aL Seal ey, ! [= } ANVILEOO® i 5 TLV® - ea WW OOS) | / / j \e sa a i ! ° ° | i a N | Vi <> | 7 aN ) — 1 ¥ d | 5 | | o aR? fp Mes j | | z it ifs =

> e = 3 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 149 These experiments were designed to show the increase in yield ‘due to spraying and also how the benefit from three sprayings com- pares with that obtained from five; but no account was to be taken of the expense. A duplicate of this series was to be conducted at Riverhead on Long Island. The following year (1903), a series of farmers’ business experiments was begun with the intention of continuing them until 1912. Each year several of these business experiments are conducted in cooperation with farmers in different parts of the State who spray several acres doing all the work in their own way and keeping a full account of all expense of it. In each experiment a few rows are left unsprayed for comparison. At digging time a representative of the Station assists with the digging and weighing of sprayed and unsprayed rows for the purpose of de- termining the increase in yield due to spraying. In this manner the Station attempts to determine the profit from spraying potatoes as it is done by farmers under actual farm conditions. Additional Gata bearing on the subject are obtained from numerous farmers who have made spraying experiments on their own account. Each year the Station secures reports of as many as possible of such experiments, which are called volunteer experiments. At the end of the first five years the results stand as follows: In the Station ten-year experiments the average increase in yield from spraying has been: At Geneva, 132 bu. per acre for five spray- ings and 103.3 bu. for three sprayings; at Riverhead, 66.3 bu. per acre for five sprayings and 35.3 bu. for three sprayings. In the farmers’ business experiments (48 experiments in 4 years) the aver- age gain from spraying has been 52 bu. per acre. The average total expense of spraying, $4.85 per acre and the average net profit $20.51 per acre. In the volunteer experiments (153 experiments. in three years), the average gain from spraying has been 58 bu. per acre.’ What will be the final results of the experiments can.not be fore- told, but up to the present time spraying has certainly made a good showing. Since about 400,000 acres of potatoes are grown in New York a net profit of $20 per acre on the average means a saving which amounts in the aggregate to $8,000,000 annually. It is gratifying to note that potato growers are showing much “ Bul. 221 (1902); same in Rpt. 21:77—-104. Bul. 241 (1903); same in Rpt. 22:117—-162. Bul. 264 (1905); same in Rpt. 24:89-194. Bul. 279 (1906) ; same in Rpt. 25:119-187. Bul. 290 (1907). 150 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY Report. interest in the experiments and the number who practice spraying is rapidly increasing. No doubt the recent improvements in potato spraying machinery have had much to do with the advance of potato spraying. ‘There are now upon the market several thor- oughly practical horse power sprayers for potatoes. In addition to the spraying experiments above described studies and experiments have been made on closely related subjects. For example, in 1904 and 1905 a mixture of sal soda, copper sulphate and water, called soda bordeaux, was compared with the regular bordeaux mixture as a preventive of potato blight. The regular bordeaux gave slightly better results in both seasons.146 Another of these experiments was a comparison of warm and cold water for making bordeaux mixture to spray potatoes.” Some persons held the opinion that bordeaux mixture prepared with cold water, such as comes from deep wells, is injurious to potato foliage. The results of the experiment showed this opinion to be without foundation in fact. A third line of investigation was on the effect of certain arsenites upon potato foliage.“5 It had been claimed by some that arsenical compounds are injurious to the potato plant even when applied with properly made bordeaux mixture. Inasmuch as paris green and arsenite of soda, the leading insecticides used on potatoes, are both compounds of arsenic it was deemed advisable to look into the matter. The chief conclusions reached were: (1) That paris green is not injurious to potato foliage if ap- plied in moderate quantity with lime water or bordeaux mixture evenly distributed ; (2) That paris green possesses considerable value as a preventive of potato late blight ; (3) That arsenite of soda is much less liable to injure the foliage when used with bordeaux than when used with lime water even if the same quantity of lime is used in both cases. Analyses of sprayed and unsprayed potatoes showed the former to contain a larger percentage of starch;'” and a test of their cooking qualities showed the sprayed potatoes to be much the more mealy.’ “ Bul. 264:187-194; same in Rpt. 24:177-183. Bul. 279:215; same in Rpt. 25:174-176. ™ Bul. 279:222; same in Rpt. 25:180, 181. ** Bul. 267 (1905) ; same in Rpt. 24:195-214; see also Bul. 279-217. Buls. 221:253; 241:265: 2647174 = Bl. 2OAeT Es: ew ie eS oar es RE ae RT Nee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 151 In 1904 the Station ten-year experiment at Geneva gave the enor- mous gain of 233 bu. per acre due to spraying. In order to deter- mine whether the sprayed potatoes were better than the unsprayed ones for seed purposes, tubers from sprayed and unsprayed rows were planted in alternate rows the following season. There was a difference in yield of 12 bu. per acre in favor of the sprayed seed.*? The Station has done some work on potato scab,!? without, how- ever, making an important addition to the knowledge of that troublesome disease. Experiments made in 1887? and 1888!4 were designed to throw light on the following points: (1) Influence of the soil; (2) effect of an excess of moisture in the soil; (3) scabby vs. smooth tubers for seed; (4) effect of stable manure; (5) disinfection of seed tubers; (6) effect of special fertilizers; (7) relation of millipedes to scab; and (8) relation between color of skin and susceptibility to scab. The results seem to warrant the conclusion that scab is more virulent in wet soils than in dry ones, and in manured soils more than in unmanured ones; also that milli- pedes are not active agents in producing scab. On other points the experiments were inconclusive. This was before the cause of scab was known. After the discovery of the true cause of potato scab by Dr. Thaxter at the Connecticut Station! in 1890 further experiments on the treatment of scab were undertaken in 1892.1°° Several differ- ent fungicides were tested in two ways: (1) By soaking the seed tubers in them; and (2) by spraying the seed pieces and the sur- rounding soil with fungicides. While there were some indications of benefit from both methods of treatment no conclusions could be drawn. In 1897 an experiment was made on green manuring with rye as a preventive of potato scab.” This has sometimes been recom- mended as a means of securing a smooth crop of potatoes on land infested with scab. The method is to sow the rye in the fall and plow it under the following spring shortly before planting time. In the Station test the use of rye in this way did not lessen the amount of scab in the least. ** Unpublished. ** Odspora scabies Thax. * Rpt. 6:307-315 (1887). * Rpt. 7:224-227 (1888). *° Conn. Sta. Rpt. for 1890:81-95 (1891). ** Bul. 49:3-13 (1893); same in Rpt. 11:561-570. “Bul. 138:629-631 (1897); same in Rpt. 16:418-420. 152 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. Other potato diseases studied more or less are the following: (1) An internal browning of potato tubers'®® observed on Long Island in 1895. ‘Tubers, outwardly perfect, show, within, numerous brown spots scattered irregularly through the flesh. The cause was not determined. (2) A stem blight or wilt disease often destructive on Long Island The leaves at the tips of the shoots roll up, turn yellow or purplish, then the entire plant wilts and dies. The tubers appear sound, but when cut at the stem end blackened fibers are seen pene- trating the flesh to a considerable distance. Affected tubers do not rot. The seat. of the trouble is plainly in the stem just below the surface of the soil where it first becomes discolored then dry and shriveled. Apparently, the disease is not transmitted with the seed.1°° The cause was not determined. We can not agree with Dr. Erwin Smith?®! who has expressed the opinion that this disease is caused by the potato dry-rot fungus, Fusarium oxysporum. (3) Pimply potatoes caused by the larvae of the flea beetle boring into the growing tubers. Previous to this time the feeding habits of flea-beetle larvee were unknown. (4) A new, but unimportant, Fusarium disease of potato stems.2 (5) Rhizoctonia on potato tubers and stems.16# QUINCE. No extended investigation of any quince disease has been carried out at the Station. However, at various times, some observations and notes have been made. In the investigation of the fire blight disease of the pear, re- viewed on a previous page, it was shown by means of cross-inocula- tion experiments that the fire blight of quince and apple twigs is due to the same cause, namely, to bacteria. And in the investiga- tion of apple canker (page 122) the quince was taken into con- sideration because of its close relationship to the apple. It was found that the apple canker fungus, Spheropsis malorum, is capable of attacking also living quince branches. That Spheropsis may — *$ Bul. 101:78-83 (1896) ; same in Rpt. 15:504—-500. *™ Bul. 1or:83-84. Bul. 138:632-634 (1897); in Rpt. 16:421-423. 7 UJ. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 55:10 (1904). 7 Bul. 101:84-85; Bul. 113 (1806) (same in Rpt. 15:513-519). = Buleetor:8s: *#" Bul. 186:17-22 (1901); same in Rpt. 19:110-113. | 7 ae ' New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 153 cause the rotting of quince fruits had been previously demonstrated by experiments made at the Station some fifteen years earlier.1™* In 1887 quince bushes sprayed with a solution of potassium sul- phide became severely affected with fire blight, thereby showing the inefficiency of the treatment.1% In the third’®* and fourth’ reports of the Station the quince spot disease,’® which affects-both the fruit and leaves, is described and illustrated and the interesting statement made that no remedy for it is known. A few years later it was shown by the experiments of Thaxter at the Connecticut Station’® and by experiments on nursery stock at this Station!” that quince spot is very readily con- trolled by three to five applications of bordeaux mixture. A brief account of powdery mildew’™ of quince leaves is given in one of the early reports.!” RASPBERRY. Anthracnose! is a common fungus disease of raspberries and blackberries. Its most characteristic symptom is the formation of discolored spots and blotches on the canes. It is often exceedingly . destructive to black varieties of raspberries, but does not attack red varieties to any great extent. Experiments on the control of anthracnose were carried on during three successive seasons (1894—-1896).14 The principal object of the experiments was to determine the value of spraying as a pre- ventive of the disease. At first 1t was thought likely that a very early spraying with some strong fungicide would be helpful. Ac- cordingly, applications of copper sulphate, iron sulphate and sul- phuric acid were made before the foliage appeared and this followed by several applications of bordeaux mixture. Ultimately, it was learned that the early applications were unnecessary; moreover, ™ Rpt.-33372 (C1884). © Rpt. '6:351 (1887). = ep t. 35371. 77 Rpt. 4:275 (1885). *8 Entomosporium maculatum Lév. *® Conn. Sta. Rpts. 1890:99; 1891 :150-152. Rpt. r1:652-654 (1892). * Podosphera oxyacanthe (DC) De By. 7 Rpt. 3:371 (1884). ™ Gl@osporinm venetum Speg. ™ Bul. 81:592-594 (1894) ; same in Rpt. 13:684-686. Bul. 124 (1897); same in Rpt. 16:231-244. 154 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. sulphuric acid injured the plants. It was demonstrated that anthrac- nose may be prevented by three to five applications of bordeaux -mixture, the first being made when the new canes are a few inches high and the others at intervals of ten to fourteen days; but it was not clear that stich treatment is profitable. It may be more profit- able to fight anthracnose by adopting a short rotation of crops, the use of strictly healthy plants when setting new plantations and the removal of the old canes immediately after the fruit is gathered. In rg00 a study was made of a curious cane-knot trouble of Cuthbert raspberries.” The knots were rough, of spongy texture and often had a diameter twice that of the normal cane. The knots were found to be due to the anthracnose fungus. Another raspberry disease to which the Station has given much attention is that known as cane blight.17 This first came to the attention of the Station in 1899 during the prosecution of a plant disease survey of the Hudson Valley. Although abundant and destructive and evidently not new to fruit growers, the disease was, nevertheless, entirely unknown to science at that time. It seems strange that so conspicuous and widespread a disease should so long have escaped the attention of plant pathologists. In the season: of 1900 observations were extended to central and western New York where the disease was again found in abundance, and further observations made in 1901 and 1902 indicate that it occurs more or less abundantly in a majority of the raspberry plantations through- out New York State. It also occurs in some other parts of the United States. The symptoms of cane blight are the sudden wilting and dying of the fruiting canes (either wholly or in part) here and there through the plantation. Both red and black varieties are attacked and the disease is most severe about the time the fruit is ripening. A thorough study was made of cane blight and its treatment. It was proven that the cause of the disease is a parasitic fungus (Coniothyrium sp.) which attacks the cane at some point, killing and discoloring the bark and wood thereby causing the death of the parts above. The fungus is disseminated by means of infected nursery stock; by wind, rain and washing of the soil; and in pick- ing, pruning and laying down the canes. No definite and effective ™ Bul. 191:328 (1900); same in Rpt. 19:206. “’ Bul. 167:305-307 (1899) ; same in Rpt. 18:214-216. Bul. 191:330 (1900) ; same in Rpt. 19:208. Bul. 226:331-362 (1902) ; same in Rpt. 21:105-136. <7) 7 = 7 pT eee te ' ae yates ¥ en oe ee ek re eee ge eee te ee ae ae ie eee ee eg New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 155 line of treatment was established. Among several precautions to be observed the most important are: (1) To secure healthy plants with which to start the plantation; (2) to remove the old canes im- 'mediately after the fruit is gathered. Spraying the plants with bordeaux mixture proved wholly ineffective. Studies have also been made on raspberry yellows, a disease which is believed to be chiefly responsible for the socalled running out of the Marlboro red raspberry in the Hudson Valley. It is char- acterized by stunted growth, mottled yellowish-green foliage and dry, insipid fruit. Neither the cause nor a remedy was found. The inefficiency of bordeaux mixture for the disease is shown by the fact that plants sprayed thirteen times were quite as much affected as unsprayed plants. Various combinations of commercial fertilizers were applied to the soil in a badly affected plantation without any appreciable effect on the disease. SNAPDRAGON. The cultivated snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus L.)_ suffers severely from a fungus disease, called anthracnose, in which the stems and leaves are covered with elliptical or circular sunken spots. This disease and its treatment were made the subject of a special investigation.“ The fungus was found to be new to science. It was fully described and figured and given the name Colletotrichum antirrhim. This fungus enjoys the distinction of being one of the two new species described in the Station publications during a period of twenty-five years. For a time it was believed that Colletotrichum antirrhini attacks only the snapdragon, but later it was found to infest also yellow toad-flax, a common weed belonging to the same family.!” A complete remedy for the snapdragon anthracnose was discov- ered. “In an-experiment made on Long Island, plants sprayed once a week with bordeaux mixture remained entirely free from the disease -while unsprayed plants under parallel conditions were com- pletely ruined by it.” In connection with the investigation of anthracnose some studies were made on another disease —a stem rot.%® This attacks succu- *T Bul. 226:362-364. 8 Bul. 179:105-109 (1900) ; same in Rpt. 19:61-66. ™ Bul. 200:87-89 (1901); same in Rpt. 20:148. * Bul. 179:109-I1I0. 156 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. lent shoots causing them to suddenly wilt and die. By means of in- oculation experiments it was proven that a fungus belonging to the genus Phoma is responsible for the disease. Although no experi- ments have been made it is probable that stem rot may be pre- vented by spraying with bordeaux mixture as for anthracnose. STRAWBERRY, SUNFLOWER, SYCAMORE AND TURNIP. In the Fifth Annual Report (p. 275) is given an account of a powdery mildew"! found on strawberries on the Station grounds in the summer of 1886. This is thought to be the first record of the occurrence of powdery mildew on strawberries although what ap- pears to be the same fungus had long been known as a parasite of hops, dandelions and several other plants. The interesting observa- tion was made that while the fungus adapts itself readily to plants of very diverse nature it attacks the different varieties of the same species of dandelion in widely different degrees. In the Sixth Report (p. 351) there is an account of an experiment in which potassium sulphide, used as a spray, kept the strawberry leaf spot well under control. The Fifteenth Report contains short articles on two common diseases (rust and leaf spot) of the cultivated sunflower (p. 455), the anthracnose™ of sycamore trees which is very common and injurious on Long Island (p. 457), and an unusual leaf spot dis- ease! of flat turnips found on Long Island in 1896 (p. 451). TOMATO. The blossom end rot of the tomato has long been a puzzle to plant pathologists. Even at the present time it is very mmperfectly under- stood. It has been ascribed to various causes, scarcely any two investigators being in complete agreement on the subject. The probable explanation of this is that the symptoms may be pro- duced by any one of several causes. , While this disease has never been given extended study at the Station, observations and small experiments have been made upon it from time to time. Notes on it appear in every one of the first five ™ Spherothica humuli (DC.) Burr. Spherelia fragaric (Tul.) Sace. ™ Glecsporium nervisequum (Fckl.) Sacc. ™ Macrosporium herculewm E. & M. he Oe ee ee Ke ee he Pee ee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 157 = s reports*® of the Station and in two of the later ones.8® Some of the points covered by these studies are: The symptoms and be- havior of the disease; amount of damage done by it; the relative susceptibility of different varieties; the use of immature seed as a predisposing cause; attempts to reproduce the disease by artificial inoculation; and a search for fungi and bacteria in the diseased tissue. The only other tomato disease to receive attention at the Sta- tion is a fungus leaf spot (Cylindrosporium sp.).’5* An experiment made on Long Island in 1895 showed that spraying the plants with bordeaux mixture at frequent intervals checks this disease consider- ably but that it can not be controlled satisfactorily if the spraying is discontinued when the fruit commences to ripen. MISCELLANEOUS PLANT DISEASES. The review of the work on plant diseases given in the preceding pages includes most, but not all, of the Station investigations on this subject. There are a few of the Station bulletins which con- tain notes and short articles on so large a number of diseases that it has seemed inadvisable to mention them all. To do so would ‘lengthen this review considerably without adding much to its value. It is thought that a better method is to discuss these miscellaneous bulletins separately. Bulletin 186,88 The Sterile Fungus Rhizoctonia as a Cause of Plant Diseases in America, contains a report of some investigations made in cooperation with the Cornell Experiment Station. Each of the Stations having undertaken independent studies on certain plant diseases caused by Rhizoctonia it was thought that the work could be prosecuted to better advantage by cooperation. With the ex- ception of beet root rot, very little was known at this time about Rhizoctonia diseases in America. It was found that Rhizoctonia attacks many different plants causing root rot, stem rot and damp- ing off. Some of the plants affected are bean, beet, cabbage, carrot, carnation, cauliflower, celery, china aster, cotton, coreopsis, lettuce, ornamental asparagus, potato, radish, rhubarb, sweet william and violet. Rpts. 27138; 2:104;.3:227; 379; 4:210, 276; 52170, 273. _*™* Rpts. 14:529; 16:271 (same in Bul. 125:305). So Rpt. 54529-5331. *8 Reprinted in Rpt. 19:97-121; also published as Cornell Sta. Bul. 186 (1901). 158 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. Bulletin 167,18 A Fruit Disease Survey of the Hudson Valley in 1899, and Bulletin 191," A Fruit Disease Survey of Western New York in 1900, contain notes on a large number of fruit diseases. While special attention is given to the distribution and amount of damage done by the various diseases other points of interest are noted in many cases. The purpose of the Station in making these surveys was to secure more accurate information concerning the | diseases affecting fruits in the State. Some of the more important notes not previously mentioned are: In Bulletin £67: Orange rust of blackberry and raspberry; black knot of plum and cherry; currant leaf spot; dying of dewberry canes; grape root-rot; grape black knot; and strawberry leaf spot. In Bulletin 191: Crown gall and hairy root of apple; winter injury to apple; collar rot of apricot; yellow fall rust'’? of blackberry ; leaf scorch and winter injury of pears; Cytospora canker of plum trees ; hail injury to plum trees; gum pockets in plum fruit; and powdery mildew on raspberry. Both 1899 and 1900 being dry seasons, many diseases were less prevalent than usual. One of the most important results of these surveys was the discovery of the destructive cane blight of rasp- berry and the rediscovery of Fairchild’s cane blight of currant. Subsequently, the former disease was given thorough study and the latter is under investigation at the present time. The voluminous correspondence of the Station brings many in- quiries concerning the nature and treatment of the more important diseases and insect enemies of plants. In order to meet this demand for practical information the Station has prepared three special bulletins on the subject, viz.: Bulletin 35,1 Some of the Most Common Fungi and Insects, with Preventives, published in 1891. Bulletin 86° Treatment of Common Diseases and Insects In- jurious to Fruits and Vegetables, published in 1895. Bulletin 170,1°* Common Diseases and Insects Injurious to Fruits, published in 1899. Each disease and insect trouble treated in these bulletins is first *° Reprinted in Rpt. 18:184-217. * Reprinted in Rpt. 19:167~—209. 1 TJredo miilleri Schrt. * Reprinted in Rpt. 9:334-345. #3 Reprinted in Rpt. 14:345-388. 4 Reprinted in Rpt. 18:398-465. eae yeh eS rr New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 159 briefly described in such a way as to enable the fruit grower to identify it and then the best methods of control are outlined. With a few exceptions, these bulletins contain only matter which has been previously published in one form or another. Yet they are some- thing more than mere compilations. In several instances the short articles found in them contain the condensed results of many years of observation and experiment at the Station. This is true, particu- larly, of the chapters on apple and pear troubles in Bulletin 170. FUNGICIDES, INSECTICIDES AND SPRAYING MA- GHINERY: With the widespread interest in the methods of treating fungus diseases and insect pests there has come, also, a constant demand for information concerning the preparation of fungicides and insecti- cides and spraying machinery for applying them. With the excep- tion of making chemical analyses of spraying materials and of sprayed celery and grapes, the Station has done but little investigation in this field. However, three informational bulletins on the sub- ject have been published, viz.: Bulletin 74,!°° Observations on the Application of Fungicides and Insecticides, published in 1894. Bulletin 121,19 Spray Pumps and Spraying, published in 1897, with an appendix published in 1899. Bulletin 243,17 Spray Mixtures and Spray Machinery, published in 1903. These bulletins, like Nos. 35, 86 and 170, contain little that is really new, but they reflect the long experience of the Station with these matters. It has ever been the policy of the Station to avoid recommending the goods of any particular manufacturer of spraying machinery. WEEDS. The Station has given but little attention to weeds. Doubtless there are some weed problems which would make appropriate sub- jects for Station investigation, but this line of work is relatively unimportant. The progressive farmer has little to fear from weeds. He knows that they are mastered by thorough cultivation and eternal vigilance and that there are few short cuts and few special methods. * Reprinted in Rpt. 13:687-706. ** Reprinted in Rpt. 16:215-230. 7 Reprinted in Rpt. 22:321-386. 160 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. The First Annual Report!’ of the Station contains an account of an investigation to determine the number of seeds which average individuals of the common kinds of weeds may be expected to produce. Fifteen kinds of weeds were studied. It was found that the dandelion produces upwards of 1,200 seeds per plant; the ox- eye-daisy, 800 to 96,000; the common plantain, 4,500; the pig weed, 825,000; and the purslane, 2,146,500. Certainly the prolificacy of some weeds is marvelous! A few years later an attempt was made to determine the number of weeds of different kinds which may grow on an acre. Plats containing one-twentieth acre each were plowed and harrowed in May and then left undisturbed for the remainder of the season. The weeds were pulled and counted on three different occasions. One plat produced 8,809 weeds, which is at the rate of 176,180 per acre; a second plat yielded at the rate of 81,900 per acre; a third’ plat, 241,360; and a fourth plat (old meadow), 767,640. An answer to the query concerning the number of weeds which may grow upon a definite area of cultivated soil was sought in yet a different way.”° On December I1 a square foot of surface soil taken to a depth of three inches from a field which had had clean culture was transferred to the greenhouse. The same was done with a square foot of soil from a plat which had been allowed to run to weeds unchecked the previous season. Once a month the germinations in both lots were counted, the plantlets removed and the soil thoroughly stirred for the succeeding month’s growth. From the square foot of clean cultivated soil 92 weeds were ob- tained and from the foul soil 384. On April 14 the experiment was repeated with similar foot-square samples taken from the same plats, but only to one-half the depth, and treated in the same man- ner. This time the clean cultivated soil gave 138 and the foul soil 649 weeds. “It is interesting to note that the soil which was longest exposed to the winter cold gave the largest number of germinations although there was only half as much of it.” In the course of some investigations on the germination of weed seeds it was discovered that some kinds of weed seeds when gathered, preserved and tested in the same way as garden seeds give only from none to seven or eight per ct. of germination.™” * Rpt. 1:85-87 (1882). ® Rpts. 4:289-291 (1885) ; 5:281-283 (1886) ; 6:356-360 (1887). ™ Rpt. 6:360-361. ™ Rpt. 6:362-363. a NEw York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. . I61 This is true of wild aster, beggar ticks, heal all, shepherd’s purse and common plantain. Commenting on this discovery the writer says: “ Weeds seem well able to take care of themselves, but some . of them, at least, do not appear to be well fitted for the ways of cultivated plants. If, indeed, it proves to be true upon further inquiry that some weed seeds are made incapable of germination by being kept dry for three or four months or so, it will be a com- forting fact to know, as the danger of fouling land with those particular kinds of weeds, by seeds conveyed in grain and garden seeds, will be shown to be much less than supposed.” The recent rapid extension of alfalfa culture in New York has brought to the front the chief weed pest of that crop, namely, dodder. The dodder plant consists chiefly of slender, yellow threads which twine closely about the alfalfa stems and kill them. It is, in reality, a parasite. In most cases dodder gets into the field through the use of impure alfalfa seed; and when once established it is impossible to eradicate it without at the same time destroying the alfalfa. Accordingly, it is of the utmost importance that only clean seed be sown. Because of the difficulty in recognizing dodder and the absence of any law regulating the sale of alfalfa seed, farmers found it very difficult to secure dodder-free seed. In this situation the Station helped out by offering to: make free tests of samples of alfalfa seed to determine whether they contain dodder. Also, a method of removing dodder from alfalfa seed was devised. It was shown by experiment that almost any alfalfa seed may be made practically free from dodder and safe to sow by hand sifting it through a sieve made of 20x20 mesh (No. 34 wire) wire cloth. With the facilities now at hand the farmer who gets dodder in his alfalfa fields has only himself to blame. MISCELLANEOUS. Some odds and ends of botanical work which can not be classi- fied under any of the preceding headings are the following: (1) An account of a tile drain clogged by fungus.” The tile drain to a vinegar cellar at Milton, N. Y., became thoroughly clogged by a vigorous growth of the fungus Leptomitus lacteus. The fungus was readily removed by placing a quantity of copper sulphate crystals in the upper end of the drain. Circular No: 8 (1907). 8 Bul. 200:93-98 (1901); same in Rpt. 20:154-157. 6 162 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REpor?. (2) A fungus growing in refrigerator waste pipes.2 It is a common occurrence for the waste pipes to house refrigerators to become clogged with ropy masses of grayish slime. In the main, this slime consists of a fungus growth, but a part of it is dirt from. the melting ice. To avoid this trouble the waste pipe should be washed out occasionally with hot water. (3) An apparatus for testing the germination of seeds has been devised at the Station.2°° This apparatus, known as the Geneva Seed Tester, has been widely used by experiment stations and other institutions in which seed testing is carried on. It is not patented. (4) Another apparatus, ingeniously devised by the botanist, was one in which a constant high temperature could be maintained in a space large enough to hold one or two germinating pans for test- ing seeds.26 (5) The Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Reports? contain notes on a fungus disease of the clover-leaf weevil, an insect destructive to the clover crop. It being thought that the fungus was new to science, it was fully described and illustrated and given the name Entomophthora phytonomi. It was predicted that the fungus would prove an effective check to the insect. Subsequent studies by Dr. Thaxter’S disclosed the fact that the fungus had been described some fifty years earlier under the name Entomophthora spherosperma and that it attacks several other in- sects besides the clover-leaf weevil. Thaxter transferred the fungus to the genus Empusa, which makes its name Empusa spherosperma CE res?)? 4haxct: In spite of the fungus the clover-leaf weevil continues to be a destructive insect in New York clover fields. ** Bul. 200:98-I01. * Bot. Gag. 10:425 (1885). 26 Rpt. 6:355 (1888). AT Rpts. 4:2805—20055:274510:353: 8 The Entomophthoree of the United States. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. ist Woll 4, sNowG, a1sse. SsOMevor THE RESULTS OF WORK DONE Byte CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT. SUMMARIZED BY POV VAN, SLYKE, INTRODUCTION. The chemical work of the Station began July 1, 1882, when S. M. Babcock, Ph.D., entered upon his duties as the first chemist of the Station. Accepting a ‘call to Wisconsin, Dr. Babcock left Geneva December 1, 1887, when E. F. Ladd, B.S., who had been his assistant about three years, was made chemist. Mr. Ladd was succeeded July 12, 1890, by L. L. Van Slyke, Ph.D., who has since continued as Station chemist. The personnel of assistants has inevitably undergone more or less constant change, about thirty-five different assistant chemists having been connected with the labora- tory. Beginning with one assistant chemist in 1884, the number has gradually increased as the volume of work demanded, until there are at present seven. The original laboratory consisted of one room about 30 by 15 feet, located on the east side, first floor, in what is now the admin- istration building. In 1890, when official fertilizer analysis was made a duty of the Station, outside quarters were temporarily hired to accommodate this added work. In 1891, the present commodious laboratory building was completed, in which has since been carried on all the chemical work. During the first year, after the chemical laboratory was fully organized, the work consisted mainly of miscellaneous analyses, such as pig weed, cow peas, string beans, tomatoes, soja beans, samples of milk, sugar in corn stalks, etc. The first formal report! of the Station chemist includes chemical determinations in foods, milk, sugar in corn stalks and in sorghum juice, fertilizers, soils, water and plant ash. Detailed methods are given for fodder analysis, milk analysis, and estimation of sugar. *Rpt. 2:149-174 (1883). [163] ~ at oiar eg 164 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPoRT. The lines of chemical work were gradually extended, as new forms of investigation were undertaken. The general work of the chem- ical department during its first quarter century can be more ad- vantageously considered under specific lines and topics than by following a chronological order. LINES OF CHEMICAL WORK. The various lines of chemical activity which have been carried on at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station during the first twenty-five years of its existence may be grouped under the follow- ing heads: 1. Milk and its products. Composition and digestibility of cattle foods. Plant-food composition of vegetable and animal materials. Soil fertility and crop production. Methods of analysis. Official analysis of commercial fertilizers. Official analysis of paris green. Manufacture of vinegar. g. Analysis of spraying materials. The special portions of work selected for consideration will be presented under the following divisions: 1. Investigations relating to cheese. 2. A comparative study of different breeds of dairy cows in rela- tion to the production of milk, cream, butter and cheese. . The proteins of butter in relation to mottled butter. . The inspection of commercial fertilizers. . Analyses of paris green and other insecticides. . Analysis of copper compounds used in spraying plants. . The composition of commercial soaps in relation to spraying. The composition and production of sorghum and sugar-beets. . The chemistry of home-made cider-vinegar. . Methods of analysis. OI AKA WN Onr Own BW i) Oo © INVESTIGATIONS “RELATING, TOSCH EE SE The work of the chemical department has been particularly identi- fied with the study of questions relating to cheese, both practical and scientific. The work began in 1891 and has been continued, with occasional interruptions, until the present. The object first in mind in undertaking the investigations was to extend our knowl- edge about the relations of milk to cheese, especially in relation to yield and quality. It was a matter of surprise how very little had — ae a le RT alg a a eh a Ce ’ 1 Toe Spee New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1605 been done in these lines previous to 1891. The first portion of the investigation? was confined to some eight experiments in cheese-mak- ing, in which milk was used varying in milk-fat content from 2.35 to 6.5 per ct., the special objects being to ascertain: (1) How much fat can be readily worked into cheese; (2) what influence varying amounts of fat in milk have upon the amount of fat and of casein that can be recovered in cheese; (3) a comparison of the cheddar and stirred-curd processes with reference to yield and losses; (4) comparison of homemade and commercial rennet-ex- tracts; and (5) what general changes take place in the ripening of cheese. In 1892, the work was much extended and included 106 experi- ments,® extending from May to October, about half of which were done at the Station and half at several different cheese factories. In the work about 200,000 pounds of milk were used, representing the product of not less than 1,500 cows. The points covered by the season’s work are indicated as follows. In each of the 106 experiments, we have made special study of the following points: 1. The loss of fat in the process of cheese-making and its rela- tion to the amount of fat in the milk. 2. The loss of casein and albumin in the process of cheese- making. 3. The relation of casein to albumin in milk. 4.. The relation of fat to casein and albumin in milk. 5. The relation of fat in milk to composition of cheese. Does milk containing a certain percentage of fat always make cheese con- taining a uniform percentage of fat? 6. The relation of casein and albumin in milk to composition of cheese. 7. The relation of fat in milk to yield of cheese. How much cheese should be made for each pound of fat in normal milk? Is there any definite relation? 8. The relation of casein and albumin in milk to yield of cheese. 9g. The relation of fat to solids not fat in cheese. 10. The relation of fat to casein and albumin in cheese. 11. Is it possible to establish such definite relations between the composition of milk and the composition of the corresponding cheese, that, from knowing the composition of one, we can tell the composition of the other with a fair degree of accuracy? ? Bul. 37; Rpt. 10:220-300 (1891). *Buls. 43, 45, 46, 47 and 50; Rpt. 11:299-467 (1892). 166 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. In addition to the foregoing points of study, there were made special experiments for the purpose of securing information re- garding other facts: 12. The influence of the removal of fat from normal milk upon the composition of milk and the composition, yield and quality of cheese was studied in seven experiments. 13. The influence of the addition of fat to normal milk upon the composition of milk and the composition, yield and quality of cheese was studied in three experiments. 14. In twenty experiments, a special comparative study was made of the cheddar and stirred-curd processes. 15. In two experiments, the use of a temperature of 106° F. was employed and its effects studied. 16. In ten experiments, the effects of using amounts of rennet more or less above the usual amount were observed. 17. In nineteen experiments, a study was made of the result of cutting curd in hard and soft condition. 18. In two experiments, a comparison was made between the effects of cutting curd in fine and coarse condition. 19. In fifteen experiments, the influence of using tainted milk upon cheese-making was studied. 20. In three experiments, the milk was shut up warm in cans and cooled down, being held over night before making into cheese. The effects of this treatment were carefully noted. 21. In three experiments, the milk was exposed over night to foul odors and then made into cheese. 22. In three experiments, both taint and acid were developed in the milk before it was made into cheese. 23. In three experiments, the milk was aerated by being passed through a De Laval Baby No. 2 Separator, the cream and skim- milk being mixed together again before making into cheese; and, in two other experiments, the milk was aerated by an ordinary aerator. 24. A comparative study has been made of the composition of the milk, whey and cheese for the different months, in order to note changes of composition taking place during the factory sea- son, and the effect of such changes upon the quantity and quality of cheese. 25. A few of the October cheeses were made with special refer- ence to studying the chemical changes that take place in the process of ripening. These cheeses will be kept as long as practicable and analyzed from time to time. | | | New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1607 In February and March, 1893, forty experiments* were made with milk obtained from a herd of Jersey cows in order to study the questions of yields and losses with normal milk rich in fat. At about the same time, some twenty experiments were made in the manu- facture of edam and gouda cheese.*” In 1893, from April 12 to October 31, 100 experiments’ were made. This work was done at fifty different cheese factories. There were used about 750,000 pounds of milk, representing the average of not less than 5,000,000 pounds of milk, the product of over 15,000 cows. The points under special investigation were: 1. The conditions of manufacture as found at cheese factories. The composition of normal factory milk in New York State. The composition of whey. The composition of green cheese. Loss of milk constituents in cheese-making. Influence of composition of milk upon cheese. Influence of composition of milk on yield of cheese. Influence of advancing lactation and of season upon the com- position of the milk, yield of cheese, etce., during the factory season. In 1894, from May 9 to October 3, over twenty experiments® were carried on in one representative cheese factory for the pur- pose of making a special study of the variations in composition of milk as affected by the season and the influence of such variations on the yield and quality of cheese. The work done during the sea- son represented average results secured in handling 1,500,000 pounds of milk. In 1895, analysis of the milk of each of fifty herds of cows, whose milk was taken to a cheese factory, was made regularly once in two weeks for six months, May to October inclusive.°* The object of the work was to study the variations in composition which milk undergoes as the result of climatic conditions. It so happened that opportunity was offered to note the effects of drought on yield and composition of milk. In 1808, there was begun an extended, systematic study’ of the various conditions that affect loss of weight in cheese during the process of curing. CaN OY ees “Bul. 54; Rpt. 12:285-319 (1893). 42 Bul. 56; Rpt. 12:244-269 (1893). * Buls. 60, 61, 62, 65, 68; Rpt. 12:319-481 (1893). * Bul: 82; Rpt. 13:452-523 (1804). 63 Buls. 105 and 110; Rpt. 15:37-65, 66-106 (1806). ™Bul. 207; Rpt. 20:194-223 (1901). 168 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. During the past six or seven years, the work has been directed along such lines of study as enzyms in cheese ;§ the relation to ched- dar cheese of the action of acids upon casein and paracasein;? some of the compounds present in American cheddar cheese ;!° the relation of carbon dioxide to proteolysis in the ripening of cheddar cheese ;" experiments in curing cheese at different temperatures ; conditions affecting chemical changes in cheese-ripening ;* some of the first chemical changes in cheddar cheese ;1* chemical studies of camem- bert*cheese.*® There have been published since October, 1891, up to June, 1907, thirty-three bulletins treating various phases of the subject of American cheddar cheese and aggregating over 1,400 pages. The general subject will be treated under the following divisions : 1. The composition of cows’ milk in relation to yield, composi- tion and quality of cheddar cheese. 2. The composition of whey and of cheese. 3. The conditions of manufacture of cheese in relation to yield and quality of cheese. Method of paying for milk for cheese-making. . Curing of cheddar cheese. Action of acids on casein and paracasein. . Changes in cheese in early stages of manufacture. Enzyms in cheese-making and cheese-ripening. CON Den B I. THE COMPOSITION OF COW’S MILK IN RELATION TO YIELD; COMPOSITION. AND QUALITY OF CHEDDAR CHEESE. Previous to the time when this Station undertook its extensive investigation of cheese, dairy literature furnished very little infor- mation in regard to such fundamental questions as the relation of fat and casein in milk to yield, composition and quality of cheese,— the character and extent of losses of milk constituents in cheese- making, their causes, remedies, etc. Attention had previously been given almost wholly to mere methods of cheese-making. *Buls. 203 and 233. ° Buls. 214, 237, 261 and Tech. Bul. 3. * Bul. 210. Stil 2a * Bul. 234. *® Bul. 236. = hech. Bul. 7; * Tech. Bul. s. Pe ee ae New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 169 I. COMPOSITION OF NORMAL FACTORY MILK. In the tabulated statement below we give the extreme range of variations and average of the constituents of normal cheese-factory milk, consisting of the mixed milk of numerous herds of cows. These data represent several hundred analyses. Tas_eE I.— Composition oF NoRMAL CHEESE-FActTory MILK. Least Greatest Average Per ct. Per ct Per ct Wears CL Opera e yo eeueiecr clare ae ark eas aisreyeis’ sone ee ee 11.47 13.91 67 RIE CPM OR rch opal oder ever cimnicei.c elevate atshsy alle tensbG aise lehe le dlevens Geiss 86.09 88.53 87.33 Fea AMMEN Spe Mee ai san te out echo epee oe ice eleva evouere Sse snes 3.04 4.60 oat MOBS ETIMMPI SE eeATe day oherem atch oy oh sionetTer tia cilere b..0. baka: VAIS cies acmaienens 1.93 3.00 2.46 EAU ARTNLL RMU SEN Stare gate chk hire ea; oi o'e sans. shat auegapeta ete eles ier ahs 0.47 0.88 | 0.68 ase Cee TMCS TIO UESE Oogles cick co's (evel ocele niece ere oi Siorare: gyerauas fe atele eho las 374 6.37 5.78 PREPEP CSET Pet tae cire Jatee en tee suave aay «Pavel amie Miionsy ceetiohemenecernats 8.27 9.66 8.92 Cheese-producing solids (fat, casein and insoluble ash). See 7.60 6.46 Whey solids (albumin, sugar, etc.) .............0-5 5.86 6.87 6.21 ato) Of CASEITBLONALO UII; chavs cis « a cverorsiene olSte lei era's a 2.60 5.58 | 3.66 RAT ONO AG uLOVCASEIM 5 rc) aid mis ve euece ose a! oc luveep ayers eta eie 1.38 1.78 1,52 Ratio of fat to caseinand albumin ................% 1.07 e338; 1.19 SS Influence of advance of lactation on composition of miulk.— The composition of milk from month to month during the cheese-factory season (May to October) represents normal changes taking place as the result of advancing lactation, modified more or less by sea- sonal influences. Tasre I]— CHANGE OF ComMposITION OF MILK witH ADVANCE OF LACTATION. 87.54| 87.36] 87.48] 87.35| 87.26] 86.50 3.58! 3.64] 3.62! 3.84) 3.98} 4.23 2484) 92247) 2-243) +2:289) -2455) 2281 F OS68ien One) O64 SOrOli-O765)2 ORT SNMOeUGMMLS Me HE ie a ooh, acs ails ebatererene hace AER SoN in CO mae so | DMO OLOSti os be IOI SetErtatauh ans smisesyer dns aveyenceees -ootae 8.55) §8.85| 9.00) 8.90) 8.81) 8.88] 9.27 Cheese-producing solids (fat, casein ANG oINSOMdDLepasit)loec) =" F. The degree of moisture was kept as nearly uniform as possible in the different curing-rooms. In this connection we present the results secured with cheeses fifteen inches in diameter, and weighing, fresh from press, about sixty-five pounds, the usual standard size of the most common type of American cheddar cheese. TABLE XV.— Loss oF Moisture AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES. WATER LOST By 100 LBS. OF GREEN CHEESE IN TEMP. OF CuRING-ROOM. | | | | Roeser: era do?) Sal aa eat eae) eet 166" S20 ae: 28 week. weeks. | weeks. |weeks.| weeks. weeks. ESS ire SS eS weeks. | | | | | | Deg. F Lbs. Lhs. Lbs. Lbs.) bss | Bbs: =| bs, Lbs. | Lbs Lbs. Dasa Wiel 65) tee Ge eS eal olen Dee Gia G28 fie hee eee 8.6 i ee eee LT 1228 |: B44) 33 .9-|) 45 -Sr- 62d | Tab che Seb eo ee ee 65. U9) le 3 d0T) §326\0) 24. rotsiali mabe SEAS OO eT Oe 10.5 70. DA |e Bek Sh 7 | 43: (SO) ile LOS} S704) LOeia) at 12.0 75. afar Qie2 ale Sed alee | S.2 4 O02 Ve 9.7 | TEA | cen’ (Po ae eee 80. -| 2.4 Sis Glee | 522 SSA LG aU SSSA aes uel hie one eee | | | | | AVERAGE WEEKLY LOSS AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES. ee ees AVERAGE LOSS PER WEEK. WATER LOST BY 100 LBS. OF GREEN CHEESE.. ae ' s. to- ee | tal oss | | | or six ROOM! 51> Sapo oe ch eedins| een, al nod 3d 4th 5th | 6th |months. week. | week. week, | week. | month.| month.| month.} month.) month.| Deg. F..| Ozs Ozs. | Ozs Ozs.| *Ozs: Ozs. Ozs. | Ozs. Ozs. Lbs. D0-+-..-| 20.6-| 16.0 | 9.6 $.0°| 6.0 3.6 2.8 Ze8mt 2.4 peat GOS seek 20 Pel Leap 9.6 8.0 6.4 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.2 °| 9.3 65.. 30:42 17.6°| 926 8.0 6.8 4.8 4.8 4.0 3.6 | 10.1 LO Sos Obl liom Olt 9.6 6.8 4.8 4.8 4.4 4.0 jee did ers 30. 2e Lite Om MOND | OPQ) LOO 10.0 6US8)F 225 Po oe BG | -oonscaleedte 80.. 38.4 | 20.8) 12.8 | 10.2 | 12.4 13.2 ES IGT HP rect cs sre 1 Lobe spwecehfopiben eee | These data show that loss of moisture (a) increases with tem- perature, (b) is greater in the first week than during any succeed- ing week, and (c) decreases continuously as the cheese grows older, except at high temperatures (80° F.), when noticeable leakage of fat may occur after the fourth week, thus increasing total weekly loss. SE ee ee PP ee ee, ney ee ee eros se CAA ee! ae may vary in size in one of two ways, (a) in height and (b) in diameter. The proportion of moisture lost in cheese having the ie same diameter is greatest when the height is least. The loss de- a "creases with increase of height. This is illustrated in the following vaatalsle Taste XVI.— WeIcHT Lost By CHEESE OF VARYING HEIGHT AND UNIFORM DIAMETER —(7 INCHES). WATER LOST BY 100 LBS. OF GREEN CHEESE IN Weight * HEIGHT of = OF CHEESE. green | | | cheese. 1 2 3 4 | 8 12 16 | 20 24 week. |weeks. |weeks.|weeks. iweeks. weeks.|/weeks.| weeks. |weeks.° | | | } Inches. ‘Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. } Lbs: | Lbs.| Ebs.°| Ebs. | Lbs. | Lbs. Sid b Sie AO 4.6 3.4 5.3 6.4 ASO BhelOr Men eel ON ts 0) heals Oh imam tagO) hon AR ose 6.1 3.3 5.1 6.1 Gifnle eoride sta ules. | te eorsO) | 14.0 15.6 De Uden MeOr ee On ck er leOe oul! Oeste esi Ose elie Om lel OR Gr bredeyaot Go cegin ao pepe 9.3 2.5 3.9 5.2 GOP |= 758 9°47 |, L086 7) eit 65 | s12 58 p03 > 8 Te Oe TO 2.3 3.4 4.7 5.6 7.4 SO ekOlo | IPA a ot 5 | i In the case of cheese uniform in height and varying in diameter, the loss of weight increases when the diameter of the cheese de- creases. ‘This is true at various temperatures. The following table illustrates this: TasLtE XVII. WertcHT Loss By CHEESES OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS.. Tem- WATER LOST BY 100 LBS. OF CHEESE IN ~ Weight; pera- DIAMETER of ture OF CHEESES.| green of j | cheese. | curing- 2 3 on Abe eal 8 12 162 1-20 room. |weeks.|weeks.|weeks.|weeks.|weeks.|weeks.|weeks. weeks. Ebs=) | Inches Lbs. |Deg. F.| Lbs. | Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. Siete eRe Ss ais 36 2.9 3.6 4.5 4.9 5.4 6.4 Wg | 8.1 ayes <8 10 Sys) Bk) 4.9 6.3 | 6.9 Ths 8.7 9.9) | 15 Hee a 29 GDS O2eS ri Sage eV io7-1- 8/00, 7.3) | 812 [ot Oke 7 9 Gio rass lee G7 ery Ou aseo. tn. Oo litt 2 | toa i ——— (5) Loss of moisture as influenced by proportion of water-vapor present in air of curing-room.— The relative amount of moisture in air, or, more properly, the degree of saturation, exercises a marked influence upon loss of water in cheese-ripening. The greater 190 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. the humidity of the air, the less will be the loss of moisture from the cheese, as is shown by the following data: Taste XVIII.— Loss or Moisture IN CHEESE Kept IN AIR COMPLETELY AND PARTIALLY SATURATED WITH MOISTURE. ———oEEEaaaPamaaaaeEeaeee ee eeeeeeeeeeeeeaaaESESEEaEaEaaaaaapaaaEEEEeEeEeEoEoESESESESEee——SESESESESESESESESESESSSSSSSSES—SE—Ee eek IN AIR COMPLETELY SATURATED } | i] IN AIR PARTIALLY SATURATED. | WITH MOISTURE. | | Moisture in Water GAINED by ' | AGE OF CHEESE. | | | Moisture in Water lost by cheese. 100 lbs. of cheese. | cheese. 100 lbs. of cheese. | Penict. ae Lbs. | Per ct. | Lbs. 2 weeks. 35.99 | Ras 35.93 eae PesmoOndthy. sesso. 35.23 0.76 35.87 ee 2 months. 34.86 HS als} | 36.01 0.08 6 2 Sites 4.12 | 37.04 0.11 re a ee Tee ea tc te 26.30 9.69 37.63 1.70 15 : 24.85 11.14 | 37.85 1.92 = = —— —== 2. COMMERCIAL EXPERIMENTS IN CURING CHEESE AT DIFFERENT TEM- PERATURES. Experiments were undertaken in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture to study, on a commercial scale, the effects of curing cheese at different temperatures and the effect of covering cheese with paraffin, upon (1) the commercial quality of the cheese, (2) the loss of weight, and (3) the chemical changes taking place. Cheese was secured, representing the product of the states of New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, and placed in cold. storage at the temperatures of 40° F., 50° F. and 60° F. These were examined commercially by a committee of experts when first placed in cold storage and later after being in cold storage 10, 20, 28 and 35 weeks. Cheeses of different size were used, weighing 70, 65, 45, 35 and 12.5 pounds. Also, in one case, cheeses were covered with coating of paraffin. Chemical analyses were made at intervals. The general results are given in the following statements: (1) Loss of weight.— The loss of weight increased with increase of temperature, being on an average in 20 weeks 3.8 pounds per 100 pounds of cheese at 40° F., 4.8 pounds at 50° F. and 7.8 pounds | at 60° F. The large-sized cheeses lost less weight per 100 pounds than the smaller-sized ones, as shown by the following table: New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9I Taste XIX.— Loss 1n WeIGHT By CHEESES OF DIFFERENT SIZES. WEIGHT LOST PER 100 POUNDS OF CHEESE IN 20 WEEKS AT AVERAGE WEIGHT OF SINGLE CHEESES. | Temp. 40° F. | Temp. 50° F. Temp. 60° F Lbs. Lbs. os: FAG NS 4 is 6 a ae See eee 2.5 2.4 4.2 PE IRR OTA (orc al sb ci R owe) «anda PAST Sid iL ar EMME te sess nk cis herb oryeteo ave acs 3.9 5.9 8.5 LEE pe OS CO RS Sn oD Oe Se 4.6 8.1 12.0 (2) Results of scoring cheese-—— Cheese cured at 40° F. was superior in quality to the same kind cured at higher temperatures. That cured at 50° F. was superior in quality to that cured at 60° F. The general averages of the scores at the end of 20 weeks were as follows: 95.7 at 40° F., 94.2 at 50° F. and g1.7 at 60° F. The difference in quality was confined in most cases to flavor and texture, the color and finish being little or not at all affected in cheese that was in good condition at the beginning. (3) Effects. of covering cheese with paratin.— The method of covering cheese with paraffin greatly reduces the loss of moisture. The loss of moisture in cheese covered with paraffin was only 0.3 pound per 100 pounds of cheese in 20 weeks at 40° F., 0.5 pound at 50° F. and 1.4 pounds at 60° F. In the same kind of cheese not thus covered the loss of moisture was much greater at all temperatures. By covering cheese with paraffin, a saving in loss of moisture can be effected, amounting to 5 or 6 pounds per 100 pounds of cheese at 60° F. and at 50° or below the total loss of moisture can be reduced to less than 1 pound per 100 pounds of cheese. In addition, the use of paraffin prevents the growth of molds. In every case, cheeses covered with paraffin were en- tirely clean, while the others were more or less heavily coated with molds. The commercial qualities of the cheese were favorably in- fluenced after six months in the case of those covered with paraffin, especially flavor. (4) Advantages of curing cheese at low temperatures.—(1) The loss of moisture is less at low temperatures, and therefore there is more cheese to sell. (2) The commercial quality of cheese cured at low temperatures is better and this results in giving the cheese a higher market value. (3) Cheese can be held a long time at low temperatures without impairment of quality. 192 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REporT. (4) By utilizing the combination of paraffining cheese and curing it at low temperatures, the greatest economy. can be effected. 3. CONDITIONS AFFECTING CHEMICAL CHANGES IN CHEESE-RIPENING. It is well known that, during the cheese-making process, chemical changes soon begin in the freshly coagulated curd or calcium para- casein, which is formed when milk-casein is acted upon by rennet. These chemical changes in paracasein are followed by others, and we have a series of such changes from the time the cheese-making process begins, continuing for many months. The same cheese ex- amined at intervals is found to show quite marked variations in the character of its nitrogen compounds. Cheeses made from the same milk under the same conditions of manufacture and subjected to different conditions during the ripening process show a difference in chemical composition. Cheeses manufactured under different conditions and ripened under uniform conditions may vary in the character of their nitrogen compounds. It was desirable that a somewhat comprehensive study should be made of the changes actually found in the nitrogen compounds of cheese, using in the work only cheeses made and ripened under known, controlled con- ditions. The study extended to some of the more prominent factors, such as time, temperature, moisture, salt, rennet, acid, etc. Starting with the casein of milk, we have in cheese-curd and in ripening cheese the following nitrogen compounds formed in some- thing like the following order: paracasein, paranuclein, caseoses, peptones, amido compounds and ammonia compounds. Paracasein is soluble in 5 per ct. solution of salt, while the other compounds are soluble in water. Among the amido compounds there have been found (Bulletins 219, 231) the following: Lysatine, histidine, lysine, tetramethylenediamine (putrescine) ,tyrosine, oxyphenylethyl- amine, arginine, guanidine, etc. The amounts of these different compounds and classes of compounds and their relations to one another will be briefly considered. (1) The relation of time to the cheese-ripening process—The amount of water-soluble nitrogen increases as cheese ages. The rate of formation of these compounds is more rapid in the early stages of ripening, about 66 per ct. being formed during the first three months and over co per ct. in the first nine months of an eighteen-month period of study. The data upon which these state- ments are based are contained in the following table: ae) age Se ee ic oe non t wie Bh he's a Nees bie tel New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 193 TABLE XX.— SHOWING EFFECT OF TIME ON CHEESE-RIPENING. — NITROGEN, EXPRESSED AS PERCENTAGE OF NITROGEN IN CHEESE, IN FORM OF— AGE OF : CHEESE. a Water . ata= J ara- : A eaeeint nitrogen salen Caseoses. | Peptones.} Amides. /Ammonia. pounds. Months. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per chs or Pere. 1 ee ener 20.18 21.44 2.06 oo 3.84 9.88 | 1.56 316 COEUR One 27.26 30.98 4.45 . 4.56 4.65 14.36 2.45 OMe sek. aetatts 27.55 36.15 Ragas 4.92 4.22 19.96 3.52 OEM ign ieee 24.14 43.45 4.02 4.59 3.56 26.53 4.74 1 eo ie eee 19.04 44.75 3.52 4.16 3.95 28.38 5.41 MSU interevene sie 12.65 47.25 3.40 3.88 2.57 30.46 6.62 (2) The relation of temperature to the cheese-ripening process.— Other conditions being uniform, it appears that (a) the water- soluble nitrogen compounds in cheese increase, on an average, very closely in proportion to increase of temperature; (b) from the average of our results, there is an increase of 0.5 per ct. of water- soluble nitrogen compounds for an increase of one degree of temperature between the limits of 32° F. and 70° F.; (c) the amido compounds and ammonia are formed in cheese more abundantly at higher temperatures and accumulate in the cheese, while the other water-soluble compounds of nitrogen and also paracasein do not appear to be regularly influenced by temperature in the early stages of ripening, but after some months they decrease in quantity with increase of temperature. (3) The relation of moisture in cheese to ihe ripening process.— Other conditions being uniform, cheese containing more moisture generally contains larger amounts of water-soluble nitrogen com- pounds, especially after the early stages of ripening. (4) The relation of size of cheese to the ripening process— Cheeses of large size usually form soluble nitrogen compounds more rapidly than smaller cheeses under the same conditions, because large cheeses have a higher water content after the early period of ripening. (5) The relation of salt in cheese to cheese-ripening—Cheese containing more salt forms water-soluble nitrogen compounds more slowly than cheese containing less salt. This appears to be due, in part, to the direct action of salt in retarding the activity of one or more of the ripening agents and, in part, to the tendency of the salt to reduce the moisture content of the cheese. 7 194 ‘TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. (6) The relation of varying amounts of rennet to cheese-ripen- ing.—The use of increased amounts of rennet-extract in cheese- making, other conditions being uniform, results in producing in- creased quantities of water-soluble nitrogen compounds in a given period of time, especially such compounds as paranuclein, caseoses and peptones. (7) The relation of acid to cheese-ripening.—Acid is essential to different stages of manufacture of cheddar cheese. Its presence appears to be necessary in the changes preliminary to the formation of water-soluble nitrogen compounds. (8) Tranitsent and cumulative products in cheese-ripening.— Paracasein, caseoses and peptones usually vary within small limits and do not usually accumulate in cheese in increasing quantities but after a while decrease, while amides and ammonia are found to accumulate continuously during the normal ripening process. Low temperatures favor some accumulation of the transient products, while high temperatures favor the more rapid accumulation of amides and ammonia. (9) Influence of products of proteolysis on cheese-ripening.— The accumulation of soluble nitrogen compounds in cheese appears to diminish the action of the agents causing the changes, so that cheese ripens less rapidly after the first period. (10) Why moisture affects the cheese-ripening process.—An in- creased moisture content in cheese favors more active chemical change for two reasons: (1) Moisture in itself favors the activity of ripening ferments; (2) the presence of increased amounts of moisture serves to dilute the fermentation products that accumulate. 4. SOME PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED IN THE STUDIES OF CHEESE-RIPENING. Taking the facts presented in the foregoing pages what applica- tions can we make of them to the interests of the cheese-factory owner, of his patrons, and of the consumers of cheese? These applications can be discussed under the following divisions: The relations of (1) water; (2) temperature, and (3) chemical changes to the value of cheese. (1) Value of water in cheese to dairymen.—To the cheese-maker and producer of milk, water in cheese is money when put there in the right way and in proper proportions. It is essential, in the proc- ess of manufacture, to incorporate water in cheese in quantities best suited to the requirement of the market for which the cheese is New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 195 intended, and then it is equally essential that the water be kept there with the least possible loss. From the dairyman’s standpoint, it is desirable to sell as much water in cheese as will suit the con- sumer. In preventing excessive loss of moisture, there is more water to sell at cheese prices. From inquiries made among cheese-makers, we find quite a variation in respect to the loss of moisture experienced by them in curing cheese. One of the most complete records, covering an - entire season, furnished by a cheese-maker and factory owner who has better than average conditions for curing-rooms, makes the average loss of weight during thirty days amount to about five pounds per hundred pounds of cheese. Others report an average loss for the first thirty days as high as ten pounds. per hundred pounds of cheese. The average loss lies somewhere between these two extremes and would probably not be far from seven pounds per hundred pounds of cheese. By curing cheese at low temperatures or by covering new cheese with a thin coating of parffin and keeping at even moderate tempera- tures (about 60° F.), moisture in cheese can be properly conserved. This is well shown by the data in Bulletin 234, from which we quote the following statements: “We have seen that the loss of moisture in curing cheese can be reduced by using a lower temperature or by covering cheese with a thin coating of paraffin or by a combination of these two condi- tions. “Increased amount of cheese resulting from using low tempera- tures.— Taking the longest period of time for which we were able to compare the results at the different temperatures employed, 20 weeks, we found that the cheese cured at 40° F. had lost, on an average, 3.8 pounds for 100 pounds of cheese; the cheese at 50° F. had lost 4.8 pounds; and that at 60° F., 7.8 pounds. For 100 pounds of cheese originally placed in the curing-rooms at the different temperatures, we had for sale at the end of 20 weeks 96.2 pounds of cheese cured at 40° F., 95.2 pounds at 50° F., and 92.2 pounds at 60° F. “Assuming that the cheese sells at a uniform price of 10 cents a pound, we should have receipts from our original 100 pounds of each of the different cheeses as follows: iieesesHerired ats? ~ I sec: 2. ick. 3550s $9 62 Gheesesycured- at SO? Biss. 25.c05 ease oe ee 9 52 Sieesesmcurediat GOCE. assis onl no Q 22 196 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REporT. Under these conditions, the receipts from the cheese kept at 40° F. are 10 cents a hundred more than for that kept at 50° F. and 40 cents more than for that kept at 60° F. As we shall point out later, the differences are really greater than this. “Increased amount of cheese resulting from covering cheese with a coating of parafim.—At the end of 17 weeks, cheese covered with paraffin had lost only 0.3 pounds for 100 pounds of cheese origi- nally placed in storage at 40° F., 0.5 pounds at 50° F. and 1.4 pounds at 60° F.. The saving thus effected, based on the uniform — price of cheese at 10 cents a pound, would average about 35 cents for 100 pounds of cheese cured at 40° F., 43 cents at 50° I’., and 64 cents at 60° F.; or, comparing cheese kept at 40° F., covered with paraffin, with cheese kept at 60° F. not so covered, there would be a difference of about 75 cents a hundred in favor of the paraffined cheese. The cost of covering cheese with paraffin is slight.” . In this connection, it is pertinent to inquire what percentage of moisture American cheddar cheese should have. Much of the cheese made in New York State contains, in the fresh state, from 36 to 37.5 per ct. of water. The home-trade cheese, much of which is made in the fall, contains 38 to 40 per ct. of water. For the average consumer, it is safe to say, the amount of moisture in cheese should be not less than between 33 and 35 per ct. at the time of consumption. Taking everything into consideration, it is reasonable to expect better results in reference to quality by holding a moderate amount of moisture in the green cheese and so curing as to lose only a small amount of water, than by holding an excessive amount of moisture in the green cheese and so curing as to lose a larger amount of moisture. Some cheese-makers expect that they must lose ten pounds of weight per hundred pounds of cheese in curing, and they attempt to meet this loss by retaining 40 per ct. or more of moisture in the cheese. Such a practice can not lead to good results from any point of view. 2 A fact that should not be lost sight of in this connection is this: Cheese cured at such low temperatures as are favorable to diminishing the loss of moisture can carry larger amounts of moisture from the start without impairing the quality. Water in cheese in proper proportions is of importance from the consumer’s point of view. In the first place, cheese that has not lost too much of its moisture is more pleasing to the taste of the New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 197 average consumer. In the next place, the more completely a cheese dries out, the harder and thicker is the rind and the greater the loss to the consumer. Most people have become accustomed to such a waste, but much of it is unnecessary. In a carefully cured cheese, the rind is comparatively moist and only a very thin portion need be lost, and even this can be used in cooking. It has been pointed out that cheeses of small size lose more moisture per hundred pounds than do cheeses of larger size. In making small cheeses like “ Young Americas” the proportion of loss is much greater, and hence the demand is still more im- perative that these shall be cured under conditions where the loss of moisture shall be greatly reduced. This applies also to such sizes as “ Flats” and “Twins.” It is not surprising that the manufacture of small cheeses of the cheddar type has been discouraged. Even at the higher prices that they bring, the extra loss of moisture and additional cost of manufacture are not satisfactorily covered. In the manufacture of small fancy kinds of soft cheese, these statements do not apply, because an essential part of the equipment consists of curing-cellars of fairly low tem- perature and high moisture content. (2) Increased market value of cheese resulting from tmprove- ment of quality in curing cheese at low temperature —We have just called attention to increased receipts coming from cheese, as a re- sult of preventing excessive loss of moisture. Such saving of moist- ure not only increases the amount of cheese to be sold but also in- creases the value of the cheese from the standpoint of commercial quality. The relations existing between moisture and flavor are known only in a very general way. But we know something of the general relation between moisture and texture. Excessive moist- ure produces undesirable softness, from a commercial standpoint, and at ordinary temperatures favors the formation of holes, a serious fault in the texture of cheddar cheese. On the other hand, deficient moisture favors the production of a crumbly, dry, mealy texture, which is an undesirable condition. High temperatures cause excessive loss of moisture and result in the production of crumbly texture. This condition injures the commercial quality of cheese and results in lower prices for such cheese. The fol- lowing figures represent averages taken from data given on page 202, Bulletin 184, showing the general relation between texture and loss of moisture. 198 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPorT. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE OF CURING ON TEXTURE AND MOISTURE OF CHEESE. OO oor ehe—ooouonanaoaommmmmemeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee—ow—s TEMPERATURE OF CURING- Texture of cheese. Moisture lost by 100 Ibs. ROOM. (Perfect texture is 25.) of cheese. Lbs 55 degrees F, 24.6 8.5 60 sa 24.4 9.0 65 z 23.6 9.2 AO e's 22.0 10.2 Lees 21.4 10.7 80 20.6 ESi1 From Bulletin 234 we quote as follows: “At the end of 10 weeks, the cheese cured at 40° F. was worth 12% cents more a hundred pounds than the cheese cured at 50° F., and 35 cents more than that cured at 60° F-. The cheese cured at 50° F. was worth 22% cents more than that cured at 60° F. “At the end of 20 weeks, the cheese cured at 40° F. was worth 2214 cents more a hundred pounds than that cured at 50° F., and 60 cents more than that cured at 60° F., while that cured at 50° F. was worth 37% cents more than that cured at 60° F. “At the end of 28 weeks, the cheese cured at 40° F. was worth 20 cents more a hundred pounds than that cured at 50° F. “We have seen that the curing of cheese at low temperatures has the effect of (1) preventing loss of moisture and (2) increasing the market value of the cheese. Therefore, we not only have more cheese to sell but can sell it at a higher price. Taking cheese 20 weeks old as a basis for comparison, we know how much weight is lost at different temperatures and also the differ- ence in market price. From these figures, we can prepare the following tabulated statement: ——_——— ee eee Cured cheese equiva- Market price of : pany a eTOEe OF | lent to 100 pounds of * one pound of Recouns from 2 green cheese. cheese. ‘ Lbs. Cents. 40° F, 96.2 13.275 $12 77 50° F 95.2 13.050 12 42 60°F 92.2 12.675 11 69 “These figures indicate that, from 100 pounds of cheese put into the curing-room, we were able to realize from that cured at 40° F. 35 cents more than from cheese cured at 50° F., and $1.08 more than from that cured at 60° F. From the cheese cured at _ New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 199 50° F., we received 73 cents more a hundred pounds than from that cured at 60° F. “Tf we compare our results obtained. with cheese covered with paraffin with those given by cheese not so covered, we have the following tabulated statement: CURED CHEESE EQUIVA-| TENT Eo OO trouNws| 1 MARKET PRICE LOR RECEIPTS FROM ay anon REST ONE POUND OF CHEESE CHEESE. TEMPERATURE ) CURING-ROOM. Not Not Unparaf- Paraffined. | paraffined. | Paraffined. | paraffined.| Paraffined. fined. Lbs. Lbs. Cents. Cents. 40°F. 99.7 96.2 14.25 14.25 $14.21 $13.70 50°F. 99.5 95.2 14.25 14.25 14.19 13.56 60°F. 98.6 92.2 13.75 13.50 13.56 12.45 At 40° F. the difference in favor of the paraffined cheese is 51 cents for 100 pounds of cheese originally placed in the curing- room; at 50° F. the difference is 63 cents; and at 60° F. $1.11. Covering cheese with paraffin results in greater saving at higher than at lower temperatures. “Comparing paraffined cheese cured at 40° F. with unparaffined cheese cured at 60° F., we find a difference of $1.76 for 109 pounds of cheese in favor of the paraffined cheese and the lower temperature.” (3) The relations of chemical changes to the quality of cheese.— (a) Quick-ripening and slow-ripening cheese-— We have observed that certain conditions affect the rate of chemical changes taking place in the nitrogen compounds of cheese, that is to say, the rate of ripening. Certain conditions promote, while certain other conditions delay, these ripening changes. The general relation of different conditions to the rapid or slow rate of cheese-ripening may be shown by the following form of statement: Conditions that may pro- Conditions that may retard mote ripening: ripening: (1) Increase of temperature. (1) Decrease of temperature. - (2) Larger amount of rennet. (2) Smaller amount of rennet. (3) More moisture in cheese. (3) Less moisture in cheese. (4) Less salt. (4) More salt. (5) Large size of cheese. (5) Small size of cheese. (6) Moderate amount of acid. (6) No acid or excess of acid. 200 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. The element of time is a factor that modifies all other con- ditions, since, as a rule, increase of ripening results from an in- crease of the ripening period, at least within the usual limits of the commercial life of cheese. It will be observed that the factors of time and temperature and, to some extent, moisture are connected with the management of cheese after it is made, while the other conditions are associated with the process of manufacture. All of these conditions can be under control, so that the cheese-ripening process may be de- layed or hastened. If a cheese is desired that ripens quickly, it should contain more than the usual amount of rennet, a moisture content of about 40 per ct. or more, and about I to 1% pounds of salt for 1,000 pounds of milk. Then it should be kept at a tem- perature between 60° F. and 70° F., if it is to be placed in the hands of consumers’ in one month or six weeks, and the atmos- phere of the curing-room should have a humidity of 75 to 85 per ct. of saturation. However, it should be stated that cheese made to ripen quickly gives better commercial results when ripened at a lower temperature than 60° F. and held a longer time. For a slow-ripening cheese, not more than 2% ounces of rennet- extract, such as Hansen’s, should be used for 1,000 pounds of milk, and about 2. to 2% pounds of salt. The other conditions that influence the moisture content of cheese, such as the temperature of heating the curd, the fineness of cutting curd, the amount of acid developed in the curd, cheddaring, etc., should be well under control, so as to produce a cheese containing, when fresh from the press, about 37 per ct. of water. For ripening, it should be kept at a temperature below 50° F. in a fairly moist atmosphere for a period of 3 to 6 months or more. According to results given in Bulletins Nos. 184 and 234, cheese that ripens slowly is of higher commercial value than cheese ripened more quickly. The commercial life of cheese made to ripen quickly is much shorter than that of cheese made to ripen slowly; in other words, quick-ripening cheese must be consumed at an earlier age, since, after once reaching its best commercial condition, it deterio- rates in quality more rapidly than slow-ripening cheese. (b) Relation of conditions of ripening to favor in cheese.— In- crease of temperature favors a more rapid development of cheese- flavor, but the continuation of such a condition causes rapid de- terioration of flavor. Sharpness of flavor is usually met with only in cheese cured above 60° F. High moisture content favors a New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 201 more rapid development of cheese flavor and also more rapid devel- opment of objectionable flavors, especially when accompanied by higher temperature. Absence of salt in cheese is, in our experi- ence, invariably accompanied by the presence of bitter flavor, the intensity increasing with increase of temperature. Increased amounts of salt, other conditions being uniform, tend to a slower formation of cheese flavor. Excess of acid in cheese delays the development of cheese flavor, while the sour taste caused by the excessive acidity is seriously objectionable, especially in the early stages of ripening. (c) Relation of conditions of ripening to texture in cheese.— High temperatures in cheese-ripening favor the production of a crumbly, dry, mealy texture and also the formation of holes. Ex- cessive moisture with moderately higher temperature results in a texture of undesirable pasty softness. Excessive use of rennet- extract produces pasty texture. Large amounts of salt produce a texture that is dry, harsh and hard. Excess of acid acts much the same way. It is possible to overcome to some extent the faults of texture produced by excessive use of salt and acid by keeping the cheese for a long time in a moist atmosphere between 40° F. and 50° F. VI. THE ACTION OF ACIDS AND BASES ON CASEIN AND PARACASEIN. For more than fifty years there has been dispute over the ques- tion as to whether casein combines with acids to form insoluble casein salts of acids. When milk undergoes the process of ordinary souring or is treated directly by addition of an acid, the milk casein curdles or precipitates as soon as a certain amount of acid is reached. The view first expressed in 1780 by Scheele, who first isolated and studied lactic acid, was to the effect that the solid, white substance thus formed is a compound produced by the union of the acid with milk-casein. This view was disputed in 1843 by Rochleder who held that no definite chemical compound is formed when milk- casein is precipitated by am acid. Thirty years later Hammarsten devoted much attention to the subject and reached the same con- clusion as Rochleder. Different workers in later years have been divided between these two views, since no results have been so con- clusive as to settle the question beyond all possible doubt. (1) Insoluble products formed by action of acids on caseim and paracascin.— In 1901 a study of this subject was undertaken at this 202 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. Station and has been continued since at intervals. The results have been published in the following Bulletins: No. 214 (A study of the salts formed by casein and paracasein with acids; their relations to American cheddar cheese) ; No. 245 (Chemical changes in the souring of milk); No. 261 (Some of the relations of casein and ‘paracasein to bases and acids and their application to cheddar cheese) ; Technical Bul. No. 3 (The action of dilute acids upon casein when no soluble compounds are formed). In connection with a study of the chemical changes that occur in cheese-ripening, it was observed that in the operation of cheese- making a substance is formed which is soluble in a warm (55° C.) 5 per ct. solution of sodium chloride and aiso in hot 50 per ct. alcohol. This substance appeared to be formed only when an acid was present in certain amount. When this salt-soluble substance was treated with more acid, it was changed into a substance in- soluble in dilute salt solution. It was also found that, when milk is treated with a certain amount of acid, a coagulum is formed soluble in salt solution and that, when more acid is added, the salt- soluble substance is changed into one not soluble in dilute salt solu- tion. This action was explained by saying that when milk-casein or paracasein is treated with an acid, it unites with the acid in a certain proportion, forming a casein salt of the acid which is soluble in warm dilute salt solution; and that this compound, when treated with more acid, unites with twice as much acid as the first com- pound, forming a substance which is not soluble in warm, dilute salt solution. The salt-soluble substance was called casein (or para- casein) monolactate and the second substance casein (or paracasein) dilactate. It was later found that the above explanation, owing to imperfect experimental work, was erroneous. It was then sup- posed, as the result of further work, that the salt-soluble substance (monolactate) was simply base-free casein (or paracasein), con- taining no acid at all in combination, in other words, milk-casein (calcium casein) from which the calcium had been removed by the acid, forming a calcium salt of the acid and calcium — free casein. It was then believed that the insoluble substance resulting from treat- ment with further acid (dilactate) was a simple, definite combina- . tion of casein (or paracasein), one gram of casein (or paracasein) combining with an amount of acid equivalent to about 0.5° cc. of = hydrochloric acid. This conclusion was based on the fact that when casein is shaken with acid and filtered, some of the acid is taken up by the casein from the solution. In reviewing this work later, New York .\GRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 203 with more delicate means of measuring the amount of acid that might combine, it was found that some portions of the former experimental work were too imperfect to afford basis for definite, quantitative conclusions. As a result of our latest more complete and accurate work, it has been established that casein, while capable of removing acid from a surrounding solution, does not form any simple, definite combination with acids. The amount of acid taken up by casein is not fixed and definite but varies (1) with the con- centration of the acid, (2) with the duration of contact until equilibrium is reached, (3) with the degree of agitation, (4) with the temperature, and (5) with the kind of acid. The simplest and most satisfactory explanation of the facts is that when acids act upon casein, no definite chemical combination occurs, but the acid is simply adsorbed by the casein; adsorption meaning the process whereby a solid substance A (like casein) in contact with a solution of a dissolved substance B (dilute acid) concentrates B upon its surface, withdrawing a portion of B from solution without form- ing with it a definite chemical compound. This conclusion may pos- sibly be modified by more exhaustive work, but the data upon which it is based are far more complete and satisfactory than any others that have been contributed so far to the study of this question. (2) Soluble products formed by action of acids on casein and paracasein.— Casein and paracasein are very easily soluble in acids, even in dilute acids. The ease with which dilute acids dissolve casein was not appreciated until our recent work was published (Technical Bul. No. 3). Acids of = concentration dissolve con- siderable amounts of casein at ordinary temperatures and much more at 45° C. Acids as dilute as {2; and 5, dissolve appreciable amounts of casein at 45°C. It is probable that the dissolved product is the result of definite chemical combination between casein and acid. (3) Preparation of calcium-casein and paracasein compounds.— Base-free casein can be prepared by treating diluted skim-milk with acids, removing the acid and inorganic matter by repeated washing and filtration. This uncombined protein, casein, when triturated with calcium carbonate suspended in water, or when dissolved in lime water and then treated with an acid until the solution is neutral to phenoephthalein, combines with about 2.40 per ct. of calcium oxide, forming a compound known as basic calcium casein. By treating base-free casein dissolved in lime water with acid until the reaction is almost neutral to litmus, there is found a compound of 204 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. casein and calcium oxide, containing about 1.50 per ct. of calcium oxide, known as neutral calcium casein. ‘These facts were first made known by Soldner and were confirmed by our work, in which these products were isolated and studied more thoroughly. Similar prepa- rations were made with paracasein. (4) Comparison of properties of casein and paracasein, and their calcium compounds.— Basic calcium casein and paracasein ap- pear soluble in water, forming slightly opalescent solutions. Neither is coagulated by rennet, but both are precipitated by soluble cal- cium salts on warming. Neutral calcium casein is coagulated by soluble calcium salts in warming to.35° to 40° C., but not at ordinary room temperature, while neutral calcium paracasein is com- pletely and quickly coagulated at room temperatures by soluble calcium salts. Neutral calcium casein behaves like milk-casein in its behavior toward soluble lime salts on warming, and at ordinary temperatures after treatment with rennet, and casein is probably present in cows’ milk as the neutral calcium casein. Freshly prepared casein and paracasein, when apparently base- free and in the presence of soluble calcium salts, are readily soluble in warm 5 per ct. salt solution and in hot 50 per ct. alcohol. When freshly prepared and sufficiently warmed, they become very plastic and ductile, capable of being drawn out in fine, long, silky threads. Whether the presence of soluble calcium salts is, as claimed by Laxa, in any way responsible for these properties can not be stated at present, but in all the experiments made soluble calcium salts were present. : (5) Suggestions regarding nomenclature of casein and para- casein and their compounds.— In most of the literature on the sub- ject, the word casein is used indiscriminately to mean milk-casein, free casein, or those casein salts formed by acid precipitation. In many cases it is used comprehensively to include all the proteids in cows’ milk. A similar state of confusion exists in regard to the use of the word paracasein. It would therefore seem pertinent to make the following suggestions, tentatively at least, in regard to the nomenclature of these compounds. (1) That the word casein be applied only to the free protcid, that is, the base-free casein. (2) That the compound existing in cows’ milk and commonly called casein be called calcium casein. (3) That the casein compound containing about 2.40 per ct. of CaO be called basic calcium casein. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 205 (4) That the same nomenclature be applied to the correspond- ing paracasein bodies, simply substituting the word paracasein for casein, with the following addition: Calcium paracasein should be applied to the soluble or uncoagulated substance produced in milk by rennet enzyme, while the coagulum of this substance caused by soluble calcium salts should be called insoluble or coagulated cal- cium paracasein. VIII. SOME OF THE FIRST CHEMICAL CHANGES IN CHEESE We have previously discussed the chemical changes taking place in the proteids of cheese a day or more old. We will here discuss briefly the chemical changes occurring while the cheese is being made, in other words, while the materials are in the vat and in the press, covering approximately the first 24 hours after the addition of rennet to milk at the beginning of the operation of cheese-making. One of the first operations in cheddar cheese-making is to “ripen” the milk previous to adding rennet. This is accomplished by allowing the milk to stand some time at a temperature of about 86° F. (30° C.), or the operation may be hastened by adding to the milk special cultures of lactic-acid-producing organisms. ‘This process, commonly known as the “ ripening of milk,” has for some -time been recognized as an acid-producing form of fermentation, that is, a fermentation brought about by the action of lactic-acid organisms on the milk-sugar, resulting in the formation of lactic acid. In ripening milk, the cheesemaker increases the quantity of lactic acid in the milk, not only before adding rennet, but con- tinuously throughout the rest of the process of manufacture. The amount of acid in cheese-curd may be roughly measured in a mechanical way by means of the so-called “ hot-iron test.” When a piece of curd is pressed against a hot iron and then drawn away carefully, fine, silky threads are formed, adhering to the iron. _This phenomenon is closely associated with the formation of acid, and the length of the strings, shown by the hot-iron test, is utilized as a measure of the amount of acid present and as an indication when to perform certain operations. Thus, when the curd strings on the hot iron to the length of one-eighth of an inch, the whey is removed from the curd, after which the curd is “ packed” in a pile and allowed to lie until it has passed through the so-called “matting” or “ breaking-down” process, when it furnishes strings an inch or more in length by the hot-iron test. When this stage is reached, the remaining steps of the manufacturing process are © 206 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. at once completed, such as milling, salting, and putting in molds for pressing. While it has been generally supposed that the presence of some acid, presumably lactic acid, in the cheese-making process is, in some way or other, responsible for the most important changes taking place, such as the shrinking of the curd, the acquired ability to form strings on hot iron and the change in appearance and plasticity of curd, no one has ever been able to show in what way these changes were brought about by acids. It has been commonly supposed that the observed changes were purely physical in character and were not the result of chemical changes in the curd. We have studied more fully than has been done previously the real function of acids in relation to the important changes tak- ing place in cheese-curd during the cheddar process of cheese- making. I. ACTION OF LACTIC ACID UPON INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF MILK AND CURD. The first work of lactic acid appears to be its action upon some of the inorganic constituents of milk and curd, especially the cal- cium and phosphoric acid compounds. The phosphates at first present in cheese curd are insoluble. These are acted upon by lactic acid, forming soluble phosphates and calcium lactate. The main fact is that the calcium and phosphoric acid compounds of cheese-curd, which are insoluble at the start, gradually become soluble until about 80 per ct. of the calcium and all of the phos- phates appear in water solution. This change is due to the forma- tion of lactic acid and its action upon the phosphates of the cheese, changing insoluble into soluble phosphates and forming at the same time calcium lactate. The maximum amount of calcium is found in water solution at about the same time the phosphoric acid becomes entirely water-soluble. This appears to indicate that the water- soluble calcium present in cheese in its early history comes from j:organic combinations; namely insoluble phosphates, and not from the calcium combined with paracasein as calcium paracasein. 2. CHANGES IN PROPERTIES OF CHEESE-CURD. After the curd is cut in the process of cheese-making and after heat is applied, the curd undergoes some marked changes. The pieces of curd gradually shrink in size, as the result of loss of whey, and become more firm in consistency. After the whey is removed New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 207 from the curd in the process of cheese-making, the curd is “ packed,” or “ matted,” that is, piled in a heap, and kept in this condition, with occasional repacking, until it has gone through the regular “ break- ing-down” process, in the course of which the curd undergoes several marked, easily discernible changes in physical properties. From a tough, rubber-like consistency, with a high water-content, the curd changes to a mass having a smooth, velvety appearance and feeling, and a softer, somewhat plastic consistency. The texture also changes so that the curd acquires a peculiar kind of grain and tears off somewhat like the cooked meat of a chicken’s breast. Moreover, the curd undergoes a marked change with reference to its solubility in a 5 per ct. solution of common salt. The curd is, at first, soluble only slightly, if at all, in such a solution. The solubility of the curd in dilute salt solution increases very rapidly between the time when the whey is removed from the curd and when it is put in press, and the solubility also continues to increase for several hours after. These marked changes in the, physical properties of the curd can be most readily and satisfactorily ex- plained by attributing them to the increasing quantity of the salt- soluble substance produced throughout the cheese mass, as the result of continuous formation of lactic acid by the fermentation of the milk-sugar present. These changes in the properties of curd appear to take place simultaneously with the formation of salt- soluble substance. It is also noticeable that the amount of salt- soluble substance increases at the same time with the conversion of insoluble phosphates into acid phosphates and with the formation of calcium lactate. (Technical Bulletins 4 and 5.) 3. WHAT IS THE SALT-SOLUBLE SUBSTANCE IN CURD AND CHEESE? Views previously held regarding this salt-soluble substance are given on page 202. The matter has not yet been fully cleared up to our satisfaction, but a point of interest in this connection, furnished by our most recent work, is that we find calcium present in the salt-soluble portion of cheese. In the cases in which special de- terminations have been made we find that about 20 per ct. of all the calcium in the cheese is in the salt-soluble portion. This sug- gests that the salt-soluble proteid either holds calcium salts’ me- chanically or that the protein molecule is still combined with cal- cium or some calcium compound and is not entirely calcium-free as we have previously believed. In the case of work done on camem- bert cheese, it was found that the salt-soluble product became com- 208 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. pletely insoluble, at which time the calcium was entirely water- soluble. Question arises as to whether the salt-soluble proteid is necessarily free paracasein or whether it may not be a calcium salt of paracasein or a mixture of free paracasein and calcium paracasein. Another question is as to the character of the change in the proteid in going from the salt-soluble to the insoluble form. Associated with these questions is the characteristic behavior of the cheese curd which it manifests in its ductile and plastic prop- erties. Has the presence of soluble calcium salts any peculiar in- fluence upon the curd which accounts for these properties, apart from any change in the composition of the proteid itself? 4. SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN THE PROTEIDS OF CHEESE. In the manufacture of cheddar cheese, the proteid of the insoluble curd (calcium paracasein) changes rapidly into a form that is soluble in 5 per ct. solution of sodium chloride at 50 to 55° C., until, in a few hours (g or 10) after putting in press, the proteid, originally insoluble in warm dilute salt-solution, becomes completely soluble in this solution. After reaching this condition of solubility, the brine-soluble proteid undergoes another change into a form that is insoluble in warm dilute salt solution, the change going on rapidly at first and then gradually. Proteid in water-soluble form appears to increase only slightly, if any, until after all the proteid has become soluble in warm, dilute salt solution and has then changed to some extent into a form insoluble in salt solution. Thus, there appears to be the following series of successive changes: (1) From insoluble proteid as represented in the fresh curd (calcium paracasein) into (2) proteid soluble in warm, dilute salt solution, this into (3) proteid insoluble in salt solution and this into (4) water-soluble proteid. Under these conditions, we should have: (ist.) All insoluble proteid (calcium paracasein). (2d.) Mixture of (a) insoluble proteid and (b) proteid soluble in salt solution, the latter increasing at the expense of the former. (3d.) All salt-soluble proteid. (4th.) Mixture containing (a) salt-soluble proteid and (b) pro- teid insoluble in salt solution, the former predominating at first and then diminishing while the latter increases. (5th.) Mixture containing (a) proteid soluble in salt solution, (b) proteid insoluble in salt solution and (c) water-soluble proteids, the second form (insoluble in salt solution) decreasing and the water-soluble form increasing. POPS Leer ee Tee atl, eee ee Surat eat ae ee rar | New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 209 VIII. ENZYMS IN RELATION TO CHEESE-MAKING AND CHEESE-RIPENING. Enzyms are substances without life, capable of causing deep- seated chemical changes in certain other substances, the enzyms themselves undergoing little or no change. They are produced by the activity of plant or animal cells. Certain enzyms are inti- mately connected with the manufacture of cheddar cheese. We have (Ist) an enzym or, perhaps, a collection of enzyms, ‘present in the milk itself as drawn from the cow, known as galactase; (2d) one Or more enzyms contained in rennet-extract, and (3d) en- zyms produced by bacteria which get into the milk after it is drawn. We have studied particularly the relation of the first two kinds of enzyms to cheese-making and cheese-ripening. (Bulletin No. 203, “A Study of Enzyms in Cheese” and Bulletin 233, ‘“ Rennet- Enzyms as a Factor in Cheese-Ripening.”) Such studies are at- tended with untsual difficulties, because it is as yet practically im- possible to obtain enzyms in an absolutely pure condition. Then, too, it is necessary to exclude in such experiments all possible ‘ chance for action of organisms and, in order to accomplish this, conditions must be introduced which are more or less abnormal. - I. CHANGES IN CHEESE CAUSED BY ENZYMS IN MILK AND RENNET. In order to study the combined action of galactase and rennet- enzym, chloroform was successfully used to exclude bacterial action and the cheese was kept in an atmosphere of chloroform during ripening for periods varying from a few months to two years. “Under such conditions no lactic acid was formed and in some of the experiments lactic acid to the amount of 0.2 per ct. was intro- duced into the milk to stimulate the normal cheese-making process. The amounts of water-soluble nitrogen compounds formed in the cheese under the conditions of the experiments represent work done by the enzyms present as galactase and in rennet-extract. At the end of one year the normal cheese contained 37 per ct. of its nitro- gen in water-soluble form, while the chloroformed cheese contained 23 per ct. The character of the water-soluble nitrogen was quite different under the two sets of conditions. In normal cheese the proportion of amido compounds is large in comparison with al- bumoses and peptones; in chloroformed cheese, the reverse is true. Again, in chloroformed cheese, little or no ammonia is formed, while in normal cheese ammonia appears early and increases steadily. These results show that there is some nitrogen-digesting agent at 210 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. work in normal cheese which is not active in cheese made in the presence of chloroform. In those cases in which lactic acid was added to chloroformed milk in the process of cheese-making, the amount of soluble nitrogen compounds was much increased. The presence of acid favored enzym action. In 1897 Babcock and Russell discovered galactase in milk and, as the result of an extended investigation regarding its action in milk, they concluded that it was the chief agent of cheese-ripening. When our work demonstrated that galactase does not produce in cheese ammonia, which is a normal constituent of ripened cheese, they ex- amined samples of our cheese and confirmed our results as to the absence of ammonia. They then acknowledged, as the result of our experiments, that galactase could not be the chief agent of cheese- ripening. Moreover, in their study of the properties of galactase, Babcock and Russell found it so sensitive to the presence of acids that its activity was easily diminished by small amounts of acid. Our ex- periments demonstrated that the presence of acid increases the soluble products of cheese-ripening, an effect characteristic of ren- net but not of galactase. These experiments showed the combined, but not the separate effects of rennet and galactase in cheese-ripen- ing. The action of galactase and rennet-enzym has been studied also from a quite different point. The amounts of carbon dioxide given off by a normal cheese and a chloroformed cheese were measured for a period of thirty-two weeks. (Bulletin No. 231.) In addition,” certain compounds were determined in the cheese at the end of the investigation. The results are summarized as follows: In Normal Cheese. In Cheese Containing Chloro- form. (1) Production of carbon diox- (1) Production of carbon diox- ide. ide. (a). Total “in 32. weeks; (a) Total, 0.205 gram. 15.099 grams. (b) Weekly variation from (b) Ceased entirely after 0.735 gram in first, three weeks. to 0.224 gram in last, week. New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BLY In Normal Cheese. In Cheese Containing Chloro- form. (2) Proteolytic end-products (2) Proteolytic end-products formed. formed. (a) Tyrosine in small (a) Tyrosine. amounts (b) Oxyphenylethylamine. (b) No oxyphenylethyla- mine. (c) Arginine in traces. (c) Arginine in marked quantity. (d) Histidine. (d) Histidine. (e) Lysine. (e) Lysine. (f) Guanidine. (f) No guanidine. (g) Traces of putrescine. (g) No putrescine. (3) Analysis of cheese. (3) Analysis of cheese. (a) Ammonia formed. (a) No ammonia formed. (b) Amido compounds (b) Amido compounds less more abundant. abundant. A consideration of the possible sources of carbon dioxide in the two cheeses indicates that, in the case of the chloroformed cheese, the carbon dioxide came from that present originally in the milk and that formed in the milk from the decomposition of milk- sugar before treatment with chloroform. In the case of the normal cheese, the carbon dioxide given off in its early age came largely from the decomposition of milk-sugar by lactic acid organisms, while a small amount was probably due to the carbon dioxide pres- ent in the milk and, perhaps, to the respiration of living organisms present in the cheese. The carbon dioxide produced after the first few weeks came apparently from reactions taking place in some of the amido compounds, among which we were able to identify the change of tyrosine and arginine into derived products with simultaneous formation of carbon dioxide. In the chloroformed cheese, the only active proteolytic agents were lactic acid, galactase and rennet-pepsin. Under the conditions of our experiment, these agents were able to form neither ammonia nor secondary amido compounds with production of carbon dioxide. The presence of chloroform could not account for this lack of action. These results suggest that, in the normal cheese, there must have been some agent at work not present in the chloroformed cheese and that this extra factor was of a biological character. 212 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. 2. CHANGES IN CHEESE CAUSED BY RENNET-ENZYM. Rennet extract contains an enzym which is a peptic ferment, as shown by the following characteristics: (a) Neither rennet-enzym nor pepsin causes much, if any, proteolytic change except with the help of acid; (b) the quantitative results of proteolysis furnished by rennet-enzym agree closely when working on the same material under comparable conditions; (c) the classes of soluble nitrogen compounds formed by the two enzyms are the same both quali- tatively and, under uniform conditions, quantitatively; (d) neither enzym forms any considerable amount of amido compounds and neither produces any ammonia; (e) the soluble nitrogen com- pounds formed by either enzym are chiefly confined to the groups of compounds called paranuclein, caseoses and peptones (Bul. NG7233,),- In normal cheese, we find an accumulation of amides and ammo- nia, as the cheese grows older and a corresponding diminution of the compounds previously formed. The formation of all the ammonia and of a large proportion of the amides found in ripened cheese must be due to some agency other than rennet-enzym, and the only other agents present, besides milk-enzyms, that can do this work appear to be organisms or their enzyms. The first stage in normal cheese-ripening is essentially a peptic digestion of para- casein or some derivative compound. Gradually amides are formed and later ammonia. It is probable that the first chemical work done in normal cheese-ripening is the conversion of paracasein or some modification of it by rennet-enzym into paranuclein, caseoses and peptones. The question naturally arises as to whether these com- pounds must be formed before other agents can take part in the work and carry it along farther, producing amides and ammonia. A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT BREEDS, OF DAIRY COWS. In 1889 an extended investigation with different breeds of dairy cattle was undertaken which had for its object a comparison of seven different representative breeds with reference to economy of milk, butter and cheese production. The work was continued for about seven years. The breeds of cows used in the investigation were American Holderness, Ayrshire, Devon, Guernsey, Holstein- Friesian, Jersey and Shorthorn. The following detailed data are given in the Station reports for the years 1890 to 1896: (1) Tabu- ae ae al aa aol New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 213 lated statements, giving ages and dates of calving of different cows. (2) Prices of food used. (3) Amounts, composition and cost of food eaten. (4) Amount and cost of milk produced. (5) Com- position of milk. (6) Yield of cream and butter. (7) Yield of cheese. As a basis for comparison, a uniform lactation period was used consisting of the first ten months of lactation. The results repre- sent work done with twenty-two different animals for one to four periods of lactation, aggregating between forty and fifty periods. The summary of the work is here presented under the following headings: (1) Production of milk, (2) production of cream and butter,2* and (3) production of cheese.2> The data will be pre- sented largely in tabular form. MILK PRODUCTION. TABULATED SUMMARY GIVING COMPARISON OF RESULTS SECURED WITH DiIF- FERENT BreEEDS OF Dairy CATTLE WITH REFERENCE TO THE PRODUCTION OF Mitk. AVERAGE PER Cow For ONE PErRiIop (10 Montus) oF LActaTION. American- ; Ayr- Guern- | Holstein- | Short- Holder- shire. Devon. sey. | Friesian. Jersey. Horn. ness. Number of cows........... 2 4 3 4 | 4 4 il Total number of periods of | PA CEAGION A}. 0% aG.sione. one snecdue: « 4 1 4 11 2 Cost of food: eaten. os. ..... $42 90 {$49 32 ($37 52 |$46 15 | $50 73 |$45 49 |$46 22 Pounds of milk given...... 5,721 | 6,824 | 3,984 | 5,385 7,918 | 5,045 | 6,055 Cost of milk in cents per POM Cerepee tare tare Bre sco ene cor Oe 0.76 0.74 0.94 0.86 0.65 0.90 0.78 Cost of milk in cents per RUCTAT Urey srs eae we sysinee sus eee 1.63 Less} 2.02 1.85 1.39 1.95 1.68 Pounds of milk-solids pro- eine leneiyy stewie sia, wr -pecenroke 724.1 |869.4 |577.4 /|804.0 936.5 |775.4 |866.2 Percentage of solids in milk. . 12.66 | 12.74 | 14.50 | 14.93 iba teste se ye OO ayes ielis iS o810) Cost of milk-solids in cents MEH SOO UNG sents as wba 5.93 5.68 6.50 Boils) 5.42 5.87 5.34 Money value of milk at 1.28 | cents per pound......... $73 22 |$87 24 $51 00 |$68 93 |$101 35 |$64 58 |$72 50 Money value of milk based on milk-solids at 94 cents iE/ Pp lenb be Yo cn deme een 67 58 | 81 14 | 53 89 | 75 04 87 41 | 72 37 | 80 85 Money value of milk based on | milk-fat at 264 cents per ROUTE y eevee te atkvthe! te toe Lest 56 12 | 64 47 | 48 27 | 75 18 70 07 | 74 30 | 72 03 Apparent profit (money value : of milk less cost of food)... 24 69 | 31 73 | 16 37 | 28 88 36 65 | 24 63 | 34 60 Calculated value of skim- Ticia) | LOUeesa OS tie ae it ae ia or Re 5 619) O60 812005); Tost 20 49 | 13 78 | 18 20 Market value of skim-milk... 7 81 9 53 6 00 7 90 10 25 6 89 9 10 Actual profit (apparent profit less market value of skim- | TELUS) eye cechar ts Se, aor Noo tose ela 16 89 | 22 20 | 10 37 | 20 97 26 40 | 17 74 | 25 50 | | buat. No,..77- * Bul. No. 78. “Bul. No. 79. 214 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. An explanation of how the different money values of the milk given in the above table are reached is now given. The final test of a cow’s value for dairy purposes is the amount of profit to be derived from her. In calculating the money value of milk, we may be guided solely by the amount of milk produced, allowing a fixed price for a pound of milk, regardless of composi- tion; or, we may consider the composition of the milk and fix a price which shall be dependent upon the composition. In calcu- lating the money value of milk as based on its composition, we can use the total solids of the milk or the fat alone. For the sake of comparison, therefore, we give three values for milk in the foregoing tables: First, the money value of milk cal- culated on the basis of 234 cents per quart, or 1.28 cents per pound; second, the money value of the milk calculated on the basis of the milk-solids at 914 cents per pound; and, third, the money value of the milk calculated on the basis of milk-fat at 2614 cents per pound. If we take the value of all the milk produced by all the cows as calculated at 1.28 cents per pound and divide this by the total num- ber of pounds of milk-solids produced by all the cows, then we get, as the average selling-price of one pound of milk-solids, 9% cents. In other words, with milk selling at 1.28 cents per pound, milk-solids have an equivalent value of 91% cents per pound. Ina similar way, milk-fat has an equivalent value of 26% cents per pound. The following explanation shows how the figures representing profits from milk are derived. In considering the profit derived from selling milk, we must fix on a uniform system of valuation. We have presented calcula- tions based on three different methods for fixing the money value of milk, when sold for consumption as milk. Which of these methods will serve our purpose most fairly for making a compar- ison of the approximate value of milk? While the milk-fat furnishes the only fair and practicable basis for determining the value of milk that is to be made into butter or cheese, and while this method could also be utilized in enabling us to make a valua- tion of milk that is to be sold for consumption as milk, we shall probably approximate more closely the actual market value of milk as now sold, by making the milk-solids our basis of valuation. Therefore, in making our comparison of profits derived from selling milk, we will make use of the value furnished by this method of calculation. If from the selling value of the milk, thus found, we ie New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 215 subtract the cost of food eaten by the animals, we obtain the ap- proximate amount of profit. However, when the milk is taken from the farm and no part retained in any form, a certain amount of food and fertilizing material is removed, which the dairyman must replace in some form. To illustrate, when we sell and carry away from the farm 1,coo pounds of average milk for $12.50, we take from the farm materials which have a food and fertilizing value of 25 cents for each 100 pounds of milk or $2.50 for the 1,000 pounds of milk. By retaining the skim-milk and buttermilk and selling only the fat in the form of butter, we could secure the same amount of money for 1,000 pounds of milk and still retain on the farm the materials which are worth $2.50 for food and fertilizer. Therefore, when we take the milk from the farm, we must, for each 1,000 pounds, pay out from the money received $2.50 to replace the food and fertilizing materials sent away in the milk, if we are to keep the farm and animals in the same condition we should were we to retain on the farm the skim-milk and buttermilk. In theory, then, at least, of the $12.50 received for the milk, we must pay out $2.50 to buy food and fertilizer to take the place of that removed in the milk sold, and the actual profit derived from selling 1,000 pounds of milk would be $2.50 less than the apparent profit. In regard to the actual market value, skim-milk can be purchased at creameries for 1214 cents per 100 pounds or one-half of what we usually rate it for in theory. Since this is so, it will represent actual results more closely, if we deduct the latter amount in de- termining actual profits. We have, therefore, presented tabulated results showing the ap- parent and actual profit derived from selling milk. In determining the amount of money to be deducted for feeding and fertilizing values, we use the solids-not-fat as a basis for calculation, because the skim-milk of different breeds varies in both feeding and fertiliz- ing value. We deduct the amount of. fat which would in butter- making go into butter, from the entire yield of milk solids. The re- maining solids, mostly waste fat, would have a theoretical value of about three cents a pound, but a market value of only half this, since, as pointed out above, skim-milk can be purchased at about one-half of its real feeding and fertilizing value. By using the solids as a basis of determining the value of the skim-milk, we secure results that represent the truth more nearly than we should if we rated all the skim-milk at the same price per 100 pounds, regardless of com- position. 216 “‘TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. CREAM AND BUTTER PRODUCTION. For the sake of uniformity in comparison, we make all the cream contain 20 per ct. of fat and assign it a market value of 20 cents a quart. In calculating the profits derived from selling cream, we deduct the value of the serum or skim-milk, that is, the cream less the milk-fat, assigning a value of 12% cents a hundred pounds. The yield of butter is obtained by deducting 0.16 as lost in skim- ming and churning from the fat present in 100 pounds of milk and calculating the remainder into butter containing 85 per ct. of fat. The value of the butter is fixed at 25 cents a pound. The following table gives the results: TABULATED SUMMARY GIVING COMPARISON OF RESULTS SECURED WITH DIF- FERENT BreepS OF Dartry CATTLE WITH REFERENCE TO THE PRODUCTION OF BuTIER AND CREAM. AVERAGE PER Cow For ONE PEriop (10 MontTHs) OF LACTATION. American- : Ayr- Guern-| Holstein- Short- Holder- shire. Devon sey. |Friesian. Jersey. horn. ness. Number of cowS. 2sc5.% 0: 2 4 3 4 4| 4 1 Total number of periods of! : lactation crea ee ae 4 ay 3 6 4) 11 2 Percentage of fatin milk.... Sule 3.60} 4.60 5.30 3.36) 5.60 4.44 Pounds of milk-fat produced. 213.1} 244.8) 183.3] 285.5 266.1} 282.1) 269.0 Pounds of butter produced.. 239.9} 275.2) 208.4] 325.6 298.1} 322.4) 305.1 Pounds of butter made from TOGiNbsvofinailkes sees 4.20 4.05} 5.22 6.05 3.76) 6.40 5.04 Pounds of milk to make one pound of butter. 5 ls 23.80} 24.70) 19.15 16.53 26.60 15.63) 19.84 Pounds of butter made for one pound of milk-fat..... Lel26 |b b| bes 1.14 1 esl i? 1.143) oaketsa Cost in cents of one pound of zd aut loos) meet emier a Mees pa 20.13)- 20/215) 20). 47 16.14 19.06 16.12 17.18 Cost in cents of one pound of BUAbGENs coscesees etn ees 17.90} 17.92| 18.00} 14.15 L7.502|— AAS at: Money value of butter pro- é Gucedigc a. fectempaenacts Nsree $59 98; $68 80)$52 10) $81 40) $74 53) $80 60) $76 28 Profit derived from butter... $17 08} $19 48)$14 58) $35 25) $23 80) $35 11\/2$30 06 Pounds of cream produced... 1,065.5} 1,224) 916.5)1,427.5| 1,330.5]1,410.5} 1,345 Pounds of milk for one pound OE-CLEA My sts = ete ore 5.37 5.58) 4.35 3.80 5.95 3.60) 4.50 Cost in cents of cream per DO UME yay oe HU Bonare sete ote 4.03 4.03) 4.09 S223 3.81 See 3.44 Cost in cents of cream per OG iho artnet smemeeae Meecaht erick Gis 8.50 8.50) 8.63 6.82 8.04 6.79 7.26 Money value of cream pro- duced; spas ee $101 00/$116 02)$86 86/$135 27) $126 10)$133 70|$127 48 Profit derived from cream... $57 03) $65 48|/$48 44) $87 70} $74 04, $86 80) $79 92 CHEESE PRODUCTION. A large amount of work has demonstrated that, knowing the per- centage of fat and of casein in milk, one can with fair accuracy de- termine the yield of cheese (green) by multiplying the percentage ‘f fat by 1.1 and adding to this result the percentage of casein mul- i aa Si ae | a yr ee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 217 tiplied by 2.5. This method favors milk poorer in fat, making the yield of cheese larger in relation to the cheese-solids in the milk than in richer milk. In calculating the money value of cheese, an average price of Io cents a pound is used, equivalent to green cheese at 9% cents ° a pound, In calculating the profit derived from selling milk in the form of cheese, an allowance of 12% cents a hundred pounds of milk is made for the feeding and fertilizing materials taken from the farm. The summary of results is given as follows: TABULATED SUMMARY GIVING COMPARISON OF RESULTS SECURED WITH DIF- FERENT BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE WITH REFERENCE TO THE PRODUCTION OF CHEESE. AVERAGE PER Cow FOR ONE PErRtIop (10 MONTHS) OF LACTATION. { | American- : Ayr- Guern- | Holstein- Short- Holder- shire. Devon sey. |Friesian. Jersey. horn. ness. | | Number of cows. .........-. 2) 4 3 4 4 4 1 Total number of periods of : RGM mete cc cts ete retest.» 4 12 5 6 4 il 2 Pounds of fatin milk....... 213.1). 24458) 183_3|-- 285.5 266.1| 282.1) 269.0 Pounds of casein in milk..... 139.3] 164.7} 112.1) 155.4 185.0] 150.8} 172.9 Pounds of green cheese pro- | | | Ei SEG len Gale ee aee p aeik eee 582.7) 681.1] 481.9) 702.6 755.2) 687.3) 728.2 Pounds of cheese made from | | HOGES:-o famille 8 heii ese 10.18 9.98} 12.10} 13.05 Or 54/1862)" 5 12)08 Pounds of milk required to make one pound of cheese.. 9.82} 10.02) 8.27} 7.66 10.48 inoe 8.31 Pounds of cheese made for : | one pound of fat in milk... 2a 2.77| 2.63] 2.46 2.84! 2.43 wei (al Percentage of fat in cheese... 36.57| 35.95] 38.04); 40.63 35.24; 41.05} 36.94 Percentage of casein in cheese. 23.90} 24.20) 23.26) 22.12 24.50)" 21°94)" 230-74 Percentage of water, ash, etc. | AIM ENCESE Sn to Xkee eas 39.53} 39.85] 38.70) 37.25 40.26) 37.06; 39.32 Cost of one pound of cheese SIBCOMUS HO es ces Seis 7.36 7.241 7.78 6.57 Gare 6.62 6.35 Money value of cheese pro- | Bi C6 be cas ier Oe ROE IIR f $56 33) $65 84/$46 58 $67.92) $73 00) $66 44| $70 39 Profit from cheese.......... $5 62| $7 00| $3 06) $13 87! $12 02) $13 42) $15 06 ————— asl COMPARATIVE PROFITS DERIVED FROM SELLING MILK, BUTTER, CREAM AND CHEESE.*5 A question of practical importance, now often asked by dairy- men, relates to the form in which milk can be sold. From what form of product can the greatest profit be derived, from selling milk as milk or from selling it in the form of cream, butter or cheese? Several different factors enter into a complete answer of such a question. One of them may be cost of transportation to the best market. Another may be the greater relative market value * Bul. 89; also Rpt. 14:11-26 (1895). 218 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. of milk in the form of one product than in another. Thus, in the form of cream milk generally sells for more than in any other form, and occasionally cheese sells for a higher price relatively than butter, while the opposite may also be frequently true. In dis- cussing this question, we must consider conditions which are normal or average rather than those which are exceptional. The data which we need to know are (Ist) the cost of production and (2d) the market value of the product. In regard to cost of production, the data given in the preceding articles can be utilized in considering the relative profits to be derived from selling milk in different forms. We have also fixed prices for milk and its different products, which represent average conditions and which are as nearly accurate, relative to one another, as we may easily approxi- mate. BASIS OF CALCULATIONS. For convenience of ready reference, we will give a brief state- ment here in regard to the basis upon which our calculations are made in ascertaining the profits derived from selling milk, cream, butter-and cheese. (a) Cost—— The food-cost of products alone is considered. (b) Value of milk.— The value of the milk is based on the amount of total solids in milk, allowing 9% cents a pound for milk-solids, which is equivalent, on an average, to 234 cents a quart for milk or 1.28 cents a pound. (c) Value of butter—The value of the butter is placed at an average price of 25 cents a pound; the butter contains 85 per ct. of fat. (d) Value of cream.— The value of the cream is placed at 20 cents a quart; the cream contains 20 per ct. of fat. (e) Value of cheese-— The price for cheese is placed at 10 cents a pound for cheese about one month old. (f) Method of calculating profit—aA deduction is made from the gross profit (the difference between the value of the product and its food-cost), amounting to 12% cents for each 100 pounds of milk, representing the amount of feeding and fertilizing materials taken away from the farm in the case of selling milk and cheese. A smaller but proportionate reduction is made in the case of cream. The foregoing prices placed on the different dairy products do not represent actual prices at this writing, but they represent fairly the average prices prevailing during a period of normal years. In any case they may be regarded as relatively accurate, whether abso- lutely so or not. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 219 AVERAGE PROFITS DERIVED FROM SELLING MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS FOR ONE 3 PERIOD OF LACTATION. (a) From cheese, $9.79. (b) From milk, $19.80. (c) From butter, $25.64. (d) From cream, $72.52. THE AMOUNT OF PROFIT GAINED IN SELLING MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS IN ONE FORM OVER OTHER FORMS. (a) Butter over milk, $5.84 profit. (b) Milk over cheese, $10.00 profit. (c) Butter over cheese, $15.85 profit. (d) Cream over butter, $46.88 profit. (e) Cream over miik, $52.72 profit. (f) Cream over cheese, $62.73 profit. COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF PROFITS DERIVED FROM SELLING MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. (a) Ratio of profit of milk to butter, I: 1.30. (b) Ratio of profit of cheese to milk, 1: 2.02. (c) Ratio of profit of cheese to butter, I: 2.62. (d) Ratio of profit of butter to cream, 1: 2.83. (e) Ratio of profit of milk to cream, 1: 3.66. (f) Ratio of profit of cheese to cream, I: 7.40. ie PROTEIDS: Ob. BUIIER. IN. RELATION .TO MOTTLED BUTTERS Little study has been made of the proteids of cream, buttermilk and butter, especially in relation to mottled butter. The form of casein in cream ripened by ordinary methods of creaming is free casein when the lactic acid is allowed to exceed 0.5 per ct. Free casein, the result of combination of lactic acid with the calcium of the calcium casein of normal sweet milk, holding more or less lactic acid is the substance most familiar as curdled sour milk. When the amount of lactic acid in cream exceeds 0.5 per ct., the casein in the butter and buttermilk is present as free casein holding more or less lactic acid by adsorption. In butter and buttermilk made from so-called sweet cream, we usually find calcium casein and some free casein, but, on standing some weeks, these may be changed in the butter into free casein. It has been quite universally believed that the light-colored spots or streaks in butter, known as mottles, are caused solely by the uneven distribution of salt without reference to the composition of ** Bul. 263. 220 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. the butter. It was thought that the more concentrated brine had the effect of deepening the yellow color of the fat, the lighter por- tions being the unsalted or lightly salted areas. The following points were studied with reference to their pos- sible relations to mottled butter: (1) Richness of cream, (2) de- gree of ripeness of cream, (3) temperature of churning, (4) size of butter-granules, (5) temperature of wash-water, (6) working of butter. When the churning was so managed as to make the butter-granules of the size of rice-grains or wheat-kernels and these were carefully washed twice with water below 45° F., re- moving most of the buttermilk adhering to the outer surface of _ the granules, no mottles were obtained, however much conditions were varied in other respects. Mottles were always found when the buttermilk was not sufficiently removed. The amount of proteid (usually free casein) in mottled butter is greater in the light portions than in the darker portions and is the cause of the lighter color of the mottles. Salt-brine does not change in any way the color of butter-fat. Salt-brine, as it com- monly occurs in butter, has the power of hardening and localizing the proteid particles, the action requiring several hours for com- pletion. Butter which is free from buttermilk adhering to the outer surface of the granules does not produce mottles when salted, . whether the salt is evenly or unevenly distributed. Mottles do not | occur in unsalted butter. In mottled butter, the light portions usually contain less salt than the darker portions. Mottles in butter are due, primarily, to the presence and uneven distribution of buttermilk adhering to the outer surface of the small granules; and, secondarily, to the hardening and localizing effect of salt-brine upon the protein of the buttermilk thus retained in butter. The light portions of mottled butter owe their lighter color to the presence of localized protein, usually free casein. The yellow or clear portions occur when the spaces between the butter-granules are filled with clear brine arid are comparatively free from casein. Several hours are required to complete the action of brine upon the protein of butter. In the absence of buttermilk in butter- granules, we have no mottles. In the absence of salt we have no mottles. The combined conditions necessary to produce mottles are (1) the presence of sufficient buttermilk unevenly distributed, and (2) the presence of salt-brine. Mottles in butter can be prevented by avoiding those conditions that retain buttermilk in the butter and observing those conditions that favor the removal of buttermilk | Py as ny a se ee. ay 7 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 22 from butter-granules before salting. The butter-granules should be about the size of rice-grains or wheat-kernels and should be washed twice with water at a temperature of 35° to 45° C., using an amount of water for washing about equal to the buttermilk removed. INSPECTION: OF -FERTILIZERS. HISTORICAL REVIEW OF FERTILIZER LEGISLATION IN NEW YORK. There are five dates, deserving special notice, connected with the attempts made by legislative enactment to afford protection against fraud to purchasers of commercial fertilizers. These dates are 1878, 1890, 1894, 1896 and 1899. In 1878 the first law was passed, but as no provision was made for its execution, it was a dead letter. After intermittent agitation of the subject for ten years, a systematic effort was finally made to secure new legislation of a practical character. A new and strong interest in the matter was aroused by some work done at this Station which brought to light evidence of the existence of serious frauds in fertilizers. As an instance, a fertilizer, known as “ Mason’s High-grade Potash Fertilizer,’ made at Binghamton and sold at $30 a ton, was found to contain 0.2 per ct. of nitrogen, 0.18 per ct. of available phosphoric acid, and a small trace of potash. It was guaranteed to contain 5 per ct. of nitrogen, 3 per ct. of available phosphoric acid and 8.1 per ct. of potash. It was sold at $30 a ton, but the value of its fertilizing constituents was about one dollar. Finally, in 1890, a law was passed, the execution of which was placed in charge of this Station. Efforts to enforce the provisions of this statute revealed exceeding looseness in its language, as well as other serious defects. The general principles embraced in the act were satisfactory to both consumers and manufacturers of fertilizers, and the law was efficient in making public each year the composition of the fertilizers sold in the State; but in prosecuting violations of the law it was found impossible to secure effective convictions against offending parties. The first prosecution be- gun under the enactment of 1890 was successful in the lower court, but, on appeal to the Supreme Court, the decision of the lower court was reversed on account of certain technical defects in the statute. An effort was made to remedy these defects by amend- ments, which became operative May 9, 1804. Again proceedings were instituted against violators of the law, but only to show that the statute was still practically useless so far as it enabled the State 222 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. to secure the punishment of violations of the law by legal process in the courts. In 1896 the statute was completely revised and greatly simplified, and in this new form was enacted into law. Under this and the preceding enactments, the cost of executing the law was borne by special State appropriations. Under these circumstances manufac- turers increased the number of brands to an extent undreamed of, the different brands of fertilizers offered for sale jumping from 245 in 1890 to nearly 2,300 in 1899. This condition greatly increased the cost of executing the law and was, moreover, a practical hindrance rather than a help to farmers. To meet this condition, the law of 1896 was amended in 1899 by requiring a license fee of $20 a year for each brand offered for sale in this State and also extending the law to all goods selling for more than $5 a ton, the former law placing the limit at $10. This at once reduced the number of brands from nearly 2,300 to about 600, near which the number has since remained. In 1904 the law was further changed so as to place the collection of samples and the responsibility of making prosecutions in the hands of the State Commissioner of Agriculture. Also, specific provision was made for the publication of the results of analysis. FERTILIZER LAW. The main provisions of the law, as it now stands, are as follows: To what goods the law applies— The provisions of the statute apply to “any commercial fertilizer or any material to be used as a fertilizer, the selling price of which exceeds five dollars,’ when such goods are sold, offered or exposed for sale in this State. The law, in its past interpretation and in the intention of those who drew the first laws, applies to all mixtures containing nitrogen, phos- phoric acid or potash, or any combination of these, and also tc all unmixed fertilizing materials containing any of these elements of plant-food when sold for more than $5 a ton. Therefore, such materials as nitrate of soda, potash salts, dried blood, tankage, acid phosphate, etc., come under the provisions of the law. What must be stated on each package of fertilizer— The statute requires that four things shall be stated on each package of fertilizer : (1) The net weight. (2) The name, brand or trademark. (3) The name and address of the manufacturer. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 223 (4) The chemical composition expressed in the following terms: (a) Percentage of nitrogen. (b) Percentage of available phosphoric acid or, in case of un- dissolved bone, total phosphoric acid. (c) Percentage of potash soluble in distilled water. These forms must be stated; other expressions in addition may be used. Filing statements and payment of license fees—A_ statement covering the points already indicated must be filed each year with the Commissioner of Agriculture before goods are offered for sale. At the same time the license fee of $20 for each brand is required. Requirements regarding inert nitrogenous materials—‘ No per- son shall sell, offer or expose for sale in this State leather or its products or other inert nitrogenous material in any form, as a fertilizer or as an ingredient of any fertilizer, unless an explicit statement of the facts shall be conspicuously affixed to every pack- age of such fertilizer and shall accompany every parcel or lot of same.” Publication of results of analysis— Samples of fertilizers are collected each year for analysis and the results are published at least once in each year together with such other information as may seem desirable. Justification for the fertilizer law.— The fact that the farmers of New York State expend for plant-food, in the form of com- mercial fertilizers, about $4,500,000 annually justifies the protection afforded by law, especially when it is kept in mind how much fraud has been known to exist when no such protection was given. General outline of work done.—Since July, 1890, there have been collected for analysis about 13,000 samples, representing about 8,000 brands. During this time the Station has published over thirty fertilizer bulletins, containing about 1,600 pages. The num- ber of each bulletin printed has varied from about 5,000 in 1890 to over 40,000 in recent years, and hence the aggregate number of pages distributed among farmers of the State on this one subject amounts to about 45,000,000 pages. In addition to the analyses of fertilizers, the publications have covered the discussion of such important, practical subjects as the description of materials used as fertilizers, the methods of purchasing and using fertilizers, the composition and value of various fertilizing materials, of farm crops, etc. Ten or twelve years ago there was a very great de- mand for information of this kind and untold good was ac- 224 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. complished by placing such literature in the hands of farmers, as has been frequently evidenced by the numerous expressions of ap- preciation received from the farmers. Some direct results of fertilizer inspection— In the form of a brief summary, we will call attention to some of the more promi- nent, direct results of the work done by this Station in the line under discussion. 1. It has driven dishonest fertilizer manufacturers out of exist- ence in this State, and in the case of fraudulent goods manufac- tured outside of the State, it has had the effect of eliminating them from our State commerce. One of the most notable cases was the so-called ‘ Natural Plant-Food,” the sale of which was being pushed vigorously in 1896 with most pretentious claims. It sold at $25 to $28 a ton and was worth much less than $10 a ton, being chiefly an impure insoluble phosphate of lime. 2. There has been direct protection to farmers against fraud by placing in their hands specific and reliable information about the composition of commercial fertilizers in the market. The publicity afforded by the annual publication of the results of analysis has been the most efficient means of protecting farmers. Many farmers refuse to purchase a fertilizer unless the Station analysis shows that it has been up to its guarantee in previous years. Manufac- turers fully understand this and are usually anxious to make their goods up to or well above their guarantee. The legal prosecution of those manufacturers whose goods fall below guarantee has had very little effect in restricting the manufacture of fraudulent ferti- lizers as compared with the publication of the results of analysis. Manufacturers whose goods are below guarantee would much prefer to pay fines and have the analysis suppressed than to have the re- sults published and the fines remitted. This belief is based upon the results of eighteen years of experience in observing facts con- nected with fertilizer inspection. 3. The fund of information about the composition of special fertilizers and also about the general principles underlying the wise use of plant-foods has been greatly enlarged and brought within the personal knowledge of the farmers. 4. Such increased knowledge has led to a more judicious selec- tion and economical use of plant-foods. | 5. The general standard of composition of commercial fertilizers has been made more uniform and, in general, the number of brands falling below guarantee has decreased. —— oO ee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 225 ANALYSIS OF PARIS GREEN AND OTHER INSECTI- €IDES:* During recent years paris green has come to be used to such an extent by farmers and offered such an inviting field for adulteration, that in 1898 a law was passed to prevent fraud in the sale of paris green in New York State. This law was defective because it failed to define paris green properly and did not prevent the addition of white arsenic (arsenious oxide). The presence of white arsenic in paris green may render it unfit for spraying purposes, because white arsenic is sufficiently soluble in water to burn foliage, if present in amounts exceeding 3'% per ct. These defects were cor- rected in 1901. As amended, the law was essentially as follows: 1. It provided that every manufacturer should guarantee the per- centage of arsenious oxide in paris green or any analogous product. 2. Paris green must contain arsenic in combination with copper, equivalent to not less than 50 per ct. arsenious oxide. 3. Paris green must not contain arsenic in water-soluble forms equivalent to more than 3% per ct. arsenious oxide. Paris green contains as its chief constituent a compound called copper aceto-arsenite, which, when chemically pure, contains PNESEMI@USUOMIGC . 2240 Cec ces guts ee sos 58.64 per ct. Money Odes tt fer ons eke ete Bie Ona PNCCHIOTACICs no. 4s) Pract ahr aats = ye LOLOOy rapes It may be regarded as approximately consisting of Oppel USCMES ar. ps econo ie sa we eee 82 pervck. GopmegraCetate. ise sie acs Sen cs ww oles 6 18 During the four years, 1899 to 1902, 130 samples of paris green were examined. The amount of arsenious oxide varied from 55.34 to 62.87 per ct., averaging 57.24 per ct. The amount of copper oxide varied from 26.53 to 31.2 per ct. and averaged 29.82 per ct. The amount of arsenious oxide in combination with copper varied from 49.70 to 58.45 per ct. and averaged 55.87 per ct. The amount of water-soluble arsenic varied from 0.61 to 2.2: per ct. and averaged 1.30 per ct. The results showed that the paris green in the market at the time the samples were taken were of good commercial quality. It * Bulletins 165, 190, 204, 222. 8 226 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. was noticed that the amount of water-soluble arsenic grew less each year after the amendment of the law. We append the analysis of several special materials sold as in- secticides. ARSENOID. Total arsenic, equivalent to arsenious oxide..............0- 58.82 per ct. Water-soluble arsenic, equivalent to arsenious oxide......... 2.94 per ct. Copper, equivalent to copper oxide..........:02.sssessee sss. 302702 Den ef. IMIGISEURE 4,” <..oe ocresiceeicares Missa ae Mietleieiece tle Sore iese ane eee I.Q1 per ct. BLack DEATH VAFSEMIOUS Oxide!) .ceceS) bake peas Cee ee ee ene 0.79 per ct. Copper: Oxide: 25s Ss), Sa ce Sa ae ee ee Ce 0.41 per ct. sulphate of lime Ceypsumi)’; 2. . 5.02 Sock ce Seen eee 45.34 per ct. Magnesiam oxide (i022 he tac fea cee aioe ee ee eee 3.98 per ct. Iron and aluminum oxides.......... rollefelietsta abe wiate OeerieeeIA oe ae 3.02 per ct. SHCA sesan anu eee oe a ee ee Mik beh aoe 5-42 per ct. oss: On ignition a28< oe a ates Shee ee ee coe 28.91 per ct. Moistutie> soe. don ce cets oe eet een Se Se eee 9.78 per ct. Buc DerEaTH. ZANC-OXIGE” 665, bie, oarSicc ets, cates ea en een es pee ee 86.80 per ct. Tron" oxide “so: i. pasts 22 e Secs ee ceo nee 5.20 per ct. Wead “Oxide! . 6.025 dese ce eRe ei eee oe Ce EEe 2.01 per ct. SHiGay at oi aise s ecaid SRR eee OE ee ee eee 2.96 per ct. Losson | ignition |. ic: Soieecctaow ce ake Oe eee eee 2.43 per ct. Phosphoric. (acid) 22 cae secre S Gee eae eee es ee Eee 0.03 per ct. INIERO SEM Ws. Gee ee hin eStart 0.04 per ct. 1510) 1s) s ea RSI Rate cries er it HA Ie ES OIC O MO ao Ea OuidS FES 0.00 per ct. Some claims are made for this material as a fertilizer but the claims are not supported by the analysis. ENcLIsH Buc COMPOUND. Arsenious oxide soxi)ivanie cnt eas traorcn ners born oote nes isa ee 1.46 per ct. Copper: joxide 45120 Pee ees eee ee Ee ee 0.60 per ct. HaAmmMonp’s StuGc SuHor. Salphateton slimes (evipsunw)e- se eee eeeeeeeeeeraie 74.72 per ct. A ESenIOUS, ..ORIdE: Coan crn eeh sone ee eee eee ao oe 1.04 per ct. Gopper’ Oxider. i eanenae Manse ore ahs bale ROM rete eer ae OS S5ORpermce Irons aluminium) siliconmoxidesssctce meas ee eeiee acai ae 6.92 per ct. IMIOISHITE » oe 5) Se ea EAE ee Oe Rec oe 10.88 per ct. Arsenious, Oxideo. sc. SASiky sacs ce ete Ree ee ace aie 4.85 per ct. Copper »oxide.<.oh5 Si); ee ae oe ee eae ee 12.68 per ct. This contains also large amounts of carbonate and hydrate of lime. ° ee ee SS ae ee ee eee d » New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 227 “LonDoN PURPLE. SH GOMNUCS ga cas colt Sac Guile ma dvict chess bRcleiv ete cetet. 32.32 per ct. Rear -SOMIDles ACSENIOUS: OXIde. 2.25.0. 2. cs Sec ne ie ce wees a eas 12.27 per et PARAGRENE. Total arsenic equivalent to arsenious oxide....... 36501. 10%, 52°30 perc Water-soluble arsenious oxide................... 0.88 to 1.47 per ct. Copper equivalent to copper oxide............... 17.07 tO!) 2-06) permet: Calcium equivalent to calcium oxide (lime).................. 14.20 per ct. 1S ELIRE cgi TERR RES eae fe goo 8.15 per ct. AOS EL GIDE CUS RaS AS ae er ieee gra ard ee ear 15.49 per ct. Midres-seluble arseniOus OXIde:. 0.2.6 ieee ce bie On ewes eed eceee 1.72 per ct. PO aN A aia ekg Se wie Sock oe ew nne ait emi one Pad Dee Oa. 16.02 per ct. SmitrH’s ELrectric VERMIN EXTERMINATOR. This is a mixture consisting chiefly of carbonate and hydrate of lime. ANALYSES OF COPPER COMPOUNDS USED IN SPRAY- iNGSPEANTS< An investigation was undertaken to ascertain whether the copper compounds used in making spraying mixtures are adulterated and whether the special preparations put on the market are pure, prop- erly mixed and economical in price. The following materials were examined: Copper sulphate in the form of crystals, powdered, and dried or anhydrous; copper carbonate as precipitated and “ hy- drated ;” a prepared mixture called “ copperdine ” in dry form and in solution; and a prepared bordeaux mixture. The samples of copper sulphate crystals contained 98.1 to 99.6 per ct. of pure copper sulphate. Powdered copper sulphate con- tained 98.1 per ct. The dried copper sulphate contained about 80 to go per ct. of what it should contain if entirely free from water of crystallization. The samples of copper carbonate contained ‘from 60 to go per ct. of pure copper carbonate. “ Copperdine ” is a mixture of ammonium carbonate and copper carbonate. It was found to be needlessly high-priced. A “Prepared bordeaux mixture ” was found to contain only three-fourths as much copper as it should. * Bulletin 41. 228 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. HOW TO DETECT IMPURITIES IN COPPER COMPOUNDS. While the help of a chemist is needed to tell how much copper a substance contains, a few suggestions may be given which will enable anyone to test, in a rough way, samples of copper sulphate, and copper carbonate as well as paris green, in regard to their purity. I. Copper sulphate, if pure, should dissolve completely in warm water, making a clear solution, free from sediment or suspended matter. A solution of copper sulphate should form a clear solu- tion when treated with a sufficient amount of strong ammonia. 2. Copper carbonate, if pure, should dissolve completely in nitric acid. It should also dissolve completely, or nearly so, in strong ammonia used in considerable quantity. 3. Paris green should, if pure, dissolve completely in strong am- monia used in liberal quantity. A SPRAYED-GRAPE SCARE: In September, 1891, the New York city board of health seized and destroyed large quantities of grapes on the ground that they had been sprayed with copper compounds and were dangerously poisonous. Samples of clusters of grapes were selected which were covered with the largest amount of bordeaux mixture obtainable from those vineyards from which the condemned grapes came. Analysis showed that in each pound of grapes (the berries) there was about one-thirtieth of a grain of copper carbonate. To get an amount of copper that would be regarded as serious, if taken in one dose, one would need to eat not less than 3,000 pounds of grapes, skins included. Or, stated in another way, if one were to eat each day one pound of the worst sprayed grapes, including the skins, and if all the copper taken in this way were to accumulate in the body, it would require over eight years to accumulate an amount of copper which would, if taken at one dose, be considered dan- gerous, not necessarily fatal. THE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL SOAPS sam RELATION TO SPRAYING: An investigation was undertaken to ascertain why commercial whale-oil soaps in some cases fail to destroy insects and in some cases cause injury of foliage (Bulletin No. 257, 1904). A soap is made by treating a fat or oil with an alkali, as caustic soda or potash. A soap is a chemical compound formed by the union of an alkali and the fatty acid or acids contained in a fat New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 229 or oil. The important constituents of a soap in relation to spray- ing are (a) water, (b) actual soap and (c) free alkali. In the case of nine samples of commercial whale-oil soap, the percentage of water varied from about 11 to 55 per ct.; of actual soap, from about 15 to 60 per ct.; of free alkali, from nothing to 1.30 per ct. Two different lots of soap from the same factory contained 36.79 and 53.13 per ct. of water and 24.06 and 46.28 per ct. of actual soap. Therefore, in making solutions of different commercial whale-oil soaps, one can not be sure of having a uniform strength of solution, and this lack of uniformity seriously affects their value for spray- ing purposes. In order to have a soap of uniform composition, the following formula is suggested: Caustic soda, 6 pounds; fish-oil, 22 pounds; water, 1% gallons. This will make 4o pounds of soap. These ingredients must be very thoroughly mixed. Such home-made soap, when used at the rate of one pound in seven gallons of water, gave entire satisfaction in every way on the foliage of apple, pear, plum, currant, cherry and peach trees. The foliage was not injured and the plant lice were destroyed. To ascertain how much free alkali in a soap will cause injury to foliage, soaps were made so as to contain I, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 per ct. of free alkali. These were used in the same strength of solution and on the same kinds of foliage as before. Injury was done when the free alkali in the soap reaches 10 per ct. Little or no injury was done by the use of soap containing 5 per ct. or less of free allcali. Caustic soda can be purchased at 41% cents a pound and fish-oil at 26 to 30 cents a gallon. On the basis of these figures, the cost of the materials used in making one pound of fish-oil soap is about 234 cents. The advantages of home-made fish-oil soap are (a) greater uniformity of composition, (2) greater reliability, (3) decreased cost. TESTS OF SORGHUMS.* During five years, observations! were made on all varieties of sor- ghum that could be obtained, to determine which were of value in this State for forage, syrup and seed production. In 1888 sorghums were grown from 162 samples of seed found afterward to include about 100 distinct varities. The next season * Abstract by W. P. Wheeler. *Rpts. 7:71-84 (1888); 8:67-70 (1889); 9:162-168 (1890); 10:208-215 (1891) ; 11:291-294 (1892). 230 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. 82 varieties were tested including 15 selected from those grown the first year, and in the three years following fewer new varieties were tried each season. Most of the sorghums came from South Africa and different parts of India, a number came from China and some from the Malay peninsula, Java, Algiers and Turkey. All attempts to determine the yield of seed were finally abandoned owing to the nearly complete destruction on the small areas by Eng- lish sparrows. A majority of the varieties grown were good seed producers, and a few were heavy yielders of seed of excellent qual- ity, but not many were found to mature early enough for this lati- tude. : Records were made of the amount of juice capable of extraction from the canes by ordinary means, and of its composition so far as the percentages of cane sugar, glucose and total solids not sugar were concerned. Most of the best sugar producing varieties came from South Africa and a few from India. A few of the very best vari- eties were considered of too late maturity for safe planting in the greater part of the State. After the five years’ tests only six of the varieties were recommended as reliable syrup producers for this lati- tude. The most encouraging fact in the series of tests was that no mature cane of any of the better varieties was found at any time that failed to contain a good percentage of sugar, seldom less than 12 per ct. of total sugars in the juice, and with the best, usually considerably more. In one season analyses were made of the juices of canes grown on a number of plats that had been differently fertilized for two years, but no general difference in composition was found that seemed due to effects of the several fertilizing materials used. In one season 12 varieties from strips in the field treated with car- bonate of lime carried an average of about 1o per ct. more sugar than the same varieties from untreated strips. But a more extended comparison the next season on alternate limed and unlimed plats gave almost identical average composition, and no differences in yield and maturity of crop appeared. THE COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTION OF SUGAR- BEETS+ From 1897 to 1901, an experimental study of sugar-beets was made. The work being carried on at the Station and also in other parts of the State. ; * Bulletins 135, 155 and 205. 7 , 4 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 231 Two varieties (Klein Wanzlebener and Vilmorin Improved) were used. The work was undertaken for the purpose of ascertaining the following facts: (1) The yield, (2) the richness in sugar and purity, (3) the cost of production, (4) the possible profit, (5) the influence of fertilizers, and (6) methods of culture. YIELD. The yield of sugar-beets, trimmed and washed, varied from 8,670 pounds to 59,000 pounds an acre, the average being 26,720 pounds. In ordinary commercial operations, 20 tons are regarded as a maximum yield. In favorable seasons, an average yield of Io to 12 tons an acre may be expected in this State. RICHNESS IN SUGAR. In 1897, analyses of about 140 samples of beets grown in dif- ferent parts of the State showed a variation of sugar in the beets from about 12 to 18.5 per ct., with a general average of 15.3 per ct. In 18098, samples of beets grown in sixteen different localities contained 10.1 to 18.5 per ct. of sugar, with an average of 15.5 per ct. Work continued at the Station in 1899, 1900 and 1901 gave sugar varying from 12.3 to 18.5 per ct., with an average of 15 per ct. PURITY OF SOLIDS IN SUGAR-BEET JUICE. The efficiency of sugar-beet juice in producing sugar depends largely upon two factors,—the amount of sugar in the juice and the amount of solids other than sugar. The larger the amount of sugar in relation to the other solids in juice, the larger will be the proportion of sugar that will crystallize out in manu- facture. This relation is expressed by the “ coefficient of purity,” which is found by dividing the percentage of sugar in the juice by ‘the percentage of total solids in juice. Experience has shown that for each pound of non-sugar solids, one pound of sugar is not recov- ered from the juice. The coefficient of purity is low in immature beets, in large beets, in the portion growing above soil and in beets overfed with nitrogenous manures. In the several years of work, the coefficient of purity varied from 72.5 to 90.2, averaging about 83 per ct. 232 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS. One ton of sugar-beets takes from the soil, on an average, 4 pounds of nitrogen, 2 pounds of phosphoric acid and 7 pounds of potash. In 1898, numerous cooperative experiments were made in testing the influence of fertilizers upon the yield and quality of sugar-beets. A fertilizer, analyzing 3 per ct. of nitrogen, 5.5 per ct. of available phosphoric acid and 7 per ct. of potash, made from nitrate of soda, dried blood, acid phosphate and sulphate of potash, was applied at the rates of 500 and 750 pounds an acré. The use of 500 pounds of fertilizer proved more profitable in every way than the use of 750 pounds. The percentage of sugar and co- efficient of purity were not apparently affected by the use of fertilizer. Experiments were carried on at the Station during four years in testing the influence of stable manure applied in the spring upon the quality of sugar-beets. Comparisons were made of the quality of beets not manured with those grown with commercial fertilizer (usually 1,000 pounds an acre) and with those grown on land receiving in the spring, before planting the beets, from 20 to 40 tons of stable manure an acre. Beets from at least six varieties of seed were grown during the four years. The results showed that the beets thus grown were of uniformly high quality under all three methods of treatment. The average was somewhat better with the farm manure than with no manure or with com- mercial fertilizers. The soil is a rather heavy clay, well drained. THE CHEMISTRY OF HOME-MADE CIDER VINEGAR, Cider vinegar made by farmers was frequently found to fall below the legal standard of the State, viz., 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid and 2 per ct. of cider-vinegar solids. It was commonly claimed that these vinegars were made from pure apple juice. An investigation was undertaken to ascertain why cider vinegar made by farmers so frequently falls below the legal standard. The. work covered a period of some seven years. The details were published as Bulletin 258. The investigation included (1) the com- position of apple juice of different varieties of apples, (2) the change in composition that apple juice undergoes during alcoholic and acetic fermentations. (3) conditions affecting these changes and (4) the destructive fermentation of vinegar on long standing. a New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 233 I. COMPOSITION OF APPLE JUICE. Analyses of apple juice, representing 122 samples and 83 varieties of apples, all American grown, are summarized in the following table : Tas_E III — SumMMAry OF ANALYSES OF APPLE JUICE. | tr | lent of | | N f < |Reduc- total | Fixed oe AVERAGE OF Specific iSoli [BSS =| 2 analyses v olids.| ing | Sucrose.| sugarin| Ash. |acid as ANALYSES MADE IN | gravity. edears Feeney, | malic. of dpple invert J ‘ sugar. | | | | | | | | Per ct.| Perct.| Perct.| Perct.| Per ct.| Perct.| Perct.| IN WAR MOGI Go tro ores oe 1 9.28 3.85) 13.33} Pennsylvania........ ili Wot 3.61 baer | Mar P Im Tae), sc. 2 sal one ers UWAORS), asigei Oo) Bee) LOW Aan ee mae (2052) its 1 6 } ii oo I] wall oS or wo a — Washington, D. C.... 5. 84) 3.48) 10.00) 0 Average of all.... 1.054 13.52 28) 3.45) 10.91) 0.29 0.52 | | | eee od The constituents of apple juice of most interest in connection with the making of vinegar are the sugars, because they furnish the original material for the final production of acetic acid. The value of apple juice for vinegar-making is mainly dependent upon the amount of sugars contained in it. The percentage of sugars varies greatly in apple juice, ranging all the way from 6.74 to 15.39 in the cases examined. These variations are dependent upon a variety of conditions, among which the following may be men- tioned as the most prominent: Variety of apple, stage of ripeness, soil, climate and culture. Sugar is present in apples in largest quantity only when they are ripe. The sugar decreases when apples become over-ripe. Therefore, green apples and partly decayed apples contain less sugar and produce less acid in vinegar than apples that are in the proper stage of ripeness. It is a matter of interest to notice that sweet apples are not necessarily richer in sugars than sour apples. The increase of sweetness, apparent to the taste, is due more to the fact that sweet apples contain less malic acid than sour apples. For example, the sample of Red Astrachan apple juice contains 10.16 per ct. of sugars and 1.15 per ct. of malic acid, while Tolman Sweet and Sweet Bough contain about the same amount of sugar, but only 0.10 to 0.20 per ct. of malic acid. 234 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. 2. ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION OF APPLE JUICE. Apple juice left exposed to the air is acted upon by yeast cells everywhere present, the sugar being changed into alcohol and car- bon dioxide gas. Theoretically, 100 parts of sugar should yield about 51 parts of alcohol, but in actual practice losses are experi- enced, reducing the actual yield to 45 to 47 parts of alcohol. The fresh apple juice in sound apples contains no alcohol. When apple juice has undergone partial or complete alcoholic fermenta- tion, it is commercially known as “cider.” Under the ordinary conditions of a cellar temperature, most of the sugar is changed into alcohol in five or six months. In studying the alcoholic fermen- tation at temperatures ranging from 45° F. to 85° F., it was found that the change takes place more rapidly at the higher tem- peratures. Adding yeast to apple juice tends to hasten the alco- holic fermentation. 3. ACETIC FERMENTATION OF CIDER. Certain forms of bacteria act upon the alcohol of cider and con- vert it into acetic acid, the presence of which in sufficient quantity is the object of the maker of vinegar. The conditions most neces- sary for the acetic fermentation of cider are (a) acetic bacteria, (b) an abundant supply of air, and (c) a temperature between 65° F. and 85° F. Theoretically, 100 parts of alcohol yield about 130 parts of acetic acid, but the actual yield is usually below 120. At cellar temperatures, the acetic fermentation takes place slowly, requiring about eighteen months. Under the conditions of our work the formation of acetic acid took place most satisfactorily at tem- peratures between 65° F. and 75° F. The addition of vinegar con- taining “mother” to cider after the completion of the alcoholic fermentation increases the rapidity of the formation of acetic acid. When the clear portion of cider was separated from the sediment, the acetic fermentation appeared to be favored, especially at lower temperatures. It is possible that different barrels of apple juice, placed side by side, may show quite different behavior in fermen- tation. 4. LOSS OF ACETIC ACID IN VINEGAR ON STANDING. Several different organisms have the power of decomposing dilute acetic acid and thus destroying the value of vinegar. These organisms work only in the presence of air. Accordingly, this destructive change in vinegar can be prevented by excluding air, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 235 when once the acetic acid has been formed. In practice, this can be done by drawing off the clear vinegar, placing it in a clean barrel, filling it as full as possible and putting the bung in tight. 5. BEHAVIOR OF MALIC ACID OF APPLE JUICE [N VINEGAR-MAKING. Malic acid was found to decrease during the vinegar-making proc- ess. In most cases, only small amounts of malic acid, free or com- bined, were left when the vinegar had become a commercial product. In decomposed vinegars, malic acid had entirely disappeared. Malic acid added to apple juice also disappeared to a large extent. In sterilized apple juice, the decrease of malic acid was less marked. The white precipitate formed when lead acetate is added to vine- gar has been attributed to the presence of malic acid in the vinegar, -and a vinegar failing to give this test is usually regarded as not cider vinegar. While all of our vinegars gave a precipitate with lead acetate, there were several in which no trace of malic acid was present. Such a white precipitate with lead acetate is due, not to malic acid, but to the phosphates in vinegar. 6. THE SOLIDS OF APPLE JUICE AND CIDER VINEGAR. During the first three months of the alcoholic fermentation at cellar temperature, the solids decreased rapidly. The loss was not uniform in different experiments. There is quite generally a de- crease of solids to a point below 2 per ct., but under normal condi- tions there is a subsequent increase. In old vinegars, standing in barrels with the bunghole open, there is evaporation of water and a consequent increase of solids. In vinegars in which a destructive fermentation of acetic acid has occurred, there is also a marked loss of solids. The amount of vinegar solids may be below 2 per ct when the acetic acid is above 4.5 per ct. 7. CIDER VINEGAR IN RELATION TO LEGAL STANDARDS. Legal standards for cider vinegar are usually based upon the per- centage of acetic acid and cider-vinegar solids. In New York State, the legal requirement is 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid and 2 per ct. of solids. From our work, it appears that where proper fruit is used for cider-making and where the conditions of fermentation are properly controlled, there should be no difficulty in making cider vinegar that contains above 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid in 18 to 24 months. 236 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. In respect to the requirement of 2 per ct. of cider-vinegar solids, something depends upon the method of determining solids, since there is as yet no recognized official method. It would be wise for the law to fix the method to be used in estimating solids. 8. CONDITIONS COMMONLY PRODUCING CIDER VINEGAR BELOW STANDARD. The more common causes responsible for the production of cider vinegar low in acetic acid are the following:—(1) Poor apple juice, due to (a) unripe fruit, (b) over-ripe fruit, (c) watering normal apple juice, (d) second pressing of water-treated pomace, (e) the use of fruit normally poor in sugar. (2) Conditions unfavor- able to the necessary fermentation processes, such as (a) dirty fruit, (b) unclean barrels, (c) too low temperature, (d) lack of air from filling barrel too full or stopping the bung-hole. (3) Lack of proper care after the vinegar is made, by leaving the cider standing at too high a temperature with the bung open and the barrels only partly filled. Q. DIRECTIONS FOR HOME MANUFACTURE OF CIDER VINEGAR. (1) Kind of apples to use. Only clean, sound, ripe apples, giving a juice containing not less than 8.5 per ct. of sugar should be used. (2) Preparation of apple juice. Cleanliness should be observed in grinding and pressing. Avoid the use of juice made from second pressing of pomace. (3) Putting apple juice in barrels. The barrels should be carefully cleaned and thoroughly treated with live steam or boiling water and should be filled about two-thirds or three-fourths full of apple juice. The bung should be loosely placed in the hole or preferably the hole loosely plugged with a stopper of absorbent cotton. (4) Management of alcoholic fermen- tation. The barrels of apple juice should be kept at a temperature of 65° F. to 70° F., if a fairly rapid fermentation is desired. A fur- ther shortening of time may be realized by adding yeast to the apple juice, using one compressed yeast cake for five gallons of juice. (5) Management of acetic fermentation. When alcoholic fermentation is complete, draw off clear portion of liquid, rinse barrel, replace the clear liquid, add 2 to 4 quarts of good vinegar containing some “ mother” and keep at a temperature of 65° F. to 75° F. (6) Care of cider vinegar. When the acetic acid amounts to 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid or more, then fill the barrels as full as possible and cork tightly. Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. A mere mention such methods will suffice for our present purpose. 1. Determination of number of fat globules in milk.* 2. Determination of viscosity of milk, cream, etc.” 3. Determination of casein in milk, cream, etc.* 4. Determination of albumin in milk, cream, etc. a Methods for the estimation of the proteolytic compounds con- ined in cheese and milk.* x) mS PF Rot. 4:266-275 (1885). fe . 5:316-330 (1886). . 12:487-497 (1893). vens. INVESTIGATIONS: OF THE -DEPAR TiTE xh OF EN TOMOLOGYS SUMMARIZED BY P. J. PARROTT. The first effort of the Station toward an economic study of the destructive insects of this State was in 1894, when investigations? were undertaken to determine means for the prevention of injuries to truck crops on Long Island. The agriculture of this region of the State is largely trucking, on an extensive scale, and serious losses were being sustained by the growers of cucurbits, cabbage and cauliflower. The more prominent pests were the cucumber beetle, squash bug, cabbage worm, cabbage plusia, and cabbage aphis. At this time there was an urgent need for direction in the proper use of insecticides and in the employment of cultural and preventive measures that are calculated to avoid injuries by these agencies. In 1895 attention was also directed to the San José scale,? which was first discovered on the Island by the Station entomologists, and to other species of scales. As opportunity has afforded, studies have been extended to other insects of a destructive nature throughout the State and special investigations have been undertaken of unusual outbreaks, which, during their duration, were of much concern to farmers. For convenience, the results of the more important of these studies are reviewed briefly under the names of the insects, which are classified according to their appropriate headings of Garden Insects, Fruit Insects and Field Crop Insects. — STUDIES ON GARDEN INSECTS. STRIPED CUCUMBER BEETLE. (Diabrotica vittata Fab.) Squashes, melons and cucumbers are grown to a considerable ex- tent in all sections of the State, especially on Long Island and in the vicinity of New York City where they form very important crops. + Rpt. 132711 (1804). * Bul. 87 and Ann. Rpt. 14:605-617 (1895). [238] New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 239 The insect enemies® of these crops are numerous and destructive, and growers have been seriously embarrassed by them. Of these pests the striped cucumber beetle is one of the best known and is much dreaded because of its destructiveness. In Long Island, where cucumbers are planted on a large scale for pickles, the ravages of this insect cause heavy losses every year and the insect is generally regarded as a serious handicap to successful pickle growing. In 1897 and 1808, extensive observations* were made on the life history of the beetle and some exhaustive tests were undertaken to deter- mine the value of the remedies that were commonly employed, and, if possible, to develop more efficient methods of control. It was found that the young striped beetles feed during late sum- mer and fall upon the fruits of the cucurbits, especially damaging musk melons; upon late planted beans, eating both vines and young pods; and upon the flowers of golden rod and aster. They do not mate during the fall, as shown by careful dissections. Most of them pass the winter in little cells which they have burrowed out in the soil below the frost line, while some possibly hide in sheltered posi- tions, where they feel the heat of the spring quicker and make their appearance early in mid-spring. The beetles do not appear in in- jurious numbers until late in May or early in June. The beetles feed voraciously for five or ten days before com- mencing to pair. As they show so little discrimination at this period in their eating, it was found that they are more readily poisoned now than later, when they become more fastidious in their tastes. At all times they show a preference for squash, which habit fur- nished a suggestion for the better protection of cucumbers and melons. It was also noticed that egg laying begins about July 20 and lasts one month. The eggs are deposited with little care about the hairs of the leaves, at the growing tips of the vines and on the ground under the leaves or runners. The eggs are light yellow in color, oval in shape, and are but little larger than a pin point. It was found that the larvae live in the moist earth and in the stems, feeding upon the tissues of the latter, and upon the vines and fruits when they rest in the soil. These larvae require about a month to feed and to develop. They then form little cells below the surface of the ground and emerge as adults in from one to two * Bul. 75; same in Rpt. 13:713-728 (1804). “Bul. 158; same in Rpt. 18:251-288 (1899). 240 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT.” ; weeks. The new brood begins to appear on Long Island about Sep- tember 10. There is one brood a year, the old hibernating beetles surviving until some of their progeny have matured. The beetles are present from mid-spring till fall, when the frosts compel them to go into hiding, ~~ In the field work, tests were made of paris green, laurel green, green arsenite and lead arsenate. These were applied dry, in water, in bordeaux mixture, in resin-lime mixture, alone, and in various combinations. Green arsenite dusted over the plants gave the best results. It was found a waste of the poisons to apply them in bordeaux mixture as the blue vitriol in the spray so repelled the beetles that they would not eat the sprayed vines and thus they escaped poisoning. These poisons in water alone are liable to burn or stunt the plants. To poison the beetles it was found necessary to grow trap crops to attract the insects, and to apply the poison to this crop rather than to the vines it is intended to protect. As the squash is the beetle’s favorite food plant it was recommended that this vegetable be planted in single rows around the margins of small patches, and in several rows around large fields, about four days before the cucumber or melon seeds are sown. When the trap crops are up and the beetles appear about them it was advised that about one-half of the plants be dusted with an arsenical poison, preferably green arsenite, reserving the remainder of the plants for similar treatment if rains or dews make the poison soluble, killing the vines first treated. When the cucumbers and melons are up, unless they are protected by covers, spraying with bordeaux, and applications of poison to the squashes were recommended. When the beetles commence to pair, the squashes may be largely destroyed, leaving only a few vines for the beetles to feed upon at flowering time as they prefer the squash flowers. It is believed that beans may be used with some success as a fall catch crop where wild flowers are not too plentiful. They should be planted on the cucumber or melon fields, and when the beetles leave the old vines to feed upon the tender beans the plants should be dusted with poison. SOUASH BUG. (Anasa tristis Deg.) This is an old and well known pest to growers of squashes and cucumbers. For years it was unusually destructive, causing severe losses on Long Island, especially about Jamaica when squash New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 241 was one of the main crops. It also attacks melons and pumpkins. In the work® by this Station on this species, tests were made of kerosene emulsion, carbon bisulphide, pyrethrum and other insect powders to determine their values for the treatment of this insect. Kerosene emulsion diluted with four parts of water killed the old bugs but was not regarded as a practical remedy except in severe ‘cases as the emulsion at this strength would endanger the plant. The emulsion diluted with nine parts of water was considered en- tirely effective and was advised for the treatment of the young bugs. Carbon bisulphide under light covering completely destroyed the adults, and the young bugs, less than half grown, proved much more susceptible, with less time exposure and smaller quantities of the liquid. Pyrethrum and other insect powders failed entirely to affect the bugs. The measures calculated to avoid injuries by this insect are the burning of rubbish and all crop remnants, and fall plowing. The first bugs to appear in the spring should be caught and destroyed. Bits of boards, chips, squash leaves, etc., placed underneath the vines make good traps, from which the insects may be collected and destroyed. Young vines should be carefully exam- . ined for eggs which should be burned. Upon the appearance of young bugs the plants should be sprayed with kerosene emulsion di- luted with nine parts of water. SQUASH VINE BORER. (Melittia satyriniformis Hubner.) This is a well known pest in this State and has been exceedingly destructive, especially on Long Island. It was estimated* in 1894 that from one-third to one-half of the vines grown in the vicinity of Jamaica and Brooklyn were more or less affected and that nearly if not quite 50 per ct. of the crop of late squashes was destroyed by this pest. The borer seems to prefer the Hubbard and the Marrow- fat varieties. Cucumbers, melons and pumpkins are also liable to attack. The work of destruction is accomplished by the larva which is a fat white grub of about an inch long. The adult moth appears shortly after July and remains for some time, continuing to lay eggs on almost any part of the vine, specimens having been found as late as September r. It was found that the eggs hatch in about ten or fifteen days and the larvae immediately burrow into the stem or roots. In four weeks the larvae are full grown, and during * Bul. 75; same in Rpt. 13:713-728 (1894). 242 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. the latter part of July or first of August, they leave the plants to burrow into the soil where they spin their cocoons. The larvae remain over winter and do not change to pupe until a short time be- fore emerging in the spring. In the experiments on this pest to determine methods of control, insecticides proved of little value and were abandoned as useless. It was found that in small patches, cut- ting the borers out as soon as the vines show signs of injury is a- practical and thorough remedy. If the wounded part of the vine is immediately covered with earth, no injury attends the operation. Covering the base of the vine as far as the third or fourth joint and capturing the sluggish moths late in the evening and early in the morning’ are commendable practices. Many farmers delay planting their late squashes as long as possible without endangering the crop and fertilize heavily to stimulate a vigorous growth of the vines. For extensive planting it was ascertained that frequent shallow cultivation in the fall, followed with deep plowing in the spring, are practices which are calculated to reduce the numbers of the moth and permit the growing of squashes with but a small part _of the losses that formerly attended the growing of the crop. BOREAL LADY-BIRD BEETLE. (Epilachna borealis Fab.) In Bulletin 75, attention was called to the appearance of this species in great numbers on Long Island in 1893. They were espe- cially numerous in the vicinity of Glen Cove but were more or less abundant on the western part of the island. This insect belongs to a family of beetles which fed, both in larval and adult stages, on animal food, as plant lice and eggs of other insects. This particular species has taken to vegetable food, and preys upon some of our most important crops. At Glen Cove the beetle did considerable - damage to squash and pumpkin vines. Treatment of the vine with an arsenical proved an efficient remedy. MELON LOUSE. (Aphis gossypii Glov.) This species is discussed in Bulletin 75 as a pest on the under- side of the leaves and also upon the roots of muskmelons, cuctum- bers, squashes and other cucurbitaceous plants, which causes the leaves to curl and to shrivel, and stunts the growth of the plant. At the time that the observations and experiments were being made on New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 243 the insects of cucurbits this species was of minor importance. It occurred in spots in the fields and was usually combated by the uprooting and destruction of affected plants at the first appearance of infestation. IMPORTED CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. (Pontia rapae L.) This is the best known cabbage insect and during certain seasons is one of the most destructive pests with which our market garden- ers have to contend. As early as 1870 it was estimated by a corre- spondent of the American Agriculturist that the worm damaged the cabbage crop to the value of a million dollars in the vicinity of New York city alone, and in 1894, when the Station undertook special investigations’ of the cabbage industry, it was thought that the losses sustained by truckers on Long Island by this one insect would at least approximate or exceed this sum. In sections of the country where only one crop of cabbage is raised in a year, the cabbage worm is not usually considered a serious pest, but in localities where two or three crops are grown every year, as is the case on Long Island, this insect is a formidable obstacle to the successful culture of this crop. Aside from its prolificness another reason for the growing im- portance of this insect was the lack of intelligent effort in the use of efficient insecticides. Numerous remedies, like lime, salt and de- coctions of weeds, etc., were commonly used, all of which possess little or no value. Many gardeners were, in place of recognized remedies, employing proprietary insecticides which were often un- reliable and injurious to the plant. The more successful truckers used paris green and london purple in powder form, and while these poisons could be depended on to kill the caterpillars, injuries often resulted to the foliage from such use. In the study of the insects of the cabbage, it was the endeavor of the Station to ascertain more efficient and safer methods of control. After conducting several tests with paris green and london purple with various diluents, as water, flour, and road dust, which were usually employed for this purpose, it was demonstrated that the use of arsenicals in liquids was much more effective in controlling the caterpillars ; and that there was less likelihood of injuries attending the applications. It was also shown that neither flour nor road dust will prevent free arsenic in paris green or london purple from going *Buls. 83 and 144; same in Rpts. 13:737-766 (1894) and 17:389-413 (1808). 244 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. into solution if applied while the dew is present; and if distributed when the plants are dry, the powder adheres only to the upper sur- face of the leaves. On the basis of these results, one pound of paris green to one hundred and sixty gallons of water, with enough lime to neutralize any soluble arsenic present, was recommended as the spray best adapted for the treatment of the cabbage leaf-eating insects. Attention was also called to the new arsenical, gypsine, now known as arsenate of lead, which by reason of its safe and adhering qualities appeared to be a promising poison for spraying cabbages. Subsequent experiments have shown that arsenate of lead is the most efficient poison for the treatment of plants with smooth foliage, such as cabbage, because of its superior adhesiveness. With the appearance of the cabbage looper (Autographa brassi- cae) and its growing importance as a cabbage pest, efforts were then directed to compounding a soap® to make arsenicals more adhesive to cabbage foliage. The necessity for this addition to the usual spray was that the caterpillars of this species work largely on the undersides of the leaves, where they may remain unnoticed until much damage has been done, and where only very thorough appli- cations of remedies will affect them. They are also active in movements and discriminating in taste so that they quickly abandon feeding places which show traces of poison or other foreign -sub- stance. To obtain successful results it was found that the applica- tions of the poison must be made thoroughly so that every portion of the surface of the leaves is protected. After repeated tests, an excellent material for securing uniform distribution and perfect adhesion was found in a resin-lime mixture. In preparing this mixture it is necessary to make, by slow boiling, a stock solution of five pounds resin, one pound concentrated lye and one pint of fish oil. For use, one gallon of this stock material was mixed with three gallons milk of lime, one-fourth pound paris ereen and sixteen gallons of water. The resin-lime mixture received its first test upon cabbages in 1896. The results were an entire success and protection was afforded to the plants to the end of the season, notwithstanding heavy rains. In this experiment, comparative tests were made of the paris green and resin mixture in comparison with bordeaux mixture and paris green, and paris green mixed with flour. It was estimated by the owner that the plats treated with the poisoned ® Buls. 83 and 144; same in Rpts. 13:737-766 (1894) and 17:380-413 (1808). ‘AAMOTITAVD SLOALOYG HSVAA AWIT-NISIY —][X IVIg ‘poAdeids ‘podeidsuys New YorkK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 245 resin mixture yielded 100 per ct. better than the untreated plats and at least 60 per ct. better than those dusted with paris green and flour. The bordeaux mixture even when united with paris green, and the paris green and flour were of little advantage against the loopers, though quite effective against the common cabbage worm. To make two applications upon ten acres of late cabbage after the plants are two-thirds grown would require materials worth $5.00, time in preparing stock solution 75 cents and 10 days’ labor which at $1.50 a day would be $15.00, a total of $20.75 or about $2.00 per acre for treatment, which will insure almost perfect freedom from injury by the worms. CABBAGE LOOPER. (Autographa brassicae Riley.) This is a native moth® and its injuries on late cabbage are fre- quently confused with the work of the common cabbage worm. It undoubtedly does more damage to late cabbage and lettuce on Long Island than the latter species, as in this locality it is not checked by parasites. The larva is especially destructive to lettuce when it is transplanted from cold frames or open beds to the forcing house. The caterpillar is not provided with prolegs on the sixth and seventh segments like most Noctuids, so in traveling over the surface of the leaf they loop the body like the ‘“ Measuring Worms” or “ Geometers.” From this habit they are often called “Cabbage Loopers”’ in distinction to the common cabbage worm. Protection from this pest is afforded by the use of the remedies employed for the preceding species. DIAMOND-BACK MOTH. (Plutella maculipennis Curtis.) In some plantations this insect® occurs in numbers sufficient to do a great deal of damage to rape and turnips. It is also known to feed on cabbage, cauliflower and Brussels sprouts. The cabbages are injured principally in the early part of the season. Thorough treatment of cabbage as previously described will control this species. CABBAGE APHIS. (Aphis brassicae L.) ec 5] The cabbage aphis® or “ greenfly,” as it popularly is designated, is a serious pest of the cabbage, and in some seasons it is responsible * Bul. 83; same in Rpt. 13:737-766 (1894). 246 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. for as much or more damage than the cabbage caterpillars. It injures the cabbage in the seed bed as well as in the field, and causes a large amount of damage to seed cabbage by injuring the seed stalk, so that in some localities no seed is produced. The aphis survives the winter on cabbage stored in cellars and pits, and also on plants stored in pits for seed purposes, which facili- tates an early attack on the seed stalks in the spring. To free cabbages of the broods that survive the winter, the use of carbon bisulphide was recommended, and tests were made in 1894 to test the value of this treatment. With the completion of the tests it was recommended that seeds- men who raise cabbage seed should open the pits a few days before the time to set the cabbage in the fields and fumigate the plants with carbon bisulphide, using one teaspoonful for each cubic foot of space. After the distribution of the liquid the pit should be closed and not opened again for at least two days. For the treat-_ ment of infested cabbages in the field, kerosene emulsion diluted with ten parts of water proved the most efficient remedy. EERIE S: (Thrips tabaci Lind.) This insect ordinarily causes no marked damage but in some seasons its injurious work is sufficient to cause the outer leaves of the second crop of cabbage to die. Mention® was made of this species as a matter of record. The thrips is controlled by the same remedies that are employed for the cabbage aphis. HARLEQUIN CABBAGE BUG AND OTHER CABBAGE INSECTS. (Murgantia histrionica Hahn,) In Bulletin 83, on the cabbage insects, attention is directed to the appearance of this southern cabbage pest on Long Island where it was found feeding on radishes, near Jamaica, L. I. Other in- sects of lesser importance discussed in this bulletin are the zebra- caterpillar (Mamestra picta Harr.), the cross-striped cabbage worm (Evergestis rimosalis Guen.), the southern cabbage butterfly (Pontia protodice Bd.), and the stalk borer (Papaipema nitela Guen.). | et A li beet bo tt ee ie el 7 -_ = wey aa ee SL "—_— =e —_ New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 247 SLUDIES’ON FRUIT INSECTS: CODLING MOTH (Cydia pomonella Linn.) An important advance in the methols of controlling leaf-eating insects was made when it was demonstrated that the potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say.) could be efficiently combated by the use of paris green. The success attending the employment of an arsenical in the destruction of this pest naturally suggested its application to other plants that suffered from insects with similar habits. Among the insects that were thought to be amenable to treatment with paris green was the codling moth, a very destructive pest of the apple crop. As it was desirable to ascertain the merits of an arsenical treatment for this insect, an experiment was con- ducted by this Station in 1885, to ascertain to what extent the losses usually sustained by the codling moth could be avoided. For the test nine Fall Pippins and two Rhode Island Greenings were sprayed, the number of trees having of necessity to be limited, as the spraying machinery in vogue was rather crude and not adapted for large orchard operations. The paris green was used at the rate of a teaspoonful to ten gallons of water, and the appli- cations were made on June 3, 5 and 17, the young apples during the first treatment, as described, being the size of cranberries. Al- ternate trees were left unsprayed for comparison. As the apples began to drop in August, the windfalls were col- lected and examined, under the sprayed trees, and those not sprayed ; and the number of sound and wormy fruits counted. On October 5 and 6, the remaining fruit was picked, assorted and counted in the same manner. The results of the examination showed that there was an average of 13 per ct. of wormy apples from the sprayed trees while the untreated trees had an average of 35 per ct. of wormy apples. The percentage of wormy apples from the trees sprayed with paris green was about 22 per ct. less than those not sprayed. The details of this test were published in the Annual Report of this Station’ for that year, which was the first publica- tion by an official experiment station of results from the use of paris green for the control of the codling moth. The utility of arsenical poisons for this pest has been firmly established, and spray- ing with arsenicals for the codling moth is now a recognized prac- tice among our most successful fruit growers. * Rpt. 4:246-248 (1885). 248 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. SAN JOSE SCALE. -_ (Aspidiotus perniciosus Comstock.) In 1894, the San José scale was discovered for the first time on Long Island’ and efforts were immediately directed to discover means of controlling this pest in several nurseries, in which it was found, and which, aside from a few private yards and or- chards, were the leading centres of infestation. At this time there was no question but that this species was already distributed in many parts of the State where its presence was unsuspected. As this pest, from its ravages in California, was known to constitute one of the most difficult problems with which fruit growers and nurserymen have to contend, the Station directed special efforts to ascertain other localities where it was present, attention being largely given to nurseriegy and to orchards of recent planting. It was hoped by this means to retard the spread of the species in the com- munities in which it was found and to prevent, as methods of con- trol were developed, its further dissemination through infested nursery stock. The studies that were undertaken on this subject may be grouped under the headings: (1) The San José scale in nurseries, and (2) the San José scale in orchards. San José scale im nurseries — As fumigation for the treatment of scale insect on citrus trees had proven the most efficient means of destroying the scale in California, experiments? were commenced by this Station in 1895 to determine the limits of effectiveness and safe use of hydrocyanic gas upon nursery trees. In the preliminary tests!” upon dormant nursery stock, fumigation, using the standard amount of potassium cyanide, proved entirely destructive to the scale and safe to the plants; and it was then concluded that this was the cheapest and most reliable treatment for nurserymen who handle and ship fruit trees in large quantities. Besides treating importations and spraying doubtful stock in the field, an additional safeguard in the nursery to prevent the dissemination of the scale on the premises is an_ efficient treatment of bud sticks, scions, etc., especially if such are taken from infested plantations. As fumigation was proving well adapted to dormant trees, it was desirable to also extend its use * Bul. 87 Rpt. 14:350 (1805); Insect Life, 7:284; N. Y. State Mus. Rpt. 3: No. 13 (1895). °U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 1887; Insect Life, 3:457 (1890). ® Rpt. 14:6090-613 (1895): Bul. 136 and Rpt. 16:467, 468 (18907). _ Piate XII— Some CHARACTERISTIC VIEWS OF SAN JOSE SCALE. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 249 in other nursery operations; and to that end, extensive experi- ments!! were made to determine the effects of the gas on buds. The results of these tests showed that this treatment was safe and its use was advised. To assist nurserymen in the identification of the various insects upon their stock and to direct them in the methods of fumigation, Bulletins 136 and 174 were published. These contain simple descriptions of the more common destructive species of insects and explain clearly the methods of treating dor- mant nursery stock, with suggestions as to the location and con- struction of fumigating houses or chambers. San José scale in orchards — fumigation of bearing trees— One of the first problems arising from its discovery in this State was to exterminate the San José scale in the more recent plantings of young orchards, where it was introduced on the nursery trees. If treatment was made in time, it was thought in many instances feasible and well worth the effort to attempt its eradication in order to present its spread in a community in which it was just dis- covered. As hydrocyanic gas seemed then to be the most practical treatment for this pest, tests!’ were made to determine its utility for orchard use. Fumigation in every instance proved safe to dormant trees and trees in foliage. The interesting observation was also made that while .3 of a gram of potassium cyanide per cubic foot was necessary to kill all of the scales by winter treat- ment, only .18 of a gram was required to kill every scale when the fumigation was made in early summer. The sheet tents that were commonly employed in orchard fumi- gation proved, unless carefully handled, to be destructive to branches because of their weight and the interference by the limbs in ad- justing them to their proper position. Moreover, variations in the sizes of the trees made it necessary to estimate the fumigation dosage at each change which could not be as accurately determined as was desirable, owing to the changing shape of the tent, which varied with each tree. To simplify the problem of fumigating small trees, considerable attention was directed to the problem of con- structing a practical fumigation box for such work. In the course of the experiments, a box fumigator!® was designed which is inex- pensive and light in weight, and can readily be manipulated by two men. This style of fumigator possesses several advantages ™ Bul. 202; same in Rpt. 20:247-291 (1901). * Bul. 181; same in Rpt. 19:287-291 (1900). 250 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. over the sheet tents in that the cubic contents can be accurately computed once for all, thus avoiding the necessity of changing the amounts of the chemicals for each tree and thereby insuring correct treatment with the gas. Moreover the box fumigator does not rest on the trees and is not so apt to break the branches or brush off the buds or fruits. In the field tests with the box fumigators the Sta- tion concluded that the use of hydrocyanic acid gas in orchards in this State is only feasible on a few comparatively small trees which can be pruned back to 12 feet in height and 8 feet in diameter before adjusting the fumigator, and was impracticable for general orchard treatment. Experiments with kerosene.—With the entrance of this pest into the older orchards of New York, kerosene oil, pure or diluted to various strengths, was freely advocated for the treatment of the San José scale. As injuries had attended applications of the oil by fruit growers, it could not be recommended without knowing more definitely both the highest strength which could be used with- out injury to trees of different kinds and the lowest strength which would kill the scale under different conditions. Experiments! were conducted to determine the range of this oil for spraying purposes, and it was concluded that careful spraying of apples and pears at a strength of 40 per ct. in the spring as buds were swelling, was an efficient treatment for the San José scale. For spraying peaches and plums, oil treatment was considered inadvisable as they are very susceptible to injury. For these kinds of fruits, the safer sprays were recommended. Experiments with crude petroleum.— Following the demonstra- tion that kerosene oil under certain conditions could be used for the treatment of fruit trees, attention’t was then given to crude petroleum. Much interest had been aroused among orchardists as to the probable utility of this oil for this purpose because of some experiments conducted in other States south of New York, which showed that applications of undiluted crude petroleum, testing about 45° Beaumé oil test, did not injure ordinary fruit trees when sprayed upon them, while an emulsion containing as little as 20 per ct. of oil seemed effective in destroying the scales. These effects upon the trees by the crude petroleum were contradictory to some *Buls. 194 and 213; same in Rpts. 19:317-331 (1900) and 21:258-280 (1902). 4 Buls. 202 and 213; same in Rpts. 20:247-291 (1901) and 21:258-280 (1902). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 251 results that were obtained in the eastern part of the State where applications of undiluted oil seriously injured many of the sprayed trees. In 1901 the Station carried on two extensive series of tests which seemed to show that 4o per ct. of crude oil could be used with safety upon apple, cherry, and pear trees. In the treatment of plums, caution was advised in its use;—to apply the minimum quantity necessary to cover the trees. Oil treatment of peaches was regarded as a dangerous practice as the applications are liable to kill the trees at any strength that will destroy the scale. Experiments with the lime-sulphur wash. With the establish- ment of the San José scale in many orchards, there was a demand on the part of our fruit growers for a cheap, safe and efficient spraying mixture. Whale oil soap, once the recognized remedy, was not satisfactory because of its cost and variable composition.. There was also dissatisfaction with kerosene and crude petroleum. While they are the most available and effective sprays, they were not answering the purposes of average fruit growers, because of the difficulty of making thorough applications without causing in- juries to the trees, such as are liable to occur from a too free use of these oils: In 1902 it was proposed to introduce the lime-sulphur wash, which was thoroughly tested in a series of experiments’ on Long Island, in the Hudson Valley and in western New York, to de- termine its value under our climatic conditions as a remedy for the scale. In California its utility for this purpose had been thoroughly established, but the advisability of using sulphur washes in this State was still a matter of doubt. It was thought that if rains should follow the applications, as is very apt to be the case during the spraying season, the treatment would prove only a partial success. In ‘the experiments that were conducted, frequent rains or snows invariably occurred during the spraying operations or immediately following the completion of the work, and yet withal the results on scale and trees were most satisfactory. Because of its safe and efficient qualities combined with its cheapness, the sulphur wash was regarded as the remedy best adapted to the needs of our fruit growers for the control of the scale and its use has been persistently advocated by the Station. It is now generally employed by orchardists in preference to the oil or soap mixtures. In many localities, while there is a full appreciation of its destructive capacity * Bul. 228; same in Rpt. 21:281-348 (1902). 252 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPorRT. and the danger of. neglecting to afford suitable protection to the trees, the San José scale is gradually losing many of the terrors which it formerly inspired; and annual spraying of peaches, plums, pears and apple trees of moderate size for this pest is now an established practice in the yearly routine work of the farm. In general, our fruit growers, by the faithful observance of the details required for the preparation and application of known remedies, experience now no especial difficulty in controlling the scale on small trees. The remaining phase of the scale problem that is - not yet satisfactorily solved from the average fruit grower’s stand- point is that of affording efficient protection to old apple orchards ; but experience, derived from our own experiments and observations of the efforts of commercial fruit growers, demonstrates with in- creasing emphasis each year that the control of the scale is practi- cable, and that with careful management, efficient protection can be afforded for about thirty to fifty cents a tree, which is a relatively nominal expense, compared with the productiveness of a well man- aged orchard. Sulphur washes as combined insecticides and fungicides.—— In the first experiments with these sprays, conducted in 1902, there were indications that the sulphur washes were effective against other pests of the orchard than the San José scale, especially as a fungicide for the peach leaf curl and the apple scab. In 1904 the combined properties of the wash was the subject of considerable inquiry,!® which showed conclusively the value of this treatment for the prevention of the scab on apple trees. As compared with the checks there was a difference of 22 per ct. less scabby fruit for the trees sprayed with the sulphur washes. These results in- dicated that in orchards sprayed with the lime sulphur wash for the San José scale, this treatment would take the place of the first application of the bordeaux mixture which is usually made for the prevention of apple scab. This substitution avoids the necessity of one extra spraying and has simplified the methods of orchard treatment, which the scale, upon its introduction, necessitated. Fall use of sulphur sprays—— With the complete infestation of large orchards much trouble’is usually experienced by fruit growers in spraying all of the trees satisfactorily during the dormant season in the spring. In the past, this work has usually been done at this season, but the area now to be sprayed by individual orchardists * Bul. 262; same in Rpt. 24:2907-324 (1905). Pirate XIII.— Lime-SutpHur WaAsH PREVENTS PEACH LEAF-CURL. Upper, unsprayed; lower, sprayed. th! ro} - ph : } Ae A) De : i U aly ‘avOG lddy NO HSVAA YAHAING sO Lady —~AIX WVId ‘yususJea4L ON — AIPUD Aqqers JON Aqqeos iON ; New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 253 is often so extensive that it is desirable to extend the period for these operations, and spray a portion of the orchards in the fall. In 1903-05, experiments? were undertaken to determine the e‘fects upon fruit trees and scale of such practice. The work that has been accomplished indicates that the sulphur washes applied in the fall may, under certain conditions, cause injuries, such as sometimes attend the excessive use of these sprays in the spring. Trees that are healthy and possess well ripened wood will usually escape harm, while trees injured by insects, fungi and unfavorable environment may sustain more or less injury, proportionate to their health and the severity of the winter. As plums and peaches are more sensitive to injury it is deemed advisable not to spray these fruits in the fall, but to limit the treatment as far as possible to the more hardy pears and apples. Miscible oils —In recent years attention has been directed to de- termine methods by which crude and refined oils could be treated to get a stable mixture with water. Several compounders of insecti- cides have interested themselves in this problem and have been successful in their efforts. This has led to the production of so-called water-soluble oils or miscible oils, which are now offered for sale on the market, under various proprietary names as Kil-o-Scale, Scale- cide, Water Soluble Petroleum, etc. The best of these preparations emulsify readily in water, and when diluted form uniform white or cream colored liquids, free from sediment or precipitates. The con- venience in the preparation of these sprays and their freedom from clogging precipitates have commended them to many fruit growers, especially those having a small acreage, who did not wish to go to the expense of erecting suitable outfits for cooking the sulphur wash, which is more commonly employed. During 1905-7, the Station conducted a number of experiments!’ with these mixtures to deter- mine their value for the treatment of the San José scale and their effects upon the trees. The miscible oils were used according to the manufacturers’ directions and stronger preparations were also em- ployed. In these tests applications of the miscible oil at the rate of one part of oil to twenty or twenty-five parts of water as recom- mended in the printed directions, did not give uniform results on the scale, and when applied during the growing season, caused much damage to the foliage. The stronger mixtures of these sprays were ™Buls. 247 and 273; same in Rpts. 23:187-205 (1904) and 24:325-344 (1905). * Bul. 281; same in Rpt. 25:289-298 (1906). 254 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. generally much more effective on the scale and when applied to dormant trees in the spring, proved entirely safe. because of the ease in which they may be prepared, they are very convenient sprays for the treatment of a few trees and small orchards and their use is largely advised for this purpose. With the establishment of the utility of these sprays for scale treatment, attention is now being given by the Station chemists to determine a formula by which fruit growers may prepare their own miscible oil at a much less cost than the commercial prepara- tions. Formulas for making home-made miscible oils are now known but their use is largely experimental, until the ability of the average orchardist to prepare them or have them properly com- pounded has been satisfactorily determined. py ee NEW YORK PLUM LECANIUM. (Eulecanium cerasifex Fitch.) The sudden appearance of this species as an important fruit pest in 1894 in overwhelming numbers in some of the large plum orchards in western New York, prompted some extensive expert- ments!® at Geneva and Hector to determine a practicable method of combating this insect. As kerosene emulsion was the most efficient spray for this purpose, tests were planned to determine its relative merits when applied during the winter, in the spring, and later upon newly hatched scales. The results of the experiments showed, all things considered, that the best time to spray is during the winter, and that kerosene emulsion, diluted with four to six parts of water, can be depended upon to kill the hibernating scales. PISTOL CASE-BEARER. (Coleophora malivorella Riley.) In 1896 this species appeared in unusual numbers in the western part of New York where it was causing serious damage to apple orchards. It was thought by some fruit growers to be a new pest of the apple, but examination?® proved the insect to have been a well known species, which, however, had not caused sufficient dam- age, except in certain localities, to occasion more than a passing * Bul. 136; same in Rpt. 16:437-469 (1807). *?Buls. 122 and 136; same in.Rpts. 15:545-557 (1896) and 16:437-430 (1897). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 255 notice. Observations and experiments wére made to ascertain the life history of the insect and to determine practicable methods of pre- venting important injuries. With a knowledge of its habits, it was reasoned that the insect could be controlled by spraying with an arsenical poison, provided the treatment was applied at the proper time, which should be when the buds are swelling and again as the leaves are making their appearance. With this in mind experiments were undertaken with paris green; and from the first the effect of the treatment was plainly apparent. From these tests it was concluded that the pistol case-bearer can be controlled by thorough applications of an arsenical poison, the treat- ments being made as the leaf buds begin to swell and when the leaves are unfolding. As bordeaux mixture was coming into general use for orchard treatment, especially for the apple scab, it was con- sidered advisable to employ this spray as a carrier of the arsenical, as neither interferes with the beneficial action of the other. Some tests were also made with kerosene emulsion, at a strength of one part of the emulsion to ten parts of water. Although the trees under treatment were badly infested with both the pistol case- bearer and a closely allied species, the emulsion seemed to have no effects on either insect. It was thought that a preparation con- taining larger percentages of oil would have penetrated the cases, but under the circumstances to use this was considered inadvisable because of the risks of injury to the tender foliage and flower buds. PLANT LICE. (A phididae.) In response to the demand for information concerning the nature and habits of these insects, together with the best known methods of combating them, a bulletin?! was prepared and distributed in 1897. These lice are among the most important of the injurious insects. They infest all kinds of fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants. Although present every year, some seasons are more favor- able for their development than others. This season had been one of this kind and various species had caused serious injury to orchard and bush fruits. Experiments with whale oil soap in plum orchards and currant plantations had demonstrated the efficiency of this spraying mixture for plant lice, and were the basis for detailed directions in combating these well known pests. * Bul. 139; same in Rpt. 16:470-488 (1897). 256 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. SPRING CANKER WORM. (Paleacrita vernata Peck.) The work** by the Station on this species was largely in the nature of an experiment, to demonstrate the efficiency of paris green and other arsenicals as a means of controlling cankerworms, and to stimulate fruit growers generally to rely more extensively on these poisons for the protection of their trees. Two methods were em- ployed by fruit growers in combating this insect: (1) Trapping the wingless females as they ascend the trunks of the trees to lay their eggs; and (2) poisoning the larvae by means of arsenical sprays. The former method, though quite successful, could not be depended on to rid an orchard of this pest. The experiments were conducted in 1897 and 1898 at Rushville, and tests were made of paris green in comparison with green arsenite and arsenite of lime, which were newer poisons. ‘The results of these experiments, lasting two years, showed conclusively that the three poisons, each applied three times in May or early June, were equal in efficiency and were almost per- fect preventives of damages by cankerworms. GRAPE FLEA BEETLE. (Haltica chalybea Ill.) The attention of the Station is frequently called to the work of this insect in the vineyards along the lakes of Keuka, Canandaigua, Ontario and Erie. The beetle derives its importance from its at- tacks on the buds. During years of unusual numbers of the in- sects, vineyards are often stripped of their foliage, with the result that no grapes are produced and the vines are much weakened. Observations** about Keuka Lake in 1897 and 1898 showed that one of the principal causes of the destructiveness of this insect in this region were the neglected vineyards, which serve as breeding places for large numbers of beetles, which swarm over to adjacent plantings. Vineyardists who are in the habit of carefully spraying their vines often have much of their good work undone by the close proximity of less progressive neighbors. To prevent losses by this insect the use of arsenical poisons for the treatment of buds and leaves was advised, and grape growers were urged to encourage “ Buls. 152 and 170; same in Rpts. 17:359-363 (1898) and 18:398-465 (1899). * Bul. 150; same. in Rpt. 17:345-388 (1898). 3 3 ; es New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 257 the more extensive adoption of spraying methods in their respective communities as the means best calculated to reduce the importance of this insect. APPLE-TREE TENT-CATERPILLAR. (Malacosoma americana Fab.) This insect, although very easy to control, was probably never more abundant throughout the State than during the summers of 1897 and 1898. ‘The unsightly nests of the caterpillars were very conspicuous along the roadsides of otherwise well kept farms, and comparatively few apple orchards escaped injury. With the appear- ance of so many caterpillars on the trees, there was an unusually ‘favorable opportunity to ascertain the value of arsenical poisons as a means of protection, which demanded further experimentation. In 1897, tests’ were made of green arsenite, paris green and arsen- “ite of lime, and it was concluded that standard arsenicals are efficient remedies if applied early enough, the first application being made before the caterpillars are half grown. The results of these experiments were given in Bulletin No. 152, which also contained a complete account of the insect and called attention to various remedial and preventive measures, which should be employed to afford protection to orchards. In those communities suffering from the orchard tent-caterpillars, where spraying has not been practiced, the Station, through its bulletins and at farmers’ meetings, has persistently advocated the spraying of fruit trees with the bordeaux mixture containing an arsenical poison, as a means of not only controlling the codling moth and the apple scab, but many insects of minor importance as the tent-caterpillars and case-bearers. Ex- perience has shown that the systematic spraying of fruit trees af- fords complete protection against many of the insect pests which are so frequently destructive to neglected orchards. FOREST TENT-CATERPILLAR. (Malacosoma disstria Hubn.) In the summer of 1899 and 1900 a serious outbreak of the forest tent-caterpillar occurred in central, western and eastern New York. It was not a new insect, but there were no records that it had ever before occurred in such great numbers over so wide an area. The caterpillars were of economic importance over almost the entire State, but in certain communities they were unusually destructive. 9 258 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. This insect feeds on a wide range of plants and is a pest of fruit, shade and forest trees. Its control in woodlands especially is a seri- ous problem. The extensive destruction caused by it created a gen- eral interest in this insect. As the species had been under observa- tion for two seasons, bulletins** were prepared with the view of aid- ing in disseminating the desired information. RASPBERRY SAWFLY. (Monophadnoides rubi Harr.) This is one of the important pests of the raspberry, blackberry and dewberry in both nurseries and plantations. In some sections of the State it is at times one of the most troublesome insects with which the grower has to contend. Few if any of the numerous species of insects known to attack these important crops are capable of doing more serious injury in a single season. Studies®® on the life history of this species showed that the time of the appearance of adults varies with the season, ranging from about May 10 to May 25. Egg laying commences with the appear- ance of the adults, and incubation lasts for seven to ten days. The larvae feed for ten or more days, devouring oblong or irregular holes in the leaf and finally consuming all of the leaf with the exception of the main rib and larger veins. Some interesting ob- servations were made on the habits of the larvae which showed that some, on leaving the plant, may enter the ground close to the roots, while large numbers may wander two or three feet from the base of the bushes before going into the ground. Also later in the season more of the cocoons were found about two feet from the bushes than close to the base. The cocoons are formed from two to three inches below the surface of the ground. This cocooning habit suggested the value of frequent shallow cultivation as a means for the destruction of the insect. Aside from the investigations on the life history of the sawfly, experiments were conducted to determine the most efficient methods of combating the insect, which are jarring or brushing from the bushes, fall cultivating and application of an insecticide, either dry or as a spray. Both arsenical poisons and hellebore proved effi- cacious, but preference is given to the latter because of the preju- *Buls. 152, 159 and 180; same in Rpts. 17:364-388 (1808) ; 18:289-317 (1899) and 19:263-286 (1900). 7° Bul. 150; same in Rpt. 17:345-388 (1808). ves te oD — ee re New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 259 dice against the use of arsenicals on rapidly developing small fruits and because hellebore does not disfigure either fruit or leaves. It was concluded in these experiments, that, although the sawfly is capable of doing serious injury, often ruining the entire crop of fruit, it is not a difficult pest to combat. Special emphasis is laid on the importance of recognizing the presence of the eggs or the young larvae when they first appear, so that the necessary steps can be taken to check the insect by spraying before serious injuries are done. APPLE AND PEAR MITES. (Eriophyes spp.) Attention was directed to this group of mites because of the abundance of one species on apple foliage in 1902 at Williamson, where its conspicuous ravages attracted much attention. In suc- ceeding years the mite has increased in importance and marked in- festations of many apple orchards in Wayne, Ontario, Monroe, Niagara, Livingston, Wyoming, Seneca and Yates counties have been noted. It is now a common pest in the important apple-grow- ing sections of western New York, where during 1906 it was especially prominent and very destructive. A somewhat similar trouble upon pears, produced by the leaf blister mite (Eriophyes pyri (Pgst.) Nal.) has been known for many years and has been given widespread mention in literature, but there has been some doubt as to the identification of the species thriving on the apple foliage. One of the first objects of this inves- tigation®® was to establish the identity of the apple mite, which was subsequently shown to be the same species that thrives on the pear. The work of the mite upon the apple and the pear shows differences, which would at first suggest that the causal agent of the diseased foliage was not the same for each fruit. Upon the pear the work of the mite first appears as minute greenish pimples, with a more or less reddish tinge. With increase in size the affected spots become reddish and later with the drying up of the diseased tissue turn to a dark brown or black. The galls are usually ar- ranged in a row on each side of the main rib. The early attacks of the mite on apple are indicated by distinct light colored pimples which later develop to corky spots of a reddish brown color. The galls are of irregular size and are unevenly distributed, though the * Bul. 283; same in Rpt. 24:297-334 (1906). 260 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. larger proportion of them are about the sides and the base of the leaf. The mite that is responsible for these injuries is a small vermiform, four-legged animal, about one one-hundred-and-twenty- fifth of an inch in length and hardly visible to the unaided eye. The more common food plants are.the pear and the apple. Dr. Nalepa has also recorded this species on the foliage of the service- berry (Amelanchier vulgaris Monch), the common cotoneaster (Cotoneaster vulgaris Lindl.), the white beam tree (Sorbus aria Crantz), the European mountain ash (Sorbus aucupfaria L.), and the white service tree (Sorbus torminalis Crantz). While the leaf blister mite (Eriophyes pyri (Pgst.) Nal.) is the most abundant and is responsible for the conspicuous injuries to apple foliage, four other species of mites were found which are of interest as a matter of record. These are Eriophyes malifoliae Parr., Eriophyes pyri var. variolata Nal., Phyllocoptes schlechten- dali Nal., and Epitrimerus pyri Nal. With the exception of the former, which is new, these species were first recorded from Europe. The two latter species have been quite numerous and appear to be more common here than on the Continent. In the study of the life history of the leaf blister mite it was found that the winter is spent in the buds, preferably under the second and third layers of bud scales. Upon the approach of warm weather, the mites become active and with the maturing of the buds they seek the epidermis of the undersides of the tender leaves, into which they burrow. The irritation produced by these opera- tions in the cellular tissues gives rise to a thickening of the leaf which is known as a gall or blister. Within these galls eggs are deposited and the young find subsistence. During October the mites largely abandon the leaves and swell the numbers already in hiding in the buds and in the pubescence of the bark of the new wood. Hibernation occurs under the bud scales. In the experiments to determine methods by which the mite could be controlled on apple trees, tests were made with kerosene oil, miscible oil, kerosene emulsion, whale oil soap and the sulphur washes; and of these sprays, kerosene either clear or emulsified, miscible oil and the lime sulphur wash proved the mose efficient remedies for the mite. On account of its safe qualities and chéap- ness the lime sulphur wash applied during the dormant season, is the most practical remedy for the spraying of apple orchards, when treatment is advisable. The mite may be efficiently controlled upon New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 261 pear trees by careful pruning and by spraying during the late fall or early spring with kerosene emulsion, miscible oils or the sulphur washes. | MISCELLANEOUS FRUIT INSECTS. Two bulletins have been issued by the Station which contain mis- cellaneous notes on various insects. These deal with subjects that were of too little importance at the time to be the objects of ex- tended investigation, but were of too much interest to be laid aside; or with topics upon which immediate information was desired. The first species discussed in the first bulletin?’ is the fruit bark- beetle (Scolytus rugulosus Ratz.). This is a common pest of stone fruits, especially peaches and plums, and was very destructive in 1900, throughout the State. Observations were made on the insect and have been continued to the present as the basis for a more complete treatise. During the same year observations were made on a mealy bug (Dactylopius sp.) attacking quince trees in the vicinity of Geneva. Interest was aroused in this occurrence of this insect as it belongs to a genus of scales, of which, in this ‘latitude, there had been no species represented which could be classed as a fruit pest. The quince trees were literally alive with the mealy bugs and there were indications that a new pest of this fruit was in the making. Studies were made of the various stages of the insect and attention was called to methods of treatment by which protection could be afforded the trees. Mention is also made of two apple leaf-miners (Tischeria malifoliela Clemons and Ornix prunivorella Cham.) which during the same summer caused some little apprehension on the part of fruit growers in the western part of the State. As a matter of record, mention was made of injury to peaches at Rochester by the tarnished plant-bug (Lygus pra- tensis L.). During the spring of 1900 some observations** were made of the palmer worm (Ypsolopus pometellus Harr.) which overran many apple orchards in western New York. It was most abundant in Erie, Niagara, Orleans, Genesee, Monroe, Ontario, Wayne and Cayuga counties. The records of the insect show that it appears in large numbers only after long periods of years and usually its dis- appearance is as sudden as its rise to destructive numbers. Inquiry during the following season disclosed the fact that history had re- peated itself and that the species had practically disappeared. * Bul. 180; same in Rpts. 19:263-286 (1900). ** Bul. 212; same in Rpt. 21:233-257 (1902). 262 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. During 1900 and igot, the attention of the Station®®’ was called to the work of white grubs (Lachnosterna sp.) on the roots of extensive plantations of asters. Some observations were made on the habits of the insects, and suggestions were given as to the most satisfactory means of preventing injuries. During the same years, the celery caterpillar (Papilio asterias Fab.) was quite numerous in the vicinity of Geneva and observations of its destructiveness to young celery plants in seed beds were recorded. Because of the general interest in this species, mention?® was made of the probable appearance of the periodical cicada (Cicada septendecim L..) during the spring of 1902 in one of the largest broods, known to occur in the United States. A short account was given of the life history, habits and other interesting facts of this insect. For purposes of record, detailed observations in western New York of the brood of 1899 were included. SPECIAL BULLETINS ON FRUIT INSECTS. Two bulletins dealing with the insects of the nursery and insects injurious to fruits have been published by the Station. The former, Bulletin No. 136, was issued largely for the benefit of the nursery- men of this State, to call their attention to the importance of the San José scale as a nursery pest and to assist them in recognizing the various insects attached to their shipments and purchases of stock. The inspection of nurseries was then in its inception and there was much demand for information relating to this subject. The Maryland legislature had recently passed a law, providing that all nursery stock shipped into that State must be accompanied by a certificate, showing that the stock had been duly inspected by an authorized official and pronounced by him to be free of dangerous insects and plant diseases. Other states had followed suit and the question was being discussed in many more. Owing to this agita- tion and the reputed menace of the San José scale to nurseries, western New York nurserymen found it necessary to have their plantings inspected or be seriously handicapped by the inspection laws of other states. Although there was no evidence of an or- ganized effort on the part of nurserymen to have the work of in- spection put on a proper basis, the Station at once undertook to accommodate them and as opportunity was afforded, rendered as- sistance in this endeavor for two years. * Bul. 212; same in Rpt. 21:233-257 (1902). oo j E ; - New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 263 The latter, Bulletin No. 170, is a complete compendium dealing with the common diseases and insects injurious to fruit trees and small fruits, in which directions are given for fighting them effi- ciently and economically. Special attention is devoted to spraying methods and emphasis has been given to the advisability of sys- tematic spraying and as far as possible of combating diseases and insects with one general line of treatment. This bulletin was a joint production of the horticultural, botanical and entomological departments. SLUDIES: ON FIELD CROP INSECTS: ARMY WORM. (Fleliophila unipuncta Haw.) In 1896, considerable attention®® was given to this caterpillar, which was the cause of much alarm in the important agricultural sections during the early summer. The invasion of the army worm was one of the worst in the history of the State, and according to old settlers, no such destruction of crops by this pest had ever before been experienced by them. Complaints of injuries were received from twenty-eight of the leading agricultural counties, and, in reply to these, circulars, letters and telegrams were sent giving explicit instructions and suggestions, to check the migration of the caterpillars and to protect invaded fields. As the army worm is a general feeder, some farmers experienced a shortage of fodder crops for fall and winter feeding. While it was not possible to overcome this deficiency, suggestions were given to farmers for raising certain crops which could be grown at a late season to tide them over the emergency which the army worm had caused. COTTONWOOD LEAF BEETLE. (Lina scripta.) During 1894 and 1895 from one-half to three-fourths of the wil- low crop of Onondaga County was rendered worthless by this pest, which then constituted a serious handicap to the industry of grow- ing basket willows. At the urgent request of the leading growers, the Station carried on experiments,°° covering two years, to de- termine more efficient means for the prevention of injuries. At this time there had been various attempts to destroy the beetles by Bul. 104 and Rpt. 15:583-605 (18906). Bul. 143; same in Rpt. 17:323-344 (1808). 264 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. the employment of poisons, but the opinion was quite prevalent that arsenicals, applied strong enough to materially check the insects, seriously injured the willows, which discouraged their use. To protect the willows, the growers relied largely on “ bug catching ” machines, which, while effective on larger plants, were unfortunately not satisfactory for the young willows in the early season, which were often ruined. At the outset, it seemed that the use of arsenical poisons would solve the problem, and so during 1896 and 1897, tests were made at Liverpool to determine the strength of poison that could safely be used on willow foliage with efficient results on the insects. Some experiments were also made to ascertain the comparative cost of spraying as compared with the average ex- pense of operating the machines. Investigations were also made to ascertain the life history of the insect. The results of the field tests were gratifyingly in favor of spraying both as a means of protecting young willows and for its economy, as the cost of spray- ing one acre was but $2.58 as compared with an expenditure of $4.05 required by the use of machines. To assist growers in affording better protection to their planta- tions, Bulletin No. 143 was issued in 1898, which called attention to the habits of the beetle and gave directions for the use of arsen- ical poisons for the treatment of willows. ONION CUTWORM. (Eusxoa messoria Harris.) In 1905 the attention of the Station was called to the onion fields of Orange County which were being ravaged by this cutworm. This destructive insect also appeared in 1896 and was computed to have destroyed at least 46 per ct. of the onion crop, besides in- juring severely many other garden and market vegetables. During — these years, observations were made on the life history and habits of this species, and several lines of treatment were tested by the Station. When the cutworms commenced their work on the onion fields, it was found that the caterpillars migrated from the margins of ditches and driveways, so tests were made of various remedies to determine their value for the protection of the crop and their effectiveness in checking the progress-of the worms from the ad- jacent fields and swampy neglected lands into the cultivated areas. Comparative experiments*! were made of the resin-lime mixture, * Rpt. 15:628-635 and Bul. 120. ~ er = —— oe ee ee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 265 kerosene emulsion, and wet and dry poisoned baits; and of these insecticides the poisoned bran mixture proved the most efficient. This bait proved very acceptable to the cutworms and was deadly in its effects. The results of these tests were published in Bulletin No. 120, and onion growers were advised to use the dry bran bait as an efficient means of protecting their plantings. It is considered as fully as effective as hand picking, which was commonly em- ployed, and is much less expensive. For onions it is in every re- spect a satisfactory defense against cutworms, and its use is ad- vised for the protection of cabbages, tomatoes and other garden plants. POPLAR AND WILLOW BORER. (Cryptorhynchus lapathi L.) In recent years, there have been many complaints of the work of the poplar borer by nurserymen in this State, in extensive and continued injuries that occur in the growing of poplats and willows. In the year 1902, when the attention of the Station was called to the ravages of this species, some blocks of poplars and willows were so badly injured by this insect that some growers contemplated abandoning their culture. In many localities, the native willows along swamps, streams and canals were badly at- tacked, and injuries were being sustained by certain species of willows planted for ornamental purposes. Investigations** were commenced in 1905 to determine the habits of the insect and practical means of protecting nursery stock. The life history has now been completely studied. It was found that this species has one brood a year. Oviposition occurs in the corky portions of the wood, near a bud or branch or in the overgrowths caused by pruning, and takes place during August and September. The injury to the plants is caused by the larvae which hatch in about eighteen days after the depositing of the eggs and which girdle the trees and so weaken them that they often fall with the wind. The larval period lasts till the following July, when pupa- tion occurs. The beetles commence to appear about July 15, and they may be found until the middle of October. It was noticed in observing the habits of the beetles that they are external feeders, which suggested the possibility of using * Bul. 286 (1907). 266 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. arsenical poisons as a means of combating this pest in the nursery. To ascertain the effects of these insecticides upon the beetles, a number of experiments were made which showed conclusively that thorough spraying with an arsenical poison of poplar and willow plantations about July 15 will materially reduce the number of beetles and thereby lessen the number of eggs deposited in the trees. Attention of nurserymen was called to these observations and experiments by the publication of Bulletin No. 286, which gives a complete account of this insect and directions for the prevention of injury and the control of the beetles. WORK Win F LEED: CROPS. SUMMARIZED BY F. H. HALL. Work with field crops is not the corner stone nor even one of the main blocks that uphold the reputation of this Station. In later years, particularly, the problems in other lines of agriculture and horticulture, notably those in dairying and fruit growing, with their incidental demands for the knowledge and technical skill of chemists and bacteriologists, botanists and entomologists, have been deemed of more importance to the State than questions relating to the culture of the staple farm crops of the generations past. This distribution of investigational effort is undoubtedly a proper one; for New York has ceased to rank as a leading wheat and corn State; while problems in the growth of these and similar crops are of supreme importance in the newer states of the West and Northwest and are receiving attention from the stations in those states. New York State lands yield much greater profits when devoted to producing fruit, dairy products, vegetables and other more perishable crops for which there is an ever increasing demand in the nearby markets and which give greater acreage returns but which at the same time require more labor, better care and more expert management to secure the best results than do the grains. For these and other economic reasons the Station staff has never included an agronomist, and the “ farmer” or “ agriculturist ” has usually found his time too fully taken up with superintendence of labor and general operations to allow the necessary attention to be given to comprehensive or detailed investigations. In spite of these facts, considerable work has been done with field crops under supervision of the three Directors or their assist- ants, the horticulturists, chemists, botanists, bacteriologists and other members of the staff. Some of this work has been of high grade and of great practical value, and much of it, especially during early years of the Station’s history, was fundamental, leading to the development of correct methods of experimentation which have been of great value to the fifty or more stations established in the [267] 268 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. United States since those early days. This feature of the work, as well as the discussions of field crops in which the feeding value or the chemical, botanical, entomological or bacteriological features are most prominent, will be discussed elsewhere in this volume by the members of the staff most interested. The review here will be of the problems and tests of general cultural methods, tests of varieties, introduction of new crops and similar topics, and the crops will be discussed in their alphabetical order. ALFALFA. This plant had been cultivated to a limited extent in New York for at least sixty years previous to the establishment of the Station, and some records indicate that it was known, under the name lucerne, as early as the middle of the Eighteenth Century. How- ever, except in a few scattered localities, it was not grown on large enough areas to be considered more than a curiosity. In its first year the Station took up the culture of the plant and has grown the crop continuously since that time. During the first season the plats of alfalfa and lucerne were regarded! as representing different plants, but the practical identity of the two was soon evident and the name alfalfa used and recommended for Medicago sativa as grown in the State. The first sowings were not considered especially promising, probably, as we may conclude from the ex- perience of the last decade, because the bacteria necessary for the best growth of the plant were not present in sufficient numbers to secure thorough inoculation. A blight, now known as the leaf blight, also affected the plants, and since it was not then known that cutting the plants was an effective check to this trouble, the plats became very yellow and dwarfed-looking through June and July. With the second growth of that year the plats began to im- prove and in a few seasons, with sowings made on other plats and fields, convinced the Station observers of the great value of this legume for forage. Efforts were made by the Station to encourage careful testing of the plant on a small scale in various localities throughout the State to ascertain its adaptability to different soils, conditions and seasons. The plats at the Station gradually increased in size and the forage was increasingly used in feeding the dairy herd and other animals, but no bulletin dealing with alfalfa was published * Rpt. 1:77 (1882). Pee eee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 269 until 1889, when half of a small bulletin? was devoted to notes upon alfalfa from various sources, to a record of the crop cut in 1888, to chemical analyses of the green forage and hay and to a digestion experiment in which alfalfa was fed. In 1894 the first bulletin pub- lished in the East devoted exclusively to the growth of alfalfa was issued by this Station, No. 80, which gave the results of feeding trials with alfalfa forage. Previous to 1889, however, favorable mention had been made of the plant in the weekly newspaper bulle- tins of Station progress, and most of the early annual reports gave notes and data of the test plats. In 1886, in particular, favorable notice was given® to the permanence of the plats of alfalfa first seeded. Most excellent crops were reported on these and on plats sown in succeeding years. These good results were secured in spite of unfavorable conditions, for “the seed bed was heavy, cold and retentive, with a very solid clay bed underlying at a depth of about three feet. The alfalfa grew and flourished, although spar- ingly fertilized, and in 1886 was apparently as strong and vigorous as in 1883, the first cutting in 1886 yielded at the rate of over ten tons per acre of green fodder, and four crops were cut. No changes of weather or temperature seem to have affected this plant thus far as grown here.” On another larger plat seeded in 1885 the four cuttings in 1886 gave at the rate of 214 tons dry hay, 7/4 tons green forage, 574 tons green forage and 4 tons green forage, re- spectively, per acre. The yields in 1888, as given in Bulletin No. 16, were at the rate of 1514 tons and 143@ tons (green) per acre. The feeding trials given in Bulletin 80 proved conclusively the great value of the alfalfa for milk production. In the succeeding years this crop, with corn silage, has been the main reliance for forage for the herd. It has also been fed with excellent results tc horses, sheep, swine (in small amounts) and poultry. In 1897 a second bulletin* on alfalfa was issued which emphasizes the value of the plant and urges that trial of the crop be made in any locality where there is a fair prospect of its growing. This bulletin gives the average yield from five crops of alfalfa, each of four cuttings, as seventeen tons of green forage per acre. This yield exceeds, in total amount, that of any forage or root crop that can be grown in this section, except corn, while the feeding value of the alfalfa is far greater than that of corn because of its large ? Bul. 16:121-129 (1889). * Rpt. 5:134 (1886). *Bul. 118 (1897); same, Rpt. 16:551-560 (1897). 270 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. - amount of digestible protein (875 pounds per acre, as compared with 300 from corn). With the publication of this bulletin the Station authorities began an active campaign for the introduction of alfalfa into different sections of the State. This work has been consistently followed, by correspondence and by talks at farmers’ institutes. In this in- stitute work and in other ways of commending alfalfa and urging its spread, the Station work has been seconded and supplemented by the efforts of the other institute workers and by the editors of leading agricultural papers. As a result of these efforts the culture of the crop is now spreading rapidly. The United States census of Ig00 reports its growth in forty of the sixty-one counties of the State, with a total area of 5,582 acres devoted to the crop. Data collected by the Station indicate that at present alfalfa is grown in every county of the State that has agricultural interests and that the area is now more than 10,000 acres. The efforts of the Station during later years have been devoted to studies of the conditions necessary for the establishment and best growth of alfalfa, and in control of the pests of the crop. These researches are discussed more in detail elsewhere, but may be said to indicate that the use of lime upon the soil some time previous to sowing the alfalfa seed is profitable in a large proportion of cases, that inoculation with soil from a successful field greatly in- creases the chances of success, that dodder seed is very commonly found in commercial alfalfa seed, and that this pest when once introduced is very destructive and is hard to eradicate. Sifting the alfalfa seed, by a method worked out by the Station Botanist,° is very effective in getting rid of the dodder seeds. Unsuccessful attempts have also been made to grow alfalfa seed upon the Station farm. BARLEY. The work with barley has not been extensive nor the results striking. During the first eight years of Station work, variety tests® with barley were made several times. These were not continued long enough nor under sufficiently varied conditions to give the results great weight. As with other crops grown during these years, however, careful data were collected showing the characteristics of * Circ. 8, 1907. ®Rpts. 1:34 (1882); 2:141 (1883); 3:308, 400 (1884); 5:117 (1886) ; 6:64 (1887) ; 8:288 (1889). ee ee ee ee ee ee ~ New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 271 each of the varieties, as to grain and straw, period of growth, vigor, stooling ability, disease resistance, yield and weight per bushel. Botanical studies were also made, based on the above and other characters, and a key? worked out to aid in the identification of the different varieties. Of the varieties tested, Chevalier and Man- shury appear to be the only ones now in common cultivation. In connection with these botanical studies, it is interesting to note that a case is recorded® in which the progeny of a hybrid barley split up into four distinct varieties, without imtermediate forms or colors. This’ was undoubtedly in accordance with Mendel’s law. Attention was called to the fact that by growing seed from a single head, an improved strain or a new variety might be developed in two or three years; but no work appears to have been done along this line. Such an observation by Nilsson lies at the foundation of the recent great advance in Swedish barley and oat growing. In culture, only two experiments are recorded. In one of these,® extreme cultivation; i. e. spading beside rows sown wide apart and with seeds thinly scattered in the row, did not appear to affect the yield of grain, but reduced the amount of straw very greatly. In the other test,!° barley was cut at three different dates, a weelx apart, to note the effect upon the grain. The late cutting uniformly gave heavier grains than the early cutting, and in a majority of the cases, heavier than the second cutting. In other words, the barley plants should be fully mature when cut and the seeds well ripened, to secure the heaviest yields. CORN. During the early years of Station work much attention was paid to corn by the Director. His careful and comprehensive studies on the history and botany of maize form the basis of all recent classifications of the species and varieties of this best known and most valuable American plant. Seed was secured not only from all the leading corn breeders and seedsmen of North America and from different Indian tribes of the West and Southwest, but also from various sources in Mexico, Central and South America, France and Africa. During the years 1883 and 1884 about 125 varieties were grown and studied. These were placed by Dr. Sturtevant in Rpt. 3:387 (1884). * Rpt. 3:81, 82 (1884). * Rpt. 1:35 (1882). Rpt. 6:64 (1887). “Rpts. 3:156-188 (1884); 4:64-71 (1885). 272 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. six groups: Zea saccharata, the sweet corns, including thirty-three varieties; Zea indurata, the flint corns, forty-four varieties; Zea imdentata, the dent corns, forty-seven varieties; Zea amylacea, the soft corns, twelve varieties; Zea cverta, the pop corns, ten varie- ties; Zea mays var. vaginata, the pod corns, a few poorly estab- lished varieties. In 1885 another group was added to this series, Zea amylea saccharata, the starchy sweet corns. A careful description’? was secured of each of these varieties, from both botanical and agricultural sides. A most interesting series of observations'® was also made regarding the tendency of each of the types. toward or against cross pollination and the effect of crossing, within the type and with varieties of other types. Upon this work were based ten “ propositions” relative to hybridi- zation in corn, most of which hold true to-day, although some of the phenomena are differently explained since we know of Mendel’s law and the principle of xenia. Additional work" along this line was done in 1885. The scheme of classification was published in the report for 1¢84, but additienal varieties were tested!® and de- scribed in 1888 anv 1890. Seed.— Probably icw experiments in field crops ever excited more comment than those’® carried on at the Station in 1882, ’83, ’84 and ’85, by which it was established that there is practically no difference in germinative ability or crop-producing power between . seed at tip, middle or butt of the ear. The criticisms of this work. tanged all the way from dogmatic assertions that the experiment was idiotic throughout, in conception, execution and conclusion, to unqualified praise of the Station for demonstrating scientifically a fact that might be made of great practical value to growers of corn. In these tests, which were apparently fairly well guarded by repe- tition in different years and on different soils, the average yields for four years were: For kernels from butt of ear, 5514 bushels per acre; from center of ear, 5744 bushels, and from tip of ear, 58% bushels. The tip kernels were superior in twenty-eight out of thirty trials. This experiment has been repeated by practically every station in a corn State, with somewhat varying results, but with a great predominance of evidence to support the conclusion * Rpt. 3:124-188 (1884). * Rpt. 3:145-154 (1884). “Rpt. 4:96-111 (1885). '* Rpts. 7:119-121 (1888) ; 9:287 (1890). * Rpts. 1:46-49 (1882) ; 2:90-93 (1883) ; 3:130, 131 (1884) ; 4:48-50 (1885). andl spain ie ht tet >» New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 273 given, that tip kernels make good seed. It may be said, however, that the general introduction of corn planting machinery makes it ‘advisable to reject over-large or over-small kernels, notwithstand- ing their approximately equal value as seed, so that even planting may be secured. Unevenness of stand has been proven one of the great factors in lowering yields of corn. Interesting observations’ were also made upon the use, as seed, of kernels which themselves showed peculiarities in size, shape or color, or which were from ears peculiar in some respect. These studies led to no ipractical results, but show with what care every variation from the normal was investigated. Many germination tests!* of corn were made, as of the seeds of all the other field and garden crops; and the great importance of thus testing the vitality and strength of the seeds to be used on the farm was repeatedly shown. Several simple forms of appa- ratus!® were devised for such testing of seed, one of which, the Geneva (or Station) Seed Tester, has been considerably used else- where. By means of germination tests the increased value given to seed corn by kiln-drying the seed” was brought out, in experi- ments continued through two years. In the first year’s tests, when © the drying was done some time before the testing, the kiln-dried corn germinated earlier and better and gave stronger plants than similar corn taken direct from the crib. The kiln-dried kernels also gave much better results than the others when subjected to adverse influences, such as extreme temperatures before the tests. In the second season, when the drying was done imme- diately before the testing, there was no difference in percentages of germination in the testers, but the kiln-dried kernels gave 8o per ct. of plants when sown in the soil, while the undried kernels gave only 20 per ct. Attention was repeatedly called to the principles involved and methods used in seed selection and preservation and to the losses resulting from the use of seed from inferior parents and from the absence of hills or plants required by a perfect stand. These factors, emphasized and put into practice by the corn breeders of the Middle West, are to-day astonishingly increasing the yields of maize. Rpt. 2:40-57 (1883). * Rpts. 2:59, 63, 65 (1883) ; 3:118-124 (1884) ; 4:84-01, 95 (1885). * Rpt. 2:58, 67 (1883). * Rpts. 4:95 (1885) ; 5:44-46 (1886). 274 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. Some sections of the Annual Report for 1886 read like extracts from the most progressive corn breeders’ bulletins of 1906. It was lack of appreciation and utilization, rather than lack of good work in securing them, which led to dearth of results from Station con- clusions along some lines of corn growing. Planting.— Practically all the possible combinations and varia- tions that could be used in planting the seed were tested at some time during the first eight years of the Station’s activity. As the results of most of these tests were shown to depend much upon the character of the soil and season, they need not be discussed in detail. On the heavy soil of the Station the best results were always secured by planting less than four inehes deep, and in cool and moist seasons at two inches or even less. The deep planting was injurious through its early effect,77 preventing germination or emergence of the plants. The stalks that did appear from depths below four inches bore larger individual crops, but their number was so lessened that the total harvest was reduced. In tests of different treatment of the soil over the seed varying from loose covering to hard packing, the results favor compression of the soil. It was held that in a dry season, the gain from the use of a planter with wheels following the dropper, to compress the soil over the kernels, would be sufficient to justify the purchase of the machine. The advantage of planting in hills over sowing in drills or broad- cast was indicated clearly in several tests,?? and the best distance, for the Station soil and conditions, was found to be about 3% feet by 3% feet, with three or four kernels to the hill. Thicker plant- ing than this was almost without exception followed by deteriora- tion in the quality of the crop more than sufficient to overcome any slight gain in quantity. A smaller number of plants in the hill reduced the yield, though it slightly increased the number of sound ears borne by individual plants. Rather peculiarly, it did not decrease the number of unsound ears, since the few plants produced more suckers bearing soft ears. Fertilizing and cultivating Many tests were made along these lines, but the net result is nothing. Deep or shallow cultivation, frequent or rare stirring of the soil, use or non-use of complete chemical fertilizess cr of separate ingredients gave no consistent * Rpt. 2:138 (1883). * Rpt. 5:46 (1886). * Rpt. 2:135-137 (1883) ; 3:101 (1884) ; 5:46, 47 11886) ; &:260-763 (1880). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 275 gains greater than the differences between check plants in the same tests; or the tests, when repeated in other seasons, contradicted the conclusions of previous trials. The failure to secure satisfactory results in so many of these tests established the unreliability of the system of plat comparisons when the crops under test are sown on square or broadly oblong areas. It is practically impossible to secure on soil of glacial origin adjacent blocks of any considerable size that are uniform in pro- ductive power. This series of tests materially influenced the de- velopment of the system of plat testing used by younger Stations by which longer, narrower and more numerous plats are used, so that errors due to soil inequality are neutralized or eliminated. Other factors which prevented satisfactory comparisons were the natural strength and moisture-retaining power of the Station soil. These are so great that in many cases check plats grew as large crops as it was possible for the heat and rainfall of the season to produce, so that the influence of minor factors like the addition of fertilizer or differences in cultural methods was completely ob- scured. Two facts were brought out, however: First, that the growth of weeds** in corn produces much greater reduction in yield than can be accounted for by the fertilizer elements removed by the weeds. Beside this, the shading of the soil by the weeds reduces the high soil temperature essential to the best growth of corn, the weed roots occupy the feeding ground of the plant roots, and the weeds draw heavily upon the supply of soil moisture, so that the corn often suffers from semi-drought. Second, that root pruning*> the corn plant is injurious, whether this be done by deep spading beside the plants, by cutting off the roots on one side of the stalks with a lawn edger, by deep cultivation between the rows after the plants were well developed, or even by shallow cultivation close to the rows. The more thorough and deeper the preparation?® of the soil previous to planting, to give opportunity for deep and wide rooting, the better the results, especially in the production of forage. Variety and race tests— The varietal comparisons were usually incidental to more careful studies of characteristics, and were on too small a scale to justify very emphatic recommendation of par- * Rpt. 2:137, 138 (1883); 5:50 (1886). 5 Rpts. 1:53, 54 (1882) ; 2:134 (1883); 7:173-178 (1888). 7° Rpt. 7:171-173 (1888). 276 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. ticular varieties for general culture; but during a few years more extensive tests were made. In one*’ carried on during four years ending in 1886, the different races were compared. The flint corns were found to give the greatest yields, 16 tons to the acre, as com- pared with 15 tons for the dent varieties, 1234 for the sweet varie- ties and 122% tons for the pop corns. The latest test,28 made in 1889, showed some of the larger dent varieties leading in production, as they were able to mature in the season of 145 days. Some of these, like Hickory King, Blounts’ Prolific, Pisa Queen and Burrill & Whitman, gave one-third more corn to the acre than the leading flint variety, Thoroughbred White. Cleveland’s Colossal, a sweet corn, yielded better than the flint corns. In recent years it has been found best to grow the largest dent corn that will mature sufficiently for ensilage, that is, will bring the kernels to the glazing stage before frost. FORAGE CROPS. Many forage crops have been tested in plat or field by the Sta- tion, and descriptions of new or little known species will be found scattered through many reports. For many years the Station main- tained a row of small plats, devoted to the various grasses and forage plants. This was always a source of much pleasure and satisfaction to visitors, and undoubtedly was useful to many farmers through the ready opportunity it gave to compare well-known grasses, clovers and similar plants with new ones recommended by seedsmen or agricultural writers. Aside from alfalfa and alsike clover, none of these forage crops has gained any prominence in the State as a whole, though soy beans and cowpeas have been grown with some success for forage and soil renovation on the lighter soils in the southern half of the State. | Sorghums of various types have been grown for forage, but more extensively tested for sugar or syrup-making, as noted else- where. In quite extensive tests? amber sorghum gave larger yields to the acre than corn during two seasons. Much better yields were secured by growing in drills than in hills. Notwithstanding its promise as a forage crop, sorghum has not attracted favorable "Rpt: 5281, 52: (1886). * Rpt. 8:266-270 (18890). 7 Rpt. 3:103, 104 (1884); 7:331 (1888) ; 8:35, 263-266 (18890). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 277 attention, nor come into general culture. It is similar to corn as a forage crop and but slightly superior to it in this respect, if at all; while it is markedly inferior from the standpoint of grain produc- tion. In consequence, it never has, and probably never will displace corn, except in some sections where its drought-resistance makes it valuable. Among other crops tested and found inferior to corn have been teosinte, pearl millet, kafir corn, millo maize, sachaline and prickly comfrey. Among legumes, several kinds of vetch have been grown, but usually for cover crops and green manure, rather than for forage. Of these the winter vetch or hairy vetch, Vicia sativa, has given best results, being more certain for this purpose than crimson clover. The excessive cost of seed, however, has prevented its general use. ares and various other vetches, serradella, sain- foin, white and yellow lupine, velvet bean, sweet clover, have all proven inferior to more common legumes like red clover or Canada peas, or of use only under particular conditions. Among some of the grasses grown by the Station, a few have been found worthy of recommendation and are now more or less used for hay mixtures or on lawns. Among these are orchard grass, tall fescue, meadow fescue, sheep fescue, tall meadow oat grass and meadow foxtail. As with corn, the fertilizer tests on grass have given rather un- satisfactory results, but they show in general the value of light, repeated applications of easily soluble forms of nitrogen. In form of either nitrate of soda or cottonseed meal the spring applications of nitrogen have been profitable, but the other elements applied have not given increased yields sufficient to repay their cost. In storage of forage crops most attention has been given to silage and the possibility of securing a fair article of silage without using a special pit or silo was quite clearly indicated®® by some early work. It was also shown*! that silage would keep fairly well in a well-constructed silo, without tramping when filling in the cut forage and without special cover or pressure on the top after filling. However, the Station now fills its silos rapidly, with a man to spread material evenly and tramp it down somewhat, allows silage to settle for a week or more, then fills again, and may repeat this refilling opera- tion. In this way excellent silage is secured, and kept with a very small percentage of loss. ° Rpts. 6:73-75 (1887) ; 7:326-331 (1888). “Rpts. 4:43-45 (1885) ; 6:37, 38 (1887). 278 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. OATS. As. with the other grain crops, elaborate notes have been taken upon many varieties of oats and a system of classification® was soon developed for convenience in arranging and discussing these varie- ties. This was expanded in 1886.2° The most careful compari- sons** made of oat varieties were those reported in 1885. One test included only two varieties, the Welcome, representing the common type, and the White Russian, representing the side-head type. The White Russian yielded one-half more grain than the Welcome and somewhat more straw. The one who reports this test says: “ This, it is true, is but a local result. It is within the limits of possibility that in another region the Welcome might have been a superior, yet the trial may stand forth prominently as a test that may be read thus. Some one variety of seed may find better adaptation on a farm than the seed in use; and the cheapest way to secure increase in crop without extra expense in the growing may often be from the change of seed from a less prolific variety to a greater.” This in a way sets forth recent belief in regard to variety testing, for, however carefully such work may be done, it can only be suggestive for soils and localities different even in minor points from those of the test, yet every such test emphasizes the necessity of securing those varieties that are particularly adapted ~ to the conditions. What the Station can do is to give unprejudiced, expert judgment as to the good and bad qualities and characteristics of the different varieties grown side by side, upon which the grower may base his choice for the limited selection of varieties he himself will test. In case of the White Russian and Welcome oats, for example, it was the tendency of the latter to lodge; because of weak straw, that reduced its yield. Another useful purpose served by the variety tests early in the Station’s history, as in the second test of oats, was to call attention to the unreliability of trade names, since one variety might appear under many names, or varieties really differing greatly be sold under the name of some new or promising kind. In the report of 1886, notes are given upon sixty-nine so-called varieties; but these are all classified under less than half as many * Rpt. 3:390 (1884). * Rpt. 5:100 (1886). * Rpt. 4:56-58, 130, 132 (1885). * Rpt. 5:102-114, 119, 120 (1886). en New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 279 names. It was found in two tests*® that the character of oat seeds has much to do with the resulting crop. Large seeds germinated better, gave earlier and stronger plants and the plants maintained their advantage through the season. At harvest, the yield of both grain and straw was larger from the large seed, and the grains from the small seed were much smaller in size than those from large seed. Oats planted at medium depth, one-half to two inches, gave better results®’ than those planted deeper or shallower than this. Those planted one-fourth inch deep, even though carefully covered with fine soil, germinated very poorly and gave weak plants. Surprising as it may seem, seedings as deep as seven inches gave better results than extremely shallow sowings, the principal effect being delay in emergence. The test is taken to indicate that poor results are to be expected from broadcasting oats on light soil, especially during a dry time, but another experiment*® shows fairly satisfactory re- sults from sowing oats on the snow in early spring. The conclusion is given that “there need be no hesitation on the part of the farmer to sow either oats or barley in late winter or early spring on ground where some fall-sown crop has made a failure.” The better results in this case are undoubtedly due to the moist condition of the seed bed caused by the snow. Fall-planted oats** all died before spring, though in the south “ winter oats”’ are commonly grown. With oats, also, fertilizer tests were unsatisfactory, none of the applications made being profitable. It is noted*® that nitrogen in- creased the size and deepened the color of the straw and lengthened the growing period; while phosphoric acid apparently hastened the ripening of the crop. Muck, potash and gypsum were without noticeable effect on the appearance of the crops. ONIONS. Onions have generally been grown only in garden plats at the Station; but in many parts of the State they are field crops as unquestionably as are potatoes. In order to solve problems con- nected with this culture on a large scale, experiments have been made on leased fields in Orange county. These tests have included “Rpts. 4:131 (1885); 6:65 (1887). * Rpt. 6:66 (1887). Rpt. 6:69 (1887). °° Rpt. 6:68 (1887). “Rpt. 7:344-348 (1888). 280 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. some in treatment of onion diseases, which are discussed elsewhere (p. 140); and one series*! extending over one season on one farm and four seasons on another, in which various quantities of ferti- lizer were compared. It is the practice of onion growers in this section to supply their crops with large amounts of plant-food, in some cases as much as a ton or more of high-grade complete fertilizer annually. Consider- ing any possible demand of the onion crop on the soil, these large amounts appeared- wasteful; and the tests proved this to be the case. On each farm and in each year duplicate tenth-acre plats were left without commercial fertilizer or received, in amounts increasing by 500 pounds, as much as a ton to the acre. The seasons varied from poor to good, so far as onion production was concerned, and accidental interferences, like floods, and insect and fungus pests, affected the different plats to a similar extent so that the tests gave dependable indications of the effect of the different quantities of fertilizer. In each year of the four-year series there was a satis- factory increase and good profit from the use of 500 pounds to the acre, and a slight increase and small profit from the 1,000 pounds and 1,500 pounds applications, but a financial loss from the use of the additional 500 fe Meals which raised the application to a ton to the acre. On the other field, in which the test was made for only one year, the ground had grown onions and been well manured for several years. The crops gave only a slight profit from the use of the smallest amount of fertilizer, 500 pounds, and a loss from the use of amounts greater than this. “The results of these experiments show clearly that the crops were limited more by other conditions than by the extent of the plant food supply. With the best conditions of season and water supply, the smallest amount of fertilizer supported the maximum Chop: : POTATOES. In few, if any, other Stations has as much attention been given to the potato, and along certain lines of investigation the work of the Station is classic. In early years the study of the seed received almost uninterrupted attention for eight or ten seasons, and it would seem that no possible factor was overlooked that might in- “Bul. 206; same, Rpt. 20:236-244 (1901). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 281 fluence production. The results in some cases are inconsistent, owing to the lack of uniformity in the soil of the farm and the use of the oblong-plat method of comparison; but so often were the tests repeated and so great was the care used to recognize and to eliminate or neutralize disturbing factors that the conclusions, | where these are definitely stated, have been, in the main, confirmed by later tests by other Stations. In trials of cultural methods and fertilizer tests on Station soil, the handicap of uneven productivity rendered the results with po- tatoes almost as inconclusive and valueless as those with other crops. In a few lines, however, the indications uniformly pointed to the same conclusion, showing that the factor under considera- tion was one of real importance in potato growing. In fertilizer tests on Long Island most striking and uniform results were secured during several years’ trials; and a means of economizing in the growth of the crop was plainly indicated. Unfortunately this method seems out of line with the general practice on the Island, and growers hesitate to give it a fair trial; so that the tests have not influenced practice as their accuracy and clear-cut teaching merit. In treatment of blight and rot, the Station work has materially benefited potato growers; not only in the State but in all potato- growing sections. This factor in potato culture is discussed at length on pp. 147 to I5I. Character of seed.— Experiments* made in early years of Station history, and repeated, with modifications, after a lapse of twenty years, indicate a decided advantage from the selection of tubers for seed from the productive hills of the parent crop. In 1884 seed thus selected outyielded seed selected from unproductive hills in seven cases out of nine when large tubers were compared and in eight cases out of nine when the comparison was between small tubers of the two classes. In nearly half the cases the small tubers from productive hills gave better yields than large tubers from unproductive ones. In 1885 the tests showed a decided advantage for the seed from heavy yielding hills. In 1887 the comparison was extended to seed from 116 varieties, but the area devoted to each test was small. In two-thirds of the individual comparisons, the advantage was with the seed from productive hills, and the average gain was fourteen bushels to the acre. In this same year Rpts. 3:301-305 (1884); 4:232-235 (1885); 5:148, 149 (1886) ; 6:78-86 (1887): Syllabi, Normal Institute Lectures, 1905, 1906. 282 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. plat tests on larger areas than were used in testing the varieties showed the advantage to be with seed from productive hills not only when equal numbers of tubers were compared, but when the weights of seed of the two kinds were equal. In 1903, ‘04 and ’o5, these comparisons were again taken up, testing seed from heavy and light hills from the same parent crop in rows side by side and repeating the series several times to overcome inequalities in soil conditions. Of the six comparisons, four gave substantial differ- ences in favor of using the seed from heavy hills, one a slight difference in the same direction, and one a slight difference in favor of seed from light hills. In the second year’s test with two varieties and in the third year’s test with one of them, light yielding hills were selected from crop grown from seed previously selected from similar hills, and heavy hills from crop grown from seed produced in heavy hills in order to ascertain if the differences in favor of seed from heavy hills were cumulative. No such cumu- lative effect was shown conclusively, but there does appear to be a profitable margin of gain in selecting seed for each crop from the best hills of the preceding crop. i This presupposes that the grower raises his own seed; but some have strongly advocated a “ change of seed.” Extensive tests along this line have not been made at the Station, but one test,** with the same'variety grown from Station seed and from seed of the same variety from two other localities, did not favor the practice. The yields were somewhat better from foreign seed grown on similar soil, but much poorer from seed grown on soil of different character. Preliminary seed treatment.— In some foreign countries, particu- larly France, the growers of very early potatoes plant only tubers that have been previously started into growth by exposing them to warmth and light. By this means short, thick sprouts are formed, which grow quickly and vigorously when the tubers are carefully planted with the sprouts up. A test** of this method was made by the Station in 1888 on four twentieth-acre plats; but no advantage in earliness resulted from the preliminary treatment and difference in yield was exceedingly small. In another test*® made this same year a disadvantage resulted from the use for seed of potatoes with long sprouts, though this loss was less than was expected. It appeared to make no difference whether the sprouts were broken off “ Rpt. 9:383-386 (1890). “Rpt. 7:167, 168 (1888). * Rpt. 7:165-167 (1888). | i | | New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 283 or not. A laboratory test indicated that potatoes in growing sprouts from one to three inches long lose 2 per ct. of their dry matter. Size of seed.— Whether it is best and most profitable to use large or small tubers for seed is a question that will probably never be settled until we can limit the terms “large” and “small” by other terms which shall tell whether the small potato is of “ good”’ parent- age or the “large” tuber merely an accident in a “ poor” family. The early work of the Station nearly all indicated an advantage in the use of large tubers as seed ; but a carefully checked experiment*® was made in 1906, in which small potatoes were compared with equal weights of seed cut from large tubers, gave a different result. In this test the advantage was plainly with the small tubers. The influence of cutting enters this test, while in most of the early tests the factor of unequal weight of seed pieces makes a complication. In tests* in 1884 largest and smallest tubers, selected from produc- tive and from unproductive hills of nine varieties of the crop of 1883, were used for seed. In nearly every case the large tubers gave greater yields of merchantable potatoes than small tubers from the same kind of seed. In case of seed from unproductive hills, the large tubers gave more than 50 per ct. increase in mer- chantable potatoes. In case of three varieties the influence of size of seed appeared greater than that of productivity of the hills, since the large tubers from poor hills of these varieties gave more mer- chantable potatoes than the small tubers from productive hills. In 1887, the computed acre yields of 116 varieties tested on small areas showed an average gain of six bushels to the acre from the use of large rather than small tubers. In 1890 tubers of different sizes but of uniform weight for each lot were compared. The weights of the tubers used were two, three and four ounces, respectively. Deducting the amounts of seed used, there was still a net gain in favor of the successively larger seed pieces. Rot, however, lessened the yields fully one-half in this experiment. Cutting seed—As a result of the first season’s test, it seemed that single eye cuttings of very small size were as good for seed as halves or quarters of the potatoes, so in succeeding years compari- sons along this line formed a prominent part of the Station’s potato program. Not only were single eyes tested against larger pieces, but various ways of cutting the tubers to secure these eyes ® Syllabus, Normal Institute Lecture, 1906. “Rpt. 3:301-305 (1884) ; 6:78-86 (1887) ; 9:375-379 (1890). 284 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. were also compared, and eyes scooped out of the potato, eyes cut from potato parings, and potato shoots were all used as seed. In no season but the first did the tests*® favor the use of small, single- eye pieces; but there was a chain of evidence extending through tests of seven years that the crop was likely to increase profitably as the size of the seed pieces increased. In some of these tests whole tubers were compared with cuttings. While the results are not conclusive in favor of the use of the uncut tubers, as against cuttings of equal size, those in about half the tests showed a de- cided loss from cutting the tubers. Other tests indicated clearly that it is advisable to allow the cutting to dry out for ten days or less be- fore planting. It seems probable that under certain conditions the exposure of the freshly cut surface to the earth works injury to the seed. As to the manner of cutting the seed, the tests show a slight superiority for the middle third of the tuber as seed, but not enough to justify rejecting the tip or butt thirds. No advantage was found in the use of the butt half or the tip half of the tuber, either as affecting yield or promoting early maturity. Seed cut diagonally from the tip end of the potato to include as much as possible of the “pith rays,” rather than cut toward the tip and across these rays, appeared to give slightly better results; but not enough to be of practical value. Time and manner of planting.— Only one test*® is recorded in which the influence of the time of planting is considered, but the results in this case were striking. With the variety White Star, seed planted April 23 yielded at the rate of 251 bushels to the acre, similar seed planted May 24 gave 191 bushels and seed planted June 23, only 79 bushels. This plainly shows that the potato, unlike corn, does best in soils that are not very warm. This was also brought out in other tests along very different lines, as in mulching and cultivation experiments. The depth of planting was considered in a test®° made in 1882. The results are not very striking or conclu- sive, but appeared to indicate some advantage for three inches rather than six inches. It was evident that this factor would vary so much in effect with different soils that further tests were not made. Whatever the soil the seed piece must be placed deep enough “Rpts. 1:55-66 (1882); 2:117-122 (1883); 4:60-63 (1885); 5:149-152 (1886) ; 6:86-90 (1887) ; 7:162-165 (1888); 8:225-238 (1889). “ Rpt. .2:122 (1883). © Rpt. 1:62 (1882). =~ ~~ ee a New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 285 to secure a cool, moist bed for the growing roots and leave room above the roots for the development in the warmer soil nearer the surface of a heavy yield of tubers. Attempts to increase the difference in conditions between soil of roots and soil for tubers by planting in ridges rather than on level ground or in furrows, or by mulching with straw between the ridged rows either gave results unfavorable to these practices be- cause of moist, cool seasons or were contradictory. With straw mulch the growth of weeds is a great detriment, so the final con- clusions appear to favor level culture, with maintenance of good soil mulch by shallow cultivation. The recorded tests®! of varying distances of planting are exceedingly contradictory. They some- times favor planting as thick as pieces twelve inches apart in rows twenty-two inches apart, while in other tests, to secure any satis- factory results from such thick planting, it was necessary to thin the shoots to one in a hill. The unthinned plants so shaded the ground that the total yield was greatly decreased and the percentage of small tubers greatly increased. In other tests rows forty-four inches apart with plants twelve inches apart in the row have given the best yields. From recent Station experience, not, however, based on definite distance comparisons, it would seem that for our heavy, productive soil and for varieties like Rural New Yorker No. 2 of which the tubers have a tendency toward excessive size, plants twelve inches apart in rows thirty inches apart would give best results in quantity and quality. Fertilizer tests— As already indicated, fertilizer tests on Station soil have generally been inconclusive. The use of fertilizers with potatoes has given increased yields, but these have usually not been profitable nor in proportion to the amounts applied. It was impossible to draw definite conclusions in regard to the separate fertilizer elements, but potash gave some decided gains on Station soil, especially in the form of muriate. In other and more extended tests on Long Island soils, the use of potash in any form or in any quantity did not give consistently profitable returns. For those soils, at least, the very liberal use of potash in the formulas generally applied on potatoes appears to be unwarranted. It is probable “that the physical relations of our soil have a greater influence on [the potato] crop than do the chemical relations.” In Rpts. 2:125 (1883) ; 3:73. 74 (1884) ; 4:63-65 (1885). 286 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. two tests," in different years, there was a consistent, though small, advantage from applying fertilizer below rather than above the seed, and in a later test, large quantities of fertilizer applied in the row appeared to injure the vegative power of the seed tubers. Small quantities applied in the row gave better results than similar quantities broadcasted, but when larger quantities were used, broad- casting gave much better results. In a test** on Long Island in 1895, ten brands of commercial “potato” fertilizers were applied on eighth-acre plats, each at the rate of 1,000 and 2,000 pounds to the acre, and one brand also at the rate of 1,500 pounds. (With this brand applications in the row and broadcast were contrasted at each rate. The results of this last comparison have already been given.) Though these brands were all “ potato” fertilizers they differed considerably in every ingredient, least in nitrogen and most in potash; but each brand contained in 1,000 pounds more, frequently many times more, than enough of each element to supply the demands for a crop of 200 bushels of potatoes to the acre. This plentiful supply would indicate a liability to great waste, if more than 1,000 pounds to the acre was used, for few soils are so poor that they will not grow something of a crop, and it should be the purpose of a fertilizer to supplement the soil supply, not to furnish all of the ingredients necessary. The crops in the tests showed that such heavy applications are wasteful. In only twelve cases of the twenty-four was the increase sufficient to repay the cost of the fertilizer, and only one of these occurred where more than 1,000 pounds of fertilizer was used. In one case there was a loss from the use of even 1,000 pounds, and in almost every case the loss from using a ton to the acre was greater than the gain from using half a ton. This experiment was continued®> the next year on the same plats, to test the residual effect of the fertilizers. The average yield of the plats where 1,000 pounds to the acre had been applied was in- creased 48.4 bushels the first year and 29.6 bushels the second year; while the use of an additional 1,000 pounds to the acre increased this yield only 4.4 bushels the first year and 14.1 bushels the second year. Taking both years into consideration, the use of 1,000 * Rpts. 7:168-170 (1888); 8:253-255 (1889). “ Bul. 93:277, 278; same, Rpt. 14:35, 36 (1895). “Bul. 93; same, Rpt. 14:25-36 (1895). © Bul.112; same, Rpt. 15:107-118 (1896). New YorkK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.. 287 pounds of fertilizer to the acre gave a net gain of $27.58; but the use of 2,000 gave a gain of only $20.46, or a loss, as compared with the use of 1,000 pounds, of $7.12. Similar tests°® were carried out in four localities on Long Island during the years 1897 to 1900 with results which strengthen the conclusion that it is bad practice to use, on the ordinary Long Island soils, more than 1,000 pounds to the acre of any good com- plete fertilizer. In these tests two different brands were compared and the quantities of each used varied by quarter-tons from one- quarter to a full ton. The results were quite consistent year by year, farm by farm and plat by plat; and the averages show un- disputably that the use of more than 1,000 pounds to the acre decreases rather than increases the net profit from the crop. The formulas tested were two: One in common use on the island, con- taining 4 per ct. nitrogen, 8 per ct. phosphoric acid and Io per ct. potash; and another based more nearly on the chemical com- position of the potato crop. This “ potato” formula contains more nitrogen, less phosphoric acid and the same amount of potash. Notwithstanding its apparently more rational composition, the “potato”? formula gave poorer results on each farm, each year, and, with but one exception in one year, with each quantity used. Cultivation. Few tests of cultural methods with the potato have been made, and these’ give no definite results except in disproving some “ freak” beliefs. Pinching off the terminal shoots of the potato tops proved detrimental to the crop as did mowing off the tops or rolling them down in July. Burying the plants when four weeks old by a furrow turned upon the row, and intensifying this treatment by plowing up a second furrow ten days later, were both harmful. Varieties —Variety tests have, of course, been carried on in one form or another, and during several seasons in both garden and field, but the varieties of potatoes prove acceptable in only restricted localities, vary so much on different soils, and deteriorate so fast, that tests of them are even less valuable than those with grains and fruits. Merely as a reminder of some that may have * Buls. 137, 154 and 187; same, Rpts. 16:596-616 (1807); 17:417-429 (1898) and 19:213-230 (1900). Rpts. 4:238, 239 (1885); 5:55 (1886) ; 9:386-388 (1800). Rpts. 1:62 (1882); 2:211-218 (1883); 3:203-305 (1884); 4:230-232 (1885) ; 5:140-147 (1886); 6:76-81 (1887); 7:158-162 (1888); 8:321-325 (1889). 288 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. been favorites of days gone by we give names of a few sorts that have stood at or near the head of the lists in different years: White Whipple, White Star, American Giant, Rose’s Invincible, President Arthur, Nott’s Victor, Defiance, O. K., Mammoth, Cor- ‘less Matchless, Buffalo Bill, Putnam’s Junks, Burbank, Green Moun- tain (twice), Grange, Governor Foraker, Stump of the World, Sum- mit, Morning Star and Lombard. Rural New Yorker No. 2 was tested for the first time in 1888, and then led the list; but Carman No. 3, Sir Walter Raleigh, Early Ohio, Irish Cobbler and other favorites of to-day appear in inconspicuous positions on the list or not at all. SUGAR BEETS. During the last five years of the Nineteenth Century, New York State farmers were greatly interested in the sugar beet question. The growth of the crop had been found not only possible but profitable in other states whose conditions are not dissimilar to our own; several factories had been established or planned in this State; and the managers of these factories were urgently soliciting farmers to make contracts for growing beets. The conditions for success with the crop were not thoroughly known, however, nor was it possible to estimate the cost of growing, the yields or the profits from any reliable data collected in the State. The Station accordingly undertook certain lines of investigation ; and has grown some beets every season for ten years. In 1897 a comprehensive bulletin°? was issued, based to some extent upon Station experience, but more largely upon well established prin- ciples and facts regarding the growth of the crop. This gave a full discussion of the conditions required for the successful pro- duction of sugar beets; with special attention to the factors lead- ing to increase or decrease in the sugar content and coefficient of purity. The outlook for the industry in the State was carefully and conservatively discussed, and farmers were told that “ they will not realize unusual profits for any extended periods from sugar- beet growing. The facts appear to justify the belief, however, that this crop may come to rank among those which for some time will be regarded as giving satisfactory returns. It will be a busi- ness of moderate profits and one that will not spring into unin- terrupted success. If it is a success at all it will become so through education and experience.” This conservatism, though somewhat disappointing to the promoters of sugar-beet culture, has proven ° Bul. 135; same, Rpt. 16:188-203, 581-595 (1807). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 289 well justified. Though experiments have shown that as good beets and as heavy yields can be grown in New York as in the West, and though the State has encouraged the industry by paying a good ton bounty, culture of the crop is not extending rapidly, if at all; and only one factory remains in operation. Potatoes, cab- bage, garden vegetables and well established special crops like peppermint, broom corn, hops, tobacco and celery give such certain returns or such larger profits under favorable conditions that sugar beets have been unable to displace them except in a restricted area. The work of the Station on its own grounds, either independently or in cooperation with the United States Department of Agricul- ture, and on outside farms in cooperation with their owners, has shown that sugar beets are well adapted to New York conditions; and if properly managed, a reliable money crop. Indeed, for sev- eral years, the Station farm gave a larger amount of sugar to the acre than any other reported in cooperative experiments with the Department at Washington. The experiments of the first year were preliminary. They showed plainly that large crops of beets of-good quality could be grown on the Station farm, and indicated that the use of about 1,000 pounds to the acre of a good complete fertilizer would be profitable. During the next season, cooperative experiments were carried on with about twenty farmers in different localities, and analyses were made of large numbers of beets grown by other farmers. Many useful hints were obtained from this work, which were pub- lished in Bulletin No. 155.8 In tests made by the Station at Geneva and at Fayetteville the use of a small amount of good, complete fertilizer was found profitable, but large quantities gave less satisfactory returns. When more than 1,500 pounds was used the gain in sugar was worth less than the cost of the fertilizer to produce it. Farmyard manure was also used this year and gave good results, though it was not profitable, counting the single sea- son only, in the quantity used, twenty tons to the acre. Contrary to the general teaching, the use of the manure did not injure but improved the quality of the beets. To test more thoroughly the influence of manure on beets, the trials with it were continued three years more. The results, as reported in Bulletin 205,°' show the manure as good, if not better than commercial fertilizer for growing beets. Same, Rpt. 17:430-457 (1808). “Same, Rpt. 20:223-235 (1901). IO 290 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. During these experiments the Station has codperated with the United States Department of Agriculture in testing varieties, and later in attempts to grow sugar-beet seed. A large amount of valuable data has been accumulated, but the tests have not yet been concluded, and no results have been published. TOBACCO. Some work was done with tobacco soon after the Station was established, but none in recent years. These early tests® were, even when first made, considered suggestive only; so it would be profitless to discuss them in detail now. The use of a layer of pulverized sphagnum moss on the seed bed was found beneficial by checking evaporation and shading and protecting the seedlings. A similar layer of moss beneath a layer of soil did not appear to influence either roots or plants. Primed plants, alternated with those not primed, gave the greater weight of cured leaf. The largest yield and best quality were given by plants one foot apart in rows three feet apart. Decided advantage was shown from early planting of vigorous, early maturing plants, so that they could be topped as early as possible. In successive toppings, three days apart, beginning July 31, there was a continuous decrease in the percentage of cured leaf from the second to the last topping. In curing experiments it was found that splitting the stalk so as to hang the plants over laths resulted in rapid drying and great loss of weight; but that partial splitting of stalks to allow stringing on laths caused little more loss than hanging with twine. The fertilizer tests did not agree in different years, but indicated unfavorable influence of some chemicals, including sulphate of potash in excess, and sulphate of iron. Manure produced a freer burning tobacco than chemical fertilizers. WHEAT. The work with wheat®™ has been very unsatisfactory so far as definite results are concerned. The unreliability of ordinary field comparisons was shown more plainly, perhaps, with wheat than ° Rpts. 1:148-154 (1882) ; 2:227-234 (1883); 3:326-328 (1884). ® Rpts. 1231-34 (1882); 2:140-141 (1883); 3:83-88 (1884); 4:112-128 (1885); 5272-99, I15, 116, 133, 134 (1886); 6:58-63 (1887); 9:369-372 (1890). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 291 with any other grain; and tests in adjacent rows 18 inches apart and 175 feet long showed the same lack of uniformity. Record was kept of the germination, winter-killing and productivity of forty-four varieties grown in such parallel rows; but the data showed no relationship between these factors. Ten rows of Claw- son wheat from the same seed showed similar variation in each of the three factors, with no uniformity in yield. The best row gave three times as much grain as the poorest one. Under such conditions, any unrepeated tests can be suggestive only, so few lines of experiment have been carried on. The work has indicated that heavy, plump seed is much superior to small, shriveled grains of the same variety; that the ordinary sowing at the usual depth, two inches or less, is better than deeper sowing; and that moderate compacting of the soil, both below and above the kernels, gives the best results. The most extensive variety tests reported were made in 1885; and in the same report is included a key to the varieties, with careful notes on each. “ 4a:1I2-124 (1885). HORTICULTURAL INVESTIGATIONS, SUMMARIZED BY N."0.. BOGFE: ORCHARD FRUITS AND GRAPES. APPLES: At the time when the Station was established there was an old apple orchard on the farm. The varieties were the standard sorts, 695 trees all told. It being deemed best by the management to test many of the newer varieties, scions of them were secured and grafted into these trees. The original orchard was in good, vigorous condition and the scions generally made a good growth. It was, however, some years before any fruit was secured. The conse- quence was that the orchard was hardly in a condition for general experimentation until some eight or ten years after the Station was established. At this time much interest was felt by all fruit growers in the Russian varieties of apples which had been recently intro- duced by the Department of Agriculture and the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station. Great claims were made for these varieties as to their hardiness, fine quality, etc. In many instances fruit growers planted large orchards of these untested sorts. The re- sults were disastrous. While New York was more conservative in this respect than many of the newer states, some fruit grow- ers here felt that they were missing something if they did not plant these Russian sorts which, they were told, were better in quality and would be more profitable than varieties already cultivated. In the Eleventh Report of the Station the first report was made on these varieties and for some years this was a prominent feature of the horticultural work and one in which much interest was manifested. While some of the varieties were found to have value, many were worthless and very few were equal to other varieties under cultiva- tion. It was found that these fruits coming from the far north, while many of them were winter apples in Russia, were much earlier in maturing here. Several of the summer and fall varieties are retained and cultivated to a limited extent, but most have been [292] ; | New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT - STATION. 293 discarded by growers. The reports made on these fruits were quite detailed, were frequently tabulated for yield, blooming dates, etc., so that one variety could be compared with another for these char- acters. The varieties which were most promising were frequently illustrated. This seems a particularly valuable portion of the work owing to the fact that the varieties ‘were -badly mixed. Different shipments had been received from abroad and the same variety had been sent in under different names; conversely two varieties some- times appeared under the same name. The result was great con- fusion. Even where errors were found it was almost impossible to correct them. None felt able to say which of two'or more names might be the correct one in Russia. Consequently-these illustrations enabled the growers of Russian varieties to. find out, not if their varieties were correct according to name, but if they were the same as those which the Station had secured under that name. Later the American Pomological Society succeeded in straightening out this nomenclature. APPLE STORAGE, It was not until the Station was over twenty years old that any- thing was published on apples outside of what is already mentioned. The first record published on apples was on the storing of the fruit. The report showed that a complete.and very exhaustive study had been made of the subject, a large number of varieties having been tested and much information having been secured. by correspondence with buyers and storage men. This ‘bulletin is written primarily from the standpoint. of. the comparative value of different varieties. The varieties were considered for their keep- ing qualities both in cold storage and in storage where no re- frigeration was used. This comparison seemed particularly valuable because both means of keeping apples are used largely in New York. The information was published mainly in the form of tables; thus it was possible for any grower who desired to run down the list to determine within a reasonable limit of error at what time a variety might be expected to mature, how long it would keep in marketable condition, and a host of lesser points. If any variety had any weak- ness which would make it less valuable than it otherwise appeared, it was mentioned. Since the fruit house at the Station was quite similar to those on many other farms this work could be directly applied by all those who stored apples. It was found that the length of time a variety would keep depended on several factors: 294 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. First, degree of ripeness when picked; second, season; third, man- ner of picking, packing and handling; fourth, kind of storage; fifth, presence of fungi; sixth, temperature at which the fruit was stored. Some of these evidently the storer of fruit cannot change. It was found by correspondence with many of the large buyers who kept apples in cold storage that they have different temperatures at which they store different varieties; years of experience having shown them that each variety has a certain temperature which might be called its best storage temperature. Storage men do not agree exactly as to these temperatures but their conclusions are very close. A table! is given showing the different temperatures at which five of the leading storage men in the United States keep seventy-two dif- ferent varieties of apples. These temperatures do not vary widely from freezing, the lowest being 30° and the highest, 35°. At the latter end of the bulletin an alphabetical list is given of a large num- ber of varieties including all standard sorts and many others seldom or never marketed. Under each name the variety is discussed solely from the standpoint of storage. Some varieties have certain weak- nesses ; as the York Imperial which, while a good keeper, is apt to scald in storage. Scalding is a technical term applied to certain changes in the fruit not well understood which give it the appear- ance of having patches of the surface of the fruit exposed to in- tense heat. Such changes render fruit much less valuable and in some cases wholly worthless for the market, hence it is a point of importance in estimating the value of the variety. A valuable discussion is given on the question of treatment of a variety after it is picked so as to make it keep longest. It is stated that “the soil on which a tree grows makes a difference with the keeping quality of the fruit.” Baldwins grown on sandy or gravelly soil ripen earlier and must be picked earlier and do not keep so well as those on clay soils, although they have a higher color. The presence of various fungi is mentioned as a frequent cause of decay in fruit. “ Except for retarding the development of fungus, apples keep best with considerable moisture in the air,’ as this prevents them from shriveling as many varieties are apt to do. In recent years cold storage men have come to believe that apples should go into storage as soon as picked. Reports indicate that with many fall varieties, as McIntosh, Oldenburg, and others, it is desirable to go * Bul. 248; same in Rpt. 23:267 (1904). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 295 over the tree two or more times, thus picking the fruit when it is just the proper picking size and when it is the same degree of ripe- ness. It was found that with different varieties the effect of cold storage in prolonging the season beyond that of fruit kept in ordinary stor- age is not the same. Thus Missouri Pippin may be kept four months longer in cold storage than under the more common conditions, but York Imperial may be kept only one month longer, the average difference for all varieties being about sixty days, the effect being greater on winter and spring ripening varieties and less on those which mature earlier. The information secured by corresponding with men who store apples is tabulated. It is quite variable, as might be expected from the fact that the men are operating in different parts of the country. In this table are given the limits to which the various varieties will keep in chemical cold storage, in ice storage, and in cellar storage. The differences in the keeping season under the different meth- ods’ of treatment are also figured out. Chemical cold storage is evidently everywhere regarded as the best method of keep- ing apples and the statement is made that “so far as large com- mercial operations are concerned, ice storage is a thing of the past.” With some exceptions the correspondents favor varying the tempera- ture according to the variety. “A general principle can be detected running through and guiding practice in general. It is, that varie- ties that keep long and go down slowly, are held at about 31° to 32°, while earlier ripening varieties and those that do not keep so well are held one or two degrees higher, that is at 33° or 34°.” It is found that the earlier apples do not go down so quickly after coming out of storage if they are held at the higher temperature. Also fruit of a more open texture as Twenty Ounce, freezes at a higher temperature than more solid varieties like Baldwin. One man makes a practice of keeping large fruit one degree higher than medium sized fruit of the same variety. The temperatures recommended by various storage men are also tabulated. An inspection of this table leads one to suspect that in many instances the difference in treatment of the fruit is governed by the caprice of the storage man, as the differences are slight and many of them do not vary the treatment materially for different varieties. They all agree in accepting a temperature of from 30° to 35° as the best for apples. It seems generally agreed that the keep- ing quality of apples is affected considerably by the season, a cool 296 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. October being commonly regarded as favorable for the keeping of fruit. The kind of growing season that is most favorable is not generally agreed upon. “ Various fungus diseases are much worse some seasons than others.’ On account of the presence of these decay germs it is deemed advisable to get the fruit into storage and have it thoroughly chilled as soon as. possible, as this -treatment re- tards the development of the germs. Various kinds of deteriora- tion may precede decay in cold storage. These are scald, loss of quality, change of color, loss of firmness, becoming bitter in- skin, shriveling, becoming mealy and bursting. A list of those varieties most susceptible to each of these weaknesses is given, also a list of those which go down very quickly in storage. “ Varieties differ greatly in endurance of heat after having been picked and before going into storage.’’ Summer and-fall varieties are most affected in this respect and late keeping varieties least. Directions are given for the handling of each variety so as to get best results. : ““THE APPLES OF NEW YORK.” Shortly after the publication of Bulletin 248 on the keeping of apples in storage, the horticultural department commenced prepara- tion of the most ambitious work ever attempted by this department, possibly by any Station. This was the publicatiom of the two- volume work entitled “ The Apples of New York.” It is by all odds the most thorough work of its kind eyer published in America. In fact it is not probable that any individual or association of indi- viduals would ever consider it profitable to attempt such a work, all such endeavors being tacitly left to the province of the common- wealth. The expense was supplied by a specific legislative appropria- tion which provided for the printing of 19,000 copies of each volume. This work? is the culmination of over twenty years of investiga- tion, the studies really coinciding with the history of the Station. It is a summary of all the notes made and information gathered on the subject of apple growing.since the horticultural department of the Geneva Station was established. As has already been indicated, from time to time the behavior of various varieties in the Station orchards had been reported in the annual reports; but the work as a whole had never been brought together and summarized. The collection of varieties referred to was started by Professor Goff in * The Apples of New York, in 2 volumes, by Beach, Booth and Taylor, Rpt. 22:pt. 2 (1903). Dee eel dk pal ie epics al * New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. — 297 the year’ 1883. Each year additions were made to this collection and by 1900 it consisted of over 700 named varieties of apples and crabapples.. This report, however, contains not only the records of these various varieties as tested at the Station, but is combined with a mass of information secured by looking up all the available works on the subject of apple growing with particular reference to the value of the different varieties, and also information secured vy correspondence with a large number of growers throughout the State and with’ a smaller’ number outside the State. In addition ac- knowledgment is made of assistance of professional associates out- side the Station. ~ The work is divided into two volumes, the first including the in- troduction and the descriptions of the winter varieties of apples, the second including summer and fall varieties. The division between the two ‘classes is made at the season of the Tompkins King, all those of the same season and later going into the first volume and all of the earlier ones ‘going into the second volume. The intro- duction contains first a brief discussion of the apple from the botanical standpoint. The apple is stated to be indigenous to the old world but with American relatives, our native crabapples. Three ‘speciés of North American crabs are given and it is said that inthe case of one of them hybrids have been produced with the common apple. The others are sometimes used for preserves but are of no importance in cultivation. The hybrids referred to are considered valuable by us, only in the kitchen or for cider. The native homé of the apple is not definitely settled. De Candolle, a French botanist, who has devoted more attention than anyone else to study of the origins of cultivated fruits, and who is generally accepted as an authority, concludes that it is probably indigenous . to the region south of the Caucasus but that it has existed in Europe in both the wild and cultivated’ form*since prehistoric times. __ A history’ is given of the cultivation of the apple in New York State. It seems that the earliest settlers planted apple trees and, the region being well adapted to them, these thrived. “In fact, apple culture was carried by Indians, traders and white missionaries far into the wilderness beyond the outermost white settlement.” “Apple orchards were found, and in some cases remnants still exist, around the sites of the old Indian towns. ‘Most of the trees in the earlier plantings were seedlings, and while it is certain these earlier orchards did not bear the uniformly high-class fruit that we secure to-day, they were of great advantage in that the best of these seedlings were, 298 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. with the advent of the practice of grafting, taken to topwork other trees and thus became our standard varieties of to-day. It was gen- erally found that European varieties were less well adapted to our American climate than those which originated here. The prevalence of these seedling orchards gave ideal conditions for the selection of varieties better adapted to new world conditions than those secured from the old. Knowledge of the art of grafting, though probably known, was rare until after the Revolutionary War. The first nur- sery was established in this State at Flushing, L. I., about 1730. Other nurseries were established later, but it was not until about the middle of the nineteenth century that, due to the stimulus of a large demand for grafted trees for planting in commercial orchards, nurseries became common. It is stated that in the order of their commercial importance, the chief commercial varieties to-day are Baldwin, Rhode Island Green- mg and Northern Spy. The first two of these, it is said, supply two- thirds of the apples grown for the New York market. Other im- portant kinds whose relative value is more difficult to determine are Tompkins King, Roxbury, Golden Russet, Hubbardston, Esopus Spitzenburg and others of lesser prominence. A chapter® is given on the adaptation of varieties for particular regions. It is said, and supported by evidence, that practically all of the leading varieties grown in New York State to-day are of New York or New England origin. This may be expressed in the form of a law that varieties are adaptable to regions having about the same latitude as the one in which they originated. Some exceptions are noted, but they are few compared with the number which conform to the rule. Inside of this general law, however, there are many . minor differences in the thriftness of trees grown in different neighborhoods, due to differences in the soil, drainage, exposure and smaller differences in the climate. Neighborhoods are instanced in New York State where certain varieties do particularly well. The reason for these slight differences can not be definitely stated. The definition* of the term “variety” is discussed. They are divided into two classes: First, those secured by sexual reproduction, that is, seedlings; second, those which arise from asexual repro- duction, that is, bud sports. Practically all of our new varieties were secured by the first method. The propagation of the variety *The Apples of New York, 1:18 (1903). _*The Apples of New York, 1:20 (1903). is 2- New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 299 after it originates is invariably by the second method. The parentage of most of our varieties of apples is unknown, in fact in most cases we do not know from what variety the seed was secured, much less what variety the pollen came from that fertilized the ovule and produced the seed. Speculation is frequently indulged in on this point and varieties are credited with certain parentage on ac- count of their resemblance to the supposed parents, but this is always uncertain. It is said that varieties sometimes originate from bud sports, an occurrence not uncommon among ornamental plants. In spite of the great differences that exist amongst varieties, no two exactly duplicating each other, the writer is of the opinion that many varieties may be grouped together on account of having many points in common. Ten such groups are’ made, two of which are divided into subgroups. The varieties are most of them well known, and it is said that in like manner many other groups might be made. A paragraph® is given to the discussion of Russian apples. As far back as 1832, Kenrick, one of the early horticultural writers of this country, considers worthy of trial “two highly celebrated Rus- sian apples,” the Duchess of Oldenburg and Emperor Alexander, or Alexander as it is called today. The description of the individual varieties is prefaced by a chapter explaining the technical descriptions of fruit and tree. Incidentally the value of various characters as a means of distinguishing varie- ties is mentioned. In the descriptions of the varieties the names are arranged alphabetically and under each variety comes, first, a list of all those publications in which the variety is mentioned, or at least all those deemed of any importance. These citations have all been consulted before the description of the variety was written to see if there was any contradiction between the experience of the past as epitomized by standard works and that of the present day as secured at this Station and indicated by correspondence with numerous practical growers. Next is given a list of all the synonyms of that particular variety. It is astonishing, in the case of certain of the older varieties, how many different names can be applied to one sort of fruit. Age alone does not seem to determine this matter. The Baldwin, although over 150 years old, has only nine synonyms. The Newtown Spitzenburg, although probably not over 100 years old, is listed as having twenty-seven. In general, how- °*The Apples of New York, 1:23 (1903). ®*The Apples of New York, 1:25 (1903). 300 _.. TWENTY-FIFTH .ANNIVERSARY REPORT. ever, those varieties which originated after regular nurseries were established and trees generally bought already grafted, have a lesser number of synonyms than the. older sorts: The Northern Spy does. not seem to have been known by any. other name than the regular one, though this is sometimes contracted to Spy. - After the list of synonyms there is a paragraph giving a popular description of. the apple, the most striking points in its appearance being mentioned, its general quality, the uses to which it may be best put, and if there are. any particular weaknesses which: interdict its cultivation these are:mentioned. There then follows a brief histori- cal. account of the variety, more or less. complete, depending on whether such: information is known or not. In many cases, even with comparatively recent varieties, the history is obscure. Then follows technical- description, first of the: tree, then of the fruit. The historical and: technically descriptive paragraphs are printed in smaller.:type than the: popular description. . Thus arranged one may go through the volume reading the larger print alone and get a good general idea of the value of a variety without burdening oneself with the labor of:reading over a mass-of technical details, as to whether the buds of a particular variety project or whether they lay. close to.the twig, or whether the twig itself is gray or olive green, and other points of a similar nature, undoubtedly valuable but not of interest to the casual reader and apt to be very confusing unless separated from the regular text in the manner mentioned. | ‘Three hundred and twenty-two different varieties are described in Volume I. and.324 varieties-in Volume II: This last number in- cludes .twenty-nine -crabapples.: There are in both volumes 3,417 synonyms given. The illustrations are both half-tones: and. color plates. In the first volume there are forty half-tone figures of fruits and one general view, and eighty-three color-plate figures of fruits in one general view. The second volume contains thirty- seven half-tone plates, all figures of fruits, and forty-seven color plates, also all figures of fruits, making a total of 209 illustrations. A large part of the expense of issuing these reports and undoubtedly a large part of their value depends on these illustrations. They are .ll-figured from specimens of the variety, those selected being normal specimens. Each volume contains-an index, besides which there isa combined index for both volumes at the end of the second volume. Both proper names and synonyms are included in these indices, the proper name being in roman and the synonym in italics. — New York AGRICULTURAL. EXPERIMENT: STATION. 301 _ The volumes were distributed chiefly by the Legislature, 15,000 being divided among the various members of the two houses, 2,00c volumes were apportioned to the Department of Agriculture at Albany, the remaining 2,000 being apportioned to the Experiment Station for distribution. Of this latter number many were already promised to various fruit growers and others who aided in ec ing the data that went to make up the volumes. Many of the demands for the work could not be supplied, and on this account a bulletin was published, entitled ““ The Apple Districts of New York,” 7 which, while it manifestly could not. include all the matter contained in the two. preceding volumes, epitomized that which was of the greatest practical interest, and also included other matter designed to aid the fruit grower. The grouping of various varieties of apples, said groups including all varieties apparently similar or known to be related, had been suggested and partly car- ried out in ‘“‘ The Apples of New York.”. The object of this group- ing, aside from its general interest, is to aid those who wished to plant varieties unknown to them by indicating which of the known varieties they resembled. While it is not claimed that this work will ever be wholly satisfactory, in that many varieties which resemble each other in some particulars do not do so in others, it was hoped to do some good. The characteristics of the group are given, so far as known. Thus the Reinette group, one of the largest and subdivided into four sections, is characterized as follows: “With few exceptions, rather large in size; of green or yellow ground color, with or with- out blush, and generally of good quality. Nearly all of the members, with the exception of a few in the Newtown section, thrive in New York. Only a few varieties of this group, however, succeed in the northern district.. In the various sections of this group are included Fall Pippin, Holland Pippin, Lowell,.Maiden Blush, White Spanish Reinette, Northwestern Greening, Rhode Island Greening, Sweet Greening, Green Newtown, Grimes, Peck Pleasant, Yellow New- town, Seneca Favorite, Swaar, and many others less well known. Anyone who has any experience with apples is familier with all, or practically all, of these varieties, and if he found a new variety classed with a portion of them, would’ at once have an idea as to the characteristics of the unknown sort, - _In addition to the -above: there is included in this bulledan a "Bul. 275; also Rpt. 25:337-307 (1906). 302 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. division of the State into nine fruit districts this division being based on the natural flora of the different districts and the weather records as given by the Government Weather Bureau Stations. Lists of varieties of apples are given for each one of these districts. In each case the list is divided into three classes; first, those worthy of trial, that is, apples whose general characters appear to indicate adaptability to that section; second, those recommended, that is, tried to a limited degree; third, those well recommended, that 1s, apples tested for a sufficient length of time so that there can be no doubt as to their adaptation. The characters of the various districts, both as to soil and climatic conditions, are indicated in the text that precedes the list of varieties for each district. There is also presented a list of varieties tested at the Experiment Station and found unworthy of further trial in New York State, and a list of varieties not sufficiently tested to find a place in the descriptions of the apples of New York. The last pages of this bulletin contain a list of all varieties men- tioned, tabulated after the manner made popular by the American Pomological Society. Briefly, this consists of: First, a column giving the name of the variety; second, various columns giving size, form, color, flavor, quality, season, use and origin; third, a column for each apple district in New York State with a star or two stars, opposite a variety to indicate whether it is recommended for trial only or for more general planting. A dash indicates that the variety in question is not recommended for that district. The last, and perhaps most valuable, portion of the table is a column entitled “ Remarks.” Here there are crowded in, in small type, from three to fifteen words giving the salient features of the variety. For instance we find opposite the Ben Davis variety: “ Tree hardy, healthy, vigorous, productive. Lacking in quality.’ Opposite Esopus Spitzenburg is recorded: “ Lacks vigor. Uncertain in pro- ductiveness. Standard in quality. Adapted to some localities.” And so on. Six hundred and twenty-eight varieties of apples and crabapples are thus tabulated, including practically all that any fruit grower would ever have occasion to look up. THINNING APPLES The question of thinning fruits is one that has been agitated by fruit growers everywhere; especially has this been the case since * Bul. 275, p. 18. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 303 higher prices and more careful grading have stimulated the growing of fruit of better quality. Commercial peach growers generally fol- low this practice to-day, and that it is a profitable horticultural pro- cedure is apparently well established. The thinning of apples, how- ° ever, has never become common. Whether this is due to the fact that an apple tree full of fruit is not benefited to the same extent by having the surplus fruit removed as a peach tree would be or whether it comes from the greater expense of the thinning of the larger trees is not evident. To test the advisability of thinning apples as a horticultural prac- tice an investigation? was started in 1896 and continued for four seasons thereafter. This work was done in a commercial orchard some distance from the Station grounds, the object being to approxi- mate the same conditions as those of the practical fruit grower. The trees were all mature, ranging from twenty-five to forty years in age. In each case where a tree was thinned another tree of the same variety, and as nearly like it as could be found, was taken as a check for comparison. At the close of the experiment the conclusions were as follows: No exact rule for thinning apples can be given, the requirements varying with age, size and season. In general, after all wormy and otherwise inferior specimens were removed and not more than one fruit from each cluster was left, additional fruit should be removed if the apples are less than six inches apart. Early thinning gave best results and the writer advises that the work be done within three or four weeks after the fruits set even if the June drop is not yet completed. No method of raking or jarring the fruit from the trees is recommended. One of the most valuable things about thinning is that the in- ferior specimens are removed and this discrimination can only be done by hand. Wherever the trees were well filled with fruit, thinning improved the color and size and consequent market value. The thinned fruit graded higher in all respects than that which was unthinned. There was no material change in either the amount or regularity of fruit production. In this respect the results were rather surprising as it was anticipated that preventing the tree from overbearing would increase the yield on the off years. It is stated that “the cost of thinning mature trees which are well loaded should not exceed fifty cents per tree and probably would average less than that. Although a given number of fruits can * Rpt. 15:378 (1896). 304 TWENTY-FIFTH. ANNIVERSARY REPorRT. be thinned faster than an equal number can be picked when ripe it has required about as much time to thin a tree as it has to harvest the ripe fruit.” The thinned fruit, being of a higher. grade, is ' particularly well adapted for marketing in boxes or in any other way appealing to the fancy trade. “ Thinned apples can be handled more economically than unthinned apples because they. have pro- portionately less of those grades which form the least profitable part of the crop, namely, the No. 2’s, the drops, and the culls. The general conclusion was that it would pay to thin apples where there is a large crop set and the chance for small fruit very great. Otherwise it would not pay except in those instances where fruit is removed to prevent the breaking of the tree. 7 WINTER. INJURY,.TO, FRUIT. TREES” In a bulletin on this subject “are given the results of a study of the injury resulting from the extreme climatic conditions of the season of 1903-4. The writer states that the growing conditions during the summer of 1903 “ were not normal and altogether favor- able. Insects and fungus epidemics were serious.” It was a com- bination of the unfavorable growing season with the extremely cold winter which followed that injured or killed many trees, the peach and pear suffering more than the others. The writer states that winter injury is usually classified under three heads: Root injury, trunk injury, and branch injury. The first of these, while quite common in some of our western states, is very rare in New York. Trunk injury “may be due to the freezing, causing death or injuries within the trunk or limbs of the active tissue, known as cambium.” This cambium, which is the growing part of the tree, is capable of withstanding a great deal of cold. Injury of this kind was, however, quite common in New York State in 1904. Branch injury is the killing back of the twigs and younger branches. It is stated that this occurs ’‘commonly every year, the amount of such injury depending largely upon how well the wood ripen in the autumn. A general Hieedesian is given of the cause of the changes which take place in tissue injured by frost and attention is drawn to the fact that the readiness with which such injury takes place depends largely upon the amount of water in the wood. It is stated that itis impossible to say how much cold any ‘given tree will: stand, ? Bul. 269; also Rpt. 24:215 (1905). ° ‘saiddy NO DNINNIH J, 40 Loaddy ~ AX SLVId ‘pouuly | ‘pouuryyuy) New York. AGRICULTURAL. EXPERIMENT STATION. 305 ¥ this depending wholly upon the condition of the tree. At the end of the winter the trees showed no sign of injury, visible from the : outside. Upon. cutting into the trunk, however, it would be found that both bark and wood were discolored for some depth. Men- tion is made of the alarm that was felt by fruit growers when this was found to be the case. Their fears were exaggerated, for many of the trees so discolored lived and made a good growth during the summer of 1904. The younger trees generally suffered less than the older trees, and those on higher ground showed less injury from the cold also. With peach trees over seven or eight years old the injury was very serious. Trees that were injured or killed showed the injury in various ways; sometimes it appeared that, the winter had killed the trees outright for they showed no sign of life in the spring. In other cases the injury showed itself more gradually. The fruit buds were frequently so seriously in- jured that there was no crop the following year. Injury of all kinds was particularly noticeable amongst those trees planted in a depression where the water on the surface of the soil would collect and where the cold air would settle. The opinion of various practical growers is published as to the ability of various varieties to withstand cold. The grower is warned not to cut out trees at once as many times those trees will grow and even bear fruit, although they appear to be very seriously injured in the spring. Many trees were pruned in various manner in the spring to see if this would have any effect on the quantity of fruit borne. It was found that in the case of young peach trees a severe pruning, even to the cutting back of large limbs, was ap- parently advantageous. The same treatment on old trees was a failure and it was further found that the presence of a crop of fruit seemed to retard the natural healing of the injured trees. It is ad- vised when trees have been injured to prune them at least lightly in all cases, making the pruning more vigorous with young and vigorous trees. as | ) | GRAPES. As has already been indicated, the horticultural department of the Station was considerably hampered during the first few years of its existence by the lack of fruit plantations; this applied especially to grapes. A’ vineyard was planted in 1882, and almost every year thereafter, new, varieties were added. In the Fifth Annual Report!! the statement is made that ten of these varieties had 4 Rpt. 5:167 (1886). 306 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. fruited. It was some years after this date, however, before the vines became sufficiently mature so that the different sorts might be compared with one another and a proper judgment made of their vigor, quality, fruitfulness and other characters. In the report for 1890 much attention is paid to the grape. This is undoubtedly due in part to the stimulation that had been given to the growing of grapes in America by the recent introduction of the practice of spraying from France. In fact a large part of this report is de- voted to the use of fungicides and a description of the various fungus troubles peculiar to the grape. The bulletin is largely quoted from other publications, especially those of the Department of Agriculture. Descriptions, however, are given of forty-five varieties, which are divided according to their color into black, white and red grapes. These descriptions are popular in their nature, and while they do not describe the variety so that it might be separated from a closely resembling one, they bring out all those characters, good cr bad, of importance to the grower, such as vigor or weakness in the vine, susceptibility to cer- tain diseases, quality, if the same is particularly good or particularly bad, and other points of a similar nature. After this time these descriptions became features of the reports. For some years a large number of varieties, including many comparatively unknown, are described in detail. That this work had considerable value to the prospective planter there can be no doubt. Few or none of the newer varieties proved as good as standard sorts, and many that were much advertised were found to be worthless and prospective planters were warned accordingly. This work soon grew beyond mere variety testing. In the report? for 1893 there was included, with the description, the botanical species of each variety. When this was not known absolutely, the reason was usually stated for placing it in a particular class. As will be appreciated by anyone who has studied grape literature, such descriptions as these are of interest to others besides the botanist. Although there are many species of grapes indigenous to North America, only three of them have so far furnished varieties worthy of cultivation in New York, and each of these three shows characters of fruit and vine widely dissimilar. The Labrusca, or Fox grape of New England, is the only one which has given varieties good for eating. To this species belong “Rpt. 12:617 (1803). SS == ee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 307 the Concord, Moore Early, Niagara, and many others. The vines grow quite vigorously in our northern states but sometimes winter kill. Practically none of them flourish further south where the summers are longer and the sunshine more intense. The Riparia, or River Bank grape, is very widely distributed, growing almost all over the United States, and is readily recognized by its thin, almost translucent, leaves, small canes and small dark blue or black berries heavily covered with bloom. None of the pure Riparias are good table grapes but many of them make good wine. In spite of their sour taste the wine maker finds that their juice contains more sugar than the sweeter tasting Labrusca. The Aestivalis, or Summer grape, as it is commonly called, is like the last in that no varieties which are purely of this species are popular with the public for eating. The juice makes a good wine and the varieties generally are somewhat stronger growing than those of the Riparia class. One of the great advantages of varieties of this species is that the leaves will not sunburn, a point, however, of practically no importance to the New York grower. Besides these three American species there is the Vites vinifera, or European grape. This species, having been cultivated for thousands of years, furnishes both wine and table grapes. Unfortunately, however, owing to attacks of various mildews and insects, the European grape can not be grown successfully east of the Rocky mountains in North America. It is frequently crossed with Ameri- can species to improve their quality, usually, however, with the effect of making them less able to resist disease. Thus it will be seen that the question of the species of any variety of grape is a very important one and of horticultural as well as of botanical in- terest. No description of a variety of grape is considered complete to-day unless the species is given. TESTING SEEDLING GRAPES. In connection with this work seedlings were frequently raised, as it was found that in many cases some light could be thrown on the probable parentage, and hence species of a grape, by planting its seeds, the resulting seedlings frequently reverting to ancestral types. In the course of a few years many thousands of seedlings were raised. This was not wholly for diagnostic purposes, but also in the hopes of originating new varieties of value, or at least of finding how such varieties might be produced. Most originators of varieties of grapes have thought too much 308 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. |<. of quality of fruit in estimating their seedling grapes and have not given due regard to vigor of vine.and freedom from disease. On this account all of the seedlings raised on the Station, were, from’ the time when they were very small, left unsprayed in positions where fungus diseases were prevalent. In the same manner they were left to take their chances in the winter without any. pro- tection. Naturally many thousands died, but the surviving ones were able to withstand all vicissitudes incident to the life.of a grape in this section. ae Pe tt Besides this natural selection an artificial selection was made of the stronger plants, that is the weaker ones were discarded as soon as they showed their weakness. It was found that it was, hopeless to nurture naturally weak plants with the thought that they would become stronger with age. . In some cases, for the sake of. infor- mation, especially weak plants were selected and. kept as long as six years with no material improvement. This showed plainly that weakness in seedling grapes was generally, if not always, due to inherent weakness in the constitution of that particular vine and was not due to minor accidents, such as getting a poor start, etc. It was generally found that the larger seeds produced more vigor- ous seedlings. Certain parents and certain crosses always gave weak seedlings. . In a like manner certain other parents and certain other crosses usually gave strong seedlings. Since seedling grapes have to be six or eight years old before their fruiting capacity can be correctly judged, a report upon this experiment has not yet been made. Many plants were discarded during the first year of their growth, and many others were thrown out later. Of those that showed sufficient vigor and health to be worthy of further trial, 723 are now growing in a separate vineyard on the Station grounds. A detailed record of these will be made some time in the near future. RINGING GRAPE VINES. Another bit of grape investigation very valuable in its - way, although the results were not positive, was the ringing’? of grapes. The ringing or girdling of fruit trees or vines is a practice -that is very old and frequently advised by amateur horticulturists but not practiced by practical fruit growers in America. This investi- gation extended through two seasons. The practice of ringing * Bul. 151 and Rpt. 17:510 (1898). ‘SWOAWAUHLNVSAUHD) JO HIMOYD-LOOY NO SWALS ONIONIY AO Lodddy] — TAX ALVIg ypooyD “SULSULI ole] “SULSULL AT Ie ay , PLATE XVII.— Some Baccep GRAPE CLUSTERS, SHOWING DIFFERENCES IN SELF- FERTILITY. Te ae we ee ee Te ee eT ; ) New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 309 grapevines consists, according to the writer, “in removing a ring of bark from the bearing arm about an inch wide.” The effect sought in ringing is to: produce earlier ripening of the fruit and larger bunches and berries. An illustration is given of the instru- ment used and also of that portion of the vine which had been ringed. The general’ results showed that the differences between the fruit on the ringed and unringed canes were largely a matter of season. “ The first season the effect on the fruit of some varie- ties was very marked. Fruit on ringed vines of Empire State was not only larget in both bunch and berry but began ripening twenty- one days before fruit of unringed vines.” Other varieties showed no such differences. The fruit’of some varieties showed a lack of quality when ringed and others showed a greater tendency to crack. The writer is of the opinion, while admitting the devitalizing effects of this practice on the vine, that, judiciously prackiced, “it need not result disastrously.” The general results are: too inconclusive to indicate either that ringing is desirable for those who wish’ to grow superior fruit, or that it should not be practiced. The results are chiefly of value as furnishing a good answer to the oft-repeated advice to girdle various kinds of fruits with the expectation of securing abnormal crops. While it may be generally taken for granted that any horticultural practice which has been known as long as ringing does not offer any great rewards or it would be more generally used, nevertheless it is sometimes quite difficult to point out to some over-enthusiastic fruit grower wherein his methods fail, or where evidence can be found to prove its exact value. FERTILITY- OF GRAPES. ‘One of the grape questions taken up by the Station at a com- paratively early day’ was that of self-fertility or self-sterility of varieties. In order to appreciate what this Station did in an investi-_ gation ‘on this subject, it would be necessary to récapitulate what was previously known. Engelmann and other botanists who studied the grape had found that both among the wild and the cultivated sorts there were many which were not capable of bearing fruit when standing alone; that is, pollen fromm another vine is required in order that fruit should be borne. One or two cultivated varieties were known to be self-sterile and others were supposed to be so. No one had ever tested any large number of varieties-to determine their capacity in this respect. 310 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. The first phase'* of this work started by this Station was the sacking of clusters on grapevines before blooming time to de- termine if the variety whose cluster was sacked was capable of bear- ing fruit without foreign pollen. It was soon found that varieties of grapes could not be divided arbitrarily into two classes, self- sterile and self-fertile, but that there were various degrees of self- sterility and self-fertility. One variety would set a perfect bunch | of fruit in the sack, another would set a bunch with many of the berries lacking and the bunch consequently looser than those on the same vine which set outside the sacks. Others, as has already been mentioned, would set no fruit at all if the blossoms were covered. From the data gathered lists were published in which the grapes are divided into four classes: The first, all those varieties which set perfect bunches in sacks; the second, those which set bunches some- what loose but not sufficiently so as to be unmarketable; third, those whose bunches were so loose as to be unmarketable; and fourth, those producing no berries or practically no berries from the covered blossoms. “ With many varieties the degree of self-fertility is not an unchangeable characteristic even when the vines appear to be in a normally productive condition, but varies under differences of environment. Many other varieties which have been under obserya- tion showed practically no variation in this respet. Usually where no variation in self-fertility is observed with a variety it is confined within rather narrow limits.” One hundred and sixty-nine varieties were included in the lists given in Bulletin 157, in which the varieties were divided as above indicated. It was found in later investigations! in which varieties were hand pollinated with the pollen of various other sorts, that varie- ties which are themselves self-sterile do not make good pollen- izers for other self-sterile sorts, and that the value of a variety as a furnisher of pollen for fertilizing is almost identical with its self-fertilizing “capacity. The rule was consequently deduced that a strongly self-fertile variety should always be taken as a pol- lenizer for self-sterile sorts. Thus if one wish to plant Brighton, a quite popular variety in some neighborhoods, although it is practically self-sterile, Wyoming Red would not do for a fertil- izer because it is also self-sterile and these two varieties planted “Bul. 157; also in Rpt. 17:518 (1898). * Bul. 169; also in Rpt. 18:361 (1899). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 311 together and away from other vines would produce no fruit. But if Cottage, Delaware, Diamond, Diana, Mocre Early, Niagara, or any other strongly self-fertile sort be planted beside the varieties mentioned, then fruit could be expected. When the pollen of different varieties was taken into the labor- atory, it was found that under the artificial conditions there given, the pollen of the self-sterile sorts would not germinate, while the pollen of the self-fertile sorts always showed a high percentage of germinations, and it was further found that the percentage of germinations was in direct proportion to the capacity of the variety for self-fertilizing itself, as indicated in the previous vineyard tests, that is, all those varieties which were partially self-fertile showed a pollen in which only part of the grains would grow. When examined under the microscope it was found that those grains which were self-fertile were of different shape from those which were self- sterile. From this information we can tell at once whether a variety is self-sterile or self-fertile by examining the pollen, without the necessity of bagging clusters in the vineyards. As a corollary of this work it was found desirable to note the blooming season of the various varieties’ since it was evident that two varieties must be in bloom at the same time if it is expected that the one should fertilize the other. Lists were!® consequently published giving the approximate blooming season of all those varieties included in the previous investigation. COVER CROPS FOR ORCHARD. Owing to the fact that in many of the fruit-growing neighbor- hoods of New York State orchards have been cultivated for years and the humus in the soil more or less exhausted, the renewal of this supply of humus is a vital problem to all fruit growers. Humus, be it understood, is vegetable mold coming from decaying plants and is found in ail soils. Soils in which the humus content is deficient are unsatisfactory for the raising of fruit. Supplying the humus by hauling barnyard manure or other vegetable matter upon the land is not only expensive but in many neighborhoods is absolutely impossible owing to the fact that such manure can not be secured. Great interest is consequently felt in the question of cover crops, cover crops being the term implied to indicate any crop grow- ing in the orchard, usually through the latter part of the growing * Bul. 169; also in Rpt. 18:361 (1899). 312 ' TwENTy-FirrH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. season, designed for the purpose of allowing the plaiits either to fall upon the ground when they are killed by the winter, or, if they survive the winter, to be turned under the following spring with the intention of thus creating a continual supply of humus. “Another advantage to be gained by the use of cover crops is that some kinds of plants may be used for this purpose by which the amount of nitrogen compounds in the soil may be increased.” In the Fifteenth Annual Report?” of this Station the results are givett of a series of trials of several crops for this purpose. The crops were as follows: Mixtures of Canada peas and buckwheat, blue peas and buckwheat, cowpeas and buckwheat, or winter vetch and winter rye, and sweet clover, mammoth clover, sainfoin and dwarf Essex-rape. Since the object of the cover crop is to add humus to the soil, and since the humus is produced by the decay of the, plant itself, then it is evident that the most satisfactory cover crop, other things being equal, is the one which makes the greatest erowth, that is, produces the most humus. It follows necessarily from this that the best cover crop in one neighborhood might not be the best in another owing to the plants comprising the cover crop being better adapted to the one section than to the other. There are some other points also that have to be considered. There ate cer- tain plants which make a good growth but are barred out of use as cover crops owing to their tendency to become weeds. Sweet clover (Melilotus alba) is, in some neighborhoods, in this class. Others, like rye, are sometimes avoided because they form such a dense sod as to render the orchard very difficult of cultivation. The mixture of Canada peas and buckwheat- was found to be very satisfactory, the only possible objection being that the exceed- ingly rank growth, averaging nearly two and a half feet. in the latter part of September, interfered rather seriously with the gath- ering of the fruit: This was found particularly obectionable on wet days. The plat planted to this crop had been previously: planted to crimson clover which: had failed. The plat of blue peas and buckwheat, while: not standing: quite so thick upon-the ground, made. fully.as good a growth. It is sus- pected, however, that it is somewhat more -difficult to get a stand with the blue: peas. than with the Canada peas. 2 vox The mixture of cowpeas’ and buckwheat looked quite well, chiefly, however, from the appearance given by the buckwheat ‘since ™ Rpt. 15:440 (1896). . : Sse New York ‘AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 313 it is stated that this formed the principal part of the cover crop. The cowpeas killed much earlier in the fall than either the blue peas or Canada peas. | The mixture of winter vetch and winter rye was, in many re- spects, very satisfactory. A good stand was secured. “This makes an excellent cover crop because it forms a perfect mat of vegetation over the-ground and does not grow tall enough to interfere with the gathering of fruit which ripens as late as winter apples.” The sweet clover did not do well under the shade of the trees, the orchard being. an old one and the ground considerably shaded. Mammoth clover was quite satisfactory although the substance furnished was not as great as in the case of most of the preceding mixtures. . Sainfoin makes a short spring growth whose ‘value is probably quite similar to that of mammoth clover. Dwarf Essex rape made the rankest growth of all, being -about two and a half feet with the broad leaves lying close together. As in a previous case this-was found disadvantageous in gathering the fruit. It was also found that field mice were inclined to harbor in this abundant vegetation and incidentally to injure the trees. Of all the cover crops it was decided that the mixture of winter vetch and winter rye was probably the best, all things considered, for bearing orchards; however, the mammoth clover gave almost as good results. Crimson: clover, although not used in this-experiment, has been tried at the Station many times. For this neighborhood it is de- cidedly unsatisfactory; as it is difficult to secure a stand, and the clover does well on dense clay soils and often winter-kills. SMALL FRUITS. _ The raising and testing of small fruits was one of the first in- vestigations undertaken by the horticultural department of this Station. The reasons for this are obvious. It would take some years to raise apple and pear trees large enough for experimental purposes, but small fruit plantations could be established in much less time. In the spring of 1882 plantings were made of raspberries, currants and strawberries. Some of the plants fruited the next year and ‘were reported upon in the Second Annual Report of the Station. From this time on, notes on small fruits, and in particular, descriptions of varieties, were a regular feature of the Station re- forts. While these were undoubtedly of great value’at the time, 314 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. many of the varieties described are now out of cultivation and it is consequently difficult to judge of the merit of these reports. There were included in these descriptions blooming and fruiting seasons of the various varieties, usually tabulated, detailed descrip- tions of the fruit itself very frequently, besides a host of minor investigations as to the value of irrigation for small fruits, com- parative merit of row system as compared with hill system for strawberries, etc. During the first ten years of the Station’s existence the greater portion of work on small fruits was on the strawberries, many varieties being reported on every year. Later blackberries, rasp- berries, currants and gooseberries came more into prominence. The currants and gooseberries were worked up quite thoroughly from the botanical as well as from the horticultural standpoint. In these two fruits we have both European and American species represented in the varieties under cultivation. As in the case of the grapes, the European species show greater susceptibility to fungus attacks than the American ones. This is compensated for in a degree by a superior quality of fruit. In the first report issued by this Station the subject of huckle- berries!§ was taken up, the horticulturist stating “it will hardly be denied that the huckleberry possesses better natural qualities than either the currant or gooseberry, yet the latter have been cultivated for centuries while the former has received very little attention — the reasons for this neglect do not appear.” Quotations from corre- spondence and from newspaper articles are given to prove that it is possible to cultivate huckleberries successfully, the chief difficulty being apparently that the seeds germinate and the plants mature very slowly, not bearing until they are from three to five years old; also, it is said that the dry seeds soon lose their vitality. There is considerable opportunity for confusion in discussing this subject owing to the fact that there are several plants quite different botanically, which in various portions of the United States pass under the name of huckleberry. Three of these are known botan- ically as Vaccinium corymbosum, V. pennsylvanicum and V. gaylus- sacia resinosa. Eight full grown plants of the first two species were transplanted to the Station gardens in the spring of 1882, and five of them grew, one of which blossomed but set no fruit. The next year a good many seeds of the huckleberry were planted and the * Rpt. 1:145 (1882). LS Or ee i citi beanie nie NEw YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 315 older plants made a quite vigorous growth. Two years later it is ’ noted that the bushes in this plantation were still alive and that some fruit was matured. The difficulty was found in growing seed- lings, the young plants being very delicate and requiring the most careful treatment. An examination of the flower showed that pollen was present in considerable quantities and that there was nothing in the structure of the flower apparently to forbid artificial crossing. After five years it is stated that no success had been at- tained in growing huckleberry seedlings, the young plants failing to develop under all methods tried. “The immense natural plantations of the various species of this fruit, which must largely be produced from seed, proved beyond question that when the secret of their culture is once learned there should be no trouble in growing the seedlings.” It is stated that further efforts would be made in this direction but there is apparently no record of the results and there are no plants on the Station grounds to-day to indicate success. Possibly the reason for these repeated failures may lie in the fact that lime is present in the soil in too large quantities for this fruit. Professor Lazenby of Ohio advanced the idea some years ago, which he sup- ported with much evidence, that certain species of huckleberries will not grow in limestone soils or in any soils in which lime is present in large quantities. AN EXPERIMENT IN SHADING STRAWBERRIES. During the later nineties the question of the advisability of shad- ing certain crops from the sun by the use of cloth covers was much agitated. On this account an experiment was started to determine the effect of shading on strawberries. This experiment was carried on for two seasons in three localities. The results!® indicated that under New York conditions, a covering of cheesecloth did not have a very marked effect on the resultant crop. “Only when thin cheesecloth was used was any increase in yield obtained, while with a moderately heavy cheesecloth there was a marked decrease. In no case was the increase in yield sufficient to pay for the added cost of shading which was estimated to be about $350 per acre.” The writer states that the results secured by other investigators else- where were more favorable than those obtained in this experiment. * Bul. 246; also in Rpt. 23:229 (1904). 316 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. The practice, however, according to the same authority, has never become general. a An estimated account was given of the cost of Re straw- berries with mention of the annoyances caused by wind’ tearing cloth, etc. Tables are appended giving the temperatures for morn- ing, noon and evening of outside air, air under cloth, and of soil three and one-half inches below ‘the surface, under cloth and out- side. Investigations showed that there was slightly more moisture in the soil under the cloth than was found in similar: positions in the strawberry bed outside, but the difference was very: slight. The evaporation was found to be about only one-half as~ great under -the cloth: as outside. On this account one of the persons conducting the experiment off the Station grounds advises that if cloth is to be used for this purpose “it be removed after a rain until the leaves had become dried.” ‘The protection from frost was quite noteworthy ; in one case where frost occurred at:the time when the bed was covered, plants outside showed considerable injury, while those underneath the. cloth were practically unharmed. “In this case the injury was chiefly to. the buds, 85 per ct.of those out- side showing the effects of the frost, wie only 7 me ct. of those covered showed any injury. In the case of one variety the plat under the cloth: was consider- ably more affected by leaf blight. This variety, the Hunn, is’ stated to be very susceptible to disease. Mildew was also found, in one locality, to be more prevalent on the shaded plants than those un- shaded. It was thought, however, that this can be prevented by withdrawing the cloth after a rain as is mentioned above. - Analysis of the berries showed that those grown under the cloth “were much less sweet, but this was not dué to the presence of more acid but of very much less sugar, the acid being slightly less in the shaded than in the unshaded berries.” ee A discussion is given as to the general effect of shading plants and of the “ general applicability of shading as a cultural practice.” The writers. are of the opinion that the climate of New York State is not such that this would be generally recommended, at' least so far as strawberries are concerned. They state that the greatest success has attended the shading of “crops grown for aerial vege- tative parts.’ Tobacco, rhubarb, celery, lettuce, dandelion, swiss chard and asparagus are cited as instances. They state further that a climate, where there “is a high percentage of sunshine and rather — light rainfall, and a considerable wind ‘with’ a consequently high IVY ALVIS LV LIN dO LWIHXY —[ITAX FLvIg ¥ NEw York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. S17 rate of evaporation, is one in which the shading of appropriate crops would probably give good results.” Such conditions do not prevail -in New York. PLANT BREEDING. The various problems connected with breeding of plants, such as blooming dates, pollenization and fertilization of blossoms, selection of parents, etc., have occupied the attention of the horticultural department ‘ever since the Station was established. At the close of the second year observations were made tending to show that cross fertilization™® is exceedingly common in the case of our common varieties of vegetables and flowers. Seeds gathered from plants of the pepper, tomato, bean, balsam, petunia, zinnia, phlox, dianthus and aster growing on the Station grounds, and which had shown themselves to be true to name, showed evidence of mixing when planted the succeeding year. “It seems entirely safe to say that as a rule to which there are few exceptions, different varieties of vege- tables are sure to become mixed if grown, for seed, adjacent to each other. In consideration of this fact, we are inclined to won- der that purchased seeds so often produce plants true to type.” Such observations are of interest in that they show the necessity of having more or less isolation when it is desired to save the seed. In most cases it would simply mean that the farmer would prefer to buy the seed rather than take the trouble necessary in keeping it pure; this being undoubtedly the cheapest method where only small quantities of seed are desired. It was also found by investigation that there was a great difference in the natural vigor of certain plants, that is, the value of seed would depend largely upon the vigor of the parents from which they were secured. Seed was gathered from two plants of the Little Gem tomate. One of these plants was markedly vigorous, the other equally marked for its lack of vigor. Seed was saved from the resulting progeny for three generations, the offspring of the feeble plant becoming more feeble with each generation until at the close of the experiment they “ were scarcely more than one-fourth of the size of the vigorous ones.” Equally disastrous results followed the selection of immature seed for the same length of time, the injury appearing, as in the former case, to be cumulative and resulting in ultimate destruction of the plant. One of the first crossing experiments carried on by this Station was that of the French upright or tree tomato crossed with several 7 Rpt. 2:222 (1883). 318 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. varieties of the spreading type. It was thought that the French upright, owing to its shape and character of growth, had many ad- vantages for a garden tomato, its chief disadvantage being that it ripened so late. The object of the cross, therefore, was to combine the desirable qualities of both types. At the end of the first season it was thought that they were in a fair way to accomplish this end, but disappointment evidently came later. It was noticed that the French upright was more prepotent than the spreading garden type as the majority of the offspring resembled the former type. As this has been taken by investigators later as one of the best plants for illustrating Mendel’s Law, it is strange that some thought of the proportions in which the different types were represented in the offspring did not occur to these investigators. However, they were after new and superior varieties rather than demonstrations of any laws of breeding. One of the fruits crossed by the Station was the strawberry. At different times, the work having extended over several years, 1,700 seedlings, both parents being known in every case, were raised upon the Station grounds and fruited. Most of these were discarded at the close of the first fruiting year. Others were saved for further testing. Ultimately, however, all were discarded, they being deemed less valuable than already existing varieties. The percentage of valuable plants among these seedlings is said to have been very small and peculiarly few of the seedlings resembled their parents. One of the interesting things in the crossing of plants is what is known as xenia. This is a name given to those instances where pollen of one variety when placed upon the flower of another variety so changes the fruit that it resembles that of the plant from which the pollen came. Instances of this in corn and other plants had been observed many years ago and occasional cases had been noted amongst fruits. In all the various crosses of strawberries, grapes and other plants carried on at this Station, not a single instance had been noted of the occurrence of xenia. A question that came up incidentally with the preceding investi- gation was that of the effect of rainfall upon pollination. This was a joint experiment between S. A. Beach of this Station and D. G. Fairchild of the United States Department of Agriculture. In this experiment two Dutchess grapes and two Mt. Vernon pear trees were sprayed continually with a Vermorel nozzle attached to an ordinary garden hose so as to produce an artificial rain. Observa- tions were made from time to time as to the condition of the blos- NEw YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 319 soms. In the case of the pear tree mentioned pollen was found on the stigmas and pollen taken from fresh anthers germinated in artificial solutions. In comparing the sprayed with the unsprayed portions of the tree it was evident that the continuous spraying retarded the development of the flowers very materially. The effect on the foliage was very disastrous. The total length of time which the pear tree was kept wet was nine days and three hours. The tree bore only one fruit. In the case of the grape the effect was similar to that of the pear. The same marked retarding of the development of the flowers was observed and the same in- jurious effect to the foliage, though in a lesser degree. A micro- scopic examination of the pollen after eleven days’ exposure to the spray disclosed no injury. Unfortunately the spray was not con- tinued during the whole blossoming period so the effect. on the resulting crop could only be inferred. It was noticed that the clus- ters borne by the sprayed vine had more abortive berries than those from the check vine alongside. Other work done on the crossing of plants was that of the cross- ing of grapes for which see page 307. FERTILIZERS FOR HORTICULTURAL CROPS. Some work had been done by the horticultural department at different times to determine how much and what sorts of fertilizers should be used on various horticultural crops. Years ago numerous analyses were made by the chemical department of fruit trees growing in the nursery, the object being to determine the quantity of each element taken up by the trees during the first few years of growth. The results are published in tabular form.*? Coincident with these a series of questions was sent out to a large number of nurserymen asking for observations as to the effect of following one nursery stock with another upon the same land; whether it is material as to what stock should follow another; and whether farm crops can be grown successfully upon land from which nursery stock has just been removed. The opinion was practically unani- mous that good nursery stock could not be raised upon land which had just been used for that purpose. Pear trees were mentioned as being particularly exhaustive to the soil. However, after an interval of some years the land apparently recovers and can be used Rpts. 10:162 (1891); 11:173 (1892). 320 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. again. Stone fruits following seed fruits gave much better results than the reverse rotation. In reply to the second inquiry, it was unanimously agreed that excellent grain crops could be raised upon land from- which nursery stock had just been removed. FERTILIZER ELEMENTS IN FRUIT CROPS. Later, an investigation™* was made to determine the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime and magnesia used in one growing season by bearing fruit trees. From one to three varieties of apples, peaches, pears, plums, and quinces were selected for this test. The writers call attention to the fact that the results given by analyses of the plant do not perhaps correctly indicate the actual amount of plant-food required, since excess of any element might be taken up on account of its plentifulness in the soil, and on the other hand, if certain elements were more plentiful in the soil, they might -be taken up in larger quantity to the benefit of the plant. They are of the opinion, however, that multiplication of data of this kind is valuable since an approximate idea is gained of. the quantity of plant-food required-- The different kinds of fruits are considered separately. Tables are presented giving the analyses of fruit, leaves and new wood in the case of apples, pears and quinces ; and fruit pulp, stones, leaves and new wood in the case of peaches; and fruit pulp, stones, stems, leaves and new wood in the case of plums. From these analyses an estimate is made of the amount of fertilizer that should be applied to the ground in which fruit trees are growing each year in order that there will be no depletion of the plant-food in the soil. This information is given in the form of tables, one of which is appended below. The amount of plant-food used by the trees, branches and roots in increasing their size is not included in these analyses. It is stated that if the soil were absolutely destitute of these forms of plant-food, this would be the minimum amount that should be supplied. Since, however, no soils are absolutely lacking: in any form of plant-food, account must be taken of the relative amounts of these plant nutrients already in the soil. A statement is made that “we can ascertain what we want to know about the amount of available plant-food the soil can furnish only by rather crude experimenting.” ™* Bul. 265; same in Rpt. 24:255-275 (1905). New Yorn AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 321 AMOUNTS OF PLANT-Foop Usep Per AcnrrE. a wae Number of = Phosphorie | Potash Lime | Magnesia! Variety. trees an acre. Nitrogen. | acid (Pz Os).| (K20) | (CaO). (Mgo), Lbs. ds Lbs Lbs. Lbs PAP Oe tos aah rae 35 515 14.0 55.0 57.0 23.0 TESOL See oe oe One 120 74.5 18.0 72.0 114.0 35.0 LEYS FOS Sie i gh et Mae 120 29.5 7.0 03.0 38.0 11.0 Plum Pei syavay esc ete el 2 120 29.5 8.5 38.0 41.0 13.0 Olimar) ig cere ee 240 45.5 1b.O 5720 65.5 19.0 FERTILIZERS FOR FORCING HEAD LETTUCE. This investigation was inaugurated in the autumn of 1895, the object being to determine the comparative value of different soil mixtures in forcing lettuce under glass. This work was continued for several years, reports of progress being made in bulletins and in the annual reports.” “A soil mixture which had been used for forcing lettuce with good results, composed of three parts rotted sod from a clay loam, one part sand and one part stable manure, was at first compared with the other. mixtures which were made from it by adding dif- ferent amounts of sand. In some later tests the amount of sand was still further varied or omitted entirely. In one case sand and stable manure were used without any loam.”’ Commercial fertilizers were also used on some of the soils, both alone and in combination with the stable manure. The effects of the various soil mixtures on the following points were carefully noted: Earliness, texture, shape and size of head; that combination being considered best which gave the best results in all of these particulars. It was found that, all things considered, the clay loam with a heavy appli- cation of stable manure gave the best results. A heavy application in this instance means about 30 per ct. stable manure. The addi- tion of nitrate of soda to this soil gave practically no increase in growth. With half this quantity, or 15 per ct. of manure, the use of nitrate of soda did give a slight increase in growth. In every instance the use of barnyard manure on the clay loam in- creased the crop. This was probably due to the fact that it bene- fited the soil physically as well as adding plant nutrients. On the other hand, the use of barnyard manure on sandy loam was dis- astrous in its effects, the poorest crop of all coming from this com- bination; and the heavier the application of manure, the poorer, ™ Rpt. 14:108 (1895). II 322 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REpoRT. apparently, was the crop. Excellent lettuce, however, was pro- duced on the sandy loam by the use of commercial fertilizers alone. No advantage was gained either on the clay loam or the sandy loam from the addition of sulphate of potash and acid phosphate when the soils had already received a heavy application of stable manure. The clay loam was composed of rotted sod from an uncultivated field; the sandy loam was from the side of a cultivated field where it had been drifted by wind. Analyses showed that the latter soil contained far less plant-food that was the case with the former. In comparing the various nitrogenous fertilizers in combination with stable manure, it was found that nitrate of soda gave the best result on a sandy loam. Dried blood was next with comparatively little difference in the crop. Sulphate of ammonia gave the poorest crop of all. On the clay loam the sulphate of ammonia gave the best results, with the dried blood the poorest of all. The variation in size of crop with the different fertilizers, however, was not so great on the clay loam as on the sandy loam. The general results were of interest in that they indicated that with light soils it is advisable to use commercial fertilizers, while with heavy soils, stable manure is more satisfactory. Perhaps the lesson that may be drawn from the results is quite as important as the results them- selves; that is, that the physical condition of the soil is quite as _ important a factor in determining the growth of a plant as the quantity of plant-food present. E Later this work was carried further and a comparison made of the respective values of the different forms of nitrogenous com- mercial fertilizers.2? Lettuce was planted in boxes filled with the soils already described. To one series was added dried blood, dried blood and nitrate of soda to another, and sulphate of am- monia to a third lot. With each of these acid phosphate and muriate of potash were used. The quantity of each fertilizer was sufficient to exceed the needs of the crop. As compared with check lots in which no commercial fertilizer was used there was a de- cided increase in yield; but the use of commercial fertilizers alone “proved inadequate for forcing the lettuce in a sufficiently short time to be profitable.’ On the clay loam, with no stable manure, a better yield was generally obtained where nitrate of soda was used than where either sulphate of ammonia or dried blood was used. On the sandy soils the results with dried blood were gen- erally superior to the results with nitrate of soda or sulphate of * Bul. 208; also in Rpt. 20:321. suberbaaldt lll NEw York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 323 ammonia. With the sulphate of ammonia the results were very variable. Dried blood, combined with the smaller percentage of manure, gave, in the aggregate, better results than either nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia similarly combined. The best crops were grown where the soil was fertilized with stable manure. Those portions of soils which received applications of 5 per ct. of manure in combination with the commercial fertilizers always showed a very great increase in yield over corresponding soils which were treated only with the commercial fertilizers. Further in- crease in the manure, however, was not followed by a correspond- ing increase in the yield. When soils similar to those under test are used for the first time for forcing a crop of lettuce, much more manure may doubtless be used with profit than would be profitable where manure has been used abundantly with previous crops. Where the use of manure is continued year after year on soil originally not rich enough to force good lettuce the optimum amount may be expected to decline first toward Io per ct., ‘event- ually to approach 5 per ct. The amount of manure which may be used with good economy in forcing lettuce varies with the character of the soil and of the manure, and also with the differences in prices received for fancy lettuce and ordinary lettuce. For these reasons no definite amount can be recommended. Repeated applications of excessive quantities of manure to the same soil are not good economy. Manure is thus wasted and the yield may be reduced. Where large amounts of manure were incorporated in the soil for forcing lettuce the yield was increased by compacting the soil. This shows that unfavorable effects which follow excessive appli- cations of manure may be caused, in part at least, by thereby loosen- ing the soil so much as to put it in an unfavorable mechanical con- dition for the lettuce plant. The clay loam used in these experiments has always proved “superior to the light sandy loam for forcing lettuce when both were fertilized with equal amounts of stable manure. While these results apply directly only to the forcing of lettuce it is probable that they may be used in a general way in the grow- ing of all crops where the leaves are the edible portion; and it has been proved both by other experiments at this Station and 324 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPoRT. investigations elsewhere that the superiority of commercial ferti- - lizers over stable manure for light soils, and the superiority of the stable manure over the commercial fertilizers for heavy soils holds in a general way for all plants and all localities. WOOD ASHES AND APPLE SCAB. The only other investigation** to determine the effects of any fertilizer on horticultural crops was an experiment to determine if applications of wood ashes to the soil in apple orchards would prevent or lessen apple scab. The writer states that this experi- ment was started owing to suggestions on the part of the members of the Western New York Horticultural Society, some of whom were strongly of the opinion that the condition of the soil in which trees were growing was largely responsible for their susceptibility or immunity to apple scab. It is noted that this was contrary to the results of the investigations previously made, which had appar- ently shown that the prevalence of scab depended on the variety and the weather during the growing season, and particularly dur- ing the blooming period. The varieties treated were Baldwin, Fall Pippin, Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury and Northern Spy. This experiment extended over five years. ‘“ The results show that with the conditions under which this investigation was made, liberal applications of hard- wood ashes to the soil did not increase the immunity of the apples from scab. Whether the results would be the same on soil, which is naturally very deficient in potash, remains to be demonstrated.” Aside from the negative effects of the ashes as a fungus pre- ventive, an improvement was noted in the color of the fruit in practically all the varieties. The effects on the keeping quality were very contradictory and it is impossible to draw any conclu- sions. The majority of the evidence, however, indicates that the applications of ashes slightly extend the keeping time of the fruit. Some interesting observations are made on the differences in struct- ure observed in the skin of the fruit in resistant varieties as com- pared with less resistant varieties. The writer says: “ Fall Pippin makes itself conspicuous each year by taking front rank among the varieties which are susceptible to this disease, while Maiden Blush, even in a most unfavorable season, has comparatively little of the disease.” Other resistant varieties are Ben Davis, Grimes, and ** Rpt. 16:316 (1897). j 2 : Sy hig AM al Si del a kh Rees Sh yy ey f ere fe c viven rN Steen i ui" hy : tar Phe ae SE OP ee ee Fe ee OP and ees, ee Se ie toe ee a si Kot t Wy a she = \ New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 325 Tolman Sweet. Susceptible varieties are Fameuse, Esopus Spitzen- burg, and Rhode Island Greening. The statement is made that, so far as examination has been made, the resistant varieties have _ thicker cuticle and thicker walled epidermal cells. The proposition is advanced that these resistant characteristics might be intensified by breeding and selection. VEGETABLES. Much time during the first years of the horticultural depart- ment’s existence was spent in testing vegetables. Many of the so- called varieties of vegetables sent out by our seedsmen are prac- tically identical, although passing under different names. Many others, while not exactly identical, are quite similar. It was with the purpose of correcting this synonymy and arranging the various varieties according to their apparent relationship that this work was started. Something in the nature of a monograph of a particular vegetable is given in each one of the earlier reports of the Station; that is, while notes are given on the current year’s tests of vegetables in general, some one particular vegetable is written up in detail. Besides the description of each variety under its name, other information is given in tabulated form with those varieties classed together which, in the opinion of the experimenter, are most closely related. This work has been carried out with a thoroughness and attention to details which would seem to have justified a more widely extended dissemination than the expensive annual reports of the Experiment Station permit. In the First Report?® of this Station, beans are treated in the man- ner indicated, eighty-three or more varieties being tested, the number being considerably reduced, however, in the report by combining those which proved to be identical. Eight varieties failed to mature, including all of the lima beans tested. All the varieties are classi- fied according to a system credited to a German, Martens. The next year this work was extended, 251 varieties being planted. Some of these, however, failed to vegetate and many of the south- ern varieties matured no crop, some of them not even blooming. It was found that when ‘all varieties which came under different names but which proved to be identical were counted as one, there were 102 distinct varieties under test. A very detailed tabu- lated life history of each variety is given and the individual varie- ties are classified and described in the text following the table. > Rpt. 1:89 (1882). 326 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. It is now believed that variations which occurred in the bean crop for 1882, and which were credited at the time to impurities in the seed secured from the seedsmen, were probably due to cross fertilization, being instances of what is known as xenia. This opinion is based on the fact that the crop of 1883 showed unmistakable signs of cross breeding. Fifteen varieties are given in which these variations occurred, with detailed description. The same year this work was extended and to quote the investi- gator, “almost the entire list of garden plants offered by our American seedsmen, as well as many others from foreign places” were planted “ with other objects in view than the mere comparison of the yields and the qualities.” The principal object of the in- vestigation is “to discover how many of the so-called varieties planted are really distinct and how many are only synonyms.” Reference is made to similar work?® having been done by Mr. Fear- ing Burr, Jr., of this country, and M. Louis Vilmorin of Paris. Lists are given of numerous varieties of twenty-five vegetables, with the date of planting, date of appearance above ground, and length of time elapsing before edible portion of plant was fit for use, also the yield. The synonyms are given under each vegetable separately. The author indicates that, in some instances at least, it is not easy to determine whether two given varieties are strictly identical or merely similar. The varieties tested are particularly numerous and the subsequent discussion particularly full in the case of tomatoes and peas. In the case of tomatoes the test included sixty-four named sam- ples. The tomatoes were found particularly difficult for the detec- tion of synonymy. Certain varieties were found to be “ exactly similar in appearance” but with a different ripening period. The “trial list of peas embraced seventy so-called varieties.” Seven names are believed to be synonyms, and one or two other varieties resemble each other so closely as to leave the writer in doubt whether they are not identical. This test of peas includes an investigation “to ascertain how much may be gained in the earli- ness of peas by selecting the earliest pods for seed.” Jt was found that there was a 14% per ct. increase in the germinations of the earlier ripening peas as compared with the later ones. The earlier ripen- ing peas were also fit for the table earlier by an average of five * Garden Vegetables and How to Cultivate Them, by Fearing Burr, Jr., 1866. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 527 days and they also gave a slightly larger yield. ‘‘ This difference was more noticeable while the plants were growing than after they had ripened their crop.” In the Third Report”” a monograph is given of the garden peas. In the introduction we are told that there are three botanical species to which our agricultural peas may be credited: First, Pisum sativum, the common garden pea which may be known by its white or bluish white flowers and by a thin but tenacious lining to the pods. Second, P. macrocarpon, frequently called sugar pea, but inappropriately, since these peas really contain less sugar than those of the previous species. There is no lining to the pods as in the P. sativum and consequently varieties of this species are fre- quently eaten, pod and all, after the manner of string beans. Third, P. arvense, the field pea, having reddish purple or variegated flowers and a parchment-like lining to the pods similar to the P. sativum. The first species mentioned is of greatest importance horticulturally, its varieties being much more numerous than the others. The varieties of this species are subdivided first, according to stature, whether dwarf or standard; second, according to color of seed; and third, according to whether the seed be wrinkled or smooth. Ninety-eight varieties are included, many of which are now either out of cultivation or passing under different names. . The next year the vegetable selected for study was lettuce. The treatment here is quite similar to that given peas. Of 200 differ- ently named varieties tested during three seasons, eighty-seven are described as being apparently distinct. The writer states: “We scarcely hope the classification and descriptions which we here pre- sent will enable one unacquainted with the characters of the lettuce plant to name a given variety with ease and certainty. The most we dare to hope is, that with the help of these it may be possible to decide with some degree of certainty whether or not a given lettuce is true to the name which it bears.” It is said that in work of this kind it is quite necessary that the plants be some distance apart so that each may assume its own individual character as dis- tinct varieties are frequently difficult to separate when the plants are crowded together. This work seems particularly valuable in that before the description of each variety a list of synonyms is given with the name of the seedsman using each synonym. * Rpt. 3:228 (1884). * Rpt. 4:156 (188s). 328 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. In the Fifth Report?® of the Station attention was concentrated on the cabbage. As in the cases previously mentioned the entire list of varieties offered by American seedsmen and many of the varie- ties offered by foreign seed houses were secured for planting. There were 196 supposedly different varieties in the list. The real number planted, however, was greater, since seed of the same variety was planted from different seedsmen. The seeds were planted at different periods according to their season of ripening, the early varieties being planted during the first week in March, while certain of the later sorts were planted as late as the second week in May. Much of the information secured was tabulated as in the case of the other vegetables. Much difficulty was found in classifying the varieties in spite of the fact that the number of varieties was not so great as with some of the other vegetables previously tested. This was due to the extreme variability often shown in the plant from the same sample of seed. The heading cabbage, in particular, was extremely vari- able. This variability may be due in part to impurity in the seed, but it is not thought to be wholly so. The writer objects to those varieties in which the characters are not fixed. He says: “We find in the writings of a prominent grower of and writer on cab- bages, ‘in the Wakefield cabbage the conical and flat are both noimal.’ Th: same author in speaking of the Stonemason cabbage says: ‘ Thc color of the leaves varies from a bluish green to a pea green and the structure from nearly smooth to much blistered.’ Another well known seed grower says of the Early Jersey Wake- field cabbage: ‘ It must be admitted it presents many conditions; it is early, late, pointed, round, rough, and smooth leaved.’ Admissions like these would seem to prove beyond question that the cabbage under consideration is either very poorly fixed or else from having been grown under very unfavorable conditions or through mixture with other varieties it has been permitted to deteriorate — the seed grower should certainly have an ideal for his varieties and this ideal should include not simply the part for which the plant is grown but the secondary characters as well.” The heading cabbages are divided into two main classes, the first including those varieties in which the leaves are smooth or only slightly blistered; the second, those varieties in which the foliage. *” Rpt. 5:179 (1886). ots ‘ r q ? q om an 4 a a 4 ey Be, a eae ce Siete 5 . ’ ¥ __New York AcricutturaL ExPERIMENT STATION. 329 © oH: is much blistered. These in turn are subdivided according to the. : shape of the head. Each of these is further divided according to color of foliage. _ The next year there is a continuation of this work. The vegetables _ covered with more or less thoroughness were beets, carrots, radishes, turnips, onions, celeriac, celery, spinach, cucumbers, squashes, pump- kins, egg-plant and tomatoes. The notes on the different vegetables varied from a very few brief remarks in regard to a very few varie- ties to a test sufficiently complete to justify calling its discussion a monograph upon the vegetable. In view of the great patience and labor that such investigations require, it is to be regretted that their value is so transient. ; In many cases the study of Professor Goff along this line included not only the test in the field but also an investigation of the literature of the subject tracing the history of the plant from the earliest time. In this volume he gives for-the tomato a mass of botanical references running as far back as the sixteenth century. It seems probable that for this phase of the work he availed himself of Doctor Sturtevant’s library, one of the best, if not the best, libra- ries of that kind in this country. If any criticism could be made of this work, either of its conception or the manner in which it was carried out, it would be that neither the head of the depart- ment nor his subordinates apparently had any idea of the amount of labor required to complete any contemplated line of investigation. Statements were made of intended investigations which would have taken all the time of a much larger force than was then available to the department. From this time on the vegetable work was continued in a some- what different manner. While many varieties were tested each season, no effort was made to concentrate the attention of the department on any one vegetable. Various methods of culture were tried and compared with each other and an effort was made to secure the newer varieties offered by seedsmen and compare them with the older standard sorts. Some general experiments were carried out in the early nineties to demonstrate the feasibility of forcing vege- tables for the local market. It was found that, under the condi- tions existing in Geneva, there was a ready sale for such produce at prices that would apparently pay good profit above the cost of production. 330 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. SEED STUDIES. Early in the history of the Station’s existence the investigators became interested in the subject of seeds. Starting in with some very simple tests to determine the viability of seeds, the investiga- tion ultimately assumed multitudinous phases. The initial experi- ment along this line was one by Doctor Sturtevant®® to determine if what he calls Goethe and Hilaire’s Law, that nature spares in one direction in order to spend in another, applies to seeds. If this be true, he says that “in gaining potency in fruit, we should expect weakness in seed; in exaggeration of bulb, a deficiency in leaf, etc.” Any such law, if it were proved to be correct, would undoubtedly be of tremendous importance to all persons engaged in plant raising in whatever line. It would mean that in order to secure large fruit we should select undersized seed. To get perfect fruit, we should take more or less imperfect seed, etc. To test this point, a very large number of weights were made of the fruits and seeds of various cultivated plants. The resulting figures showed that the assumption is wholly incorrect. Plants which pro- duce large fruit sometimes produce small seed and sometimes large seed, and the same is true of plants which produce small fruits. Goethe and Hilaire’s Law, even if it be true in a general way, cannot be thus applied. For the purpose of testing the vitality of seeds it has been the common custom with botanists and others for many years to use some. sort of an artificial germinator. The conditions necessary for the germination of seeds are: First, presence of moisture; second, the presence of air; third, a temperature at which the seed to be tested will germinate, this varying with different seeds. If the seeds were planted in the ground, either outside or in the greenhouse, the conditions demanded would be fulfilled, but owing to the greater inconvenience this is seldom done, artificial germi- nators being used instead. This Station at first used the saucer and blotting paper germi- nators. These were not wholly satisfactory. A later and more convenient apparatus was devised consisting of a copper box with a sliding glass cover with a ledge on the inside just below the top, the ledge supporting copper or glass rods which extend across the box. A long piece of cloth of the same width as the box and with tucks or hems sewed in at intervals completes the apparatus. The rods are run through these tucks or hems in the cloth and Rpt. 1:78 (1882). ae eb New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 331 the intervening cloth hangs down between the rods within about an inch and a half of the bottom of the box. The end of the cloth is left sufficiently long to reach the bottom of the box. The seeds are placed in the folds between the rods. About half an inch of water is poured in the bottom of the box to supply moisture. This apparatus is still popular with those who test seeds and is known as the Geneva Germinator. It is convenient, durable, and easily sterilized to remove any invading germs of decay. The question was raised as to the accuracy of such germinators in testing the value of seeds, or rather the accuracy of seed test- ing; 7. e., whether 50 or 100 seeds selected from a large quantity and tested give a correct indication of the value of the lot To determine this point duplicate tests were made from the same batches of seed and the results compared. In the case of seed which was low in vitality either from age or any other cause, the results were very variable, ranging from o to 4o per ct. The greatest difference found in two tests of seed not more than one year old was 21 per ct. and the average difference for seeds, grown the previous season, of different varieties of twenty-four different kinds of vegetables was only 4.7 per ct. Later this work was carried farther to determine if a portion of these discrepancies might not be eliminated by increasing the number of seeds. With watermelon seed four years old it was found where 50 seeds were used in each lot tested the “variation was 20 per ct.; with 100 seeds, just 20 per ct.; with 200 seeds, it was 6 per ct.; with 300 seeds, it was 5 per cent.; with 400 seeds, it was 2 per ct.; and with 500 seeds it was 6 per ct.’’ With onion seeds where 50 seeds were used the “ variation in germination between duplicates is expressed by 24 per ct.; with 1oo seeds, by 15 per ct.; with 200 seeds, by 6 per ct.; with 300 seeds, by 4 per ct.; with 400 seeds, by 3 per ct.; with 500 seeds, by 2 per cent.” It may thus be seen that increasing the number of seed does to a large degree remove the error arising from the seeds not running even, that is, not all being of a like degree of vitality. It was found both in the investigations outlined above and in the regular garden work of the horticultural department, that much of the seed on the market is defective. This applies to seeds from all sources, and while criticism is not made of any individual seeds- man the statement is made that our ‘ flection that our seedsmen scarcely exercise the proper care in the sending out of their seeds and in assuring quality in their “experience justifies the re- 332 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. varieties. * * * Our experience with ‘grocery seeds,’ that is the packages from boxes distributed to be sold on commission, has been so extremely unsatisfactory that we are fain to believe that it is only the ignorance of the purchaser that retains this abominable system of sale.” The statement is made*! that “in the early spring we could not but notice the variation that existed between the germinative prop- erty of our seeds as tested in our apparatus and the vegetative property under the circumstances of actual planting. We hence devised a series of trials for testing the relations, if any, between germination and vegetation — by germination meaning the vitality sufficient to form a radicle, and by vegetation the vitality required to form a plant.” Seed from the same package was taken, a por- tion of which was tested in the seed germinator and the remainder planted in clean sand at what was supposed to be the proper depth for the seeds in question. The results indicate that in the same seeds germinative capacity and vegetative capacity may exist in quite different amount. It was found that of the seeds which germinated the percentage forming mature plants was very vari- able, ranging from 4 per ct. up. Wherever there was a low percentage of vegetation as compared with germination, the seeds were invariably more than one year old. The results are very pointed in indicating that with old seed germinating power alone is not a true index of vitality. In the light of our present day knowledge these-results do not seem particularly surprising. In the case of old seeds it is mani- fest that if time in any way had injured the cotyledons or endo- sperm, making the stored plant food less available, if the embryo were uninjured, this would not necessarily lessen the percentage of germinations, although since the young plant could not properly utilize the food stored in the seed its chances of reaching maturity would be materially lessened. And if the germ itself had been slightly injured in the long storing process, even though strength sufficient might remain for germination it is probable that it would soon die. The question how long seed may be kept without impairment of the germinating power is one of importance. In the early eighties a series of experiments was inaugurated along this line, the seed being furnished by different standard seed houses of the country. A part of the table showing results is appended below. * Rpt. 5:56 (1886). f New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 333. GERMINATION TESTS. Germin Years No. of No. of ated age trials seed Per ct. PAG PACARUS! et. SD, vie cies Oe sss hea papers ohare na I 15 450 86 2 3 150 65 3 2 100 40 9 i 50 ) ISPS) 2 Re case eae aPae ae ee I 6 340 96 2 6 240 69 3 I 50 98 RSMMC eee Pe, i bibs oat baw dw aes I 26 1900 71 2 31 2750 71 3 4 400 38 4 3 250 69 5 I 50 88 6 4 400 62 7 I 50 34 9 4 300 33 10 2 200 14 12 2 100 40 13 2 200 27 14 I 50 10 15 4 400 18 z SOC COMIN yp terre arc cea tiers ooeharwe a nieisle one aus I 5 500 70 ; 2 12 12U0 64 3 2 200 59 | 4 reer (2 35 3 5 2 200 31 7 2 200 43 II 2 200 3 RHGSEISSSDEOULSH takes oasis ew alan s slo lest eins ss I 9 900 66 2 2 200 80: 3 2 200 83: 9 2 200 oO: (CHIDO <.-be OOOO ACS TEC EEO ne I 76 7150 86 2 82 6400 75 3 47 3800 62 4 10 1000 54 6 5 500 14 7 6 600 9 8 I 100 fo) ‘Ero &, 2 ASS gG eS cree eenaeae I 44 4400 86 2 34 3400 34 3 II IIo 20 4 3 300 7 SAO WEIN eo erstieta elas cc sires ole ate tiese es I 44 4400 86 2 26 2600 84 3 17 1700 61 4 15-1500 54 334 TWwENTy-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. Years ’ age Cel Shy rk Pees DEAS Soret a att I 2 iS 3 SHUICTIIN DEL. Seek ast sete ea siete te eo I 2 3 4 5 13 19 Copano. get sk chet nh cats. Eons eee I 3 4 6 9 Beales =). te aa ee eae) aoa eee I 2 3 4 5 7 SOM eta AD IS fe Secs, aero keene eee a ee nea I 2 3 4 5 17 20 TSELEUICE i oo theckche Ahh oe eye ne ae Se ECG eAVLUSIN (lacus he sore oc _ ONHHR OCHO ON AfW NH ANH W DN H | Melon Water #20. cathe trace oh oo ae No. of trials It Lal ’ DPYHNRHHWODNHWNHWDH HNN ONHHHWA HOHE 22 No. of seed 1100 goo 100 1122 150 108 100 50 50 50 700 100 hh 50 200 oan 200 New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ' Years age Penta AVWALEK Cte cis scoot Giese Ss 8'ele bev eves o's 4 6 8 9 II I2 MIG heme ue icsce ete rele cee wie ticheverscitcsie of sla, 2 3 4 10 LT “OD AGY AUsa SRs a Sega eh tne en pre Pee eae I 2 3 4 7 Parsley: i... « We rare he enaie Rae ee ome ee ss I 2 3 : + LEC TRSTES1,” aoe Go OA OSSD treg Sete I 3 4 6 TER, (ES Seb RA Oa CON Oo CEC De aT ER ero i I 7 2 “S302. (6 Saiki Seon oo slon pao onions I 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 13 "Ea Gt) 4 A DRS OEE DECOR nICo on oornand I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 12 SISA Goad SSE DEED COUN AD Ee atta Cera No. of trials I HHwWO PRR KN HH 252 _ & bw N Fw Srv Hnauunano OOH m De NI NO Hot NOH ON ote rRrErRHHHNKHA DAO (es 336 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. Germin- Years |No. of No. of ated age trials -eed Per ct. : Savoy Cabbage. ....... oak Sad ae srop dee aterer eens I 10 1000 02°: q 2 8 800 86 4 3 4 400 86 ; 5 1 908 33 4 6 2 200 43 3 7 3 300 23 4 8 2 200 6 4 Io I 100 O | II 2 200 2220 NO] LEC hay Seana oaalarg, Weta Oe pea ae. ar cig I 20 542 73 2 16 595 76 3 12 417 72 4 2 100 63 6 I 30 10 7 10 3 67 6 14 I 50 fo) IBC) NER 10 ip AM age ae a Me Ue a heen | DN oa I 19 1400 85 2 32 2250 86 3 15 1400 89 4 II 1100 79 5 II 1100 81 6 2 200 96 7 5 400 74 8 12 950 7 9 5 500 83 10 II 600 75 II 2 150 63 iD 4 400 86 ug! 3 300 44 I4 4 300 74 A UOGGELYEY foe hace vets toate anor b celal o.« cx apeies eeior eee ate I Bl 4100 88 2 50 3400 04 3 28 1900 04 4 30 2150 79 5 6 600 67 6 3 300 58 7 II 1000 56 8 2 200 65 12 2 100 49 Some of the lessons that may be drawn from this investigation are as follows: The manner in which seed is kept is quite as im- portant a factor in determining its value as its age. Some plants are much more apt to give poor seeds than others. In raising certain crops it is hardly necessary to pay much attention to the securing of seeds which will grow, for practically all the seed on ii me (te " . Pe be - «-.o?, —— " + ° 7. ee rs ee ee ee ee ee err ee ae ee eS New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 337 the market of that kind germinates readily while with other plants it is necessary at all times to exercise great care in order to get seeds that have been properly selected, properly kept, and that are not too old. Thus asparagus seed after the second year is evidently questionable in value and had better be avoided. Beet seed of less than five years of age need not be discarded on account of age alone. Cabbage seed apparently loses value rapidly after the fourth year. Celery seed is difficult to germinate even when fresh and care should be taken to get seed not more than one year old. Cucumbers, watermelons, and muskmelons may be classed together as having seed that is very resistant to the destructive influences of age and that even show better germinating power when five or six years old than when fresh. This has been corroborated by the practical experience of gardeners elsewhere. In the case of egg- plant the investigator calls attention to the importance of remov- ing all abortive seeds, as with this and some other plants furnish- ing small seeds “the difference in the percentage of germinations is due rather to the percentage of empty seed cases present than ‘to any lessened vitality of the true seeds. Lettuce furnishes a seed, which, although it is small, will keep four or five years under ordinary conditions without deterioration. Onion seed should in all cases be fresh as it loses vitality very rapidly after the first year. Tomato seed is apparently one of the most enduring of all seeds, deteriorating but little after ten or fifteen years of storage, and turnip seed has keeping qualities almost if not quite as good. By consulting such tables as these the planter can determine whether it is probably best to plant old seed on hand or secure a fresh supply. However, as is mentioned above, the answer depends partially upon how the seed has been kept. A seed question in which much interest has been expressed at various times is that of the comparative value of large and small seeds. Possibly a more intelligent view may be obtained of this subject by a brief statement of what constitutes a seed. From the standpoint of the botanist or vegetable physiologist a seed consists of: 1st. The rudimentary plantlet, commonly called the germ or embryo. 2nd. The endosperm or stored food on which the plantlet lives until its roots are established in the soil and its leaves exposed to the sunlight. In the case of many plants the endosperm is not separate from the plantlet, stored food being contained in what are known as the cotyledons or seed leaves. 3d. The seed coat, a cover- ing of the parts already mentioned, varying in density and character 338 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPporT. with different seeds but probably designed in all cases to protect the inner portions of the seeds from mechanical injury, excess of moist- ure and germs of decay. Thus it was found in experiments* at this Station that the seed coat evidently retarded germination. This is probably due to its keeping out a portion of the water which would otherwise be absorbed, the taking up of moisture being the first stage of germination. In all cases where this seed coat was artificially broken the seeds germinated in less time than similar seeds in which the seed coat was intact. A coat of tar or tallow increased the length of time necessary for germination. In comparing the large with the small seed it is evident that the difference in size must be due to one of three causes; either the embryo of the one must be larger than that of the other, the en- dosperm greater, or both embryo and endosperm may be of an in- | creased size in‘the larger seed. It seems probable that this greater size, whether it be due to embryo or endosperm, or both, would be of advantage to the seedling at least in the early stages of growth. Whether this advantage would continue after the plant had formed its own leaves and roots is not so apparent. To determine this point many tests were made with different kinds of seeds.#? The tests were faulty in that the seeds were usually divided into large and small by the use of sieves, whereas weight would have been a more correct criterion. Of two seeds of different sizes the larger is generally the heavier, but this is not invariably the case. At differ- ent times seeds of the following plants were divided into two lots according to size. The plants were turnip, onion, cabbage, cauli- flower, beans, corn, and oats. In the turnip the small seed gave a slightly larger root than the large seed, the difference being only a fraction of an ounce. With the onion there was a slight difference in the crop in favor of the © large seed. Of the nine varieties tested, one variety gave bulbs from the larger seed more than double those from the smaller seed. If this variety had been eliminated from the test the results would have been slightly in favor of the small seed. The results from the sowing of eleven packets of savoy and twenty-one packets of smooth cabbage seed exactly balanced each other, with the savoy the heavier heads coming from the small seed, while with the smooth cabbage the reverse was the case. In the test of large and small cauliflower * Rpt. 3:328 (1884). *® Rpt. 1:80 (1882) ; 2:71 (1883). bc indices eile tl New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 339 seed the heads from the small seed averaged an inch larger in size and sixteen days later in maturing than those from the large seed. In the case of beans the test was more thorough than with the other vegetables and carried through two years. The large and small beans were separated from two quarts of the commercial prod- uct. In both of the two years in which the experiment was carried on the crop from the large seed was greater than that from the small seed. The differences while not very great were sufficiently so to be decisive. Some of the notes in connection with this experiment are of interest. These are: Ist. That the large seed was slower in vegetating during the early stages of growth which is credited by the investigator “to the larger amount of dry matter to be acted upon by the moisture in the soil and for the chemical and other changes necessary to cause germination.” 2nd. The plants from the large seed were found to be more vigorous after germination than those from the small seed which is considered to be due to the fact “that the larger amount of dry matter contained in the large seed after it becomes converted into available food for the young plant furnishes them with greater power to overcome any adverse condi- tion attending vegetation.” 3d. “ That the number of seeds germi- nating or vegetating in the first few days is not a correct measure of the vitality of the seed.” 4th. It would seem advisable in testing the germinating power of seeds to take into consideration the weight of the seed as well as their age. Waushakum corn kernels were divided into two lots according to size. The resulting crop did not show that there was any material difference in the producing capacity of large as compared with small seed corn. The test of large and small oat seed gave the most tangible and satisfactory results of all the seeds tested. The seeds were planted in alternate rows. The seeds used in this experiment were from the farm granary, 1,000 of the smallest and an equal number of the largest being carefully selected. It was noticed during the growing season that those rows from the large seed were vegetating more rapidly than the others. They ripened slightly in advance of the plants from the small seed. -The respective crops were eleven pounds fourteen ounces of grain and thirty-four pounds twelve ounces of straw from the large seed plat, and eight pounds fifteen ounces of grain and thirty-two pounds six ounces of straw from the small seeded plat. It was found, also, that the individual oat grains from the large-seeded plat were slightly heavier than those from the small-seeded plat. 340 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. Corn which was kiln-dried before planting had greater value for seed purposes than the best selected corn of the same variety from the crib, This drying is preferably done some time before planting. The percentage of germinations is greater and the plants themselves were more vigorous. It was rather curious that this difference only showed in the field. There were two lots of 500 seeds each, one of which had been dried over a radiator and the other was fresh from the crib. When tested in the seed germinator both lots gave the same result, 94 per ct. of germinations, but when planted in the open ground the kiln-dried corn gave 80 per ct. of vegetation, while the corn from the crib gave but 20 per ct. of vegetation. This ex- periment was carried through several years with results which al- ways pointed in the same direction. Unfortunately this line of investigation seems to have been drop- ped and seeds of other plants were not tested in a similar manner. If the percentage of moisture in seeds at the time when planted in- fluences the germinative and vegetative vigor of the plant it seems possible that to this cause may be credited the variable results se- cured from seeds of the same age and apparently similar condition. It was found that the portion of the plant on which the seed was borne seemed in some cases to have an influence on the resulting seedlings. In Red Top Strap-Leaf turnip the seeds from the ter- minal blooms were distinctly larger than those from the lower branches. Sunflower seeds “taken from axillary flowers had nar- rower leaves and were of a lighter green than plants from seeds taken from terminal flowers.” Sorghum seed which ripens from the summit downward sprouted more plants from the terminal seed than from the central or lower portion of the head. This experiment was later repeated with three varieties of turnips with similar results. With cabbages, however, the results were wholly negative, no differences appearing between the seedlings pro- duced by seed from different parts of the plant. Certain plants furnish seeds of two different colors. Cases in point amongst the vegetables are endive, broccoli, brussels sprouts, collards, salsify, cabbage and kale. Seed was taken from all these plants and the light colored divided from'the dark colored. It was found in every instance that the dark colored seeds were heavier than the light colored seeds from the same plant. When planted the dark colored seeds gave generally a higher percentage of germina- tions than those of the lighter shade. Tests showed that a seed will stand repeated drying during the oer.) Ss NS Ne OD Z 3 ; By : a New York AcricuLturAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 341 germination process without fatal injury. The seed used was of _ different varieties of different species of corn. Where this was re- _ peated four or five times in succession, the drying period lasting usually seven days, the percentage of germinations was reduced very low and sometimes the seed was absolutely destroyed. The vitality of seeds in this respect is quite remarkable. Certain plants during the first few days or weeks of their existence evidently have a capacity to withstand drying conditions not possessed by the same plants later in life. The value of green seeds is an important point with gardeners as - well as seedsmen since it frequently happens that they find it neces- sary to use seed not fully matured. Investigations** were made at various times and with various kinds of plants to determine the value of green as compared with ripe seeds. The results from the different kinds of seeds do not agree. The seeds taken from a plant before maturity did not give as high a percentage of germina- tions as those which were allowed to remain until ripe. The plant- lets themselves were also less vigorous. The yields were very vari- able, in some instances the plants from the green seeds giving the largest yields and in some instances the opposite was true. In the case of peas seed gathered at the time when the peas were in the best eating stage gave only 3 per ct. of germinations and did ‘not ripen the succeeding crop noticeably earlier than that from mature seeds. “A small percentage of the seeds taken from a tomato not fully developed in size and which had not commenced to change color toward maturity vegetated and developed into plants.” These plants ripened their fruit earlier than the plants from mature seed. The percentage of germinations from the green seed was considerably lower and the plants themselves less vigorous than those from well ripened seed. Where green seeds were again taken from those plants which had come from green seed the vigor was still more reduced, the weakening effect being apparently cumulative, increasing with each generation until the plants had not sufficient vigor to make a good growth or resist any of the various diseases to which tomatoes are subject. In the case of radishes it appeared that when the plant itself was pulled up while the seed was.green - and hung inside, seed which was allowed to remain on the plant gave 81 per ct. of vegetations while the seed from pods removed from the plant at the time when the plant was taken indoors vege- tated only 3 per ct. It is evident that-a certain portion of the * Rpt. 42130, 133, 182 (188s). 342 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. maturing process in the seed will continue so long as the seed is on the plant even though the plant itself be removed from the soil. The last phase of seed investigation carried out by this Station was “ Seed Selection According to Specific Gravity.’’*> ‘The specific gravities were determined by the use of salt solutions of various strengths, the seeds being immersed in the salt solution and those rising to the surface being skimmed off, while those which sank were placed in a stronger salt solution. This method of deter- mining specific gravity is, we are informed by the investigator, an old one used by gardeners in China and Japan for 250 years. Previous investigations have presented very contradictory verdicts as to the effect of this method of seed selection upon the resulting crop. As the results of the investigation here were different for almost every kind of seed used it does not seem strange that this should have been the case. As was shown in earlier investigations at this Station, and has been demonstrated elsewhere, with some plants heavier seeds will produce more vigorous seedlings than those of lighter weight. The writer thinks it possible that in many instances the grading of seed according to specific gravity is practically the same as grading according to weight; that is, the heavier seeds have the greater specific gravity and the lighter seeds the lesser specific gravity, so that the results might be wrongly credited to a greater specific gravity rather than to a greater weight of seed where these characters appear together. Seeds of the following plants were tested: Mustard, timothy, clover, peas, carrot, turnip, cauliflower, cabbage, egg-plant and pepper. In the case of the mustard it was found that the specific gravity varied from 1.01 to 1.21 with the most of the seed ranging on either side of 1.15. The earlier and apparently stronger germi- nations ranged from 1.12 to 1.19. The seeds of neither very light specific gravity nor very heavy specific gravity gave as good germi- nations as those of medium specific gravity. In the case of timothy, the seed of which ranged from 1 to 1.26, the best seed appar- ently in every respect was that of the heavier specific gravity, the percentage of germinations being greater and the plants more vigoreus. Clover ranged generally from less than 1.17 to above 1.30, and seeds of medium specific gravity gave the best results, those from 1.23 to 1.26 being the best of the lot. Champion of * Bul. 256; also in Ann. Rpt. 23:335, 1904 New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 343 England peas ranged from 1 to 1.31, the most of these being at ‘the upper end of the series, 1.25 being an average for the lot, the - best germinations coming a little higher, about 1.28. Here, as with the other seeds, there were many exceptions, sometimes a seed of lowest specific gravity giving a quite vigorous plant. In the case of the Swedish turnip, the seed of which varied from 1 to 1.18, those seeds which varied in specific gravity from I to 1.03 gave roots of an average weight of 9 ounces, those which varied from 1.03 to 1.12 gave roots with an average weight of 19 ounces; while from those seeds in which the specific gravity ranged from 1.12 to 1.18 the roots averaged 42 ounces. These are the most striking results secured. The investigator cautions us, however, in accepting them in their entirety since there were no seeds sifted and it might be that those seeds of greatest specific gravity were also the larger ones. It does not seem, however, that this should make any difference to the man who would desire to select seed in this fashion for planting, since if the results were secured it will be immaterial whether they came from selecting larger seed or selecting seed of a higher specific gravity. In the test of cauliflower seed the seeds were divided by the eye into small seed and large seed. The seed varied in specific gravity from I to 1.15, yet strange to say the small seed ranged from 1.12 to 1.15 but the large seed, even though of lower specific gravity, averaged much larger heads. The test of cabbage seed indicated very clearly that “the percentage of germinations among very small seeds is low, also that such seeds as do germinate pro- duce small plants —the heaviest yielding plants were those from the large dark seed.” In the case of the egg-plant it was found that practically all of those seeds with a specific gravity less than water did not germinate while the remainder practically all germi- nated. As egg-plant seed is generally low in percentage of germi- nations the investigator recommends this as a means of getting rid of the poor seed. In the peppers, the seeds of which vary in color as well as in size, it was found that the large white seeds gave much the best results. With one exception, in which case the plant grew from a medium white seed, every large fruit was from a large-sized white seed. Plants from dark seed were worthless, bearing in all cases small fruits and the plants themselves being feeble. The plants from brownish seed were somewhat better but not satisfactory. The small white seed produced plants which were very feeble and either failed to fruit at all or else produced small 344 TweENTy-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. ~_ fruit. Those from medium sized white seed were fairly satisfac. ‘tory, but the best results, as indicated above, came from the use of large white seeds. An effort was made to determine the causes for the differences — in specific gravities found in different seed of the same kind. The “a writer gives a list of the various chemical compounds found in the seeds with the specific gravity of each. This list is as follows: Specific : gravity. BAGS (a2 escent aieie oe ore ee eee 0.9I-0.96 APOQUITIN 5 oh tye chee ee ee ee 1.285 PCOCEH “2, ee ae bron ba Re Se ee te <1 3207. DEADENS oly casera 2 neh oe, A oe T53 Cellos oo, rote vee Seat cle he ee ee ee Laas ASh about? 2 soo eh ae See ek Feo ee ee 2.50 It will be seen from this list that fat is the only component which is lighter than water. It is evident that all those seeds which are lighter than water must owe this property either to containing a large amount of fat or else to the presence of imprisoned air. The writer says, “it is well known that seeds vary very greatly in their composition.” Wheat is reported as ranging from 8.58 per ct. to 17.15 per ct. in proteids, 66.67 per ct. to 76.05 per ct. in carbohydrates, etc. ; These differences in composition may be due to differences in soil, climate, fertilization, or methods of culture. It is also stated that the specific gravity may depend on the ripeness of the seed. Wheat and rye have a lower specific gravity when dead ripe than when in the milk stage, while with peas the specific gravity in- creases with the approach of maturity. In many seeds with a rigid seed coat such as grape, squash, etc., the internal portion will, if for any reason it be not properly developed, shrink away from the outer hull forming an air space. In such cases a specific gravity. test would be a test of proper development. From what has been stated it may be seen that determining the specific gravity is by no means an infallible method of indicating the quality of seeds. It is of doubtful practical use and certainly only to be applied to cer- tain kinds of seeds. It may, however, be found of great service in removing impurities from seeds, whether these impurities be foreign matter or other kinds of seeds. a oe Wye re “oo Pale ee ee as “ tip lie Pa 8 00) Se ee ee Re eee rv. + tn Ete i lla ke hae Yi ee eee nes a, : ‘s ee ae > 3 Pe oe ee TOW eee | Bias Oi ne 4 ebay ie - New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 345 ROOT DEVELOPMENT. Investigations®® were made at various times during the history of the Station as to the root system of various plants. This work was started by washing out the roots from the soil to determine their position and extent. It was found that strawberry plants washed out about the middle of August had roots extending “ nearly vertically downward to the depth of 22 inches. The horizontal roots were few and short, the largest being traceable but 6 inches.” Nearly all of the fibrous roots were found directly beneath the plant. Similar investigations disclosed that “the roots of the tomato plant are in their manner of growth opposite to those of the straw- berry plant,’ the greater part of the roots extending horizontally and being situated about eight inches below the surface. The writer draws the deductions that in the case of the strawberry, since the feeding roots are situated almost directly beneath the plant covering an area scarcely larger than the leaves, “ there is little danger of injuring the roots of strawberry plants by cultivation between the rows, even if the soil is disturbed to a considerable depth,” the inference being that in the case of the tomato the opposite is the case. The cauliflower was found to be a deep-rooting plant, the roots extending downward to a depth of three feet and horizontally about two and one-half feet. It thus appears that the cauliflower draws its sustenance from a greater area and depth than the tomato plant. The fibrous roots, however, are less numerous in the upper layers of the soil.” This was continued in subsequent years. Its importance is per- haps best indicated by the statement of the investigator in one of his introductions “that it would seem that before we can give an intelligent opinion as to the best system of cultivation to be ob- served, or the best method of applying fertilizers, for any crop, we should know something of the character of the roots that sustain the plants, and the position that these occupy in the soil. If the fibrous roots through which the plant receives its nourishment grow very near the surface, it is certain that any but the most shallow cultivation must lacerate these to a great extent. If, on the other hand, the fibrous roots chiefly lie deeper than the ordinary plow * Rpt. 2:219 (1883); 3:305 (1884) ; 4:233 (1885); 5:157 (1886); 6:90 ’ (1887); 7:171 (1888). 346 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY REPoRT. reaches, it may be advisable, in preparing a soil for such crops, to plow deeper than we usually do, and thus mellow and fertilize the soil at the point where the roots can be more directly benefited by culture and fertility.” The writer states that this “is only pre- liminary work in what seems to be a most important and fertile field.” Observations were made on the root system of the pea, lettuce, endive, spinach, asparagus, onion, radish, beet, swiss chard, parsnip, carrot, muskmelon, cabbage, kohl rabi, and celery. These results show that all of the plants secure their nutriment from a much larger area than is generally supposed. The writer says that “it is obvious that the effects of hill manuring must be chiefly upon the young plant and that where no fertilizer is applied beyond the limits of the hill, it seems probable that the plant receives little benefit from the manure at.the time when it is completing its growth and maturing its seed.” The writer speculates as to the probable use of the deeply pene- trating roots of vegetables, particularly in the case of the pea, parsnip, etc. ‘Certainly they are not required for the purpose of sustaining the plant against wind. If they were in search of food they would hardly penetrate in this direction, for we have many examples in which the roots of plants have extended toward their food with a directness that seems almost like instinct. The fact that the fibrous roots are almost always most numerous in the upper layers of the soil would seem to indicate that a dearth of moisture had not existed here.” The root system of various other plants was examined later. The table below presents in a concise form the results of the in- vestigation: Greatest Maximum Horizonta depth. depth length. n. Name. In. In. (Orchard Orass,..b ca. A Ny he eho 36 21 oat shall meadows Oat) TASS sc 4 ae.p sess eos hae epee 30 21 24 ieentucky MGC OfAss. srk sire ceded Seer es 37 Bisel ae Mea dow -LeSciie ara serene ctcnek micre ele age ote eran 32 12 9 REC tOp OT aSSihes eel Ae atom eosneae ae ee ie 40 22 9 Wedissin red C1GV G8 562. so oe spe one, Sustateh ee oa 34 21 12 Meadow foxstathe 0.5... x Sse ode id Siete ace 34 18 18 Bolkhiaka- CLONE c.-<'. 6-5 acs ose. « ore se hodee masa 33 18 18 ROME S OT ASS Sah, eine hve cic eimnerane ans. hatte in te ae porate 25 20 24 Mellow trefoil cise «nye ei sean he ee eae 20 <5 Snr rere 15 Wihite clo verage oie haere cecehs ere he teetece ee eter 24 15 9 a New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 347 Greatest Maximum Horizontal fae depth. length. n. In. In. Name. Renee GREG ec cate dic 's vat ots + sjo eins qe 27 12 9 Pile GIOGCEE calc re Lie ssi. csiesele siete othe ae Os 28 12 9 MOPS TASS MA ee ahs ens sone bre td cro Go 34. 15 12 So SPIED 1 aR ea Re a 18 12 48 EB a) Shaan SOROS E See ee ae 19 8 30 Rone red omangelwiirzelir.. 6... cals wees 26 16 39 Supale EP ip Fenn [eres | Sverre ee (9) aS eee 48 Beeeomnawaiet Was DEAIT......... cece ewe: Nh eertetr 24 A a aan ond haa syle cla. Wares ease twee EBcm aes 12 Bete eid CPO-PLAN i. ven ccs ke oe ees BANS rae eats 24 Be Fe oe a kc ins 20%, lace oka oss foe 00's ss 0 = Dire ers 36+ Pies!) BP has aac Re 30+ 18 30 Wellow scallop bush squash. .......2.....6. See we Pace eee Hei estOpO1Ole fULMIP. os. ona es es Loe ta 18 Montreal nutmeg muskmelon ............. BA ime s 60 ae ero oc obs ny eh loeninsgl eo ie ane @ 18 12 12 It is not to be expected nor did the investigator think that the same results would be shown on all soils. It is stated that generally “fibrous roots having an abundance of food nearby are more con- centrated ” than where the opposite is the case. The soil on which these plants were grown is a fertile clay loam to the depth of from six to ten inches, resting on a tenacious subsoil of gravelly clay. “In roots which penetrate the soil it is only the youngest parts with their delicate root hairs and papillae that absorb nutriment for the use of the plant. The rates of growth of these roots are probably largely influenced by temperature and moisture and hence we should anticipate a non-accordance of observations made during different seasons or in different climates.” Carrot and parsnip seeds were planted in four-inch drain tiles so as to prevent the formation of all except vertical roots. These tiles were placed upright in the ground, the top flush with the surface soil. It was found that roots grew straight down until they came to the bottom of the tile (fourteen inches) where a portion of the roots continued their downward course and the remainder grew up- ward along the outside of the tile, branching more and more until within three to six inches of the surface where they extended out into the soil in the usual manner. When fertile soil was taken from the surface and placed around the bottom of the tile the roots did not rise to the extent that they did in the former trials. On this = > ee ¢ 7 348 Twenty-FIrTH ANNIVERSARY REPORT. rigs of warmth, moisture and oxygen are indispensable to the develop- — ment of roots and that when these are present the rapidity of growth _ and the number of branches are dependent upon the amount of avail- able plant-food. In that stratum of the soil in which the balance ~ of these four conditions is on the whole most favorable to Loa growth, the roots develop fastest and this is doubtless one law that — governs their distribution.” ; “Market gardeners find transplanting young plants of as tomato, etc., while growing in a cold frame to be of great advantage in assisting them to endure the final removal to the open ground. ~ The question arose as to the cause of the benefit thus ascribed to a process that would appear to be in itself detrimental.” An inmvesti- gation “ indicated that the benefit chiefly arises from the longer roots being broken in transplanting which causes a compact growth of fibres near the base of the plant. This mat of fine roots carries the inclosed soil with it in the final transplanting and thus many of the feeding parts are in a condition to commence absorption at once ~ in their new home. The experiments showed that precisely the same result may be secured by sowing the seeds thinly in the frame 4 and then severely root-pruning the young plants from time to 3 time. Whether this checking of the root growth by transplanting or root pruning is in itself beneficial’ was not determined, the results of the investigation being inconclusive. “In experiments with young plants of cabbage and corn, root pruning seemed to increase the proportionate development of the root as compared with that of the top, but on the whole to retard growth. In every case where the — root pruning was performed in dry weather the results appeared in- jurious to growth.” : A mulching experiment showed “ that mulching the surface tends _ to bring the fibrous roots ” upward, the proportion of fibrous roots in the first two inches of soil being greater for the mulched than for the unmulched plants. It was noted that normally in cultivated fields roots are much closer to: the surface than is generally imagined. A numerous supply of roots was found in August between the rows in a field of sweet corn within an inch of the surface. A microscope showed that these roots were covered with root hairs; that is, they 4 were feeding roots. Practically the same conditions were found in field corn and tobacco. In the language of the investigator the re- sults of this investigation are: F 1st. “ The chief feeding ground of the roots of our hoed crops — including both those of field and garden is in the stratum of soil New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 349 lying from three to ten inches below the surface. Several plants, particularly the legumes, the cabbage family, lettuce, parsley, parsnip, beet, and perhaps a few others, doubtless obtain a consider- able amount of their nourishment below ten inches, but judging from the locality in which the fibrous roots are most numerous we may infer that even these secure more of their food above than below that depth.” 2nd. “In general terms the plants make the largest development of stem and foliage during summer, as corn, sorghum, tobacco, and the cucurbitae, are those of which the feeding ground is. shallowest in the soil.” F Later an attempted application of these results was made in the field. It was found with corn that root pruning, such as would be caused by ordinary cultivation, seriously retarded the growth of the young plants, and that this lessened growth was detrimental to the crop harvested the following autumn. That this injury came from the root cutting alone independently of the effects of stirring the soil was demonstrated by using a lawn edger in place of the ordi- nary cultivator, the soil being stirred as little as possible, no culti- vation being given throughout the growing season except scuffle hoeing and weed pulling. The results were the same as before, the root-pruned plants yielding decidedly less than those in which the roots were not pruned. A wet growing season seems to lessen the _ injury arising from this cause. INDEX. INDEX. A PAGE Mennaneutric food, iativence on milk. 0.2... 26... c eee ee ce eee 69 Acids and bases, action on casein and paracasein.................-. 201 Bemeniturc, New York State's position in. :.. 22.0.6... eee ceca nes 15 Bree T SERCO U GION Cher ee Geel oC! 67 xlSid os cece 6 ha ne hee tone «wishes © iV SaaS INNATE CTE CONIA WAL ID seach a) o's wi sia cis 66, oe et ney e ooo ales acslondis ate 268 inoculation and lime for...... Serta oor ets he cece orate Pas ck iy Pea MEOCMPODCUCRNME SE end t ch ceca cee le dr ede ee ace de ees 92, 96 Fy Ue a REE ae fee ara roe Sct fo es oSi wp ro foviaile) win ies sles ap auane's 89, 96 MPRA ee Sct Gti EG ATA ree ath aie ote coie ssnere 8 cicepa ee ave’s w+ s sbeln a oh iv Fee UON aaPVEStIC GIOIS Mlisvcciatocet sc 5 <4! s\6. oe, wee 'e: vue 0s 0 10)" ene mare’ 66 PMRMELS Amy CXETCISCS, ACCOUMELOL cee s gene else oe aise wie dee vee ee lene I Anthracnose of currant, study......... eat ic: RRA PR erat 134 AON OES SIREN pet atone oak A, ROR ee RR ee ace 138 RAS POC Cay ees GIS pLIOMl a women ple, Was fle lo Aious swale eel oe 153 Soap Meee Otte SEIT yee rct ays syenee ae 21S) 0: ciao) Se ata o wvej ost. Aa Teae whe 155 PUPPENGICCASES. (SINVESEIMARONS=: © ovata vl aired se cltleja tie ws weg ei elt ea de 119 Pa ONE AGES TANCES ao coc) ccs ool ose saatialis’ sooe.e wieis bo 6) oe ete lel Moats ya II9 scab and MOOG SASM ES ee LaGIOM aie cu ie. s-e sce sues ciel. Salles wie otto aie 122, 324 Beet Me REC SI ee sacs shes) - a ace eet e mie eel nl Gite Winks 000s wiviake ota «any oasis 120 SOC MUINVIES LI AUTOM ay welsh Pht oie tesco) 012) ash} of Met ot sl steueterei atte ctdoregsme 293 he CME etry SULT eSuaracns cesiate, ralsister aera ol nina sviauote Eaolere ailodel n [etronemsenren- 122 URES, CIA Vue Ollovomaln penigobheapeoebbonton devocgoo so ounce cc 122 maples: culture and, investigations at Station. .0..6 6. 02 eee ee on ae 292 AMES ELA LOMM Ofsb MGMINITAC raed ehelsieba cieae oaks & cle) ciaiienereneteters sisieeu 302 UUM GEASS atl Gira yt SS yaya owckce erates < wis) ey acs) +) sewehctiny ole (onslienereral ol 122 RemenyGhmMonorraph On. . i.2. . 1 waisls > v sersisls "sb ooo none Whe Hele 296 Hi OWEG| TIAOLES Os eae eae Soi ORONO eo O IO nt Coo tau aise O Moc 123 FARM ONVEO it ast ES TOL Sam oi cea wrdta: wre! on a asahnie aesenan sl te oe los em Be 263 Bia E AUIS wOISedSeS OF, SHIGIES... oaae a Seis le Doe de wa elec so a Slee 124 TAGES Fey OUSAYOial LO} dL a Pee gees cum eile a ERCien GEOG OCR acu chica AEN ES eat 6 124 SoSSLTind CSS DIVgSte-2 Sy OS) a 70 0 cya a ae ee ae ar RR iv. miscellaneous and student, of Station’... .....4.5- 0. ash .- Vi. B richer al GiscaseTOLISWEEE COMM, SUILCIES. aa c.4 44 osc viepa te ceies ww Sai Pele E32 TOOL OUI OMS PEMte ee 1.5 Orie cca chapel ES coon 264 D Dairy eet Ott ve Se eae. ack Once ees eet eS Re ene ee Vv. “Dist Filo “Pla tetera) 7 ieee A Soa a a Oa5S Disesnimpuby oOLcatiic foods, investigation i. tac i. ek oe en cle) hee ee 67 Peectigrsta rs iritiohn ae for y 2S o te pes Ss ee hoe Bak ee iv. Wiseases, Misceucamenus, Ol, plants, SLUGIES fo 56. .i..6 aic:20 oie Soonsss s, sgcueyetan es 157 PGE T AOI AM Alba, TVESHIOAGLON © 5... sores igre a> a se; oleitees «co sD slecevs shes 161 CSPS SINTER OS wei sc 1 86 10 ml 359 age ne a GN SDS Cag 92, 96 E Pasomwandelapneriams SbattOn. os. .0).7 delete cic sl oes oo eles cles aed etalon Ve TAME iG! Sra eti cg Zi] WTS 0) 6) Rai | i ene ag Pe ee oe ree: PeSPGGiIMsET AMID Ys SOUGIGS CU cee~cs Po) v-njaonys ons s sieag'.'o0Gha 8 oka Ne ore ler ae 73 Eggs, preserving.......... SAE SE MAS oll Sickeh os igen oes hays 80 350 INDEX Entomological investigations, Sumitaty Ofa.%-\..y 2.04 see ee Entomolopists of Station. 20. ij. ali 6 see a wie ae eee Oe ee ene Enzyms, relation to cheese making and cheese ripening.............. Experimentation, study of nrethods...... 3). so whe ene stn ene ee Parmers: relations avithestabiOnilerus eieescs aie sce. 4 piereas aces eae Fat; feeding to’ poultry... .2 a5 o< calsemeteterane genera ies eee ee mille’ food: sOUurcesiOk :/s cso as oe fee ke ee eae Federal and state aid to investigation, address on..................- Feeding table fowls. 25. wis. i. 5 < aru aleih a) ae sms a kate apenas Feeds) protein, and milk production. ai oc. 0.0 owe ee Fertility of grapes, study Of... 2 .vic0 S's ents ote hs Se ee Fertilizer elements i fruit cropsicirs os + ocche = sete abe stele tee inspection, Summary (OL WOLK = sei eee ees eae Hertilizersitor forcing lettucenc sso. sangeet Shes scene ee for horticultaral-crops: oii-7 wt. osc oie ei eae ore Pield-crop insects, studies O15 ce. ale ase chee eee investigations, SumuMary Olesen eet ee ee Fire blight of apple, studies....... ie eos sa oe pele ee eee Re ee Flanders, Hon.(G.-L., ‘address*by-t 5.2 © ) Se ee ee re Deke OS calle aah ee 146 Resumes tech orcenumerccial cultures <3 ec. ss... oboe ase wheres 116 Pegaso today,address-by- Ib. H. Bailey... ees cca4 oe ews nee vb nets as Be latrla ert tea Sess ao GtiOlie ss Oke jigee ones roo ectako Gd ais w oma aa ge Te bie Barada es 137 HES BEEATSS TPS Pasa: Oey get a le 725 LGU SSE SEN SFO ZI) Re cea a ne oe ee 138 Petition Ste a) PE SINS Clg cS Sawn Us a oe wide ROL ts eld Bs eee wale 117 Wet Meme GEeSEO i “8 80S s | tie. vocals 's ais slea adc swabs ee asters oo we 142 358 INDEX M PAGE Mativels for: pigs. 6. ico iiss Fc OR ep OS AR eae 104 Manure, poultry, -valiie.ob = 2.25%. ch ee-ce et. cape as eee 74 Maple: diseases; ‘stutlies: of2 4. 00.25 8 Se sau ies etiebew > tae eee 138 Meat.production‘and. nitritive ratio... °-..05. see eee eee 67 Melon louse, investication..o. cn 2355 os. Lee ee A ee 242 Methods.of experimentation, study of... 135. i; ae oe ee 59 Mildew of cucumbers, study.) 252" esc/ao ss secs tiene eects oe 033 POOSEDELTY ;, SBUGIES. ~ ceuascte cies ste otaye gets 135 Milk: and ' cheese, “‘bacteriolopical’studies... vines eee eee ee ee 112 studies'on rélation)s 2-4.c tat jaeat eee aren. ee ee 168 bitter flavor, study of si2) 20 !..01. Bee ieee ein eee er 113 composition of summary of StudieS....... +5. .c: = = se eee Dieere 169 and cheese: composition, relation <= )-. =... - eerie 175 yield, relation: 2.2/5.5. cee 170 effect of lactationvan!. 74. eee. 2 Plus vee Scere eee 169 fat, dood Sources)of, 05 457% ss.02 5 Macsesos oo. ae ih Se pun7O influenceof acid and putrid-foods. ont. yt ociacec are ee 69 payment for at chéesé factories::s, a... ah tia as ee ee 182 production by dairy: breeds? <.:4... De Sail ee ee eee ee 213 influence GE protein feeds 2... 4. oe. eee ee 68 skimmed, for powltry sis 6. i... aie oe cae cele acs aeh ae 79 Milking machines; study Of%. 35. sfc). sac aiece sib ee eas at kee ri, Mineral matter for chicks! pcr. es .. cists custe tete ieee a ee 98 Miscellaneous;plant..diseases; notes On: ss. 2 > s2:c as ult see ee 157 Mites, apple and'pear,. studies*ons. .ci,..c7. bi. cases we nen Oe ee 259 Molting of poultry, influciceof foods. ... sh... a= asec See eee 76 Muttled butter, study Of s .\s..iircc. 2a « atementaereeeeiaes Dene ae eee 219 N New “York. plum Jecanium;, studies on. 5.52.22 <2). os ee ee 254 New York State’s position in agriculture, address on................ 15 Nutritive ratio and meat productions 2)... hee sete wee 67 Nastritive ‘ratio for laying hens=2 220. oc 22S ee ee eee 73 Oo Oat-=pea forage forswine S627. eee sce ee ee are see eee 105 SMUt, AM VEStISATIONS OF. Shek gala aie ee ass ah ee eee 139 Oats, studies on iGulture akc nie se teks eh ey ee ene Se. ae Officers, of Station; numbers! employed:c?. . 2) 5a eee we be oes 64 Onion eut worms, studies of 7 oe eae ete saa cee ene eee 264 diseases; Sttrdies: Of 54... ec. bi. tele. este toeicl nS eee are ee 140 Smutrstidies! ORs als chee stows «ee ae Re es ee eee I40 Onions, fertilizer experiments with’: <9. 2.7.) 2. eee 279 Orchard cover: crops, study ofst2 sa ee = hn ee a ee 311 Orpanizationsof Sta poi 7.05.6. cao cat ees tea ee ee eee iii P Paris green, analysis of 5 cit.des catalan Reset se ere eee ge ees ee 225 Parrott, P. J., summary of entomological investigations.............. 238 2 Rt ne INDEX 359 PAGE BerieaShiay IheeOaen OF (ota elOUsETOMl ss. c's vs a[e cicice «oc! e bee ale o Srehe eitha) eset 5 Peastemrizagion tom Disbbet MAKING, «os. 2c isles. ale Sngre, oo Rls ales Pole tele senehs 110 Payne, Congressman Sereno E., remarks by.................00eceees 13 parc hECiSeCASeS eStUIGles) Olas aaa OR hs aaa meet sus sale, Meauan’ cle cae boone ws I41 Rete g anu MITER URE AUTOM NSP no ates hee ase shes, Ss toe Fe ese he ee ne ees 142 EEERGES “SRT AS 54 8 Oe Sai een RnR arn a ee ee 142 Seer Te STP TIN MOTI ARO tata oe eee sen Kie aoe ts apnea were eel mea ane 144 ee ee a SMVEMINIO NG os ordre Fev oc otha eines dregs ee vane wales law ely ais cus, TSheer ase ESR Bi re PP Be i Rr OO ee athe 103 SMM AEE Meee MADAME RIN. terest ni) sic 7s, @co'e soaker no) « Sacto alot oe otlawy Sap. Wha ake eae ea 104 S200) STL DSS eninge ae an Or er acer acs are anc ane Rae ag 105 SDDS eG EO BRE Se oe Rn ree aera BO Pees c.g 102 Bins Cet Wa SOUT MOI Men lay eeark sais opategels sicheig ona gids whos Simtaston 106 Woune. teedine experiments With. 6 .)6 cle cette oe cute to toe one 107 Seas NE CCL ANT TOPCO IAN eet Si cu so! sone! oF a soi she suas suehaleye Fela 0) +. oo =)» odes ermpeaia wade 207 Seer see IN CSE ID AAA ODay cat le) o scatter ae eco Sth ole bie! boars, Sos oat are 119 TGEy SEU GIES ONE joftce:. srs Sin 2 SARE Lt eae th EPR NTI ine TRE aE 255 POM TMMIRCHSEASES ASU CIESEOL ets ceenrat tet croietdteka fue treet Midsenh So ee ee shes Weer eters 146 Peralta ret en d owy Gi Hee OLS beUGIOD ay. shoes a choi ariscais<\e'a'> a bis deere, cise ahs o cees SRT 56 mini aticlewtlow Over, StUGIES Of. c0.2. oso: orci’ bwin eke sao pee tse aes 265 Potato diseases, investigations................ A iis Pah ean bat Ne res re 147 ESPReUy EECA pth OSEAN 2st sie s, cago e! o, « gate le wi dodo e yeen ye eS 149 Gt aioes imveshoaAsioOnG/ it) Culture? \.. a... ess ee eee bee obese wg Bases 280 RESUS GC US by pel sob Big ip gS A arr Pie ey cP eine Ii caer se cp 150 CET EI Ey SES TATIG S016 66 [6 ee cae ec ete PI 89, 96 _ SEEE/ESRIRE IE.) FS) (8 6 pea aan Pe a Rare it roars oP 72 aA IRPeOE eu ULO MO Cie See o +, <0 tvenare aie cick = Su sabe, stone acyeisss nga areca ote 76 SPUR a nae itn a eis oesuris, 2 ek owe Meader wate) ne wee ats eee 79 WES PONE PRGUMEES ie. or). en ee es ate aigiac ne wean See epee 100 food, erect Of mechanical condition : 5... 6 iii. alee a ote le 86 PRICMIGE NS OGEOM SAOMIIE 5 (cj. s...cs co haves = ciate ak meee yee nD whe 76 males tinnmeeessary with laying hens... 3... 2. leo ee 83 HT RTI TENCE S OL fic oe oh wee ig tend alae ves caste nome RING Sale ets Poa 74 psleaitae same IO eas ecg see Se) chu a al wr apaket cet = ladies thats Se berae af adeibe ales 70 WiiOleritd oro orains fOr so ori n a shelly eters ate e 5b as soe be 87 Wieeraid aucrOwW LAGONS TOL. cis es .ccsc he eis sre Weck wo ee eset e ap 82 IS MCOSINO UA ISH Girne aS oe eae ICT, ovat ols ES oe eg 85 MST eee tide CSE Olek a tee onto. Grate cectey sake che iiss sieicueiie ves cece, «wh ee 98 ees aE YO 0 TED Tay Save ao Sa. Soe ny She oy sy nein © orn e's Hes nl tk oe es 80 Peep eye RIE CLES WINE yi cis cbs oi's eso 01s, ols oo! mb os 0 seus a 8 Gils we mm ale 103 Prepratn Of aumivetsary CXCFCISES) .. ie cose eie ews Sees oie wee eee I Preccids Of DUtLer telawmonsto mottling...) oe ot Le te eg 219 Protein feeds, influence in milk production... 1.2.2.0... cee eee ees 68 CE Seg teiays SoS streak TAS Rae eae nee re crear 85 BUEN WORE SOY AC 18 CECI S| 7 whe ear a a ae ew a 152 360 INDEX R PAGE Raines, Senator John, remarks ‘bys sah. os wee ne ee 14 Raspberry diseases, ‘sttdies Of. o/.2% rs.’ guna ss wis in oh ee ite 153 saw-fly, Studies) Onsen... 2 hm as oe ee ee 135 of carnations;studies/ Of 6.0.00 a0 5 ote ane hayes eit shee Sener Da Rusty spotiun cheese, study ot. © 2). 2). a0. eh. cei a ee by oes a) Sal OT epOUltny wien 2 omerate eects g¢ osise be cet ee ee ee 241 Staff, Station, list of members, A... ee cae iv. state and federal.aid to investigation .~.Syue: « «mnt egies ee ee 22 jie he INDEX 301 PAGE SUPA NTONM a Ne) (a5 0) alec 20) GRE IIe a ar Pa 6) 55 Higsere teel Daa Peis SALES UIP n or cytes cere aloes s korces Once wager a wletsrshar ely aurea 5 PETE GLO Nly Olen ea ee cra yarel eet caelialie april Tovel’s ial «ira etehere «tons aia'sle' el 8 RUNES Eeeen aE ELCECSS IOI ome re nig Cele ancl aicvent ts (c= Alessia) ix a 0 2'la @) a Sine ov 4 CHS OS STi e en peter merare tela safe te als leratele ees eases cleavage S3 BEI SPC CM MOM TESTING Ole sistas wis cn a seein divs sfo + sine w'ese oe nd 63 Oiiceremmimuners EMplOVER. fi. sc. 8 aac cove sieleye oie eels siele aishere aie 64 aera ONAD eNO STS Ao ae ole ene Mia eie iss S [are erase is isso ewig eoleray eee ili. PIPE etmt I COTO T OLR sa. 6/55 we « ws ws utap dmg Sone whsiclh, canto: sume rele eo enene 56 PEMA SE WAGIIGEATINVCT Ss olin) «eo ini Se lal arose Sinrare ek wel Slap aes 8 Sad pe 5 meview? o:.work for twenty-five years«... 22. 00.62 eww eee cee oe 53 Hisiil, IEG cal ov Se IOS CeO orc ene iv. MEE PAGCOR IS EG WIV n5, shave. pevede Qeie eis wai ot: slesie pietecuieiers las aint am gOS SeeRAAITE SL (CHUCATI A RIOMS SUITES! cr se 2 <5) Sinliat creas etele @aieis« Hein eels a dUarciu aaa 129 Sm tase rch PIRES SoG UE LO UN yaar Nekaial eiclere pss ormsaliecelia she's ie ageia SMe ers oie cone! ob rues vi. Stewart, F.C.) summary of botanical investigations. ........0..65.6. II9Q ee MIS EIIHCS SNAG ONC MDELIMMEN bs. isc 0a « 6/a'e'e ee wie vines Siew ae 6:0 WH a oe 315 SaEANM LHC SCASCS © MOLES OM oc 05 4 we o ais trece Fa titlehs s Sabir wsleiels wollen 2 156 SP PAMCELS MIN VEStISALIONS 1) CUlEUTC <5 6.6 ce eee © otis, a bee orieela Midlel cl oie 288 SERGI ESEOL CO POSILIOM 4 or-b se yaiisssters\sveuaic enceeicress ahs eoeieree) otek 230 NuMiOWeD GiIScASES, NOLES) OW. 6. scsi ss sy eee Socrctenachatieueiekehene aie tvemehene 156 eet CnIN CEOS SUI VIO Lo sie, a sis cece eo wis 6 oie 4: 3)e vile Sy din swe isle © elede ec E13 SumlmemCOarsenOrarertObater./ 2 sis cis) ss sie ieie-ciel G's s @ sacle, a s/sit oapetels’s S's ers 102, 105 Ragin Oba COLMMANE AOL. he) c's) sve ne oe cece lek eck bees tie wie aielave oe We o She 107 eee PURER CLONE EE arse ois chs ating a 5s sos aol laio,0 eee) ayei'eiwie-ers viele ieiwie « eteyeee 103 ee Citta Silo C eeererd eG ai, sous eee aese Wheto aie sits a aces Suahoyg enevahe, cubve rove tals 102 PRC OMT OVS OL, (ole 5i.5-. fo) 50 veiw Ess, Soars ape aioe, ata ehte (endive, s: scaliest iets 103 Pte eats Cat Se CROSSE Ge 250 ay buotc ars a io ace oie stapyetei prose o Srerertete. cyclo ele 108 SUN CME@ Teed eee ect aT mere Salone cuit cle Sie rabap cis oa Sh one reese tal ale so lajtei Ghesetes seed opelists 105 RSCRECN MIMBO GO IEN Ect obo cnt fner Si ane cera toi stidiis cordtsr ole iSreimetecsre enmeisie e wieye 104 Simms ye GM eXPEMMCNES, WILD. wete ie cversielo sid cr ctpelsteene cle Giese sence 102 Scat MC y PO EAS LOMA Ss: sere ss hints) avers eitare’e whe, 2 Saleile"ace wiaterevcse ers 106 Nei OTe IISCASES ETM OLESHOll's ctavcusserevore sietsie.§ cleceieleia 0 Svaliaieienslone evelele taleyelets 156 gf BimereLOilars aSbUUIES OL. < oe s/chc civisceclt «oe so cia 6 s)s ph alnlece ole © wae 30% 257 pMiieRean Pes pp lest IN VES SALION jo ra.< 5 srs. pan sininimieisvelainle's due sree'es als See ele 302 Thompson, President William Oxley, address by.................0:- 22 Sete ONIN SMa Rees py eo eer 2 ose heros ns che ccy ie ae Se avereee BiB. 610) Soa jote Gales ee ers 246 PlloaeeO, MaestIe a bONS OR CUITUTE . 52.5. 5 pee do ispc 2 a eis, 8 eye ste etpie so os 290 Sliorittcs Ce CREASE es SUN Oldie sie... 5 isisixie!clels. ep bi tis ein wells B10 % econ bw ele me 156 SOE ACTS MUG rays ole clans cle'tis Soe 6 «sala ajelece ele ete Devs oe ates iv. Wluberculosis im cattle; method of treatment... 2... 20. eee ste eee ees III PstI UT SCAGES ATI CCHNOIU Re tts vss 's-c NUS. v.Syn\w np dio wyere/ Siew « ae sele ee o:6'e as 156 Vv Wainolyikc trols, Suimmary of chemical work .-.. << de! se ene sees ese 163 Site rare CRINGE PMIOE Scly aralere os Sein ce arora /'n) ob? ed 2,0; s'ie Sh eaves es bo no's wee 232 Meaetinlesm Won OnuCulOibenes <> sp.ca sit tld svsraists mic ste cslelelaMets.e Mitacsle = 325 Weeds, investigations on’....c7..-.s sos ae eae On OMe ‘AGE Maa. n «Se Sie = easels =) ne ae seed. Production Dy ses: oct. axes fee se ee eee WwW Wheeler, W. P., summary of experiments with poultry.... swine...... Whey, ‘Studies in ‘composition /of.4.- os. asa stock ee Willows, cottonwood leaf beetle on................. Winter injury to fruit trees, study of.............. Wood ashes and apple scab, relation........... Work accomplished by Station................. 5 ae Ay i r 3 wii Pa a aN : ‘| (i my i { v7 q a Oa } j eu Gtn fh RAL Sree oom 3 9088 01271 1818