TENTH ANNUAL REPORT SECRETAHY |pa$s;ic|itsctts ^oarir of l^gndtitrc, TOGETHER WITH REPORTS OF COMMITTEES APPOINTED TO VISIT THE COUNTY SOCIETIES. WITH A]^ APPE]^DIX CONTAINING AN ABSTRACT OF THE FINANCES OF THE COUNTY SOCIJIJIES, 18 6 2. BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER, STATE PRINTERS, No. 4 Spring Lane. 1 8 G 3. TENTH ANNUAL REPORT SECRETARY BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. To the Senate and House of Representatives of. the Common- wealth of Massachusetts. In the early part of the last year the lung disease among cattle, commonly known as pleuro-pneumonia again made its appearance in this State, notwithstanding the efforts which had been made to eradicate it. Those who knew most of the history and nature of this lung disease were fully satisfied of the danger to be apprehended from it, and exerted an influence to have another Commission appointed to exajnine tlie facts, and, if necessary, to take measures to prevent the spread of the contagion. A new Board of Commissioners was accordingly appointed in pursuance of an Act of the legislature, and though a part of its members are understood to have entered on their duties with a strong conviction that there had been needless alarm, and that the policy of the Commonwealth in regard to the disease, as carried out by the original Board of Commissioners, had been erroneous, and resulted in unnecessary expense, a careful examination soon satisfied them that the danger had not been exaggerated, and that strenuous efforts were required to meet it and arrest its progress. 6 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE. Through the exertions of the Commission it is hoped the worst is now over, but good policy may still dictate that the same Commission, or some other, be continued for the purpose of guarding against a re-appearance of this fatal disease. A standing commission, ready to act in case of emergency, would have far less to do than one appointed to act in the premises after the facts became known. The formalities of legislation necessarily require much time, and the disease spreads rapidly before there is any power to act for its suppres- sion. Could the original commissioners have been appointed and begun to act as soon as the existence and nature of the disease became known, no doubt the ultimate expense would have been far less, and the result more satisfactory. The Act under, which the present Board of Commissioners was created, provided that the report to be by them submitted to the legislature, should appear in the Report of the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture. It is as follows : — To the Senate and House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of Massa- _ chusetts. By an Act of your honorable bodies, approved February, 1862, the present commission on contagious diseases of cattle was established. On the 25th of the same month the following named persons were appointed by the governor and council to constitute the board of commissioners, viz. : E. F. Thayer, of Newton, H. L. Sabin, of Williamstown, and James Ritchie, of Roxbury. Two of these persons were without experience in regard to the subject matter committed to their charge and inclined to receive with great caution the evidence of the existence in this country of a contagious lung disease among cattle. The State had already expended large sums of money, and great losses had been incurred by individuals, for the purpose of purging our cattle herds of the disease termed pleuro-pneumonia. In the community there was a divided sentiment in regard to the policy [)ursued by the previous board of commissioners in rela- tion to this nuitter. Many ridiculed the ^holc proceedings and some of the members of your lioiiorablo bodies were much inclined to doulit the expediency of establishing a new board SECRETARY'S REPORT. 7 of commisdoners with sucli vast powers as were conferred by the Acts of April and June, 1860. In view of these facts it was decided by the commissioners, at the outset, to take noth- ing for granted but to commence de novo and proceed with care and discrimination in the examination of all cases which might be presented for consideration. A representation had been made in print by a committee of the State Board of Agriculture, about the middle of February, to the effect that the disease called pleuro-pneumonia had made its appearance in the county of Norfolk, and on the 1st of March a communication was received from the selectmen of the town of Milton, calling upon the commissioners to visit the herd of William A. Hougliton, of that town. On the first day of January, 1862, this herd consisted of eight cows and two Jersey heifers. The first sickness in a cow of this stock was noticed about the middle of the same month. This animal had been in Mr. Houghton's possession four years. She was kept with the other stock until the 8th of February and was then transferred to the barn of Mr. Isaac Houghton in Dorchester, where no other cattle were kept. This cow con- tinued sick, becoming very much emaciated, and on the 10th of March was killed by order of the commissioners. On examination both lungs were found badly disease^, the right lung contained a hard lump weighing about four pounds firmly encased. On cutting open the covering a quantity of very offensive matter appeared surrounding a piece of solidified lung in which the cells were distended and the usually very thin membranous tissue was thickened to a quarter of an inch. The left lung exhibited similar developments, with the excep- tion that the cyst was smaller. Mr. Hatfield, the butcher, declared that among all the cattle he had killed, some of which had been variously diseased, he had never seen any thing resembling what was presented in this case. A portion of the lungs of this animal was taken to the State House and exhibited to the governor and council and to many members of the legislature. On inquiry of Mr. William A. Houghton it was ascertained that another of his stock was sold in January, in poor condition^o a German butcher engaged in the manu- facture of Bologna sausages. Still another died in February, before notice was given to the selectmen. This notice was 8 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. served on the 13th of that month, and on the following day the authorities took formal possession of the herd and liad one of the cows killed, which was found to be diseased in her lungs in manner answering to the usual description of the malady termed- pleuro-pneumonia. On the first visit of the commis- sioners, March 1st, a cow that had taken neither food nor drink for six days was killed. On examination the right lung was found wholly diseased. The exudation had been excessive and the lung was firmly adherent to ribs and diaphragm. The left lung was in the main without disease although exhibiting evident marks of having been overworked. An examination into the origin of the disease in William A. Houghton's herd, and into that of another herd similarly infected in the town of Quincy, a full account of which will be found in a subsequent part of this report, induced the commis- sioners, in view of the experience of other years and as a measure of proper precaution, to act on the presumption that the disease was infectious. They accordingly ordered the entire isolation of all herds of cattle which, by any possibility, might have had anyi contact with one of the animals supposed to have been infected, and prohibited the buying or selling of cattle by the owners of such herds. On the yth of March, the commissioners submitted a partial report to the House of Representatives, in response to a reso- lution of that branch of the government, in wliich the hope was expressed that the disease would be very limited in extent. Subsequently, however, cases were multiplied ; and for some time it was feared that the infection might have reached every portion of the Commonwealth. The commissioners were sum- moned in various directions, but in the main, ascertained that these requests were caused by cases which on examination pre sentcd no a))pGarances like those dev<3loped in the examinations in Milton and Quincy. In one instance, in the town of Rutland, an ox died very suddenly. His yoke-fellow was sold to a neigh- boring farmer, and the ox to which this had been mated was taken sick and subsequently died. The lungs in these cases were examined. One was without disease in those organs, and the other presented a case of severe bronchial inflammation. In fact, in all the cases presented where no contact could be SECRETARY'S REPORT. 9 even inferred, not the slightest indication, like those of the disease termed plenro-pneiunonia, was exhibited. 'Abont the first of x\.pril, from inquiries made at Brighton and Cambridge, it became known to the commissioners that a disease of a peculiar nature had appeared in tlie herd of E. Welch, a milkman in South Boston. On examhiation, it was ascertained that a cow which had been exposed in Dorches- ter, had been purchased and introduced into liis herd about the 9th of January, and that several of his cows had been taken sick. Accordingly his herd was isolated, but as in this and other instances, it appeared to the commissioners that, in such situa- tions, the isolation could not be perfectly secured, arrangements were made for the removal of the infected herds to some secure place, where the public would not be endangered, and where experimental knowledge might more readily be acquired as to the nature and progress of the disease. Accordingly the com- missioners took possession of a farm at Squantum, which was under lease to one 0. C. Barnes, the owner of an infected herd, and all the herds w^iich were then known to be infected, were removed thither in the night time. The buildings to which the cattle were removed were old and fully ventilated in every direction, but the disease soon took hold of the healtliy animals, and when killed very few were found to have escaped the infec- tion. A sick cow was purposely tied between two apparently perfectly healthy. These in the course, of a few weeks became sick, while the cow in the middle became apparently better, but when killed was found badly diseased, the unhealthy portion of the lungs having become encased with a firm membranous covering. Many members of the last legislature visited Squantum, and were present when cattle were killed. They were all satisfied as to the peculiar character of the disease ; and those who doubted when they went, returned convinced. In fact, there remained no longer room to doubt the infectious nature of the disease. Many animals fully exposed entirely escaped. Well fed milch cows rarely failed to take the disease. Bulls, oxen, heifers and poor cows were more commonly among the exempts. It does not appear that the disease is so infectious as the small- pox among human beings. It is, however, sufficiently so to be very alarming. As an approximation, it may be stated that 2 10 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. twenty-five per cent, of an infected herd will die, fifty per cent, may recover so as in a measure to be healthy, but when killed will be found to have a portion of diseased lung fully encased, and separated from the healthy portions, and twenty-five per cent, will come out in perfect condition. One hundred and fifty-four cattle have died or been killed during the past ten months under suspicion of having been infected. Of these forty-four were cattle pastured on Long Island, killed for reasons hereinafter to be given. Of the remaining one hundred and ten seventy-seven were diseased and thirty-three perfectly healthy. Contact was proved in all but one instance which may be thus given. Mr. "William Walker, of Quincy, was at Squantum when diseased cattle were killed there. He examined closely por- tions of diseased lung and walked through the blood of the slain animals. He then rode home a mile and a half and went to the barn and fed his cattle. These became diseased. Two were sold to E. B. Taylor and all but three out of his herd of twenty-one were found diseased. Another was sent to Long Island where forty-four cattle belonging to individuals in dilTer- ent towns were pastured. This cow was taken sick and when killed was found to be diseased with this peculiar form of dis- ease. Tliis affair caused great perplexity to the commission- ers. The cattle on the Island had all been exposed and yet they appeared perfectly healthy. It was decided to keep them on the Island until it was necessary to dispose of them for want of shelter. The owners were consulted and either they or their neighbors objected to their removal from the Island. Intelligent stock owners in various parts of the Commonwealth remonstrated against endangering tiie whole cattle of the State for the sake of the comparatively insignificant sum of eight or nine hundred dollars. Accordingly the cattle were killed on the last week of November and all found perfectly healthy. Had it not been done the community would have been full of apprehension. The law in relation to the disposal of exposed cattle found perfectly healthy was so worded that an insignifi- cant amount was realized from the sale thereof. "Without going further into detail upon the i)rogress of the disease, the accompanying diagram is suljmittcd, exhibiting its course during the past year. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 11 The following concise statement will sufficiently explain the diagram and exhibit the main features in the progress of the disease in this State during the past year. In March, 1861, Mr. J. F. Eaton purchased a yoke of cattle of a person at Brighton who had the same day bought them of a driver from North Hampton, N. H., named Jonathan Phil- brick. A gentleman in search of a pair of oxen had previously declined to take these on account of their unhealthy appear- ance. Soon after Mr. Eaton had put these cattle to work on his farm one became sick, then the other, then a bull stalled next to the oxen. All of these died of a loathsome disease. Very soon his cows, one after another, were attacked. Several died and some were killed to put them out of misery. Those that apparently recovered were afterwards found to have the 12 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. disease encysted or covered over for a time. In August Mr. Eaton sold eight cows to Mr. John Holbrook, of Randolph, two of them at the low price of five dollars each. Finding it diffi- ciilt to get these two home Mr. H. bargained with an Irishman to take two weary cattle oy the road for the sum of ten dollars. The cash not being on hand, the verbal promise to pay was taken, but as one cow was nearly dead when the purchaser found her and as the other died shortly after the purchase, only fifty cents were realized out of this shrewd bargain. The other six cows, after remaining a few days in a field with a cow and calf previously belonging to Mr. Holbrook, were sold to Mr. Loring Tirrell, of Weymouth, for a sum less than that paid Eaton by Holbrook for them. Before reaching home Mr. Tirrell found that two of the cows were sick, and on his arrival he tied the two up in a barn with a cow he had kept for about a year to supply his family with milk. The three were after- wards turned out to pasture together where they all died. Three of the remainder were killed for beef and the remaining one was sold. The latter was traced out, bought and killed and found not diseased. This ended, — through the mere circumstance that this cow sold had not become infected, — the progress of the disease in that direction. The cow which Mr. Holbrook had at the time the six before mentioned were in his pasture and which was never suspected imtil killed of being diseased, was sold to 0. C. Barnes, of Squantum, who at that time had a milk herd of thirteen cows. Three of these were soon after sold for beef. In November one of his cows was taken sick and died. About the first of December another was taken away by Philbrook, the butcher, who saw the lungs of the one that died. Mr. Philbrook had at that time in his barn thirty or more milch cows. Tlie cow from Barnes', while on its way to the slaughter-house, accident- ally went into the barn among these cows. When killed the lungs of this cow were found so diseased that the carcass was sent to Ward's factory. In a short time thereafter several of Mr. Philbrook's cows became sick. He killed nearly all of them and such as were healthy went for beef. Eight, however, of the carcasses could not be used and were sent to Ward's. Seven of 0. C. Barnes' herd ])roved to be diseased. From this point the disease was carried in the various directions indi- SECRETARY'S REPORT. 13 catcd in the diagram and was only stopped by the destruction of ninety-three head of cattle at an expense of 83,000 to the State and a loss of as much more to individuals. In Jnnc, 18G1, Mr. J. F. Eaton, the same whose cattle trade involved the history just recited, ])urchascd another pair of oxen and took them to his farm where he kept them as far as possible from the rest of his herd and from contact with his sick cows. After using them to get in his hay he sold them in August to James Houghton, of Dorchester. In October one of Mr. Houghton's cows was taken sick, and one day on driving her out to take the air she fell dead. Several others were taken sick from time to time. One cow was driven from bis. place early in December to his brother's, William A. Houghton, of Milton. There she remained three weeks. In about two months Mr. William A. Houghton's herd became sick, several died and the rest were killed January 9. Mr. James Houghton sold a cow to E. Welch, of South Boston. In about a month she was taken sick and in the following April Mr. Welch's wiiole herd perished and nine out of the fourteen were found diseased with the peculiar lung disease called pleuro-pneumonia. In January Mr. Houghton sent the oxen and some cows to Brighton, but not getting the price he desired he transferred them to his farm in Grafton. On the 19th of March two of the cows at Grafton were found sick in the acute stages of the disease and one other in which the disease had evidently existed for months. The nine cattle at this place were slaughtered on the same day, and among the rest the yoke of oxen sold by J. F. Eaton to James Houghton. One of these oxen was found^o have no sign of disease in the lungs, and the other had only a small cyst not larger than a lien's egg, and was never previously suspected of being other than perfectly healthy. It will be seen from the foregoing, that two animals, the Holbrook cow sold to Barnes, and the Eaton ox sold to James Houghton, neither of which were even suspected of being dis- eased, have brought thousands of dollars' expense upon the cowBiunity and much loss and suffering to individuals, who in somminstances have lost valuable milk routes, and in others the very means of procuring present subsistence. In view of these facts, the commissioners suggest whether there is any safety in 14 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. allowing any cattle to live that have ever been exposed to this disease. For the encouragement of those interested in neat stock, the commissioners take pleasure in placing upon record the example of a large owner of cattle immediately adjoining the estate of ]\[r. J. F. Eaton. After Mr. Eaton's oxen had died, this neighbor said to him : " If your bull standing next to the oxen is taken sick, I sliall believe it is the pleuro ;" and after the bull died, and even before, he took great precaution in regard to his cattle — employing a boy constantly while the cattle were in pasture to keep them from contact with Mr. Eaton's. He would not allow any of his neighbor's cattle to come into his yard, and as the result of his vigilance, he secured the entire exemption of his herd from the disease which .had utterly swept off Mr. Eaton's herd of at least twenty-four cattle. In view of the foregoing statements, it does not appear to the commissioners worth their while, or of any advantage to the community, to enter upon an elaborate argument against the medical theory that lung diseases are not contagious, or against the physical theory that this disease is generated from local causes. They rely wholly upon the facts of its actual propa- gation. It having been urged that in Brooklyn, N. Y., and Borden- town, N. J., the same disease existed, and that its origin could not be- traced, the commissioners deemed the subject of suffi- cient importance to warrant them in making a personal exami- nation of its developments in those places. They visited Brooklyn, and examined the famous stables in Skillman Street and elsewhere, and ascertained that the disease took off annually thirty per cent, of the cattle ; that inoculation had been tried ■without perceptible advantage, and that the effects of the disease were such that the keeping of cattle in those places was fast becoming profitless. It appeared on investigation, that the theory of the self-producing character of the disease, or that it was generated in badly ventilated stables, was wholly without foundation ; and the commissionei-s were able to trace the whole disease in its entire course to one cow, brought over in a ship from England about twelve years since, and solJfco a German, near South Ferry, Brooklyn. This cow was tran^rred to one of the herds in Skillman Street, where the disease was SECRETARY'S Rm^ORT. 15 never heard of before, and there it died ; sinccvwliicli time it has not ceased to prevail there witli more or less intensity. A cow, sick with a very painful disease, was offered to us for examination, and on killing and opening her there were devel- oped precisely the same appearances as witnessed in tliose cattle killed by order of the commissioners in Massachusetts. In New Jersey, as in New York, the commissioners had an opportunity for examining the lungs of diseased cattle, and with the same result. Tiiey also succeeded in tracing the disease in all cases to Philadelphia, to which place, according to general belief, it was brought by cattle from Holland. Tlie commissioners feel that they have so managed this sub- ject as to allay the apprehensions of our farmers, and yet they desire to state, that exemption from this great evil can only be purchased by eternal vigilance. We have little fear of it from Brooklyn or New Jersey, but there is danger of its approach by the way of Albany, N. Y., and we should recommend as a matter of common prudence that some commission be kept in existence ready to meet the malady at its first approach. If New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania would adopt similar measures to those in tiiis State, it would be one of the most effective modes of securing the whole community against this disease, which, if allowed to prevail, would endanger all the neat stock in the country, and greatly deteriorate the most substantial food of the people. One pertinent fact may be stated here, viz. : that a single cow imported into Australia with this disease sliut up in'her lungs, has imparted the same, by compu- tation, to no less than 100,000 cattle. In conclusion the commissioners are satisfied, 1st. That this disease has never been generated in this country from local causes. 2d. That it is altogether an imported disease. 3d. That in general it is communicated by contact of breath. 4th. That it cannot be eradicated by treatment. 5th. 'That those cattle which apparently recover are the most dangerous, as they are liable at any time to come down with the disease a second time. tith. That by care it may be prevented from extending from one herd to another. IG BOARD *0F AGRICULTURE. The appropuiation for the expenses of the coraraissiou was $5,000. There have been already audited and paid bills to the amount of about $4,800. The estimated amount of bills not yet audited is $900, making in all an expenditure of $5,700, and leaving a deficiency of $700, for which an appropriation is required. This amount is in addition to that paid by the several towns where the disease has existed. It is due to Dr. E. F. Thayer, one of the members of this Board, to state that in addition to his other labors he has personally as veterinary surgeon examined the lungs of every animal that has died or been killed under suspicion of conta- gious disease, thus saving a large expense for veterinary service which otherwise must have been incurred. His associates would respectfully recommend an appropriation to pay him $200 for his extra services. Our thanks are given to the many farmers, drovers and vete- rinarians who have greatly aided us in our efforts to stay the progress of this disease. James Ritchie. E. F. Thayer. Henry L. Sabin. A committee had been appointed by the Board to inves- tigate the facts which were reported to exist in certain towns in Norfolk County, and to draw up a statement of them for the infoi'raation of the people. A copy of their statement may be found on page 133 of my last Annual Report. That committee was continued, and at tlie meeting of the Board, held at the State House, on the 15th of January, 1803, presented the following REPORT. At the meeting of this Board, in January, 18G2, a committee was appointed to prepare an address to the farmers upon the • then prescjit existence of pleuro-pneumonia in the State, and to present before the legislature the inii)ortance of inihiediate legislation, to prevent the spread of this pestilence. The address was laid before the farmers through tlic columns of the various agricultural and otlier journals, and was also embodied in the Rcj)ort of the Secretary of the Board. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 17 Tlje comniitteo now further report that they were diligent and imtiriui!; in their exertions, by the presentation of facts which were daily transpirinj^, to urge upon the legislature the importance of immediate efficient action. After much delay, a bill was passed authorizing the governor, with the consent of the council, to appoint a board of three commissioners whenever in his judgment the public good required. This measure was strongly opposed at every stage, in both branches of the legislature, and after having become a law, the council were slow to be convinced or to allow that the public good required any such appointment, and would consent to make one only by appointing a board the majority of whom were opposed to any legislation upon the subject, and who were known disbelievers in the contag-iousness, if not in the existence of any such disease ; and we believe it is no injustice to the commissioners to say, tlrat at the time of their appointment, none were more thoroughly opposed to the common theory of the disease, and the past action of the State, and former board of commissioners, than were two of the gentlemen composing the present board. Immediately upon their appointment, the commissioners were notified by the selectmen of Milton, of tlie existence of the dis- ease in that town in a herd from which two animals had died within a few weeks, and two had been killed by order of the selectmen, being beyond all hope of recovery. The commis- sioners entered upon their investigations on the 27th of Febru- ary, 1862. As these investigations progressed, the truth, not only of the existence, but of the contagiovsness of the disease became so apparent, that notwithstanding previous opinions, and the circumstances under which their commissions were granted and accepted, those opinions and prejudices have van- ished before the light of truth ^ and the commissioners have quietly but faithfully performed the duties of their oflfjce, and in our opinion should be spared the odium which some have endeavored to throw upon the former board, and should receive the support and co-operation of every friend to the prosperity of the agricultural interest. We proceed to narrate briefly, the rise and progress of the disease as developed in this vicinity during the past year, begin- 3 18 BOARD OF AQRICULTURE. nino; with a pair of oxen sold in Brighton market, in February or March, 1861, one of which was, in the opinion of persons who saw him, sick at that time. These oxen were purchased by J. F. Eaton, of Quincy, and taken into his herd. During the next few months not only these oxen, but several animals of his previous herd had died ; others were sold and taken into other herds, carrying the disease wherever they went ; or, if to change the expression will leave the question more open, we will say, the disease follovjed wherever animals from that herd touched. The disease has exhibited itself in not less than twenty different herds, and in every instance is traceable to the Eaton herd either directly or through other herds connected with it. The committee are in possession of the names of the twenty individuals whose herds have been thus affected. We cannot present in a more concise or direct form, a sum- mary of the progress of this disease the past year, and its apparent extinguishment, than by quoting that part of His Excellency's Address before the present legislature, relative to this subject. He says : " Under the Act of February, 1862, three commis- sioners were appointed on contagious diseases of cattle, — one a veterinary surgeon, one a doctor of medicine, and the third a member of the executive council, all being of some agricultural experience. Tliey were immediately called by the selectmen of Milton to investigate cases of disease among neat cattle which had broken out there and was creating alarm. " The animals were carefully examined, and found to be infected by pleuro-pneumonia. The commissioners ordered the entire isolation of all herds of cattle in the counties ot Norfolk, Suffolk, Plymouth and Worcester, which could by any possibility have come into contact with any of the infected animals. " One hundred and fifty-four animals have died, or have been killed by order of the commissioners, of whicli number seventy- seven, or just one-half, were found diseased, and in every case but one, contact has been proved. " Tiic commissioners are satisfied that the disease is never generated from local causes ; that it is altogether an imported disease ; tliat it cannot be eradicated by treatment; that those cattle whicii have apparently recovered are really the most to be feared, from the danger of relapse ; and that, by care, the SECRETARY'S REPORT. 19 disease may be prevented from extending from one herd to another. The expenses of the commission, as nearly as can now be ascertained, are about !S>5,700. Tiie appropriation being but 85,000, there will be a deficiency to be supplied by legis- lation. " The disease is apparently extinguished, and has now no visible foothold in the Commonwealth. The ease and celerity of its eradication by prompt treatment on its rc-a])pearaiice last year, removes all apprehension that it may hereafter become unmanageable, unless precautionary measures, when needed, shall be too long delayed." Other Acts relative to this subject were passed by the last legislature ; one of which provides that " whenever cattle exposed to contagious diseases are killed by order of the com- missioners, and upon a. post mortem examination shall be found to have been entirely free from disease, it shall the duty of the commissioners to cause the same to be sold under their direc- tion, first giving to the purchaser notice of the facts ; and if the said purchaser or any other person shall sell said slaughtered cattle or any part thereof, they shall in like manner give notice to the parties to whom the same is sold ; and the proceeds of the sales made by order of the commissioners shall be applied in payment of the apprized value of said cattle." This seems a wholesome provision, and is found to relieve in some measure the treasury of the Commonwealth, and also removes an objection often urged against the indiscriminate slaughter of animals exposed to contagion, namely, that of waste. Some months since the board of commissioners made a statement of their doings and experience with the disease, together with an appeal to the farmers of the State, which is at once so clear and convincing that we deem it worthy a place in this report : To the Farmers of Massachusetts: The disease termed pleuro-pneumonia has appeared in several herds of cattle in the eastern portion of tlie State during the present season. The State cattle commissioners have adopted the most effective measures to prevent its dissemination. All cattle that have been exposed, with the exception of four, have been destroyed. The commissioners have been forced to this mode of action by the logic of facts. These have 20 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. been scrutinized with the utmost care and vigilance. No opportunities have been suffered to pass without improvement, and no efforts have been regarded as vain which promise to throw Hght upon the origin and characteristics of the disease. Two of the three commissioners commenced their h\bors with a feeling that by careful inquiry and by thorough examination, they should be enabled to demonstrate to the public the inexpediency of the action of the former board of commissioners, as ■well as the groundlessness of the apprehensions of many in regard to the fatal character of the disease. A number of persons had published treatises to prove that pleuro- pneumonia was generated in poorly-ventilated barns, and was not infectious. The facts, as developed to the commissioners, have con- strained them to discard their first impressions, and to deny the positions of the various v.'riters before alluded to. They have, moreover, thoroughly convinced themselves that the worst apprehensions in regard to the disease are well founded and wise. They have found the disease prevailing in barns of every variety of structure, and of all degrees of ventilation, and even in the open fields. They have traced it from root to branches, whither it flows as surely as the sap flows in trees. They do not find a single case outside of the line of transmission. As surely as every rivulet tends toward the sea, does each case connect itself Avith its fountain head. The conclusion is irresistible, that if any disease be infectious this one is. In Massachusetts the disease was introduced by four Dutch cattle imported by Mr. Chenery, of Belmont. But it is said the same disease exists in New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The commissioners determined to see for themselves. They went to New Jersey. They were met in Bordentown by a veterinary surgeon of that place. Dr. Jennings, by a large stock-breeder and noble-hearted farmer, Adolph Mailliard, and by others, members of a committee of the agricultural societies. They visited herds which had been infected with disease ; found some where a large portion had died. They killed and examined a sick cow, and identified the disease with that in Massachusetts. In all instances where it existed, it had been intro- duced by cattle brought from Philadelphia. The api)rehensions of the farmers in that region had been aroused, and the commissioners found that a species of isolation had been resorted to ; but this was far from being thorough and eflicient. Cattle were allowed on the highway, even in some of the injected districts. Very erroneous impressions existed in regard to the character of the disease, even among those who were called to treat it. Attention was given only to such animals as had come down with the disease, and attempts were made to treat these by various remedial processes, and those which lived and recovered their vital energies were regarded as safe — an error, than which, none more SECRETARY'S REPORT. 21 fatal exists. It has been demonstrated to the commissioners for Massa- chusetts, that the last state of this disease is more pernicious tiiiu the first, — in other words, that recovery is worse than death. We say to the farmers of jMassachusetts, wlien the disease appears in your herds, separate the sick from the well, and both from all other cattle ; fatten the cattle if you can, for beef, and kill all of them. This is the only safe and effective remedy. The commissioners followpd the trail of the Bordentown disease to Philadelphia. There the disease had committed great ravages; one man was reported as having lost his entire herd of sixty cattle. Treat- ment was here resorted to as in Bordentown, but the disease had evidently become an institution, and was looked upon with aj)athy by all classes. They neither looked for its origin nor contemplated its future. Hence, as in England, many regard the disease very much as they do those diseases which affect various kinds of fruit trees; as an evil to be endured, which will have its course and then disappear. In the mean- time they must drink the milk and eat the meat of animals whose inflamed or putrid lungs cannot supply the due and healthy proportion of oxygen to the blood. From Phihidelphia the commissioners pi'oceeded to Brooklyn, New York, to visit the herds said to be infected with a milk-disease similar in its character to the pleuro-pneumonia of Massachusetts. They went directly to Skillman Street, to the place described by Frank Leslie in his illustrated paper. Near the cattle-sheds were several cows apparently dying from disease, whose symptoms did not differ from those of cattle infected with pleuro-pneumonia. Leslie's description had impressed us with the idea that the cows in these places had been fed with offal col- lected from tlie city, and that in consequence, and by reason of bad ventilation, the disease had been there generated. This opinion seems to have been endorsed by the surgeons who had visited those places. They had entirely misrepresented the state of the case. By the kind- ness and favor of Messrs. Wilson and Fletcher, distillers, we were permitted to examine the cattle of various milk dairies. Mr. Fletcher, who, by the way, is a Massachusetts man and every inch a gentleman, conducted us through the cattle-sheds and explained to us the mode of feeding. Tiie "swill," about which so much is said, proves to be nothing more or less than the distillery grains, so highly prized in this region for feeding cattle. In addition to these, more hay of the very best quality is fed out than is g(;nerally fed by the farmers of JMassachusetts. It was evident to us that no disease was there generated. Mr. Fletcher kindly procured for us a sick cow, which was killed and examined, and proved to be affected with the genuine, infectious pleuro-pneumonia. One man had lost his whole herd of forty by the disease. Whence did 22 ■ BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. it come? The information was voluntarily proffered. It was brought over by a cow in a ship from England about the year 1850. This cow was taken on board to supply milk, and after the arrival of the ship, was sold to a dairyman near the South Ferry, in Brooklyn. This cow had the veritable pleuro-pneumonia, which she disseminated and which previously had never been known there. The disease spread with great rapidity, aimually taking off more than fifteen per cent, of the cattle. The practice of inoculation was resorted to but without beneficial results. The value of the milk business in that section is nearly destroyed. The cattle that do not die are fattened and killed for beef, which confines the disease, happily, to that region. Farmers of Massachusetts ! be not beguiled into a false security. By efficient regulations and prompt action, this fatal disease may be excluded from the limits of our State. But in this matter, the price of exemption is eternal vigilance. Be on your guard ; keep all unknown and suspected cattle far from your herds. See that no stray cows are allowed to wander in your streets, and even take care to know the state of each herd whence come cows to be served by your bulls. Especially be cautious as to the cattle sent to a distance in the country to be ])astured and do not allow them to be returned to your farms in the fall without a clean bill of health. Be not afraid of being thought " fussy," and, in particular, [)Iace no reliance upon the theories of inexperienced or prejudiced parties who may strive to persuade you that this disease is not infectious, or that animals which have once had it and have recovered, are safe companions for other cattle. Total abstinence from all that can contaminate is the only safety. This is our faith, the result of our study and experience. Jamks Ritchie, E. F. Thayer, Henry L. Sabin, Cattle Commissioners. Boston, June 3, 1862. The facts which liavc thus been brought to light, by the action of the second board of coniinissioners, would authorize the coniniittcc to sustain in full the action of the first board; and it is a simple act of justice to remind the public that the course adopted at Brookfield, where the disease first attracted attention, has been followed out at Quincy, and other [jlaces where it made its last appearance. Your committee are convinced that the board of commis- sioners, authorized by the statute of 1862, should be kept in organization, ready for any emergency ; thus avoiding the delay, and consequent spread of the disease which has occurred upon both previous occasions of its appearance in Massachusetts. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 23 Wc recommend that a committee be charged with siicli supervision in this matter as may properly be exercised by this Board ; and tiuit said committee be instructed to use their influence to procure an early appointment to fill any vacancy in that board which may at any time occur. P. Stedman, for the Committee. In the year 1859, the State Board of Agriculture caused the offer of premiums by the various agricultural societies for the best conducted experiments on the application of manures, each experiment to extend over a period of three years. To secure a greater degree of attention to this important design, the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture not only offered large and liberal premiums on the basis required by the Board, but opened the competition to those who entered their experiments for the awards offered by the county societies thus holding out very strong inducements to effort throughout the State. A new series has been begun each year since the programme was first instituted, but only the first series thus begun in 1860 has been completed. The importance of these experiments can hardly be understood and fully appreciated till several series are concluded, forming with those begun in 1860, an accumulation of results, each adding to the value of all the others. At the annual meeting in January, 1863, the committee of the Board having this subject in charge, submitted the following REPORT. By a reference to the report of the committee on manures, made in 1859, it will be seen that on the 5th day of December, in that year, the Board of Agriculture directed the issue of the following circular to all the agricultural societies receiving the bounty of the Commonwealth. Agricultural Department, Boston, ) December 5, 1859. ) Dear Sir, — At a meeting of the State Board of Agriculture, held on the 1st inst., it was " Voted, That the several Agricultural Societies receiving the bounty of the State, be required to offer three premiums for the most thorough exact and reliable experiments upon the proper depth of applying manures, payable in the fall of 1862, as follows : — 24 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. " Select a level piece of land of any convenient size, from twenty square I'ods up to as many acres or more, which should be as nearly equal in its character and conditions as possible. Divide it into fjve equal parts, numbering them 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, for a rotation of three yeai's. " Divide the manure which it is proposed to apply, and which should be of a uniform character, into four equal parts. At the time of first ploughing in the spring, spread evenly one-fourth of the manure upon plot No. 1, and then plough the whole field of an equal depth. Apply another fourth part of the manure to plot No. 2, and then cross-plough the whole field to about half the depth of the first ploughing. Spread another fourth of the manure upon plot No. 3, and harrow or cultivate the whole field ; after which sow or plant the whole evenly, with any crop preferred. Finally, spread the remaining quarter part of the manure upon plot No. 4. " Observe that by pursuing this course, each of the five lots will receive equally, a deep ploughing, a shallow ploughing, and a harrowing or cultivating, the only difference in them being that in No. 1 the manure is buried deep, in No. 2, shallow, in No. 3 buried only slightly, but coated with loam, and in No. 4 left exposed upon the surface ; while No. 5 gets no manure. The manure is to be spread broadcast and as evenly as possible. The after cultivation should be the same on each of the lots, and the harvest of each should take place at the same time. " Let a statement of the character of the soil, whether light or heavy, dry or moist, leachy or retentive of manures, the crop of 1859, kind and amount and mode of application of manure in 1859, size of field covered by the experiment, depth of first ploughing, kind and amount of manure used in 1860, kind of crop, when and how sown, number of times and manner cultivated, and weight of product on an average rod of each plot be made in 1860, and returned in the annual report of each society. " If there is a double product, as grain and straw, corn and stover, let the weight of the secondary product be given on each plot. " If the competitor weigh the wliole crop, instead of estimating it by an average rod, there will be no objection to such a course. "A brief synopsis of the weather for each of the following months, by dividing each month into three parts, and using the terms dry, moist, and wet, to indicate the general character of the weather, will also be expected. FIRST TIIIUD. MIDDLE TIIIUD. LAST THIRD. May, June, July, August, September, SECRETARY'S REPORT. 25 "A similar report of all the above items, except the nature of tlie soil, will be made in 18G1, and in 18G2, when the premiums will be awarded No manure is to be applied to the second and third crop." " Voted, That the Secretary of the 'Board be re(|uested to notify the several societies of the above as soon as convenient ; and that the societies be requested to offer premiums which will secure an adequate compensation for the time and labor consumed in the experiment." 1 hereby notify your society of the above vote. Evidence of a com- pliance with it will be required before I shall feel authorized to draw a certificate for the bounty to any society. One of the greatest obstacles in the way of agricultural progress is the difficulty of obtaining reliable facts and statistics as a basis upon which to establish principles and construct theories. As a general rule, theories are first advanced, and then isolated facts are brought forward for the purpose of proving their truthfulness. It is true that agriculture is not, in the usual sense of the term, and probably never will become, one of the exact sciences ; yet there are many things connected with it which ought to be taken out of the region of conjecture, and placed, by repeated and multiplied experiment, upon a more substantial basis. A single fact or experiment may be of only trifling value in itself con- sidered, but when added to scores or hundreds of others, the whole collectively may elucidate a doubtful point, or settle a vexed question. With these considerations in view, the Board asks and requires the attention of every society in the State, to render any aid in the solution of the question here considered, and to act in concert with them, and with each other, in such a way as to give to the result the greatest possible practical and scientific value. I would suggest that the rotation be limited to corn, grain and grass. Allow me to call your attention to the Act of 1859, ch. 232, sections 1, 2 and 3, and especially to sections 4 and 5, authorizing the Board to make the above requirement, and the penalty of a disregard of^ or a failure to comply with it. I would simply suggest that premiums of $25, $20, and $15, have been offered by some of the societies, and that it is desirable that no offers should be smaller than these amounts, as the object above indicated is to induce a multiplicity of experiments. Very truly, your obedient servant, Charles L. Flint, Secretary State Board of Agricidture. To the Secretary of the Society. In response to the offers of premiums required in the circular, and more particularly in response to liberal offers made by the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, covering and 4 26 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. in addition to those of the county societies, fifteen experiments were commenced. One has been relinquished, and fourteen have been carried through the three years' course to completion. It is proper for us here to express our especial obligations to P. C. Brooks, Jr.,Esq.,the.obliging Secretary of the Massachu- setts Society for Promoting Agriculture, for his kindness in placing in our hands the returns of these experiments as received from the competitors, otherwise through the negligence of the secretaries of some of the agricultural societies who failed to return copies to the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture, we should have been deprived of them entirely. A condensed summary of each experiment is here given for future reference and comparison. Besults of the Experiments in 1860. No. I. By Elihu Belden, of Whately. One acre of moist, retentive soil. Crop in 1859, tobacco, with 1,200 pounds of guano and 300 pounds of super-phosphate. First ploughing in 1860, twelve inches. One thousand five hundred and sixty-five pounds of guano was used on the four plots. Tobacco plants set, June 20th to 26th. Hoed three times. Harvested 3d to 7th of September. PRODUCT. No. 1, tobacco, 342 lbs. 2, . a 432 3, ii 401 4, a 401 5, W E A T H E It . a 255 First Third. Middle Third. Last Third May, . . dry. moist. moist. June, . . moist. dry. moist. July, . . moist. dry. moist. August, . wet. moist. dry. No. II. By J. B. V. CoBURN, of Dracut. One and one-fourth acres of Merrimack interval. Fine loam, rather moist and retentive. In grass for five years previous to 1860. About a ton of hay SECRETARY'S REPORT. 27 to the acre in 1859. First ploughing, eight inches deep, second, four. Twelve cords of compost, onc-lialf manure from stock and one-half loam, on the four lots. Planted with corn May ITtli. Cultivated and hoed three times. Cut stalks Sci)tember 2Gth. October 20th, harvested an average rod on each plot and shelled the corn. PRODUCT. No. 1, shelled ( 3orn, 800 lbs ; stover 980 lbs. 2, . . u l,ai9 u 1,480 3, . ii 1,337 ii 1,640 4, . u 1,162 u 1,360 5, . a 301 ii 480 W E A T H E R^. First Third. Middle Third Last Third May, . dry. dry. wet. June, . . . moist. moist. moist. July, . . . moist. moist. moist. August, . . dry. moist. dry. September, . - . moist. wet. wet. No. III. By L. W. Curtis, of Globe Village. About an acre, moist, retentive. Manured in 1858. Mixed crops in 1859. First ploughing eight inches, second four. Ten and one-half cords of mixed stable and yard manure on the four lots. Five varieties of corn were planted crossways of the lots. Culti- vated three times and hoed twice. Stalks cut September 14th. Corn harvested the second week in October. No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, PRODUCT. good corn, 744 lbs. ; poor corn, 102 lbs. ; stover, 1,155 lbs. " 900 " 82 " 1,265 " 944 " 78 " 1,199 " 791 " 121 " 1,275 " 282 " 205 " 705 May, June, July, August, . September, WEATHER- k First Third. Middle Third. Last Third. dry. dry. wet. wet. wet. wet. wet. moist. moist. wet. wet. wet. moist. w'et. wet. 28 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. No. lY. By E. W. Gardner, of Nantucket. Ten thousand one hundred and twenty-five square feet. Rich, sandy loam, clayey and gravelly subsoil, retentive but not wet. For five years in grass without manure. In 1859, after the hay was harvested, six cords of barn cellar manure per acre were applied and turnips sown. Turnips mostly a failure ; those which grew were very fine. In 18(30 ploughed eight inches deep first time, second, four. Three cords of horse, cow and hog manure, with a little peat muck, were applied to the four lots. Three varieties of corn were planted May 11th. Cultivated and hoed twice. Cut stalks September 10th. Harvested and weighed October 31st. No. 1, 2 o 4, 5, May, . June, . July, . August, September, PRODUCT. corn in the ear, 206 lbs ; stover 239 lbs. a 222 n 236 (( 164 ii 189 (( 146 4C 187 u 40 U 82 AV E A T H E R . First Third. Middle Third. Last Third dry. dry. dry. dry. dry. dry. dry. dry. dry. dry. moist. dry. drv. drv. moist. This statement in much greater detail may be found on page 134, of the Agriculture of Massachusetts for 1860. No. Y. By Spencer Leonard, Jr., of Bridgewater. Sixty square rods. Rather light with a sandy subsoil, but neither very dry or very wet. In grass for six or seven years without manure. Crop in 1859, about 1,200 pounds pcracre. First ploughing, seven inches deep ; 272 cubic feet of maniiraon the four lots. Flalited with smutty white corn. Cultivated four times and hoed twice. Cut stalks Septeml)er 10th. Harvested and weighed October 25th. Commenced harvesting the day after a rain, and during the three or four days of harvesting it grew dry. This may SECRETARY'S REPORT. 29 account in part for the dilTercnce in the weight of stover, it being harvested and weighed in the order of numbering. PRODUCT. corn in the ear, 282| lbs. ; stover, 340 lbs. " " 407 " 330 il u u a No. 1, o 3, 0, May, . June, . July, . August, September, The statement leaves it uncertain whether the cross-plough- ing extended over the whole field, or was confined to No. 2. No. VI. By John Patridge, of Pittsfield. Two and one-half acres of land. Sand and gravelly loam ; subsoil the same, dry and leachy. Pastured twenty years. First ploughing, seven inches. Forty ox-cart loads of manure on the four lots. One-half barn- yard, one-third stable, and a little hog manure. Planted with small, yellow, eight-rowed corn, May 22d. Ploughed and hoed twice. Twenty rods on each plot was weighed. 321|- a 274 3211- il ^32 234i ii 136 WEATHER. First Third. Middle Third. Last Third • dry. dry. dry. .. moist.. dry. dry. . moist. dry. wet. . moist. moist. moist. . dry. moist. moist PRODUCT. No. 1, . . corn, 964 lbs. ; stover, 1,068 lbs. 2, . . " 1,252 " 1,496 3, . . " 1,540 " 1,688 4, . . " 1,072 " 1,232 5, . 9 . " 860 " 1,132 WEATHER. * First Third. Middle Third. Last Third May, . dry. dry. moist. June, . moist. dry. dry. July, . . moist. moist. moist. August, . moist. wet. wet. September, . moist. moist. wet. 30 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Thinks one-fourth of the crop on No. 1 was destroyed by worms. Nos. 2 and 3 suffered considerably, and No. 4 a little. No. VII. By 0. 0. Perkins, of Becket. Seventy-five rods of land. Yellow loam. Crop of 1859 sowed corn, with twenty-eight loads of manure. First ploughing nine inches, second five. Twelve loads of manure to the four lots. Planted with white Canada corn May 18th. Hoed three times. Cut up at the ground September 24th. Husked and weighed October 25th. Crop a poor one. Season wet and cold. p n o D uc T. No. 1, . corn in the ear, 181 lbs. ; stover, 222 lbs. 9 a a 220 a 262 3, (( a 234 li 223 4, u a 269 ii 343 5, « a 165 a 189 WE ATHKR. First Third. Middle Third. Last Third. May, dry. moist. moist. June, wet. dry and hot wet and cold. July, . moist and cold moist and cold. moist and cold August, . a a a September, u moist and warm. dry.' No. VIII. By Levi Stockbridge, of North Hadley. One and one-half acres of land. Light, sandy loam, with a sandy subsoil. Leachy. Well manured in 1857 for corn. 1858, rye without manure, and grass since. First ploughing eight inches, second four. Fourteen hundred cubic feet of manure, — one-half green manure, and one-half crude muck, mixed April 1st, and forked over twice, with a little plaster added, — on the four lots. Planted with eight-rowed yellow corn, May l&th. Three times machine hoed and once by hand. Corn cut up September 22d. Husked October 29th, and shelled January 4th. 1' R O D U C T . No. 1, . shelled corn, 720 lbs. ; stover, 940 lbs. 2, . " " 015 " 900 3, . " " 006 " 760 4, . " " 509 " 544 5, . " " 422 " 740 SECRETARY'S BTEPORT. 31 WEATHER. First Third. Middle Third. Laflt Third May, . moist. dry. dry. June, . moist. moist. moist. July, . wet. moist. wet. August, . . wet. moist. dry. September, . dry. moist. moist. No. IX. By Albert Stratton, of North Leominster. Forty-five rods of land, rather heavy, moist and retentive. Grass in 1859 without manure. First ploughing, seven to eight inches. Two hundred and forty bushels of barn manure for the four lots. Planted witli corn May 25tli. Twice horse hoed, and once ploughed, and each time hand hoed. Harvested October IGth. PRODUCT. No. 1, corn in the ear, 125 lbs. ; stover, 140 lbs. -^5 u a 200 a 210 3, (( u 203 a 215 4, (.i. u 155 a 165 5, a i( 60 a 65 WEATHER. First Third. Middle Third. Last Third May, dry. very dry. moist. June, wet. moist. moist. July, wet. moist. wet. August, . moist. wet. moist. September, moist. wet. wet. No. X. By Justus Tower, of Lanesborough. One acre of clay loam, retentive of manures. Crop of 1859, potatoes and corn, with about seven and one-half cords of green manure ploughed under six inches. First ploughing in 1860, eight inclics, second, four. Eight cords of partially decomposed horse stable manure for the four lots. Planted with corn May 12th. Hoed three times. Cut up at the roots September 23d, and harvested October 20th. 32 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. PRODUCT. No. 1, . corn in the ear, 858 lbs. ; stover, 800 lbs. 2, . " " 951 " 728 3, . " " 909 " 692 4, . " " 759 « 640 5, . " " 672 " 510 No. 5 was small ears poorly ripened, nearly one-third being soft corn. WEATHER. First Third. Middle Tliird. Last Third May, • ^U- dry. wet. June, . dry. wet. moist. July, . moist. moist. wet. August, . . wet. wet. wet. September, . moist. wet. wet. No. XI. By B. P. Ware, of Marblehead. Fifty rods of dark loam on a compact gravelly subsoil, retentive and not liable to suffer from extremes of moisture or drougth. In grass for ten years. The sod was broken up in August, 1859. First ploughing in 1860, eight inches, second, four inches. Two and one-quarter cords of a compost made from equal parts of peat mud, sea and stable manure, on the four lots. Planted with Jackson white potatoes, April 18th. Ploughed and hoed three times, and harvested October 31st. PRODUCT. No. 1, large potatoes, 700 lbs. ; small potatoes, 292 lbs. ; total, 092 lbs. 2, " " 797 " " 347 " 1,144 3, " " 035 " " 305 " 940 4, " " (J90 " '^ 357 " 1,047 5, " " 580 " " 215 " 795 No. C, large potatoes, G30 lbs. ; small potatoes, 265 lbs. ; total, 895 lbs. A sixth lot was added of the same size as the others, and manured witli the same amount and kind of manure, but it was put in the drill, as generally practiced. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 33 WEATHER. First Third. Middle Third. Last Third May, • thy. very di 7- moist. June, . moist. moist. moist. July, . wet. wet. moist. August, . . moist. moist. wet. September, . wet. moist. wet. No. XII. By JosiAH White, of Petersham. One acre of heavy, moist loam, on a clay subsoil. Retentive. Crop of 1859 was corn upon sward, with eight cords of green manure harrowed in. First ploughing in 1860, eight inches, second, four. Twelve cords of green barn cellar manure on the four lots. Planted with small Canada corn, May 17th. Horse hoed three times. Harvested October oth, and weighed November 10th. PRODUCT. No. 1, . corn in the ear, 676 lbs. ; stover, 350 lbs. 2, . " " 754 " 436 . 3, . " " 772 " 490 4, . " " 525 " 360 5, . " " 380 " 240 WEATHER. First Third. Middle Third. Last Third May, dry. dry. moist. June, wet. moist. wet. July, moist. wet. moist. August, . moist. wet. wet. September, wet. wet. moist. No. XIII.. By I. B. Woodward, of Fitchburg. Twenty rods of rather heavy, black loam, on a clay subsoil. Moist and retentive. Crop of 1859, potatoes, with about thi-ee cords of liorse manure to tlK) acre. First ploughing in 1860, eleven inches. One hundred and twenty bushels of green barn manure for the four lots. Planted with corn. May 9th. The crop was destroyed by the combined ravages of the wire-worm and the cut-worm, but the land was reserved for further experiment. 5 34 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. No. XIV. By W. G. Wyman, of Fitchburg. One acre of heavy loam on a clayey subsoil. Moist and retentive. Grass, with no manure for three years. First ploughing about seven inches. Four cords of barn manure, 400 lbs. of Coe's ground bone, and 200 lbs. of Coe's super-phosphate of lime on the four lots. Planted with yellow corn. May 23d. Horse hoed four times each way, and hand hoed twice. Harvested November 5th. PRODUCT. No. 1, sound corn in ear, 879 lbs. ; soft corn in ear, 11 lbs.; stover, 1,100 lbs. 2, " " 785 " " 26 " 1,034 3, " " 851 " " 9.2 " 1,092 819 349 21 54 954 354 No. 6, sound corn in ear, 859 lbs. ; soft corn in ear, 00 lbs. ; stover, 958 lbs. A sixth lot was added of the same size, and treated lilce the others, except that one-third each of the barn manure and ground bone were ploughed in deep, one-third ploughed in shallow, and one-third harrowed in. The super-phosphate was applied to the hills after planting. WEATHER. First Third. Middle Third. Last Third. May, . dry. very dry. moist. June, . wet. moist. wet. July, . very wet. wet. wet. August, moist. wet. moist. September, . moist. wet. wet. / Results of the Experiments in 1861. No. I. By Elihu Belden, of Whately. Repeated the ploughing and manuring of 1860, and planted tobacco again. PRODUCT. No. 1, tobacco. 336 lbs. 2, . li 343 " 3, . n 351 " 4, . il 337 " 5, . u 125 " SECRETARY'S REPORT. 35 The crop on the first four plots sold for ten cents per pound, and on No. 5 for eight cents. No. II. By J. B. V. CoBURN, of Dracut. Ploughed the third week in April, and sowed with wheat, Timothy and clover. PRODUCT. No. 1, wheat, 273 lbs. ; straw 480 lbs. 9 (( 308 a 600 3, . 11 280 u 520 4, . a 236 (( 650 5, . a 140 li 250 No. III. By L. W. Curtis, of Globe Village. Sowed with barley, Timothy and redtop. PRODUCT. No. 1, . . barley, 344 lbs. ; straw 160 lbs 2 a 408 (( 166 3,. . a 496 a 200 4,. . a 509 ii 206 5,. . iC 208 a 140 No. IV. By E. W. Gardner, of Nantucket. Ploughed eight inches deep. Sowed with Java wheat, redtop, Timothy, and red clover, April 9tli. Harvested wheat July 31st. PRODUCT .1,. . wheat. 321 lbs. straw, 511 lbs 2,. it 28 (( 71 3,. a 34 li 103 4,. n 23 li 901 5,. li 14 ii 19- No. V. By Spencer Leonard, Jr., of Bridgewater. Ploughed seven inches deep. Sowed May 6th, with barley, clover, Timothy, and blue grass- Harvested barley July 24th, and weighed August 1st. 36 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE. PR 0 DU C T No. 1, . barley, 461 lbs.; straw, 63 lbs 9 u 53 n 75 3, . a 49 li 64 4, . a 47 a 64 5, . u 29i u 39 No. VI. By John Patridge, Pittsfield. Ploughed seven or eight inches deep. Sowed oats, April 9th. Twenty rods on each plot weighed. PRODUCT. . 1, . . oats, 1,016 lbs. , straw- 1,396 lbs. 2, . . " 956 it 1,200 3, . " 1,108 a 1,460 4, . " 1,008 (( 1,260 5, . 796 (( 1,056 No. VII. By C. 0. Perkins, of Becket. Ploughed six inches deep. Sowed with barley. May 11th. Harvested August 23d. Weighed August 30th. PRO DUCT No. 1, . barley. 801 lbs. ; "straw. 77 lbs 2, . a 97 "^ (( 94 3, . u 102 ;; 92 4, . u 99 (( 88 5, . a 74 a 62^ No. VIII. By Levi 'Stockbridge, of Hadley. deep, and#wheat sown April 15th. Ploughed eight inches PRODUCT. No. 1, . . wheat, 273-7- lbs. straw 261 lbs 9 a 273^11 i.i 216 3, . (( 273^11 u 237 4, . C( 291-1- u 240 5, . u 216,% u 210 SECRETARY'S REPORT. 37 No. IX. By Albert Stratton, of North Leominster. Ploughed seven inches deep, and sowed with oats and grass, May 18th. Ilar- vested August 17th, and weighed one week later. PRODUCT. No. 1, . . oats, 54 lbs. , straw 115 lbs 2 " 52 ii 106 3, . . " 50 li 104 4, . . " 521 a 105 5, . . " 44 a 91 No. X. By Justus Tower, of Lanesborough. Ploughed ten inches deep. Sowed oats the first week in May. Harvested the first week in August. Injured by the aphis. PRODUCT. No. 1, . . oats 4181 lbs. straw 675 lbs 0 -J, (( 3871 a 641 3, . . li 330 u 510 4, . a 304^ u 460 5, . a 247^ (( 390 No. XI. By B. P. Ware, of Marblehead. Ploughed eight inches deep. Sowed orange globe mangolds, June 1st. Hoed three times and weeded twice. Harvested October 29th. PRODUCT No. 1, o 3, No. 6, 3,170 lbs. 3,160 3,200 2,810 2,110 4,500 ]^s. Lot No. 6, as marked in 1860, had four and one-half cord feet of compost manure harrowed in. Treated otherwise like the other lots. 38 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. No. XII. By JosiAH White, of Petersham. Ploughed nine inches deep. May 9th, sowed barley and grass. Harvested August 25th. No. 1, 2," 3, 4, 5, PRODUCT. barley, 466 lbs. " 484 " 392 " 340 straw, 654 lbs. 771 766 588 455 No. XIII. By I. B. Woodward, of Fitcliburg. Ploughed seven inches deep, and sown with wheat the first week in May. Harvested August 16th. One-fourth part of No. 2 was badly injured by worms. PRODUCT. No. 1, wheat, 32 lbs. 14 oz. ; straw, 46 lbs. 7 oz. 2, " 27 10 " 39 6 3, " 30 14 " 44 11 4, " 29 14 " 39 9 5, " 23 6 " 31 12 No. XIY. By W. G. Wyman, of Fitcliburg. Ploughed six to seven inches deep. Sowed May 3d with Scotch fife wheat, Timothy, redtop and clover. Harvested the wheat August 16th, and weighed October 5th. The whole crop was much injured by the aphis, and somewhat by the weevil, but very evenly on all the lots. PRODUCT. No. 1, . . . wheat. 203 lbs. straw, 466 lbs. 2, . a 170 u 403 3, . a 192 (( 449 4, . a 183 ii 503 5,V a 62 u 255 No 6, . . wheat, 163 lbs. , straw 446 lbs. On lot No. 6, in 1860, the manures were mixed in their appli- cation to the soil. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 39 Results' of the Experiments in 1862. No. I. By Elihu Belden, of Whately. Ploughed twelve inches deep September 10th, 1861, and sowed wheat. Somewhat injured in the spring of 1862 by a freshet. No. 4 suffered more than the others. Harvested tlie first week in August. No. 1, 9 PRODUCT. wheat, 313 lbs. straw 533 lbs " 256 a 436 " 249 ii 429 " 198 (( 389 " 191 a 383 3, 4, 5, No. II. By J. B. V. CoBURN, of Dracut. Grass was cut the second week in July, and again in September. No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, PRODUCT. 1st crop dry hay, 1,680 lbs. ; 2d crop, 760 lbs. ; total, 2,440 lbs. " " 1,720 " 840 " 2,560 " " 1,360 " 680 " 2,040 " " 1,400 " 600 " 2,000 " " 600 " not worth cut's, " 600 No. III. By L. W. Curtis, of Globe Village. Crop, redtop and Timothy. PRODUCT No. 1, . - . 9 ^, . . . . 3, . . . . 4, . . . . 5, . . . . . 736 lbs. . 768 . 832 . 800 . 384 No. IV. By E. W. Gardner, of Nantucket, and clover, cut July 15th. Crop was Timothy PRODUCT. No. 1, . . . . 2, . . . . 3, . . . . 4, . . . . 6, . . . . hay, 205 lbs. " 200 " 250 " 140 " 120 40 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. No. V. By Spencer Leonard, of Bridgewater. Grass cut cTlily 8th, and well cured. No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. PRODUCT 150 lbs. 172 167 • 175 No. VI. By John Patridge, of Fittsfield. Timothy and clover. Twenty rods on each plot weighed. PRODUCT No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1,048 lbs. 1,092 1,192 1,120 416 No. VII. By C. 0. Perkins, of Becket. Timothy and clover, har vested July 19th. PRODUCT 416 lbs. No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 441 499 479 388 No. VIII. By Levi Stockbridge, of Hadley. Timothy and clover were cut July 8th. PRODUCT No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 825 lbs. 694 643 544 487 SECRETARY'S RErORT. 41 No. IX. By Albert Stratton, of North Leominster. Well dried hay, harvested August 1st. PRODUCT No. 1, 9 3, 4, 5, . 288 lbs. . 269 . 336 . 345 . 258 winter killed, or did not take A small portion of No. 2 was well to grass. No. X. By Justus Tower, of Lanesborough. Ploughed the oat stubble eight inches deep, the first week in September, 1861, and sowed Timothy and clover. Harvested July 1st. f n \j No. 1, . 646 lbs 9 -J, . 725 3, . . . 590 4, . . . 510 5, . . . 320 No. XI. By B. P. Ware, of Marblehead. Crop, carrots without manure. Ploughed eight inches deep. May 29th sowed orange carrot seed. Truckle hoed three times, and hand wed* twice. Harvested November 14th. PRODUCT, No. 1, . 2,715 lbs 2, . 2,660 3, . 2,950 4, . 2,690 5, . . 2,755 No. 6, . 3,220 lbs. The lot numbered six, in previous years, was manured with '-^Q of a cord of compost of meadow mud, sea manure and barn manure, drenched with night soil. Otherwise treated like tlie other lots. 6 42 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. No. XII. By JosiAH White, of Petersham, harvested July 19th. PRODUCT. No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Timothy and clover ; 1,170 lbs. 1,205 1,100 1,070 980 No. XIII. By I. B. WooDWAKD, of Fitchburg. One crop of dry hay. PRODUCT. No. 1, 130 lbs. 2, ...... 135 3, 1361 4, 146 6, No. XIV. By W. G. Wyman, of Fitchburg. Crop mostly clover. First crop harvested July 12th, and second, September 6th. No. 1, PRODUCT. first crop, 1,163 lbs.; second crop, 5G8 lbs.; total, 1,731 lbs. 1,106 " 747 " 1,853 " 1,039 " 653 " 1,692 " 1,001 " 402 " 1,403 » . 358 " 73 " 431 No. 6, . . . . first crop, 1,287 lbs.; second crop, 581 lbs.; total, 1,768 lbs. To bring out the results contained in these statements, and make available their teachings, it is necessary to exhibit them in a tabular form, where comparisons may be readily seen and easily comprehended. Tiiis has been attempted in the following table. We are aware that it does not present all which might be made to appear, but the more j)rominent points are given, and the facts are still available for a further analysis hereafter, wlien additional experiments shall yield their results. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 43 The tabic is tlms arranged. The columns arc numltered by figures placed at thp head of each. The 1st contains the numbers ap[)licd to each experiment. The 2d, the name.s and residence of the experimenters. 3d, the num- ber of square rods of land covered by each experiment. 4th, the quality and condition of the soil. 5th, its condi- tion previously to the commencement of the experiment. 6th, the number of cords per acre of manure used, and its quality and condition in 1860. 7th, the depth of the first ploughing, in inches. 8th, date of planting. 9th, the kind of seed. In columns 10 to 14, inclusive, the condition of the weather for each of the months. May, June, July, August, and Sep- tember, 1860, is shown. The upper term corresponding to the first third of the month, the middle term to the middle third, and the lower term to the last third. Column 15 gives the con- dition in which the crop was weighed. 16 to 20, inclusive, contain the weights of the several products, calculated in pounds per acre. The upper figures in each division applying to the principal product, and the lower, if any, to the secondary. The middle figures in two instances exhibit the quantity of unsound corn. The numbers at the top of these last five columns, correspond to the numbers of the plots in the experiments. Column 21st, gives tlie depth to which the ground was ploughed, in preparation for the crop of 1861. The 22d shows the con- dition of the crop, or its character, as weighed. 23 to 27, inclusive, give the weights per acre on each of the five plots, as in the previous year. 28 gives the crop of 1862. 29 to 33, inclusive, show the weights per acre on each plot, us in the two former years. No. 34 serves to explain those which follow. The upper figures in each division of column 35, give the increased value of product per acre during the three years by reason of manure on plot No. 1. The product of No. 5, wliere there was no manure applied, is deducted from the product of No. 1, where manure was ploughed in deeply. Both plots being treated precisely alike, except in the application of manure, the surplus product in No. 1 must be due to the manure. The money value is obtained through the following estimation. .01 per lb .013 .025 .015 .005 .0035 .0025 .10 .015 .025 44 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. • Corn in the ear is valued at Shelled corn, Wheat,. Barley and oats, . Hay and large potatoes, Mangolds, carrots and small potatoes, . Corn stover and straw, indiscriminately. Tobacco, ...... Ground bone, ..... Super-phosphate of lime. The lower figures in each division of the 35th column give the increased value of product for each cord of manure applied, on plot No. 1, or, in other words, they show the value of the manure per cord. Column 36 gives the items as in 35, as they apply to the plots numbered 2, where the manure was ploughed into half the depth of No. 1. No. 37 shows the same in regard to the plots numbered 3, where the manure was harrowed in. Column 38 exhibits the same concerning plots No. 4, where the manure was left on the surface. We are aware that the money values which have been chosen, are all more or less open to objection, according to the locality from wliich they are viewed. Tliis, however, is necessarily the case with any scale of values, and therefore we have selected a mean, as applying to the farmer who consumes the greater part of his own products, and does not value his crops by the fluctuating prices of distant markets. [See table commencing on page 46.] We do not propose to comment at any length on the results exhibited by the table. They are exceedingly interesting and suggestive, and will bear a good deal of study. It will be seen that the particular points for which the experiments were insti- tuted are pretty strongly brought out, considering the few experimenters engaged. We find that taking the three years together, deep ploughing was the most remunerative 'in Nos. 8 and 14. The first was a light, leachy, and the last a retentive soil. On closer examination we sec that in No. 8 there was a regularly diminished product, as the manure was applied sujier- SECRETARY'S REPORT. 45. ficially. while in No. 14 the manure harrowed in gave the next largest product, surface aj)i)licati()u the next, and nuMliuni dejjlh the least, suggesting the idea that there might have been some extraneous influence in oi)cration, aside from the depth, or perhaps an unperceivable unevenncss in the quality of the several plots, giving to No. 1 an undue advantage. Those which gave the greatest product from manure at a medium depth, were Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 and 12. Nos. 1, 2, 4, 10 and 12 were retentive soils, and No. 5 a light one. Those which gave the largest result from manure harrowed in, were Nos. 3, G, 9 and 11. Nos. 3, 9 and 11 were retentive, and No. 6 a leachy soil. Those which gave the best result from manure applied on the surface, were Nos. 7 and 13. No. 7.is described simply as a yellow loam, but from information otherwise obtained, we learn that it should be classed with the moist and retentive soils. No. 13 was retentive. Adding the numbers together, we find that manure buried deeply gave the best returns in two instances ; placed at a medium depth, in six ; when harrowed in, in four; and when left on the surface, in two cases. Taking the retentive soils by themselves, deep ploughing of manure gave the greatest result in one case, shallow ploughing in five, harrowing in three, and surface application in two. The light soils yielded the best return from one of each of the several applications, except where applied on the surface. In this computation we have omitted the second crop of hay in Nos. 2 and 14, that all might stand upon the same footing. The addition of the after-math in these cases would make the total product higher, but in No. 2 the relative result would not be altered, while in No. 14 the order would be changed from Nos. 1, 3, 4, 2 and 5, to 1, 3, 2, 4 and 5. The average value of manure per cord, in all the experiments except No. 1, where guano was the only manure, was, on Plot No. 1, $4 16 No. 2, 4 64 No. 3, 4 78 No. 4, 3 76 46 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. No. of Amount Crop and treatment pre- Experi- Name and Residence. of land in Kind and quality of soil. vious to commencing the ment. sq. rods. experiment. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I. Elihu Belden, Whately. 160 Medium, moist, retentive. Tobacco In 1859 with 1,200 lbs. of guano and 300 lbs. super-phosphate. II. J. B. V. Coburn, Dracut. 200 Merrimack interval, moist and retentive. Grass for 5 years. III. L. W. Curtis, Globe Village. IGO Moist, retentive. Manured in ISiiS, mixed crops in 1859. IV. E. W. Gardner, Nantucket. 371 Rich sandy loam, on clay and gravel subsoil, moist, retentive. Grass 5 vrs.wiibout manure. In iNifl alter having 6 c'ds manure for turnips which failed. V. S. Leonard, Jr., Bridgewater. 60 Rather light, sandy sub- soil, neither wet nor dry. Grass for 6 years without manure. YI. John Patridge, Pittsfield. 400 Sand and gravelly loam, subsoil the same, dry and leachy. Pasture for 20 years. VII. C. 0. Perkins, Becket. 75 Yellow loam. 1&59 sowed com with 28 loads of manure. VIII. L. Stockbridge, North Iladley. 240 Light sandy loam, sandy subsoil, leachy. Manured in 1857 for com, in 1858 rye without manure, and grass since. IX. Albert Stratton, N. Leominster. 45 Rather heavy, moist, re- tentive. Grass. X. Justus Tower, Lanesborough. 160 Clay loam, retentive. Potatoes and corn in 18.'>9, 7 1-2 cords green manure etches deep. XI. B. P. Ware, Marblehead. 50 Dark loam, compact grav- elly subsoil, retentive. Grass for 10 years. xir. Josiali White, Petersham. 160 Heavy moist loam on clay subsoil, retentive. 1859, corn on sward with 8 cords green manure hat^ rowed in. XIII. I. B. Woodward, Filch burg. 20 IJather heavy black loam on clay subsoil, moist and retentive. Potatoes In 1R,W with about 3 cords of horse manure to the acre. XIV. W. G. Wyman, Fitchburg. 100 llcnvy loam on clayey subsoil, moist and reten- tive. Grass without manure for 3 years. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 47 Depth Manure, per acre, on the 4 plots, in cords. plowing, n Inch's. Time of Planting. Kind of Seed. 6. 1. 8. 9. 1,565 pounds of guano. 12 Plants set from June 20 to 2G. Tobacco. Compost, half loam, 12 cords. 8 May 17th. Corn. Stable and yard manure, 131 cords. 8 - Corn. Horse, cow and hog manure, with a little peat muck, 16^ cords. 8 May 11th. Corn. 7 Jj cords. 7 - Smutty White Corn. 6| cords. 7 May 22d. Small Yellow 8- rowed Corn. 10| cords. / 9 May ISth. White Canada Corn. Half gi-een manure and half crude muck, Q^ cords. 8 May 18th. 8-rowed Yel- low Corn. Barn manure, 10|^ cords. 7 to 8 May 25th. Corn. Horse stable manure, 10 cords. 8 May 12th. Corn. Peat mud, sea and stable manure, equal parts, 9 cords. 8 April ISth. Jackson White Potatoes. Green barn cellar manure, 15 cords. 8 May 17th. Small Canada Corn. Green barn manure, 11| cords. 11 May 9 th. Corn. 5 cords barn manure and 500 pounds ground bone, 250 jjounds super- phosphate. 7 May 2.3d. Yellow Corn. 48 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. WE ATHER— I860. No. of Experi- ment. May. June. July. August. September. 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. Dry. Moist. Moist. Dry. Dry. Dry. Dry. Dry. Wet. Dry. Dry. Dry. Dry. Dry. Dry. Dry. Dry. Moist. Dry. Moist. Moist. Moist. Dry. Dry. Dry, Very Dry. Moist. Dry. DrV. Wet. Dry. Very Dry. Moist. Dry. Dry. Moist. Dry. Very Dry. Moist. Moist. Dry. Moist. Moist. Moist. Moist. Wet. Wet. Wet. Dry. Dry. Dry. Moist. Dry. Dry. Moist. Dry. Dry. Wet. Dry and Hot. Wet and Cold. Moist. Moist. Moist. Wet. Moist. Moist. Dry. Wet. Moist. Moist. Moist. Moist. Wet. Moist. Wet. Wet. Moist. Wet. Moist. Dry. Moist. Moist. Moist. Moist. Wet. Moist. Moist. Dry. Dry. Dry. Moist. Dry. Wet. Moist. Moist. Moist. Moist and Cold. Moist and Cold. Moist and Cold. Wet. Moist. Wet. Wet. Moist. Wet. Moist. Moist. Wet. Wet. Wet. Moist. Moist. Wet. Moist. Very Wet. Wet. Wet. Wet. Moist. Dry. Dry. Moist. Dry. Wet. Wet. Wet. Dry. Moist. Dry. Moist. Moist. Moist. Moist. Wet. Wet. Moist and Cold. Moist and Cold. Moist and Cold. Wet. Moist. Dry. Moist. Wet. Moist. Wet. Wet. Wet. Moist. Moist. Wet. Moist. Wet. Wet. Moist. Wet. Moist. Moist. Wet. Wet. Moist. Wet. Wet. Dry. Dry. Moist. Dry. Moist. Moist. Moist, Moist. Wet. Moist and Cold. Moist and Warm. Dry. Dry. Moist. Moist. Moist, Wet. Wet. Moist. Wet. Wet. Wet. Moist, Wet. Wet. Wet. Moist. Moist, Wet. Wet. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 49 1 H U O . • Amount of Product, per acre, hi pounds. Condition of Crop when Weighed. No. 1. 1 No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. 15. 16. U. 18. • 19. 20. Harvested 3d to 7th of September, 1,710 Corn slielled, Stover, Total Corn, . Soft Corn, . Stover, Corn in the ear, Stover, Corn in the ear, . Stover, Corn, . Stover, Corn in the ear, . Stover, Corn dry and shelled. Stover, i Corn in the ear, . Stover, Corn in the ear, . Stover, Lar;re Potatoes, . Small Potatoes, Corn in the ear, . Stover, Total Corn in the ear. Soil Corn, . •■ Stover, 3,200 3,920 4,230 510 5,775 4,431 5,141 5,103 4,G13 1,928 2,136 1,931 2,3G8 2,400 3,133 2 222 2^489 4,290 4,000 11,200 4,672 3,380 1,750 Fail- 4,450 55 5,500 2,160 2,005 5,276 5,920 4,910 410 6,325 4,775 5,077 5,427 4,400 2,504 2,992 2,347 2,795 2,050 3,000 3,556 3,733 4,755 3,640 12,752 5,552 3,770 2,180 4,055 130 5,170 5,348 6,560 5,110 390 5,995 3,528 4,066 4.290 3,653 3,080 3,376 2,496 2,379 2,020 2,533 3,609 3,822 4,545 3,460 10,160 4,880 3,860 2,450 from 4,365 110 5,460 2,005 4,048 5,440 4,560 605 6,375 3,141 4,023 4.286 3,093 2,144 2,464 2.809 3,659 1,697 1,813 2.756 2,933 3,795 3,200 11,040 5,712 2,625 1,800 1,275 1,204 1,920 2,435 1,025 3,525 860 1,764 3,126 1,813 1,720 2,264 1,760 2,016 1,407 2,467 1,067 1,156 3,360 2,550 9,280 3,440 1,900 1,200 Wor ms 4,200 105 4,770 2,015 270 1,770 50 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Depth of plough- iDf,' in inches. Kind of Crop. 1861. No. of Experi- Product, Der acre, in pounds. ment. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. 1. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 21. I. Repeated plough- ing of IStiO in all respects. Tobacco, . 1,680 1,715 1,755 1,685 625 II. - Wheat, . . Straw, . . 1,092 1,920 1.232 2,400 1,120 2,080 1,344 2,600 560 1,000 III. - Barley, . . Straw, . . 1,720 800 2,040 830 2,480 1,000 2,545 1,030 1,040 700 IV. 8 inches. Wheat, . . Straw, . . 699 1,108 602 1,527 731 2,216 495 1,947 301 409 V. 7 inches. Barley, . . Straw, . ' . 620 840 707 1,000 653 853 627 853 393 520 VI. 7 or 8 inch. Oats, . . Straw, . . 2,032 2,792 1,912 2,400 2,216 2,920 2,016 2,520 1,592 2,112 VII. 6 inches. Barley, . . Straw, . . 859 821 1,035 1,003 1,088 981 1,056 939 789 667 vm. 8 inches. Wheat, . . Straw, . . 911 870 912 720 912 790 971 800 721 730 IX. 7 inches. Oats, . . Straw, . . 960 2,044 924 1,883 889 1,849 933 1,967 782 1,018 X. 10 inches. Oats, . . Straw, . . 2,092 3,375 1,937 3,205 1,650 2,550 1,521 2,300 1,235 1,950 XI. 8 inches. Orange ) Globe [ Mangolds, ) 50,720 50,500 51,200 44,960 33,760 XII. 9 inches. Barley, . . Straw, . . 2,330 3,270 2,420 3,855 2,320 3,830 1,960 2,940 1,700 2,275 xm. 7 inches. Wheat, . . Straw, . . 1,315 1,857 1,105 1,575 1,235 1,787 1,195 1,582 935 1,265 XIV. 6 to 7 inch. Wheat, . . Straw, . . 1,015 2,330 850 2,015 960 2,24£k 915 2,515 310 1,275 SECRETARY'S REPORT. 61 180». Kind of Crop. Product 1 ler acre In pounds. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. Wheat Straw, 1,567 2,(565 1,282 2,180 1,246 2,145 Injured by freshet. 988 1,945 953 1,915 Hay, Second crop, .... 6,720 3,040 6,880 .3,360 5,440 2,720 5,600 2,400 2,400 Hay, ...... 3,680 3,840 4,160 4,000 1,920 Hay, 4,410 4,302 5,378 3,012 2,581 Hay, 2,000 2,293 3,327 2,333 1,173 Hay, 2,096 2,184 2,384 2,240 832 Hay, 4,437 4,704 5,323 5,109 4,139 Hay, 2,750 2,813 2,143 1,813 1,623 Hay, 5,120 Partly ■win- ter killed. 4,782 5,973 6,133 4,587 Hay, ploujrhed 8 inches be- } fore seeding, . . j' 3,230 3,625 2,950 2,550 1,600 Carrots, without manure, 43,440 42,560 47,200 43,040 44,080 Hay 5,850 6,025 5,500 5,350 4,900 Hay, 5,200 5,400 5,460 5,840 3,540 Hay Second crop, .... 5,815 2,840 5,530 3,735 5,195 3,265 5,005 2,010 1,790 365 52 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Total Increase, and also the Increase per cord, ol ' crops per acre, for thre< years, by No. of reason of manure, according to the valuation on page 44. Experi- ment. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. 1. 34. 35. 36. B1. 38. I. Total, Value of guano per ton, $178 62 114 12 $218 88 139 84 $206 49 125 52 $190 32 121 60 II. Total without 2d crop of hay, Per cord, .... 68 15 5 68 105 64 8 80 97 37 8 11 93 17 7 76 III. Total, Per cord, 42 82 3 26 56 67 4 32 66 47 . 5 06 62 17 4 74 IV. Total, . . . Per cord, .... 64 99 4 03 66 35 4 11 61 63 3 82 39 30 2 44 V. Total, Per cord, .... 3 10 4 96 40 99 5 79 31 44 4 44 24 94 3 52 VI. Total, Per cord, .... 16 38 2 46 21 44 3 22 35 52 5 33 19 16 2 87 VII. Total, Per cord, .... 5 51 52 15 17 . 1 42 19 45 1 82 24 73 2 32 VIII. Total, Per cord, .... 25 30 2 78 17 89 1 96 15 65 1 72 9 51 1 04 IX. Total, Per cord, .... 21 28 2 06 35 09 3 40 41 09 3 98 32 39 3 13 X. Total, . . Per cord, .... 37 49 3 75 40 46 4 05 28 59 2 86 15 86 1 59 XI. Total, Per cord, .... 71 03 7 89 78 23 8 69 81 40 9 04 52 66 5 85 XII. Total, Per cord, .... 32 86 2 19 41 52 2 77 38 91 2 59 16 56 1 10 XIII. Total, Per cord, .... 27 58 2 30 23 62 2 02 28 00 2 40 30 29 2 59 XIV. Total without 2d crop of hay. Per cord, . . 74 05 12 06 62 95 9 84 68 42 10 93 63 64 9 98 SECRETARY'S REPORT. .53 The average value of manure per cord on the retentive soils, was, on Plot No. 1, . . . $4 38 No. 2, . . . 4 94 No. 3, . . . 5 OG No. 4, . . . 4 15 On the light soils, the average was, on , Plot No. 1, . . . • • . $3 40 No. 2, . • • . 3 60 No. 3, . . . . 3 83 No. 4, . . . 2 48 It will be observed that all the weather returns of 1860, except No. 4, indicate a very moist season through the growing months of June, July and August. This would undoubtedly cause the product to be larger from plots Nos. 8 and 4, where the manure was harrowed in and left on the surface, than the average of seasons, and much more than in a dry season. The result, then, of these experiments, taken as a whole, seems to us to point out this important rule: that the most profitable mode of applying manures from the barn or stable, is by harrowing them in, unless we have a light soil, in which case Ihoy may be ploughed in to a very slight depth. It is however to be observed that these experiments are as yet incon- clusive, mainly from the paucity of their number. The other two scries already in operation, and a new one to be commenced in 1863, in response to the requirements of this Board, must be relied on to give value to any conclusions which are here only indicated. There are many interesting points that we should be glad to touch upon, but they will suggest themselves to any one upon a careful examination of the table. We wish, however, to call attention to one or two matters which are found in the statements, but do not appear in the table. In experiments numbered 11 and 14, there was a sixth plot added, for different purposes in the two cases, and which will be found very instructive, if traced through the three years. It may be proper to mention that in No. 1 there seems to have been a misconstruction of the directions, inasmuch as the manure and 54 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. ploughing of 1860 was repeated in 1861. The experiment aside from this, however, is very interesting, and gives to guano a very higli value for both tobacco and wheat. There is one important matter which this table pretty dis- tinctly points out, and that is, that manure, applied in either of the modes prescribed, has a value, and in some of tliem a very great value. This is shown to exist even though the experi- ments have covered a period of only three years, and of that, only one crop of grass is taken into the account. There is another influence which diminishes tlie apparent value of the manure in some of the cases. We find that where the land had been manured within a year or two previous to commencing the experiment, the value of the manure was less per cord, simply because No. 5, in such cases, gave a larger product than where the land had lain in grass or pasture for some years without manure. One peculiar case occurs in No. 11, in which the rotation was potatoes, mangolds and carrots. The unmanured plot, or No. 5, gave more carrots than cither of the others, except No. 3, where there was a slight increase. This exceptional case will not, however, detract from the general result, from which we derive evidence that if there is profit in farming at all, much of it depends upon the ability of the farmer to save, make, or otherwise command, a full supply of manure. Manure, we may reasonably conclude, in some way renders soil fertile, and increases its power of producing valu- able crops, either by acting directly as food, or in some indirect manner, supplying nourishment to plants. There are two opinions entertained by scientific agriculturists of the age, concerning the precise condition of tlie nourishment imbibed from the soil. One class, analyzing the soil, and find- ing in it, in all cases accompanied with fertility, certain sub- stances which are products of the decay of vegetable matter, which exist either alone or in combination, as acids with bases, and in these different conditions, having varying dt^grees of solubility, infer that tlicsc compounds are taken up by the roots of j)lants, and carried into the circulation, there to be acted u|)on by the power of tlie vital processes, and transformed into the substance of the plant or some of its products. Another class proceed by analyzing the plant, and finding that the great bulk of its structure is made up ultimately of carbon, combined SECRETARY'S REPORT. 55 with the elements of water, i. c., oxygen and hydrogen, and also in view of the fact that )>lants give oil oxygen largely during active growth, infer that carbonic acid, which is a com- pound of carbon and oxygen, when dissolved in water, is absorbed as carbonic acid by the roots, and constitutes the principal portion of the nutrient material accessible to the plant. Both classes agree in this, that when ultimate decay takes place in the organic matter of the soil, carbonic acid and water are the principal products, with ammonia in some cases. Nature has in her vital domain many niches which the curious chemist is forbidden to enter, and into which the physiologist can only obtain an occasional and partial glance. We find on examination, that we are able out of these two opinions to deduce an important practical fact. If the theory first stated be acknowledged, then it follows that the larger the quantity of vegetable matter a soil contains, other things being equal, the greater will be its productive capacity. In the other case, the greater the amount of carbonic acid that the soil possesses, other things being equal, the greater its productive capacity as before, and inasmuch as the cheapest, best and most constant source of carbonic acid is to be found in the gradual decay of vegetable matter, then the more of such material present in the soil, as in the first case, the larger the results attainable by the agriculturist. It has been asserted, it is true, that soil entirely deficient in humus, as this vegetable matter is more commonly called, may be made to produce remunerative crops ; but facts are wanting to sustain the asser- tion, while the experience of the agricultural community goes to contradict it. It is true that the amount of a crop does not bear by any means a direct relation to the amount of vegetable matter in a soil. The condition of that vegetable matter has much to do with it; as for ijistance, peat or muck, which may be entirely made up of vegetable substances, will not afford nourishment to^plants until its crude condition is altered, its acids neutralized, and its surplus water removed. Again, a surplus of vegetable matter, such as sometimes accumulates in long cultivated and highly manured gardens^' will not grow a remunerative crop in consequence of a deficiency of inorganic substances, which, though required in but small quantities, yet 66 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE. are as essential to the sti'ucture of most plants, as is the carbon, hj'di'ogcn and oxygen of the liiimus. We think we may assume that the man who provides, for his lands the largest amount of decaying vegetable matters, will thereby be possessed of a capacity to grow the largest crops with the least outlay. It does not follow that he will necessarily grow tliem, for that depends upon other considerations. One individual may have a large brain and great capacity for tlie exercise of niental power, but from a phlegmatic tempera- ment be incapable of arousing himself to the effort; while tiie man with a small brain, coupled with an active, energetic tem- perament, may thereby completely eclipse the former, not only apparently, but really. Quite as much depends upon the qual- ity and condition of this vegetable matter, as upon its mere bulk, especially for the production of rapid results, generally the more profitable ones. As in the instance of Ihe man with a large brain, we say he has great natural powers or capacity, so of a soil containing a large proportion of organic matter, we say of it that it is naturally capable of yielding large crops, under proper treatment. There are various sources from which we derive vegetable matter, to be used as manure, but the most important one to the farmer is that which is yielded by farm animals. The food of these animals consists mainly of grass, either green or in the form of hay, with some grain, and water for drink. Out of these sul)stances is manufactured by the animal, either growth, milk, fat, or the ability to labor, or in other words, the power of keeping its organization in condition, by supplying the waste constantly going on in organized beings. Hay or grass, which constitutes the principal bulk of the food, unlike grain and all those concentrated substances consumed by man, is made up in great part of what is called woody fibre ; a substance which is digestible only in very trifling degree, and passes througli the alimentary system of the animal. During fliis passage, it becomes finely divided, softened, and the greater part of its solulile constituents, such as albumen, gum, starch, sugar, &c., dissolved out. It is these solul)lc i)ortions that enter the circu- lation of the animal as nutriment, while the remaining woody fibre is discharged, mixed with some excrementitious j)rt)(]uots. The condition of this woody fibre is found on examination to bo SECRETARY'S REPORT. 67 much changed. As long as kept in the mow in a dry condi- tion, hay is not disposed to undergo any change, but l)y its division, and the accession of heat and moisture, the sohition of parts of its substance, and especially, by the addition to it of the aforementioned excretory substances during its passage through the animal, it is prone to decay. It passes through tlie stages of decay rapidly, as compared with undigested hay, even when the conditions of moisture and warmth are supplied out of the body. This vegetable fibre which makes up the principal bulk of the manure, in its subsequent decay, assumes a form in which it is called mould, humus or geine, each name being often used indiscriminately to designate it. In this condition it is an exceedingly complex substance, being made up of a number of different bodies, possessing varying properties. Some of them are acids, showing a strong affinity for bases, and by their union with these bases forming salts, having varying degrees of solubility. Whether it is in this form that they are taken up, dissolved in the sap of plants, or whether they go tlirough a further decomposition in the soil and become carbonates of the same bases, or whether the ultimate spongiole has the power to eff'ect a transformation at the moment of absorption, are questions not as yet determined ^ but the great fact to be remembered is, that vegetable fibre, during its decay, forms humus, and by means of the presence of this humus in the soil, plants are enabled to exist and increase their substance. It should not be inferred from this statement that humus, composed of woody fibre alone, is capable of completely nourishing a plant. Pure woody fibre contains simply the elements of woody fibre, and not those of other constituents of the plant. Nor does woody fibre derived from the pine furnish all the elements found in the composition of that of the oak. The ultimate constituents of woody fibre are the same in all cases, being carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ; but there are other substances found in intimate relation and combination therewith, and especially the inorganic matters left in the ash when the fibre is burned. A manure cannot give to a plant that which it does not in itself possess. One composed exclusively of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, in the form of humus, cannot furnish of itself complete nourishment to a plant having a composition containing 58 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. any other clement than these ; but humus, or rather some of the compounds which are included in that term, undoubtedly have the power of combination with other substances in the soil, and perhaps that of liberating elements otherwise locked up within it. Thus a simple form of woody fibre in the con- dition of humus, may yield nourishment to a plant having a more complex or higher form of woody fibre. That such is the case we think probable from the fact that an artificial soil, containing but a trifling amount of organic matter, supports at first plants of an inferior type ; these by their decay produce a more abundant supply and a higher form of humus, and the next race of plants are of a superior class ; and this action goes on until a natural limit is reached. Pure woody fibre, divested of every thing but its essential composition, is the same in all circumstances, and it differs only in the quantity and variety of the additional elements united or combined with it. The higher the type of the plant from which it is derived the more value does it possess as a manure for plants of a correspondingly elevated composition. Thus a ton of manure, the product of a comparatively low form of vegetation, such as swale hay, has much less value for manurial purposes than a ton produced from Timothy. We cannot therefore always judge correctly of the value of a manure simply by measuring its bulk, but we must know the materials out of which it is made. It is a fallacious idea that, by composting manufe with loam, or any other substance, we thereby increase the elements of that manure. It is merely a dilution. The different qualities of muck are without doubt dependent for their value almost entirely upon the composition of the materials out of which they are formed. Muck is a form of humus from decayed vegetable fibre, produced without the intervention of animal life. If it has its source in a low or simple type of vegetation, it will be found to have much less value as a manure than if it had been derived from a more elevated or complex one. It is probably true tiiat any plants, or class of plants, are best nourished through the decay of similar ones of a previous existence, for the reason that pre- cisely the same elements, in kind and quantity, are set at liberty by tin; (h^caying that are rocjuircd to build up the structure of the growing one. SECRETARY'S REPORT. • 59 We arc thus naturally led back to the original woody filire, or hay, and thence springs up the natural query, if grass is the best nunuirc for grass lauds, why not use that substance directly as a manure ? The answer is simply this : If we do, our cattle must starve ; and, if wo carry the same princijdc through all our crops, we must also starve. Nature has not formed her plans in a way to render such a course necessary. If such liad been the case — if no vegetation could have occurred in kind and amount, except through the decay of the same amount of previous vegetation, animal life would have been an impossi- bility, and the amount of vegetable matter at the time of the original creation would have been the limit ever after. It is a pretty generally acknowledged fact, that if all the hay which grows upon a given piece of land be fed to an animal, and the manurial product saved and applied to the land again, the latter will thereby acquire the capacity to produce an increased crop, notwithstanding much of the substance of the hay shall be appropriated by the animal which does not appear to find its way back to the soil. This apparent loss is less real, however, than at first sight appears. Of the matters derived from the hay which go to nourish the animal, starch, gum and sugar, are composed of the same elements as woody fibre, in slightly different proportions ; so that the loss here is only one of quantity. In the composition of albumen, and other sub- stances of this class, we find a new element, called nitrogen. This is an indispensable element in animal and nearly if not all vegetable structure, but not found in woody fibre. What becomes of it ? It is taken into the circulation of the animal, and enters into the structure of most parts of the body, with the notable exception of the fat. Let us trace it a little farther. Nearly all the secretions contain it. It is found in milk. If milk is sold from the farm, so much of it is lost. If cheese is disposed of, this carries it off. If butter is the product, then the nitrogen is left in the skim-milk. This skim-milk goes to feed swine. It enters their system and is appropriated in build- ing up their structure. If the resulting pork is consumed on the farm, there is no loss, but if otherwise disposed of, it is parted with. Besides the secretion of milk there is that of the urine. Tliis docs not leave the farm except through the negligence of tlie 60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. proprietor in taking the necessary means to save it. This substance contains nitrogen in large proportion. An animal takes a considerable amount of nitrogen in its food daily, and unless growing rapidly, or giving milk, must necessarily elimi- nate it in some other way. Every movement of the body, in any of its parts, involves a waste of the materials making up its structure, and this waste or effete material is taken up by the circulation and excreted from the system, while its place is supplied by a new portion, derived from the food. The greater part of this excretion takes place through the kidneys, though the solid manure also contains it. Then if the animal is eventually consumed on the farm, it is evident that there need be butvery little loss of nitrogen ; and even if the animal is sold, the amount of nitrogen in its composition at any one time bears but an extremely small proportion to the total amount that has been consumed and excreted by it during life. What is true of nitrogen, is true to a greater or less extent of all the salts and inorganic matters generally, found in the food and in the body of the animal. If all of them could be carefully treasured and returned to the land, a farm would necessarily and constantly improve in its producing capacity. We have seen, however, from the nature of the case, that this is not always practicable, nor does nature demand it, even if it could be done. The soil itself contains an inexhaustible store of inorganic matters, which are constantly becoming available in quantities sufficient to produce moderate crops. To exceed that amount we must add to the soil some of those substances which we have shown to exist in manure, and if we fail to save them we are under the necessity of purchasing from foreign sources. It is quite possible to return to the soil the whole of the woody fibre, inasmuch as it is all contained in the solid evacuation of the animal ; and we can give back all the other elements of the plant, except those portions carried off in the milk, or eventually in the bodies of the animals themselves, by saving and applying all the urine. We venture the assertion, that a farmer, saving all the manure, licjuid and solid, made by his stock, and judiciously applying it, can raise constantly increasing crops up to the capacity of his lands, without the purchase of extraneous manures. But if ho is selling con- stantly, or from time to time, constituents that ho does not SECRETARY'S REPORT. 61 return to his land in kind or quantity, and that the atmosphere and soil cannot furnish in sufficient amount to grow satisfactory crops, then purchase of foreign substances containing them in available form is necessary to keep up the productiveness of the soil. Manures may be practically divided into three great classes, known as carbonaceous, ammoniacal, and inorganic. The first is made up almost exclusively of woody fibre. Its great source is the manure from our farm animals. Deposits of peat and muck are referable to this class. They all form, in their progress toward ultimate decay, under favorable circumstances, what we denominate humus. Ammoniacal manures are those which contain nitrogen in their composition, and which by its union with hydrogen forms ammonia during progress toward decay. The principal available source of this substance is the liquid evacuations of stock. It is contained in the solid manure to some extent when fresh, and also in most other animal products except fat, such as hair, wool, horns, hide, flesh, blood, (fee. The inorganic matters are all derived originally. from the inorganic substances composing the soil. The more important ones are lime, potash, and phosphoric acid. These substances exist in nearly every soil, but in such combinations that they are only very slowly available to vegetation, but they are nevertheless, just as absolutely necessary to plants as humus or ammonia. Tlieir ordinary source is in ashes and bones. It is evident that an ox, wliose bones are made up in large propor- tion of lime and phosphoric acid, in combination as phosphate of lime, could never have attained his growth had not his food contained tliose substances. If that food, which is hay and grain, possessed them, they must have derived them from the soil. If these elements had not existed in the soil, then the hay and grain could not have been developed from it. These considerations teach us that we must be sure that the soil is furnished with all the substances needed to grow crops, if we would get maximum results. A soil filled to repletion with humus, but having no available phosphate of lime, or potash, cannot hy any possibility grow a crop in the composition of which they are indispensable. Neither can a soil holding large amounts of inorganic matters, produce a crop without some form of carbonaceous material. Ammonia is found in the atmosphere 62 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. in very small quantities, and in the opinion of some scientific men, in sufficient quantities for profitable growth, if all the other conditions are present. We believe, however, that no man can afford to allow the elements of ammonia produced on his own farm to run to waste, certainly not if he can afford to purchase guano for its ammonia. A few words on the best means of furnishing these different substances to the soil, and we leave the subject. All carbon- aceous matters produced upon the farm should eventually find their way into the soil. Those which are not used as food for animals, should be applied to the soil through the medium of the compost heap, or directly, in order to promote their decay. All which have gone through the process of digestion should be carefully saved without loss, until applied to the land. To do this effectually, it must be kept under cover until applied, as every rain dissolves out more or less of its immediately available portions. To prevent it from heating, which liberates ammonia, and if carried far enough burns it up by " fire fanging," it may be worked over and trodden by swine, or it may be kept moist by throwing upon it frequently a sufficient quantity of water, or its own liquid drainage. The best method, in the opinion of the committee, is, to receive it in a water- tight receptacle underneath the animals, where it is submerged in tlie liquid evacuations, to which water may be added if necessary. In this condition it does not undergo decomposition to any extent, but remains without loss until wanted for use. This latter method is also the preferable one for saving the ammoniacal portions of the manure, as to retain them other- wise, we are obliged to mix them with some absorbent. This is a somewhat expensive and not very effective mode, but is much better than none. If then, by any plan, we have saved all the carbonaceous manure, which is quite possible, together with a very large portion of the ammoniacal, which is also possible, as both of them are to be found in the evacuations, we lack only the inorganic matters necessary to grow crops. These wo must seek for principally in ashes and bones. Every spoonful of wood ashes made on the premises, and every bone from tlie table, or otherwise available, and all carcasses of animals dying, or other animal refuse, should be scrupulously saved. If this SECRETARY'S REPORT. 63 is all done, and the best use- is afterward made of these sub- stances, to wliich end the foregoing tabulated experiments may furnish some guide, there will be but little need of purchasing manures from abroad, but our farms will constantly increase in their capacity until the extreme limit of productiveness is reached — a condition of things for which we should not cease striving, although we may* never be able to attain it. Jabez Fisher, John Brooks, Henry Chapin, Committee. CULTURE OF TOBACCO AS AN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCT. The committee appointed to consider the Culture of Tobacco as an agricultural product, submitted the following Report : — The committee appointed by the Board of Agriculture to report on the history and cultivation of tobacco, do not propose to treat on the morality of its uses, or the good or ill effects of its cultivation, but will attempt to give some account of its origin and introduction into different parts of the world, and also more particularly to describe the mode of cultivation, and process of curing and packing in the Connecticut Valley. Whatever may be thought of its offensive qualities, or its per- nicious tendencies, it must be acknowledged that it is one of the most remarkable productions of nature, as within about three hundred years it has gained an uncontrollable influence in every part of the world, enlightened and unenlightened, Christian and pagan. Kings have forbidden it ; popes have excommunicated it with curses, and physicians have warned against it. Even ministers of the gospel have lifted up their voices and thundered their denunciations from the pulpit ; but all has been in vain ; its growth and use have increased, and still continue to increase, and will hereafter increase as long as the earth continues to yield this most remarkable plant, the use of which has perverted the appetite of man. A writer who has exhibited great research in preparing an article on tobacco, its first introduction, and its early history, •64 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. says, it is not certainly known whether it grew spontaneously in Virginia, or whether it came originally from some more south- ern region of America. At all events, the English who first visited Virginia certainly found it there, and Harriot was of the opinion that it was of spontaneous growth. Mr. Jefferson thought it was a native of a more southern climate and handed along the continent from one nation of savages to another. Dr. Robertson has informed us, that it was not till the year 1616 that its cultivation was commenced in Virginia. However this may be, the gallant and unfortunate ■'-^ir Walter Raleigh has the credit of bringing it into fashion in England. It is well known that the colony planted in Virginia by Sir Walter, suffered many calamities ; and we are told that Ralph Lane, one of the survivors who was carried back to England by Sir Francis Drake, was the person who first made tobacco known in Great Britain. This was in the twenty-eighth year of Queen Elizabeth, A. D. 1585. Sir Walter is said to have been very fond of smoking, and humorous stories have been recorded concern- ing it, particularly of a wager made with Queen Elizabeth, that he would determine exactly the weight of the smoke which went off in a pipe of tobacco. This he did by first weighing the tobacco which was to be smoked, and then carefully preserving and weighing the ashes ; and the queen paid the wager cheer- fully, being satisfied that what was wanting to the prime weight must have been evaporated in smoke. Every one remembers the story of the alarm of one of Sir Walter's servants, who, coming into the room and seeing his master enveloped in smoke, supposed him to be on fire. It may be interesting to those who delight in smoking the weed, to know that a tobacco box and some pipes of Sir Walter's were deposited in the museum of Mr. Ralph Thorsby, of Leeds, Yorkshire, where they probably remain to this day. We conclude our remarks upon Sir Walter, by quoting a poetical tribute to his memory : Immortal llalcigh ! were potatoes not, Could t?rateful Ireland e'er forget thy claim ? Were all thy proud historic deeds forgot, Whicii blend thy memory with Eliza's fixnie. Could England's annals in oblivion rot. Tobacco would enshrine and consecrate thy n;ime. SECRETARY'S REPORT. G6 We cannot forbear to make a quotation conccrninf^ the Vir- ginia colony, at a more nourishing subsequent period, which, as it records a historical fact, cannot fail to be interesting, thougli at this day it would appear very sti'ange and comic. *' The adventurers," (says Malte-Brun,) " who increased from year to year, were reduced in consequence of the scarcity of females, to import wives by order, as they imported merchandise. It is recorded that ninety girls, young and uncorrupted, came to the Virginia market in 1620, and sixty in 1021 ; all of whom found a ready sale. The price of each at first was one hundred pounds of tobacco, but afterwards rose to one hundred and fifty." The original cost is not stated. In whatever way this weed found its way into Europe, it met with strong opposition. The crowned heads published edicts, imposed prohibitory duties, and issued penal laws against its introduction, supposed to amount to total prohibi- tion ; but its use had become so firmly fixed on the appetites of the subjects, they fled to the mountains and hid themselves rather than forego the pleasure of smoking. We copy from an ancient document the following brief sketches, viz. : In 1624, Pope Urban Eighth anathematized all snuff-takers who committed the heinous sin of taking a pinch in church ; and so late as 1690, Innocent Twelfth excommuni- cated all who indulged in the same vice in St. Peter's church at Rome. In 1625, Amurath Fourth prohibited smoking as an unnatural and irreligious custom, under pain of death. In Constantinople, where the custom now is universal, smoking was thought to be so ridiculous and hurtful, that the Turk who was caught in the act, was conducted in ridicule through the streets, with a pipe thrust through his nose. In Russia, where the peasantry now smoke all day long, the Grand Duke of Moscow prohibited the entrance of tobacco into his dominions, under the penalty of the knout for the first offence, and death for the second ; and the Muscovite who was found snuffing was condemned to have his nostrils split. We will turn to our subject. We have said the growth and consumption of tobacco was increasing, and that it would continue to increase. We have no proof of the latter, except to look and see how enormously it has gained for the last ten years. The product in the United (and seceding) States and 9 66 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Territories, in 1849, was 199,752,655 pounds. In the year 1859 it reached the astonishing amount of 429,390,771 pounds, being a gain of 229,638,116 pounds in ten years. The crop grown in 1859, at the low figure of ten cents per pound, would amount to $42,939,077.10. Notwithstanding the great amount grown here, we find that large quantities are imported every year. Not being able to get the amount imported in 1859, we take that of 1858. In that year there was imported into this country 7,499,566 pounds, at a cost of 11,255,831. Also 218,729,000 cigars, at a cost of $4,123,208, and snuff, with other manufactures of tobacco, to the amount of $589,439. Of the domestic tobacco spoken of, there were exported 127,670 hogsheads, 4,841 cases and 12,640 bales, valued at 117,009,767, and of the manufactured domestic tobacco exported, there were 11,210,574 pounds, valued at $2,410,224. By the census of 1840, all the tobacco grown in Massachu- setts in 1839, amounted to only 64,955 pounds. In 1849 the amount was 138,246 pounds, all grown in four counties, viz. : Frankliij, 14,590 pounds ; Hampden, 68,156 pounds ; Hamp- shire, 55,300 pounds ; Middlesex, 200 pounds. In 1859, Massa- chusetts produced 3,223,198 pounds, being an increase of 3,084,952, the last ten years, and in twenty years 3,158,243 pounds. It is estimated that Massachusetts has produced this year (1862,) one-third more than 1859, which would make the amount 4,297,597 pounds. At fifteen cents per pound, (which is a low estimate for this year,) this crop would come to $644,- 639.55. Several of the northern States present a very large increase. Ohio raised in 1859, over twenty-five and one-half million pounds. New York increased her product the last ten years, from 83,189 pounds to 5,764,582 pounds. Connecticut increased from 1,267,624 to 6,000,133 pounds. In 1849 the loyal States produced 230,369,341 pounds, and the seceding States produced 199,021,430 pounds. The consumption of this article, in various forms, doubtless keeps pace with the production. CULTIVATION. First prepare a plant bed. Select a warm exposure of moist (not wet) ground, make it very rich, using manures free from weed or clover seeds, to avoid extra work when weeding plants. Prepare the ground early in the spring as possible, as you SECRETARY'S REPORT. 67 would a bed in the garden. Leave it flat on the surface for the convenience of watering in case of drought. Mix an even table-spoonful of seed for every rod of ground to be sown, with a sufficient quantity of gypsum, (or Indian meal will answer the purpose,) in order to see where it is sown that you may spread it even over the bed. Do not in any case cover the seed, but after sowing, tread, or roll it hard. The bed Miould then be covered with fine brush or a thin covering of straw, which may remain till the plants are up and need weeding. Ti)ey will require two or three times weeding before they are large enough to set in the field. Many farmers are in too great a hurry to get tlieir plants out ; they set them too early, and use too small plants, ^j letting them grow in the bed till they get a good root, and a good-sized leaf, they are maturing as fast or faster than if set in the field. As long as they can remain in the bed they are secure from the cut-worms which devour small plants. This causes much labor, by being obliged to reset, and gives an uneven crop. If the plants are large, say leaves four or five inches in length, the worm may eat some days, (or rather nights, for then is the time they do the mischief,) without injury, unless it takes out the centre bud. If that is gone the plant is worthless, and its place should be supplied with another. From the 15th to the 25th of June is early enough to set the field. If we could be sure of suitable weatlier we would never put out the plants earlier than the 25th. This plant requires strong, warm land, such as would produce forty bushels of corn per acre ; should be manured with at least ten cords of good manure with two hundred poifjids of plaster sown on after it is spread. Plough and harrow two or three times in order to get the earth well pulverized and mixed with tlie manure. After harrowing smooth, mark tiie rows three and a lialf feet apart, and make the hills two feet four inches on the rows. Tiiey sliould be ready previous to the day of setting, so that in case of a wet time the work can be done with greater dispatch. Sometimes, for the want of rain, we are obliged to water out the plants. This is done by pouring a little water on each hill, and set soon after. Run some fine iiay or grass tlirougli a hay- cutter, and cover the plants, if there is danger of injury by too hot sun. Clean culture is necessary to the success of a good 68 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. crop. The green worm first makes its appearance in the early part of July. The only way known to prevent its ravages is to go over the field three or four times a week and destroy it. The worms are more readily found in the morning than in the middle of the day. Let as many of the plants blossom as possible without forming seed. Then break off to a good leaf. There is more danger of breaking too high than too low. Remove the suckers, and be sure they are all broken off just before cutting. It will be fit to harvest in two or three weeks after it is topped. When cut let it lie on the ground till it is wilted sufficient to handle without breaking the leaves, but by all means avoid too much exposure to a hot sun in the middle of the day as the heat will burn the leaf, and render it worthless, as if frost-bitten. When taken from the field, to the building for curing, it is passed from the load by one man to another, who hangs it by tying the twine around the first plant, and run- ning it over the pole ; then with one turn of the twine, secures each of the plants till the pole is filled, then makes it fast. If the pole is twelve feet long, put from thirteen to fifteen plants on each side, and place the poles eighteen inches apart from centre to centre. For the first few days after it is housed, give it plenty of light and air to guard against sweat, which would cause great injury. Wiien all danger from this source is past, keep the building closed, and let it hang till the stem of the leaf is well cured. It must then continue to hang till we get a damp, or rainy time that will moisten it sufficiently to make it soft and pliable. AVhen it is in suitable condition, it is cut down by one, and passed to a second hand who takes and packs it down in a double row, tip to tip. When ^1 down and packed it should be well covered with straw, or cornstalks, to prevent drying. Strip it out soon after it is taken down, and be careful it does not heat while in the pile. Sixteen to twenty hundred pounds is considered a fair yield. Make two qualities by putting the lower, and otiier poor leaves, in hands by them- selves. Two good plants will make a hand of the first quality. As fast as it is stripped the hands should be packed close and straigiit, in a pile, tip to tip. Leave the buts exposed to the air for a few days, when it will be in a suitable condition for casing. The cases are made three feet eight, to ten inches iu SECRETARY'S REPORT. 69 length (depending on the length of the tobacco) and two and a half feet square, measuring the outside. Tliey should be made of inch boards, and planed on the outside. Press from three hundred and seventy-five, to four hundred pounds into each case, where it goes through a sweat, and in about one year after it is cased is in a suitable condition forjthe manufacturer to work, who uses it mostly in making cigars. Paoli Lathrop. Levi Stockbridge. FRUIT CULTURE. At a meeting of the State Board of Agriculture, on the 19th of February, 1861, a committee was appointed to prepare a Catalogue of Fruits^ adapted to the Commonwealth of Massa- chusetts, and with special reference to Nomenclature. That committee was continued last year, on account of the failure of many kinds of fruits in 1861, and at the annual meeting in January, 1863, submitted the following Report : — In accordance with the requisition of this Board, your com- mittee submit the following catalogue of fruits, which they recommend as being well adapted to cultivation in the State of Massachusetts. While it has been difficult to acquire information in regard to all the varieties of fruit which prosper in the different dis- tricts of the Commonwealth, sufficient knowledge has been obtained to warrant the belief that most, if not all of those named, possess characteristics which will render them per- manently wseful. This catalogue is not presented as being complete or perfect, but simply as a beginning or basis to whicli future additions andimprovements maybe made. Neither is it deemed expedi- ent to elaborate it beyond the immediate and practical benefit which may inure to our farmers by the cultivation of fruits. Fruit culture has become an important appendage to the farm, and although the temperature and soils of New England have not been considered so propitious as some other portions of our country, yet it is believed, by your committee, that with judicious cultivation tliere are few if any of our States where success is more certain, or the result more profitable than in 70 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Massachusetts. The consumption of fruits has become so com- mon as to constitute one of the most important articles of daily- food. The loss of a crop is now deemed as a great calamity, its abundance as one of the choicest blessings, adding largely to the social health and comfort, and to tlie commerce and wealth of the country. It is wise, therefore, for this Board to take under its special cognizance this department of husbandry, and to offer every encouragement for the further development of this interesting branch of industry. Vicissitudes attend the cultivation of fruit trees as well as other vegetable products, and it is proper to record the fact in the Transactions of this Board, that owing to the injury sus- tained by the sudden and extreme fluctuations of temperature in the autumn of 1860, which arrested the ripening of the wood, and the revulsions of the winter of 1861, there was but little fruit throughout all the northern and middle States. In con- sequence of this extraordinary reverse, your committee were arrested in their investigations, and were unable to submit their report, as was anticipated, at the commencement of last year. But a kind Providence has brought about a restoration, so that the year 1862 has been as remarkable for the abundance and excellence of the fruit crop as that of 1861 for the loss of it. Tlie revulsion of 1861 is not, however, without its compen- sating advantages, serving as it does to illustrate the compara- tive hardiness and power of endurance in some varieties of the same species, and develop different degrees of susceptibility to injury in others. Thus we deduce the fact, that some varieties of the pear are even hardier than the apple. For instance, among the ^qw sorts of pears which bore abundantly in 1861, were the Urbaniste, Louise bonne de Jersey, Vicar of Wink- field, and Belle Lucrative, while the apple and most other varie- ties of the pear failed of a crop. During the last quarter of a century the apple has failed repeatedly in the vicinity of Boston, but these varieties of the pear have borne fruit annually. The different ability of trees to resist heat and cold is remark- able. Some are suited to one location, some to another; some are exceedingly cai)ricious and sensitive, only suited for the collections of amateurs, while a very few flourish in a great variety of latitudes. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 71 All these considerations teach us the importance of carefully observing and noting the numerous circumstances which modify results, and the constant demand for research, patience and perseverance by the cultivator of fruits. In the subjoined list of fruits it has been the object of the committee to point out, as far as possible, the peculiar charac- teristics of certain varieties, and to exclude all sucii as are difficult of cultivation or of doubtful utility; and as another committee are charged with the duty of reporting on the grape, these investigations are confined to the apple and the pear. Your committee doubt not that there are other good varieties of these not enumerated in this catalogue, which are success- fully grown in this State. Some of these may be especially adapted to certain districts. Local circumstances must there- fore govern the fruit grower in the selection of varieties, and he should first look around his own region and plant such as are known to prosper in his immediate locality. A^ery much depends on the suitableness of the soil, and upon the care and culture which trees receive. To these we shall allude in the subsequent pages of this paper. The arrangement of the varieties is alphabetical, according to the nomenclature adopted by the American Pomological Society. In regard to the latter, the committee have endeavored to reduce as much as possible the multiplicity of names given to varieties, and thus to prevent an accumulation which is of no practical advantage, and leads to confusion. Only a few synonyms are therefore given, and these follow the adopted name in italics. The limits of this report will not admit of giving descriptions of the fruits recommended, but simply to indicate the color, size, season, use, and a few remarks in regard to soil, habit of the tree, t* tSj a a, a> -u c o ■<; •5 "3 1 tc .5 'S d .2 3 S m o 2? &i '3 « «> :^ cr b ■ ^ ^ 5 a; £ 3 d 5 t-. 3 ee eS <» rt "3 » S-, -2 > 3 > ■fco o 3 ! aj ! t^ PS < 1 S a B a "So eS 3 eS 0) In '5 .S *s .s u 3 O '5 a ^ ^ CD 1 « ■■*3 o 3 o a> o in S .2 d o M tn eS 3 .2 3 o O Fh eS ,i2 3 m Si ^ 2 a" ^ a d Is "3 *3 4> o "rt o O w to ,6C ;h t> •Ph es a" .S .2 cS '^ eS G .2 O a -5 i o CO eS a cS 3 o 's ^ . *~ '5 o m -J U" (U ja OJ c^ o* o a c 3 H P5 .^ Ph p-l "s Ph a a c d -H d d D^ d > 4J ca a es eS 03 %i es .2 .2 r3 'S .2 .2 .2 a> ai OJ r» QJ 3 o 01 a, a a a a a S <5 *^ ;> <5 < cc < hH 1 ^ W ^ 1^ 1 M ^ M I ^ ^ c o • cc pi ?i < ^ ^ f^ u _^ r'~t ;^ tk ^ O • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . 0) "S • • & s* , ^ cc ^A '3 a c a"a. • % tn k. • ^3 5! 1 a o en '(3 4) s '5 o c 0) 3 'q3 tn to a c <5 W w m m O O ft w P4 SECRETARY'S REPORT. 73 C3 60 b-1 a Q> rS; *>3 •S _^ tS eS r^ a ^^ '■4-> cS 5S C/} M CL, a, "3 *o d a, o s .s a 3 3 ^ ■3 a -. c C3 3 o 3 •S '3 o 'u > a a" .S bO .s "a ■^ a 3 O O 1 bD _a 13 o o o pi m 3 3 a ,i3 O ^ o CO .^ 0) {« o r/5 J !4 a a; a a o O f-t -2 ^x 0) "la u o c o o 3 CO 15 3 o t-l o Is o '3 a" P5 1 «3 CI ^1 fcC ^ .9 O) e-h c c o c 3 «3 a 3 a a ^ rt-3 3 c3 cS rQ i^ rt rt c« eC c3 ■ rt "*^ o 3 03 ^O ^o <^ &. u o _o o O _o ca ««-, •S &> _o *C *n a> >. 'C "S 'S 'C *E^ *n o o o '^ 0) o o O) CJ e3 o « 0) m 3 a a ^ ^ ^ -1-5 tio >^ u ^ >-> fi >^ CQ >^ i ^ ^ CO * ; : 3 fcn a 'a, a, to _c 'B c o 0) c a; ID a" .Si a a s « 'o c o o to 1 o en 3 P^ a 3 (1) 3 . 1-5 arge Yellow Bou: Sweet Bough. idies' Sweeting, .S ^ . a V 3 3 05 "a a' o m 3 s "a 't3 V 'a o Ph Ph O o o t— 1 a w H-5 ^ h:i S S S 10 74 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 6 I-:; Ph Ph a -=i >^ to c o O f-i ^ b « X >. ^ Cu c3 ^ '- ji 3 rQ O .- ^ C3 '^ y- ,_ a, ,fl P^ ^5 o a c C c a c C a 3 cS c3 CS CS eS eS cS c3 a ZJ o o _o o O .- ]=- -^ ^ 3 CS 'i K <5 a a <5 - c -^^.^ -« S? O 0) ■73 d _JS HH oxbury Ru Boston Ru eaver Swee Tjo a QJ (S ^3 o CS a "cS Ph P4 p^ Ph c/:J H H p: SECRETARY'S REPORT. 75 5 I I 3 o ^ ^ > 3 4) Ph •^ ^ M •r; op I Eh CC o C3 S CO =! - oT a lO s =H ••• -! ^ & C rt •5< S (^ CO ^ g § o « » N CO .0) .- 2 « " o - f- -^ O 3 3 5 '^ =- ft <= J3 S S a> O rH •' I. 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W Q^ QJ C^ (^J p^ k:; H-5 S ;2; - I « S .aoq 78 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Tlie general principles wliich govern successful fruit-culture are now so well understood by intelligent cultivators, that thej need only to be repeated and enforced. Your committee would, however, submit the following suggestions as worthy of consideration and for a more elaborate treatise would refer the reader to the report made to tliis Board for the year 1859. 1st. The salvtary influences of tJioroiig-h draining', the proper preparation of the soil, and the necessity of judiciovs and care- ful cultivation to ensure 'the healthful development and longevity of fruit trees. In the preparation of the site for an orchard, thorough draining of the soil is uniformly advantageous. This is now admitted by all good cultivators to be an indispensable condi- tion to perfect success in the production of fine trees and handsome fruit. Wherever there is an excess of water in the soil, at any season of the year, the health of the trees, sooner or later, will be impaired and its life shortened. Most of the diseases which have affected fruit trees, in our region, such as the spotting of the foliage, decomposition of the bark, and the blasting and cracking of the fruit, are attributable to uncon- genial and imperfectly drained soils. In fact there are very few locations where draining is not beneficial. In undrained soils water accumulates first at the extremities of the lower roots. When, therefore, autumn approaches, evaporation growing less and less, and the temperature of the earth being reduced, the roots become chilled and the functions of the tree arrested, just at the time when in our climate they are most required for bringing our fruits to perfect maturity. All lands intended for orchards should not only be well drained, but the land should be thoroughly ploughed, deeply if not subsoiled. The advantages resulting from such properly prepared soils is now so universally acknowledged as to need no further discussion in this report. An orchard should always be kept free from grass, grain and weeds. No other product should be grown upon the soil, except vegetables, and these only while the trees are young and occui)y but a small portion of the land. And when the trees attain a bearing condition, the cultivation of tlie soil should not extend to the depth of more than three inches, SECRETARY'S REPORT. 79 never disturbing the roots with the plough or spade. The practice of seeding down orchards to grass or grain, except on the over rich soils like those of the West, should be carefully avoided. Neither can the digging of small circles around the trunks of trees in grass land be recommended as of any great benefit, as the roots of mature trees, extend far beyond the outlines of these circles. The influence of soils on certain kinds of fruits is remarkable. Some succeed on any tolerably good lands ; some best on light, loamy, half silicious soils, others require a strong, rich, and yet feathery bottom to bring them to perfection. The limits of this report will not permit of the specification of the particular soil and location for each variety, and only to allude very briefly to these particulars in the catalogue herewith presented. It is hoped, however, that in coming time, this information may be obtained and diffused through the agency of this Board in regard to all the fruits that may be adapted to the soils of our Commonwealth. 2d. The necessary adaptation of varieties to the constituents of the soil, and to the proper location, aspect or exposure, for the production of fine fruit. Particular attention should be given not only to the location but to the aspect and exposure of fruit trees. A common error is to disregard the time of ripening. The warmest sites and most genial locations are frequently selected for the early varieties. These should be assigned to our latest sorts which require sheltered or southern exposure and a warm and fertile soil. The most favorable location is not so indispensably necessary for the early, as for the late fruits, the former ripening under the more direct rays of the sun and in a much higher temperature. We should also have regard to the differ- ent ability of fruit trees to resist cold and other meteorological agents. Some kinds are suited^'to one location, some to another, and a very few flourish in a great variety of latitudes. As to tlie means of protecting fruit trees from injuries by the fluctuation of the temperature we need more knowledge. So powerful is the influence of temperature and aspect, that the Belgians in their descriptive catalogues, describe the site cast, west or south, most favorable to each sort. In regard to shelter 80 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. by forests, belts of trees or fences so as to protect our trees from currents of fierce drying winds, which are equally as disastrous to vegetation as parching heat, no one can doubt its beneficial influence on many varieties which succeed indifferently under other circumstances. With respect to these facts and their pecu- liarities of certain varieties, your committee have had reference in this report as far as possible, and it is hoped that the time may not be distant when the soil, locality, and aspect for each variety may be designated in our catalogues. 3d. The importance of raising new and improved varieties from seed, as the surest means of procuring those best adapted to our immediate latitude and location. The great loss which has been sustained by the planting of foreign varieties of fruits not well adapted to our location and climate, suggests the absolute importance of raising from seed new and valuable sorts grown on our own soil and adapted to our climate. The results already obtained by the production of valuable American varieties suited to the various districts of our country cannot be too highly estimated. Most of these have been the offspring of accidental seed. Some fine kinds have been originated by planting the seed of good varieties, and the success which has attended these efforts affords great encouragement to perseverance in this line. When we reflect upon the little effort which has been made to produce new varieties from seed it is wonderful what progress has been made. More than one hundred varieties of American apples and more than sixty varieties of American pears are known to exist in the collections of cultivators. In the selection of seed especial care should be taken in planting only the most mature and perfect seed, of the most hardy, vigorous and valuable sorts, on the general and well known principle that immature or imperfect seed will not pro- duce a robust and healthy offspring. The liybridization or cross-fertilization of varieties in the hands of a skilful and scientific operator, by which he combines the characteristics of certain varieties, is more reliable and progressive, and opens up to the intelligent cultivator a wide field for improvement. In his hands are placed the means of continual and rapid progress, without the numerous uncertainties which must ever attend SECRETARY'S REPORT. 81 the sowing of seed accidentally fertilized. Let not this recommendation in regard to cross-fertilization discourage the planting of other seeds because they have not been artificially impregnated, for they are frequently fertilized by the wind or insects bearing the pollen from one variety to anotlier. Ill the production of new sorts we should aim first at a strong, hardy, vigorous habit, and thus overcome a difficulty which now exists with many of our best fruits. This is only to be secured by the choice of parent varieties to breed from which possess these characteristics. In regard to bearing properties we should select those which come early into fruit and set the fruit readily and annually, like the Bartlett, Louise bonne de Jersey, and Vicar of Winkfield pears, and not like many others which do not set their fruit until they have attained a great age. With the apple we should study to produce kinds with the constitution and beauty of habit as well as of fruit, like the Baldwin, Gravenstien, and King, of Tompkins County, and should avoid those of an opposite character. Impressed with the belief that the future success of fruit culture in our country, must depend mainly upon varieties raised from seed adapted to our several soils and localities, your committee, without entering further and more minutely into the different processes for obtaining seedling fruits, would recommend to all cultivators to sow the seeds of their hardiest and best sorts, and as a means of arriving at an early result, to graft or bud the most promising seedlings on the branches of mature trees, so as to ascertain their characteristics, without waiting from generation to generation as in past time before they are known. 4th. The judicious pruning of fruit trees and the necessity of thinnhig the crop. • Different species and different varieties of the same species require different systems of pruning in order to control their propensities and develop their appropriate form. The pruning knife should, however, be used sparingly and only to answer the stern demands of necessity. To injudicious pruning or to the utter neglect of it at the proper time, may be traced much of the decline and decay of our orchards in New England. As to the season most appropriate for pruning, our judgment 11 82 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. is in favor of early spring, while the sap is dormant, before the sugar and starch become liquified, or of midsummer, immediately after the first growth. In the latter case the sap has again become thick by elaboration and the tree will not bleed. Care should, however, be taken not to enfeeble the tree by the removal of large branches at this time of year. At whatever time pruning is done, all limbs of inch or more in diameter should be covered with grafting wax, liquid shellac, clay, or some substance to protect the wound from the weather. The true policy is to commence with trees while they are young, watch them carefully, and prune them judiciously until they come into bearing, after which they will require but little pruning, except the removal of water shoots and suckers. Pruning should always be refrained from unless a good reason can be given for the removal of each individual limb. Intimately connected with the science of pruning, is the necessity of a proper thinning' of the crop. This branch of pomology has received comparatively but little attention. There is a limit to the capabilities of all created things. If yoii tax the energies of an animal too severely for a long time, the result will be premature age and decay. If you permit a tree to bear beyond its strength, you injure its fruit, retard its growth, and shorten its life. All have observed that super- fecundity one year produces barrenness the next. Hence we hear among our farmers and gardeners of what they term the bearing year. They invariably designate the Baldwin apple as a tree that bears on alternate years. The cause of this alternation is found in the fact, that the abundant crop of the bearing year exhausts the energies of the tree, and absorbs the pabulum so as not to leave sufficient aliment for the formation of fruit spurs for the succeeding year ? Many varieties have a tendency to overbearing, especially those which produce their fruit in clus- ters. Nature herself teaches us the remedy for this evil, and a superal)undance of blossom is generally followed by a profuse falling of the embryo fruit. When and where this dropping is not sufficient to prevent overbearing, we should resort to the process of relieving the tree of a portion of its fruit. The organism which carries on healthful development, in order to repeat its cycle of functions from year to year, cannot be overworked without time for recuperation. Whatever of SECRETARY'S REPORT. 83 nutrition goes to the support of useless brandies, or a redun- dancy of fruit, abstracts tliat strength from the tree which would otherwise be appropriated to the perfection of tlie crop, and the development of the spurs which would bear fruit the next year. One of the best cultivators in the vicinity of Boston has reduced this theory to practice, with the liappicst cfl'ect, in the cultivation of the pear. His system allows no useless wood, nor more fruit spurs, and no more fruit than the tice can properly sustain. As a consequence, he produces every year superior fruit, whicli commands the highest price. Some have doubted whether this practice can be made remunerative, except in its application to the finer fruits. But another cultivator, in the vicinity of Boston, who raises an annual crop of the best apples, assures us that the secret of his success is the thinning of the fruit, and he has no doubt of the economy of the practice- No good farmer doubts the necessity of thinning his root crops* no vigneron the propriety of thinning his grapes. Light, air, and moisture, are essential to the production of vegetable products, and especially of fine fruits. Who has not observed that the best specimens of fruits on a tree are ordina- rily those which are most exposed to these elements ? Who does not select the full-sized ruddy fruit, which has had free communion with light, heat, and air, in preference to tlie half fed specimen which has shared its own proper nourishment with five or six crowded rivals on the same spur ? An experienced English cultivator says :" The bending of branches of trees by an overcrop of fruit is most injurious, for the pores of the woody stalk are strained on the one side of the bend, and compressed on the other ; hence the vessels through which the requisite nourishment flows being partially shut up, the growth of the fruit is retarded in proportion to the straining and compression of the stalk." This is illustrated in the over- bearing of some varieties, which, from a redundancy of fruit, without the process of early and thorough thinning, seldom produce good specimens, and in a few years become stinted and unhealthy trees. The overbearing of a tree is as much a tax upon its energies and constitution, as is the exhaustion of a field by excessive crops of the same kind, year after year, without a return of nutritive materials. Inexhaustible fertility is a chimera of the imagination. However fertile at first, the 84 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. constant overcropping of a tree is a reduction of the elements on which liealtii and fruitfidness depend. Tlie great principle of sustenance and reciprocal relation runs through the whole mass of life, of mind, and of matter : " One cry with never ceasing sound, Circles Creation's ample round." Another consideration connected with the process of thinning, is the time when the work should be executed. It should not be done before we can distinguish the choicest specimens in a cluster of fruit, nor delayed so long as to waste the energies of the tree. This practice, judiciously followed, will supersede the necessity of staying up the branches, will prevent injury to the tree by their breaking, and will prove decidedly economical. Associated with the thinning of fruits is the expediency of gathering a part of the crop as soon as it approaches maturity. The remaining specimens will thereby be much increased in size and excellence. The fruit of a tree does not all come to maturity at the same time, hence this successional gathering will turn the crop to the highest practical account, and will keep the productive energies of the tree in a hcaltliful and pro- fitable condition. In a word, fruits trees will not take care of themselves. Constant vigilance is the price of superior trees or superior fruit. The poet may sing of tlie " redundant growth Of vines and maize, and bower and brake, Which nature, kind to sloth, And scarce solicited by human toil. Pours from the riches of the teeming soil ; " but the cultivator of fruits must realize the fact, that without care and skill he cannot depend on uniform and continued success. Marshall P. Wilder. Jabkz Fisher. Ephkaim W. Bull. Nathan Durfee. John B. Moore. Asa Clement. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 85 CULTIVATION OF THE GRAPE IN MASSACHUSETTS. Mr. T)ULL, ffom the Committee on Grape Culture, submitted the following Report : — The soil and climate of Massachusetts have not been sup- posed to be suited to the cultivation of the grape, and while we confined our cultivation to the foreign grape, the experience of grape-growers seemed to confirm this belief. The severity of our winters ; the short summers, followed by early autumnal frosts, checking the growth and preventing the ripening of the immature wood ; the great vicissitudes of temperature breeding mildew and disease, and the necessity of laying down and cov- ering the vines to protect tlyem from the severe frosts of winter ; made the cultivation too troublesome and costly for most people to encounter. Now and then a favorable autumn would ripen the wood and perfect the buds, so that a crop would be gathered in the succeeding year, but this was the exception to the rule, and occurred just often enough to encourage the grower to continue his efforts, but not to make them profitable, or even, on the whole, successful. Many growers, wearied with their ill success, gave up the culture of the grape entirely. Some few still grew it against the house, but even this protection failed, in the severe winters of 1857, '58, and '59, in many instances, to save even the Isabella from destruction, vines twenty years old having been killed to the ground at that time. Notwithstanding these discouragements, however, the culti- vation of the grape has increased in Massachusetts, and since the seedlings of our native grape have been substituted for the foreign, cultivators have met with a gratifying success. Of this stock we now have grapes which are hardy and pro- lific, handsome and good, proof against that neglect whicli is so natural a feature in the farming of a country comparatively new, in which care implies cost more than in older and more populous countries ; grapes which can be sold in the market at a price which will remunerate the grower better, perhaps, than any other crop he can raise. No word in the language has so uncertain a meaning as the term hardy, as applied to grapes. Many persons consider all 86 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. plants hardy which can be made to live in the open air, though protected in winter by earth or other covering. Nurserymen, who naturally desire to possess and disseminate all the new grapes, annually offer for sale new varieties as hardy, without the possibility of proving it by actual experiment, (having probably received them as such,) which, upon trial, prove to be tender unless protected. We do not blame them ; they labor in their vocation, and are looked to for all new things as soon as they are announced. We can only take the precaution to avoid planting, extensively, any grape which has not proved to be hardy under all ordinary circumstances. Your committee assume that no grape is hardy, in the proper sense of that term, unless it will survive the winter without protection ; and that no grape is worth the growing unless it is hardy in this particular. The high price of labor, and the necessities of harvesting, and of preparation for the winter, incident to our short seasons, would make it inexpedient for the majority of our farmers to cultivate any grape which requires protection. It follows, therefore, that grape culture, to be successful, and in any sense universal, requires a grape possessing absolute immunity from all the usual vicissitudes of our climate ; it should also be early, prolific, large, handsome and good. It should be a strong grower, for weak growing vines require a rich soil and abundant feeding, which adds much to the expense of cultivation, while a strong growing vine will give good crops on any good corn land, without much expense in feeding. It should be prolific, that the cultivator may get an abundant return for his labor ; it should be large and handsome, that it may sell well in the market; it should ripen early, in order to escape our early autumnal frosts ; and it should be, with these preliminaries, of as good quality as possible. In regard to quality, it is yet too soon to expect from our native stock, grapes equal to those of European origin, per- fected, as they are, by centuries of skilful cultivation ; but such success has already been achieved as to encourage us in the belief that we shall, at no distant day, obtain grapes equal in quality to the foreign grape, which will bo perfectly at home in our less favorable climate and soil. Let us confine our efforts to the raising of seedlings from our native stock, if wo hope for SECRETARY'S REPORT. 87 a complete success ; its structure and constitution arc very diiVercnt IVoni those of the foreign grape ; the thick and robust foliage resists the mildew, which robs the foreign grape of its foliage and the cultivator of his crop, and its great fecundity assures the vigneron an abundant harvest. It is the belief of some of our most intelligent grape-growers tliat tiie American grape will yet produce vines yielding fruit superior to that from the European. Its more pronounced flavor and aroma, too harsh in the wild grape to be pleasant to the lover of grapes, will yet bo toned down to a true perfume, and a ricli and delicious flavor, superior to the simple sweetness and delicacy of the foreign grape. The wine made from it, also, while it may be different in flavor, is likely enough to be of more healthful and even agreeable quality. It will at least have this recommendation, tiiat being perfectly pure it will be more wholesome and restorative than the hot and heady wines imported from abroad, medicated, as most of them are, for exportation to this market ; and will save to the country mil- lions of dollars now sent abroad for wines, few of which are wholesome, which might be saved by substituting our domestic wines for those imported. Of climate, of which we have already spoken, it remains to be said that the nature of the soil and the aspect of the vine- yard have much to do in modifying its severity and securing a ripe crop in unfavorable seasons, and this leads us to speak of SOIL. There is some diversity of opinion in regard to soil. Some contend tliat a strong, rich soil is the best for the grape. In a hot climate this is probably true, as such a soil would resist drought better than sandy or calcareous loams, which are generally recommended for the grape. Almost any soil, how- ever, will do to grow the grape in — if for table use — if it can be made mellow ; avoiding soils underlaid by a stilf, wet clay, and wet, spongy lands. The main requirement in regard to soil is permeabilily ; the grape will flourish in any soil, not positively injurious, if its roots can easily penetrate it. Some grapes seem to require a much richer soil than others ; this is the case with the Diana, the Delaware, and indeed all such grapes as, from constitutional habit or want of vigor, 88 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. make a slow growth in light soils, and it is probable tliat a seedling grape, born in a strong loam, would prefer its native soil to any other, and thrive best there ; while a seedling from a sandy loam would be impatient of a too rich and heavy soil, as happens with the Concord. It is quite possible, however, that some grapes would be improved by the change, a matter which we recommend to amateurs as worthy of experiment. Other things being equal, the warmer the soil the better the success, and this leads us to speak of ASPECT. All writers on the grape concur in giving the first place to a south aspect. A gentle slope sheltered from the north and east winds, on which the sun darts his genial rays during the wbole day, warming the earth to a good depth, and bathing the plants in light from " morn till dewy eve," is undoubtedly the best. In such a situation, the vines receive a larger sliare of light and heat than in any other, and light and heat are tlie great essentials in the culture of the grape. The vine will succeed well, however, in any aspect from east to west, but always the best where the sun warms the earth to the greatest depth. A south-west aspect will be better than a south-east, and a west better than an east, because the rays of the sun lay upon it in the latter part of the day, and, in autumn, when the grapes are ripening, this afternoon sun is of great service. We do not always have choice of aspect, however, but we may grow the grape successfully in any aspect, from west to east, preferring first the south, next south-west, next south-east, next west, lastly east. When a vineyard has an unfavorable aspect, as to prevailing winds, the planting of the vines in rows so as to present the broadside of the rows to the wind will be a considerable protec- tion, but the rows should always run as near north and south as practicable, and should not, if it can be avoided, run east and west, for the obvious reason that the vines would shade the ground too much, and so retard the ripening of the grapes. BI A N U R E S . Nothing in relation to the cultivation of the grape has elicited so much controversy as the subject of manures. Jr^ome recom- SECRETARY'S REPORT. 89 mend the use of dead carcasses ; one cultivator in tlie State of New York put a quarter of an ox under each of his Isal)ella vines and claimed an eminent success as the consequence ; others who tried it found the roots of the vines rotted wherever they came in contact with the carcass. The truth seems to be that highly nitrogenized manures do quicken the growth of those slender growing vines which require extra stimulation, while more vigorous growers take up such an excess into their circulation as to infect them with disease. Plowever the case may be in regard to weak and tender vines, we believe that grapes derived from tlie VUis Labrusca of our fields are natu- rally impatient of excessive feeding ; the wood is thereby forced into long, pointed, gross shoots, which, experience has shown, have imperfect fruit-buds and spongy wood, neither fit for bearing wood or propagation. This vine is found to grow •vigorously and to great size in some places where it is impossi- ble they could ever have received manures. If health and long life of the vine be desirable, it is better not to apply barnyard manure to the bearing vines — young vines will require some compost at the time of planting to promote the formation of roots, of course — but to give occasional dressings of such mineral substances as experience has shown to be necessary when they are not already contained in the soil of the vineyard. Grape-growers are all agreed, however, that sulphur, phosphate of lime and potash are indispensable to the grape ; these substances are the most economically applied in the form of gypsum, which is sulphur in combination with lime; ashes? which supply potash, lime, some phosphates, sulphates, and silica, all of which are useful to the grape ; and bone-dust, which supplies the phosphate of lime and nitrogenized matter. In the cultivation of the Concord in the- vineyard, the chairman of your committee has found twenty bushels of bone-dust, twenty of live wood ashes, and five of gypsum, a sufficient dressing for an acre of vines once in three years ; soil a light sandy loam. On the whole, we believe the safest method will be to avoid excessive manuring with barnyard manures, and, if necessary to do so, to give light top-dressings only until the grape gives a satisfactory growth. But it will usually be found that the vineyard, after the first year, will not require any 12 90 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. other than the mineral manures above named to insure plenty of bearing wood and good crops. If the soil has not been enriched for the preceding crop — wliich should be corn, to ensure clean tillage — it will be well to add thirty or forty loads of good manure, per acre, well com- posted, at the time of planting the young vines. Cow manure is best suited to light soils, and promotes the formation of roots better than that of the horse ; sheep manure is adapted to the grape, but being stronger, must not be used in so large quantities as is recommended for cow manure. All cultivators will of course understand that horse manure is better than tliat of cow's to lighten and warm a stiff soil, but, as such soil is not the best for the grape, we have i-ecommended the manure of cows and sheep, the first being the best ; but after the first year we recommend the use of mineral manures alone. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. The directions for preparing the ground for planting the grape usually prescribe trenching as absolutely necessary to success in grape culture. In France the custom is to trench about two feet deep ; in Spain, about thirty-three inches (one " vara," or Spanish yard) ; in Italy they trench even to tlie depth of five feet, where it is possible, and it is to be presumed that a custom which has been followed for so many generations that it has become the rule of the case, is necessary in the hot climate and long seasons of those countries ; but in our colder climate and shorter seasons we believe trenching to be per- nicious for the following reasons : Deep trenching invites the roots into the colder and less fertile subsoil, thereby inducing a late growth of wood, which is never, except in a very favorable season, so solid and short- jointed as it should be to secure the best and earliest fruit ; the vine also forms roots near the surface, which arc injured and torn by the necessary cultivation, leaving the lower roots to derive from the cold and infertile subsoil the support of the vine, which, in consequence, starts later into growth, and matures its fruit and wood at a later season, if indeed, it is able to mature them at all. Heat at the root, " bottom heat " is essential to success in grape culture, and as the soil in this climate is seldom warmed, SECRETARY'S RKPORT. 91 during our brief summers, to a greater depth than one foot, we believe that that depth should not be exceeded in the prepara- tion of the soil for planting, unless, indeed, it be necessary to break up the subsoil to promote drainage in a soil which is wet at some seasons of the year, for the grape is impatient of a wet soil, which is always colder than a dry one, but on a sandy loam with a porous subsoil, which is the best for the grape, the stirring of the earth to a great depth will do more harm than good. PLANTING. For planting, we recommend strong, well-rooted vines of two years ; these come to bearing sooner than the yearling vines, being better established and with better wood and roots, while they are more easy to handle than older vines, the long roots of which will give too much trouble in planting on a large scale. Buy the vines from a grower, who will take them up care- fully, and give you all the roots ; you can better spare the superfluous tops of the vine than any of the roots, which are never superfluous. In planting, take care to spread out the roots in every direc- tion, but do not let them cross or overlay each other, which leads to the formation of knots, which interrupt the flow of the sap. The proper depth to plant is, in our climate, six inches ; if less than this the roots may suffer from drought ; if more, new roots are likely to be formed in the warmer surface soil which will be broken and torn by the cultivation, while the lower roots w'ill go down into the colder and less fertile subsoil, and the vine will not ripen its wood so well, nor the fruit so early. As to the best time for planting the vine, the autumn is the best season, if the soil be dry, as the roots get well established in the soil, usually making fibres from the main roots during the first two or three weeks after planting, and they are thus prepared to start early in the spring, getting a good growth before they are pinched by the heat and drought of midsummer; this is a great gain in such soils ; but if they be wet or heavy, and liable to heave with the winter frosts, or if water stand upon it in the winter and spring, then we would prefer the latter season, when the advancing warmth promotes the forma- tion of the fibrous roots, and the vine, having the whole summer 92 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. to establish itself, is much more likely to go tliroiigh the ensuing winter without harm. It is always good husbandry to put an inch or two of leaf mould or chip dirt about the plants the first winter after planting, to prevent heaving by frost ; after the first winter they are safe. AT WHAT DISTANCE APART SHOULD THE VINES BE PLANTED ? The vines raised from the Vitis Labrusca require much more room than is usually allowed in vineyard culture. The direc- tions copied from foreign books on the grape, although well adapted to the foreign grape, will certainly mislead the culti- vator who applies them to our native varieties, some of which make shoots twelve or fifteen feet long in a single year. Buchanan, in his treatise on grape culture says : "For steep hill-sides three and a half feet by four and a half, or three feet by five, may answer, but for gentle slopes, three and a half by six is close enough, and for level land four feet by seven." We think eight feet by eight close enough for vineyard culture — which will permit the use of the plough and cart. If the vineyard is of limited extent, and an early return for the capital is desired, plant eight feet by four, and after a few seasons cut out every alternate vine, leaving them at last eight by eight. The reason for giving the vines this wider space to grow in, will be obvious when one recollects how large a space a single vine will cover under favorable circumstances, and that there should be a ])roper balance between the roots and branches, both of which should be as near as possible to what nature designed ; that is to say, should have a good extension, that the vine may be healtliy and long-lived. An additional reason for these larger distances will be found in the facility which they afford for the passage of the team in carting off the crop, and in ploughing and cultivating the soil ; the sun also finds access to the soil, more than in close planting, giving that warmth to the root so essential to the ripening of the crop. p R u N I N (} . There are various modes of pruning the grajw, all of which have value and adaptation to particular circumstances, as cov- ering a certain space, an ornamental es})alior, or the production of large bunches of fruit. And this last is an olyect of some SECRETARY'S REPORT. 93 importance, for, other things being equal, the largest and hand- somest bunches are the most valuable, often bringing in the market double the price which can be obtained for small bunches. We shall speak of the renewal, or long cane system, and spur pruning; either of which, judiciously followed, will give good crops and large bunches, always supposing the kind of grape cultivated will give large bunches, for many kinds of grapes, though of fine quality, cannot be made to give large bunches under any kind of pruning. We should mention, also, that some kinds of grape, as the Clinton, Strawberry, and such grapes generally as make long, slender wood, must be laid in long canes upon the espalier to give good crops. To begin at the beginning, then, we will suppose the vine just planted and cut down to two eyes ; after these two eyes have grown about a foot, pinch the,weakest one at the end and train the strongest one to the pole or espalier. If it run away weakly, pinch it occasionally, which will set back the sap and thicken the stem; it will probably push out lateral shoots, which should always be pinched at the second leaf ; this will prevent the formation of weak, watery shoots, and strengthen the leader. At. the end of the season cut back the long shoot to the lower bar of the espalier, which is usually about eighteen inches from the ground, and cut the short one clean back to the old wood, your purpose being to have a single stem for about a half yard from the ground ; but if the grape is trained against a house, and it is desired to lead off the side arms at a greater heighth, as above a door, &c., then cut off the vine at that heighth, observing that there must be but one stem from the ground to the point from whence the arms diverge ; and any shoots which come out at the base of the vine must always be rubbed out, lest they run away with the strength of the vine and rob the upper shoots of the necessary sap. The second year you will allow two shoots to grow from the top of the vine ; lay them in diagonally on the espalier, pinch- ing them occasionally as before, and if the buds on the main stem push, pinch them at tb.e second leaf as before. At the fall pruning, all the laterals should be cut clean out. At the end of the season cut away all the laterals, and lay in the two shoots right and left on the espalier, horizontally, cutting each 94 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. of them back to a strong bud. Be sure to cut back to a strong bud, for these arms are to be permanent, and it is necessary the wood should be strong and well ripened. The third year you may take a few bunches, if your vine is strong, but it is better to wait until the fourth year, as the bearing even a few bunches checks the extension of wood. Your side arms will push every eye. Train upright shoots from these horizontal arms at about eighteen inches distance ; this will usually be every alternate bud ; rub out tlie bud in the interval, all buds, if there be more than one between these upright shoots ; pinch all laterals at the second leaf as before, whether on old wood or new, and pinch the upright shoots when tliey. get to the top of the espalier ; sooner, if they run away weakly. In the autumn, cut every alternate upright shoot back to one eye, to make new shoots next year for subsequent bearing, and leave the others at full length for bearing, unless they are not strong ; in that case cut them back to a strong bud. It may happen that the side shoots will take several years to fill up the espalier with strong wood ; but do not fail to cut them back at every fall pruning to a strong bud, making sure of getting strong wood, though you get it little by little ; cut away all laterals as before. You have now got a number of upright shoots for bearing ; every eye will push and probably set fruit, and now, unless you have the firmness to cut out two-thirds of the fruit, you are in danger of over-cropping the vine with its first crop. Not more than twenty bunches of fruit should be allowed to remain, and these should be of the largest and best placed. The thinning should be done when the young grapes are as large as young peas ; pinch these laterals, now bearing fruit, at four leaves beyond the bunch you leave on ; this will generally be the first or second bunch, the largest of course. If the laterals push again, pinch at the second leaf as before. You will train up the alternate shoots, pinching them at the top of the espalier, and also all laterals as before. These are to be the bearing wood of next year. After the fall of the leaf, prune out all the upright shoots which have borne fruit to one bud, and all laterals from the new shoots which you have trained up for bearing next year. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 95 This is the system known as the renewal system. It is well adapted to tiie house or the espalier. If applied to vineyard culture, you must have two poles to each vine, (after the third year) cutting out each cane in alternate years. Spur pruning, however, is better adapted to field culture in our climate, if we may trust our own experience. The vine is not called upon to make so much wood, and after it is well established, any intelligent boy who can handle a knife, can prune the vine as well as a thorough bred gardener. Train up your vine as before, with a single stem ; cut out all laterals at the end of the first year; and cut back the main stem to eighteen inches from the ground ; lead up a single stem from the upper bud the next year, tying it to the pole and pinching when it has reached to the top of the pole, which should be six feet high. Pinch all laterals, as in the renewal system, and if the main stem is not strong, cut back to a strong bud. The next year you will make your spurs ; let them be alter- nate, right and left, and as nearly equi-distant as possible. Pinch them in occasionally, and if side-shoots push, pinch them at the first leaf. Do not let the spurs grow more than half a yard or two feet long, for you want strong buds at the base of the shoot to bear next year. At the fall pruning, cut back the lowest spur to three eyes ; cut out the second and third spur to one eye each ; this brings you to the fourth spur, which is opposite the first ; cut this back to three eyes ; proceed as before through the whole length of the vine. You will have alternate spurs for fruiting, and the intervening spurs cut back to one eye, to make bearing wood for the next season, when the spurs which have borne this year are to be cut back to one eye, to make new spurs for alternate bearings. A modification of spur pruning, practiced by some grape growers, is to cut back the spur to the strongest bud, without regard to the length of the spur ; rubbing out the shoots from the other eyes, except the one at the base of the spur, which is trained for the new wood of the next season, the old spur being cut clean out, at the fall pruning. Well estab- lished vines, spur-pruned, generally ripen their crops a few days earlier than vines pruned on the renewal system. The best time of pruning for this latitude is probably the early part of November. If the vine is pruned at that time, the 96 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. organizable matter which the roots continue to take up until hard frost prevails, charges the wood and the buds, making them to start with more vigor in the succeeding spring, and perhaps increasing, to some extent, the size of the bunch. It is safe, however, to prune at any time after the fall of the leaf until the succeeding spring, avoiding to prune when the wood is frozen, or so late in the spring that the vine will bleed, which would be likely to happen at the beginning of April. PROPAGATION. No vineyard can be said to be complete until provision is made for a supply of new plants to take tke place of those lost by accident, or which prove weak or unproductive, (and if weak they will be unproductive,) and to furnish vines for planting new vineyards. We offer, therefore, the results of our experience in this connection, in order that the beginner may avoid loss of time and money through the purchase of vines weakened by excessive propagation. It is the custom in wine countries to raise new plants only from the best ripened wood of a bearing vine, and that which ripens its fruit the earliest, and they maintain that, in this way, they procure vines that bear earlier fruit than the parent vine, as happens with seed-bearing plants, the precocity of which may be increased by saving the earliest and best seed from year to year. When the nurseryman has received a new grape, he naturally desires to propagate it as fast as possible, he therefore raises his new plants' from single eyes, and when these grow, propagates again from these young and necessarily enfeebled vines. The consequence is, the vines, weakened by this process, do not ripen their fruit so early, nor grow with such vigor as vines raised from cuttings of strong- wood from well-established vines. The difference in the time of ripening will usually be about ten or fifteen days, and the vines raised from cuttings of a foot or more in length are much superior to these raised from single eyes, because the greatly increased amount of organizable matter in the cutting not only pushes tlie growing bud vvitli greater vigor, but greatly increases the quantity of roots, while the cutting, -usually grown in the open air, is really better adapted to vineyard culture for that reason, being more hardy SECRETARY'S REPORT. 97 than the vine grown in a propagatiiig-house with artificial heat. The weak vines, raised in this way, and rij)eiiing their fruit at a later period — often a fortnight — than the season announced by the vendor, and sometimes failing to ripen their fruit at all ; while the weak and immature wood often dies in the winter, lead many cultivators to believe the vine unworthy of cultiva- tion, and sometimes to reject a variety which is really valuable and which would, when it had acquired strength, or if raised from strong plants, give entire satisfaction. For these reasons he should raise the vines himself when practicable, or otherwise get his plants, as before advised, of two years of age, strong, and well-rooted, of a nurseryman of established reputation. If he grows them himself he will take the strongest and best shoots from bearing vines, and having prepared a piece of good ground, rather moist than dry, plant the cuttings as follows: — Open with tlie spade a trench deep enough to take in the cut- tings in a slanting position, so that the last bud on the top of the cutting will be covered about one inch when the ground is levelled off. Place the cuttings, so that these eyes or buds will be as nearly as possible in a straight line for convenience in hoeing and weeding ; let the cuttings be about one foot apart in the row, and the rows about three feet apart, (if pinched for room, two feet will do,) stir the ground frequently during the season, and if the weather prove very dry, water occasionally, and keep down all weeds. In the month of November follow- ing, cut down the vines to six or eight inches. In the second year, let all the wood grow, remembering that the more foliage the more roots, and roots are what you desire to make strong plants. Prune at the time of j)lanting out to a single stem of about half a yard in length, and train the new growth to the pole or the espalier as you may prefer. Good vines may be obtained from layers, which is a method some growers prefer to raising them from cuttings ; but we consider this method objectionable — except in the case of vines which do not readily grow from cuttings — because it is very difficult to get up the roots of layers without disturbing the roots of the parent vine ; and because it is necessary to put a liberal dressing of compost on the ground to promote the form- ation of roots ; and this dressing pushes the old vine so rapidly that the w^ood is injured by it, and the crop impaired in 13 98 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. quality. If, however, it be necessary to resort to this method, take the lowest shoots of the parent vine, strong and well ripened, cut a notch in the shoot on the under side, between the buds, and bury tlie shoot two or three inches under the surface of the soil. Keep the ground well stirred and free from weeds during the season, and take up the plants in the autumn of tlie same season, and plant them out in nursery rows to make the second year's growth. This is a sure and good method, but we prefer to grow from cuttings, as giving better two-year-old vines — not having been disturbed at the end of the first year, as is necessary with layers, because the roots would get so large that they could not be taken up with- out injury to the roots of the parent vine, and the young vines would be more difficult of cultivation than cuttings in rows. Either of these methods will give the vine-grower good and reliable vines for his vineyard ; but if by any accident a plant in his vineyard be destroyed, or so weakened that it will not thrive, take up the weak vine and replace it by the method of provingnage adopted in the French vineyards, which is only the laying of a strong shoot from an adjoining vine, about six inches under the surface, and training up the end of the shoot in the place of the vine destroyed. At the end of the first, or at most of the second year, sever the connection with the parent vine, and take care that no shoots be allowed to grow from the buds of the buried shoot ; the object being to get one vine only in the place of that removed. This method will enable you to keep your vineyard full of vines at all times. As to protection of vines in the winter, having already declared our belief, founded on our own experience of many years, that no vine which requires it will be found profitable, we do not recommend it ; but if any are disposed to try it, they will find the best method to be the laying down of the vines in the autumn, and covering with two or three inches of eaith. Another good method is to cover with pine boughs ; but tiic covering of earth is the best. Tender varieties of the vine, however, are only suited to the garden of the amateur, and no vineyard can be long kept up with vines which arc not hardy, and wliicii are therefore cultivated at a much greater expense than is necessary with hardy grapes. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 99 RAISING NEW VARIETIES FROM SEED. This is probably the best method of obtaining improved vari- eties of hardy grapes ; and when we consider that some of our very best apples and pears arc seedlings of our own State, we may well take courage and enter upon the task of raising seedling grapes. Many of the new grapes which have been ushered into pul)lic notice are chance seedlings of various parts of our country. Some of them, very good in their native locality, prove worth- less, or if good, so ill adapted to our climate that they cannot be grown in it with profit and success. Some are of good quality, but too small for market ; or poor bearers, or slender growers, or require such careful cultivation as makes them unprofitable. A grape for general cultivation must have such vigor of constitution as will bear neglect, and be comparatively indifferent to soil and location ; not that these do qot affect the qitality of the fruit to some extent, for any grape will be better, other things being equal, which is grown on a good grape soil and location, than it will be if grown upon its opposite ; but the grape for the market should be, — like the Bartlett pear and the Baldwin apple, — always salable, though it may be variable in its qualities in various soils and seasons. It is obvious, therefore, that seedlings from our native Viiis Labrusca will be more likely to succeed with us, than seedlings from the foreign grape, or even from the grapes of other States. Even locality may breed a peculiarity in a seedling grape which will prevent its successful culture in any other locality, except such as are essentially like that in which it was born. One instance at least has fallen under our observation where this seemed to be the case. A chance seedling came up in a garden, under a high fence, upon its eastern side. This was not considered a good aspect, and for the purpose of improving the quality of the grape, it was removed to a south aspect, against a high building, where it was believed the grape would be entirely at home. Much to the surprise of the owner, the grape was not so good as before ; after a fair trial it was removed to its former location, and again bore grapes of the same quality as those it bore before its first removal. An old writer on the grape speaks of vines which " scarcely answer to their name after they have changed their place ;" 100 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. and again, vines " the delicate flavor of wliose wines is changed with the country ;" vines also which " rejoice most in a fat and oosy ground, because it is able to give fruitfulness to vines that are naturally small and slender ;" and some which will not endure a fat soil, but require a leaner ground ; grapes which do best in cool climates, shrinking and perishing with great heat, and grapes which are nothing without great heat ; vines — Genevan — which bear frost ; vines which cast their fruit when ripe, and vines which 'climb the tallest trees, while some will scarcely reach the top of the espalier. This was in Italy, eighteen hundred years ago, and the author considered the matter of so much importance that, after a full review of the difficulties attending it, so that " many doubted if they ought to have vineyards at all," he recommends the raising of vines fj'om seed, enforcing his proposal by the state- ment that the " income of vineyards is the most abundant of any." The horticulturist who shall succeed in obtaining a new grape of improved quality will not only receive a handsome profit for himself, but confer a lasting benefit on his fellow- citizens. This all good men desire, and this will be an addi- tional inducement to such men to enter upon the raising of new grapes from seed. To those who are inclined to engage in this pursuit we offer the following suggestions. The chairman of your committee has been engaged in raising new varieties of the grape from seed for more than twenty years. He adopted tlie mode of breeding from our native stock for reasons which will be obvious to those who read our remarks on hybridizing. We believe his method to be the best, and those who adopt it will have the satisfaction of knowing that they will not be obliged — as he was — to " begin at the begin- ning," but will have the advantage of starting from the new stand-point, so that, by raising new varieties from the seeds of those already obtained, they will have a reasonable assurance of success within a short period compared to tiiat which he found neccssai-y. From his" report to the Board of Agriculture, pub- lished in the Seventh Annual Report of the Secretary, we quote: — " Perhaps I cannot do a better service in this connection than to state my own experience in this branch of horticulture SECRETARY'S REPORT. 101 Haviii<5 pursued it for nearly twenty years, and finding my first opinions greatly modified in the course of that time, I may perhaps save the beginner some time in his practice, which he miglit otherwise lose for want of reliable data to commence upon. " I was led to commence the raising of grapes from seed from the impossibility of ripening any of the grapes then in the lists of the nurserymen. Living in the Valley of the Concord, which has a. season shortened at both ends by the early and late frosts incident to such localities ; loving grapes more than any other fruit, but unable to ripen them, I turned my attention to our native stock, and procured from all quarters native vines which had a local reputation for excellence, but found myself disap- pointed in all of them. " Believing that a good grape could be obtained out of this stock, and that if T attained success it would lead others to follow the same course, so that in time Massachusetts could have her own grapes, as she already had her Baldwins, her Porters, her Hubbardston and other excellent seedling apples, I set about the matter. I wanted a grape to begin with which should be a vigorous grower, hardy, prolific, early, and with these preliminaries, of as good quality as possible. I found such a grape — a good eating grape for a native — and with this 1 began. In five or six years the seedlings bore fruit, — these seeds were planted again, — and from these I obtained the ' Concord,' and from the latter, in the third generation from the beginning, I have got grapes of great variety, some of them excellent, if I may trust my own judgment. The original wild habit seems to be entirely broken up, and from the original stock, black as night, I have obtained grapes white as the Chasselas, delicate of texture, and of a most agreeable flavor. " I had hitherto planted these seeds promiscuously in beds of rich soil, and when the seedlings bore fruit all their seeds were planted. This was not the best way. I raised many hundred more seedlings than I had need to, and should have succeeded more rapidly in my purpose if I had planted only the seeds of those grapes which showed the most marked change from the original type. I thought I multiplied my chances of success by putting into the ground the seeds of all the new vines. I had not yet learned that nature makes constant efforts to return to 102 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. her normal condition, and resents the interference of man. Her purpose is merely the continuation of the species, and she gives vigor and adaptation to that end. " The horticulturist desires the fruit, and not the seed. His efforts are directed to the amelioration of the harsh flavor ; to softening the pulp ; to making, in short, the fruit more edible. He accomplishes this by putting the seeds into a soil rich with stimulating composts, abounding with the particular food which is best adapted to his purpose. The new conditions change the character of the plant. Instead of meadow or pasture, where the parent vine grew with vigor, indeed, but with the coarse habit incident to wild nature, the new-born seedling revels in the abundant and congenial food prepared for it, and stimulated by the nature of its feeding, shows a change of habit more or less marked. This is the sign of improvement ; of the departure from the native type, and the token of success to the cultivator. In the seed-bed will be found vines having short-jointed wood, perhaps smooth and solid, and with prominent buds. Tiiese vines deserve his special care ; from them he will obtain vines with still more marked change of habit, and the greater the divergence from the original type, the more certain will be his success. " Most of the seedlings, if you begin with the wild grape, will prove to be barren or worthless in the first generation. The barren grapes may be distinguished, for the most part, by their great luxuriance of growth, and in the first year the seed-bed will be filled with these rampant, and, to the novice, promising vines. " My experience leads me to reject these strong vines of the first year, or at least to plant them in a quarter by themselves, as possibly I might get a good grape out of them, and if such should be tlie case, the strong growth would be desirable. " I have spoken of these seedlings of the first year because the seeds continue to come up for two, three and even four years in succession, and my best grapes come from these later seedlings. " There seems to be much probability in the tlieory propounded long ago, that one or more seeds of every fruit is strongly impressed with the peculiar type of the species to which it belongs, and will bring its like with precision, as happens with long-established breeds of cattle. How far the seeds of grapes SECRETARY'S REPORT. 103 are impressed with incipient change by stimulant composts or modes of culture applied to the parent vine, is an interesting subject of inquiry, but we cannot enter upon it here, though the subject is enticing, for want of space. " I would strongly advise those who purpose to raise seedling grapes not to go back to the wild vine, but to commence witii seeds of new varieties having the characteristics of vigor, earli- iiess, etc., which they desire in the offspring. Plant the grapes whole, in rows to facilitate weeding ; the placenta like substance which surrounds the seed in the whole grape nourishes the seed and promotes its vegetative power ; it is important also that the tender seedling should suffer no check. Shade it from the hot sun, and water if necessary until it gets three or four of its rough leaves, after which it may be considered safe ; plant one inch deep, and keep down all weeds. " When the seedlings have grown one year, lift them out of the bed without disturbing the level of the ground, and thereby bury- ing the seeds which have not sprouted during the first season, for they will many of them grow in the second year. This can easily be done if the bed is thoroughly saturated with water, when with the aid of a fork you can draw out the plants with care without breaking a single root. " The second year another crop will come up ; these will give a much larger proportion of bearing vines. These are lifted in the same way with the first, to make room for the third crop ; these last I save with the utmost care, as they will show the greatest improvement. " When these seedlings are planted out they should be put into soil enriched with bone-dust, ashes and gypsum; these fertil- izers I consider indispensable to the grape. Stable manures induce a luxuriant growth of wood, but are apt to give a las tissue to the wood, and should be used with caution, if at all. I prefer the mineral manures alone. " Do not reject too hastily the vine at its first fruiting, for the size and quality of the fruit will improve for years ; the grape vine does not reach its best estate until seven or eight years after planting. I do not prune the seedling vine except to give it shape, but pinch in any branch which may be growing too rampant. These seedlings will not bear until the fifth or sixth year from the time of planting the seed." 104 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Having thus given a succinct statement of the mode of breed- ing new grapes from our hardy native stock by direct descent, it remains to notice another method which it cannot be denied is received with mucli favor by many distinguished horticul- turists, called HYBRIDIZING, OR CROP FERTILIZATION. This metliod consists in impregnating the germ of a hardy native grape with the pollen of the foreign grape, with a view to improve the quality of the hardy grape ; and it is claimed for it that the pollen of the foreign grape imparts its better quality to the fruit, while tlie hardy mother imparts its native vigor. This is true to a greater or less extent, when the hybridization is effected, but it is by no means certain that the tender habit of the foreign vine will not prevail so tliat the seedling will be at best but half hardy and require protection, in which case it would be without value for field culture. Nor is this the only objection ; seedlings from the hybrid would in all probability breed back, that is to say, the predominant native type would overpower the impregnation by the weaker foreign type, and the seedling would not be of so good quality as the hybrid from which it was raised. Certainly, if successful in the crossing, you arrive at your first success more quickly, but you have not got a reliable basis for future improvements ; and this, it seems to us, should be the prime object of the grape breeder ; for, as we have said before, the American grape will probably yield, in time, seedlings quite as good as the foreign grape, while they will immeasurably excel it in hardihood, early ripening, and adap- tation to our soil and climate. These truths we think are plain, but we do not by any means wish to commit ourselves to the opinion that the hybrid could never be hardy, for we believe it to be possible that the native vigor of the mother vine mnj; pre- dominate so that the seedling would be hardy, but we think this would be the exception to the rule, and that the defect of con- stitutional force, and pre-disposition to mildew, common to the foreign grape in this climate — and even to some extent natural to it in its own country — would descend to the offspring, and so defeat the purpose of the grape-grower, or at least render the cultivation so troublesome and expensive that it would be unprofitable. "We arc aware that several promising hybrids SECRETARY'S REPORT. 105 have been raised by Mr. Rogers, of Salem, which are now on trial, and we hope may prove to be great acquisitions, but we think the rule of the case will be found to be as above stated. We hope, however, that this frank statement of our belief will not deter any grape-grower from experimenting in cross- breeding. As before stated, ho will achieve success — if he succeed at all — much sooner than by the slower process of suc- cessive reproduction and gradual amelioration of the pure native. Hybridizing the grape is a process of great delicacy — almost of dithculty — but is quite possible, if great care is used. Some Avriters have directed the shoots of the two vines intend- ed to be cross-bred to be intertvvinod on the espalier, in the belief that hybridization will thus be effected ; this, however, though not quite impossible, is not likely to happen. The pollen of the grape is usually perfect before the calix is pushed off by the increasing growth of the stamens and is shed upon the germ, by the generally sudden movement of the stamens in throwing off the calix, under the stimulus of a warm sun- shine. Some of the germs, however, as we have observed while cross-breeding ourselves, are not immediately impreg- nated, and in such case the watchful operator, by cutting away the stamens with a pair of sharp-pointed scissors, can impreg- nate the germ with the pollen of another variety, by the aid of a small camel's hair pencil, or even by shaking the pollen upon it from the bunch of bloom cut for that purpose. When the impregnated berry is ripe, it is usually taken to the hot-house and planted in a pot, from whence, when strong enough, it is planted out in the open ground. It should be covered in the winter until it gets strong, when it may be gradually exposed to the weather, to see if it is hardy. If it is not hardy, with- out protection, the fact ought always to be stated when it is offered for sale, for many an embryo grape-grower has lost all his enthusiasm and given up the pursuit, when he found the vine which had come to him as " perfectly hardy " dying off the first winter. PROFITS OF GRAPE CULTURE. We are aware, after all, that grape culture will not be entered upon very generally unless it is profitable ; this we 14 106 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. believe to be tbe case. All your committee are grape-growers, and we grow tbem somewbat extensively, and we bave found tbem to be more profitable tban otber fruit. Tbe cultivation is not costly or difficult, nor do tbey by any means require so mucb manure as otber fruit crops, and tbe cultivator lias the alternative of making liis crop into wine, in case of a dull market, an alternative wbicb be does not have with other fruits. We subjoin the statement of Mr. Hunt, of Concord, in this connection, made to tbe Committee on Grapes at tbe Fair of the Middlesex Agricultural Society, held at Concord, on tbe 18th of September last. He says : — " The Concord grapes exhibited by me to-day are from vines of five years' growth. My vineyard is located on the south side of what is known as Punkatasset Hill. The soil is warm, moderately strong but not rich, with a hard, retentive subsoil. A large portion of the soil now planted with grapes yielded little else than stone, whortleberry bushes and briars, with some small pitch pines. After removing these, I applied, at the rate of forty horse-cart loads per acre, a compost of barn- yard manure and swamp muck, and planted potatoes. The next spring I applied the same quantity of manure, and planted the vines, in rows, running east and west, eight feet apart, seven feet apart in the rows. No fertilizing substance has been used since except wood ashes, at the rate of fifteen bushels the acre, up to the last year, and this year none." After relating bis method of pruning, which is on the spur system, be proceeds to say : — " As to any information in regard to the profit, or the successful culti- vation of the grape, I have had but little experience, therefore I will not attempt to instruct, but briefly relate some of my experience. " I commenced with one dozen vines, but have now some five hun- dred, beside one thousand young vines in the nursery rows. Two- hundred of the former are now loaded with fruit, estimated by good judges to yield at the rate of eight thousand pounds per acre. Last year the first crop was taken from these vines, about two hundred pounds, and sold for twelve and one-half cents per pound at wholesale, at retail for twenty-five. " In conclusion, I would state that I have not attempted to produce grapes of extra size for exhibition, by ringing, extra fertilizing, or any other means not strictly applicable to the whole crop. " Signed, Thomas F. Hunt. ' "Concord, Sept. 18, 18G2." SECRETARY'S REPORT. 107 This was before the crop was harvested. Subsequently the secretary of the society, J. B. Moore, visited the vineyard of Mr. Hunt, and staking off a lot of vines which he considered a fair average of the whole field, gathered and weighed the crop, and in his report on grapes, published in the " Middlesex Transactions " for 18G2, speaks as follows : — "The distance apart tliat the vines should be planted is a question to be settled by more experience. Mr. Hunt plants, as you will see by his statement, eight feet by seven, which gives fifty-six square feet to a vine, or nearly seven hundred and seventy-eight vines to the acre. They are as yet but small vines, trained to a stake, like a common bean pole, but have already produced, on an average, fifteen and one-half pounds of grapes to a vine the present season, with only ordinary cultivation, being 12,059 pounds to the acre, which, at twelve and a half cents per pound, which is no more than the average price for the last few years, amounts to $1,507.37, and at ten cents per pound, a price for which large quantities could be sold, would amount to $1,205.90. This will well repay the grower." He adds : — " To those who intend to cultivate the grape as an article of profit, we woulcTsay that we think it offers a more certain return in dollars and cents than any other fruit. The statements we have made, in regard to profits, are not fimcy estimates, but may be relied on." Your committee have endeavored to show in this report, necessarily imperfect, for it would require a separate report on each subject relating to grape culture to do it full justice, that the cultivation of the grape in Massachusetts will probably be attended with entire success. The enthusiasm which is now apparent in the public mind, in regard to it, is one of the first fruits of the success which has attended the efforts of the pioneers in this pursuit ; a success which is both the reward of their labors and a pledge of still further successes. To accomplish this final and assured success, that is to say, to obtain grapes of the best quality both for the table and for wine, grapes which we shall be able to grow without difficulty in all parts of our good old Commonwealth, it is only necessary that our horticulturists shall enter heartily upon the work of raising new grapes suited to our climate. It will be a labor which will 108 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. bring them the double reward of pecuniary success, and the honest fame of public benefactors. We offer a list of grapes for cultivation in Massachusetts, regretting that the list is so small, but in the full belief that it will, within a brief period, be considerably enlarged. jMean- while we can only offer to the cultivator the advice of an old grape-grower, to grow only those grapes, on the lafge scale, which have been proved to be profitable, leaving to the amateur the trial of those which " promise well." The Concord maintains its reputation as the best grape for the market yet raised. It is also a fine wine grape. The Hartford Prolific is a very good grape, prolific, early, hardy, has the defect of falling from the bunch when fully ripe. It has, however, held on to the bunch this season better than usual, and some cultivators attribute the fact to the greater strength which the vines have attained, but this is equally true this year of the Northern Muscadine, an incorrigible dropper, and only a tolerable grape, which is, however, perfectly hardy and early. The Rebecca is tender and liable to mildew and sunburn. It is of fine quality, though small, needs protection, and is only suitable for the garden of the amateur. ^ The Diana, a well-known grape in this State, and throughout the country. In warmer latitudes it is much esteemed for its fine flavor, though it is prone to mildew, and the berries are frequently attacked by the rot. It is tender, and needs protec- tion in New England. The Delaware is small in bunch and berry, hardy and of fine quality. It is too small for a market fruit, but is indis- pensable in the garden. The Union Village has a large berry of good flavor, but is tender, is killed to the ground every winter, unless protected. It is a strong grower, and ripens its fruit about the same time with the Isabella. Dracut Amber. This is a new seedling raised by Mr. Clement, of Dracut ; it is early, excellent for jelly, and said to make a good wine, and is perfectly hardy. Rogers' IIybhius, Nos. 4 and 15. These grapes were raised by Mr. Rogers, of Salem, from the native grape, hybridized with the Black Hamburg. They are said to be hardy and SECRETARY'S REPORT. 109 of fine qualit}' ; they are now for sale, and will soon be better known. There are still other grapes which might be mentioned, but some of them arc known to be tender, and others, which are as yet so little known, that your committee defer mention of them until further trial. The Catawba and Isabella are not suited to general cultivation in New England. We recommend for general cultivation the Concord, the Delaware, and the Hart- ford Prolific, and as promising well, and worthy of trial, the Hybrids of Mr. Rogers, and for wine and jellies the Dracut Amber. The other varieties are more suitable for the amateur, and the garden, or the side of the house, for the present at least. Some of them may prove valuable for vineyard culture, on further acquaintance. Ephm. W. Bull, Jabez Fisher, Asa Clement, Committee of the Board. THE SHEEP LAW. The law for the protection of sheep, lambs and other animals, against the ravages of dogs, has been strictly enforced in some towns and comparatively disregarded in others. The neglect to enforce it in some cases, and the obstacles, interposed by officers of towns, to a full and prompt settlement for losses occurring to sheep owners in others, prevent many from engag- ing in sheep husbandry, notwithstanding the great inducements which the high prices of wool and mutton offer the farmer. It must be apparent that the duties on wool will make it impossible for foreign manufacturers to compete with us in the coarser woollen fabrics, and that the price of wool, adapted to such fabrics, must rule high for some years. Sheep, therefore, will pay better than dogs. Indeed, it can be shown that, with judicious management, and with proper security against the dog risk, they pay better thafi any other animal on the farm. 1 am indebted to the politeness of the town clerks of most of the towns in the Commonwealth for statistics upon this subject by which it appears that the number of dogs licensed in the 110 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. State is 21,385, the amount received for the same, $23,401.20, and the estimated number still unlicensed, 12,640. The following Table, arranged by counties and towns, con- tains the returns made to this office giving the number of dogs licensed, the amount paid in, and the estimated number unlicensed. Cities and Towns. •a a o d 'A II o '3 S " < •c 2 £ = Cities and Towns. o 3 6 2 ■M -6 5 > E S < II Barnstable Co. Berksh. — Con. Barnstable, 95 $95 00 - Hinsdale, . 42 $42 00 25 Brewster, . 25 25 00 - Lanesborough, . 62 70 00 10 Chatham, . 3 3 00 50 Lee, . 91 101 00 20 Dennis, - - 75 Lenox, 48 48 00 20 Eastham, . - - 45 Monterey, . 30 30 00 6 Falmouth, . 56 56 00 50 Mt. Washington, - - 20 Harwich, . 5 5 00 100 New Ashford, . 20 20 00 3 Orleans, 1 1 00 100 New Marlboro', 1 1 00 - Provincetown, . 2 2 00 125 Otis, . 35 35 00 15 Sandwich, . 146 150 00 - Peru, 26 26 00 26 Truro, - - 20 Pittsfield, . 13 13 00 200 Wellfleet, . 2 2 00 100 Richmond, 35 35 00 6 Yarmouth, . 7 7 00 100 Sandi^eld, Savoy, 60 60 00 40 Totals, . 342 $346 00 765 45 Behksiiire Co. Sheffield, . - - Adams, . , . 186 $198 00 150 Stockbridge, 45 45 00 10 Alford, 24 24 00 - Tyringham, 20 20 00 5 Becket, . 62 62 00 10 Washington, - - 75 Cheshire, . - - - W. Stockbridge, 51 51 00 14 Clarksburg, 19 19 00 20 Williamstown, . 119 124 00 7 Dalton, 44 44 44 00 39 00 3 20 Windsor, . Totals, . 2 2 00 40 Egremont, . 1,223 $1,253 60 591 Florida, 12 12 00 7 Bristol Co. Gt. Barrington, . 111 111 00 56 Acushnet, . 23 23 00 5 Hancock, . 21 21 00 4 Attleborough, . 232 232 00 10 SECRETARY'S REPORT. Ill CiTlKS AND Towns. •d a a 6 1^ II o •- E o < 1 i c- o .5 ^ Cities and Towns. ■3 6 < At Bristol — Con. Essex — Con. Berkley, . 30 $30 00 - Danvers, . 101 $100 00 - Dnrtmoiith, 136 13G GO 15 Essex, 31 31 00- 5 Dighton, . 4G 50 00 - Georgetown, 59 63 00 10 Easton, 93 101 00 2 Gloucester, 289 321 00 150 Fairhaven, . 84 96 00 * Groveland, 15 15 00 t Fall River, . 156 156 00 - Hamilton, . 31 35 00 2 Freetown, 11 11 00 100 Haverhill, . 178 202 00 100 Mansfield, . 91« 99 00 5 Ipswich, . 99 111 00 50 New Bedford, . 246 262 00 400 Lawrence, . 247 277 00 100 Xorton, 92 96 00 - Lynn, 280 300 00 § Pawtucket, - - - Lynnfield, 30 30 00 - Raynham, . 84 88 00 2 Manchester, 20 20 00 30 Rehoboth, . 113 117 00 10 Marblehead, 6 6 00 100 Seekonk, . 52 52 00 - Methuen, . 88 100 00 4 Somerset, . 7 7 00 70 Middleton, 44 44 00 - Swanzey, . 68 68 00 5 Nahant, . 2 2 00 15 Taunton, . 230 234 00 400 Newbury, . 21 21 00 25 "Westport, . 79 79 00 25 NewburjTJort, . N. Andover, 191 77 235 00 85 00 50 Totals, . 1,873 $1,937 00 1,049 10 Dukes Couxtv. Rockport, . 75 75 00 5 Chilmark, . * . 4 $4 00 15 Rowley, . 25 25 00 - Edgartown, 42 41 00 10 Salem, 75 150 00 100 Tisbury, . 7 7 00 75 Salisbury, . Saugus, 74 72 74 00 72 00 2 Totals, . 53 $52 00 100 3 Essex County. South Danvers, 127 131 00 - Amesburj', . 39 $39 00 10 Swampscott, 37 78 00 - Andover, . 116 116 00 t Topsfield, . 57 57 00 10 Beverly, 162 170 00 20 Wenham, . 40 40 00 2 Boxford, . 51 49 51 00 61 00 6 West Newbury, Totals, . 64 64 00 * Bradford, . 2,872 $3,201 00 799 * Very few. X Mo means of estimating, probably twenty. t " Perhaps half as many more." § Not estimated. 112 BOARD OP AGRICU^URE. Cities and TOWKS. ■6 a o "A Amount re- ceivtd. a! o Cities and Towns. •a 6 'A 2 5 > c '2 S o o _: 1 i Fkanklin Co. Hampden — Con. Ashfield, . 30 f30 00 - Briin field, . 58 $58 00 4 BemarcTston, 32 36 00 - Chester, . 39 39 00 20 Buckland, . 60 64 00 - Chicopee, . 85 89 00 75 Charlemont, - - - Granville, . 49 49 00 - Coleraine, . 57 57 00 30 Holland, . 15 15 00 - Couway, . 15 15 00 35 Holyoke, . 75 79 00 125 Deerfield, . 96 100 00 20 Longmeadow, . 43 43 00 20 Erving, 20 20 00 6 Ludlow, . • 35 35 00 30 Gill, . . • 7 7 00 15 Monson, . 33 33 00 100 Greenfield, . 83 83 00 50 Montgomery, . - - - Hawley, . 8 8 00 10 Palmer, 37 37 00 100 Heath, 6 6 00 50 Russell, 18 18 00 6 Leverett, . 40 40 00 5 Southwick, 43 47 00 35 Leyden, 16 16 00 12 Springfield, 490 741 00 t Monroe, 1 1 00 3 Tolland, . 36 40 00 6 Montague, . 61 61 00 - Wales, 1 1 00 12 New Salem, 29 37 00 - Westfield, . - - - Northfield, . - - - W. Springfield, 60 68 00 30 Orange 57 28 65 00 28 00 - Wilbraham, Totals, . 78 82 00 •2 Rowe, 1,295 $1,574 00 595 Shelburne, . 39 39 00 10 Hampshire Co. Shutesbury, - - - Amherst, . 102 $110 00 - Sunderland, 26 26 00 3 Belchertown, . 65 65 00 100 Warwick, . 34 34 00 * Chesterfield, - - 25 AVendell, . - - - Cummington, . - - 50 Whately, . 1 1 00 60 Easthampton, . Enfield, . 56 9 60 00 9 00 25 Totals, . 736 $774 00 309 91 Hampden Co. Goshen, . 2 2 00 t Agawam, . 34 $34 00 30 Granby, . 26 26 00 - Blandford, . 66 66 00 - Greenwich, - - 30 • Not one. t Very few. t One-tenth. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 11'} Cities and ri ClTIBS AND •d c Towns. d 'A 1 -s -<1 1 = "it 3 Towns. 6 'A s « < C3 u Hampsh. — Con. Mid'sex— Cow. Hadley, . 52 $52 00 - Dracut, 85 ■ $85 00 t Hatfield, . 2 2 00 25 Dunstable, 13 13 00 20 Huntington, 46 54 00 1 Framingham, . 218 264 00 10 Middlefield, o 2 00 30 Groton, 11 11 00 100 Northampton, . ' 36 40 00 300 Holliston, . 96 96 00 - Pelham, 21 21 00 12 Hopkinton. - - - Plainfield, . - - 30 Lexington, 3 3 00 140 Prescott, . - - 50 Lincoln, . 15 15 00 17 South Hadley, . 83 95 00 - Littleton, . 32 32 00. 2 Southampton. . 31 31 00 10 Lowell, 463 523 00 200 Ware, - - - Maiden, . 238 239 00 100 Westhampton, . 28 31 00 * Marlborough, . 171 191 00 50 Williamsburg, . 78 86 00 3 Medford, . 192 224 00 50 Worthington, 7 7 00 40 Melrose, . Natick, 113 136 125 00 144 00 \ Totals, . 646 $693 00 822 50 Middlesex Co. Newton, . . 13 13 00 300 Acton, 58 $58 00 - Reading, . 84 96 00 - Ashby, 1 1 00 200 North Reading, 53 53 00 - Ashland, . - - - Pepperell, . 3 3 00 120 Bedford, . 3 7 00 45 Sherbom, . 75 79 00 - Belmont, . 56 60 00 6 Shirley, . 6 6 00 30 Billerica, . 37 37 00 60 Somerville, - ~ Boxborough, - - 30 South Reading, 114 142 00 1 Brighton, . - - - Stoneham, 118 122 00 35 Burlington, 27 35 00 1 Stow, 55 63 00 3 Cambridge, 536 564 20 550 Sudbur)', . 65 69 00 10 Carlisle, 22 22 00 - Tewksbury, 33 33 00 15 Charlestown, 170 182 00 400 Townsend, 90 90 00 10 Chelmsford, 116 128 00 - Tyngsborough, . 37 41 00 5 Concord, . 56 56 00 - Waltham, . 241 265 00 X 15 t Not any. t Very few. 114 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Cities and Towns. 1 -6 3 o' 'A = > S o Cities and Towns. • d 5zi = > a o < 1 i 1' Mid' SEX — Con. Norfolk — Con. Watertown, 36 $36 00 50 Stoiighton, 185 $201 00 30 Wayland, . 58 58 00 - Walpole, . 9 9 00 100 W. Cambridge, . 147 155 00 1 West Roxbury, 319 307 00 25 Westford, . 89 89 00 - Weymouth, 209 292 00 50 Weston, 8 16 00 50 Wreutham, Totals, . 105 109 00 35 Wilmington, 2,570 $2,852 00 2,525 Winchester, 32 32 00 100 Plymouth Co. Woburn, . 183 203 00 50 Abington, . Bridgewater, 113 $125 00 - Totals, . 4,328 $4,777 20 2,811 * Nantucket Co. Carver, 36 40 00 6 Nantucket, 22 $22 00 50 Duxbury, . 65 69 00 - Norfolk Co. E. Bridgewater, 76 92 00 - Bellingham, - - - Halifax, . 13 13 00 1 Braintree, . 116 120 00 12 Hanover, . 12 12 00 60 Brookline, . 69 84 00 200 Hanson, . 28 28 00 2 Canton, 112. 121 00 * Hingham, . 139 139 00 10 Cohasset, . 67 67 00 15 Hull, 6 0 00 4 Dedham, . 20 20 00 200 Kingston, . 60 00 00 - Dorchester, 148 152 00 400 Lakeville, . 60 80 00 - Dover, 1 5 00 40 Marion, . 2 0 00 36 Foxborough, 104 120 00 - Marshfield, 33 33 00 23 Franklin, . 53 01 00 15 Mattapoisett, . 10 10 00 65 MedQeld, . 44 56 00 3 Middleborough, 129 129 00 7 Medway, . 118 118 00 - N. Bridgewater, 115 119 00 25 Milton, 89 105 00 50 Pembroke, 32 32 00 10 Needham, . 1!) 19 00 100 Plymouth, 180 184 00 - Quincy, 06 CO 00 500 Plympton, - - 25 Randolph, . 248 248 00 100 Rochester, - - - Roxbury, . 330 355 00 600 Scituatc, . 50 50 00 9 Sharon, 81 97 00 - South Scituatc, 56 00 00 -, " Unknown. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 115 Cities and TOWKS. •6 1 u 2 t i 3 > 1^ 1 1 Cities and Towns. ca ount re- 'ived. 1 ■s 6 6 Plym'th — Con. WoRCEST. — Con Wareham, . - - 300 Hubbardston, . 58 $62 00 14 W. Bridgewater, 45 $53 00 25 Lancaster, Leicester, . 41 41 00 25 Totals, . 1,272 $1,346 00 608 - Suffolk Co. Leominster, 85 85 00 - Boston,* . 904 $1,036 00 300 Lunenburg, 48 48 00 - Chelsea, . 123 131 00 120 Mendon, . - - - North Chelsea, . ~ - 60 Milford, . 21 25 00, 500 Winthrop, . 2 2 00 10 Millbur^', . New Braintree, . 34 38 00 - Totals, . 1,029 $1,169 00 490 8 Worcester Co. Northborough, . - - Ashburnham, 4 $44 00 t Northbridge, . 90 102 00 - Athol, - - - N. Brookfield, . 50 50 00 - Auburn, 47 47 00 - Oakham, . 23 23 00 18 Barre, 112 116 00 10 Oxford, . 106 118 00 1 Berlin, 35 39 00 1 Paxton, 16 18 40 10 Blackstone, 45 45 00 30 Petersham, 48 48 00 - Bolton, 74 74 00 6 Phillipston, 27 27 00 - Boylston, . 39 39 00 - Princeton, 40 46 00 - Brookfield, . 26 30 00 20 Royalston, 33 33 00 - Charlton, . 100 116 00 3 Eutland, . 2 2 00 50 Clinton, 92 100 00 - Shrewsbuiy, 69 81 00 2 Dana, - - - Southborough, . 67 67 00 - Douglas, . 97 105 00 10 Southbridge, . 77 85 00 . 15 Dudley, 65 65 00 - Spencer, . 81 81 00 - Fitchburg-. . 153 165 00 - Sterling, . 65 68 00 90 Gardner, . 3 3 00 95 Sturbridge, 60 70 00 8 Grafton, 92 96 00 4 Sutton, 84 96 00 - Ilardwick, . ,2 2 00 100 Templeton, 51 51 00 - Ilarv-ard, . 1 1 00 X Upton, - - - Holden, . 40 44 00 § Uxbridge, 24 24 00 - * Killed, 7£ 1. t Not any X "Good many." }T en or fifteen. 116 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Cities and Towns. •d a 5 o 'A Amount re- ceived. 1 i S S Cities and Towns. ■d s o 6 "A ■M 73 E S ted by the State Board of Af/riculture. Wheat, potatoes, su- gar beets, mangel wurzel, ruta-ba- gas, white beans. and pease, . 60 lbs. to the bushel. Corn, rj'c, 56 " " 11 Oats, 32 u 11 11 Barley, buckwheat, . 48 " 11 " Cracked corn, corn and rye and other meal, except oat, » and Eng. turnips, 50 11 " 11 Parsnips, . 45 " 11 K Carrots, . 55 " 11 11 Onions, . 52 It " l< This blank was adopted as one of tho requirements of the Board on the part of the agricultural societies. At this meeting a committee of three, consisting of Messrs. Loring, Stedman and Davis, was appointed to ascertain whether any uniform plan of improvement can be adopted by the agri- 118 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. cultural societies of the State, and to report the same if any ; also to consider whether any plan can be adopted to give additional efficiency, and to improve the organization of the State Board of Agriculture, and to rejjort the same, if any. At the annual meeting held at the State House in Boston, January loth, 14th, 15th, and 16th, this committee submitted the following REPORT: The committee to whom was referred the question of increasing the efficiency of the State Board of Agriculture, and of establishing softie uniform system for the management of agricultural societies in the State, would respectfully report: The Act establishing a State Board of Agriculture, provides, after setting forth how it shall be constituted, and when it shall hold its meetings, tliat : — " Section 4. They may appoint and prescribe the duties of a secretary of the board, who shall receive a salary of two thousand dollars a year ; and who at such times as the board approve may employ a clerk at a salary not exceeding six hundred dollars a yeax*. " Section 5. They shall investigate such subjects relating to improve- ment in agriculture in this State, as they think proper, and may take, hold in trust, and exercise control over, donations or bequests made to them, for promoting agricultural education, or the general interests of husbandry. " Section G. They may prescribe forms for and regulate the returns required of the different agricultural societies, and furnish to the secretary of each, such blanks as they deem necessary to secure uniform and reliable statistics." These three sections contain all the definition that can be found of the duties of the Board, and constitute the chief object wliich the Board has thus far had in view. We cannot refer to tlie history of the Board, without expressing our gratification at what has already been accom- plished. Its organization was the result of long and unwearied etlort on the part of many intelligent and influential citizens of the Commonwealth, all of whom had a personal interest in the cause of agriculture, and sonic of whom had contributed largely to the agricultural literature of the country. Not with any SECRETARY'S REPORT. 119 very definite idea of the duties which would devolve upon this body, nor of the work which it might accomplish, but with confidence that it would stimulate agricultural enterprise, and diffuse agricultural information, those who were interested in this branch of business urged the organization of tl)is Board. With the work already accomplished, they and the community liave every reason to be gratified. Tlie collection of a valuable library, the establishment of a highly interesting museum, the annual issue of a condensed and carefully arranged volume, filled with information useful to every section of the State, added to the encouragement which agricultural societies and other associations have received, constitute the benefit which has thus far accrued. And it should be remembered that all this has been done with much industry, and with more skill than usually attends a wholly experimental enterprise. The question now before us is, whether the operations of the Board can be extended, or modified, or re-arranged, in such a manner as to increase its usefulness and efficiency. If this is to be done at all, it may be done by connecting the Board more intimately with the various other organizations in the State, in such a manner as to give efficiency to its exertions for the improvement of agriculture, and for the general advancement of our people in knowledge and enterprise ; and not by an assumption of power over the agricultural societies in the State. In the matter of agricultural education, can the State Board of Agriculture co-operate with the Board of Education, in pre- senting such education to the minds of youth in our common schools, or in organizing an agricultural college ? In collecting facts of value to the farming community, can the various public institutions in the Commonweath, founded by the liberality of the legislature, and endowed with land from the same source, be called on to furnish information to the State Board of Agriculture, and to co'rtduct experiments under its direction ? Is there any method by which the Board of Agriculture can obtain an effectual hearing on questions brought before the legislature, relating to the various interests of farming, and to the organization of agricultural societies ? Whatever can be done to give the Board position and influence in this way would add very materially to its usefulness. 120 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. With regard to the internal organization of the Board, and its plan of operations, there is no doubt that some advantageous changes may be made. Hitherto the whole business of the Board has been thrown upon the secretary, in such a way as to encumber him, and leave the Board ignorant in many respects of the work in which it is engaged. From the tenor of the fifth section of the Act establishing the Board, it was evidently anticipated that property would pass into its hands either by donation, or bequest, or other- wise, to be used for tlie purposes of agricultural education, or the general interests of husbandry. Although no such state of things exists, still there are annual appropriations made for defraying the expenses of the Board, and to carry out such objects as they may recommend. It would seem proper there- fore that a finance committee should be appointed, under whose supervision the appropriations should be expended, and. who should recommend objects for which appropriations should be made ; and that this committee should, through the secretary, make an annual report to the Board. Tiie library and museum have become extensive and valuable ; and it would appear necessary that a committee should be aj)pointed to aid the secretary in making an annual report of their condition, and to establish a system of exchanges of reports and documents with other societies, for the benefit of the members of the Board and of the societies which they represent. A full report from the secretary with regard to the business of the department, would be very valuable, if made annually ; and we would recommend that this be required ; and that at the close of each session of tlie Board, the action and discussion of the meeting as reported by the secretary, be revised by a com- mittee for the purposes of publication, with the understanding that all reports and votes be published m full, with as much of the debate which led to their adoption as possible. The committee would recommend that the Board hold but one meeting annually, in Boston, commencing on Thursday of the week previous to the first Wednesday of February, and continuing to said Wednesday, at which time the new members take their seats, and tlic Board can be organized, committees ap])ointcd, reports finished, delegates appointed, and the business SECRETARY'S REPORT. 121 arranged for the new year. They would'recominend also tliat an annnal niectuig for discussion and lectures, wiiich lca(Jin's. In the flies we find the /lind-wing-s so diminished in size as to be scarcely visible, or at least mere shrunken appendages occupying the p/ace of wings, and bearing no resemblance to the anterior ones, so that the insect is commonly said to have but one pair, and from this feature the Order is known as DiPTERA, a name given it by Aristotle, from the Greek dis, meaning two, and ptera, wings. Butterflies and moths have their membranous wings in gen- eral completely covered with scales, so as to conceal the surface in which they are planted ; these scales are formed somewhat like those of the fishes, and are arranged in parallel rows, over- lapping each other so as to shed moisture, being attached by a ])rojection at their base, which enters the substance of the wing. From the Greek words Lepis, a scale, and ptera, wings, they are called Lepidoptera. Figure 1, represents some of the distinguishing char- acteristics of this order, which are given here only for ^ the purpose of comparison, as none of the species belonging to it are beneficial to agriculture, but quite the reverse. A, the knobbed antenna of a butterfly, of the form called cdjnlale ; B, the palpus, plural palpi, of which there are two, curving upward from beneath Mlt^X the head, and between which the tongue or sucker, C, \-t5^.^ is coiled when not in use ; C, the tongue or sucker par- ^- tially unrolled ; this form is peculiar to the Lepidoptera ; \W^ D, the compound eye, composed in all insects of numer- c\^^ ous small eyes ; E, a short piece cut from the tongue ^'s- ^• and magnified, to show that it is a double tube ; F, a part of the wing of a moth or butterfly, showing the scales, and mode of arrangement; the two scales at the upper right corner show the stalks or projections, which are inserted in corresponding sockets in the membrane ; these sockets are represented in the cut by the round dots ; G, is a common form of antSnna among 128 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. moths, called setiform or bristle-shaped, with fine cilia or hairs, two on each joint ; H, another form of antenna, called doubly pectinate, or furnished with teeth like those of a comb, on both sides. Figure 2, represents other forms of antenna, con- siderably magnified. A, lamellate, or composed of leaves, antenna of a beetle, Polijphylla variolofia ; B, three-jointed antenna, of which the third joint is reniform or kidney-shaped, and furnished with a bristle, antenna of fly, Sijrphus ; C, setiform or bristle-shaped, antenna of dragonfly, Libellula. Fig. 8. Figure 3, different forms of mdndibles, or outer jaws, and haustella, or suckers, magnified. A, mandible of Ciciadela purpurea, or purple tiger-beetle, Coleopterovs ; B, mandible of Phylloplera, or green grasshopper, Orihdpterous ; C, mandi- ble of Libellula trimaculdta, or three-spotted dragonfly, Neurdp- terovs ; D, mandible of Vespamaculdta, or paper-making wasp, "hornet," IIijmeHojderons ; E, i^os^/-w?» or jointed sucker of Clmex lectuldrivs, " bed-bug ;" F, Proboscis or sucker of a mosquito, Culex. The shoi't jointed instrument at the extreme right is the palpus, the next and longer ))iece the lower lip, in which the lancets are sheathed ; to the left of this are the four slender piercing instruments, the two middle ones being the finest, and appear in the cut as one piece split at the tip, the two outer ones are very finely serrate or barbed on one of their edges ; the piece on the left is the upper lip, which covers and protects the delicate piercing apparatus when sheathed. vA Figure 4, exhibits the leg of a ground-beetle of ^"^ ^ the genus Ildrpalus. A, the Coxa, or hip, which fits 'jo into a corresponding socket in the under part of the thorax; B, the troclidnlcr, or joint between the hip and the thigh ; C, \.\\q fdmur, or thigh, which is gcn- v\g. 4. crally the largest joint and extends beyond the sides of the body ; D, the tibia, or shank, which is frequently SECRETARY'S REPORT. 129 funiislicd with spines or spurs toward the tip, as shown at F ; E, the tarsus, or foot, which varies in the numbers of joints in different insects from two to five, and the last joint is furnished usually with two claws at its tip ; in some insects it has only one, however, and in a few others they appear to be wanting. [Note. — Miiny of the orjians of insects are so concealed within other jKirts as to be unnoticed by the general observer; of tliese an explanation will ))e given in cases where it becomes necessary to refer to them. The names of genera and species will also be defined where it is practicable, and the appro- priateness of these, in general, will be obvious ; it is however to be regretted, that some few names, either arbitrary or of obscure derivation, have been applied without sufficient pertinence to make them characteristic of the indi- viduals which they represent. Long association and usage, however, render it undesirable if not impossible, to change them, and we can only endeavor in the present to avoid the faults of our predecessors, and explain what we niiiy of the technicalities ; leaving the barbarous and crabbed nomenclature of the lathers of the science, as a partial excuse for students of later date who have so far exhausted their descriptive vocabularies, as to have recourse to naming objects of nature in honor of some more or less celebrated naturalist, patron, or friend.] GLOSSARY. Ahdomen. The hinder part of the body. Antenna, plural, Antenna}. (From the Latin, meaning the yards of a vessel.) "Horns," or jointed organs of insects, situated on the head. Aniirior. The front or foremost member, or part of any member. Posterior. The hinder part ; opposite of anterior. Anus. The vent, or fundament. Anal. Belonging to the anus. Apex. The point farthest from the body; the tip. Article. A joint; used generally of the antennce. Articulated. Composed of articles. Base. The point nearest to tlie body, or centre. Basal. Pertaining to the base. Breadth.* The greatest distance across the body from side to side. Cell, or Cellule. A portion of a wing, surrounded by nerves or veins. Cunjluenl. Running together; a meeting of two lines. Costa. A rib. Costal. Pertaining to the rib, or thickened anterior margin of the wing. Elytron, plural Elytra. The hard fore-wing, or wing-sheath of a beetle. Eyes. Organs of vision, composed of a vast number of simple lenses of a six-sided form, and situated on each side of the head. Feet'. Generally used in Entomology for legs, the feet proper being called tai-si. Fulvous. Tawny; reddish or brownish yellow. Fuscous. Dark brown, or blackish, sometimes tinged with gray. Jridesctnt. Reflecting the colors of the rainbow. Luhrum. The piece covering the mandibles; the upper lip. Lenticular. Of thickened, somewhat oval form ; bean-shaped. Lunule. A spot or marking resembling in form a crescent or new moon. Length.* (When not otherwise specilied.) The distance from the tip of the mandibles to the apex of the abdomen. Ocelli. Simple eyes, between the compound eyes, on the upper part of the head. • Measurements of insects are usually given in tenths or hundreiitbs of an iiicli. 17 130 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. ' Peduncle, pedicle, or pedicel. A stem or foot-stalk connecting two parts, or supporting a segment. Scutel. A small piece of somewhat triangular form, between the bases of the wings. Seyment. A joint or section; used generally with respect to the abdomen. Serrate. With projections like the teeth of a saw. Stigma. A mark, or spot; generally used for an almost universal mark on the fore- wing of some Orders. Sub. A prefix giving the meaning of "nearly but not quite;" as s«itriangular — almost triangular. Suture. A seam, or place of union between two parts, usually admitting of motion. T hoi-ax. The segment of the body to which the wings and feet are attached, consisting of three parts — the Prothorax, Mesothorax, and Metathorax, or front, middle, and hind thorax ; the latter in some Orders projects some distance beneath the abdomen. Te(]ida. A small scale covering the basal joint of fore-wing in the Order Hijinenopttra. Venter. The belly; the under part of the abdomen. Ventral. Pertaining to the venter. Vertex. The top, the upper part; used generally of the head. Villose. Thicklj- clothed with short hairs. Worm. Properly a ringed animal, without vertebrce and having no antenn(s, no voice, no legs, no true blood and no distinct head. Used in common language however, to denote the lame or young of some insects. Every insect is hatched from an egg, but when first produced is called a larva, plural, Idruce; (the caterpillar is the larva of a moth, or a buttcrflj, the grub is the larva of a beetle, the maggot is the Idrva of a fly.) This larva commences to eat voraciously, and increases rapidly in size, changing its skin or moulting at frequent intervals until a certain time, when it casts off not only the skin but also its former head and feet and is now called a papa, plural pajxc;* (the chrysalis is the pupa of a butterfly.) In this state it no longer eats, but remains almost motionless for a longer or shorter period, when it casts off the skin for the last time, and appears in its final and perfect form called the imdgo,\)\\\YQ]. imd<::ines ; (all winged or adult insects avQ imagines.^ It has now ceased growing, and its only object is to seek out its mate, and prepare for a succession of oflspring ; most insects live but a few days and others a few hours after arriving at this point, the majority requiring little or no food during this condition of existence.* The modern system of classification is based upon the anatomical structure of the imago, as well as the Jiature of * The exceptions to the foregoing rules are the Orders, Orthopiera, containing the crickets, locusts, grasshoppers, &c. ; Neurdptera, or the may-Hies, case-flies, devils' darning-needles, &c., and Ilcmiptera, comprising all bugs, plant-lice, and harvest-tlies or cicadas (vulgarly called seventeen year " locusts," &c.) Tlic insects pertaining to these Orders are equally active and voracious in all their stages, and the line of demarcation between these stages is exceedingly indistinct. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 131 the metamorphoses or changes through wliich it has j)asse(l. Under this system the simplest and most natural arrangement comprises seven Orders, which are popularly distinguished as : 1st. Beetles ; 2d. Cockroaches, crickets, grassho])pcrs, ws or mandibles for cutting and masticating coar;^e substances. The other three are called Haustellula or sucking-insects because they are furnished with a hollow or tubular proboscis or sucking apparatus in place of jaws. In almost all works on this subject tlie beetles have been placed at the head of the list and we shall follow this system for convenience, although the discoveries of some modern students seem to point out other Orders as more highly organized, and accordingly better fitted to rank as the first. These theories of naturalists, however, are not of material importance to a paper of this kind where we propose to deal only with established facts. The Coleuplera, or Order of Beetles is so called from the Greek work ko/eoj4eros, signifying a sheathed wing, which was applied to these msects on account of their having a pair of soft membranous wings folding under a hard cover. This cover, with but few unimportant exceptions, is in two parts ; hinged at their bases to the thorax of the insect and meeting in a straight line down the back. These covers are called the e//jtra and are frequently marked with impressed lines, or punctured, or in some cases covered with fine hairs or scales of various colors in irregular patterns, those on one wing-cover being exactly copied but in a reverse position upon the other so as to produce a symmetrical figure, when the wings are folded and the elytra closed. The first insects we meet with in this Order belong to the family Ciciiidelklcc, so called from the Latin cicinde/a, signifying a glow-worm, or shining insect. Tliis name was applied to them on account of their brilliant colors and polished metallic lubtre reflecting the sun's rays, they are sometimes called " sparklers " from the same circumstance, but more commonly 132 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. . " tiger-beetles " from their habit of leaping on their prey. The favorite haunts of this group are sandy roads, and spots almost bare of vegetation, where they can detect and seize other insects without obstruction to their agile movements. In the sunny days of spring and summer they may be seen in such localities starting from under the feet of the traveller with a swift and noiseless flight only to alight a few feet ahead, facing about to meet the threatened danger as they touch the ground. This operation is often repeated several times before tliey will take refuge in the grass or other herbage at the sides of the road ; in cloudy or stormy weather they are seldom or never seen, but an hour's sunshine will generally attract them in numbers from their hiding-places. Their eggs are deposited in the earth and the larvas, which are hatched from them are not a little singular both in form and habits. Figure 5 exhibits the larva or grub of a tiger-beetle. They live in cylindrical holes, Fi^. 5. which they burrow into the earth in a nearly perpen- dicular direction several inches in depth ; stationing themselves at the mouths of these excavations, which are completely filled by their large and horny heads, they remain until some luckless insect approaches when they suddenly seize and convey it to the bottom to devour at leisure ; > an extraordinary appendage, consisting of two recurved hooks is found on the eighth segment of the larva, which serves as a hold or anchor to prevent their being dragged from the mouth of the cave by the attempts of the victim to escape. These holes, no larger round than a small lead-pencil, may frequently be observed in situations which preclude the idea of their being the work of earth-worms, and having no rubbish or pile of gravel about the opening would not be mistaken for the entrance of an ant hill. If a stalk of grass, or slender, straight twig be thrust down to a suflicient depth the ferocious inhabitant will often seize it with so lirm a grip as to be di'awn out upon the surface by means of it rather than to let go his hold. On examination ho will {Hovc to be, in common parlance, a yellowish, white worm, with six legs, and a horny, brownis^h head, with sharp jaws. In this condition it exists during the summer, and it is supposed passes through its transformation in the ground during the winter and appears in the beetle-form the following spring, SECRETARY'S REPORT. 113 I'ig. 6. when tlicy may be seen, even before the snow has entirely disappeared, running and Hying with astonishing activity ; they generally prefer, however, the middle of the day, and the warmest places. Ciciiidcia ii^enerosa of Dcjean, or the generosa tiger-beetle, (figure 6,) so called, from its size and beauty (the Latin generosa signifying noble, or of the first class,) is the largest of this group found in Massachusetts. The head is of a cop- pery tint in front and above with a few blue or green shining spots, and a bunch of short wliite' hairs, thinly set and spreading to each side, between the eyes ; behind and below the eyes blue ; ' the lahrum or upper lip is whitish with tbree black teeth on the front margin ; the mandibles or jaws black at the tips and white at the base ; the antennce are dull blackish, except the four basal joints which are green or shining greenish blue ; the thorax coppery, with two transverse, impressed lines of a greenish color, the portion between these lines elevated, and almost divided longitudinally into two lobes ; both he^d and thorax beneath, violet blended with coppery and covered with short whitish hairs ; abdomen green and hairy ; elytra dark purple, almost black, a fine line of the same color margining them and becoming green at the tips ; three whitish lunules on each elytron, as seen in the engraving ; feet dark green, coppery above, and somewhat hairy. Length rather below .70 ; breadth, .20 to .25. It may readily be distinguished from any other Massachusetts species, by its superior size and the greater breadth of its markings. Cicindela vulgdris of Say, or the " common tiger-beetle " (figure 7,) may be found in almost every part of the State ; it is somewhat smaller •> than the preceding, measuring from .52 to .60 in length, and from .20 to .25 in breadth. The colors aliove are similar to but much duller than those of the preceding, the lunules are more slender, and angular and do not spread into a broad, white margin at the sid<3s like those of the " generosa ^'s- 7. tiger-beetle." Beneath, the body is not so hairy, and the prevailing coppery. color more of a metallic blue, mingled with 134 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Cicindela purpurea of Olivier, or the " purple tiger-beetle," (figure 8,) is often found in company with the foregoing, and is one of the most beauti" fill of our specie^, the play of its glancing colors when in life and motion cannot fail to be admired by the most prejudiced. The head and thorax are coppery, two streaks between the eyes, and the Fig. 8. two impressed lines of the thorax green ; elytra generally of a bright copper color, sometimes, however, clouded with green, a whitish, irregular, abbreviated band behind the middle, and the terminal lunule usually broken so that a small, round dot, and the tip alone remain ; feet reddish coppery, and with the green body beneath somewhat hairy. Length a little more than .50 ; breadth al)out .23. Cicindela Itirticdl/is of Say, or " hairy necked tiger-beetle " (figure 9.) has but one black tooth on the white labrnm, but to the superficial observer would appear like a small specimen of the g-enerosa, the colors of the head and thorax are brighter than in that species, and thorax as the name implies is thickly clothed with whitish hairs on the sides ; the white mai-gin is not continuous, the external points of the middle lunule being separated from those of the others by the ground color of the elytra ; it is also much smaller, measuring from .43 to .50 in length and about .22 in breadth. Cicindela hemorrhoidalis of Hentz, or " red-tailed tiger- beetle" is found only in the vicinity of the Blue Hills in Milton and the neighboring towns, and is readily distinguishable from our other Massachusetts species by its red abdomen, which when flying " appears like a drop of blood suspended to its tail," (Dr. A. A. Gould.) ]t measures about .45 in length and from .18 to .20 in breadth. Cicindela sexgutldta of Fabricius, or " six-spotted tiger-beetle," (figure 10,) is of a bright green, occa- sionally changing to blue after death ; it is marked on each clijtron with a small white spot about the middle of the margin, a smaller one behind this, and the tip white. This species measures from .45 to .50 in length, and rather less than .22 in breadth. I have found it more conunon in lonely paths Fig. 9. Fig. 10. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 135 through woods, and upon Uirge flat rocks, shaded by thick foliage, where its beautiful green color attracts immediate attention. Cicind6la punctuldta of Olivier, or the " dotted tiger-beetle," (figure 11,) is the smallest species found in this State. It is of a dark bronze, or even black color, and tlie usual lunules of this genus are contracted, and often broken into mere specks of white ; the tips are more distinctly margined with a very narrow white line, with a cluster of small blue '^'g- 1^ or green punctures on the base of the elytra; inside of this an irregular row of similar punctures on each side of and almost parallel with the suture. It measures about .43 in length, and but little over .16 in breadth. It is a very common species on sandy roads, and is even found in the streets of cities. Cicindela dorsdlis of Say, or " white-backed tiger-beetle," and Cicindela le-pida of Dejean, or the "elegant tiger-beetle," are only found near the coast on the whito sand-beach ; the prevailing color of their elytra being white, enables them more easily to escape detection. The only place in this State where they have been found, to my knowledge, is the island of Martha's Vineyard. Cicindela margindta of Fabricius, or the " margined tiger- beetle," is of an olive color with green reflection, and with a broad whitish margin sending lunules and flecks of white toward the suture. The tips of the elytra in the female, instead of being rounded like those of other species, are bent backward and downwards, giving to the extremity something like the outline of the letter W. It is found on the salt- marshes along the eastern coast. Length about .60, breadth less than .25. One or two other species are occasionally found in this State, belonging to this interesting and useful genus, but would hardly be distinguished by the casual observer from some of the above-described.* The large family called Cardbida' — from cdrabus, a lobster — is commonly known by the name of " ground beetles," and consists almost entirely of insectivorous species, none of the * Full descriptions, with illustrations of this genus, may be found in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society for 1857, Vol. XI., con- taining all the known species of North America, by Dr. John L. Leconte. 136 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. family in this country liaving been found injurious to agricul- ture, although in Europe one or two species are accused of so far deviating from the usual course as to cause some damage in cornfields by devouring the grain.* Among the first of our ground beetles in tlie natural classification stands the Casndnia pensylvdnica of Dejean, or " Pennsylvanian I Casnonia," (figure 12, magnified,) a slender insect, ^ with a black polished head, broadest between the eyes, and' tapering behind to a very narrow neck, thorax as long as or longer than the head, narrowest before. Fig. 12. rounded and polished black like the head, abdomen black beneath, feet and four basal joints of the antennae yellow- ish, remainder of the antennre dusky ; elytra reddish, longitu- dinally punctured in rows, a black band across the middle, sometimes broken into three spots, and the tips black. Length about .25, breadth about .06. Galerita janus of Pabricius, or the " Janus ground-beetle," was named for Janus, an ancient Roman deity ; galerita signi- fies adorned with a head-dress of red leather in the form of a helmet. It is of somewhat similar form to the following, although much larger, measuring .70 in length, and .23 in breadth. The head is black, with a longitudinal red stripe beneath ; antennce reddish, except the second, third and fourth joints, whicli are fuscous ; thorax and feet reddish ; abdompn fuscous beneath ; elytra dark blue, or purple, longitudinally furrowed. BracMnns fumans of Linnaeus, or the " smoking bombardier," (figure 13,) is one of a large genus having the remarkable property when attacked of ejecting from the anus a small amount of liquid, or vapor, accompanied by a slight report and a peculiar Fig. 13. qJqj. . ^iijg giii)gtance discolors the fingers while hold- ing the insect, and resembles niti-ic acid in its effects. This operation may be repeated as many as twenty times before the stock of ammunition appears to be exhausted, and is supj>oscd to be intended as a defence against more powerful beetles. This peculiarity ac(iuircd for this genus the common name of * Sec Kolliir's Troati.sc on In.sect.s Injurious to Gardeners, &c., page 87, and Curti.s'fi "Farm In.seet.s," jjages I'll.' — L'lt. SECRETARY.'S REPORT. 137 " bombardier beetles," and the technical one of BrachinuSy from the Greek Bracho, meaning to rattle or make a noise. The species figured is of a reddish yellow color, on the head, thorax and feet ; the eyes black ; antennae dusky ; abdomen darker beneath, clothed with short yellow pile ; and elytra dull blue. It measures about .40 in length, and not far from .16 in breadth. Like both the preceding species, it is found under stones and boards, in the spring, searching for other insects upon which it preys. Cymindis pilosa of Say, or pilose ground-beetle, (^Cymin- dis signifies a night-hawk,) with others of the same genus, may be found under the loose bark of trees, and in damp situations, preying upon the small herbivorous insects that frequent such places. The pilose or hairy Cymindis is about .40 in length, and .13 in breadth, the neck or thorax shaped much like those of the " bombardiers," flattened above, and in the outline like the letter U, dilated at its anterior corners ; the color is dark brown, with a short thick pile, which gives it a glistening or velvety appearance. It is common throughout North America. The different species of Lebia, which may be compared in appearance to a flattened and burnished Brachinus or " bom- bardier," are active in their habits, climbers, being often found on flowers some feet from the ground, and in general of a burnished metallic lustre. Lebia grandis of Hentz, or the large Lebia, is about .40 in length, and .18 in breadth, and is the largest species found in this country. It is of a reddish yellow throughout, with the exception of the elytra, which are a dark steel blue, and the abdomen, which is dark brown. In most of this genus, as in Cymindis, the abdomen projects slightly beyond the tips of the elytra, which are very squarely cut. We have in this State some eight or ten species of this genus, some of which are very beautifully marked with stripes, or spots upon the elytra ; they are all of service to the agriculturist, feeding upon the smaller caterpillars. Aphides, (fee, which frequent various plants. Their larvse are supposed to live in the earth and to prey upon injurious insects. Calleida punctdta of Leconte, or the punctured Calleida, (the latter name signifying beautiful form,) is found less commonly in this State. It is of a more slender shape than 18 138 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. the LebUc, the head and abdomen greenish black ; feet, thorax, and four basal joints of the antennas honey yellow ; the rest of the antennas, with the tarsi and knees, black ; and tlie elytra of a brilliant green. It is about .30 in length, and .09 in breadth. Scarites subterrdneus of Fabricius, or the subterranean Scarites, (the latter name was used by the Greeks to denote a precious stone known only to the ancients,) is readily distin- guished by its peculiar form, the thorax being connected to the abdomen by a long cylindrical joint. It is of a deep black, with the exception of the tarsi and antennse these are brown, and somewhat hairy ; the fore-feet are stout and strongly toothed, fitting the insect for its mode of life, as it derives its name from its hahit of burrowing in the earth to feed upon other insects ; the head is quite large, the mandibles deeply carved ; the front is marked with two large indentations, and the thorax is rounded at the hinder angles and acutely pointed at the anterior, with an impressed line around the marghi, and a longitudinal one in the middle. Length from tip of mandi- bles .75, breadth about .22. Pasimachus depressus of Fabricius, a much larger insect of somewhat similar appearance, is more rarely found here, but is quite common in the middle and southern States ; its habits are much the same as those of the preceding. The genus Clivina of Latreille is well represented in this State by various species, none of them measuring over half an inch in length, and the majority of them much less ; they are of a plain brown or polished black, and may be known by their resemblance to the subterranean Scarites in the form of the thorax and abdomen, which are more distant than in the following. Scaphinolus elevutus of Fabricius is so named from two Greek words signifying boat-backed, in allusion to its outline ; elevdtus meaning raised, is applicable to the swelling of the back along the suture, or to the elevated margins of the thorax and elytra. It is occasionally seen in the vicinity of woods, its bright purple elytra readily catching the eye ; it has a long, narrow, black licad, with prominent eyes ; a black thorax, with tj^e lateral margins curving upward, so as to give it a very concave appearance, and the hinder corners deeply overlapping the elytra ; the latter are turned up at the anterior margins, SECRETARY'S REPORT. 189 Fig. 14. and black except on the swelliiij^, upper surface, where they are of a reddish purple, with longitudinal impressed lines. It measures about .80 in length and .35 in breadth. Cdrabus serrdtus of Say, or the serrated ground beetle, (figure 14,) is of a polished black color, with violet margins, and three lon- gitudinal rows of embossed oval tubercles on each elytron. The head and jaws are not so much elongated as in the preceding, but the eyes are equally prominent ; the elytra are turned up at their margins, the inner side of which are of a violet blue. It is a very common insect in Massachusetts, and measures .75 in length by .35 in breadth. The greatest enemy of the canker-worm, in some parts of the State, is a beautiful, green, shining beetle, called by Fabricius, Calosdnia scrutdtor, or the searcher ; it has received in some places the name of " caterpillar-hunter." Calosdma from the Greek signifies handsome body. Figure 15, (^Hurr.*^ represents this species ; the head and thorax are dark blue, almost black ; the former with two longi- tudinal streaks between the eyes, of a brassy green color, and the latter broadly margined with the same ; the elytra are bright green, finely lined and punctured, and with a broad, coppery margin ; beneath, bright green, varied .vit coppery ; feet blackish, except th e femora, which are of a steel-blue color, inclining to purple. It measures in length from 1, to 1.15, and about .55 in breadth. Fig. 15 * This cut, and others which follow, marked " Ifarr," were kindly loaned hy the editor of the new illustrated edition of Dr. T. W. Harris's •' Treatise on some of the Insects Injurious to Vegetation," published by Crosby & Nichols, 117 Washington Street, Boston. This work is of great value to the farmer, being the only one yet published in this country which treats of our native noxious species, iu such a lucid style as to bring the subject witliin the coraprelieusion of every one. 140 BOARD OF A(5RICULTURE. Calosdma cdliduni, tlie hot, or glowing calos6ma, (figure 16,) was so named by Fabricius, probably on account of the appear- ance of tlie elytra which seem like the per- forated cover of a glowing furnace, being punctured with six longitudinal rows of sunken metallic spots of a brilliant red. This insect is much more common in the eastern part of Massachusetts than the last described, and is '^' of a smooth shining black, with a large head and powerful jaws ; a short and broad thorax somewhat turned up at the margin ; and elytra finely lined, and punctured as described above. It measures over .90 in length, and .45 in breadth. The genera Eldphrus of Fabricius, meaning light or nimble, and Nuliopliihis* 0^ Dumeril, meaning moisture-loving, are of much smaller size than the last group, averaging from .20 to .35 in length. The first is represented in this State by one not uncommon species, the Eidphrus ruscdrius of Say, a name taken from the Ruscus aculeatus of Linnasus, or " butcher's broom." Tbis insect is of a dark brownish green, a little bronzed, about twenty large, round, impressed purple spots on each elytron, and tliree raised tubercles of a squarer form on each side of the sutui'C ; the eyes are quite prominent and the appearance of the insect is much like that of a small and thick tiger-beetle, but the elytra are much broader at their base than the thorax. It measures over .3 in length, according to Say, a specimen in the State Cabinet, however, is scarcely .26 in length, and .12 in breadth. Tlie Notiuphili are smaller and more slender than the Elap/iri, and of a polished brown or black with bronze lustre. They, like the preceding, are found on the muddy banks of streams, and other damp localities, and are exceedingly active in their motions. Clihrnius of Bonelli, ( Cldaina in Greek signifies a woollen cloak,) is represented here by seven or eight species, of which ChUrnius ser'iceus of Forster, or the " silky ground-beetle " is the handsomest and most common. The head and body beneath are black, the feet and antenna) light brown or yellowish ; the head and thorax, above, shining green with very fine ))uncturcs, the latter has a short longitudinal impressed SECRETARY'S REPORT. • 141 line ill the middle, and a deep indentation on each side, next to the elytra ; these are green covered with a cloak of short yellow hairs, visible under a magnifier, which give the insect a silky lustre and its name. It measures from .55 to .70 in length, and about .25 in breadth. The genus Diccclus of Bonelli, from dis and coilos meaning two hollows, is readily distinguished from most others by its peculiar form and markings. The head is large with two deep hollows or indentations on the front, the thorax as broad as the elytra, broadly turned up on its lateral margins, and deeply lined and indented, the elytra deeply furrowed, and somewhat turned up at the outer corners in front. Our more common species are polished black, but some southern and western ones have a beautiful lustre of purple or violet. Cdlathus of Bonelli, (meaning in the Greek a wicker-basket,) and its allied genera are among the most common and useful ground-beetles through- out the country. The genus Anchdmenus of Bonelli contains several species of which A. extensicoUis of Say, is perhaps the most common here ; the legs are yellow, the head or thorax green, and the elytra bronzed green or slightly purple. It measures about .4 and resembles closely in form Ag-onum ciipri- penne of Say, or the " copper-winged Agonum," (figure 17, a, shows the natural size,) a slightly broader insect of most brilliant colors, the head and thorax polished green, elytra purplish red with green margin, and black legs. vW/ J This species is very common under stones, especially ,^^^:^ J in the western part of the State. There are other species of this genus found here, but none so brilliant in their colors and markings. By far the greater number of the ground-beetles of small ^'^' ^^' size that are observed, however, on turning over a stone or log in any part of the country, belong to the genus Pterostichiis of Bonelli, These swift, shining black, " hard-shelled " beetles, some of them with brilliant metallic reflections, are almost universal, and exceed in the number of species any other group in this country. They are so similar in general appearance that the superficial observer would hardly be able to identify the species. Amdra of Bonelli (a drain or stream, Greek,) comprises those smaller species of a dark ceneous or bronze color, of a 142 :. BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. more regular elliptical outline from head to tip, and are numer- ous in the same localities as the preceding. They are of insectivorous habits, so far as observed in this country, and probably throughout the world, although in Europe some species are said to have been found attacking grain. However this may be, the slight damage they can possibly do by destroying a few kernels of grain, is hardly appreciable in view of the numerous larvae of other insects which they devour. Two species of the genus Agonoderus of Dejean are found com- monly in Massachusetts. These are A. pallipes, Fabricius, and A. lineola of the same author. The former is, on the upper surface, of a light brown throughout, with black head and two long black stripes on the elytra ; the abdomen below is black, but the legs and antennae are yellow or light brown. It measures about a quarter of an inch in length, and is found in similar localities and living on the same kind of food as the preceding. Pang-us caliginosus of Fabricius, the foggy or smoky Pangus, (figure 18,) is the only species of this genus that I have found in Massachusetts, and is extremely common especially in ploughed ground where it is continually devouring the various cut-worms and soft-bodied, naked caterpillars that feed on the roots of grain crops ; it is one of the largest of our useful ground-beetles and is of a polished or smoky black, with the exception of the tarsi, antennae and palpi which are of a light brown or ^''''■^^" reddish hue. It measures very nearly an inch in length. The thorax fits very squarely the front of the elytra and is much rounded and bulging across the middle, the elytra deeply cut in longitudinal parallel lines, of which the one nearest the suture or seam, on each side, forks into two short branches as it approaches tlie thorax. The legs are black and strong, the anterior pair being the shortest. The genus Harpalns of Latreille comprises a large number of species common in the New England States, which may be easily distinguished by the common eye from their close rcsemldance to the preceding genus, being apparently built on the same model but reduced in size. They are all extremely voracious and dispose of a great number of noxious insects in a season. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 143 The genera Treclins of Clairville, Bembidiuni of Illijj:cr, and Ochlhedromus of Leconte, are coniiuonly represented here by quite small species, many of them marked with light or metallic spots ; some of them feed upon dead animal matter as well as upon other insects, and although scarcely averaging .1 in length, have been known to attack and destroy an insect of five or six times their bulk. In the natural classification of insects, so far as modern investigations have been able to prove, we next come to a large group living almost entirely in or upon the water, some pre- ferring the muddy bottoms of half stagnant ponds, others the surface of clear, running streams. This group is divided into two families, the Dytiscidcc, and the Gyrinidce of Linna3us. The former, derived from the Greek dytes, signifying a diver, and the latter from g'ljros, signifying a circle, in allusion to the peculiar habits of this family in gliding round and round on the surface. They are all insectivorous, both in the larva and imago state, but as they feed chiefly on the insects inhabiting the water which are either similar in their food and habits to their destroyers, or devour only water plants of no value to the agriculturist, they can hardly be considered as among the most serviceable of the insect tribes. They frequently seize, however, on noxious insects which fall into the water by accident, and would otherwise escape. The Gi/rinidce, com- monly called " whirligig-beetles," are seen during the summer months circling round, and darting swiftly in various directions on the surface of almost every pool or rivulet. They are all of a broad, oval form, generally of a polished black, with broad, oar-like hind tarsi and long slender fore-feet, used in seizing their prey, and have a singular smell, somewhat like that of over-ripe apples when taken in the fingers, which proceeds from a milky fluid secreted by them. They are of various sizes, measuring from less than .2 of an inch to considerably over lialf an inch in length. They occasionally migrate from one pool to another, generally flying during the night, when they may often be attracted by a light ; they are frequently picked from the glass tops of green-houses or hot beds, on which, mistaking the surface for water, they have dropped with such force as to stun or kill them. Figure 19 represents one of our commonest 144 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. species, the Gyrinus boredlis of Aub^, or northern whirligig-beetle. Several large groups of beetles, such as the Silphithc of Linngeus, from silpha, signi- fying a stinking insect, and the NitiduUdce of Fabri- cius, feed entirely upon carrion or decaying substances fig. 19. of various kinds, and fungi, and can only be con- sidered beneficial by removing these fruitful sources of disease from the earth. The succeeding families of the coleoptera may be ranked as either neutral as regards agriculture, or extremely noxious and destructive. Among these are the " borers," and the curculio families or weevils, — the May and rose-beetles, — the " wire worms " or larva3 of the snapping beetles. These groups are very large, and exercise a great influence on the vegetable productions of the earth. The Lampyrida of Lin- naeus, from the Greek lampyris^ signifying a glow-worm, contains the " fire-flies " and other beetles with soft elytra, many of which feed upon slugs and snails, and others upon various insects. The Malachiidcc of Fabricius, from the Greek mdlacos, signifying soft and appropriate to the texture of the bodies and elytra of this family, and the Cleridcc of Geoffroy, (from cleros, an insect found in bee-hives,) are also beneficial to the farmer l)y devouring other insects. The ChrysomelidcB of Linnaius, (from a Greek word meaning golden apple, which was suggested by the plump, rounded forms, and brilliant metallic colors of some of the s{)ecies,) on the other hand, are vegetable eaters, and from their number and great fecundity are among the most destructive to cultivated plants ; among these we find the potato-beetle, Lema trilinedta of Olivier ; the striped cucumber beetle, Diabr6tica vitldta of Fabricius; and the various "flea- beetles," the most prominent of which are accurately figured and described in the new illustrated edition of Dr. Harris's work. The Coccinellidre of Linnaius, (from coccns, scarlet, in allu- sion to the prevailijig color of the elytra,) are sometimes called " lady-birds " or " lady-cows," and are well known to horticul- turists as the destroyers of the Aphis or plant-louse, which composes their chief food, especially during the larva state. Cuccifirlla novemnotdla of Ilerbst, the nine-spotted lady- bird, is one of our commonest species, and has proved itself one of the most useful, during the recent raid of the grain- SECRETARY'S REPORT. 145 aphis. Figure 20, (^Ilarr.') represents the larva some- what magnified ; the pcrpendicuhir line at its right exhibits the natural length ; it is of a bluish black, spotted with orange ; after arriving at its full size in this stage it glues its anal apex to the under-side of a leaf or other suitable object, and with its head hang- Fig. 20. ing downward, shakes off its skin and appears as represented in the upper part of figure 21, Ilarr., the pupa suspended from a leaf; in the course of a few days the pupa-skia splits open and the imago, shown in the lower part of the same figure, escapes. This, like the majority of the family to which it belongs, is of hemispherical or half-globe shape, about the size of half a pea ; its head is whitish above, thorax white before, with a black band across it behind, ^'^' ^^' sometimes sending from its middle two black tooth-like spots, toward the head ; the elytra are dull orange, with a narrow dark suture halving a rhomboidal or diamond-shaped black spot just behind the thorax; on each elytron four black spots, the two nearest the anterior margin being the smallest, and the one nearest the apex usually the largest ; feet and body beneath black, except two or three small whitish spots on each side of the thorax. It measures .25 or less in length, and about .20 in breadth. Coccinella irifascidta of Linnaeus, or three-banded lady- bird, (figure 22,) is marked upon the thorax much like the last, but the head is black with two white spots on 3^v^ the vertex ; in many specimens these white spots unite /^^ in one, and form a transverse band between the eyes; Fig.22. the elytra are rather lighter in color than in the nine-spotted lady-bird, and each crossed by three black bands ; the ones immediately behind the thorax meet at the suture, the others are shorter, but none of them reach the outer edge of the elytron ; the body beneath is black, with one or two small white spots on each side of the thorax ; the feet also black, and the length is scarcely .20, breadth .15. Coccinella bipunctdta of Linnasus, or two-spotted lady-bird, is very numerous in the city of Boston and vicinity, where the shade trees furnish a large supply of its favorite food, the plant-lice. Its head is whitish, eyes black, and between them a 19 146 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. black mark of an hour-glass shape, or contracted in the middle, reaching from the front to the thorax, which is whitish with a black mark occupying the middle, in the shape of a reversed W ; the elytra are red, each with a rounded black spot in the centre ; the feet and body beneath black. It varies considera- bly in size, one specimen in the .State Cabinet measuring .22 in length and .15 in breadth, and another only .15 in length, by .11 in breadth. These insects bend their feet and head beneath the body when wounded, although they will generally allow themselves to be taken in the hand without exhibiting alarm, and will even seize and devour an Aphis, if offered to them ; many of them secrete a yellowish gummy fluid, resem- bling somewhat in taste and smell the juice of the Chelidonium majiis or celandine, and were formerly prescribed by the igno- rant as a cure for toothache. We have in this State twenty or more species of this interest- ing and useful family, only one of which, the Epilachna bore- dlis of Thunberg, or northern lady-bird, (figure 23,) is accused of being injurious to agriculture. The larvae arc sometimes found on the leaves of the pump- Fig. 23. j,jj^ gjj(j squash, and are supposed to feed upon the soft internal substance called the parenchyma. I am informed by a gentleman of considerable eminence in the study of Ento- mology, that he took numbers of the imagines from the interior of a partially decayed squash, where they were apparently feeding upon the pulp. They are not sufficiently abundant, however, to create apprehension, the only locality in this State where they have been noticed, so far as I am aware, being tlie town of Barnstable and vicinity. Tlie insect is horn-colored above, Avith four small black spots on the thorax, and seven nuicli larger ones on each elytron, the first six arranged in two rows across, and the seventh larger and more rounded than the others ; the body beneath is of sim- ilar color to the upper surface, with a few faint sutural black bands on the venter, and a largo spot on each side of the thorax between the second and third pair of feet. It measures over .80 in length, ami nearly .25 in breadth. The Canl/i((rid(/\, from cant/iaris,a. beetle hurtful to grain, or as they are now called, Mcl6id(e^ from the typical genus 3Ie/oe, of Jjiinuvus, are celebrated for their blistering properties and SECRETARY'S REPORT. 147 other uses in medicine, but all belong to the class of vegetable- feeders, two or three species in this State attacking the potato vines and other plants, and often doing considerable damage ; these are possessed of the same qualities, in a greater or less degree, and may be collected and made as serviceable, as tiie imported blistering-beetle, or " Spanish fly." Most of the remaining families of Coleoptera are either inju- rious to vegetation, or neutral as regards agriculture, some feeding exclusively on fungous plants or decaying wood, and others upon putrifying animal matter, like many of the short- winged Sfnp/ii/linidw, or rove-beetles ; some of these, however, have been known to attack and destroy other insects, and should be in general regarded as belonging to the beneficial class, as they aid in removing offensive substances from the surface of the earth, and in assimilating them with the soil, ■which tends to enrich and fertilize it. These species may be recognized by their short elytra, which usually do not cover half the abdomen, and their strong, sharp mandibles, as well as by the active motions and the hal)it of curving the abdomen upward and forward toward the head ; from this peculiarity they are in some parts called " devil's coach-horses," and " cock-tails." The second Order of the modern system of classification, Orthoptera, or insects with straight, nearly parallel wing covers, legs fitted, for the most part, for leaping, and comprising the true locusts, grasshoppers, crickets, tfcc., are represented in New England only by those species injurious to vegetation or other property of the agriculturist and will not require extended mention in this place. The third Order, Neuroptera, or nerve-winged insects, consists almost entirely of insectivorous species and is specially to be regarded as friendly to the farmer. The " dragonflies " or " devil's-needles " are to be seen during the whole summer, swiftly darting and circling through the air, seizing and devouring the moths and butterflies that cross their patli. In passing a pool or brook the sharp rattle of their thin, crisp wings strikes the ear and calls the attention to the sportive flight of these terrible destroyers. Moths and butterflies laden with eggs, that venture from the security of the foliage to wing their sluggish flight to some appropriate place to deposit their burden, 148 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. are quickly snapped up by the -watcliful dragonfly, who tears off the lean and useless wings, and makes a rich repast on the plump body of his victim. It would be perhaps considered unnecessary to advert here to the childish tradition of the terrific effects of the dragonfly on the human system, namely: its alleged powers of sewing up the eyes, and of stinging men and animals, were it not that an immense amount of ignorance yet exists concerning some of the most common objects of nature. With regard to the useful and graceful creatures of this group we should rather consider them as benefactors, knowing that they arc incapable of injuring ourselves or our domestic animals, and that the powerful mandibles, and sharp claws with which they are armed, are only terrible to our enemies, the moths and butterflies. These, we have been taught in our early years to admire and protect : strong admonitions to abstain from injuring or destroying the " beautiful butterfly " are impressed on the minds of children ; but science has proved that the beautiful butterfly is the parent of the noxious and repulsive " worm " or caterpillar, and capable of producing some thousands of these at a birth. It may be here stated as a well ascertained and authenticated fact that there is not one of our native moths or butterflies but what is more or less injurious to the agriculturist. The thousands of species known to science subsist on vegetable food with scarce a dozen exceptions, and these destroy furs, woollen clothing and other household property, consume the wax in our bee-hives, or the grease and lard of the kitchen ; the si/k-irorm moth, to which we are indebted for so many articles of dress and adornment, is not only a foreign species but also a vegetable feeder like the majority, and the only one from which we receive any direct benefits. To return to tlic dragonflies, however, their eggs, which are laid near the surface, beneath the water, hatch, not into winged insects like the jjarcnt, but into oddly-shaped animals, which are chiefly rcmarkal)lc for their maxked mouth, and the power of moving by means of a jet of water expelled from the tail. They i)ass most of their lives during the larva stage in crawling 4ibout upon the bottom and feeding upon other ac^uatic insects or even small fish ; after some months they become full grown, having changed tiieir skin many times, and now are in the SECRETARY'S REPORT. 149 pupa state appearing with short wing-cases ; now emerging from the water they cling lirmly to some stone or other substance a few inches above the surface, and the skiu on the back splitting open, tlie insect slowly disengages itself and works its way out, having now wings and other organs like its parent ; these at first are moist and crumpled, but in a few hours become expanded and hardened and the brilliant colors gradually become apparent. Figure 24 represents the pupa form of a common species. The larva can in its earlier stages be distinguished from this by the absence of the four wing-cases shown in this figure, of a long, triangular form, just behind the bases of the posterior feet. The first section of this Order, called Pseiidoneiiroptera or false Neuroptera, con- tains, beside the dragonfiies and darning- needles, several families. The white ants, as they are called, belong to the Termilina ; and the small whitish " mites " or " lice," as they are improperly named, which are found in old books, belong to the family FsocUia, from a Greek word meaning dusty. The genus Psdcns, of Latrcille, also belonging to this family is composed of small species of soft texture, which are supposed to feed upon the minute insects, and other almost microscopic animals that live in the crevices of bark, and in moist, mossy patches on trees. The most common of our New England species is the Psocus vendsus, of Burmeister, or veined Psocus. They are found in great numbers on various trees in the spring and summer months, more frequently perhaps on the apple and cherry, and are apparently gregarious, crowding so closely together as to completely cover the bark for a space of the size of a man's hand, but when approached by the finger or a stick, will scatter in all directions. The wingless ones or pupte, which bear a slight resemblance to ants, being very active. The antenna; are nearly half an inch in length and slender, consisting of two pale basal joints, and several long, black, and lightly hairy ones ; the head brassy ; thorax margined with yellow; the feet whitish; abdomen fuscous, (brown or dark- Fig. 24. 150 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. colored,) banded with yellowish, and of a plump, rounded form in the wingless specimens ; the anterior pair of wings are of a dark, smoky tint, veined near the base with yellow ; the posterior pair, of a lighter shade, almost hyaline, (clear, transparent, like glass.) The winged or adult specimens scarcely average .4 of an inch to the tips of the wings, which expand from .6 to .8. The families Perlina and Ejfhemejina, or may-flies and day- flies, as they are commonly called, if not strictly of service to the agriculturist, are at least perfectly innoxious, passing their preparatory stages in the water and subsisting chiefly on aquatic insects. After acquiring wings they furnish food for various kinds of fish, and are frequently used as a bait by the angler. In some parts of Europe they are said to occur in such immense numbers as to be collected for manure. Although we have several species in New England, they are not of sufficient influence or prominence to require mention here. The family Odondta comprises all the day-flying insects commonly called " devil's darning-needles," " dragonflies," or " horse-stingers," and " mosquito hawks." These are again divided into tribes, sub-families, and genera ; the first tribe Agrionina of Fabricius, (from a Greek word meaning wild or savage,) is very largely represented in Massachusetts ; it contains the more slender-bodied insects known as " darning-needles," and distinguished by their short, broad heads with distant eyes, and four-juinted short antenna), which appear like two tapering bristles situated between the eyes. The genus CaJopleryx of Leach, from kalos, beautiful, and pteri/x, a wing, is appropriately named and contains some of our handsomest species. The body is generally of a shining brassy green, or bluish color, and the wings broadest toward the apex and finely veined. The females of this genus have an oval, whitish spot on the anterior margin of each wing near the tip, which is called the pterostlg-ma or wing-mark ; this is found throughout the Odondta, and is of great value in identification, being of various forms and colors in dilferent species, and not generally confined to one sex as in the present case. Qdd/drri/M a/ncdlis, of Burmcister, or the black tii)pcd darning-needle, is about one inch and seven-eighths in length ; expanse of wing two inches and a half; head and body blackish beneath ; elsewhere brassy-green, or in some lights, blue ; feet SECRETARY'S REPORT. 151 Mack, with rows of long l)lack hairs beneath ; wings hyaline with a faint yellowish tinge, fuscous at the tips. Several other species of this beautiful genus are found in this State, some of which have the whole wing of a light smoky color, and others almost entirely hyaline. They lly more slowly than the larger dragonfiies, and frequent the banks of running brooks. Another genus, Ilelarina of IJagcn, with narrower wings, the bases of which in the male are sanguineous or reddish is represented here by one described species only : the HeUcrUia americdna of Fabricius, or basdlis of Say, who gave it the latter and more appropriate name on account of the basal red marking, not being aware that it had already received the name of ameri- cdna from Fabricius. The male and female of the American darning-needle vary considerably, the former having a gen- eral fuscous coppery tint, with three yellow stripes on the sides of the thorax and the base of all the wings bright blood- red, while the female is of a brassy green color above, with four yellow stripes on the thorax and the base of the wings some- what yellowish, the remainder of the wing in both sexes is hyaline faintly tinged with yellow, especially on the outer margin, and tlie pterostigma is very small, oblong and yellow, the black ncrvures or veins which immediately surround it, appearing thicker and more distinct than the others ; the feet are whitish beneath, and black above. It is over one and a half inches in length, expanding from two and a quarter inches to more than two and a half. The species belonging to the typical genus Agrion^ of Fabricius, are very numerous about ponds and rivers, fluttering over the surface in pursuit of their prey, or sporting with their mates whose bodies they seize with their long slender feet, without either's checking their flight, and a pair are often seen attached in this manner gliding in their sinuous fliglit, a few inches above the surface of the water. The bodies of many are banded and marked with a pearly blue, others partake of the coppery and brassy lustre of the last named species, and others still are of a yellow or reddish tint. Airrion saucium of Burmeister, or the wounded darning-needle, (figure 25,) is of a blood red color upon the thorax and sides of the abdomen; head blackish, Fig. 25. 152 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. dorsum or upper part of the thorax black in the male, red in the female; abdomen red to tlie seventh segment or joint, whose sides are black, with the remaining segments of the same color ; feet pale yellow, wings hyaline, expanding about an inch and a quarter ; pterostigma rliomboidal, fuscous, length, one inch or less. This is one of our smallest species. The tribe Aesc/mina, derived from a Greek word meaning hideous, comprises the largest and most formidable of our dragonflies or large-bodied neuroptera whose eyes are less distant, some appearing as if soldered together above, for a short space, wings unequal, the hinder pair being generally broadest near the base, and having an opaque spot, called membrctnule, on the inner basal angle, behind the joints of the wings which varies in color and size in different species. The abdomen in this family is cylindrical and sometimes longitudinally carinated, (having a slight ridge like the keel of a boat.) Of the genus Anax of Leach, meaning a prince or king, Ave have only one species. Anax Junius, Drury. The Junius dragonfly is of a fine pea-green color, spotted with blue and fuscous, head yellow with a black spot and circular blue band above ; thorax green ; feet black, femora somewhat reddish ; abdomen long, nearly cylindrical, mucli inflated at base. Tlie first segment or joint and base of the second, green, the remainder blue with a longitudinal fuscous stripe, sometimes broken, wings hyaline, slightly clouded witii yellowish in some specimens, pterostigma yellow, membranule black for two-tliirds of its length, the rest, toward the head, white. Length, three inches, wings expand over four inches. The typical genus Aesdina of Fabricius, comprises many of our New England species, the largest of which is Aeschna /irros of Fabricius, or the hero dragonfly. It is not uncommon throughout North America, and may be readily distinguished by its great size, being over three inches and a half in length, from the front of the head to the tip of the anal apj)cndages, while the wings expand about five inches. It is often seen alone at some distance from the water, and is exceedingly active in its motions, soaring and circling like a hawk, whence this and some other species have in various parts of the coun- try received the name of " mosquito hawks." Its size and swiftness enable it to cai)ture and destroy the largest butterflies and moths, and it is to l)c reckoned one of the most beneficial SECRETARY'S REPORT. 153 of its useful Order. It is described in Dr. Ilageii's Synopsis,* as follows : " Fuscous, marked with yellowish green ; front obscure, luteous, (yellowish,) above fuscous, each side with a yellowish green spot ; occiput (hinder part of the head) of the female bifid, (split in two parts ;) thorax fuscous, dorsum (back,) each side with a stripe, which is angulated at the wings, and at the sides with two oblique stripes, green ; feet black, base of the femora subrufous ; abdomen long, stout, liardly broader at base, fuscous ; the base, middle and apex of the segments, with a subinterrupted, narrow green fascia ; (band,) appendages black, subarcuated, (^sub, somewhat ; arcuated, curved like a bow,) the base narrower, a tubercle beneath, tlie apex carinated truncated, (abruptly cut off,) inner edge villose ; (covered with fine soft hairs ;) inferior appendage one-half the length of the superior, narrow, almost equal, the apex obtusely truncated, sometimes almost bifid ; appendages of the female broad, ovate, (of the form of an egg,) foliaceous, (leaf-like ;) wings hyaline subflavescent (somewhat yellowish,) in the middle, the apex sometimes infuscated, (darkened,) pterostigma long, narrow, fulvous, (tawny ;) membranule white." jEschna clepsijdra, or the hour-glass dragonfly : yE. con- strida, the narrowed dragonfly, and J^. Janata, of Say, the yellow dragonfly, are all quite common in Massachusetts, and of similar habits to the preceding, although of smaller size. Libelhila pulchelJa of Drury, or the beautiful dragonfly, (figure 26, Harr.^ is one of the most interesting of our Massa- chusetts species, and is often seen during the summer, display- ing its beautifully variegated wings as it sails to and fro over the surface of the water. I have frequently seen it basking on rocks by the side of roads, at some distance from the pond or brook where it passed its larva existence. The general color of the body is reddish fuscous, the sides of the thorax with two oblique yellow streaks, the abdomen often with a yellow stripe on each side, or covered with a bluish white coating of powdery * " Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America, with a list of South American species. Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution, by Uermann Hagen." This work, which was translated from the original by P. R. Uhler, Esq., of Baltimore, is of the greatest value, and supplies a want long felt by the student of this branch. I copy one or two descriptions in this essay as samples of the minute and elaborate accuracy of this work. 20 164 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. scales ; the feet are black, with the base of the femora reddish in the female ; the wings are hyaline, with three spots of a fuscous or dark smoky color on each, one at the base, one in Fig. 26. the middle, and one at the apex, alternated with two milk white spots on each fore-wing, and three on each hind-wing. It is about 2. in length, and the wings expand 3.50 or more. Fig. 27. Figure 27 is the male, and figure 28, (//arr.,) the female, of one of our most common species, known as Libi'Uula {Plathemis) trimaculdla of Do Geer, or the three-spotted dragonfly, Tliis name, however, is af)propriate only to the female, as will be seen from the engraving, the male having only two spots on each wing, where the female has three. The upper side of the SECRETARY'S REPORT. 155 abdomen in the male appears covered with a bluish white pow- der, while that of the female is reddish, marked on tlie sides with oblique yellow spots. The feet of both sexes are black, a Fig. 28. little reddish toward the base, and the wings hyaline, excepting the spots, which are fuscous. The hind wings of the male have also a milky spot at the base, covering about two meshes in width, and reaching the hinder angle of the basal fuscous spot. Figure 29 represents the female of a common species throughout the country, call- ed Diplax Berenice, or the Berenice dragonfly, so named by Drury. The male (figure 30) differs from the female chiefly in the darker color of the abdomen, and in having Fig. 29. the wings without the fuscous cloud. The front of the head is bright steel blue with yellow spots, the blue space much larger in the male ; the thorax and abdomen black, with many large and distinct yellow bands and spots in the female, and with only five large yellow spots on each side of the abdo- men in the male, and one or two on the sides of the thorax. Length a little more than 1.25 ; wings expand nearly or quite 2. Fig. 30. 156 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Diplax semi cincta of Say, or the half-girdled dragonfly, is another common species in Massachusetts. It is found in various localities, chiefly however in open places surrounded by woods. It is nearly the size of the preceding, but is of a reddish color, front of the head yellowish red with a broader black stripe before the eyes ; sides of the thorax marked with two yellowish spots, partly margined with black ; the abdomen shorter than that of any other species of this genus yet found in Massachusetts, and sometimes quite red, so as to attract particular attention when on the wing, or reddish yellow in some specimens. The wings are hyaline, or transparent, excepting near the body, where about half of each hind wing is reddish yellow, and about one-third of the anterior pair of a lighter shade of yellow. The body is less than an inch and a quarter in length, and the wings expand about 1.75. Diplax rubicundula of Say, or the light reddish dragonfly, is another extremely common species, of a lighter color than the preceding, with only the extreme base of the wings yellowish, the rest being perfectly clear or hyaline ; the feet are black. The wings expand over 2.10, and the abdomen is about 1.30 in length. Diplax elisa of Hagen, the Elisa dragonfly, (figure 31,) is a less common but very prettily marked spe cies. The head is yellow- ish in front, the thorax and abdomen black, the former with large greenish yellow spots on the sides, almost covering them, and extending back upon the abdomen for one or two segments. The latter appears black when looked at from above, with a row of six or seven greenish yellow triangular spots. The wings are hyaline, with the front margins near the shoulders somewhat yellowish, or even spotted with fuscous on some of the straight veins. Each of the fore-wings with three small fuscous spots, one at the tip, one near the base, and one about midway between them ; each of the hind-wings having the two outer spots arranged in a similar manner, and the base with a very large indented^ fuscous spot crossed by yellow veins, and Fig. 31. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 157 separated through the middle by a broad irregular yellow band. The feet are black. The figure represents the insect of tiie natural size. Among the insects composing the second division of this Order, or as they may be called, the true Ncuroptera, we find some which instead of flying by day, and resting during the night, seem to prowl abroad only when darkness shrouds the earth and myriads of insect depredators venture forth to devour the foliage, moist with the evening dew, or to deposit their eggs unseen by human eye. Many of these fall victims to the appe- tites of night birds, like the whippoorwills, and owls, others are devoured by toads, snakes, skunks, moles and bats, but the night-flying Neuroptera figure largely in the work of destruc- tion. One of the most common of the larger species in this latitude is the Chauliddes peclinicdrnis of LinnaBus, or comb- horned Chauliodes, so called on account of the beautiful man- ner in which the antennas or horns are furnished with teeth like a comb. The first or generic name is derived from the Greek word chauHodon, signifying with projecting teeth. It is of a greyish brown color, marked with streaks and spots of yellowish, particularly on the head and thorax. The eyes are small, black, and prominent, and nearly in a line between them, upon the head, will be seen three shining points arranged in a triangular form, ' . ' ; these are called the ocelli, or small eyes, and are supposed to be organs of vision ; in front of these are the antennse, which are longer in this division of the Neurop- tera than in the last described, and in this species measure about half an inch, finely toothed on the inside, the teeth being longest near the base of the antenna, and gradually decreasing to about the fifth joint from the apex, when tiiey assume the ordinary form, producing a beautiful tapering effect. The pro- thorax or neck is long, and of a square form, while the two remaining parts of the thorax, usually called the meso-thorax or middle, and the meta-thorax or hind thorax are prominent, and separated by a deep incision ; and the abdomen is very short compared with those of the preceding division, and of softer and more leathery texture. The wings are long and broad, expanding over three inches, and being more than half an inch in breadth at the widest part ; they are of a light smoky tinge, or ash-colored, with a few darker transverse streaks 158 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. and spots. The veins or nerves are not so numerous as i„ tl,e dragonfl,es, and are alternated with blaek and w.,ite. Tl e C,>r,Ma/,scorn,',ta otLlnnxn., or (he horned Corydalis is ho largest Neuropterous inseet found here, and the on'y one' of he genus yet discovered north of Te..as. It n.easures Lm two and a quarter to u.ore than three inches fro, .Z ti of the n.and,hles or jaws to the end of the body, and the lings SECRETARY'S REPORT. 159 are five to six inches from tip to tip, (measured from specimens in the State Cabinet.) The wings are of similar texture and color to the preceding, but with larger and coarser markings, and frequently spotted with milky white dots. The mandibles of the male are extremely long and tapering, often measuring an inch or more from base to tip ; those of the female scarcely a quarter of the length, but strong, thick, and furnished at the tip with four teeth. The antennae of both are moniliform, or like a string of beads, and much the longest in the male. The body is dark brown above, spotted and streaked with yellow ; the feet and under side lighter. Figure 32 represents a female of medium size. Figure 33 the larva, which is aquatic and found oftenest in mill- ponds. It is of a blackish color, marked with yellow somewhat like the perfect insect, and with branchial or gill-like organs on the sides of the abdomen. Polystcechotes (from poli/, many, and stoi- chos, a row,) is represented in this State by one species only, the punctdtns of Fabricius, (figure 34, Harr.,') signifying spotted or speckled. This insect is easily distinguished by the peculiarly regular veining of the wings, somewhat resembling the strings of a musical instrument. The body is blackish above, lighter beneath, eyes rather prominent, feet yellowish, fore-wings hyaline, spotted Fig. 33. Fig. 34. with fuscous and cinereous, or ashy ; hind-wings very slightly marked on the margin, and hyaline in the centre, bordered with a very narrow black fringe interrupted with whitish. The larva is supposed to live like those of the preceding species, in the water. The genus Chrysdpa of Leach, (meaning golden-eyed,) and commonly called " lace-wings," comprises several species bear- 160 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Fig. 35. ing a close resemblance to each other, but all of the most useful character to the agriculturist, feeding as they do almost exclu- sively on the Aphides, or plant-lice.* The antennae are longer than the body, and slender, of the shape called setiform or bristle-like ; the wings hyaline with green or greenish yellow- veins ; the head, thorax, abdomen and legs, usually of a clear pea-green, and the projecting eyes often of a gold or shining metallic lustre. They vary but little in size, averaging about an inch and a quarter in expanse of wing, and scarcely half an inch in length of the body. Their eggs, (figure 35, female lace-wing and eggs,) are laid on twigs or leaves where the Aphides are abundant, and to prevent their being covered with the exudations of the Aphides and suffocated, or devoured by small predaceous insects, are fastened at the top of a small pedicle or stalk, spun from the abdomen of the parent, like the tliread of a spider. The young hatched from these are of an elongated form, with sharp sickle-like jaws, with which they pierce the tender bodies of the Aphides and suck their juices ; they are very voracious and destroy a vast number of these pests of the horticulturist during their larva-life ; after arriving at their full size in this stage, they retire to some sheltered place and spin a whitish cocoon, almost perfectly round, and about the size of BB shot ; these may often be noticed in the crevices of bark, under the upper rails of fences, and other similar localities. Of the genus Myrmeleon, or ant-lion, we have in New Eng- land but one well known species, although many others are known to exist in the southern and western States. The Myrmeleon obsoletus of Say, or obsolete ant- lion (figure 36, Ilarr.,) is of common occurrence throughout the country. The specimen from wjiich Fig. 36. the figure was copied is iu * See the interesting accounts and descriptions of some of the species, in Dr. Asa Fitch's First Report on the Insects of New York, publislied in the Transactions of the Mow York State Agricultural Society for 185li. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 161 tlie Cabinet of the late Dr. T. W. Harris, now the property of the Boston Society of Natural History, and not having one within my immediate reach I am obliged to extract the following description from Dr. Hagen's Synopsis, previously alluded to. The general color of the insect is " luteous, (clay yellow,) face with a transverse, broad, fuscous fascia (band) ; antenna) long, the apex clavate, luteous, the base and apex black ; labial palpi short, luteous, the last article longer, fusiform or spindle- shaped ; prothorax elongated, narrowei* anteriorly, luteous, a little granulated with black ; meso- and metathorax with a broad dorsal fuscous stripe, at each side a broad black stripe ; abdomen black, a luteous dorsal band upon the middle of each segment ; feet elongated, very slender, black ; base of the anterior femora and apex of the tibial brown ; posterior femora with a luteous band before the apex, tibige luteous, with the base and apex black, tarsi luteous, obscurer at the apex ; spurs as long as the two basal articles of the tarsi, luteous ; wings hyaline, beautifully spotted with fuscous ; the anterior ones with an ocellate (eye-like) spot at the middle of the posterior margin, a double spot at the pterostigma, an apical interrupted series, and some points at the median nervure, fuscous ; posterior wings with a larger orbicular spot before the pterostigma, and some apical spots also fuscous. Length to tip of wings, 1.36, alar (wing) expanse, 2.48." Specimens of this insect are sometimes found which differ from the above description either with the " wings not spotted, but hyaline or sprinkled with fuscous " or " costal space with a double series of areoles," or " without spurs." Figure 37 represents a larva of this genus, of some- what rounded outline, furnished with short stiff hairs on the sides, and with long formidable toothed jaws. It is found in sandy places where it excavates a tunnel- shaped hole, and buries itself at the bottom, with the Fig. 37. expanded mandibles scarcely appearing above the surface ; in this position it awaits the approach ofants or other small insects, which, losing their foothold on the loose sand, fall easily into its open jaws ; if, however, one of these should be warned of its danger and endeavor to escape, the ant-lion is said to come forth from its concealment, and by means of its broad flattened head to throw quantities of sand from the bottom or sides of the cavity .21 162 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. toward its victim ; this has not only the effect of deepening the hole and making its sides steeper but also of striking and overwhelming its prey causing it to tumble within reach of the ant-lion. The pupa of this insect is remarkable as possessing the extraordinary appendage of mandibles, which are used in cutting its way through the cocoon when about to transform. The genus Panurpa, of Linnaeus, (probably from pas^ all ; and orpe, or arpe^ a spike or goad, sometimes a harpoon, in allusion to its being armed at both extremities with sharp pointed instruments,) is noticeable for its long rostrum or beak, and for the singular form of the last joint of the abdomen in the male, which is forcipated or pincer like, and by means of the flexible, and slender segments preceding it, can be bent in almost every direction. It is most frequently seen with this instrument curved over its back somewhat like the tail of a scorpion whence it has received the common name of " scorpion- fly." All the species known feed upon other insects, and may be found in bushy pastures throughout the country in the summer months. We find three or four species in Massachu- setts, of yi\\\c\\ Panorpamfescens^oi Rambur (figure 38, male, magnified,) is the most common. The rufescent or rusty scorpion-fly is, as its name purports, of a yellowish red color ; antennse black excepting 'the three or four basal joints which are reddish ; ocelli black ; feet light red or yellowish ; ^'s-^^- wings yellowish with a few scattered spots, and two bands, one at the apex, and a narrower elbowed one a little behind the middle, fuscous. Length about half an inch, wings expand one inch. Tlic family PhrT/g-anina, (from phryf^anon^ a dead stick or faggot,) was so named by Linnseus, in allusion to the habits of tiie larva) whicii construct a tube of sticks, or other substances, as a protection against their enemies. Being a whitish, plump grub, and slow in its motions the larva would form a delicate morsel for fish, or voracious aquatic insects of different speijies, •were it not endowed with sufficient instinct to build a shelter for its existence in this state, and its succeeding transformations. In the bottom of almost every pool, or brook a curious structure composed of pieces of bark, -dead twigs, grains of sand, some- times a bright green leaf, or even small ghells, may be seen, SECRETARY'S REPORT. 1(53 apparently moving along without cause, but closer examination will discover a small, brownish head, and six legs, at one end, which are quickly retracted on being touched ; these are the habitations of the larvae, which feed mostly on aquatic plants, occasionally on weaker insects, and can scarcely be classed as beneficial species, although deserving mention on account of their peculiar habits and great variety of species. Before transforming to pupa), they are said to close the mouth of the cell with a grating, which while it allows sufficient water to pass for the respiration of the insects, prevents the entrance of their enemies. The imagines of these singular creatures are commonly called " caddice-fiies " or " water moths," and very closely do they resemble in general appearance some species of moths ; their antennae are long, and slender, their wings folding over and longer than the body when at rest, and of dull colors, while they take but little if any food in the perfect state, their mouths being weak and ineffective. They are, however, covered with hairs, instead of scales like the moths, and were on that account placed by some authors in the Order Trich- optera^ or hairy-winged insects. Neurdnia semifascidta of Say, (figure 39, Harr.,^ or the half banded caddice-fly is one of our larger and most common species. It is of a tawny hue, antennae ringed with fuscous ; head fuscous; anterior wings streaked with fuscous, having Fig-39. a small spot near the base, and a short transverse streak about the middle of the hind margin of the same color ; frequently also a similar streak from the anterior margin near the apex, dilating about the middle of the wing and enclosing one or two white points, a larger white dot midway between these, and the base ; posterior wings tawny, without fuscous spots, excepting occasionally a few faint ones upon the apex, and a short elbowed fuscous band a little before the apex, not reaching either margin. It measures from head to tip of wings one inch or less, expands from one and six-tenths to two inches. There are an infinite number of species of this family, which are found in this State, but as they exert so little influence on the cause of agriculture, we shall not enlarge upon them here. 164 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. The Order Hymendptera of Linnseus, contains, as its name implies, those species having membranous wings. All wasps, bees, and other insects having four wings, biting jaws, and a sting in the extremity of the abdomen, belong to this Order, together with the ants, gall-flies, ichneumons, and almost all the parasitic tribes which deposit their eggs, in the eggs or larvce of others. The anterior pair of wings are the largest, and furnished with a small scale or plate at the base called tegula. Both pairs are crossed with veins running longitudinally and transversely, but much fewer in number than in the last Order, so that they do not form a close network. The areas or cells enclosed by these veins, varying as they do in form and size, are of great service in the classification and arrangement of different groups and genera. On the anterior margin of the hind wings can be seen by the aid of a lens or magnifier a row of small sharp hooks or claws bent toward the upper surface ; these correspond to and unite with a sort of flange or groove on the under side of the binder edge of the fore wings so as to expose a continuous surface to the air, in flight. The females are furnished with a complicated organ at the extremity of the abdomen consisting generally of five pieces, two of which close the opening, or act as additional sheaths, while the others are of various forms in different families according to the use for which they are intended ; being flattened and the central one double and serrated in the saw-flies ; apparently consolidated into a sharp sting in the wasps and bees ; and long slender, and bristle like in the ic/ineumons, where they are used as ovipositors, or egg- laying instruments. In this latter tribe, which comprises some of the most beneficial of the Order, the two side pieces are grooved on the inside throughout their length, and when pressed together form a tube for conducting the egg to its place of deposit ; the central piece being cylindrical, and finely toothed near the extremity, ending in a sharp point and fitted for piercing the bodies of grubs and caterpillars on which the larva; feed. The family Tenthredlniihc, (from the Greek name for a species of wasp or bee,) which contains the saw-flies and allied species ; the Urocerida-, (signifying horn-tailed, in allusion to their short and stout ovipositors,) which bore into trees, and feed uj)on tiie wood in the larva state ; and tlie Ci/nipidcc^ SECRETARY'S REPORT. 165 (^cynips sifjiiifying a small piercing insect,) and comprising tlio gall-making flies, are all injurious to vegetation. The Evaniidcc of Leach, on the other hand, is composed of parasitic species, insectivorous in their habits, and is to be classed among the useful families. Pehcitius poljjcerdtor of Fabricius, is one of the most com- mon of this family, and is found throughout the State. The female is of a polished black ; the head and thorax punctured roughly, elevated portions of the latter more finely so, almost smooth ; thorax on the sides and beneath, with short silvery hairs ; antenna) dusky black, except about two-thirds of the ninth, and the whole of the tenth article, which are almost white ; feet black with tawny hairs, tarsi somewhat fuscous, hind femora much enlarged ; wings hyaline with fuscous nerves, anterior pair smoky on the outer margin and tip ; abdomen exceedingly long, composed of six cylindrical joints, the first fusiform or spindle-shaped, the last, very short and with a curved point at the apex, intermediate ones of nearly equal size ; ovipositor concealed. It measures two inches and a half or less in length ; wings expand about 1.20. The males of this species are extremely rare in collections ; they resemble the female in general appearance, but have a much shorter abdomen. The family Ichneumdnidce of Leach, (so named from the little animal called the ichneumon, which was fabled to enter the throat of the crocodile and wage an intestine war on its huge enemy,) is not only one of the most extensive groups, but also one of the most beneficial and valuable to the cause of agri- culture. It is distinguished " by having the abdomen attached to the thorax at its hinder extremity, and between the base of the posterior coxae, first joint of the legs, by which they are attached to the body. The wings are veined, the anterior pair always exhibiting perfect cells upon their disc, (middle surface.) The ovipositor of the female is straight and often exserted, (projecting beyond the tip of the abdomen ;) the antenna; are always filiform (tiiread-like) or setaceous, (bristle- shaped,) not elbowed, and composed of more than sixteen joints," excepting in a few minute species, " and the pupa is enclosed in a cocoon ; the body is long and narrow ; the head is small and free ; the eyes more or less prominent and lateral. 166 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. * * * The wings are of moderate size ; the stigma (a thick- ened opaque spot on the anterior margin of the fore-wing, nearer the apex) is large, and the costal margin (rib running along the anterior margin) is thickened, or rather the costal (rib) and subcostal (next behind the rib) nerves are confluent, so as not to exhibit a subcostal cell. The legs are long, and formed for running. * * * The abdomen is generally long and cylindrical, or elongate ovate, (long egg-shaped,) and nar- rowed at the base into a short peduncle, on each side of which is a small tubercle, in which -a minute spiracle* (breathing- pore) exists." Other characters of less prominence assist in defining this group, but the foregoing, copied from Westwood's Introduction to the Classification of Insects, will I think be sufficient to enable most observers to locate an insect belonging to this family. Ichneumon suturdlis of Say, or the black sutured, ichneumon, (figure 40, Harr.,') is a common species through North America, and attacks vari- ous caterpillars, of both moths and butterflies. I raised several specimens from the larvae of Lencd- Fig. 40. nia unipuncla, Ilaworth, or " army worm," which was exceedingly abundant and injurious in this State in the summer and fall of 1861. The following is Say's description : " Body pale ferruginous ; antennae black beyond the middle ; trunk with black sutures ; scutel (a small semi-oval plate on the back of the thorax) more or less tinged with yellow ; wings tinged with ferruginous ; carpus (the spot on tlie anterior margin of the fore-wing, usually called stigma) yellowish ; nervures blackish ; central cellule pentangular, (five cornered,) the side on the radial cellule rather smallest, basal and apical sides longest, not parallel ; metathorax with slightly elevated lines in the form of an H ; tergura (back or upper surface of tiic abdomen) with the apical sutures not black ; basal segment with two slightly elevated longitudinal lines ; tibiae, posterior pair black at tip ; venter, basal segment black ; sutures not black ; oviduct (egg-tube) not longer than the breadth of the anal segment." It varies sometimes in color, dilTeront speci- * Insects do not breathe by means of lunf;;s openinjx into the mouth or nostrils, but by small pores on the sides of the body, called spiracles, of which there are usually nine on each side. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 167 Fig. 41. mens being sometimes of a yellowish hue, and the sutures not obviously black. The length from head to tip of abdomen is about .4 of an inch ; wings expand .7 or more. Ichnetivion parata of Say, (figure 41, Harr., male,) was also found in considerable numbers parasitic upon the " arnay worms," and is one of our commonest species. The prevailing color is black ; head in front and base of the antennae beneath yellow, both black above ; orbits of the eyes yellow ; thorax with two" short yellow lines before the wings, almost confluent toward the head, a small yellow spot often divided into two lines in the middle between the wings ; scutel yellow ; tegulse yellow, wings almost hyaline, stigma reddish yellow ; metathorax with a large yellow spot often longitudi- nally divided through the middle by a black line, which is continuous with the black peduncle ; abdomen black, with from two to four yellow bands ; feet yellow, hind femora black, except the base, hind tibiee black at the apex. Length .6 or more ; wings expand about .9. Tragus exesSrius of Brulle, or the tawny Trogus (^exesdrius, from the Latin signifies eating out,) is of a tawny color through- out, the antennae only being a little darker toward their tips and the wings of a deep smoky tint. It is more than three- quarters of an inch in length, and about an inch and a half across the wings. It is chiefly parasitic on the caterpillar of Asterias butterfly. Papilio asterias of Cramer, which feeds on the carrot, parsnip, fennel, parsley and other umbellate plants. We find in Mas- sachusetts several species of ich- neumons with the three bristle-like appendages of an enormous length, measuring three and even four times the length of the body. These belong to the genus Pimpla of Fabricius, and seem as though specially appointed to prey upon the wood-wasps or borers of the family Urocerida. Pimpla lundtor of Fabricius, or the yellow spotted Pimpla, (figure 42, male,) (Junate signifies marked with crescent shaped spots,) is of reddish brown color spotted and striped with yellow, Fig. 42. 168 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. particularly on the sides of the abdomen in the female (figure 43, Harr.,^ where the yellow color margins the tips of the segments, taking the curved shape which gives the insect its name, on the third to the seventh inclusive. The head is yellow, marked with a fuscous figure shaped somewhat like the letter U, between the eyes, which are united above by a fuscous band, behind the eyes another fuscous band extending almost completely around the head ; the feet are brown- ish, moderately spotted and banded with yellow ; the wings hyaline with fuscous veins, tips slight- ly smoky, and a smoky spot just behind the stigma, which is reddish yellow in the basal half and darker toward the apex. In one specimen in the State Cabinet the ovipositor measures near- ly five inches in length. Female, 1.45 to 1.75 in length, excluding the ovipositor, wings expand about two and a quar- ter inches: male, length about the same as the female, wings expand a little more than one inch and a half. The genus Ophion of Fabricius, is well repre- sented in this State, and is readily recognized by the form of the abdomen, which instead of being Hat or rounded above, is sharp, and thinly com- pressed on the sides, or Fig. 43. SECRETARY'kS report. 109 flattened especially toward the apex winch is truncate or squarely cut, instead of being {)ointed. The claws of this genus are pec- tinated or furnished with teeth like a comb, this character, how- ever, can only be noted by the aid of a lens or magnifying glass. Ophion cecrdpicc, (so called from its being parasitic in the cecropia moth, the largest of our North American species,) is of a honey yellow color with hyaline wings. Several smaller species measuring about three-quarters of an inch in length, and from an inch to an inch and a half across the wings, resemble it in color, among these are the bUinedtus, (two lined,) g-emindtits, (two spotted,) and g-labrdtus, (smooth) of Say. Some of these are often noticed flying about the lighted room on a summer evening and striking against the ceiling ; they are capable of making a slight wound with the ovipositor, but do not possess any reservoir of poison to aggravate it as is the case with the bees and wasps. Ophion miindvs of Say, is common in bushy pastures and readily attracts notice from its shining black color, and bright yellow antenna3. The wings are of a uniform, smoky tint with purple reflections ; the feet, of which the hind pair are the largest and longest, are varied with yellow and black, the hind pair yellow from the apex of the femora to the tip excepting a black ring around the tibia at its apex. Figure -14, (jEfarr.) represents a species of the natural size and magnified, that is parasitic upon the caterpillar of Chaerocdmpa pampindtrix of Smith, one of the most noxious enemies of the grape-vine ; the insect figured is of a polished black color and of quite small size, but by the ^ig. 44. aid of the ovipositor (seen at the extremity of the abdomen) pierces the skin of the naked caterpillar in several places and deposits in each wound a minute egg. Thelarvse hatched from these continue devouring the fleshy parts of the caterpillar until they arrive at their full size when they emerge from its body and spin each for himself a small white cocoon on the surface of the skin, in which they complete their transformations in a very short time and make their escape by separating with their mandi- bles a small round lid from the top of the cocoon as seen in figure 45, (//flrr.,) Fig.45. which represents the caterpillar covered with a dozen or more 22 170 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. of these small cocoons from most of which the parasites have made their escape. I have no specimen of the perfect insect at present within my reach, from wliich to describe more particu- larly, but it will be recognizable in all probability from the foregoing figures and history, and be easily raised from the cocoon and set free in the neighborhood of grape-vines infested by the C/iasrocampa, or hog-caterpillar, with a view to destroy them. It has been the practice in Europe, for some time, to rear and scatter parasitic Hymenoptera of different species among the insect enemies of various crops, which are found to be their appropriate food ; this plan has been crowned with noted success and I learn has already been inaugurated on this side of the water, by the enterprise of the New York State Agricultural Society, and when more generally published among agriculturists will no doubt be found one of the most simple and efficacious means of ridding ourselves of many insect posts. The caterpillars containing the eggs of this and similar species, may be known even before the external cocoons are formed, by the small, black punctures disposed in an irregular manner and plainly visible on various parts of the body. Cocoons of parasites are often found of a silky white or yellow color attached in a mass to stems of grass and various other plants, and should never be destroyed or molested, unless it is desirable to remove them to some })lace where the insect known to be the food of tlieir respective tenants is more abundant, or for the purpose of examination and study. Tiie Ap/tklii or parasites of the Aphides, (plant-lice,) are generally placed in a subdivision of the ichneumons called Braconidcc, and although of small size (being less tiian one tenth of an inch in length) are of infinite service to the culti- vator. The indefatigable State Entomologist of New York, Dr. Asa Fitch, has described several new species in the agri- cultural report of that State, for 1860, from which I take the liberty of extracting the following descrij)tions of two, that were found tlironghout Now England, contril)uting in no slight degree to check the ravages of the grain-aphis, as it is called, that threatened the grain crops a year or two since. '■'■Ajiltidius {Toxdres^ Irilicdjihis, Fitch. Wheat-louse Aphi- dius. Black, shining, anteniuc thread like, longer than the body, twenty-five jointed. Length, .08. Head transverse, SECRETARY'S REPORT. 171 convex in front, concave at base ; face clothed with fine short liairs ; eyes lateral, rather small ; eyelets (ocelli) thfce, i)lacod in a triangle \ij)on the crown ; feelers, dull white, bearded, live- jointed, the joints nearly cylindric, separated by intervening pedicels, the last one elliptic and shortest. Antenna), .10 long, filiform, bearded with short inclined bristles, composed of twenty-five cylindrical joints ; basal joint thickest, top-shaped, a third longer than tiiici^, receiving into its apex the second joint, with which it is compactly joined, and which is thicker than the following ones, a third longer than thick, and slightly narfowing towards its apex ; third joint longest, and rather more slender than the following joints, faintly thickened or swollen near its base, and also at its apex, and showing when greatly magnified a minute transverse joint interposed between it and the second ; fourth joint a third shorter, more than four times as long as thick ; remaining joints successively diminish- ing in length, the last one more than twice as long as thick and of an oval form. Thorax egg-shaped, and rather broader than the head ; abdomen flattened, a little longer than the thorax but scarcely as broad, long oval, more narrowed anteriorly and bluntly rounded at tip, highly polished, its hind part clothed with sliort hairs which are more dense at the tip. Legs black, brownish at base and on the knees ; wings transparent, slightly sijioky, strongly iridescent red and purple, fringed on their hind edge, more conspicuously so on the hind pair ; stigma dull, pale brown ; veins brownish black. " Aphidius {Praon') avenaphis, Fitch. Oat-louse Aphidius. Black ; legs honey-yellow, and also the base of the abdomen and a sub-basal band ; antenna? as long as the body, tliread- like, twenty jointed. Length .10. Head black and shining, square when viewed from above, and twice as broad as long ; eyes oval, slightly projecting, occupying the fore part of each side ; eyelets on the crown, appearing as tliree elevated shining dots forming the corners of a triangle ; mouth and feelers very pale yellow, the latter appearing as very slender threads jutting from the mouth and as long as the head ; antenna) about as long as the body, filiform, rather thick and robust, black, the basal joint often pale in its under side, joints nineteen or twenty, clothed with a short inclined Ijcard ; two first joints shortest and compactly joined together, the basal one obpvate 172 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. and thickest ; remaininp; joints cylindric, about thrice as long as thick, ifarrowed at their bases and cut off transversely at their tips, separated by short pedicles ; last joint longer usually than its predecessor, egg-shaped. Thorax broader than the head, more deep than wide, egg-shaped, black and shining. Abdomen as long as the thorax but narrower, oval, viewed laterally broadest at the tip, highly polished, brownish black ; first segment narrower and forming a cylindrical pedicle, bright honey-yellow ; a dull yellow or olive band or spot on the suture between the second and third segments. Legs honey-yellow ; feet black, except at their bases, sometimes wholly black, tvith the shanks dusky. Wings transparent, slightly smoky ; veins of the anterior pair coarse, black or dark brown, becoming abruptly more slender, colorless and almost imperceptible on the hind part of the wing; stigma long triangular, salt white ; a single large irregular cell occupying the middle portion of the wing and bordering the stigma on its inner side, a short coarse transverse veinlet bounding this cell at its hind end, the two longitudinal veins between which this veinlet is placed becoming slender and abortive a short distance back of it, the outer vein remaining coarse twice the length that the inner one does, after passing the veinlet." The family CJialridkhc^ (from the Greek chalcos, copper, in allusion to the brilliant metallic lustre of many of the species,) contains many insects which arc to be regarded as beneficial, although some are parasitic upon different species of bees and wasps. They are generally of small size, the first joint of the antenna? long and erect, and the remaining joints bent or elbowed at this i)oint ; the hind femora much enlarged or swollen, and toothed beneath, the tibia? have a corresponding curve and fit closely to the under surface of the fcMuora wbon contracted ; the abdomen is generally attached to the thorax by a small peduncle. Figure 40 (magnified ; the perpendicular lino shows the length of the body,) represents a spe- cies belonging to the genus Chdicis of Fabricius, which I have never seen described. The ])revail- ing color of this insect is lemon-yellow, inclin- ing to greenish, anterior and middle pairs of feet j)aler ; anteniiie thirteen jointed, black with *''^" short close pile, except the basal joint, which is SECRETARY'S REPORT. 173 Ion*;, covered with yellowish hairs like the face, and having a yellow line beneath fiom its base almost to the extremity ; front yellow, with a dark fuscous streak between, and a broader one each side of the antenna?, the central streak dividing about the middle and enclosing a rhomboidal yellow spot containing a small fuscous dot of similar form ; vertex black, punctured ; eyes narrowly margined with yellow, and two small yellow spots between the ocelli ; thorax black, roughly punctured, clothed with scattered yellow, or reddish hairs, prothorax above with a trausverse yellow band, narrowing very much at tiie sides and expanding below into the anterior pair of feet, meso- thorax with two abbreviated yellow lines, nearly confluent toward the scutel ; tegulse black, punctured with yellow margin, and a small yellow spot just behind the t^gula, on the meso- thorax ; scutel large, greenish yellow, punctate, an abbreviated black band nearly, dividing it through the middle ; peduncle yellow, surrounded by a thin hyaline collar at its base, more than one-third as long as the abdomen ; abdomen greenish yellow, with two black spots, followed by five sutural bands of the same color, gradually diminishing in width to the apical one ; tip of the ovipositor almost concealed, fuscous ; posterior coxae polished black, slightly yellow near the base beneath ; femora greenish yellow, swollen, lenticular, seven or eight toothed, a large rounded black spot before the middle, curving narrowly backward beneath, including four teeth, and expand- ing slightly at the apex, an abbreviated slender black line above, and a large irregular black spot covering nearly the whole inner surface, and almost surrounding a small yellow spot near the apex ; tibia3 black at base, remainder of their length, as well as the tarsi, light yellow ; wings hyaline, faintly tinged with smoky, having a fuscous stigma and light brown veins. The specimen from which the figure and description were taken, is the only one I have seen, and is st, female ; if it should prove to' be hitherto undescribed, it may receive the specific name bracala, (l)reeches-wearing,) in allusion to the oi'iui- mental and trousered appearance of the posterior feet. It is about .32 in length. To this family also belong the small Pleroma/i, which attack the larvaj of various moths and butterflies, and deposit some- 174 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. times over one hundred eggs in a single caterpillar. I have repeatedly found the chrysalides of our common Antiopa hutterfly filled with the minute white larvae of a Pterdmalus, so closely packed that it seemed impossible for them to find room to pass through their transformations. It is, however, a well established fact, that in cases where insectivorous larvaa find themselves too numerous for convenience or safety, they will not hesitate to restore the balance by devouring their brothers and sisters. The family Proctotrupidce of Stephens, comprises also many minute species which are extremely beneficial to the agricul- turist. One genus, Plalt/g-aster, is mentioned in Dr. T. W. Harris's Treatise as attacking the Hessian fly ; and another species of the same genus, (figure 47, Harr., female magnified, the small cross lines at the right show the natural size,) is found very commonly in the egg of the canker-worm moth, and without *'^'*'' doubt at least one-third of the eggs are thus destroyed by this minute parasite. Figure 48, Harr., repre- sents a cluster of the eggs of the canker-worm moth, of the natural size, and five eggs at the right magnified. In the section of the Order Hymenoptera, ^ of which we have been speaking, we find no ^ highly concentrated poison secreted in glands Fig. 48. at the base of the ovipositor, which is calcu- lated almost solely as an instrument for laying eggs, and used only subordinately as a weapon of defence. We now come to a division where this instrument is modified in its form, and converted into a sharp needle-like apparatus, which contains in a groove on its under surface two still finer and sharper weap- ons, slightly notched toward the tips, and connecting with a poison sac at the base in the females, as well as with the ovaries. The poison is of an acid nature, so that when suffer- ing from a sting of a wasp or bee, we find liquid ammonia, or hartshorn, which is a strong alkali, to be an excellent antidote, as it neutralizes the poison and relieves the pain. The antennae in tliis division consist generally of thirteen joints in the males, and twelve in the females ; the abdomen of seven joints in the males, and six in the females ; the wings are veined, and the larva) are footless. To this section belong the ants, wasps and SECRETARY'S REPORT. 175 bees ; the first can hardly be considered as of particuhir benefit to the farmer ; the bees are siifiiciently well known as I'urnish- ing not only honey and wax for the use of man, but are of the greatest importance in the fertilization of many plants, by con- veying the pollen from flower to flower. It is with regard to the much abused wasps that something need be said, as although they may refresh themselves with an overripe grape, or choice apricot on occasion, their chief food in the larva state consists of other insects ; many species living entirely upon flies, a large majority upon the caterpillars of various moths, and others still upon spiders. These are collected by the parent and entombed in the nests which they construct for the reception of their eggs, being previously wounded or otherwise disabled from injuring the egg or tender larva of the wasp, but retaining suf- ficient vitality to preserve them fresh for the food of the young, which begin to devour this provision as soon as excluded. Pelopasus coBrHleus of Linnaeus, the blue mud-wasp, is one of the most common species in this country, and as its name implies, of a bright steel-blue varied with violet or purple reflections upon the wings, which are quite opaque, and in the females expand about 1.25 ; the antennas are dull black, with a greyish pile, and the head and thorax rather thickly clothed with short black hair ; the abdomen is attached to the thorax by a peduncle nearly as long as itself. The males are about .60 in length, and the females .75. Pulistes fuscdta of Fabricius, or the common brown wasp, is of a dark brown color, lined and spotted with reddish, or tawny yellow ; the wings are smoky, hyaline with a fulvous stigma, and the tarsi are pale yellow ; tlie peduncle connecting the thorax and abdomen is much shorter than in the preceding species, and the head ajid body are clothed with a close silky pile, giving it a lustre like satin. It is about the same size as the last. Our largest paper-making wasp, the Vi'spa macnhtta of Linnaeus, or spotted wasp, (figure 49,) is com- monly known in this country by the name of " white-faced hornet." In this genus the abdomen is sessile or fitting closely and squarely to the hinder part of the thorax, when Fig. 49. 176 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. the body is in a horizontal position, but is connected only by a minute articulation on the lower part of its base, so as to admit of free motion and great flexibility. The antennas are black above, becoming dusky toward t4ie tips ; beneath, the first joint whitish, the next darker, tlie third partially black, and the remainder fulvous. The head is whitish in front, marked with a distinct black T ; above this a square white spot between the eyes, which are also indented with white, and a small oblique black patch running backward from the base of each eye ; on the vertex and beliind the head is black, a broad yellowish white band beginning above the base of the mandibles, bound- ing the eyes behind ; thorax black, with a narrow whitish collar sending out two diverging whitish stripes to the base of the wings ; tegulae whitish at base, black and reddish at tip ; below the base of the wings on each side a large sub-triangular whitish spot ; abdomen black above, except the three last seg- ments, which are whitish behind with black sutures, and inden- tations in front, and a longitudinal black line down the middle. It is from .65 to .75 in length. This and the common " yellow jacket," Vespa vul^aris^ are often seen employed in catching flies and other insects, and in some parts of the country the large grey nest of a society is suspended in the house for the purpose of clearing it of flies. The genus Eumenes of Latreille, noted as feeding its young on canker-worms and similar geometric larvae, the genera, Beittbex, (a spinning-top,) and Crabro of Fabricius, and Odynerus of Latreille, (from the Greek, meaning painful,) are among the most useful of our insect destroyers ; and although many are guilty of pilfering sweets and nibbling fruit at times, beside being capable of inflicting painful wounds on human beings when molested, they should nevertlioless be placed in the beneficial class. The Order Hemiptera, containing the bugs, plant-lice, cicadas, tree-hoj)pers, and other insects furnished with a short jointed sucking-tube in place of jaws or mandibles, presents a great variety of forms, and modifications of character. It is usually divided into two sub-orders ; the one which includes those species having the fore-wings distinctly stiff and hard on the basal part, and membvanous and flexible on the apical extremity, is called HETERuriERA from the Greek signifying other, or SECRETARY'S REPORT. 177 different wings. This section comprises the " boat-men " " water-skaters " and many otlier aquatic species, all insectiv- orous, the Reduviid(c of Stephens, and other terrestrial groups, containing some of the most useful destroyers of insects, and a number of families almost exclusively herbivorous, and among the enemies of mankind, such as the bed-bug, squash-bug, plant-bugs of various kinds found on fruit and generally of an offensive smell and taste. The other sub-order Homoplera from the Greek meaning similar wings contains the vegetable- devouring species such as the Aphides, the vine and tree-hoppers, the harvest-flies, and the scale-insects or coccidce all of which subsist by sucking the sap of various plants, and are of great damage to agriculture. Many of the scale-insects, however, furnish mankind with substances of infinite value in the arts. The lac so extensively used throughout the world in the manu- facture of varnishes, sealing wax, &c., is produced by the punctures of the Coccus ficus of Fabricius ; the manna, which according to ancient history preserved the children of Irsael from starvation, and is used in the East to the present day as an article of food, is the production of another species of this wonderful family ; and the Mexican Coccus cacti furnishes the invaluable red coloring-matter known by the name of cochineal. The most prominent of the Heterdplera that are found in this State, feeding upon other insects are the following : the Noloneclidce, from the Greek, meaning back-swimmers, and often called boatmen, these are seen just beneath the surface of any still pool resting with the long hind-feet at right angles with the body, the tip of which just reaches the surface, while the head and body hang at an angle of several degrees. When disturbed they ply their oar-like feet with great rapidity steering for the bottom of the pool, but soon return to the top and keep watch for any unfortunate insect that may fall into the water, or the water-inhabiting species that are weaker and less active than itself. Figure 50 represents a species common in this State called Notontcta unduldta by Say, or the wavy boat-man. It is of a greenish white color above, with a black scutel, the anterior part of which seen beneath the semi-transparent thorax, tinges it with dusky or blackish ; the hemelytra or wing-covers are marked with brownish spots or streaks, those behind the middle *"'«• so. 23 178 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. forming a wavy, irregular, transverse band ; tlie body beneath is greenish yellow varied with black, and the feet are green ; the rostrum or beak with which it sucks the juices of other insects, is rather short and curved beneath the body when not in use, as is the case in most of the insects of this Order. It measures less than .45 in length. Randtra fusca of Palisot de Beauvois, or the fuscous Ranatra (the generic name seems to be derived from Rana, a frog) (figure 51) is one of the most singular of our native water-bugs. It belongs to the family Nepidce of Leach, or water-scorpions, containing the genera Nepa, of Linneeus, Ranatra of Fabricius, and Belosidma of Latreille, all represented in Massa- chusetts. This insect is very long and slender, of a nearly uniform light brown color above and paler beneath, the rostrum is exceedingly short and projects in front between the prominent black eyes, the antennae are invisible, but the long and curved fore-feet are raised and brandished before the head, and seem particularly fitted for seizing tbeir prey, while the hinder ones are still longer and more attenuated and are used as oars to propel the insect along the surface of the water ; tlie tip of the abdomen is furnished with two long seta; or bristles, which may aid it in balancing itself upon tbc water wben struggling with another insect, or in directing the laying of its eggs ; the wings are long, narrow, and folded closely upon its back not reaching the tip of the abdomen. It measures about 1.65 to the tip of the abdomen, and including the anal setas, over 2.75, The family Ilydromrtridcr of Leach, or water-measurers, con- tains among otliers our commonly known water-skater, Gem's palndnm of Fabricius, or the skater of the marsbes, (figure 52,) seen on every brook and pool during the summer swiftly Fig. 51. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 179 gliding over the surface in pursuit of its food. Its body is dusky black above, the feet and hemelytra of the same color ; beneath, silvery white ; it measures about .CO in length, and scarcely .12 across the widest part of the thorax ; the second pair of feet are exceedingly long, and the posterior pair but little less, the fore- feet being short and stout and fitted for rig. 52. grasping. Several others of this family are common to Massa- chusetts and are to be regarded as somewhat beneficial, inasmuch as they seize and destroy many noxious insects which have fallen into the water by accident and would if not captured by the inhabitants of this element make their escape and continue their work of destruction. Of the terrestrial or land inhabiting Heteroptera the family ReduviidcB oi Stephens, is perhaps the most serviceable to man- kind. They are found upon plants of all kinds piercing the tender bodies of vegetable eating insects and sucking their juices. Pirates picipes of Ilerrick Scliaeffer or the pitchy-footed Pirates (figure 53,) is one of the most common in Massachusetts. It is of a deep black color with hairy antennse and feet and measures about .0 in length. Nabis ferus of Fabricius, or the savage Nabis, a much smaller insect of a yellowish brown color, the hemelytra spotted and lined with *'^' ^^' fuscous, and a much longer and more slender rostrum than the last, is equally common in this State and feeds upon various small insects of tender consistence. It measures about .25 in length. Various species belonging to the typical genus Reduvius are also found here, one of the most remarkable of which is the Reduvius persondtus of Linneeus, or masked Reduvius, probably introduced into this country from Europe. It is often found in and about houses, is said to feed chiefly on the bed-bug, Cimex leciularius, Linnseus, and is noted for its peculiar habit of collecting and clothing itself with bits of lint and particles of dust, so as to present a very odd appearance. This habit is persisted in only during its larva and pupa stages, and so faithfully that a specimen enclosed in a box, with no material for this purpose, is recorded to have divested its cast 180 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. off skin of this coating of dust in order to re-clothe its naked- ness. The imago is not unlike our figure of the pitchy-footed Pirates above, in general appearance. Phymdla erdsa of Fabricius, or the eroded Phymata, (figure 54,) (the generic name is derived from the Greek phyma, a swelling or tumor and was applied to this genus on account of their enlarged anterior feet,) belongs to the family Tingidce of Westwood, and is unlike most of its congeners a friend of the cultivator. It is pale green, with dark brown head, thorax and hemelytra, the terminal joint of the antennje elongated and swollen, of the same color, and a band across the widest part of the abdomen. The head is indented before with a deep longitudinal groove on its upper surface ; three similar grooves on the thorax, as if gnawed by the teeth of a small animal, give it the trivial name of erosa or gnawed ; the abdomen is angularly dilated behind the middle and not covered by the wings, and the tibiee of the anterior pair of feet enormously enlarged, the curved tarsi fitted to their circumference when folded. The specimens in the State Cabinet vary in length from .30 to .40 and in breadth of the abdomen across the dilation from .15 to .22. These insects have been taken in great numbers upon the linden trees in the city of Boston, and were seen in the act of devouring the Aphides wMiicli have infested the shade trees of this city for several years past. They are described by a gentleman who watched their operations with great interest, as " stealing up to a louse, cooly seizing and tucking it under t!ie arm, then inserting the beak and sucking it dry." They are supposed to feed also on other vegetable-eating insects as well as the plant louse. The Order Diptera, or two-winged insects, containing the moscpiitos, gnats and flies, is distinguit^hcd from all otiiers, by the apparent absence of the posterior wings ; the place of these is supplied, however, by two small fiKments clubbed at the tip, called haltercs, poisers, or balancers, while the fore-wings are fully developed in most of the species, and ])crform all the functions of both. They are in general furnished with a fleshy proboscis, containing various pointed and barl)ed piercing instruments, and their tarsi are composed of five articles or joints. Their habits are extremely various, and their number beyond computation. Some pass their larva and pupa stages beneath the water, like the Neiirojdera ; as, for instance, the SECRETARY'S REPORT. 181 mo?qiiitos. Otlicrs in these stages feed on tlie blood of living animals, as the bot-flies and gad-flies ; many species subsist entirely on toad-stools and other fungous plants ; many con- struct galls on various annuals ; the blow-fly and others of that class live upon putrifying animal matter ; the common house- fly passes its preparatory stages in excrement; the Tachhiidm glue their eggs on the skin of various caterpillars, and their larvas enter and devour the juices of the animal, resembling the ichneumon in their liabits ; some are said even to attack and feed upon the eggs or bodies of spiders, the traditional enemies of the race, thus consummating a species of poetic retribution. The Hessian fly, the veheat-miut the best they had ever seen." As I had bought SECRETARY'S REPORT. 225 a Stcinway only a few months before, it was gratifying to have my judgment of it so emphatically confirmed. Of the works oi art exhibited by Americans, though not numerous, it may be said that they were creditable in the highest degree to the country. The quality and high character of the paintings, photograplis and engravings were not sur- passed by any other nation, and, in the opinion of many disin- terested judges, they were not equalled ; and if Church had been there with his " Heart of the Andes " and his " Niagara," I have little doubt that they would have attracted more atten- tion than any other works of the kind. Space will not permit me to dwell longer upon this depart- ment, but I cannot omit to mention that the master-pieces of sculpture were those of our own citizen, W. W. Story. Though exhibited in the Roman court, they are no less American. His "Cleopatra" cannot fail to add largely to his already bril- liant reputation as an artist. This faultless and exquisitely beautiful statue is of pure white marble. Nothing can exceed the chasteness and simplicity of the design. She sits a queen, the elbow of the right arm resting on the back of the chair, the head leaning upon her hand. The drapery clothes the whole body except the splendid neck, the exquisitely rounded arms and one sandled foot. The expression is full of thought, as if a shade of sadness weighed upon the heart. Story's " Sybilla Libica" is also a splendid work of art, in faultless marble, and attracted very great attention. Both works were disposed of to Englishmen, at very great prices. During my stay in London I made an excursion to Tiptree Hall Farm, in Essex. This farm is well known by reputation in this country, as that of Mr. Alderman Mechi, of London. It is forty-four miles from the city. It consisted originally of one hundred and tiiirty, afterwards increased to one hundred and seventy acres, of heath almost barren, which by extraordinary labor and expense has been converted into a very productive, highly cultivated and beautiful farm, thoroughly under-drained and furnislied with the means of applying the manure in a liquid form, from a central cistern through pipes laid under- ground, radiating to various parts of the farm, through which tlie manure is forced by steam-power. 29 226 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. More than ninety miles of drain tiles have been laid, at dis- tances of four yards apart, and from thirty-two inches to five feet deep. The soil is stiff and retentive, with a loamy sub- soil, and without draining not very productive. The depth of the more recently laid drains is mucli greater than those laid when the operations were begun twenty years ago, experience having taught that the deep drains, often five or six feet, are the most effective. But Mr. Mechi thinks that ordinarily in strong tenacious soils four or five feet is enough, the distance between the drains being about thirty-three feet. In making a five feet drain the opening at the top is but eighteen inches, thus saving the labor of digging any unnecessary amount of earth. The pipe most frequently used is one inch bore, that being sufficient to remove the water under any ordinary circumstances. For every three hundred yards of drain he thinks there should be a leader or main drain, and an open ditch for every seven or eight acres. Mr. Mechi believes in thin sowing, after his lands are prop- erly drained and prepared. He sows but one bushel of wheat per acre, but then thin sown wheat requires weeding, which is done with a horse machine. All his wheat crops are drilled in, which makes it very easy to weed and stir the soil often. The wheat, when I was tliere, was as stout and good as I ever saw, and the foreman said he should get sixty bushels per acre on one or two of the lots, and from fifty-six to sixty on all. For barley he sows from six to eight pecks, and for oats two bushels per acre. I could not help observing that every thing about the prem- ises looked as if designed for use and profit, rather than for show. Nothing, or very little, appeared as if designed for mere fancy. There was an air of work about the whole which was hardly to be expected on an English farm. Steam is made to do a great variety of things, and I had an opportunity of seeing tlie processes of grinding grain, cutting and pulping roots, sawing, ranch and their olfshoots, covers a space of two thousand two hundred scjuare feet. In 1861 this vine bore nine liundred pounds, not all cut off till February. When I was there it had on it one thousand three hundred clusters, largo and fine. All the fruit goes to the royal family. The floor of the vine house is of flat stone. About a third part of it consi:^ts of excavations or holes five or six inches SECRETARY'S REPORT. 229 square, and a yard apart, filled with sulphur to prevent mildew. The rays of the sun, it was said, cause it to act upon the vine- I often saw powdered sulphur sprinkled upon the leaves of the vine in Italy to prevent the disease which has been so fatal to the grape for seven years past, but this was the only place ^vhere I saw it used thus, that is, placed around the roots. As the house was completely filled by the vino trained overhead and down at the sides, the gardener was asked why it was not enlarged, to which he replied that " it was thought best not to let the vine bear any more than that would hold." In another part of the grounds there is what is called the Maze, or Labyrinth, covering about a third of an acre, and so arranged that it would puzzle the most skilful engineer to find his way out. It is formed of growing beech cut down to six feet high and about a foot thick, trimmed up perfectly square on the sides and top. It was formed in the reign of King William III., and is still in perfect preservation. Men, women and children were trying to navigate their way in and out, and it was a source of no small amusement both to them and the lookers-on. Windsor Castle is about twenty miles above London, on the banks of the Thames. It was built by William the Con- queror soon after he mounted the throne, and Edward the Third having been born there, and having a peculiar love for the place, erected a magnificent new palace, which still remains, the most complete and perfect and, in many respects, the most interesting specimen of a royal feudal castle of the middle ages to be found in Europe. 230 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Situated on a beautiful elevation, it overlooks one of the most lovely and finished landscapes in all England. Looking down from the " castled keep," Eton College stands almost at your feet, and off beyond the town rises the graceful spire of Stoke Pogis Church, the spot which gave inspiration to the Poet Gray, whose " Elegy in a Country Churchyard " is the sweetest gem of the language ; while a little to the left, in Stoke Park, is the seat of the Penns, whose name will be for- ever associated with the history of Pennsylvania, and near by which are the remains of an old house of Coke, one of the great lights of English \^w; while here at the right, a little, is Slough, where Sir William Herschel made his observations as an astronomer, with the great telescope, the largest ever con- structed. The remains of this great man lie over there yonder in the old Norman Church at Upton. But here, in tlie opposite direction, down the river, is old Windsor, where the old Saxon and early Norman kings first fixed their seat, and there is Runnymede, where the proud barons wrung the Magna Charta from King John in 1215. Twelve counties can be seen from this lofty tower in a clear day. Windsor Castle is the seat of Her Majesty the Queen, and of her ancestors clear back to the conquest. One cannot pass through its endless succession of halls and towers without the reflection that many of the brightest as well as the blackest pages of English history are connected with the spot. The houses of York and Lancaster struggled for its possession. Here were signed the decrees which lighted the fires of Smith- field. These walls have witnessed the extinction of royal houses, and in turn sheltered the great actors in the Common- wealth. Here Cromwell thundered away to all Europe against the persecution of men for their Protestantism. The names of warriors, statesmen, divines, poets, some of the brightest names as well as the blackest on the pages of history are forever con- nected with the annals of this castle. Many state prisoners were confined here. As we arrive, the Audience Chamber is first entered. It is a gorgeous room, the ceiling painted by Verrio, representing the coronation of Esther and tlie triumph of Mordccai in Goberlin tapestry. There are portraits of Mary Queen of Scots, rotecting the brain from the cold, and very little from the heat of a southern sun. It is unique and comical. J3ut here we are in the city of Lyons, the city of silks, the rival of Paris in commercial importance. It is a city of hills on which it sits as upon a throne, with the Soane and tho Rhone at its feet. Without loss of time wo engaged a carriage luiil drove over the most interesting parts of the town, calling ul some of the most extensive and noted silk manufactories, of SECRETARY'S REPORT. 258 which there are no less than seven tlionsand here. They are lofty buildings of many stories filled with hand looms from top to bottom. The workmen very politely showed us the process of weaving silks and velvets, and how the beautiful figures are wrought in. Among others, a life-likeness of Abraham Lincoln was shown us as just finished. A lofty hill rises above the city, on the top of which stands an old, celebrated convent. It was in the ascent to this beau- tiful spot, just before the setting of the sun that the glorious form of Mont Blanc first burst in all its majesty upon our view, and I could not help shouting out, in true sophomoric style, the well known apostrophe of Coleridge, so often repeated as a college declamation, beginning — "Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star In his steep course ? So long he seems to pause On thy bald, awful head, O Sovereign Blanc ! " The atniospliere was clear, and the sun lingered upon and lighted up the eternal snow and ice of the grandest mountain peak in Europe, tinging it with red and pink, so that, though many miles otf, it seemed but a short distance from us. A beautiful incident occurred here, which illustrates the respect for the dead so common among many European nations. Just before arriving at the summit, our driver exclaimed, " c' est le ci me Here,'' that is the cemetery, in a peculiarly hushed and subdued tone, which indicated the reverence which he felt for the ol)ject to which he called our attention. This is akin to the respect the Frenchmen manifest by always stopping and raising the hat on the passing of a funeral procession. When Julius Caesar led his Roman legions across the moun- tains for the conquest of Gaul, Lyons was so small and insigni- ficant that he did not even name it. He halted and pitched his camp upon this hill, and left such permanent marks here that the lapse of nearly twenty centuries has not effaced them. The Gauls were then divided into many petty nations or tribes. Caesar conquered many of them, and after his death, one of his friends, together with many soldiers who had fought under him, founded a colony at the foot of the hill, at the confluence of the two rivers and built up the city, which became a sort of centre of communication of the great military roads that Agrippa 254 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. marked out under the command of Augustus ; and it was acknowledged as the chief of more than sixty cities of the Gauls, who built there at common expense a magnificent temple to Augustus, where he was worshipped as their divinity till the reign of the Roman monster Caligula, when it was appropriated to the use of an academy. This was subsequently burnt, and now, on the spot where it stood, rises the church of Ainai, a monument of a former age, its dome supported by four granite pillars. Then there is the cathedral of St. John, enriched by many a souvenir of the early crusades, and the Hotel de Ville, with its architecture of Louis Fourteenth, whose equestrian statue stands as one of the chief attractions of the Place Belle- cour, one of the most magnificent squares in Europe. The most beautiful part of the city is on a tonge of land between the Soane and the Rhone. Li spring and summer, when swollen by the melting of snow upon the mountains, the Rhone is much larger than in winter, but the flood of the Soane is in the winter. The Rhone rises on the St. Gothard, and runs first into Lake Geneva, and after resting awhile, glides on, pure and clear, but is soon joined by the muddy Arv6, and enters the borders of France. The basin of the Soane and the Rhone, in France, includes an area of no less than twenty-eight millions of acres. This great river may therefore be considered as the only channel by which all the waters of this immense Mediterranean basin are emptied into the sea. Its length is about six hundred miles. The Arv(3 brings to it the waters from the west slope of the mountains of Savoy, including Mont Blanc. Tiicn comes the Soane, and, below Lyons, the Isere brings down the waters from Mont Cenis and the valleys below, and still lower down the Drome and the Durance. We left Lyons by boat early in the morning, for a run of nearly two hundred miles down the Rhone. I shall never forget the impression this trip made upon my mind. The banks of the river are often very steep, hemmed in by lofty hills, covered with vines from the base to the top, while the ruins of old feudal castles and Roman chateaux lend a constant charm to its whole course. Tradition points to a little spot a few miles below Lyons as the tomb of Pontius Pilate. It is an old monument, only a few rods from the river, of great anti- SECRETARY'S REPORT. 255 quity. It is well known that this region was a Roman province in the time of Christ, and a thousand remains of this flourish- ing period still show tlie degree of civilization to which they had attained here. Witness the old bridge at Avignon, and the castles and watch-towers all down the banks of the Rhone. But I do not know on what specific foundation the tradition rests, or what color of truth attaches to it. From the numerous other traditions of this conscience-stricken wanderer, along this river, it is altogether probable that he visited this region during the latter part of his troubled life, and perhaps his bones were laid where the tradition places them. I did not believe, at the time, that the Rhine could be more beautiful than the vine-clad Rhone, and I do not think now that it is. The celebrated Hermitage vineyard crowns the sides of a lofty hill on the left, and a little lower down on the right, but two miles from the river, is the almost equally cele- brated St. Peray. It is, I suppose, the quality of the soil that gives this section its high reputation for the quality of wine ; but the location of the Hermitage is unsurpassed, lying in a great basin, with a southern or south-western exposure. Thou- sands of acres along the Rhone are terraced up the sides of lofty hills with incredible labor, step rising above step in almost endless succession. In the more southern part of this valley the culture of the mulberry begins, and we are scarcely out of the old city of Avignon before the whole face of the country appears to be covered with mulberry trees. In 1789, it is said, the produce of the mulberry district was six thousand tons of cocoons worth $3,000,000. In 1853 it had increased to 25,000 tons, worth more than $20,000,000. I suppose the whole process of silk growing is more manufacturing than agricultural, still the care of the trees and gathering of the leaves partakes of the latter character. This does not take much time, and on a plantation, wholly or chiefly devoted to this business, the sub- sistence of the whole year depends on the labor of a few weeks. When all goes well the silk growers prosper, but bad years often bring great distress upon tliose who rely mainly upon this industry. It is uncertain, and often depends on circumstances over which the laborer has no control. 256 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. "We here come upon the olive, also, and all the way to Marseilles, with the exception of a vast tract of barren sand, the olive grows with luxuriance. The fig also grows here so easily that it is seen in the most barren sands and rocks, clinging as tenaciously as our white birch or the pine. I was astonished to see fine shrubs loaded with figs along the railway, shooting up wherever a vacant spot could be found, and hardy as a weed. The vine is also to be found here, but it is not so common as farther up the river. Heavy crops of wheat, madder, tobacco and vegetables are seen in every direction. Still farther south, in Provence, the orange and the lemon flourish, but I did not penetrate into that province. The way to Marseilles lies through a vast barren tract, extending it is said over thirty thousand acres, but before reaching the great port of the Mediterranean, groves of olives and mulberries begin to reappear, and a large region is covered with orchards of them. The olive grows on a tree often as large as a medium sized apple tree, and where much care is given to it, appears in rows well trimmed or headed in, but when neglected, as we saw it around Nice, grows straggling and wild, and is covered with black warts and a rough bark, like a badly neglected plum tree. Passing through one of the longest tunnels in France, we are at once in Marseilles, and in a few minutes riding over the city visiting the most noted churches and cathedrals, the most popular drives, and other points of interest. Here we first lieard through the American consul of the reverses which had befallen our hitherto victorious arms, in the battles near Richmond, and it was with a heavy heart that we left on a pretty little steamer to run round to Nice, the first trip on the blue waters of the Mediterranean. It was a clear summer's night, and we sat long watching the shores on the southern coast of France, and the distant peaks of the Alps, whose lofty spurs reach almost to the sea. Early morning brought us into the pretty harbor of Nice, and here, as elsewhere, we lost no time in securing an open carriage for a drive to the objects of interest in the neighbor- hood. It was hot and dusty, but that was to be expected. Nice formerly belonged to Piedmont, but now to France. It is a flourishing city of some thirty-five thousand inhabitants, SECRETARY'S REPORT. 257 largely engaged in the preparation of silk, thread and per- fumery. A lofty peak rises up between the old town and the new, close by the shore of the bay, and affords a most beautiful and extensive view of the sea, of the city at its base, and of the surrounding country. This peak is covered with trees and walks, cemeteries and an ancient chateau. The century plant here grows wild and luxuriantly, and some few had shot up their rare and lofty flower-stalks, and were covered with beau- tiful blossoms. The fig, the olive, the mulberry, the peach, and other fruits are abundant, in and around Nice. Cimi^s is some four or five miles out of the town, and con- tains an ancient and extensive convent, and the interesting ruins of a grand old Roman amphitheatre, whicli we visited. Its size indicated that it must have been made to accommodate many thousands of people. Here the grounds around the numerous villas were surround- ed by very high fences on either side of the road, built solid, so as to make them very difficult to scale, to prevent the access of intruders. Every thing indicated the most careful guard against theft. The profusion of fruit and the luxuriance of vegetation characterize the whole country. Nature is lavish of her favors here. A day was all that we could devote to Nice, but it was suffi- cient to see the town, the churches and the country around, and just at night we were on the way again for Genoa, and the next morning found us entering the harbor of that beautiful city of palaces, the port of Sardinia. Genoa contains a population of nearly a hundred and fifty thousand, and manufactures large quantities of filagree silver articles of various descriptions for export. The cathedral of San Lorenzo, built in the eleventh century, is a very imposing structure, while the Chapel of St. John the Baptist, connected with it, and into which no female is allowed to enter except on one day in the week, is the richest portion of it. What could have led that old Pope Innocent the Eighth to impose such a restriction upon the freedom of women ? Was it pater- nal solicitude ? fear of disturbing the devotion of his dear sons ? And why admit the pretty feet to cross the marble threshold at all after excluding them six days in the week ? I do not know that tradition has left a satisfactory answer. 33 258 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. St. Annunciata and St. Maria Carignano are magnificent churcliGs. The liilly suburbs of Genoa are crowded with many splendid villas, long ranges of fortifications, richly cultivated orchards and gardens, and the view of the Mediterranean is full of grandeur and beauty. A day or two is sufficient to see Genoa, and the same may be said of Leghorn, especially for a party of four, when it is a matter of economy, both of time and money, to keep a hack at command and to keep it at work. Still it may be said that it is a luxury to linger longer and give one's self up to the enjoyment of an Italian landscape. That was not our object. We were not there for pleasure, and I think we made as much of the time as any other four travellers that had preceded us, and that our powers of endurance and capacity for work astonished the luxurious Italians quite as much. We cannot say very much for the agriculture of Italy as a whole, though we may place that of Lombardy and in the neighborhood of Genoa, where agriculture still maintains a high degree of perfection, judging from the results produced, in the front rank. In many other parts it languishes to such an extent as to make it difficult to appreciate the fact that it is only three or four hundred years since the agriculture of Italy was the first in Europe. The ancient splendor of this country, so far as represented in its agriculture, is gone. Either it has positively deteriorated, or else other nations have so far out- stripped it in progress as to leave it far behind. And yet there are locations, as already intimated, where nature and art combine to produce the most astonishing results. The climate is favorable in the highest degree for the growth and perfection of many kinds of fruits. The life of the people seems to be devoted much to the pursuit of pleasure, though not so much as in more southern Italy, where pleasure appears to be the only business of all who can manage to live without doing any thing. The Corso, or grand promenade, is the place for courting, where anxious mammas send their pretty, dark-eyed daughters, in their splendid silk dresses, their white gauze vails, called pezottos, fluttering around their slender, fascinating figures, to grace and embellish the person, without even casting a shadow upon their sweot faces. Social life would aj)pear to be at a low ebb, SECRETARY'S REPORT. 269 and the track is resorted to as a substitute, as a place to show off to best advantage the many fine points of the young ladies and the young gentlemen who are too glad to avail themselves of its superior facilities. Another grand opportunity is afforded at the villa Pallavicino, a beautiful elevated pleasure-ground, adorned witii temples, ruins, Swiss chalets and pagodas, among groves of laurel and other graceful trees, rocks, lakes and hills, giving the finest prospect imaginable to the curving, half moon harbor, and so off over the blue waters of the sea. As you pass through the pretty artificial grotto made of the most gorgeous stalactites, you come out upon a little lake of clear, crystal water, sur- rounded by obelisks and other ornamental structures, rare flowers and seats of porcelain, jets from unseen fountains and marble temples, and the stranger might easily persuade himself that he is in the land of the fairies. We cannot forget that this beautiful city was once the seat of a proud republic, and the old marble palaces, now either in ruins, or converted to the baser purposes of life, only serve to remind us of the wealth and splendor of a haughty nobility. Our hotel was one of these palaces, situated upon the very shore that once gave shelter to a thriving commerce, that reached out its strong arms to gather in the riches of many less favored lands. There is here still the aristocracy of a past age, who, without comprehending the spirit of the present, or without the energy to direct it, take no part in its development, but look back upon the grandeur of their ancestry, vainly hoping, like Wilkins Micawber, for something to " tui-n up." They sympathize little with the activities of the hour, and were it not for the growing power and influence of other classes who once looked up to them in humble obeisance, little hope would there be for a newer life and glory for Italy. But the hour is coming. We cannot look upon the splendid marble monument and statue of Columbus that adorns this city, without a thought of the faith that led him to look over the sea to a new and fresher world beyond, and the changes going on around us, point clearly enough to the dawning of a brighter day, and quicken our faith in the future prosperity and happiness of a country which once stood forth to the world as a model of human greatness and civilization. 260 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Our course lay through Leghorn to Pisa and Florence. The tourist always stops at Pisa to see the leaning tower, and the far-famed cathedral. The tower is the campanile, built for the bells of the cathedral long ago, when Pisa, but eight miles from the mouth of the Arno, was powerful, the head of a great republic, independent on the sea and on the . land. It is only since the beginning of the fifteenth century that it has formed a part of Tuscany. The jealousies and the strug- gles to which they gave rise, between Pisa and the republic of Genoa and that of Florence, ended at last in a death-blow from which the former never recovered. But the cathedral, the tower, the baptistry, and the Campo Santo still stand, as the gray monuments of its age of glory, extending over a long period, from the tenth to the fourteenth century. In this old cathedral, built in the eleventh century, Galileo, then but eighteen, first discovered the principle of the pendulum, which was suggested by the swinging of a lamp suspended from the ceiling. Here is an old antique statue of the god Mars, found near by, and to make it at all appropriate as an ornament to a Christian church, it was baptized, or christened — a marble statue — as San Piso. The Campo Santo is a museum of monuments, or tombs, the corridors filled with headless, or noseless, or armless, or otherwise mutilated figures, while the soil of the graveyard, surrounded by a marble railing, was all brought from Jerusalem in fifty galleys owned by the republic. After tearing ourselves away from the crowd of the most abject and troublesome beggars, men, women and children, whose importunities were in the highest degree annoying, we ascended to the top of the tower, and had a fine view of the whole surrounding country. The neighborhood is very produc- tive ; in fact one vast fertile plain. Apples hung in immense quantities. The grape is here trained to trees planted for the purpose, and allowed to climb often to considerable heights, and not kept down as in the vineyards of France. Mulberries are growing everywhere. Here we saw grain threshed by the treading of cattle, as in ancient times. In the yard of almost every farm-house is a large circular floor, which appeared to be paved or laid in a kind of cement, made for the purpose of treading out the grain. The ploughs were of the most primi- tive construction, having one upriglit stick which served for a SECRETARY'S REPORT. 261 handle fastened into a log of wood bent so that one end would root into the ground. Tiie other implements were of nearly equal rudeness, and yet the crops, owing to the richness of the soil, to high manuring, or to some other cause, appeared to be luxuriant, and to yield in abundance. During much of the journey in this part of Tuscany, women of all ages were seen gathering the grass and herbage along the railway and by the sides of the road. Every thing that would do to braid was pulled, laid in heaps till the load was sufficient, and then lugged oif on the top of the head. It reminded us of the old woman of Goldsmith's " Deserted Village " : — "Yon widowed, solitary thing That feebly bends beside the plashy spring, She, wretched matron, forced in age, for bread, To strip the brook with mantling cresses spread." It was only another of the innumerable instances of the careful and minute painstaking to save every thing that could possibly be turned to account. Here, and in many other parts of the continent, we often saw women and boys going about the streets, picking up every thing that could be made into manure, the droppings of cattle and horses, with the most scrupulous care, sometimes in aprons, more frequently in baskets, which when full were thrown over the shoulder, with straps to come under the arms, and borne off. We passed through the valley of the Arno, and arrived at Florence towards evening, and the next morning went to drive to the top of Fiesold, to look out over the whole region of Florence — a landscape of surpassing loveliness. At our feet almost stood Mario's villa. Fiesold was built by the Tuscans, long before the foundation of Rome. Parts of the immense walls of the ancient town are still in perfect preservation, though their antiquity can be traced for more than four thousand, some say five thousand years. There is, I suppose, no doubt that they have stood more than four thousand years. Here we went through and had the satisfaction of seeing the management of vineyards, under the guidance of the tenant, who appeared to be very intelligent and to take an interest in showing us the objects of most interest, and among others the ruins of an ancient amphitheatre, with the dens where the wild beasts were kept till let out into the 262 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. arena. We descended Into these, and could see where the food was let down. They are in fact nearly as perfect as when made. Here we saw and could handle the Tuscan plough, and study its not very elaborate construction. It suggested the query, why don't some American implement maker establish a commission for the sale of his wares in this old country ? The grapes here, as in other parts of Italy, were trained to trees planted for the purpose, and not allowed to grow more than fifteen or twenty feet high, and the vines hang often from one to the other in graceful festoons, which give the whole a peculiar beauty, which none of the vineyards in other parts of Europe possessed. Here, as elsewhere, powdered sulphur is sprinkled over the grapes, to prevent the disease which has been so fatal to the grape for the last seven or eight years. It is said to be effectual. After a shower, which washes off the sulphur, it has to be renewed. We saw many of the clusters already attacked by the disease, but if the sulphur is imme- diately applied it arrests its progress. Florence is one of the most attractive cities in Europe, both from the beauty of its situation and the riches of its artistic collections. A drive on the Cascine, or in fact in any direction beyond the walls, carries us through orchards of fruit trees, peaches, pears, figs and magnolias ; while the innumerable marble palaces, churches, and other costly edifices, attest the grandeur and magnificence of the days of the republic, when art established here her seat, and wealth gathered in from other Italian cities and towns the numberless relics of the past, of Tuscan splendor and Roman greatness. It would be impossible even to give a faint idea of the collec- tions of the old masters within this city without going beyond the proper limits of this sketch. The church of San Lorenzo, with the splendid sacristry,.and Michael Angelo's chapel, con- taining the great original of " Day and Night ; " Santa Croce, with its beautiful paintings ; the Pitti Palace and Museum, containing such world-renowned works as Canova's Venus, the Young Apollo, and a thousand others, almost equally cele- brated ; the cathedral, built with the design " of being tlic largest and most splendid building which it was iu human power to erect, and so perfect that nothing more beautiful or larger could be thought of — decided upon by most of the citizens SECRETARY'S REPORT. 263 united in one will ; " the bronze gates of the baptistery, on which Ghiberti worked for fourteen years, and which Michael Angelo declared to be worthy to form the gates of paradise, all point to a period when, as Machiavelli declared, '' our city was in a condition of unparalleled prosperity and success; when she was affluent in people, treasure and honor; when she possessed thirty thousand citizens capable of bearing arms, to which seventy thousand might be added from the country. The entire population of Tuscany obeyed her partly as subjects, partly as allies, and though distrust and hatred prevailed between the nobles and the people, yet, so far, no evil results had followed, but all lived united and at peace." But war came upon her, as it may come upon other republics and nations, and Guelphs and Ghibellincs broke in upon the harmony, and destroyed the prosperity of the country, by their private family quarrels tind their contentions, which led to bloody and relentless war, till the Florentine republic sank, after two centuries of prosperity, and foreign princes took the reins which mad partisans could not hold. Republican liberty fell, and notwithstanding a mild absolute government followed, the people have longed in vain for the independence which they so foolishly threw away. Judging from the tone of those with whom we came in contact, there must be many here who are burning for the struggle for liberty to begin, and all seemed to look to Garibaldi as the champion wlio in some way or other would lead them to a higher political life and being. It was almost impossible to sleep here, the noise in the streets being kept up all night, troops of boys or men perambulating the streets singing operas. Women stood along the sidewalks frying pancakes, for sale all hot and steaming from the pan, and thousands came early in the morning of Sunday to the market, bringing fruits of every description, grapes, peaches, pears, plums, fine and cheap, loaded on the bending backs of stupid donkeys, and some with hens and chickens, with immense red crowns, which are here, as in Genoa and Leghorn, cooked and eaten as a great delicacy. Sometimes we would see the lazy men riding, and the hard-working women leading the horse or donkey with a cart loaded with vegetables. These are trifling circumstances, to be sure, but they serve to show us the characters and habits of the people. 264 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Ill passing through the streets of Florence we often see houses bearing over the door, or on the front, some inscription in gilt letters, such as " Here lived and died the prince of tragedy, Alfieri ;" " Here dwelt Machiavelli ;" " Here lived Dante ;" while the house of Michael Angelo is still preserved just as it was when that great artist lived in it, with the furni- ture and the decorations preserved, and it now belongs to one of his descendants. It is open to visitors two or three times a week. About ten miles out of Florence we saw a cattle-show, held in a beautiful grove, near the banks of the Arno. The cattle, all of a dark iron gray, the black predominating on some parts, and on others the white a little, but all uniform, with lofty branching horns, decorated with colored ribbons and variegated tassels, came in from considerable distances, and we had a good opportunity to see and admire them. At Leghorn we had a bath in the Mediterranean, and a taste of the little miserable oysters, the best the sea afforded, but infinitely inferior to our own. In fact they were quite detest- able, but it had been so long since we had been able to get oysters of any kind, that we made up our minds to worry them down. It had been our desire to take the inland route from Florence to Rome, and so on to Naples, but the state of the country was so unsettled and so infested with banditti, that we were inva- riably advised to abandon our intention and to go by another way, round by sea. I had heard the Earl of Derby remark, in the English House of Lords, that there were, at that time, no less than sixteen thousand of these roving bandits in Italy, and as wc had no time to bother with them, we concluded that " prudence was the better part of valor," and so took the slow sailing steamer Sicilia, directly for Naples, running down in sight of Elba, Corsica and Sardinia, and of the great dome of St. Peters at Rome, distinctly seen, though twenty miles off. The time glided quickly away, and we at last came in sight of Ischia and Procida, and that great smoking chimney of the earth, Vesuvius, and not long after rounded about into the grand and beautiful Bay of Naples, passing Baia) and Pozzuoli, and soon coming to anchor near the shore. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 265 The situation of Naples is probably finer, on the whule, than that of any other city in the world. Grandeur indeed is as much a characteristic of that city, as size is of London, or beauty of Florence. Wo were soon located in couifortable quarters, looking out upon the bay, and in sight of Voisuvius, and after the necessary preliminary arrangements, took a drive over the city to get as good a general idea of it as possible at the outset, and then over the beautiful road to Pausilipo. This was just at sunset of an excessively hot day, and all the fashion and splendor of Naples appeared .to have turned out for an airing, after being shut up all day in their houses to avoid the heat. It gave us a better idea of the life of that class of people than we could have got in a week at any other hour of the day. We met the two princes, sons of Victor Emanuel, who were in Naples at that time, and showed themselves freely to the people. The streets of Naples are paved with lava, and like those of most other southern cities are narrow, the houses very lofty, an arrangement no doubt designed for protection from the heat of summer. All the buildings have that peculiarly light and airy coloring which is seen in the paintings of southern European cities. Tliey are built mostly of tufa, a kind of volcanic rock, very easily quarried. The environs of the city are as attractive as the city itself, more so in fact. Innumerable villas overlook the circling bay, most of them surrounded by gardens and walks shaded by the beautiful trees, olives, blossoming olean- ders, vines with their luscious clusters hanging in graceful festoons, groves of oranges and lemons, loaded with their golden fruit, and pomegranates in the utmost profusion. We remained here nearly a week, and hot as it was, improved every hour. Pompeii is about twelve miles from Naples, and we started very early in the morning to spend a day among its strange and interesting ruins. It is well known that this luxurious city was overwhelmed and buried by the ashes and cinders of Vesuvius in the year 79 after Christ, and that it remained wholly unknown down to about the middle of the last century, when it was accidentally discovered, and excavations com- menced. Nothing has thrown so much light upon the domestic economy of the ancients as the discoveries which have been made there. It stands forth now an immense city, though not 34 266 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. yet all laid open. Many men, when we were there, were employed in the excavations under the direction of the govern- ment, and we saw many of the articles which had been recently found, as well as an immense number that have been discovered there during the researches of the last century and a half, now preserved in the Museo Borbonico at Naples. We see Pompeii just as it was nearly eighteen centuries ago. The gates, the walls, the streets, the fountains, the public baths, the Forum, with its lofty and magnificent marble columns, the tombs, the temples remain, though stripped, to a great extent, of the magnificent works of art, the inimitable frescoes, and other decorations which adorned them when all was so suddenly swallowed up. As we stand and gaze upon the whole or upon any of its splendid parts, one cannot help a feeling of wonder and amazement at the vast wealth, the boundless luxuHance of this corrupt city. The pavement of the streets appears with its solid stone, worn, in many places, into deep ruts. Bakers' shops, and stalls used for an infinite variety of purposes, all indicated by characteristic articles found in them, are as easily distinguislied as the same among us. We saw loaves of bread that were baked eighteen hundred years ago, as perfect in form and shape as if just from the oven, meal, figs, eggs, spices, plums, cooking utensils, and a thousand other articles taken from Pompeii, and still quite easily distinguished, many of them indeed perfectly preserved. Bedsteads, both of wood and iron, were found, and many implements of brass and iron, stone and earthen-ware, bolls, trumpets, gridirons, bronze saucepans^ colanders, kettles, ladles, pastry and jelly moulds in bronze, hot water urns, much like our tea urns, lanterns with horn lights, spits, and many other kitchen iitensils, chains, locks, bolts, portable fire-places, iron stoves, dice, a lady's toilet com- plete, combs, rings, thimbles, paint for the cheeks and brushes for using it, cosmetics of various kinds, earrings, and fruits, such as almonds, dates, nuts, grapes, chestnuts, many kinds of apothecaries' medicines, and quack advertisements, a box of gilded })ills, various surgeons' instruments, a good deal like ours, play bills, ivory opera tickets, bits for horses, cruppers and stirrups, candciabras, and lamps of exquisite grace and elegance of form, scales, and a very great variety of gold and silver and bronze coin, finger rings of endless variety of form SECRETARY'S REPORT. 207 and device, many with seals, fowls and game ready for cooking, oxen, sheep, fruit of various kinds, in glass jars and dislics, and other articles, all of which give an idea of the extent of civilization and luxury existing there at the time. The ceilings and walls of many of the houses are still covered with fresco paintings with the colors as bright apparently as the day they were put on, and wonderful for the skill and art with which they must have been finished. The floors of a large proportion of the houses which we entered were laid in splendid and costly mosaics, which are still perfect and beautiful. The temples were, many of them, remarkable for their splendor. The theatres still stand, with their seats rising up row above row, just as they were built. The immense amphitlieatre, capable of seating perhaps twenty thousand people, is still preserved. A mere allusion to the many interesting objects at Pompeii would lead too far. The city is, perhaps, three or four miles from the base of Vesuvius, and now nearly that distance from the shore of the bay, which is supposed to have receded by the elevation of the land at the time of the erup tion, as there is sufficient evidence that the city stood directly upon the shore originally. Indeed the immense rings for mooring vessels are still to be seen in the walls on the side towards the harbor. • Herculaneum is three or four miles nearer to Naples. That was buried at the same time from sixty to a hundred feet deep, and is far more inaccessible than Pompeii, from the fact that a large town, Portici, now stands directly over it. But we descended with the aid of a guide and torches, and explored its immense theatre, magnificent in its proportions, and went through more or less of the houses, but very little is to be seen, compared with Pompeii. The next morning, by three o'clock, we were up and off again for the ascent of Vesuvius. Tlie road as far as Portici, the same as before. Then we turn and commence a gradual ascent on small ponies. About a third of the way up we pass the vineyard of the celebrated lacrima christi wine. The vine crowns the foot and sides of the mountain, and grows in great luxuriance far up. A considerable part of the way lies over immense fields of solid lava, which only four or five years ago flowed down and destroyed many acres of valuable vineyards, 268 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. and many houses. Leaving our horses at the foot of the cone, in a kind of valley which was no doubt the former crater, now shut in by Somma and Vesuvius, which at the time of the eruption probably were united in one peak, we had to climb the steep and ashy cone on foot, a feat of no small difficulty, owing to the want of foothold in the loose debris which con- stantly gives way under the feet. But we got up at last, and looked down into the frightful crater. From the top of Vesuvius the prospect is most grand and beautiful, embracing many a point of great historical interest. Another excursion took us to Pozzuoli, in the opposite direc- tion from Naples, after we had visited the Lago d'Agnano and the Grotto del Cane, a region alive with volcanic action. At the grotto the hot sulphurous vapors rise with such force, that a few seconds only are sufficient to kill a dog, an experiment which was tried in our presence, when the poor fellow was thrown into such convulsions that he was long in coming to life again. Li the pond near by myriads of frogs appeared to suffer from the same cause, the impurity of the water, for they con- stantly leaped up from the surface of the water, as if to get a breath of air. Immense loads of flax and hemp were being rotted in the old fashioned way along the shores. On the way to Pozzuoli we pass also large fields of hemp growing in the shade of trees. Pozzuoli is an ancient city of much interest, containing a vast amphitheatre, now in ruins, a magnificent temple of Jupiter Serapis, and many other antiquities. Here is where Saint Paul landed on his way to Rome. Lake Avernus, which Virgil and the old poets represent as the descent into hell, is near by, and so are tlie classic shores of Baiae. We passed by the tomb of Virgil, both in going and coming. It is in a lovely spot, overlooking the bay. Another drive took us to San Elmo, and the convent of San Martiiio, adorned with the most costly paintings. They had been offered, as the monk who showed us through said, no less than eighty thousand dollars for a single painting. I will not .atterai)t to describe the splendid museum of Naples, the richest, in some respects, in the world. We visited it several times, ibut could not see enough of its anticjue works of art and SECRETARY'S REPORT. 269 the many collections from Pompeii, Herculaneum, and other excavated cities. The beggars in and around Naples are the most importunate of any we found in Italy. We could not escape them. They met us at every turn, and seemed determined to extort a few carlini from us wherever we went. At the amphitheatre at Pompeii, there appeared a poor cripple who implored so earn- estly for aid, that one of our party gave him a pretty good present, but our backs were scarcely turned before he jumped upon a splendid two hundred dollar horse, which our guide said no doubt belonged to him. There is a feeling of insecurity in southern Italy which is felt nowhere else so strongly. Many a man we met would probably have taken life for the smallest reward. One of the bandits who dogged our steps to the very top of Vesuvius, had killed a man in the December previous, and had kept concealed among the mountains ever since, was an interesting piece of information which our guide gave us when we had got safely down. You feel among them as if you might " wake up some morning and find your throat cut from ear to ear." The upper classes seem to live here for pleasure alone — a degenerate, enervated race, who pride themselves on the gran- deur of their old family history. It is owing in part, perhaps, to the effect of the climate, and in part to their political institu- tions. But the lower classes appeared to be industrious. Mechanics of all kinds were at work in the open air, generally in the streets. Men work naked for the most part. We saw thousands in Italy with scarcely a rag to cover them. Italian life is very much out of doors. We entered the states of the pope by way of Civita Vecchia, where our passports were taken from us, with the information that we should find them at the office of the chief of police in Rome. Our baggage was examined with great care, and it was only after considerable trouble that we got well seated in the train, and began to move on slowly through a dreary, parched, and wretchedly cultivated country, the least attractive of any we had seen in Italy. ' The campagna which stretches in every direction some miles around Rome, is covered with rank coarse wild grasses, which indicate a soil naturally fertile, but neglected and left to tak e 270 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. care of itself. Large herds of cattle were seen in some parts of this tract, looking not very unlike the Tuscan cattle described on a previous page ; but I saw none that I should have been tempted to import, had it been my object to seek the best stock in Europe. It was late in the afternoon when we arrived. No sooner had we secured rooms than we were on our feet for a walk to the Capitol, for the purpose of getting an accurate observation of the city. From this elevated standpoint, the eye takes in an area more completely covered with the foot- prints of history, perhaps, than any other in the world. Here at our feet is the Forum, thick set with ruined broken columns, triumphal arches, temples and palaces ; and here the Senate, where Cicero poured forth his impassioned eloquence. Not far off rise the gray walls of the Colosseum, crowded with old and solemn memories. How they rang with the shouts and applause of thousands over the fierce struggles of gladiators, and the fall of innumerable martyrs among the early Christians ! Close by are the ruins of the palace of the Caesars, around which vines and flowers now cling in their loving qmbrace, and here the Tarpeian Rock, that witnessed the death of so many a victim flung down its steep sides. An hour among the ruins, and it was quite dark, and time to return. As we had but a week to spend here at the farthest, we thought it best to have a guide in our constant employ, that we might spend it to the best advantage, and see the objects most worthy to be seen. Early in the morning, therefore, we had our carriage as usual, and started out for a survey of the city, first attempting to get a complete general idea, a map, as it were, in our own minds, both of the old city and the new, and afterwards taking in our way those particular parts which deserved a more careful attention. I believe we ascended each of the seven hills in turn, stopping here and there to enter some church or ruin, visiting St. Peter's and the Vatican, but rather to receive our first impressions, as we intended to devote much more time to them on a subsequent day. Thus one day soon passes, and night comes too quickly. The next day we rode far out upon the Appian Way, passing that noble great round tomb of Caicilia Metella, the exterior of which is still perfectly preserved, though it is no less than nine- teen centuries old, and thousands of ruined monuments in this SECRETARY'S REPORT. 271 street of the dead, and coming to the Catacombs, the tombs of the early Christians, many of them as early as the first century. Into these we descended, bearing each a candle to light our dark and gloomy way. These Catacombs, deep under ground, cover many acres, and are of deep interest in many points of view. We were led through subterranean chambers, containing many passages where the persecuted Christians sought a resting-place for their dead. Many of these passages and chapels are covered with paintings and inscriptions. The places where we stood, though themselves deep under ground, covered- many other passages and chambers still beneath us, and no doubt similar in their construction. It was one vast city of the dead. We visited Saint Paul's, the largest basilica in Rome, said to have been built originally by Constantine the Great upon the spot where, according to tradition, the apostle Paul was beheaded. It was destroyed several times by fire, and the present structure is therefore new, and when completed will rival Saint Peter's for splendor and magnificence. The whole succession of popes, in mosaic, extends around the walls. Most of the Catholic sovereigns of Europe have contributed liberally towards the erection of this most elaborate church, and there are altars and pillars of malachite from Russia, presented by the Czar Nich- olas, splendid alabaster pillars from the Pacha of Egypt, and many other interesting ornaments. As we lingered on our return to see the old Circus Maxiraus, the scene of the races, I had an opportunity to see a little of peasant life upon the campagna. The kettle was put on to boil in a little hut, which we entered, near by, the fire being made of the dried droppings of cattle, which are carefully picked up and preserved for the purpose. Next day we descended into the Mamertine prison, where Saint Peter was confined when the angel appeared to release him, and saw the rings of the chains used to fasten the prison- ers to the gloomy walls. The baths of Titus, the baths of Cara- calla, and the baths of Diocletian, also occupied a part of the day. These establishments were on the grandest scale, often covering several acres of ground, and adorned with the most splendid works of art. In the afternoon, on the Monte Pincio, the fashionable drive, one sees the most varied and interesting 272 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. phase of Roman life. The grounds are most beautiful, adorned with many kinds of trees, and shrubs, and flowers. Fountains spring from marble basins, in the midst of clumps of acacias and pines, roses and laurels, while the statues of the great men of Rome, like Scipio, Pompey, Caesar, Cicero and Tacitus, and the more modern Dante, Ariosto, Galileo and others, adorn the walks. This Pincian mount was once the garden of Sallust, and here stood the villa of Lucullus, and from a heap of ruins. Napoleon the Great transformed it into a most delightful park, from which we look down upon the Tiber, the temple of Vesta, and many other objects, around which cluster the crowded memories of the past. " There goes the princess Colonna," said our guide, as he pointed to an elegantly dressed lady in her carriage. The car- dinals were out for an afternoon walk, and many other high dignitaries of the church. •We mounted to the dome of Saint Peter's and lingered long gazing over this wide region, and then descended to the interior of the dome and tried the wonderful echo, where the slightest whisper can be heard on the opposite side, a distance of many feet. The Vatican contains vast collections of antique statuary, found among the ruins of ancient Rome, as well as the paintings of the great masters, but I cannot dwell upon them here. The Pantheon is older than the Colosseum itself, and still retains its ancient splendor, though robbed of much that once distinguished it. Tiiis pagan temple was built by Agrippa, and presented by him to Augustus. Its walls are nearly twenty feet in thickness, and that accounts for their having withstood so well the great conflagration of Nero and the numerous others of a more recent date, during the invasions from the north. It stands now very much as it stood when the consuls, the empe- rors, and the scholars of ancient Rome beheld it, though one of the Christian popes tore down the thousand statues in brass which stood on the great circumference of the cornice and the brazen gates, to decorate Saint Peter's, and to cast into cannon for the castle of Saint Angelo. But more than two thousand years have tried in vain, with all the aid of the destructive elements and the ruthless hands of man, to destroy it. The Colosseum has furnished the marble for many a palace of modern Rome, but it still stands the most impressive monument SECRETARY'S REPORT. 273 in tlic world, solemn and grand, eloquent and instructive in its beauty. The half of the great oval which remains rises to an elevation of a hundred and sixty feet, and there is enough of the interior left, though many parts are crumbled and rent, to give a good idea of its construction. Imagine a hundred thou- sand human beings, the rank, the power, and beauty of Rome, seated within the vast walls ! When it was dedicated under Titus, the festivities lasted a hundred days, and ten thousand wild beasts, mostly brought from Africa, were slain there, together with captives and gladiators in great numbers. The ruins are now covered with grass and wild flowers, moss and shrubs growing in the crevices, and clinging to the walls out- side, hanging pendant or shooting their graceful forms towards heaven. Very nearly three hundred different species of plants are found growing in the ruins of the Colosseum. The tomb of the Scipios is close by the palace of the Caesars, and after visiting that, we explored the ruins where the empe- rors of Rome once dwelt. These vast ruins are now partly covered and overgrown witli shrubbery. I gathered ripe peaches and apricots among them, and plucked a most beautiful pome- granate blossom there. The century plant grows wild, and so does the fig, and I think some species of the cactus. Cicero once had a house upon this hill, the Aventine, so that he was a near neighbor of Augustus. I cannot even allude to the many objects of interest for the stranger in Rome. Volumes would be required to give any adequate idea of them. But there is a certain class of objects which I should be glad, did my limits permit, to dwell longer upon. I allude to the many relics of the Holy Land which are pointed out by the devout guides, such as the stairs up which the Saviour walked when he went to the council, to receive his sentence from Pilate, and which are ascended now only upon the knees of the penitent ; the well to which the woman of Samaria came to draw water, preserved in the cloister of St. John Lateran ; the very table on which the Last Supper was eaten ; the measure used to show the height of Christ, and a thousand others of a similar kind, but as I do not know on what their authenticity rests, I must pass them over. I left Rome with regret. It had been so much connected with my early studies that I had looked upon it as a kind of 35 274 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Mecca, to which I had longed to make a pilgrimage. But we were off again for Genoa, on our way to the north, and it was some satisfaction to feel that we should soon be under the cool breezes of the Alps. It had been excessively hot and dry for weeks, with not a drop of rain to moisten the parched earth. Leaving Genoa early in the morning, w^e soon rose up from the level of the sea, among the hills and valleys. After passing the Appenines, the road runs through a level but highly cultivated country, abounding in luxuriance. The contrast between Lombardy and Southern Italy is very great. As soon as we got among the irrigated fields every thing was green and fresh, teeming with life. " What crop is that ?" asked my companion, one of the Smiths, pointing to a large field that looked a little like barley, in the distance from the railway. " That ! that is Italian rye grass, a native of this part of Italy, and one of the very best grasses known for cultivation on irrigated meadows. It produces the earliest of any, and will bear a great amount of forcing from liquid manures ; and what's more, these people cut six, eight, and nine crops of it." "Is that so?" " That is so ! So the books say. You know I'm a stranger here. But look there. They are cutting a crop now, quite green and low. How juicy that must be ! Don't you remem- ber they have a proverb in Spain relating to the irrigated meadows of Valencia ? They say — • In Valencia, the flesh is grass ;' The grass, water ; The men, women ; And the women, notliing.' But that don't seem to apply here, for tlie women appear to be more and to do more than the men. So don't let that proverb prejudice you against the girls of Milan, for we are rapidly approaching it." As we ncared Milan the evidences of the highest cultivation appeared in every direction, as far as the eye could reach. Water courses along by the sides of the railway and around each field, and tall trees line the highways. Not a fence is to be seen, but greenness and luxuriance on every hand. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 275 And this is not for a mile or two around Milan, but for nearly the whole length and breadth of Lombardy and some of the adjoining provinces which we passed through, a hundred miles, perhaps, for after leaving Milan for Lonato, where we struck into the fields for a tramp to the battle-ground of Solfcrino, we passed through a constant succession of irrigated lands for eighty miles ; and subsequently, in going west from Milan towards Turin, the same general system prevailed. One feature in the landscape that surprised us was the entire absence of cattle grazing. On inquiry it was found that the whole produce of the permanent grasses and the clovers is cut for soiling cattle, kept mostly in stalls. They avoid the uneven- ness of surface consequent upon the treading of cattle, make more manure and economise it better, by the frequent addition of rufuse substances, and are enabled to keep far more stock on a given extent of land. This irrigation of Lombardy had interested me so much for the last ten years, that I determined to learn what I could about it on the spot. As I made but bungling work of Italian, and found but few who could understand my French, it was an example of the pursuit of knowledge under difficulties. Still, not to be daunted, it was easy to get an idea here and another there, and putting this and that together it was hoped that some progress might be the result. Xever was water more obedient, or more under the control of man. It seemed as if trained to mind. An old woman would go along and stick down a board, and off the water would turn, without perversely attempting to work its way through the sluice-way. Sauntering around the streets of Milan, gazing into shop win- dows, and wondering what a population of upwards of 175,000 could find to do in such a city, my^eye rested on a small work on the very subject that was uppermost in my mind, a little treatise on the agriculture of Milan, prepared for the Italian Scientific Association, and, of course, as reliable as one could expect to find. It is the report of Devincenzi, and that part relating to irrigation may be condensed as follows : — There exist in Lombardy two very different systems of agri- culture, each of which is well adapted to the circumstances under which it is pursued. 276 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. In Northern or Upper Lombardy, including all that part north of a line drawn east and west through Milan, or say that part north of the railway to Venice, as far east as the Lake di Garda, the farms are small, and cultivated by a hard-working peasantry. In Lower Lombardy, including all of Lombardy south of such a line, occur most of the extensive water meadows. As a general thuig, the agriculture about great cities cannot be regarded as the type of that of the country at large, but that in the vicinity of Milan is an exception, and consists mostly of irrigated meadows, the land kept under tillage being very small in proportion. These meadows are very ancient, but still in a very flourish- ing condition, the labor required being simply to regulate the "water supply and keep the surface level, the grass being perma- nent, or that naturally produced by the soil. Those lying south of the city of Milan receive the sewage water and no other manure, and are cut seven or eight, and in many cases nine times in a year. Those in the north have a greater application of manure, and often the irrigation of spring water, and are nearly as productive as those south. There is a class of watered fields called marcite, or winter water-meadows. They are watered every six or eight days in summer and are covered by flowing water in winter. The growth on them is so rapid that between November and March two or three crops are cut, and the cattle fed from them are not without fresh green fodder more than thirty or forty days in the year. These meadows usually let, in the neighborhood of Milan, from twenty-five to thirty dollars an acre. The water does not run to waste but is applied in summer to meadows and to all kinds of cultivated plants. The system of irrigation in Lombardy has converted what would otherwise have been barren sand and unhealthy marshes, into productive meadows. . It is really irrigation, drainage, navigable canals and motive power for mills so combined that one object or use does not materially aifect or interfere with the otliers. Lower Lombardy is peculiarly adapted to irrigation. It con- sists of an immense valley, and the lakes on the top of the hills SECRETARY'S REPORT. 277 at the north arc admirable reservoirs for water, while the river carries off what is superfluous. The size of farms in the province of Milan, which is a part of Lombardy, varies from three to five hundred acres. Tiiey are usually let on leases from nine to twelve years. On many of these farms the culture of rice is carried on to considerable extent, but coiTfined mainly to the stiff soils. It is estimated that about a tenth part is kept down to permanent meadow, and about half of this is cultivated as winter meadow. Spring water, on account of its warmth, is esteemed best for winter meadows. Where rice is cultivated, a nine years' rota- tion is commonly followed. First comes wheat, with red clover, which gives a rich pasturage in autumn. Then manure is applied the next year, and white or Dutch clover comes in spontaneously during the third and fourth years, and manure is applied both years. In the fifth year, Indian corn and flax occupy the ground. In the sixth year, also Indian corn, well manured. In the seventh, eighth and ninth years, rice is sown, the two last with manure. An acre will yield on an average from twenty to twenty-four bushels of wheat, or from fifty to seventy-five bushels of Indian corn. Mulberries are seen growing in perfection, both in the per- manent meadows and others, and thrive in irrigated lands. The hay taken from the meadows is used to feed working cattle and cows. The income of a cow is reckoned at from fifty-five to sixty dollars, not in the vicinity of Milan or near large cities alone, but generally over the district. The milk is used in making the celebrated Parmesan cheese, which is largely exported. Some butter is made. The general rent of farms in the Milanese territory is ten or fifteen dollars a year per acre. The fertilizing power of water is very great, and farms capable of being irrigated rent far higher than those which have not this advantage. So much for Devincenzi. As for the rest, it was easy to see that those lands which were so situated as not to be capable of irrigation, were no more fertile or productive than the same class of lands with us. As we stood upon the rising grounds, where the bloody battle of Solferino was fought, we could see many acres of dry and sterile fields, and look olf over Mantua, the birthplace of Yirgil. 278 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Thousands of acres of the most beautiful irrigated plains were in sight, perfectly loaded with the crops of summer, and teeming with luxuriance. Down the dry sides of the hill on which we stood vineyards clothed the ground. Tiie village itself, from which the battle took its name, is small, old, and unattractive. But the roads are good, excellent. From Lonato, where we loft tlie railway, to Solferino, nine or ten miles, the road was superb. There were no fences on either side. I spoke on a former page of the system of irrigation adopted on tlie farm of Alderman Mechi. Tiptree Hall is familiar, by name at least, to most farmers in this country. It may be well to allude to his system, for a moment, also, in this connection. There is this difference between his practice and the system of irrigation in Lombardy and elsewhere. He uses water as a means of dihiting and carrying his manure to his land and crops. His is the application of liquid manure, the solid drop- pings of his cattle being as it were dissolved and washed by the application of a strong jet of water to the stalls, to a cistern not far off, from which it is forced through pipes, by steam-power, out upon the land. The most of the irrigation here in Lombardy consists of the application of pure water to growing crops, generally to grass. The use of sewage water around Milan is of course an excep- tion. It must be evident that the success of ^lechi's system, as well as any other system of irrigation, will depend very much upon the character of the soil, whether light, porous and well drained, or licavy and stiff. On clay lands straw and other coarse manures are needed, not merely to add fertility or furnish food to ])lants, but also as a means of correcting and improving the physical texture of the soil. The straw itself becomes therefore an important part of the manure, and if it were applied without first having been used as litter, and becoming incorporated with other substances, it would still possess very considerable value on stiff lands. Water on s\ich lands, unless they were exceedingly well drained, would be a damage. So, too, it would depend somewhat on the crop it was intended to cultivate. Any crop like grass, where it is desirable to get a juicy, succulent growth, throughout its period of vege- tation, will be improved by a large quantity of water, especially on a porous soil ; but if the object is to cultivate a crop for its SECRETARY'S REPORT. 279 seed, wc know it is better to have the land dry, after the ]»h\nt lias passed the period of blossoming. The land, as already intimated, to which irrigation, in Lom- bardy, is applied, is light, free, much of it sandy, which, with- out the application of water, would be comparatively unpro- ductive. All such soils have free drainage. They would hardly grow such a gross feeder as Italian rye grass without a great abundance of water, especially as this is a shallow-rooted plant, not striking down a deep tap root, and all such plants are much more liable than those of an opposite character, to suffer from drought. If the water applied could be charged with a fertilizing substance, as it is upon Mr. ^Mechi's farm, no doubt larger results would follow. The water, in that case, would be a carrier of manure, and the best possible one for light soils. We see, also, that the Italians are judicious in the selection of crops with the facilities they have for using water. Turnips and mangels are cultivated not merely for the sake of the food they furnish to sheep and other stock, thus increasing the supply of manure for other crops, but as fallow-crops, — that is, as a means of cleansing the land from weeds by the frequent use of the horse-hoe and the cultivation they get by other implements. To apply the system of irrigation to such crops would prevent these operations, and thus be fatal to these important uses of the turnip as a fallow-crop. There would be a loss of the advantages derived from the repeated weeding and stirring of the soil, and the large yield of many tons per acre would not compensate for this loss. Mr. Mechi saves his straw from the manure heap, cuts it up by the use of steam, mixes it with other substances, and uses it as food for stock. And for all those soils, crops, and climates, where the application of liquid manure is adapted, this is a great saving. No doubt the success of this system on grass land in well drained or free, light soils, in a warm, dry climate, is greater than it would be on any other crop, though one sees it often applied also to Indian corn and other crops. The crops of grass, under these circumstances, are often wonderful, and, if they were not too well attested by innumerable witnesses of the highest character, would be incredible. 280 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. A mail from Aberdeen exhibited a model of a system of irrigation at the show of the Royal Agricultural Society at Battersea Park. It consisted of a system of pipes perforated with very fine holes, laid over the surface of the land at inter- vals of about sixty feet, more or less, according to the pressure at the main cistern. It is self-acting, and may be applied in the distribution of clear water or of liquid manures, in the form of showers. It will operate constantly, if necessary, both day and night. It is easy to see what facilities this would give in a hot, dry season. But experiments made in 1860 and 1861 show the most astonishing results. The first year, 1860, from the first week in May to the first week in October, seven crops of grass were cut, making eleven tons of dry hay per acre. This was with water simply taken from a river, hi 1861, from the last week in April to the first week in September, six crops were taken off, making more than nine tons, per acre, of dry hay. A light dressing of super- phosphate, mixed with nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, was applied after every second crop, to give the crop a push, and they kept the grass in full growth throughout the season. The material of his pipes is composition lead, of a permanent and durable character, and claimed to be worth about ten dol- lars per acre as old pipe. The whole cost of mains, distributing pipes, and all, per acre, is about seventy-two dollars. To me, previous to seeing this fertile country of Lombardy, made fertile wholly by its admirable system of irrigation, the results that I had frequently read of, — seven, eight and nine cuttings a year, — always appeared chimerical, but after travelling through the length and breadth of the watered district, I am prepared to believe that an enormous quantity of grass can be cut from it. Another thing has impressed me strikingly here, and that is, that the Italians understand tlie period at which grass should be cut to make tlie most of it, better than we do. I nowhere saw grass allowed to stand even into blossoming ; it was cut in a very green and succulent state, when full of its sweet young juices. In hundreds of instances, perhaps thou- sands, I saw men and women, more IVcquently the latter, mowing grass less than six inches high, often less than four, and very often, and in many countries, cutting grass that our farmers would never think of cutting. So careful and so saving SECRETARY'S REPORT. 281 are tlicy in all parts of the continent, tliat grass is cut very green, very often, and very close to the ground, almost univer- sally. But they often apply a dressing of liquid manure immediately after cutting, and I saw it in innumerable instances carried out upon the backs of women, and applied by the slowest possible of processes, distribution by hand, often making an extremely offensive smell, to be sure, after it was first applied, but causing a wonderfully rapid start and growth. There are meadows near Edinburgh that produce some fifty, some sixty, and some even as high as eighty tons of green food per acre, so it is said. I saw something of the sewage system of London, where ten millions of cubic feet a day are discharged into the Thames. It is estimated that it contains ingredients equal in fertilizing properties to a hundred tons of guano a day, capable of manuring twenty thousand acres. On the way to Venice, the traveller is stopped at Peschiera, the first town of Venetian Lombardy, still under the power of Austria. It is strongly fortified, and beautifully situated at the southern extremity of Lago di Garda. The train is stopped, passports are examined with the closest scrutiny, and the lug- gage overhauled without scruple. It was something of an ordeal to one visiting the country for the first time, and under- standing the language of the officials but imperfectly. But as soon as they were satisfied that we were not intending to take the city, but only to spend a little money, they appeared to rest easy and let us pass. Venice is a peculiar city. It is well nigh out to sea, being built on many small islands. The streets are canals and most of the locomotion is by the gondola. It was a very curious change from the ordinary modes of travel, to step from the railway station into a gondola and find myself at once on the grand canal, gliding along so noiselessly and shooting into a narrower canal, till at last we reach the step of the hotel. Without tlie loss of time we start off from another door for a short stroll, and soon find ourselves in the splendid square of Saint Mark. It was just in the edge of evening and the people had begun to assemble to hear the music of the fine Austrian bands that play here every evening for the gratification of the people. It was the finest music we heard in Europe ; so sweet, 36 282 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. so thrilling, that wc could have listened to it for hours, as in fact we did, till it was quite time to return to our quarters. Early in the morning, our guide engaged, wc took a gondola and started for the exploration of the city, its palaces, its churches, its workshops and its canals. I soon pointed out the Bridge of Sighs, from my recollection of it, and found that I was right. A day was spent in these investigations and in visiting the Doge's palace, in whose dark and gloomy cells many and many a victim was confined, never again to see the light of day. The Bridge of Sighs crosses a canal from this palace to the prison. The next day we made an excursion to the Lido, some two or three miles out, at the mouth of the harbor. It is a long bar of sand extending six miles in front of the city, and per- haps a quarter of a mile wide, and is about the only part of Venice where any cultivation is practicable. After a most refreshing bath in the Adriatic, we returned to our gondola and rowed to an island occupied by the Armenian convent, and were shown over it by a gentlemanly and obliging monk, who pointed out the room where Byron used to come to study the Armenian language. We sat down in the chair that he occupied, saw other interesting relics of this strange man, and the printing presses, nearly the only ones which are used in printing tliis language, and returned to the city. During our whole stay of four days in Venice, we saw no living animal, except down on the Lido, where I saw a yoke of oxen. Not a iiorse, not a cow, not a dog, not even a cat. Every thing was still and silent as the grave. I believe there were some six horses kept in the city for military purposes about tlic arscnaL On our way back to Milan wc passed the niglit at Verona, where the house of the Oapulcts and the tomb of Juliet, and many other objects of interest were pointed out. The immense amphitheatre here is in a better state of preservation than most of those we saw in other cities of Italy, and gave us a good idea of the internal structure of these places of aanusement, so common among the ancients. After looking again over Milan, v.'C took the train for Lake Como, some thirty miles north. Como is one of the loveliest of the Italian lakes, and we saw it under favorable circumstances, havinu; ridden some SECRETARY'S REPORT. 283 miles along its shore and sailed across it, but we liad not long- to stay. The windows of the hotel looked directly out over the lake, and a pretty little balcony gave us a still more extended view. Garibaldi held this town some time, during the last war with Austria, which was ended so unfortunately for Italy by the peace of Villafranca. We saw written about upon the buildings, " Brothers, Rome and Garibaldi," which seemed to indicate the popular feeling for this leader and which corresponded with what we had found in the southern parts of Italy. Here occurred the only shower we had then seen in that country, accompanied by sharp thunder and lightning. It was much needed, and the bracing air which followed was quite refreshing. The middle and north of Italy are very nearly in the latitude of Canada Weftt. The latitude of Milan, Venice, Genoa and Nice, where winter is scarcely known, corresponds precisely with portions of Canada West. Montreal, in Canada East, is in latitude 45° 31', and Venice in latitude 45° 26', a difference of only about six miles. A line run from A^enice, directly west, would pass quite near to Montreal, and leave Toronto a hun- dred and twenty miles to the south. Toronto is within a mile of the latitude of Nice, and nearly as far south as Leghorn. And yet the mean temperature of the coldest month at A^enice is only 35|° of Fahrenheit, while that of Montreal is 13°. The difference, therefore, is in the winter and summer. In the one, the winter is extremely cold and severe and the summer hot and dry, in the other, the winter is extremely mild and the summer comparatively equable. Returning from Lake Como to Milan we pursued our way westward through the monotonous plains of Piedmont. Tlic early part of the way from Milan lies in the Milanese territory, and is still a part of Lombardy. The battle-field of Magenta is at a railway station not far from Milan, and the evidences of the hard fight still exist upon the houses, some of which were riddled with balls. The land is level here, and the fields stretch off almost as far as the eye can reach. At the time of the battle tliey were covered with grain, so a gentleman sitting by my side asserted, and the forces of the two contending armies made terrible havoc with the growing crops. 284 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. The next prominent town is Novara, once a part of Lom- bardj, but now in Piedmont. It is old and prosperous, prettily situated on a rising ground, and commanding a grand and beautiful view of Monte Rosa and other ranges of the Alps. A half hour's delay gave but little opportunity to see the city, but it so happened that in September, on my second visit to northern Italy, I visited it again, with more ample time for observation. The ancient cathedral, built in the early Lombard style, is called one of the oldest and finest in Italy. Its magnificent altar is adorned by works of Thorwaldsen, while its beautiful mosaic pavement is still in a state of preservation, find indicates the original splendor of this structure. In the neighborhood of Novara and Vercelli, another promi- nent old city on the way to Turin, the system of irrigation, a part of the old Lombard works of the fifteen^i century, still exists, and is among the finest of Piedmont. Vercelli lies near the left bank of the Sesia. Like Novara it possesses an ancient Duomo or cathedral, where are preserved a manuscript copy of the gospels made by St. Eusebius in the fourth century, and another of a book of Anglo-Saxon poems obtained in England during the reign of King John or Henry III. This part of Piedmont is one vast ^lain, which made it comparatively easy to lead the waters from the streams at the foot of the mountains. I saw at Ivrea the starting point of the canal made centuries ago under Amadous VIII. to supply water for the irrigation of a large extent of territory in this neighborhood. The works, though ancient, are remarkably efficient. In this part of Piedmont the culture of rice has been carried on lo considerable extent, but it is regarded as very unhealthy, the average life of those who occupy the low wet lands which alone are suitable to this industry, being only thirty years. Through the influence of Count Cavour and his brother, who owned large estates in the irrigated plains of .this section, a board of water commissioners was established to regulate the use of this element, so indispensable to success in this country, and to settle all disputes and questions arising under the system. But with the exception of these localities, irrigation is not common in Piedmont. AVith abundant means to intro- duce the system, it docs not exist on a largo scale, except where SECRETARY'S REPORT. 285 the works for it were made many years, perhaps eeiituries ago. But the careful peasants who live in the valleys of the Alps, and cultivate elevated situations, avail themselves often of the existence of a hrook in the neighborhood, and lead the water round in trenches often great distanqes, upon their lands. These plains are not very thickly peopled. The lands are rented generally " at the halves," and the owners spend but very little time upon their estates, often not more tlian two or three weeks at harvest. The peasantry are generally very poor, the farming often slovenly and careless, as if those who work the soil had little or no interest in it, which here on the plains is the case. Those who have capital sufficient to stock their farms can make a better bargain than others, but often tlie landlord has to furnish land and capital also, while on the irrigated lands rented in this way the laborer has but a third instead of half the produce. Among the valleys of the southern Piedmontese Alps, a few miles to the north of the plains, the love of land is very strong, and the poor peasant clings to it, unwilling to sell at any price, while the principle of minute division, originating here also in the great French Revolution, prevails to a great extent ; but lower down, the holdings are somewhat larger, there are less independent owners, the country is less healthy and less populous. It is manifest that there is little interest in agriculture. It is not fashionable here. More than this, country life is not fashionable. The wealthier classes prefer the city. Every thing is left to laborers who are poor and ignorant, and this part of Italy, with one of the finest climates in the world, with natural facilities for production unsurpassed, languishes for want of the fostering care of those who might make it the garden of Italy, the paradise of Europe. The deprivations and hardships of a large portion of the peasantry of Piedmont are scarcely credible. Whole families are often obliged to go from oye year's end to another without tasting meat oftener than once a fortnight, some not oftencr than once a month. Tlieir food consists chiefly of Indian meal, made into a kind of polenta or porridge. Fuel is so scanty, and so difficult to obtain, owing to the want of forests, which were long since stripped from every hilltop, that they are compelled, during the winter, which is here rather severe, to huddle together in low, dirty sheds, with their cattle, where 286 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. they suffer for want of air, and from damp, suffocating exhala- tions. They have no coal, and as some fire must be had for cooking, they are compelled to pick up whatever they can lay their hands on. They have little respect for the rights of property. The stakes from vineyards walk off mysteriously. Wooden fences are out of tiie question, and hence there are no division fences. Poaching on the land of others is so common, that it may almost he said to be universal. If a man has a fine yield of grapes in his vineyard, he is obliged to gather them before they are ripe, when they make but a poor quality of wine, because poor wine is thought to be better than none at all, which is, no doubt, a mistake. Speaking of wine, by the way, reminds me to speak of the quality of very much of the ordinary wine of the country. Good cider vinegar, a little ^.diluted with water, " half an' half," is a delicious beverage compared with Italian vin ordinaire^ though perhaps it might be a little more " heady." I could never like it, though sometimes compelled to drink it, as good water is not often to be found there. Strange to say, with vineyards all about him, the laboring man in Piedmont is compelled to drink water throughout the winter, for want of vessels and casks to keep wine in, to such poverty is he often reduced. The houses of the peasantry are not generally situated on the land they cultivate. They are huddled together in dirty villages, and the laborers often have long distances to travel to and from the scene of their daily work. How can agriculture be expected to flourish under such circumstances ? The hotels in these villages where the traveller is compelled to stop, are not, of course, very attractive. Man and beast are put under the same roof. Tliis is almost universal among all classes in Italy, except in the first class hotels of the larger and more frequented cities. Every thing about the entrance of hotels in smaller towns is forbidding, and every thing in such confusion and disorder, that it is rare that one is able to find the entrance at all without inquiring. Think of a stable with its manure heaps, its noise and its stenches, stuck down before tlie door of a hotel, or under the same roof, as it is in most of the liouscs ! Put there is no accounting for tastes ! Tliey doubt- less like that style of civilzation, or if they do not, there is SECRETARY'S REPORT. 287 iicitlier vitality nor enterprise enough to get up a revolution in their domestic organization. They say it is want of money, but the young men of family lounge about the cafes in idleness without making an effort. In the neighborhood of Turin, as elsewhere, the uncertainty of being able to gather the fruits of one's lab^or and expense, is such as to deter many from attempting any improvements, and not a few who have gone out of the city to build their country villas have given them up in disgust at the annoyances to which they were subjected in the loss of crops and fruits. I wish we could say that we are exempt from this source of annoyance, that we could have a reasonable certainty of being able to enjoy the fine pears and other fruits that we take years of patient care to produce, and it is but a poor consolation to find other people suffering even worse than ourselves. Turin is a beautiful city, situated on the Po. The sidewalks in many of the principal streets are covered with beautifully arched colonnades; the architecture of the city is rather attrac- tive, and much of it elegant. As the king, Victor Emanuel, and the royal family were out of the city, we had the satisfaction of seeing nearly the whole of the palace, including the private apartments of his majesty and the rooms of various members of the family. This was a privilege accorded to us as Americans, I suppose, as there were many others who were refused admis- sion, while we, explaining our position to the best oT our ability in French, were not only admitted, but the polite attendant took pains to explain and point out a great many objects of real interest, which space does not permit me to dwell upon. We visited many of the churches also and the senate cham- ber, full of the most superb paintings, many of them by Rubens. Since the constitution was given to Piedmont, a much larger degree of liberty of conscience and political action has been enjoyed than in any other part of Italy. The Waldenses, a long •persecuted band of evangelical Christians, were allowed to build a church in Turin, which they occupy unmolested. In our walk around the city we came across a large number of women wash- ing clothes, leaning over a little dirty running brook, in a most " back-achy " position. It was a sight we often saw in France, Italy, Switzerland and Germany. In many places they have 288 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. to pay for even this privilege, but I did not learn how it was here. We didn't think it worth much in our " account of stock." And now for the first crossing of the Alps. The railway takes us to Susa, in Sardinia, only thirty-two miles from Turin, when we are at the foot of Mont Cenis. Getting tickets in the heavy lumbering diligence, behind half a dozen sturdy mules, we began the slow ascent about three o'clock in* the afternoon. The road is superb. The muleteers, with a loud crack of the whip, constantly urge on the team, and we rise higher and liigher till the prospect begins to be grand and beautiful, as we wind up the sides of the mountain and look back upon the sunny valleys of Italy. The air is cool, bracing and exhila- rating. Mountain torrents come thundering down at our feet, or forming little cascades, which glittered like spangles in the sun. The luxuriant vegetation of the plains ceased, and the trees dwindled down to shrubs, while little Alpine flowers lined the roadsides, and little ragged girls came running along by the side of the diligence with wild strawberries to sell. At the approach of sunset I jumped out and ran up the side of the mountain to strike into the road above, so as to be at the top in season to see a sunset on the Alps, but still beyond there were peaks piled on peaks, covered with snow, glittering with the last lingering rays of sunlight. Here on the very top of the pass the farmers were haymaking, almost up to the line of perpetual snow. They usually mow here by moonlight. There is a hospice at the summit for the accommodation of travellers, and in front of it a pretty little pond, from whose pellucid waters it is said the finest trout arc taken. After a change of team from mules to horses, we started down at a rapid pace in the light of a clear full moon, and by noon of the next day we were quietly seated in Geneva. This was the first of Switzerland, with its mountain scenery, its bracing air, its freedom of thought and action. According to our usual custom, wc soon had a carriage and were driving about the neighborhood, visiting the spot where the Rhone and the Arve unite their waters, and other objects of interest to a stranger. The French language is spoken here pretty univer- sally. Lausanne, on the lake of Geneva, is one of the prettiest towns in Switzerland. Here we stopped a niglit and part of the next day, in the house occupied by Gibbon, and where ho SECRETARY'S RErORT. 289 ■wrote his masterly work, the " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." At Yvydun, having occasion to stop a few hours, I visited the old castle used as a school by Pestolozzi. It is in a tumbling down condition, but the old custodian was enthusi- astic in his narration of its past history, and of the great teacher who occupied it. This place is at one end of the lake of Neuf- chatel, around whose shores we passed, at the foot of the Jura, on our way to Berne. The confederation of the Swiss cantons was modelled after our own. The central or federal government, having Berne as its capital, is aiming to bring about a more completely harmo- nious union, a more centralized power, by various national festivals and otherwise, but the doctrine of " state rights " has led to much contention by words, which, at one time, came to an open rupture in the war of the Sonderbund, which was not put down without considerable bloodshed. Party feeling often runs high in the cantons, and it is evi- dent that with the blessings, they also have the natural evils of a free, republican, representative form of government. Con- servatism is overridden by young Switzerland, as by young America, and much complaint is heard that the ablest, the best and the wisest citizens have to stand aside, for the pushing, the bold and the unprincipled ; and the management of affairs is often in the hands, it is said by some, of those who don't know any more than they ought to. When the people are properly educated, no doubt these evils will in time correct themselves. Berne is a quaint old city, founded in 1191. Bears, from which it was named, are its tutelar deities, or its patron saints. An image of a bear, cut in stone or wood, meets you at every turn. From the lofty terrace, a magnificent platform planted with trees, around the cathedral, the view of the Oberland and the Bernese Alps is one of the grandest and most beautiful in Switzerland. The river Aar almost encircles the city. Walk- ing down one of the principal streets, with its lofty colonnades projecting, out from the houses over the sidewalks, we came to an old arched building containing a curious and complicated clock, built in the fifteenth century. As it was nearly time for it to strike, we stopped a, few minutes to witness this phenome- non. A cock began to start up and clap his wings, and crowed three or four times. Tiien the four evangelists start out, each 37 290 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. ill turn, from their niches, and each strikes the quarter hours upon a bell, with a hammer which he holds in his hand. A little door opens and a strange procession files out, turning in a half circle around the base of the clock, and entering another door just as the last stroke of the bell is sounded. Farther down the street, near the banks of the river, live bears are kept in pens, at the expense of the city. There were two old ones of enormous size in one apartment, and four young ones in another. They furnished a constant source of amuse- ment to old and young. Not long ago an Englishman fell down into the pen, when the bears immediately attacked him. A great cry was immediately raised, and the gens d'armes were very soon at hand, but as they refused to fire upon the bears, the poor Englishman was killed before he could be rescued. His friends immediately came over to complain that he was not saved, and when the gens d'armes were asked why they did not shoot the bears, and thus save his life, they replied that " Eng- lishmen were too plenty already, but bears were getting mighty scarce." The characteristic of Swiss farming may be said to be extreme care in minute details. Every ounce of manure is saved and piled up for a compost, often right in front of the house, where it receives a thousand waste substances from the kitchen. Nothing is lost that can add to the fertility of the soil and increase the crops. Children perambulate the streets to pick up all the manure they can find. Then irrigation is pretty extensively applied wherever it is practicable. It was practiced in Switzerland as early as the fourteenth century. I saw many instances of it. Some of the irrigated meadows are very pro- ductive, generally producing two crops of hay in addition to an early cutting of grass, often as early as April, to feed out to cows, mixed with dry hay. The first hay crop is cut the last of May or the first of June, the second in August, and tlic grass is cut the fourth time at the end of September or in October. I saw it cut in innumerable instances late in Septem- ber, when it was, I should think, not over four or five inches liigh. The water is let on usually in March, and allowed to flow over the land two or three days, when it is turned off to irrigate some other piece, and after a week or fortnight, accord- ing to the looks of the grass, it is again turned upon the first SECRETARY'S REPORT. 291 piece for the same length of time, and tliis alternate flowing is continued at intervals through the season, that is till it becomes impracticable from frost and snow. The irrigation of October, November and December, is thought to be most beneficial to land. When the streams are swollen by the melting snows, they are not let on. After March the land is usually left dry rather longer intervals than in the fall. After the first grass is cut for green fodder in April or the first of May, the water is immediately turned on for two or three days, and so after the first hay crop in June and the second in August. The last crop cut in September or October is also used for fodder and not made into hay. Cattle are never turned upon irrigated meadows. Thus four crops of grass are cut, and in very good seasons five. They prefer soft or rain water, to that from the melting of snow and the glaciers. If allowed to flow over too large an extent of land its value is diminished. Many will not irrigate during the full moon as they say the grass is weakened and the color affected. Careful experiment, they say, has proved this. In very hot weather in summer the water is not left on by day but only during the night. Water which will dissolve soap is good, and the water of good trout streams is excellent for the purposes of irrigation. The growth of water-cresses and other plants at the bottom of a stream is another favorable indication of the quality of the water, but brooks that deposit any calcareous substance on their banks or where petrifactions are found are bad. To make an even sur- face the subsoil is frequently removed with great labor, the surface mould replaced, and what is taken out allowed to have the air, freeze and thaw for some months, when it is mixed with the manure. They know the subsoil possesses very considerable absorbent properties taking up ammonia from the atmosphere and really making, after some time, a pretty good top-dressing. Those who adopt this system of irrigation think they cannot irrigate too much. The greater the fall, the quicker the water runs, the quicker the grass grows. They generally keep irrigating as late as possible till there is danger of freezing solid. Fields which cannot be irrigated are top-dressed witli solid manure in the fall, and if they havn't enough to go over the whole they apply liquid manure while the snow is on the ground. In the farm-yard are tanks which collect all the liquid, which is 292 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. pumped up aud sometimes carried by little troughs to the water-courses, sometimes carried out in carts and spread by hand. They often set a pump down into the centre of the manure or compost heap, and so pump up the drainings every morning over the heap till it is saturated. Potato-tops, weeds and whatever other rubbish is thrown on, thus get a frequent soaking. When shall we learn to preserve and treat our waste substances with such laborious care ? In company with the Hon. George G. Fogg, the American minister to Switzerland, we visited Thun, sailed the length of its beautiful lake, and stopped awhile at Interlaken, then began our ascent to the Bernese Alps, to Grindelwald, up among the glaciers. It was a grand and curious sight, the green luxuri- ance, the deep-tinged flowers, Alpine harebells and many others, growing just at the verge of eternal ice moving down constantly but slowly and imperceptibly from the higher Alps, in one vast jagged stream. Now and then we hear the thunder of some falling avalanche echoing from mountain to mountain, and then looking up, innumerable little chalets extend as far, almost, as the eye can reach, now scattered round as if with some regular- ity, now an isolated hut on some projecting platform of green grass. Thousands of cattle are seen in various parts of the moun- tains, and the distant tinkling of bells, sometimes so distant that we can scarcely distinguish the sound, gives an unspeakable charm to the whole Alpine scenery. These cattle are often perched on heights which seem to be quite inaccessible, and though tiicy do not appear to be so very far off, they are really some miles away from the villages which we pass in the valleys, and from which they had ascended. The following account of the cattle upon the Alps is translated mostly from the work of Tschudi, Das Tliierleben der Alpen- iDelt. I need not say that I saw many herds of which this is a correct picture, upon the mountains, in my ascent of the great St. Bernard, at the Grindelwald, on the St. Gothard, in the valleys and in the mountains of the Ticino, the Reuss and otlier ranges of the higher and lower Alps. The domesticated animals of the Alps form the living ornament of the landscape, otherwise oppressive in its grandeur. The wild animals are by far too scattered to do this. The mountains would lose half their charm if the small huts, the marks of SECRETARY'S REPORT. 293 man's supremacy, were wanting in these most savage wastes. They are sheltering roofs to which he drives his flocks, while the smoke curls up from his hearth and his merry song resounds from the rocks. The traveller in the Alps knows well the dull melancholy which hangs over the rocky pastures in the fall, when men and herds, horses and dogs, fire, hread and salt have left the heights for the valleys ; when the chalets are deserted and fastened up, and it seems as if the ancient spirit of the mountains had thrown his gloomy mantle over his whole domain. No sound mingles with the rumbling of the glacier, and the dashing of the ice- water for miles around, none but the scream of the hungry bird of prey or the whistle of the marmot as he rushes past. The ground eaten bare, except where a few small patches of untouched grass indicate the presence of poisonous herbs, has lost its pretty hue ; reptiles occupy the drinking troughs, now filled with mud, and some late butterflies flutter about with torn and faded wings, while the melancholy chorus of froo-s seems to mock the herdsman's summer song. The wild regions can only be brought under cultivation by means of the peasant's dear cattle, which have a greater influ- ence over the human family directly connected with them, on their fortunes and their habits, than the grandest revolutions of the political world. His cattle are a part of the cowherd's own being, more dear to him than the fields to the farming peasant, or the wares to the merchant. He lives by and with them ; they are his wealth, his happiness, his familiar friends as well as his means of subsistence. If he talks of his " Habe^'' or possessions, he means by it both wife and cattle. It is not easy to state the exact vertical extent of the Alpine pastures, as it depends on local circumstances. We may assume, in general, that the soil is ordinarily tilled for meadow land and other purposes as far as four thousand feet above the level of the sea ; in the most fertile parts of the Rhaetian Alps the average rises to about five thousand feet. From this level the Alps, properly so called, begin, those which are used merely for summer pastures. They consist of tracts of grass which are sometimes of extraordinary extent, the pampas of Switzerland, which stretch away as high as the nature of the mountain permits. We can hardly fix the mean upper limit of the Swiss 294 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. cow pastures higher than six thousand five hundred feet, since from that height torn Schratten fields, precipitous slopes, and points of rocks, extend to the line of snow. The sheep pastures also embrace this district, and extend, on an average, to about seven thousand feet ; a few scattered oases, used in very fine seasons, reach as far up as eight thousand five hundred feet, and on Monte Rosa, nine thousand feet. The importance of cattle breeding as a branch of industry iu Switzerland, may be seen in the statistics, which give the aggregate of cattle in the country as 850,000 head, of which 475,000 are cows, 85,000 oxen, and 290,000 heifers. The con- dition of cattle in the Alps is generally far from prosperous. In many places there is a want, and in some a total want of proper stabling. The cows roam over the pastures, grazing on the stunted grass ; and a sudden snow storm in the spring or fall drives the herds together in front of the sheds, which scarcely afford them shelter, and where generally, the cowherd has not so much as a handful of hay to offer them. During a cold rain they take refuge beneath the rocks in the forests, and there they fall off very much in their milk. The cows often calve at a distance from human aid, and at evening return to the hut with a full bag and a bouncing calf. But the result is not always so happy. Proper sheds have lately been erected in some cantons, but the reader should not form a very favorable idea of the general life of the handsome, shining, broad-browed cattle of the Alps. The same cowherd who in the valleys watches over his animals with tender solici- tude, will frequently not be induced to put up the simplest shed on the mountains to shelter them from the storm, or to protect their fodder and keep it free from weeds and stones. But however badly housed, the cattle really enjoy the season on the Alps. When the great bell, which always goes with them on their journey to and from, is brought down in spring, a general excitement prevails ; the cows all get together, low and frisk about, recognizing the signal for the approaching migration. Their spirits are often overflowing during the march, and those left behind in the valleys often follow the rest of the herd of their own accord to the distant heights. In fine weather it is indeed a glorious life for them up there. The bear's-foot, motherwort, and the Alpine plantain, afford SECRETARY'S REPORT. 295 them wliolcsomc and palatable feed. The sun is less scorching than down in the valleys, and there are no gad-flies to disturb the young in their midday drowse. Instead of the ill-ventilated stalls, they breathe the pure fresh air, while constant motion and natural diet keep them in sound health. Stall-feeding, notwithstanding its many advantages, lays the foundation of many diseases, to which Alpine cattle are not subject naturally. Cows on the mountains are thought to be more active and intelligent than those raised in the valleys. Their life is more natural and their instincts more fully developed. An animal left very much to itself is more on the watch and shows more memory than one which is always tended. The Alpine cow knows every shrub and puddle, knows where to find the besfe patches of grass, the time of milking, the call of her keeper, whom she approaches with confidence, and knows when to return to the hut. She scents the approach of a storm, watches and protects her young, and is careful to avoid dangerous places. In this last, however, she does not always show judg- ment, as hunger will sometimes lead her too near a dangerous patch of rich grass, and walking on loose soil, the ground some- times gives away, and down she goes. If escape is hopeless, she drops to the ground, shuts her eyes, and gives herself up to her fate, sliding down over the precipice, or if stopped by some overhanging root, waits the cowherd's help. One of the singular traits of the Alpine cattle is their ambi- tion, and the strictness with which they maintain the right of precedence. The bell-cow is the strongest as well as the pret- tiest of the herd, and never fails to take the first place in the march, and no other ventures to step in before her. The ani- mals next in strength, the aristocracy of the herd, follow. The bell-cow, fully conscious of her power, leads off to the slied and has often been seen when she has lost her rank, and been deprived of her bell, to pine away with melancholy. If a new cow is added to the herd, she has a duel of horns with each of her new companions, and takes her rank according to the result of the fight. If two animals are of equal strength the struggle is obstinate. The cows on the mountains display great courage in defend- ing themselves from the attacks of beasts of prey, and espe- cially bears, which are plenty in the Southern Alps.' In calm, 296 BOARD OF ACxRICULTURE. • ' fine weather, they can hear the light step of these animals at a considerable distance, and hurry to the sheds bellowing loudly. If tied, they rattle their chains constantly, till the herdsmen are aroused to the danger. The bear always tries to pounce upon them from behind, for the half-grown heifer will defend herself with her horns if necessary. If the bear succeeds in falling upon a cow, and begins to devour her, the scattered herd quickly rushes round and watches the process, keeping their horns low, snorting and bellowing from time to time, as if they would like to pitch into him. The bear, it is said, will not stop to finish his meal in this case, and will not venture another attack. During a long rain or thick fog the scent of the cattle is not so acute, and instances are known of bears, lurking close to the huts, attacking heifers and devouring or carrying them off without alarming the rest of the herd. Notwithstanding the familiarity of the cowherd with his cattle, and the alacrity with which they answer his call, there are, almost every sum- mer, times when utter anarchy reigns among the herds, and he hardly knows how to keep them in subjection. This happens during storms in the night, which are hours of great anxiety and terror to all the inhabitants of the Alps. The cows, tired with the heat and labor of the day, are, per- haps, enjoying their first repose in the vicinity of the huts and herdsmen, when the horizorx is suddenly lighted up, and, for a few minutes, the neighboring snow fields appear as if overflow- ing with molten lava. A heavy mass of clouds lowers over the mountain peaks, a few light flashes chase each other from the west in quivering succession, while a deathlike stillness reigns in the distant valleys. The cows wake up and become restive. Hot breezes sweep through the cliffs or rustle gently between the rhododendrons and low mountain pines. Soon the glacier streams spring into life ; a hollow rumbling is heard in the distance ; the upper currents of air meet and struggle, and the lightning becomes every instant more red and vivid as it plays around the loftiest peaks. Then the cows rise, the bell-cow bellows and gives the signal to march, and in a short time the whole herd is collected around the chrdct. It is oppressively hot and a few drops fall on the roof, beneath which the cow- herd is still slumbering quietly. Suddenly a lurid flash blazes out from the nearest cloud, followed by a loud clap of thunder. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 297 Flames burst from all the surroundinf^ clouds, peal follows peal and torrents of hail descend upon the pastures. The terrified animals bellow loud, and run with tails erect and eyes shut, in the direction of the tempest. The herdsmen now start up half naked, and throwing their milk pails over their heads, hurry out to the scattered herd, shouting, coaxing, cursing and calling on the Holy Virgin. By and by a part of the herd is collected, the winds drive away the clouds, the hail turns into heavy rain, the cows stand round the hut up to their knees in mud and water, and the distant thunder reverberates at inter- vals from rock to rock ; but, alas, one or two of the finest cows lie palpitating and half crushed at the foot of some precipice. Instances of such calamities occur every season. On the 1st of August, 1854, ten head of horned cattle, with the lad who tended them, fell over the cliff in a storm and all were dashed to pieces. This was in the Werdenberg Alp. If a storm is expected, the cowherds take care to collect the cattle beforehand. They present a singular appearance when drawn up in rank. The trembling animals stand in a body, with staring eyes and downcast heads, while the herdsmen go from one to the other encouraging and coaxing each. When this is done, however violent the thunder and lightning may be, and however heavy the hail may pour down upon them, not a cow will stir from the spot. The poor, good-natured animals, appear to feel safe from harm if they can only hear the voice of the keeper. Another kind of disturbance sometimes takes place, the nature of which is less known, and consequently more difficult to explain. If, when a cow dies or is killed in the Alps, any vestige of the body is left on the ground, the spot becomes the centre of a general battle-field. A cow which may have been grazing at some distance, is sure soon to find its way thither, showing every sign of excitement, to run about the place, scraping and lowing, and digging up the soil with its horns, as if mad. This is the signal for a general gathering of the herd, and a battle of horns begins, the violence and obstinacy of which can hardly be imagined. In spite of the utmost exer- tions, the fight terminates not unfrequently in the death or serious injury of at least one or two of the number. Even if the ofifal has been carefully removed or deeply buried, not one 38 298 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. of the herd will cross the spot without manifesting the greatest uneasiness. The bulls which are tame and good natured can be kept in the lower and more frequented pastures, but in the higher Alps very wild and dangerous animals are often to be met with. They are compactly built — their thick heads are covered with curly fore locks, and their general appearance is proud and defiant. A stranger visiting these pastures, especially if he have a dog with him, will attract the observation of a bull a long way off, and if he has a stick or a bit of red cloth about him, the bull becomes infuriated, and he is in great danger. He must run for the hut, or get behind a tree or wall, for any attempt at defence is useless, and the bull would sooner be cut in pieces than retire from the contest. The herdsmen rarely expose themselves to such attacks, but we once saw one, with astonishing presence of mind, seize a raving bull by the horn by the right hand, and strike him on the mouth with his left ; then catching hold of the tongue he gave it a twist, and whirl- ing the animal round with the strength of a Hercules, threw him to the ground. He never afterwards ventured to attack a man. Tlie moiuitain cows seldom attack men, but they often show the most violent antipathy to strange dogs, and they will sometimes unite and wage battle with the enemy, who always finds it best to put his tail behind his legs and run away. The value which the Swiss cowherd sets upon the beauty of his cows is well known. But there are no generally recognized principles of taste in the selection, and the points of beauty vary in the different cantons. The Bernese peasant likes a red ov speckled cow, the Schwytzer rather liave a dark chestnut color. In the Simmentlial a thick bull head is the style, and in the Entlebucth a fine feminine head is liked better. It is curious to watch a cowherd get enamored with the beauty of a cow. How eagerly he bids for a handsome one, and how loth he is to part with one. This has cost many a man his whole substance, while too little attention is paid to more important points. The day of migration to the Alps, which usually takes place in May, is the most festive season of tlie year, both for cattle and herdsmen. In many valleys the custom of celebrating the anniversary of the patron saints at this season still prevails. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 299 Thus the inhabitants of Grindelwald keep the feast of St. Patronella, and the Vallaisans that of St. Thcodolf, who made the devil carry a consecrated bell over the Alps to Rome, and in whose honor the pass of St. Theodolf was named. Lofty and dangerous as it is cows still graze upon it. Each herd, as it marclies to tiie mountains, is accompanied by its own bell cow. The great bell, worn by the handsomest cow, trimmed off with gay ribbons and a bunch of flowers on her horns, is often more than a foot in diameter. The cowherds take great pride in these bells. With three or four of them, all in harmony with each other,. and smaller brass bells chiming in between, they ring themselves in, from village to village, on their way. The train is preceded by a boy clad in a clean shirt and yellow breeches ; the cows, with milking stools tied between their horns, follow in file, and are sometimes themselves fol- lowed by calves, and a few goats bringing up the rear. Then comes the herdsman himself, with a horse which carries the milking traps, bedding, covered with bright-colored oil cloth. Now the " Ranz des Vaches " echoes through the mountains. The melody is a series of lengthened trills, notes now abrupt and now protracted. Tliere is a simple, wildly melodious com- bination of tones, often dwelling on the bass note and abruptly rising to the treble. "With this melody the herdsman calls his cows and greets his comrades. It is a means of holding distant conversations on the mountains. Tlie day for the return to the valley is a sadder one for both man and beast. The social union of the flocks breaks up. Some are restored to their different owners, and return to their usual winter stalls. In the Upper Engadine, where good shelter is required against nine months of cold, they are kept in subterranean stalls, under the houses. Others are sent from the east of Switzerland into Italy. The native cattle dealers buy them to sell again, or the drovers come up from Lombardy, or other parts of northern Italy, and select out the best looking animals, for which they have to pay a good price. Grreat droves of these cows, from the Appenzell and other sections, cross the St. Gothard, the SplUgen and other passes every fall, on their way to the south. The cows about Berne are generally of a dun color, said to make exceedingly good working oxen, but their strong points 300 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. are their dairy qualities. The Simmenthal race is large, spotted, and rather coarser than the Bernese, but still good milkers, and, no doubt, of hardy constitution. Many of the old houses that we jDass beyond Interlaken have some sentiment from the Bible or the poets written over the door in old German letters. The language almost universally spoken in Berne and all this part of Switzerland, is German. I left the foot of these vast mountain ranges with regret. The Yungfrau, the lofty Eiger, the Schreckhorn, the Faulhorn, the Wetterhorn, and other peaks, covered with eternal snow and ice glittering in the sun, and piercing the heavens in their height, are unspeakably grand and impressive. But our world of action is on a lower level, and we must come down into the realities of life. I am indebted to the American minister, Mr. Fogg, for most of the following information in regard to the military educa- tion of the Swiss people. This branch of the studies of the young is regarded as of the most vital importance to the safety and the stability of the republic. Theirs is a government of the people, and the sacrifices they make to educate themselves in the art of war show how jealously they guard their liberties by being always prepared to defend them. What an advantage the government of the United States would have possessed at the outbreak of the present devastating war, could it have commanded the services of a people all of whom had been trained, from their youth up, in military tactics, and to have called to the service the thousands of horses which its exigencies required, all trained to the evolutions of the field and accustomed to the din and noise of war. In Switzerland all the able-bodied men between the ages of nineteen and tliirty are required to receive a certain amount of military instruction and training. Of these a fixed proportion arc required to be cavalry, and every cavalry soldier is required to furnish his own horse, to whose education and training as much attention is given as to the soldier himself. In the artil- lery service also many horses are used, and these are furnished on requisition of the military authorities, by the communes or towns. These horses, like those in the cavalry service, are trained and accustomed to every kind of duty likely to be exacted of them in actual campaign. These horses range from SECRETARY'S REPORT. 301 six to nine years of age, and, when educated, are registered like soldiers. Then generally each year, the latter part of summer, a large division of the Swiss army, which is not a standing army, of course, makes a campaign of some ten days, sometimes more, into the mountains and passes of the Oberland, tlie Alps, and the Jura, for the purpose of familiarizing the cavalry, artillery and infantry to all the ordinary incidents and difficulties of a warlike campaign, without the appendix of " killed, wounded and missing." They occupy, defend, and capture strategic points, passes and strongholds, climb and descend precipices, with their artillery, sometimes drawn by the men, sometimes strapped npon the backs of the horses. They accustom the horses to feel as much at ease when a field-piece is fired at their backs as when a pistol is fired by their rider. These campaigns are always conducted by educated and approved officers who have seen service. It is on these expeditions, also, tliat the soldiers are instructed in the details of making their own tents, selecting their camping grounds, and cooking the coarse pro- visions which belong to actual military in a wild or hostile country. The amount and thoroughness of military instruction in the schools vary somewhat in the different cantons, though in all the cantonal schools military instruction is given. In Berne, for example, the cantonal schools rank somewhat like the Grammar and higher grade public schools in Boston, or the large towns generally in Massachusetts. They are open to all boys, upon examination. All the boys in these schools are organized with military corps, and officered from their own class, but provided by government with special military instructors, and furnished with small muskets, rifles, or cara- bines, suitable to the strength and age of the boys ; or, if organ- ized into artillery corps, they are supplied with small side-arms and field-pieces, which they can wield without difficulty. For these arms arsenals are provided by the government, and custodians are appointed to keep them safely and in good con- dition, when not in actual use. The military instructors are officers of the federal military organization ; educated men who have seen service, and who are au fait in the theory and art of war. The time devoted to military studies and training iu the 302 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. manual exercises varies with the season and in the various cantons. During the summer about three half days a week is the average time. There is also an occasional general muster, when all turn out together and occupy a spacious parade ground. Then the whole population of parents and friends, as well as the cantonal authorities, turn out for a holiday, to witness the nascent valor and heroism of the republic. It should be added that all these cantonal cadets wear a simple and modest stripe for a uniform, and one or two bright buttons, which cost almost nothing, but give the wearers a soldierly pride and love for this branch of their studies. There is much in Switzerland to remind an American of New England. The people are similar in many respects, — in their industry, their thrift, and their love of liberty ; while the simi- larity of the farming, of the crops and the climate, is quite striking. The yield of apples in most parts of Switzerland was very great, while the hills of some of the cantons were covered with thriving vineyards. As I arranged to return here and to cross the Alps again, with Mr. Fogg, I shall have occasion to recur to this country again, on a subsequent page. We left Berne and its bears for Zurich, on the beautiful lake of the same name, passing through an interesting and highly cultivated section. A few hours was all we could devote to Zurich at that time, as we were on our way to Germany and the Rhine. Crossing Lake Constance, less picturesque and less beautiful than most of the other Swiss lakes, we are in the kingdom of Wurtemburg. There is the royal steamer, not far off, running down the lake. It is a large and beautiful boat, for a lake steamer, and has the royal ensign flying at the mast. Standing here upon the deck of the little steamer that is setting us across, we can see four kingdoms, all bordering upon the lake. There is Austria at the southern extremity, and the mountains of Tyrol ; there is Bavaria where you see that pretty town of Liudau on the eastern shore ; there behind us is Switz- erland, with its fast receding mountains ; at our left, at the northern extremity, where the Rhine pours its swift waters from the lake, and where rises the town of Constance, is the Grand Duchy of Baden. Tliere is where they pronounced the sentence against John Huss, who was burnt alive by that famous council. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 303 And here, where we are fast neariiig the shore, is Wurtemburg. There rises the royal pleasure-house of King William, in the pretty town of Friedrichschafcn. "Without trouble at the custom house, as tins is a free port, we are soon seated and off for Ulm. The most striking agricultural feature of this part of Germany is the abundance and universality of fruits. Apples, pears and plums hang in profusion from every tree. Seldom have larger yields been seen here or anywhere else. Nearly every tree has need of props to support its overburdened limbs. I soon learned that vast quantities of fruit are exported annually, and that it forms a prominent source of income to the growers. From Fredrichschafen, where we landed and took the train, to Ulm, is fifty-eight miles, through a country generally flat and unin- teresting. Ulm itself is situated on the left bank of the Danube at its junction with the lller of the Blau. Its old fashioned houses, and its narrow streets present nothing very attractive. The fortifications are the most remarkable objects in the eyes of a traveller. They are extensive and apparently well planned. Stuttgart is the capital of Wurtemburg, fifty-eight miles from Ulm. It is a fine well built city of forty-tliousand inhabitants, situated in the midst of vine-covered mountains which make it very desirable as a summer residence. Here I determined to make the most of my knowledge of German by calling at various government ofiices to learn what I could of the agricultural condition of the country, and after blundering into several different departments, a walking illus- tration of the pursuit of knowledge under difficulties, I found myself where I ought to have gone first, in the department of the Minister of the Interior, and here occupied myself in the operation of pumping various public functionaries, rather more to my own amusement I am afraid than theirs. The general direction of the agricultural system of the country is under the jurisdiction of the Minister of the Interior. A sum of four or five thousand florins a year is voted for the encouragement of agriculture, in addition to paying the expenses of the agricultural institute at Hohcnheim, erecting its buildings, and supporting the royal establishments for horse breeding. 304 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. A royal council of agriculture, composed of seven members, is instituted for the purpose of examining and reporting to the government upon such propositions as the Minister of the Interior may submit for its consideration. The duties of the councillors are honorary, the secretary alone receiving a salary. This council is the centre of all the agricultural societies of the country, but its connection with them is strictly administrative or advisory, and consists mainly in keeping the minister informed as to their organization, their proceedings, the laws which it may be desirable to pass to make them more effective, «fec. The agricultural institute at Hohenheim, the most successful in Europe, is placed under its patronage and control. The director of the college, who has absolute authority as to all the internal details of the establishment, has to make his reports to the royal agricultural council. There are from sixty to seventy agricultural societies organ- ized by counties or departments. These make their reports to the royal council. Some of these societies require no entrance fee, the object being to induce the poorest farmers to become members. They depend, to some extent, upon the aid of the. government and more upon that of the department or county, from which they ordinarily receive two or three times as mucli as from the general government. From both sources they have liberal encouragement. The presidents and secretaries of these associations are chosen by themselves and receive no compensa- tion. Four or five of the societies join each year in a kind of agricultural congress. Besides these various means of encouragement extended directly and indirectly by the government, honorary distinctions are conferred upon eminent farmers of the country. Among these distinctions are such titles, created and conferred by the government, as Councillor of Agriculture, Councillor of Domains, Privy Councillor, and Privy Councillor of His Majesty ; all of which forms a sort of classification of farmers, according to the proofs of qualification which each has given, so that when the government has need of some special services it knows upon whom to call, with a certainty of securing the particular quali- fications it may re(juirc. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 305 The first title, Councillor of Agriculture, is conferred chiefly upon farmers and professors of agriculture of acknowledged merit. The title of Privy Councillor of His Majesty is the high- est in the scale, and is considered one of the first dignities of the country. Several eminent agriculturists of Wurteniberg are honored with this dignity, which they owe to their success in practical agriculture. From the beginning of the reign of King William, in 1817, many agricultural reforms have been vmdertaken, and the foundation laid of many rural establishments which have largely contributed to the prosperity of the kingdom. The sovereign in fact became the first farmer in the country. As early as 1810, when heir apparent, he took a lively interest in agriculture, and established a small breeding farm for horses at Scharnhausen, and when he came to the throne he acquired the estates at Weil and Kleinhohenheim, and enlarged that at Scharnhausen. All three estates were devoted to the raising of horses, and still continue to be the most extensive establishments of the kind in the country. But he did not devote himself exclusively to horses, but showed much inclination to foster all branches of agriculture, and these estates contributed not merely to his personal tastes, but to the various projects of agricultural reform which he had conceived. The people of his kingdom were devoted in a great measure to the labors of the field, but opposed from prejudice to the adoption of improvements and new-fangled notions. Even the great land-holders knew little of agricultu- ral science, and did not appreciate the charms of rural life. The country had been much impoverished by long continued wars. Circumstances were not very propitious to the royal projects, but the king was determined to awaken in his subjects a taste for farming. The royal farms therefore soon became model establishments which excited emulation and spread agricultural information. The country gradually came to look favorably upon these salutary projects of reform. From its geological formation and its situation it offered abundant resources for permanent progress. The vine extends over certain portions, especially in the valley of the Neckar, about Marbach and Stetten. In the valleys of [Jrach, Mezingen and Leuningen, a wide extent of country is very suitable for fruit trees and pasturage, intersected 39 306 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. by beautiful forests. But even the most fertile soil requires to be roused by human activity, and by the example and efiforts of the king, the country has taken an honorable position in the agriculture of Europe. That success has attended the king's undertakings is shown by the fact that in 1816, the year before he came to the throne, there were but 585,000 horned cattle in Wurtemburg, whereas on the first of January, 1859, there were 842,000. The num- ber of sheep was about the same as at present, but their quality was much inferior. The number of sheep in 1859 was 609,000, and the inferior qualities of wool were only thirteen per cent., whereas in 1816 the percentage of the same class was sixty- five. The number of horses over two years old at present is over 81,000, and several hundred a year are sold and exported, while the 73,000 in 1816 scarcely sufficed for the wants of the country. The council mentioned above examines all questions requir- ing investigation, with respect to these public agricultural establishments, and submits clear and brief reports upon them for the approbation of the king, and they are carried into effect without delay. The financial part of these establishments is intrusted to the council of domains of the crown. Two func- tionaries reside at Stuttgart, one charged with the general management of the breeding stables, the other with the agri- cultural and economical division. A veterinary surgeon is attached to each establishment. The solicitude of the king extends to the employees of these studs. They are paid regularly, and receive in addition to their wages more or less clothing, and a lot of land to till on their own account. Their widows or orphans are provided for by a sort of mutual life insurance company. Day laborers are often hired. The arrangement of these breeding establishments is simple and practical. Each is surrounded by an embankment four or five feet high, with a ditch the whole length. Upon this embankment thci-e is a hedge. The fields and pastures arc also surrounded l)y live hedges, and tiie drive-ways and roads are all bordered with fruit-trees. Some j)ortions of the ancient forests arc still left. The pastures are rich; the water abundant. The climate is favorable to fruit trees, while rye. SECRETARY'S REPORT. 307 oats, wheat, beans, vetches, beets, clover and lucerne are culti- vated successfully. Sorgho is also acclimated there, and gives good crops. The situation of the estates is picturesque and beautiful. Arab horses are raised for the saddle, and a half-blood for draught. These latter are of two classes : one white, a cross with the English horse ; the other black. The king got first a pure Arabian stallion in the East. This was brought home in 181T. He was white, and said to have been of rare beauty. He was kept as a breeder to the age of twenty-four, and died at twenty-six. He is said to have got not a single inferior horse. Subsequent importations have also been made. It is claimed that pure Arabians, which are now quite numerous in those long-continued establishments, are not only not inferior to the pure Arab of the desert, but that their size is increased, and their form more perfect ; their beauty in every respect equal. Much of it is due to better feeding, probably. The white half-bloods have turned out very fine horses. They are got by crosses with vigorous English and Irish mares with an Arab stallion. There are public sales of horses at the royal stables twice a year : one in April, at the time of the horse fair in Stuttgart, and the other on the SOtli of September. At Weil and Kleinhohenheim are also large dairies of cows, many of them of a Swiss origin, others probably of Dutch, but there are many different breeds. The general diffusion of intelligence among the people of this kingdom, is a striking feature as compared with that of France. Probably the system of primary instruction is more complete here than in any otlier part of Germany. I recollect that in going from Ulm to Stuttgart, we fell in with a common practical farmer and his son, who left the train with us at the latter city, and kindly volunteered to be our guide through some of the principal streets, pointing out as we went along many of the prominent buildings. He had a farm in the neighborhood, and was on his way to it. These, and all in the same class whom we happened to meet, were well informed, and I learned much from them of the condition and character of the country through which we passed, and of the inhab- itants. There is not a peasant, however low, who docs not know how to read, write, and cipher. Many of the women 308 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. whom we saw at work in the fields, appeared from their dress to be very poor. All the people have the same means of educa- tion, and what is more, they are obliged to avail themselves of the means offered them by the state. There is a kind of affability, openness and simplicity about them, the laboring classes as well as those in higher stations. A stranger has an instinctive confidence and trust in travelling among them, as in Switzerland, which contrasts very strongly with the natural distrust one feels among the people of southern Italy. There are no beggars here ; but honest industry, struggling no doubt often against the frowns of fortune, appears to be the universal characteristic of the poorer classes in Wurtemburg. Seeing some cows, yoked two abreast, at work in a field, a thing we constantly saw both in Switzerland and Germany, I asked my German farmer if he thought it was good economy. His reply was that they were generally worked but lightly when in milk, and that if pretty well fed, as they generally appeared to be, they would not fall off very much in milk, but still they do not give as much. Women do all kinds of farm- work here. We saw them of all ages, loading hay, raking, pitching on, mowing, digging potatoes, hauling out and spread- ing manure, engaged in fact in all the hard labors of the farm. We could not help asking ourselves the question, what could be the condition of the houses and the housekeeping among a class of people subjected to such constant drudgery, browned and blackened by exposure in the field ? But this is the common lot of the peasantry throughout Europe. But there is the school-house, the most comfortable and remarkable for its neatness and elegance in the neighborhood, and where this exists the labor cannot be wholly unintelligent, especially where instruction is obligatory up to the age of fourteen years. Each school is strictly watched by a commis- sion of the leading men. The child is responsible to this commission, and at the first and second offence or failure to attend, lial)lc to be punished by the instructor. At the third offence the j)arents arc liable to a fine, and again, after all is over, when drafted for service in the army, if the son cannot write the parents are liable to a fine in the same manner. The country for miles around Stuttgart is undulating and picturesque, full of magnificent apple and pear orchards, which SECRETARY'S REPORT. 809 border all the highways, almost without exception. Their cultivation, with that of vines, roots and grass, interspersed with ponds, rivers, meadows and forests, the neat and pretty houses, and good roads, all give one the impression of prosperity and good government. We left with regret, and pursued our course down the Neckar to Heidelberg. This old city is in the Grand Duchy of Baden, beautifully situated at the beginning of the valley of the Neckar. Tiie old castle, situated on a high eminence overlooking the city, is an object of interest from its historical associations. The neighborhood shows many evidences of high cultivation and productiveness. The sugar beet, tobacco and Indian corn are conspicuous among the crops raised. As we descend the river towards Frankfort on the Main, the cultivation of the vine increases. We stopped at Frankfort long enough to visit the house where Goethe was born, and to see his statue, and the other objects of interest in that old free city, and then began the tour of the Rhine. Here, between Frankfort and Mayence, is the celebrated Hockheim, one of the oldest vineyards in Rhenish Prussia, and which has given the general name of Hock to all the light Rhine wines of this section. The vineyard is on the summit of a hill, and contains not far from eight acres, which are said to be worth a " ducat a foot." The whole has a fine exposure to the sun all day, and is completely protected from the cold winds. A little brook runs along the hill, conveniently for irrigation, if necessary. A sparkling wine has been made at this vineyard for some years past, called Moussirender-Hock- heimer, the first quality of which is the well known Nonpareil. Many prefer it to Champagne. We enter now what has been called the " Paradise of Ger- many." A thousand associations cluster around its vine-clad hills, and its crumbling, picturesque ruins. Here Cassar led his armies. Here Charlemagne established the largest empire in Europe. Here the printing press was first set in motion, at Mayence. Here Napoleon won some of his great victories. History, poetry and romance have lavished their charms upon this river, and the country upon its banks. The vineyards on the Rhine have long been celebrated. It is not easy to see in what their beauty consists, except at the 310 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. time of the vintage, when I know they are most attractive, so much so as to make it difficult to keep hands off. The vine here is kept low, as described in speaking of Burgundy, and tied to stakes set in rows about three feet apart, each way. Except when loaded with purple clusters, a crop of beans is equally beautiful, and a field of Indian corn a thousand times more beautiful and majestic. The foliage is kept down by carefully trimming off the new shoots, and the vine is not allowed to grow more than about four feet high. A vineyard requires more care and labor, especially upon the steep slopes of the mountains, or high hill ranges, than we are apt to imagine. I saw many acres, both on the Rhine and the Rhone, so steep and inaccessible that every particle of soil and manure had been carried up in baskets on the heads of women. The plough is not used in the vineyard. The whole cultivation is that of patient hand labor. In cold and exposed situations, each vine has to be bound up iii straw late in tlie fall, and carefully opened in spring. I often wondered how it was that the vineyards were not fenced and protected, for they are everywhere open here as they were in France and other parts of Europe. Is it possible, thought I, that the grape is not stolen, or the owner molested ? Are people more honest here than in other parts of the world ? On inquiry, I satisfied myself that boys are boys all the world over, and light-fingered men and women quite as plenty, and in many sections a great deal more so, than in America. When the grape begins to ripen so as to tempt the intruder, a guard is placed over them by the government, and kept night and day, except when workmen are employed in the field. It is even said that during the ripening of the grape, the owner himself is not allowed to enter his vineyard without permission or giving notice, as the guard, who watches several fields, could not distinguish individuals at a distance, and could not be expected to leave his post and run half a mile to see that all was right. So too the police fix the day when the vintage shall com- mence, as they do with respect to the harvest of many other crops in Germany, and if the owner does not comply with the laws as to giving notice, &c., he forfeits his right to the protec- SECRETARY'S REPORT. 311 tion of his vineyards, at the government expense, and must look out for himself. It is easy to see, that where land is held in such extremely small lots as it often is in France and the Rhine provinces, and indeed in many other parts of Europe, the expense of fences must be very large, and for many of the poorer farmers quite out of tlie question. I was often struck with amazement at the perfect security of flowers about railway stations and in the public grounds, about palaces and other buildings, till I learned that molesting even the smallest flower is severely punished by fines. The police are everywhere present, also, and the chance of escape, I apprehend, would be extremely small. Again, I often asked what varieties of the grape were culti- vated ? Whether they were known by any general names ? The most common variety is called the Riessling. It is a small white grape, rather harsh, but said to make a wine of fine " bouquet," especially in a hot, dry season. Then the Klein- berger is a favorite grape, very productive, ripening early. The small Orleans grape furnishes a strong bodied wine. Most of the Rhine grapes are white, very few red varieties being cultivated here. It appears that at a congress of fruit-growers, held at Mayence, it was ascertained that there are about ninety varieties of grapes bearing different names, in the Rhenish provinces, and from all Germany about fifteen hundred different kinds were represented, many of them having local names, but really the same. How is it in regard to the profits of vineyards ? In a good year they pay well. They create a great demand for labor, and prosperity is the consequence. But there are seasons of failure, bad years, in which the vine-grower has to suffer great loss, and the community is brought to the verge of starvation. A celebrated political economist says the people of wine and silk making districts are the poorest and least intelligent and most miserable of any, owing to the uncertainties of this culture, the result often depending on influences beyond the control of art and industry. For these bad years cannot be foreseen and provided against. Vineyards, therefore, must be owned by large proprietors, who can afford to lose a year or two now and then, while the poor laborers who depend upon their daily 312 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. wages really have nothing to do in such years, and suffer in consequence. The vines along the Rhine are planted on the sunny slopes or southern aspects of the hills, where they are sheltered from the cold winds. On the tops of these hills, overlooking the river, are many old ruins of convents, the remains of Roman walls and feudal castles. We passed by the far famed castle and vineyard of Johannis- berg, often called the " Throne of Bacchus." This old castle dates back some eight or ten centuries. In 1816 it was given by the " allies " to Prince Metternich as an acknowledgment of his great services as a statesman and diplomatist during the wars of Napoleon. Just around the castle there are sixty-three acres of vineyards, though only two or three of them, right over the vaults of the castle, produce the very best wine, which often brings two or three dollars a bottle. The Johannisberger takes the lead of the Rhine wines, but the quantity of the superior wine is not large. The whole district along here is one great wine-garden, but the quality of the neighboring vintages is not uniform." Near Johannisberg is the Strahlen- berg, and not far off the Steinberg. Farther down this beautiful and almost classic stream we came to Bacharach, another section noted for its superb wines, and then the Drachenfels, or the Dragon's Rock, that Byron speaks of : — " The castled crag of Drachenfels Frowns o'er the wide and winding Eliine, Whose breast of waters broadly swells, Between the banks which bear the vine, And hills all rich with blossom'd trees. And fields which promise corn and wine, And scattered cities crowning these, Whose far white walls along them shine." I am obliged to omit very much that I had written upon this section of the Rhine, on account of the already too great length of this imperfect sketch. And here we are at Bonn, the birthj)lace of Beethoven. Here too is the University where Nicbuhr and Schlcgol taught, and the Cathedral founded by the mother of Constantino the Great. Without stopping long at this interesting place, we SECRETARY'S REPORT. 313 hastened on to Cologne, where we took time to look over the city, visit the Cathedral, some of the establishments for tlic preparation of eau de cologne, and other objects of interest. But as I visited this place again later in the season, and had still farther time, I shall defer an allusion to it for a subsequent page. We took the boat for Arnheira in Holland. The land of the Rhine below this point, in fact below Bonn, which is about ten miles above Cologne, is flat, and compared with that above, from Bonn to Mayence, uninteresting, both in a picturesque and in an agricultural point of view. From Arnheim, the chief town of Guelderland, we proceeded by railway to Utrecht, and thence to Amsterdam, Haarlem, the Hague and Rotterdam. Holland, it is well known, is a country mostly reclaimed from the sea by a series of dykes, to keep out the encroachment of the salt water, and wind and steam-mills to pump out the fresh. The country is therefore low and marshy, and the soil rich, deep and easily tilled. Amsterdam might be compared with Venice. It has a series of canals almost as extensive, and much of the transportation is conducted by means of the water communication reaching to nearly all parts of the city. It is entirely built upon piles driven into the soft bog beneath, while its canals are spanned by about three hundred bridges. The great palace of stone stands upon thirteen thousand six hundred and ninety-five piles. The circumference of the walls is about nine miles. There are here extensive and valuable collections of Dutch paintings, interesting and instruclive zoological gardens, and many other objects of interest. The stranger is at once struck by the bustle and activity of the quaintly dressed people, the curious old buildings, and the lively market. There is a won- derful old clock by the marble stadt-house that plays on its many bells, the bell song in Mozart's Zauberjloie. We passed by the extensive works for draining the Haarlem lake, by which thousands of acres are brought under cultiva- tion. Haarlem is famous for its extensive assortment of hyacinths, tulips, and in fact all other bulbous rooted flowers. Thousands of black and white cattle, the prevailing color of Dutch stock, are seen grazing upon the fields, more than I ever saw, in any country of equal extent, an indication of the rich- 40 314 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. ness of the soil and of its high state of cultivation. As I fell in with practical farmers in various parts of Holland, I took considerable pains to inquire with regard to the character and reputation of the cattle, where the best were procured, and the prices at which they were held. It seems that the cows of North Holland, the Beemster, and those around Haarlem, are considered the best, and are about equally good, and the prices about the same. The cows of these sections are great milkers, and the dairy business is carried to great perfection. As I have given all the details, fully illustrated, in the work on " Milch Cows and Dairy Farming," it is not necessary to dwell upon them here. The ordinary price of the best cows in Holland, as I was informed by farmers who kept them, is from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty guilders, the guilder being equal to forty-one cents ; but the very best in the Beemster and about Haarlem are held at from two hundred to two hundred and fifty guilders ; the general average of very good ones being about one hundred and seventy to one hundred and eighty guilders, or from $G8 to $12. Tlie very best bulls are not nearly so high, and plenty of good ones can be had for twenty or thirty dollars, though the choicest are often held nearly as high as the best cows. This was the uniform statement of practical men, and quite independent of each other, in different parts of Holland. As to the dairy qualities, no cow could help giving a great quantity of milk on the rich, juicy grasses of the polders; and there is no, doubt that the Dutch are fairly entitled to their high reputation in this respect. The peasantry of North Holland — the females, I mean — still cling to a curious old fashion of wearing skull shields of metal, often of the richest gold, brass or tin, according to their means, under their clean lace caps, projecting out on each side of the face in great square ornaments almost as large as a curtain holder. It struck me at first as the most ludicrous custom I had seen ; but I was told by an intelligent lady that the peas- antry were generally rich, many of them very rich, and that they put a good deal of their money into these gold ornaments as a safe investment. Wouldn't they get a good premium if they would just now send them over to New York ? SECRETARY'S REPORT. 315 Passing Lcydcn, the scat of the well known univ-crsity, we soon come to the home of the Dutch aristocracy, the beautiful Hague, and skirt along near the king's park and palace grounds. Then comes Delft, with its quaint old pottery, and Schiedam, with its innumerable wind-mills, built for the distil- leries, and we are landed in Rotterdam. The whole extent from Amsterdam to Rotterdam is one vast meadow, with here and there a town on tlie way, and the people quaint, clean, and not altogether uninteresting. Rotterdam is also a city of broad canals and innumerable bridges. Every thing about it, except the hotels, is as clean as if it were scrubbed every morning with soap and water. In the market square stands a statue of Erasmus. The house in which he was born is still standing here. This city, the second in the kingdom, is in the province of South Holland, situated very prettily on the river Maas, nearly twenty miles from its mouth. We arrived in this curious old city in the midst of a great fair, and had every opportunity to see the customs and the sports of the Dutch. I am sorry I cannot dwell longer upon them, but we must be off for Belgium. We had but little time to stop at Antwerp, a fact that I much regretted, as there is scarcely a place in Europe so rich in splendid churches adorned with more wonderful works of art. Here Rubens, and Vandyke, and other great masters of the Dutch school, left some of their best productions to add to the glory and fame of their native city. The winding and crooked streets, the quaint old houses rising up five or six, often seven, stories, with the most remarkable and grotesque combinations of architecture, tapering at the top to a pinnacle, with their fronts ornamented with rich tracery ; but above all, the grand works of art, the great original of the Descent from the Cross, the grand master-piece of Rubens, are worthy of a careful and minute inspection. The country, for most of the way to Brussels, was carefully cultivated and very productive. As we approach Brussels, we see near the road the old palace of Lackcn, where Napoleon planned the campaign of Russia and signed the declaration of war against the Czar. Here, also, he enjoyed the fascinating society of Maria Louisa, the successor of the amiable and unfortunate Josephine. 316 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Brussels, the city of laces, is partly French and partly Flemish. In the upper parts of the town, with its magnificent squares, palaces and parks, adorned with trees and statues and fountains ; with its broad and beautiful promenades, full of a gay and lively crowd of people, we seem to be in Paris. Down the hill, through the street of the Nymphs, we meet only broad- faced women, talking a language we do not understand, in costumes we have never seen before, with old wooden shoes, coming into the market with their fruits and vegetables. The houses are quaint, the carts are quaint, the men move slow ; antiquity itself could not offer us a scene more unique. We stopped in the upper town, in the square near the Hotel de Ville. Here is where Charles the Fifth of Spain exercised his gigantic power and ruled the destinies of so large a part of Europe. It was afterwards, on the 7th of September, 1556, in this same Hotel de Ville, that this proud monarch abdicated his throne in favor of his son, Philip Second, voluntarily giving up a power not often held by any man. Here, too, in the centre of the square, now so beautifully shaded, the blood of Count Egmont flowed at the order of the great Duke of Alva, who stood in the window opposite and looked upon the execution of his victims. This square rang with music at the magnificent ball given to the officers of the allied armies, at which the Duke of Wellington first heard that Napoleon had advanced to meet him at Waterloo. Who has not read those soul-stirring lines of Byron, beginning — " There was a sound of revelry by night, And Belgium's capital had gathered then Her beauty and her chivalry." ♦ Who cannot imagine the sudden confusion which this announcement must have made upon the joyous company, so admirably expressed in the same beautiful poem ? "And there was mounting in hot liaste; the steed, The nmstering squadron an