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EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT

SECRETARY

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WITH AN" APPENDIX

CONTAINING

REPORTS OF DELEGATES APPOINTED TO VISIT
THE COUNTY EXHIBITIONS,

AND ALSO

RETURNS OF THE FINANCES OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES

1 8 7 O.

BOSTON :

WRIGHT & POTTER, STATE PRINTERS,
No. 79 Milk Street (corner of Federal).

1871.

STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
18 7 1.

MEMBERS EX OFFICII8.

Hrs Excellency WILLIAM CLAFLIN.

His Honor JOSEPH TUCKER.

Hon. OLIVER WARNER, Secretary of the Commonwealth.

WILLIAM S. CLARK, Pres. Mass. Agricultural College.

APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNOR AND COtTNCIL.

Term Expires

JAMES F. C. HYDE, of Newton, 1872

LOUIS AGASSIZ, of Cambridge, 1873

MARSHALL P. WILDER, 0/ £os<o«, 1874

n and

Massachusetts, .
jEssex,
Middlesex,
Middlesex North,
Middlesex South,
Woixester,
Worcester West,
Wm-cester North,
Woi-cesler North- West,
Woixester South
Worcester South-East,
Uampskire, Frankh
Hampshire,
Highland,
Hampden,
Hampden East,
Union,
Franklin,
'Berkshire,
Hoosac Valley, .
Housatonic,
Norfolk, .
Hingham,
Bristol,

Bristol Central,
Plymouth,
Marshfield,
Barnstable,
Nantucket,
Martha's Vineyard,

CHOSEN BY THE COUNTY SOCIETIES.

. LEVERETT SALTONSTALL, of Newton, . 1874

. GEORGE B. LORING, of Salem, . . . 1872

. JOHN B. MOORE, of Concord, . . . 1873

. JONATHAN LADD, of Lowell, . . . 1874

. JOHN JOHNSON, of Framingham, . . 1872

. THOMAS W. WARD, of Shrewsbury, . 1872

. JOHN T. ELLSWORTH, of Barre, . . 1872

. LEWIS H. BRADFORD, of Fitchburg, . 1872

. FARWELL F. FAY, of Athol, . . . 1874

. NEWTON S. HUBBARD, of Brimfield. . 1874

. WILLIAM KNOWLTON, of Upton, . . 1873

Hampden, A. PERRY PECK, of Northampton, . . 1873

. LEVI STOCKBRIDGE, of Amherst, . . 1874

. GEORGE T. PLUNKETT, of Hinsdale, . 1872

. WILLIAM BIRNIE, of Springtield, . . 1873

. HIRAM CONVERSE, of Palmer, . . . 1873
. E. W. BOISE, of Blandford, .... 1874

. THOMAS L. ALLIS, of Conway, . . . 1874

. ANDREW J. BUCKLIN, of South Adams, . 1873

. NAHUM P. BROWN, of Florida, . . 1873

. RICHARD GOODMAN, of Lenox, . . 1873

. ELIPHALET STONE, of Dedham, . . 1874

. ALBERT FEARING, of Hingham, . . 1873

. AVERY P. SLADE, of Somerset, . . .1872

. NATHAN DURFEE, of Fall River, . . 1873

. CHARLES G. DAVIS, of Plymouth, . . 1872

. GEORGE M. BAKER, of Marshfield, . . 1873

. S. B. PHINNEY, of Barnstable, . . . 1874

. ANDREW M. MYRICK, of Nantucket, . 1872

. HERMAN VINCENT, of Chilmark, . . 1874

CHARLES L. FLINT, Secretary.

EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPOET

SECUETAHY

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

To the Senate and House of Representatives of the Common-
wealth of Massachusetts.

The past year has been one of the most remarkable for its
meteorological characteristics within the memory of men. The
winter was ushered in with a temperature almost as mild as
May. No snow covered the ground for weeks, while several
varieties of wild-flowers were gathered in the open air in many
parts of the North. It was practicable to plough the ground
till the very last of January, with the violets growing in shel-
tered nooks, and the weather eight degrees warmer through the
month than it had been known for nearly fifty years. In some
parts of New England the willows blossomed as early as the otli
of February, the pyriis Japonica in our gardens was ready to
open its scarlet flowers at the same time, while, after the mid-
dle of the month, potatoes were dug in this State uninjured by
the frost. The little snow that fell in March soon vanished, and
April was like May. It had been a winter of rare mildness, fol-
lowed by a spring earlier than had been known for many years,
with the exception, perhaps, of that of 1865, a spring succeeding
a season of severe drouorht.

6 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The genial weather of spring, with all the conditions favora-
ble to farm labor and to rapid growth of vegetation, led to high
expectations of a fruitful and prosperous harvest. It was a
warm May, a hot June, a scorching July, a broiling August.
No rain fell for many weeks to lay the dust. A drought began
with the summer solstice, increasing in' severity very rarely, if
ever, equalled in the whole history of New England. Farmers
suffered for want of water, and the cattle panted from thirst.

The crop, of course, felt the effects of the drought. The
grass in the pastures dried up, and the mowing stubbles were
burned by the sun. Indian corn, among the best of cultivated
plants to test the qualities of the season, actually died out on
many an acre, and the root-crops ceased to grow on ordinary
upland soils and many of them died about the middle of sum-
mer, the rains arriving so late in September that they failed to
revive them in season to enable them to make much growth,
though such of them as survived the dry weather unharmed
made a wonderful progress later in the season.

When plants lie steadily dormant for many weeks of dry
weather, they seem to preserve a greater degree of vitality till a
period favorable to their growth arrives, than if they are sub-
jected to occasional fluctuations by the occurrence of more or
less showers, lifting them, for a time, partially out of their dor-
mant state. In other words, a persistent dormancy, even if
long continued, appears to be more favorable to the preserva-
tion of a good degree of vitality than a dormancy interrupted
by repeated revivals of growth.

Still, most farm products suffered severely from the peculiari-
ties of the season, though fruits of most kinds were abundant,
ripening earlier than usual, and decaying more readily, on
account, perhaps, of maturing so early.

Notwithstanding these characteristics, it was a year of general
hcalthfulness among the people, and among farm stock. No
fatal epidemics prevailed to decimate our herds. Towards the
close of the year, however, the foot and mouth disease was intro-
duced by cattle brought from beyond our limits, and spread
with great rapidity. The action taken by the authorities,
designed to check its progress, will appear in the following

CATTLE DISEASES.

REPORT OF THE CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

The Commissioners on Contagious Diseases among Cattle, re-
port, that nearly the whole of the year since our last report was
made, has been one of thrift to our cattle-growing interest and
its products. Until within a few weeks our herds have not
been visited by any general malady, though at different times
our attention has been called to herds which it was feared were
afflicted with contagious disease. In April we were notified
that a herd in Holden, Worcester County, was undoubtedly
sick with contagious pleuro-pneumonia. Dr. Martin, of "Wor-
cester, made an examination of the case, and reported his opin-
ion that it was a case of simple pneumonia and not contagious ;
and the animals recovering without any dissemination of the
malady, proved the correctness of the opinion. So terrible and
costly were the ravages of contagious pneumonia in former
years, that many cattle-owners are extremely sensitive on that
point, and often fear great danger where none exists.

Ordinary pneumonia, not uncommon at some seasons of the
year, yields readily to treatment, is entirely different from tiie
contagious type, and need cause no alarm. In our last report
mention was made of a very fatal and apparently new disease
in this State, which had carried off numbers of cattle in Great
Barrington and Egremont, in Berkshire County. That disease
did hot entirely abate during the cold weather of last winter,
but it was of a milder type, and there were no fatal cases. On
the coming of warm weather, it again broke out in a more viru-
lent form, and a fatal case occurred in May. The disease con-
tinued in that locality through the warm season, or until about
the first of December, affecting not only cattle, but horses,
sheep and swine, many of which have died. This disease,
though localized to the towns of Barrington, North Egremont
and Alford, and not found in other parts of the State, has been
a great scourge, and injflicted losses on some farmers that are
well-nigh ruinous. In some cases they have lost nearly their
entire stock of domestic animals, and if they have the ability,
they fear to risk the experiment of replenishing it. Examina-
tions made this season have convinced us that the disease is one
which is common in tlie fens of Scotland, in some of the
swampy, malarious districts of our Southern States, and known

8 BOAUD OF AGRICULTURE.

by the technical name of Charbon. The sick animal has a very
high fever, the blood is disintegrated and broken up, the liver
becomes congested, the spleen very much enlarged, and the
mucous membrane of the intestines diseased. It usually runs
its course, and the animal dies in from one to four days. Some-
times it appears in boils on cattle, and can be easily communi-
cated to man by contact with spots bare of skin, and breaks out
in a pimple, which spreads, and in the end is nearly incurable.
Its type varies a little in animals of different species, and some-
times in animals of the same species. In swine it may appear
as carbuncular sore throat, or in that form of disease known as
" hog cholera." In horses it appears in purple spots on the
mucous membrane and with inflamed sore throat, and there is
a discharge of bloody matter from some of the natural openings
of the animal. The disease, in its virulent type, is highly con-
tagious, and the poison is retained a long time in the carcass of
the dead animal, and can be communicated. Great care should
therefore be taken to bury tlie dead animals deeply and securely,
that they may not be exhumed by dogs, and the virus scattered
to renew its baneful work. Although there are no indications
that this disease will spread extensively to other parts of the
State, yet so great have been the losses of the farmers in the
towns named, so great their apprehension of future disaster if
they should stock tlieir deserted farms, that we entertain the
opinion that we should be justified in making a thorough exam-
ination of that locality to find, and if possible remove, the
prime, exciting cause of the malady.

Late in November a cattle disease made its appearance here,
which is entirely new to this State, and it is quite recent on the
American continent. It has developed its characteristics suffi-
ciently to prove that, although it is of a milder type, yet it is
epizootic aphtha, or the foot and mouth disease which has
caused so much trouble and loss in England and adjacent coun-
tries. It undoubtedly came to the United States from England
by way of Canada, being brought to the great distributing stock
markets of Albany, Brighton and Cambridge by Canada cattle
transported over the northern and western railroads. The dis-
ease is an eruptive fever, and so highly contagious that it is
communicated from animal to animal by contact, by inanimate
objects, and by driving healthy animals on the roads or yarding

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE. 9

them in inclosures which have been trodden by the diseased.
The contagious character of the disease, and the very short time
it requires for incubation, caused its wide dissemination through
the counties of Worcester, Middlesex, Essex, Norfolk, Bristol,
Hampshire and perhaps others, before the Commissioners or the
people were aware of its nature and consequences, or hardly of
its existence. It broke out almost simultaneously in a score of
places, and though the governor, on receiving information of its
existence, promptly appointed Dr. E. F. Thayer to the vacancy
then existing on the Commission, which was promptly called
together, yet the investigations which were absolutely necessary
to ascertain the origin and nature of the disease, and the manner
in which it was being spread through the community, neces-
sarily consumed some days, and delayed that prompt action for
its arrest and eradication which was desirable.

It was ascertained beyond a doubt that Brighton was the focus
of the disease, the point from which it took its departure for the
yards and herds of the eastern part of the State. It was found
that perfectly healthy animals driven through the yards of
Brighton to their places of destination on distant farms developed
the disease in periods varying from two to five days, and com-
municated it at once to all the cattle with which they came in
contact. We learned that the disease as developed here was
not fatal, that its great damage was in the loss of flesh and milk,
the trouble and expense attending the doctoring of the sick and
the injurious effect which might result, if milk, butter or beef
from the contaminated animals should find its way to our mar-
kets ; that it was extremely difficult to kill the virus or eradi-
cate it from the buildings or grounds contaminated by it, and
that it was very liable to break out afresh and with all its
malignity at any time in the future. In view of all these facts
the Commissioners deemed it their duty to interdict the driving
of all working cattle, cows and store cattle to and from Brighton,
Cambridge and Medford ; allowing only such healthy cattle to
be handled there as are intended for immediate slaughter. If
it is found that this last class of cattle convey the disease to the
towns where they are driven to supply the local beef markets,
we shall forbid their passage, and those markets must be sup-
plied for a short time with dressed beef obtained from Brighton
or the West. At the same time a circular was sent to the mayor

10 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and aldermen and selectmen of all the cities and towns of the
Commonwealth, advising them to strictly enforce section 5 of
the Acts of 18(30, chapter 219, by forbidding the driving of all
cattle to or from their municipalities, or from place to place
within their limits. The people were urged to cooperate with
their authorities by giving information and assisting to enforce
the law. We have urged the officers to be vigilant in the dis-
charge of their duties, and particularly to direct the radical
purification of all places that have been contaminated by the
contagion, by the free use of the strongest and most effectual
disinfectants. As a cooperative measure, the cattle grounds
and yards of Brighton must be thoroughly purified. The virus
of the disease was undoubtedly trodden into the soil there dur-
ing the mild weather of early December, and though now dor-
mant in the frozen earth, is yet alive, and will be roused to
activity when the grounds are softened by thaws or the return
of spring. We are of the opinion that the necessities of the case
will fully justify us in making the outlay requisite to carry away
the surface of those grounds to as great a depth as the poison
has been trodden, and eradicate it by the use of sufiicient quan-
tities of carbolic acid and chloride of lime. Facts have come to
the knowledge of the Commissioners which lead us to the confi-
dent belief that the virulence of this disease can be mitigated,
and the disease itself stayed, by the application of diluted car-
bolic acid to the feet of all the animals in a herd which has been
contaminated, whether the disease has become developed or not,
and its application at the same time as a disinfectant to the
floors and mangers of the buildings in which they are kept.

Your Commissioners would express the hope that the meas-
ures now in operation will prove effectual to not only check but
eradicate this scourge and prevent its obtaining a permanent
location in our midst, by which result it would entail enormous
losses upon our stock owners, disarrange and injure our mar-
kets, fill the community with fear and distrust, and possibly
injuriously affect the sanitary condition of our people. This
hope may, however, be disappointed. The disease is new with
us, and nobody here has had experience in attempts for its
eradication. The losses it has brought upon some of the coun-
tries of Europe would indicate that it would be a wise policy, a
true economy, to employ more stringent measures, and to make

MEETING AT FRAMINGIIAM. 11

large present expenditures, if necessary, that this disease, like
the contagious pleuro-pneumonia, may be at once and forever
" stamped out." This, by rightly directed measure, can un-
doubtedly be done without resorting to the extreme remedy of
slaughtering the infected herds. That we may be enabled
effectually to discharge the duties which the law imposes upon
us, to at once arrest and eradicate this new enemy to our great
stock interest, an appropriation by the legislature seems to be
necessary, and at the earliest possible day. Should the progress
of the disease be such" as to require any further legal enact-
ments or the modification of those under which we are now
acting, to assist us in our work, or should its development make
it necessary for the intelligent action of the legislature or the
good of the people, the Commissioners will present a supple-
mentary report.

Levi Stockbridge,
E. F. Thayer,
H. W. Jordan,

Commissioners on Contagious Diseases among Cattle.

Boston, January 10, 1871.
PUBLIC MEETIIsTG OF THE BOAED,

At FRAMINGHAM.

The usual country meeting of the State Board of Agricul-
ture was held at the Town Hall, in Framingham, on Tuesday,
Wednesday, and Thursday, Dec. 13th, 14th, and 15th.

The Board was called to order at 12 o'clock, on Tuesday, by
Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, Chairman of the Committee on
Meetings, who, after remarks of welcome by Hon. C. C. Esty,
on the part of the citizens of the town, and by George W.
Brown, in behalf of the Middlesex South Agricultural Society,
addressed the meeting as follows : —

MR. WILDER'S ADDRESS.

Gentlemen of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture : In
the performance of the duty enjoined on me as Chairman of the
Committee of Arrangements, I solicit your attention to a few
remarks by way of commencing the business of this session.

12 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Through the kindness of a merciful Providence, I stand be-
fore you to-day as the senior member of the Massachusetts Board
of Agriculture, and as the only one of this assembly who was
present at the time of its primary organization. In view of this
fact, and that this present year will close the twentieth of its
operations, I have thought it might be not only interesting but
profitable to refer to its origin, history, and the work it has
already accomplished.

The preliminary efforts for the establishment of the State
Board of Agriculture emanated from a meeting of the Trustees
of the Norfolk Agricultural Society, held January 28th, 1851.
It was there voted, that " the president and secretaries be a com-
mittee to mature and adopt a plan for a convention of delegates
from the various agricultural societies of the Commonwealth,
to be holden at some convenient time and place, the object of
which shall be to concert measures for their mutual advantage,
and for the promotion of the cause of agricultural education."

This convention assembled at the State House, in Boston, on
the 20th of March, 1851. The attendance was large, being
composed of delegates, with officers and trustees of societies,
and other friends of agriculture.

The session lasted for several days. After a thorough discus-
sion of the subject, and a free interchange of opinion, a Central
Board of Agriculture was formed. It was organized Sept. 2,
1851, by the choice of Marshall P. Wilder as President, Henry
W. CusiJMAN and John W. Lincoln, Vice-Presidents, Allen
W. Dodge, Corresponding Secretary, and Edgar K. Whitaker,
Recording Secretary, with three delegates from each incorpo-
rated society receiving the bounty of the Commonwealth, and in
this form it exercised its functions, holding its meetings at the
State House, for two years, when it finally culminated in the
establishment in a department of the government, with the Sec-
retary resident at tlie capital. The Act of the legislature was
passed in 1852, and the present Secretary entered upon the
duties of his office in February, 1853. By this Act, the gov-
ernor of the State was a member of the Board, and each in-
corporated society receiving the bounty of the State was en-
titled to send a delegate, the term of whose office was to con-
tinue for three years. To these were added three other delegates,
to be appointed by the governor and council, and also, as ex

ORGANIZATION OF THE STATE BOARD. 13

officio, the Lieut. Governor, Secretary of State, and now the
President of the Massachusetts Agricultural College.

The first and most important business of the department was
to secure the services of a permanent Secretary. All eyes were
turned to Rev. Dr. Hitchcock, President of Amherst College,
who had been intimately associated with the efforts for the pro-
motion of agricultural education, and he was unanimously
elected to that ofiice, but his duties in connection with the col-
lege, and declining health, compelled him to decline the appoint-
ment.

The selection of Secretary then became a matter of deep
solicitude, but after much deliberation and investigation of the
various qualifications of various candidates, the choice fell upon
Charles L. Flint, then a young lawyer just established in busi-
ness in New York, a gentleman whose love for rural pursuits
induced him to abandon a lucrative profession and devote his
life to the instincts of his nature. Fortunate indeed for the
Board was the selection of a gentleman whose attainments and
long experience have made his name extensively known, not
only in our own but other lands. Long may he live to enjoy
the meed of praise he has so richly deserved.

Thus the Board of Agriculture, with vested powers, became
the organ of the farming community, being placed near and
connected with the government, so that the wliole legislation
in reference to bounties, premiums, and general agricultural
interest of the State has been controlled or influenced by the
department, and thus by its operations it was also brought im-
mediately into friendly communication and reciprocal relations
with the various local agricultural associations of the Common-
wealth, dispensing to them and receiving in return valuable
information for the benefit of the public.

One of the first acts of the Central Board was the arranging
of days for the various exhibitions of societies, and also the as-
signment to committees of special subjects for essays, both of
which measures were retained by our present Board, and to
which was immediately added the appointment of delegates to
visit and report on the exhibitions of the local Societies.

By the Act constituting the State Board all the duties which
had been performed by the Secretary of State in regard to agri-
"cultural matters now devolved on the Secretary of the Board

14 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

of Agriculture. Thus a new and independent system of opera-
tions was established, whereby the Secretary became the chief
officer and organ of the Board, on whom has devolved ever since
the duty of digesting the returns of the societies and of prepar-
ing the annual volume of the department.

This annual volume embraces a most complete and perfect
system of reports, containing abstracts of the various statements
and experience of the best cultivators from all parts of the
Commonwealth. It also contains the essays and reports of the
Secretary, and the reports of special committees on special sub-
jects. These volumes, embracing a period of twenty years,
constitute a storehouse of information, in fact a comprehensive
library, embracing almost every subject in agriculture, and they
are eagerly sought after throughout the Commonwealth and
country. When the Board was established, scarcely three thou-
sand copies of the Report were required to supply the demand,
and, in fact, less than two thousand copies had been previously
called for ; now, ten thousand copies are found to be insufficient
to meet applications. The circulation of these Reports created
also a wide-spread interest in other States, in regard to the
organization and operations of the Board and the general agri-
cultural system of the State. In fact, the Boards of Agriculture
in the New England and other States are generally founded and
modelled on that of Massachusetts, and to this very day the
Secretary has applications from the executives of the newer
States for our code of operations, and we believe that the great
increase in the circulation of agricultural papers and docu-
ments may have arisen, in part, from the labors of the Board
in creating a greater spirit of inquiry and enterprise in regard
to agricultural matters.

The Massachusetts Board has always been composed of a body
of earnest, intelligent, progressive men, — men who have given
their time, their services, and best thoughts without compensa-
tion or hope of reward, except such as may come from the con-
sciousness of duty well performed and of benefits conferred for
the public good, and it may, without fear of reproach, ask to
be judged by its proceedings.

The wide-spread interest in the breeding of pure stock is a
striking instance; and, while contributing largely to this, it has
at the same time greatly promoted and facilitated tlie diffusion

INFLUENCE OF THE BOARD. 15

of such stock, by constituting, as it were, through its Secretary
at headquarters, a medium of intelligence, where inquiries
could be made as to the choicest animals of all the different
breeds, and of whom they could be obtained. Such inquiries
were of almost daily occurrence, so that those seeking improved
stock were easily put in communication with those who had it
for sale. As an example of the effect of this enterprise on the
part of the farmer, it may be stated that at the time of the
organization of this Board there were but seventy-five pure-bred
Jersey cattle in the State, whereas now many a town, and even
some individual breeders, have a larger number than that, and
the same is true, in a good degree, with regard to other choice
breeds of stock.

Few are aware of the salutary influence which the Massachu-
setts Board of Agriculture has exercised on the farming com-
munity and the public mind during the period of its existence.
An entire and complete change has taken place in public opinion
with regard to the paramount importance of agricultural edu-
cation. There are some here who remember, at the time of the
organization of the Board, the great prejudice which existed
against what was then termed " book farming," and there were
but few papers or periodicals that would boldly stand forjth as
champions in the cause. But amidst all the discouragements,
here was cherished and sustained the first general efforts for
the establishment of an Agricultural College, now so favorably
known and appreciated, and here ever since it has been fostered
and encouraged as one of the most important branches of edu-
cation receiving the patronage of the government.

And here let me say, if we would have our sons attain to
great success as farmers, we must educate them ; you must
teach them how to apply science to practice. If you would have
labor honored and respected, you must educate it. Therefore
I rejoice in the prosperity of this college. The farmers hold the
destinies of this nation in their hands. They are the conserva-
tors of the public good, the almoners of Heaven's bounty to the
reduplicating millions who are to follow us ; therefore, I say,
educate labor, elevate it, honor it, dignify it, and in its turn it
will elevate, enrich and dignify the State.

Nor must we forget the action of the State Board in regard
to the extirpation of that terrible disease, the pleuro-pneumonia.

16 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Nothing but the prompt and persistent action of the Board
enabled the State to arrest and stop that fatal scourge. The
aggregate cost to the State was less than seventy thousand dol-
lars, but had it not been for the united and persistent action of
the Board it probably would, here as in Europe, have devastated
not only our own but other States, at a loss of hundreds oi
thousands, if not millions, of dollars. And who that is cogni-
zant of these facts can doubt their far-sighted policy, and that
this action of the Board with reference to that disease was worth
more to the State and the country than many times the cost of
our department from the beginning, or the expenses of running
it for fifty years to come ? Facts fully substantiate these state-
ments, but what was of far more serious consideration is the
fact that the use of these diseased animals and their dairy prod-
ucts was daily sapping the foundations of human life.

If any one thinks these statements exaggerated, let him reflect
on the fact, that the loss of cattle in Great Britain from pleuro-
pneumonia was estimated at one time at ten millions of dol-
lars annually, resulting principally from a want of knowledge
and vigilance in arresting it at its commencement, as was done
in Massachusetts. All subsequent information justifies what
has been stated in regard to this matter, when much less was
known than at the present time.*

Here also, by a resolution, was instituted the primary pro-
ceedings which convened the National Convention of Farmers at
Washington in 1851, and which resulted in the formation of
the United States Agricultural Society, an association which for
ten years, and until the late civil conflict, exercised a most
happy influence, not only on the cause of agriculture, but in
the promotion of friendly intercourse between the leading culti-
vators of the several States.

Here, too, in the councils of this Board, originated the pro-
posal for establishing the New England Agricultural Society,
now so successfully exercising its functions throughout New
England, under the lead of one of our own members as Presi-
dent from the day of its formation to the present time.

The discussion of subjects of general utility not strictly agri-
cultural have frequently attracted the action of the Board, as in

* See Mr. Flint's Letter to Gov. Andrew, in the Report of 1863, p. 14-25, and in the
Reports, '59, '60, '61, '62.

AIDS TO PROGRESS. 17

the matter of public roads, which forms the topic of the lecture
of to-day. Embracing the suggestions made by Gov. Claflin in
his message to the legislature, on the subject of Public Roads,
the Board instituted committees and offered premiums for the
best essays, believing the subject to be one, not only of great
importance for the comfort and well-being of the community
generally, but as bearing directly on the interest and economy
of the farmer's calling. Much of this interest, now so general,
is justly due to tlie prompt action of this Board in creating,
through its members and discussions, a sentiment which we
believe will ere long revolutionize public opinion on the subject.

But while we rejoice in the prosperity of this Board, we would
also recognize the many facilities which have so essentially aided
its progress and usefulness. Among these may be named the
cooperation of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of
Agriculture, by the importation and distribution of pure-bred
cattle, horses, and agricultural seeds, — a society which has
always been represented in our councils from the first. Nor can
we omit the influence of the Massachusetts Horticultural So-
ciety, the second institution of the kind organized on this conti-
nent, but second to none in the power it has wielded in the
promotion of American Pomology, and from whence has ema-
nated, more than from any other source, the great interest in
fruit culture which has now spread throughout our whole land.

The Board early recognized fruit culture as an important
branch of Massachusetts agriculture, and from the commence-
ment it has enrolled in its ranks gentlemen of large experience,
not only from this society but from the National Pomological
Society, and it may safely claim in the department of fruits, both
as it regards the nomenclature, recommendations, and improve-
ment, a rank not surpassed by any other State. These state-
ments are substantiated by the consideration that the cultivation
of fruit in this State, if not now the second or third in statistical
valuation, is destined soon to rival in importance the grain or
vegetable crops of the State.

If there are any who doubt the usefulness and importance of
this Board, let them examine the reports of the Secretary for
the last twenty years, embodying, as they do, in addition to his
own essays, the results of the mature deliberations of the best
farmers and horticulturists from the various sections 'of the
3

18 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

State, and they will find more valuable information than in
almost any other work. Almost an entire revolution has taken
place in the received principles and practices of cultivation dur-
ing the existence of the Board, and much of this can be traced
to the investigations of its members and the publication of their
experience, thus not only teaching each other, but making the
knowledge of one the property of all.

The Massachusetts Board of Agriculture is now a permanent
department of the State government, receiving the confidence
and favor of the people. It has established a uniform system of
oi)erations in the local societies. Its office is continually open
to the people of this State and the Union and other lands, and
its Secretary is in correspondence with similar associations both
at home and abroad, and thus is able to keep up with the progress
of improvement, receiving information and distributing the
results of his investigations and the deliberations of the Board.

Gentlemen, we live in an age of remarkable activity, of
startling enterprise, of noble achievement, — an age which has de-
veloped the most stupendous results in the march of civilization
and all the arts of life. Discoveries, inventions, and improve-
ments in the great industrial pursuits we seek to promote, bear
witness to the same progressive march. Never before has the
cultivator of the soil had such advantages for the acquisition of
knowledge, and never before have the energies of mankind been
so profoundly moved and actively engaged in efforts to relieve
toil, reward labor, and multiply the blessings and comforts of
life. How remarkable the improvements which characterize the
arts of husbandry ! Compare the old wooden plough of our boy-
hood with the modern iron plough, suited to all soils and situa-
tions, or, if you please, with the gigantic steam plough, moving
across the broad prairie like a thing of life, turning up its
numerous furrows at once, and leaving behind a wake like that
of a majestic ship. Compare the old scythe and sickle of our
fathers, tediously gathering up their crops, with our wonderful
mowing and reaping machines, cutting down their ten to twenty
acres per day, — aye, or go with me to the vast grain-fields of the
great West, look down that broad valley, see those two hundred
reaping machines, followed by a thousand men, women and
children, binding up the golden sheaves at the rate of two hun-
dred acres per hour. Look at the improved methods of cultiva-

PAST MExMBERS OF THE BOARD. 19

tion, — the novel processes of reproduction by the art of hybridi-
zation,— the accession of new and improved grains, vegetables,
and fruits everywhere springing up around us, — the increased
taste for choice fruits, extending through every grade of society,
— the large and general circulation of agricultural newspapers,
periodicals and books, and the universal desire to obtain every-
thing which promises to be interesting, useful or profitable, —
and last, not least, the establishment of agricultural colleges,
schools and societies throughout our States. Look at these and
compare them with the past, and who will say that we do not
live in an age of progress and improvement ?

Conclusion.
Gentlemen, I have cordially cooperated with the Board in its
inception, organization and operations. I have ever felt a
lively interest in its welfare and usefulness, and I have therefore
thought it expedient to lay before you the foregoing facts. This
I have done without any intention or desire to magnify the im-
portance of the department, but for the purpose of preserving
its history, and rendering justice to those worthy men who
assisted in laying its foundations, and also to those who have
labored with us for its advancement. Many of the progenitors
of the Board have fallen by the way, but others have risen up to
fill their jDlaces. Among those who have ceased from their la-
bors, we recall the names of Edward Hitchcock, Scth Sprague,
Moses Newell, Benjamin V. French, John W. Lincoln, John
Brooks, William Parkhurst, Richard S. Fay, Johnson Gardner,
J. H. W. Page, and others wlio took a less prominent part in
the early history of its proceedings. We would also remember
the decease of one of our fellow-associates the present year, Mr.
James Thompson, the delegate of the Nantucket Agricultural
Society for a long course of years, a gentleman of sterling abil-
ity, of stirring enterprise, and real love of agricultural life. But
while we cherish a recollection of these worthy men, and would
strew their graves with fragrant memories, we would not forget
the services of many others now living, who have labored zeal-
ously for the advancement of our common cause and the pros-
perity of the Board. If any think we have spoken too favorably
of the Board, or that it has not accomplished all that was
anticipated, let them compare the condition of agriculture in

20 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

our State at the time of its organization with tlie sulisequent
improvement, and the well-defined and systematic knowledge
of the present day.

This review of our first twenty years of work I think may be
considered as satisfactory, for it shows clearly that our plan of
operations is a good one. Much time has necessarily been ex-
pended in learning how to work, but I think we are on the right
track, and may confidently hope to arrive at results, in the
future as in tlie past, which will not only advance our common
cause, promote the public weal, but redound to the honor of the
Commonwealth.

Afternoon Session.

The Board assembled at 2 o'clock, P. M., Col. Wilder in the
chair, the first business in order, according to the programme,
being the following lecture upon

ROADS AND ROAD MAKING.
By Charles L. Flint.

3Tr. President and Gentlemen : — The Committee on ]\reet-
ings have desired me to prepare a paper upon Roads, suggesting
at the same time that it be short and designed to open a discus-
sion of the subject. It can hardly be expected, of course, that
I should attempt to go much into the details of the construction
and the management of road repairs. They would involve the
necessity of a treatise more or less elaborate, which would
weary your patience and cut off a more general expression of
opinion on your part, especially important at the present time
with a view to leading to some legislation, which is greatly
needed to change the present system ; a system which has long
since outgrown its usefulness and notoriously fails to accomplish
the ends for which it was created.

And, indeed, the necessity for this minuteness of treatment
seems to have been superseded by the publication of the essays
prepared in answer to the offer of prizes by this Board at its
last country meeting at Pittsfiold, and awarded by an able and
efficient committee ; essays which have been widely circulated,
and accomplished a most important work by arousing the atten-
tion of the community to the importance of some improvement
in the deplorable condition of our common roads.

ROADS AND ROAD MAKING. 21

And here allow me to testify to the admirable manner in which
that committee attended to its duty. At the time the awards were
made, I had read but two or three of the thirty essays submit-
ted for their decision, and that only at their request, and for a
special purpose, with reference to one of the prizes to be awarded.
More recently, within three or four weeks, I have read them all
with critical care, and am free to say that my judgment fully
confirms the conclusions to which the committee arrived, and
the impartial justice of the awards which were made. No com
mittee could have been more faithful or competent to discharge
the delicate duty assigned to it.

And here let me commend to the public not a mere casual
perusal, but the careful study of those essays, printed both in a
form by themselves and inserted at the end of the last report of
the Board, so as to be easily accessible to every one who desires
to inform himself of the main principles which underlie the
most important art of road making.

It would be easy to show the importance of this subject by
referring to tlie intimate connection which exists between the
value of land, the general prosperity of the community, and the
condition of its roads. Every farmer, every owner of real
estate, has a vital interest in the perfection of the roads which
lead to it, and especially the roads which lead from it to the
natural market. And this interest is a pecuniary one, not based
on considerations of comfort merely, but coming home to the
pocket in the shape of the wear and tear of teams and vehicles,
and the amount of draught required to move a load, always de-
pendent, to a very large extent, on the character and condition
of the surface of the road, and in the enhanced value of a farm
lying on a thoroughly good highway. So true is this, that it is
no exaggeration to say that there can be no better test of the
progress of civilization in a community than the condition of
its roads. Tliis close connection of the prosperity of the people
and the perfection of the means of communication between one
community and anotlier, is so well understood in Europe that
good roads may be said to be the rule there, and poor ones the
exception — just the reverse of what we see everywhere in this
country. Nor do I think it too much to say that the poorest
road I saw in Switzerland, Germany and France is better than
the best of our own.

22 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

But perhaps it would give a broader view of the vast pecuni-
ary importance of the subject to refer to a few statistics which
have just come into my hands, in accordance with a resolve of
the last legislature, requiring me to obtain replies from all the
towns in this Commonwealth to the following questions, directed
to the selectmen of towns, and the mayor and aldermen of cities :

First. — Wliat is the number of miles of public highway within
the limits of your city or town ?

Second. — What has been the amount expended by your city or
town for the repairs of higliways ? Average for the last five years
and exclusive of amount paid for breaking out roads in winter ?

Third. — What is the number of surveyors of highways in your
city or town ?

Fourth. — What the kind of material used in covering and re-
pairing roads ?

Fifth. — What number and kind of bridges are supported wholly
or in part by the city or town?

Sixth. — Are the road taxes paid in money or labor ?

Seventh. — How much has the city or town paid during the last
five years for damages or legal defence in consequence of alleged
defects in the roads ?

ROADS OF BARNSTABLE COUNTY.

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ROADS OF THE STATE.

43

SUMMARY.

Number of

Average nnn. am't

Amount of dam-

COUNTIES.

miles of
highway.

expended on hi;;h-
ways fir Ave years.

Surveyors.

ages for five
years.

Barnstable,

753

$20,499 58

95

$1,977 35

Berkshire,

1,651

53,670 52

313

6,138 41

Bristol, .

1,321

137,263 97

236-

2,502 85

Dukes, .

95

1,192 00

9

95 00

Essex,

1,604

130,490 85

318

28,535 10

Franklin,

1,454

49,651 41

372

29,037 72

Hampden,

1,272|

49,223 03

196

10,048 66

Hampshire,

1,453

43,929 46

243

10,249 04

Middlesex,

3,064

344,445 37

378

42,028 50

Nantucket,

-

300 00

1

-

Norfolk, .

549

44,782 26

63

5,011 61

Plymouth,

1,309

54,937 28

297

6,383 27

Suffolk, .*

2461

347,850 00

2*

38,170 46

Worcester,

3,892

141,624 83

633

27,223 39

Totals, .

18,663f,

fl,419,860 66

3,156

$207,401 36

* In some cities and towns the number of Surveyors is not given, the reply to the
question being, "Mayor and Aldermen," or "Selectmen."

It will appear from these returns that we have in this State
about nineteen thousand miles of highway, for, including the
few towns that returned the number of miles as not known, it
would increase the aggregate to a greater extent than that.
The aggregate length of all the railroads in this State is but
1,258 miles.

It is safe to say that the common roads, thoifgh the original
cost, mile for mile, may have been much less, are vastly more
important to the population of the State than the railroads. It
would be difficult to do without railroads, to be sure, and no

44 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

doul)t put lis to untold inconvenience, especially as we have
become accustomed to their use, but it would ])e quite impossi-
ble to do without common roads. They are indispensable to a
civilized community, and may be reckoned among the necessi-
ties of life.

The annual cost of keeping these roads in repair exceeds
seventy dollars per mile, amounting in the aggregate to about a
million and a half. If the roads were well built in the first
place, no doubt the cost for repairs would be very much lessened.

Tlic numb.cr of surveyors of highways exceeds three thousand,
or an average of more than ten to a town. In the multitude of
counsellors there may be wisdom, but tb.e one-man power is the
rule for action, and it will be found that the few towns that
have adopted the system of having a superintendent or road-
master a sufficient length of time to show what he can do, can
point to better roads and more efficient and well executed work
than those towns that have divided the responsibility to such an
extent that it is too weak to stick anywhere. Responsibility is
invariably lessened by division, and about in proportion to the
number among whom it is distributed.

Surprising as it may seem when its utter inefficiency is so gen-
erally admitted, the system of working out taxes in labor, or
the commutation system, is still continued in nearly one hun-
dred towns in this State, eighty-six paying road taxes entirely in
work, thirty-one partly in money and partly in labor. It is a
curious fact that the towns that work out the taxes pay a larger
amount for damages from defective and ill-cared-for roads than
those that pay in money. Take for example the county of
Franklin, where nearly all the road taxes are paid in labor, and
we find the average damage per mile returned at about $20,
while in Norfolk County, where nearly all the road taxes are
paid in money, the average is only about $9.13 per mile, — less
than half, — or, if we omit the town of Ashfield in Franklin
County, where the damage was exceptionably large, we still
have the average damage 811.50, or more than $2 j^er mile
greater than Norfolk where the money tax prevails.

Two towns. Gay Head and Gosnold, have no public highways
to speak of. The town having the least number of miles of
highway is Hull, 7. The town having the largest number, is
Chelmsford, 275.

LAYING OUT AND CONSTRUCTING ROADS. 45

In proceeding to treat upon the subject before me, I shall
have but little to say in regard to the location of our roads,
since, bad as they are in many cases, their line was long since
determined, and new roads to be laid out will always bear a
very small proportion to the old ones. It ought to be borne in
mind hereafter, however, when any new road is proposed, that
any reasonable amount of money spent in procuring surveys by
the most competent engineers, will be the best investment that
can be made, rather than to run the location by " guess-work,"
and perhaps eventually involve a vastly larger expense in build-
ing and grading than a well-considered location would have
cost.

Onr roads are neither laid out properly nor constructed as
rof^ls ought to be. The first settlers pushed off into the forest to
seek new lands, and naturally built in elevated situations to
avoid the miasms of swamps, and for the purposes of protection
or greater safety. Their ways were foot-paths or bridle-paths
cut through the woods, till they could clear up and make pass-
able roads, and when a town finally grew up the roads were
naturally made to accommodate its individual citizens. Of course
it could not be expected that they would be laid out in accordance
with any fixed principles, or with any reference to the wants of
a more advanced civilization. The greatest good of the greatest
number was sacrificed to individual interest, or the convenience
or caprice of a single person. It is time now that we had some-
thing better. And let us not boast of our times till we have
better means of communication.

It is a principle perfectly well established among engineers
that roads should be so substantially constructed that the cost
of maintenance shall be reduced to the minimum. Tlie fun-
damental principles of formation and construction should 1)0
studied and understood by every road 'ouilder, and observed in
all localities, though they may not admit of so complete appli-
cation in a thinly settled district as in the vicinity of a city
where the travel is greater and the means of construction more
abundant.

One of these general principles is that the nearer the location
of the road approximates to a straight and level line the better ;
but a straight line which does not at the same time admit of a

46 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. .

level profile will often lose the advantage of being the shortest
distance between two places. It did not occur to the projectors
of our earlier roads and of our turnpikes, that the handle of a
pail or a kettle is no longer when it lies at rest in a horizontal
position than when held upright. They did not know that while
a horse on a level is as strong as five men, on a steep hill he is
not so strong as three ; for three men with a hundred pounds
each will ascend a hill faster than a horse with three hundred
])ounds. Straightness of line should always be sacrificed to
obtain a level or to avoid a steep and heavy grade.

A road curving around a hill will often be no longer than a
straight one over it, for this latter is called straight only because
its curvature is less apparent to the eye, and compared with a
horizontal plane it is decidedly crooked. And after all, the dif-
ference in length of a straight and slightly curved or windi^ig
road is small, for taking two places ten miles apart with a road
curving so that you could nowhere see more than a quarter of
a mile of it at once, and its length would exceed a perfectly
straight road between the two places by only a hundred and
fifty yards.

It has been laid down as a general rule that you may increase
the length of a road to avoid a hill to twenty times the height
that is to be saved by such increase ; that is, to save a hill a
hundred feet high, it is better to go two thousand feet around it,
and even then you'll find " the longest way round the shortest
way home." We see, therefore, that straightness, though very
desirable when it can be had, is by no means the highest char-
acteristic of a good road. It is far more important that it
should be level, for unless we have a level surface, a large part
of the strength of the team must be spent in raising the load up
the hill, in addition to the friction to bo overcome. To draw a
load up an incline, the resistaiice of the force of gravity is as
great an addition to the whole weight of the load as the height
of the incline added to its length, so that an incline of one foot
in twenty requires the team to lift up by main strength one-
twentieth of the whole weight in addition to overcoming the
friction caused by the entire load.

But leaving the location and the construction of new roads,
as coming more properly within the province of the professional
road engineer, I wish to call your attention to a few of the more

SHAPE OF THE ROAD-BED. 47

striking and common mistakes in the mending and care of
country roads, faults which seem to arise from a want of knowl-
edge of the first principles of road-making on the part of those
intrusted with the supervision of the highways.

And first, with regard to the shape of the road-bed. Over a
gravelly and hilly country, and over a flat country with a stiff
or clayey soil, no one would hesitate to say that the road-bed
should be raised above the level of the sides, and crowned suf-
ficiently to shed the water ; but the error, astonishingly preva-
lent, and indicated, adopted and approved by the writers of a
large proportion of the thirty essays alluded to, many of them
practical surveyors of town highways, is to finish them in a con-
vex curve forming an arc of a circle with the centre raised a
foot and often eighteen inches or more, and the curvature at
the sides so abrupt as to make it dangerous to turn out on
meeting S, carriage, and always giving the driver a feeling of inse-
curity. I do not refer to the elevation above the surrounding
laud, but simply to the shape of the road-bed, the elevation of
the centre above the sides, or what might be called the " trans-
verse profile " of the travelled part of the road itself.

To show that this is no uncommon occurrence I may mention
that the county commissioners of one of our large counties,
only two or three years ago, in making the specifications for a
road only twenty feet wide, required that the road should " crown "
in the centre no less than eighteen inches, or one and one-half
in. ten, and no amount of reasoning could lead them to reduce
this enormous convexity. Is it not time for the law to step in
and define what the transverse profile of a road ought to be for
a given width ?

Let us see the results of this serious error. The convexity is
so great that the centre of the road is the only place where a
carriage stands upright. The travel, therefore, clings to the
middle of the road, wearing one path for the horse and two
ruts for the wheels, wearing the road down very unevenly.

The water, therefore, invariably stands on the middle of the
road, while it is constantly washing away the sides. A road
ought to be formed so as to induce travel over all parts of it.
But with this great convexity, whenever a carriage is compelled
to turn to the sides it causes great additional wear on account of
sliding down the sides, while by this sliding tendency, being at

48 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

right angles to the line of draught, the lahor of the horse and the
wear of wheels is very greatly increased. The evil of too great
convexity is manifold, and a vastly better form is that of two
inclined planes meeting at the centre, with the angle of junction
at the top slightly rounded by a curve. Of course the exact
inclination will depend much on the character of the surface
and on the width of the road. A very rough and bad surface
will require a greater incline than a hard smooth face, but no
road should ever be allowed to be so rough as to require a
transverse inclination greater than one in twenty, which for a
road-bed twenty feet wide would make the centre six inches
higher than the sides. With a broken stone or a hard unyield-
ing surface, a proper medium of one in twenty-four is adopted,
or half an inch to a foot. Telford, the most successful and
noted road-builder of England, adopted one in thirty, or six
inches curve in a road thirty feet wide, and MacAd^m fixed
upon one in thirty-six, and sometimes as slight as one in sixty,
or only three inches crown in a thirty feet road.

The transverse slope should increase with the longitudinal
inclination, and should always a little exceed it in order to pre-
vent water from running down the length of the road to gully it
out, but it must be apparent that no practicable amount of
crowning or convexity would serve to carry the water from the
slightest rut, not even if it were only an inch deep. And hence
MacAdam testified before a committee of Parliament, saying:
" I consider a road should be as fiat as possible with regard to
allowing the water to run off it at all. I have generally made
roads three inches higher in the centre than at the sides, when
they are eighteen feet wide." Now a dirt or even a gravel road
may require a little greater inclination than the solid surface of
broken stone, but if the road is so neglected as to have a soft or
loamy surface, no amount of convexity will shed the water, and
a very convex surface will invariably hold the more water.

It should be constantly borne in mind that any convexity
at all is a necessary evil, and that the less it can be and accom-
plish its ol)ject the better for the travel.

Analogous to this great fault is the practice, often seen on a
wide road and through a village street, of dumping down along
the centre of the highway a kind of winrow of material, whether
loam or gravel, eight or ten feet wide and from six inches to a

LOOSE STONES— DRAINAGE. 49

foot thick and sometimes more in the middle, designed to form a
crown to the road. If you ask what tliat's for, you will be likely
to be told that it will all flatten down in a few months, and that
it is the best way to drain the water off. You will observe that
it drives the teams off to one side, often compelling them to cut
up the grass along the gutters. It requires no argument to
show that this is all wrong, both in principle and in fact, for
this mass of stuff acts more like a sponge than like a duck's
back, and you can never expect to make a permanently good
road by leaving the surface in that way.

And this leads to another most common defect, which arises
from the custom of semi-annual repairs, and that is the neglect
to pick up and remove the small loose stones that are constantly
working up through the improperly applied material to lie on
the surface, to hammer up the road-bed at every blow of the
wheel, and to endanger life and limb. Hard, firm rocks pro-
jecting above the surface are bad enough, and cause the resist-
ance of collision, but other inequalities, loose round stones and
other loose materials striking against the wheels are far worse,
for they cause great loss of momentum and waste of the power
of draught, for the carriage has to be lifted up over them by
the leverage of the wheels. Any town that fails to remove such
obstacles promptly and often, ought at least to be reported to
the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. No
money can be better invested than in frequently removing the
loose stones always to be found in a badly constructed road, and
in snow-ploughs for a prompt removal of snow in winter.

But perhaps the most common defect to be observed in the
methods of making repairs upon the roads is the total want of
any proper attention to the drainage. You will see whole miles
of roadway perfectly water-logged in spring, making it very
difficult for light carriages to pass over them, and for heavily
loaded teams quite impossible. The treatment for such sections
requires to be radical. They need reconstruction quite as much
as the worst portions of the South, and it needs quite as much
skill and judgment to reconstruct, properly, roads that have
been badly built, as it does to make good roads in the first
place, and probably more. But drainage is one of the things
that can be carried out in the course of repairing without any
very serious outlay over and above what it would have cost to
7

60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

have drained them properly in the original construction of the
roads.

There is no one point in which our highways are so lament-
ably defective as in being wet at the foundation. They need
thorough drainage as the first step to any possible improvement
in their permanent condition, and thorough drainage alone will
in many cases make a good road out of a bad one, while with-
out it no amount of labor will result in permanent improve-
ment.

In many cases hundreds of cartloads of gravel will be
dumped in to fill up a sinking slough, when perhaps half the
money spent in drainage would have remedied the evil.

As a general rule there ought to be two independent systems
of drainage for most common roads, one to control the surface
water by means of side ditches and culverts wherever needed,
and another to drain the foundation on which the surface or
shell of the road-bed rests. For this latter, under-drains are
most serviceable and properly laid tile-drains on the whole the
cheapest, because they are most durable and effective, and
being laid below the frost they continue to operate when the
surface is frozen, and allow the road to settle when the frost
comes out of the ground in spring without an entire breaking
up of the surface covering to the infuiite inconvenience of the
public. Of course, this work, wherever it is done, is in the
nature of a permanent improvement" and could not generally be
undertaken by a small and poor town on all its roads at once,
but by taking a portion, or the worst portions, from year to year
and doing them well, the roads in such a town would, in the
course of a few years, begin to wear an entirely different aspect.
The details as to how it should be done will be found developed
at considerable length in the Prize Essays to which I have
alluded.

One of the very common errors in the manner of construct-
ing catch-waters or bars on steep grades, and one which often
causes the traveller no little inconvenience, is to make them too
liigh, and crossing the road often diagonally, so that the wheels
strike them at different times with a shock sometimes sufficient
to unseat the driver. If raised too high, also, they become dan-
gerous for the horse. They should be made in the shape of an

HOW TO MAKE MUD AND DUST. 51

inverted V, with the point directed up the ascent, so as to divide
tlie water.

Another very serious mistake in mending our roads, or
rather in attempting to mend them, is to plough up the side
ditclies and throw the material, sods, sand and manure, which
the rains have washed off into them, back into the centre of the
drive-way. Absurd as this practice appears, it is quite too com-
mon in our country roads, and that, too, in many cases, where
good road material is easily accessible. The consequence of it
is, that the first rains convert this loose organic material, vastly
better for a top-dressing for grass than for the surface of a
road, into a perfect slough of mud, and a hard rain washes it
back into the ditch. In a dry season this material becomes a
perfect bed of dust annoying to the traveller, destructive to
vehicles, and about as bad as the mud itself. No strength of
language is adequate to do justice to the iniquity of this bad
practice, and the surveyor who allows it ought to be complained
of as an enemy to society. It is absolutely destructive to any
good road, and it would be better economy for the town to
throw the money directly into the ditch and let it lie there. It
would be as reasonable to expect to improve the road by the
application of meadow muck, and yet, I could point you to
more than one large and wealthy town within ten miles of here,
where, last spring I saw whole gangs of men doing this very
thing, with garden hoes and spades, to cut and throw into the
centre of the road the turf and mould and vegetable earth from
the side ditches. The roads in those towns before that sad attack
upon them were a standing disgrace to any civilized community,
and yet I watched them day by day through the long summer
only to see them sink lower and lower in quality till it became
positively dangerous to ride over them.

Nothing is more certain, nothing better established by the
experience of engineers and of practical men, than that a solid
and unyielding foundation is one of the first requisites for a
good road. And yet to throw such material as sods and sand
and loam into the road from the sides, even if it is designed to
cover it with a coating of gravel, is utterly destructive to the
foundation of the road. All such stuff should be carefully
thrown out of the road-bed, as the first and most important
step in laying, the foundation. The loose stones that have from

52 BOARD OF xVGRICULTURE.

time to timo been picked from the surface and thrown aside to
he an eyesore to every man of taste who travels there, consti-
tute an infinitely better road material than the soil on which
they lie. Sods and turf are often deceptively tough, and they
seem " so handy " to fill a hole or a rut that they are used for
the purpose without considering that they rapidly decay and
•work down into soft mud. But some go to the other extreme
and fill up the deep ruts with stones put in and covered up in
such a way as to conceal them at first, but so that they never
wear uniformly with the rest of the road, but appear in hard
ridges and bumps.

And here I must condemn the promiscuous use of the plough
and the scraper in repairing roads. Common as they are, they
should never be used in crowning up a road from the sides, and
perhaps the only place where they should ever be tolerated on
the road is in loosening and removing the tops of hills to reduce
the grade by taking off the gravel, for their work, though large
in quantity, is very poor in quality and in fact, destructive to
the condition of the road, for the one breaks up the surface and
tlie shoulders of the road which time and travel may have
solidified, while the scraper drags up from the side ditches the
soft alluvial matter previously washed into them, and leaves it
upon the road, the very place of all others where it is never
wanted and never should be allowed.

You will find on inquiry that the most common reason given
as to why this vegetable matter is used is, that there is no suit-
able material handy. In some cases, like sandy locations and
where long stretches of country occur, destitute of rocks and
gravel, there is, no doubt, some shadow of reason in this ex-
cuse ; but I have often heard it where plenty of good gravel
could be had, within a hundred rods, almost for the carting.
And how easy it would be in most sections to remedy the diffi-
culty by employing men by the year, to be always on hand to
keep up the roads and to keep an abundance of material,
crushed rocks, screened gravel, <fcc , on hand for use in various
parts of the town. With but little if any greater expense than
at present, with a more efficient and economical system, there
need be no complaint of a want of material, certainly not in
this part of the State. If there is a town within twenty miles
of here that has not plenty of good road material, I should be

USE OF STONE-CRUSIIERS. 53

glad to funiisli it with six million tons of rock for nothing, and
guarantee at the same time that there is no road material in the
world equal to it.

Would it not be better economy for the town to invest a few
hundred dollars in a good stone crusher and a heavy roller, to
be kept on its town farm for use on the roads, than to pay men
a dollar or two dollars a day to stand out their road tax, leaning
upon their hoe handles upon the road ? There are stone
crushers, we have some about Boston, that will crush a ton of
boulders an hour with a ten horse power engine, with the help
of three or foi;r men to throw the stones into the hopi)or and
clear away the fragments. But, if you can't stand that, a
medium laborer can break up from one and a half to two cubic
yards of gneiss rock, or from a half to three-quarters of a yard
of boulders or cobble stones a day, and it is work that can be
done in winter and through stormy weather as well as at any
other time.

Blake's stone-crusher, a machine of immense strength and
efficiency, will crush seven hundred and fifty cubic feet of the
liardest trap boulders into the best road metal in ten hours,
with a nine horse power engine, and it has been known to break
a hundred cubic feet in a single hour. This machine reduces
the cost of hand labor for the same work about eighty per cent.,
and then tiiere is the engine which can be used for putting out
fires when not crushing stones.

, Well, now, you may say a small town can't afford it. But
you can buy a machine of six horse power for S)800, and many
a town loses more than that by the misapplication of funds
every year, and its roads are growing no better very fast.

And how easy it would be to make this work the medium of
one of the grandest charities which a small town has it in its
power to bestow. There are few towns in which cases will not
sometimes occur of men either bowed with age, or perhaps
overwhelmed with the shadow of some great misfortune, who
find themselves on the approach of winter destitute of work,
though willing and anxious to do it. Perhaps they have
families dependent upon them for the means of comfort. It
is as hard, perhaps, for them, as it would be for you or for
me, to be driven to the last resort, and apply to the town for
help to enable them to get through the winter. A feeling of

54 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

self-respect, some spark of which is still left, will make them
dread to become town paupers. And isn't it vastly better to
give theiii work to bridge over a few months, than either to give
money outright or to send them to the poor-house ? Wouldn't
they be likely to remain better and more desirable citizens by
encouraging them to retain their self-respect ? Wiiy not set
them to work breaking stone into angular fragments, and pre-
paring material to be used on the roads in the spring, and pay
them a fair price, not by the day, but the piece, so much a cubic
yard ? The cost by cubic yards, both by machinery and by hand,
is perfectly well ascertained, and the time it requires for differ-
ent kinds of stone, and there need be no hesitation in fixing
upon a fair compensation. You would not only save men from
becoming paupers in many cases, but do the best thing for the
town.

I should be glad, did time permit, to allude to other defects,
which arise from neglect and often cause serious inconvenience,
such as the want of sufficient and suitable guide-boards, and
railings along the edges of embankments to insure safety ; but
I wish to allude to the system of laws under which the common
practices alluded to have grown up, and by which the present
evils are rendered possible.

In treating of the present system sanctioned by the statutes
of tiie Commonwealth for the building and care of the roads,
the most I can propose to myself will be to allude to some of
the striking and common faults which arise from or grow out
of it in the management and repairs of existing roads, and to
show how many of these mistakes can be avoided.

1. One of the striking evils of the present system is the
want of uniformity throughout the State, or over any consid-
erable extent of territory. One town takes a pride in its roads,
spends money freely, adopts a progressive plan of operations,
and really secures very passable highways ; and if all the ad-
joining towns would do the same the traveller on a long line of
main road could get along very well. But the next town, per-
haps, shirks its duty to the public, works out its highway tax
l)y labor, a plan most skilfully devised to accomplish nothing,
does as little as possible to enable it to just graze within the letter
of the law, and the great public has to suffer accordiiigly. Now

UNIFORMITY OF SYSTEM. 55

see how this works. There may be a long stretch of road over
which a team could easily carry a ton, or perhaps two tons.
But in some pa^'t of the line over which the traveller has to
pass, there is a long, steep and rocky hill, up which the team
can draw only a half or a quarter part as much as it can easily
draw on a level, hard and unyielding surface. The conse-
quence is that on account of this one steep incline, or it may
be more, the load can be only one-quarter or one-half as much
as could have been easily drawn, but for such an obstacle. Tiie
teamster therefore loses a large part of the advantage of the
good portion of the road, because he must reduce his load to
what can be carried up the one or two miserable hills, which he
must climb before reaching the end of his journey.

We have, therefore, the general proposition, that steep
ascents being always injurious, become especially so when they
occur on a long road which is comparatively level. In such a
case, it becomes vastly more important to avoid or lessen the
slope, or else to perfect its surface. But it lies in a town wliicli
does not care enough about its roads to improve them by reduc-
ing the hill, and the whole community has to suffer. If it costs
the teamster more to transport produce, both producers and
consumers of that produce are obliged eventually to foot the
bill. Isn't that so ?

And why should the condition of our great highways, which
constitute so very important an element of the wealth, the com-
fort and the safety of the whole public, be allowed to depend
on the short-sighted views of economy, or perhaps the indolence
or indifference of every small town through which the roads
may happen to pass ?

2. Another great objection to the present system is that it
allows towns to elect a multitude of surveyors without refer-
ence to their competency, who cannot by any possibility man-
age the money appropriated with that degree of economy, com-
prehensive foresight and wisdom of one thoroughly competent
and skilful road engineer or superintendent.

The town meeting comes, and the people are called to vote
for surveyors of highways, often without any previous consul-
tation as to the competency of men to fill the position, perhaps
by nomination on the spur of the moment, and many are chosen

56 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

who have no adequate conception of the manner of performing
the responsible duty assigned to them. Each has a certain dis-
trict allotted to him, and not unfrequently, having an idea of
fiiing the road near his own place, he takes measures to procure
the appointment for the special purpose of working on the road
near home. Tlie object is to do just enough to prevent the
road from breaking his neck ; an object altogether too selfish
to admit of a proper regard to the public good. What better illus-
tration could there be of the old adage that " what is everbody's
business is nobody's ! " Instead of doing a work which, of all
others, has its times and seasons fixed by natural laws, they do
it " when it comes handy," after the spring work is over, or at
any other leisure time that will most suit their convenience.
There are, there can be, no continuous repairs. " A stitch in
time " has no application here. The fact that a dollar judic-
iously spent in re]. airs in April, or when the frost is coming
out of the ground, is worth more than two, in June or July,
and more than three or even five, at a later date, is of no signifi-
cance where this plan is adopted.

Now, if this mode of management affected only the town
wliich adopted and persisted in it, the evil would be of compara-
tively small consequence, but the main roads through a town
are often great thoroughfares between other important points,
so that the whole community suffers to a greater or less extent,
for the w:;nt of an efficient head to do the thinking and the
planning for the roads in such a town.

The worst feature of the whole is that no amount of ability
or faithfulness displayed in the performance of the duties of a
surveyor, will insure his continuance in office over one year.
If he does his duty by making a good road, he will be quite
sure to lose the position. All his experience and study and
observation will be lost to the public when another takes his
turn to undo what the former has done, and begins his appren-
ticeshij) at the expense of the public and of the condition of the
road itself. In other occupations an apprenticesliip, often of
some years, used to be thought requisite to authorize a man to
set up business, but a surveyor, the moment he is chosen, is
presumed to be fit to direct works which often require much
scientific attainment, great skill and intelligence.

Besides, the hasty appointment of surveyors, and the assign-

WORKING OUT THE TAX. 57

ment of districts to each, with a specific amount of money to
spend, leads to another kind of wastefuhiess. Some districts
may have money to spare in the want of any knowledge or in-
clination to put it into permanent improvements, while others
have too little. In one district teams will often be standing idle
witli a surplus of men, while, perhaps, in another there is a
want of both. How can you expect any harmony of action
with twenty or thirty men to do the work of one first-class, com-
petent superintendent ?

3. And again, that part of the present plan recognized by
the law, by which the taxes are or may be worked out, is alto-
gether out of date. It is unsound in principle, as Gillespie
says, wasteful in practice, and altogether unsatisfactory in its
results ; a remnant of the times of feudal vassalage, when the
tenure of land required the farmer to make the roads passable
for the troops of the lord of the manor. And how absurd it
appears on a moment's reflection. Men who may be skilful
enough in their own occupations, are taken for the performance
of work of which oftentimes they know absolutely nothing. A
good ploughman is not necessarily a good watchmaker, and
yet to build a good road requires more thought, more skill,
more scientific knowledge, than to make a good watch, for the
latter is an operation chiefly mechanical, while the former often
demands the highest engineering attainment, and to spend
money with the greatest degree of economy, even in repairing
a common road, requires much judgment, knowledge of materi-
als, and practical experience in using and applying them. And
yet the law presumes that every man is competent to build a
road !

And here allow me to quote a paragraph from one of the re-
jected essays. The writer says : —

" I will give some facts which have come under my own obser-
vation. One of the towns of this State chose thirty-five survey-
ors, as usual, to superintend the repairing of its roads. One of
tliem was a fiddler and had no other occujiation at the time. He
called out his men, seven old men whose ages ranged from fifty to
seventy-five years. It was the custom of the town to add all un-
paid taxes to the next year's bill, and some of tliese men had not
paid their taxes for six years. They all went to work without any
team, with their hoes, and had a jolly time, telUng stories and

58 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

cracking jokes, Avhile they reclined under the shade of the trees by
the roadside. As the afternoon passed, the fiddler told them they
had worked well, their taxes were paid and crossed out. And yet
notwithstanding this squandering of time, the road Avas not mate-
rially injured, and the tiddler did infinitely better than some others
who had teams, but ploughed in the wrong places, putting dirt where
it was not needed, and leaving the road in such a state as to en-
danger the limbs and lives of all who passed over it."

Another writer of one of the rejected essays, an iutelligeut
road surveyor himself, says : —

" This tax in labor I conceive to be the most injudicious method
that can be devised for the repair of our roads. Every person
called ui^on to work out his tax considers it an onerous duty and
avoids it as long as possible, or at least his convenience seldom suits
the convenience of the surveyor, and by the delays and uncertain-
ties of having any one to work, the surveyor is obliged to neglect
the needed repairs at the proper season of the year. In fact, it is
almost impossible for him to comply with the i-equirements of the
law as regards the expenditure of a certain part of his bill before a
certain time, owing to the uncertainty as to whether his list of per-
sons will work or pay, or he shall be obliged to return them as de-
Unquents to the authorities, and draw the deficit from the town
treasury.

" Again, if a person feels called upon to work out his tax he will
do as little as possible, considering it fair play to do less on the
roads for a day's work than at any other business, particularly as
he gets nothing for it except the erasure of his name from the sur-
veyor's book. I recollect well the first time I as boy worked on
the roads, nearly half a century ago, seeing the men sitting by the
sunny side of a bank in early spring, drinking their grog and tell-
ing stories a larger part of the time than they were at work on the
road. And as a further illustration of the work tax, a Avorthy
citizen Avas calling my attention to the condition of a by-road upon
which he lived. I asked him hoAV long since anything had been
done on it, knoAving that he had been one of the tAventy-one sur-
veyors of the toAvn. Said he, ' I notified the men at a certain
time to work on this road. They came and stood around all the
forenoon, on Avhich I told them that if they intended to stand their
tax out, they should do it Avhere people could see them, and I went
on to another and more public road in the afternoon. That is the
last Avork that hasjbeen done on this road.' "

HOW TO REMEDY DEFECTS. 59

You will perceive from these extracts, that men who are
called upon to work out their tax on the road evidently con-
sider such labor unconstitutional.

And yet, notwithstanding the evils of this bungling system,
if system it may be called, which could not have been better
devised to accomplish nothing, about one hundred towns in this
State still cling to it. Is it any wonder that there is a uni-
versal complaint of its utter inefficiency ? Is it any wonder
that we have to wade through mud and mire in the spring and
through dust in the summer, stumbling over rocks, with the
endless wear of carriages, tear of horses and teams, and that we
suffer the discomforts and annoyances which travelling over
sucli roads implies ?

These are only a few of the present defects of the system re-
cognized by the statutes of this Commonwealth. There are
many others which I have not time to enumerate in this con-
nection. Now, how shall they be remedied or removed ? It
would seem that the change ought to be radical, that the medi-
cine could hardly be too strong to meet so serious a case of
disease ; but lest the general sentiment of the community
should not be found educated up to such a treatment, I will
allude to one or two milder, half-way measures at first, which
would clearly be an improvement upon the present state of
things, and then say what seems to me to be required to effect
a complete change in the present system.

And first, the law might require that the whole supervision
of roads should be vested in the board of selectmen, who should
be obliged to appoint a thoroughly competent superintendent,
who should hold his office for a term of years, not less than
three, and perhaps not more than five, subject to removal only
for good cause shown, to whom should be committed the entire
responsibility of the repairs of roads, and who should have a
sufficient force of workmen constantly employed to make
permanent improvements and to keep up the roads. Nothing
is better or more clearly proved by the experience of the past,
than that the plan of annual or semi-annual repairs is totally
inadequate to keep up the roads, though it is undoubtedly the
most expensive and wasteful of the public money.

It might be well also, to require by law that at least one-half
of the money raised should be devoted to making permanent

60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

improvements, using the balance each year to keep up such
parts of the ways as could stand the delay, picking out loose
stones and otherwise keeping them in a passable condition, till
their turn came for a more perfect treatment.

This would be one plan. Another would be to autliorize or
require tlie towns to elect a road-master, under whose direc-
tion all the surveyors for the year, whatever the number might
be, should work, and to whom alone they should be responsible
after their election by the town. He should also be elected for
a term of years with a liberal salary, to be fixed either by the
law or by the town at the time of his election. He should be
required to give his personal attention to all the important
alterations or repairs of the highways, and generally direct tlie
time and the manner of the performance of all labor done on
the roads by the surveyors or those under their employ, report-
ing in writing at the annual town meeting with a statement
of what had been done, and suggesting the requirements of the
roads for the future.

Another plan would be to authorize the towns to elect a
board of say three commissioners, in the same manner as school
committees, who should hold their office for a term of years, to
whom should be committed the whole supervision of the roads,
and who, so far as the construction, laying out and repair of
roads go, should hold the position already suggested in speak-
ing of the selectmen. Being chosen with special reference to fit-
ness for the position, they might be more competent than any
board of selectmen chosen for other and more general duties.

Another still better plan, perhaps, would be to authorize or
require the towns to appoint a skilful road engineer, with all
powers, rights and duties suggested for the superintendent, and
which are now exercised by the highway surveyors. He should
be required to perform all the duties relating to laying out,
altering and repairing the highways, which now devolve upon
the selectmen. His plans might be subject to the approval of
the board of selectmen if thought best, or be submitted to the
town for acceptance.

Still another plan would be, as suggested by one of the
writers of the essays already alluded to, to require each town
to appoint an inspector of roads, to act in concert with two,
three or more similar inspectors from adjoining towns, and also

INSPECTORS OF ROADS. 61

three agents in each town to make the repairs of roads, one to
have the entire charge of repairs on the main roads, for instance,
and the other two to have control of needed repairs on cross
roads, all the roads being divided, perhaps, for convenience,
into first and second class.

The three, four or five inspectors so appointed should be re-
quired to pass over the main roads in company with the agents,
and point out to them in detail the manner in which the roads
should be repaired. To save time and money, the inspector for
each town might have the supervision of the cross roads in his
own town, and the same direction over the agents having
charge of those roads which the board of inspectors had over
the agent having charge of the main roads. After the repairs
are made, it should be the duty of the inspectors to pass over
the roads and see that the work has been properly done, with
the power of acceptance or rejection, according to circum-
stances. These inspectors might be chosen by the towns or ap-
pointed by the selectmen, and in case an agent proved himself
to be incompetent, the inspectors should be required to report
him to the selectmen, who should be empowered to discharge
him and appoint a temporary agent in his place.

These are a few of the simple changes that might be made
to secure greater efficiency, the labor tax or the comm\itation
system being entirely abolished in either case. They are at
best only half-way measures and liable to some of the objections
of the present system, such as local prejudices and interests,
and political pulling and hauling in the election or choice of
the officers suggested, by which the best interests of the public
might in some cases be sacrificed to party intrigues.

It is proper, however, to state that one of these proposed
methods has stood the test of a practical application in tlie town
of Waltham, ten miles from Boston. That town, with fifty-one
miles of roadway, has had a superintendent of roads for the
last dozen years, and the cost for repair of roads and side-
walks on the average for the seven years previous to 1865, was
13,357, and for the last five years $7,000, and few towns in that
neighborhood had roads and sidewalks so uniformly good. A
committee of the town of Brookline, sent to investigate the
plan and its results with reference to its application in that
town, reported that the rate of cost or expenditure is less than

62 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

one-fourth the cost per mile of the Brooldine roads, while the
material is no better and the travel quite as destructive as in
Brookline.

The superintendent of roads in "Waltham describes the
method so successfully adopted in that town as follows : —

*' The town ow^ns three good horses, with carts, snow-])loughs,
tools, &c., valued at the time the statement was made at $1,200. A
competent person is appointed to take charge of the work, hereto-
fore at a salary of 8600 a year. His duty is to manage the teams,
direct the men, &c. There have been usually employed eight men
in the summer months and six during the winter, at wages varying
from ^1 to 81.12^ in summer, and 60 to 75 cents in winter. Most
of the time in winter is spent in digging gravel, preparing it for
use, and drawing it to places of easy access, so that during the
summer season a street or way can be speedily and neatly repaired.
The preparation of gravel in winter I consider a very important
feature in our success. During the short days of winter the work-
men can excavate and prej^are more road material than during the
hot days of summer, and the stuif is ready for instant use, so that a
spot needing repair can be mended before it becomes very bad from
continued wear. In early spring, as soon as the frost is fairly out
of the ground, the workmen go over the road Avith picks and hoes,
filling ruts, cleaning out drains and water-courses, and picking off
the loose stones. Any bad spot is noted, and as soon thereafter as
practicable such a spot is mended. From April to December, at
intervals of about six weeks, the workmen pass over all the roads
and streets, and pick up and remove all the loose stones and i-ub-
bish found thereon. During the very hot weeks of summer it is so
managed as to employ the men aboixt culverts or other similar
work?, so as to relieve them from the very severe labor incident to
other work connected with the dejjartmcnt."

It will be noticed that this plan insures a constant oversight
over all the roads, and this, after the roads arc once properly
constructed, is unquestionably the best' economy, and costs less,
in a series of years, than that of semi-annual repairs. It is
the only way, in fact, by which a road can be kept constantly
in good condition.

Now after all, as I stated, the plans which I have suggested
arc what might be called only half-way measures, which might
be adopted as modifications of the present system, with the un-

BUREAU OF ROADS AND BRIDGES. 63

derstanding that the fundamental principle which underlies them
all, and which is based on the truest and most far-sighted
economy, is " to sacrifice a portion of the resources of the
road, or the money raised for roads, to insure the good and
judicious employment of the remainder.''''

A far better plan, it seems to me, is that suggested in one of
the prize essays published by this Board.

" For the efficient and economical maintenance of the public roads,
it is essential that there be a uniform system of management com-
mon to the whole State. The first step towards a complete reform
of system would be the creation of a State department of roads and
bridges, to have general charge of all the roads, to arrange and di-
rect the carrying out of the details, and generally to look to the
effective working of the system.

" The chief of the department should be a practical civil engineer,
thoroughly conversant with the art of road making. For the pur-
l^oses of proper supervision, the State might be divided into dis-
tricts, say by counties, and these again into sub-districts, larger or
smaller as might be found expedient.

" There should be a resident engineer or sujierintendent for each
district, to have charge and oversight of the roads and bridges
within his district, and to be held accountable to the chief of the
department.

" He will ascertain the condition of the roads in his district, de-
termine what improvements are to be made and in what order,
decide upon the kinds and amount of work to be done, estimate the
sums needed to carry it on, and at stated periods report the same,
with all the matters pertaining to his office, to the chief of the
department.

"For each sx;b-district there will be required an assistant-engi-
neer or road-master, subordinate to the resident of the district, to
manage the working details, within the limits assigned. As the
improvements progress, these sub-districts may be enlarged and the
number of subordinates reduced, so that each and all shall always
have work enough to keep them occupied."

And here, gentlemen, I leave the subject in your hands ; with
the suggestion that as I have felt it my duty to call your atten-
tion, in the main, to the defects and evils of our present system,
it will remain for you to point out its beauties.

64 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Mr. J. F. C. Hyde, of Newton. I ought not to talk just
now, because I endorse all that has been said by our friend, and
the talk will be all on one side. I was in hopes to hear from my
friend right opposite (Dr. Loring), wliom I have charged with
being on the other side.

It is true that it was my misfortune, or fortune, to be ap-
pointed on the committee to award the prizes for these essays.
It was done at Fittsfield, in my absence, and I should never
have accepted the position, if I had known what it involved, for
we had about thirty essays to wade through ; some of them very
good ones, and some of which I cannot say so much. I think
that our excellent Secretary has studied those essays to some
purpose, and I can say of his most admirable address, that I
endorse almost the whole. I do not know how it is possible for
any man who has not been able to give the subject more atten-
tion than I suppose he has, to write an essay so acceptable to
me, however it may be to you.

If there is any one subject on which I feel a strong interest
to-day, it is that of roads and road making. I am a new con-
vert, for I stood by the old system until I found I could not
defend a single feature of it, and then I had to abandon it. I
consider it fortunate, on the whole, that I had to read those
essays, and had to devote considerable attention to the sulyect,
for I hope I may be able to exert some little influence in my
own neighborhood in causing better roads to be constructed and
the old roads to be repaired in a better manner.

Mr. Flint asks some one to point out the beauties of the old
system. I cannot do it, for I do not know a single beauty wiiich
it possesses. Those who are fond of narrow and crooked rural
cart-paths and lanes, as some of my friends are, may do it, but
I cannot. Perhaps I cannot do better than refer to my own
town of Newton, which I think I may say, without egotism, is
one of the best towns in the State of Massachusetts. Tiie town
of Newton formerly had the old system of electing highway
surveyors. They were often chosen by nomination at large,
the moderator putting the first name that happened to catch
his ear, and that man was elected, whether competent or
not ; so that we had very many incompetent men as highway
surveyors. It was a notorious fact, and many of the gentlemen
before me who are more or less familiar with the operation of

SLOW TO CHANGE. 65

repairing highways well know, that very many of those men
were utterly incompetent. In some cases, men sought the office
to accomplish their own private purposes. I know one instance
ill a neighboring town where a man wanted to be elected high-
way surveyor in order to cut down the road in front of his
house, which he did at an expense of several hundred dollars,
and when he had done that, he went out. I know another
instance in Newton where an utterly incompetent surveyor cut
down the road, causing a large amount of damage ; and after-
wards the town had to fill up where he dug out. I could give
instance after instance of that kind. You will agree with me,
I think, that such men are not competent to fill such positions.

I see some Newton gentlemen before me who have taken a
great deal of interest in our roads. We were in that town in
just this condition. Some gentlemen were converted and felt
that we could make an improvement there, and among others
our excellent friend, Governor Claflin ; and these gentlemen
urged a change of system. Some were reluctant, myself among
the number, to have this change brought about, but a change
was finally made, and a plan adopted like one of those sug-
gested by the Secretary, and I suppose the reason he suggested
it was that other towns might go and do likewise, and not make
a sudden and great change ; for you know that some of us have
strong prejudices, and because our fathers did so and so, we
like to walk in some degree in their footsteps. You know that
in town meetings we run against the prejudices and honest con-
victions of a great number if we propose radical changes ; so
we adopted this plan of having town teams, — I believe the
town of Newton now owns some eight or ten horses, — and plac-
ing them at convenient points, mostly at our almshouse, and
putting the highways wholly in charge of the selectmen, who
are the surveyors, they being authorized to employ a superin-
tendent of highways, who is the principal man in the manage-
ment of the roads, though he is under the general control of
the selectmen. Some of those teams were stationed at Newton
Corner, some at the almshouse, and from those points they went
out to repair the roads. There were rural districts at the ex-
treme southern limits of the town where the teams of farmers
were employed. We have not had the old system of working
out our taxes upon the highways for some years, and I think
9

66 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

that is the most abominable system that could possibly be
devised. When I was a lad, I worked upon the highway under
that system. I did not like to work very well, but I do believe
I worked about as many hours as the rest of them, for they did
not do mucli work any way. But that system, as I said, has
long since gone by in Newton.

Not satisfied with that, we then took another step forward.
On one side of us is Waltham, where they have most excellent
roads, under the direction of our friend Carter. On the other
side is Brookline and West Roxbury, both places having most
excellent roads (Brookline the better of the two). We have
not a large extent of road, perhaps somewhere between ninety
and a hundred miles. We found we must have something more
than this, so we purchased a stone-crusher. We have in our
town a great deal of stone in certain localities, and we pur-
chased a stone-crusher with a thirty horse-power engine. It is
one of the Rawson & Hittinger crushers ; — the Blake crusher is
a good one ; I have nothing to say against it. We placed that
stone-crusher where there is a great quantity of stone which
was taken out of the Cochituate Aqueduct, and we have been
able to get out from sixty to eighty tons a day with three men
besides the engineer ; and that material is being carted on the
roads at proper seasons. It has been carted in front of the
residence of a gentleman whom I see here, who is fully compe-
tent to discuss this question. Tlien we purchased a heavy
roller, for without a heavy roller you cannot have all the advan-
tages of macadamized roads ; that is required, and we have
purchased a roller, but it has not been used as yet to any con-
siderable extent.

The radical defect of all the Newton roads, and many of the
roads in that vicinity, is their narrowness ; and tliis is not
likely to be improved while the county commissioners lay out
the roads fifty feet wide, though they make the roadway only
twenty-two feet in width, and insist that it shall have a rise of a
foot or more in the twenty-two feet, without requiring any drain-
age of the road whatever, except simple culverts across where
water is likely to accumulate on one side or the other of the road.
No matter wiiat the soil may be over wiiich the road goes,
no county commissioners, so far as I know, require the least
under-drainage. You will see, at a glance, that it is utterly

ROADS TOO NARROW. 67

impossible to make a good road over certain soils without
suitable drainage to begin with ; an enlightened road-maker
would no more think of undertaking to do it than one would
think of improving his meadow without putting a drain through
it. Our roads were narrow to begin with, like hundreds, per-
haps thousands of miles of road in Massachusetts. It has been
my privilege to drive over the roads of many towns in Massa-
chusetts, with a carriage, where there is but a single track, and
you have got to look a long ways ahead to see where you can
turn out if you are approaching another team. There are
many roads where it is almost impossible to turn out. I found
one place in Massachusetts this last summer where I could not
drive my broad gauge carriage past another vehicle without
running it off on one side up the side of a ledge. I said, that
was the first difficulty. Then again, in Newton, roads have
been built just as they have everywhere else, very poorly, with-
out taking off the soil at all ; but simply by the use of the
plough, the scraper, and the shovel, rounding up and turnpiking
the road with all the soil underneath, so that when teams are
driven over it, they soon wear deep ruts, into which, in the
spring and fall of the year, the water will settle and make a
horrid road. That is the condition of all the roads that have
been made in this shilly-shally way. Then rounding and turn-
piking the road to that extent is a great evil. The most perfect
road I have ever seen in my life is the Chestnut Hill Reservoir
road, in Newton and Brighton. It is eighty feet wide ; I pre-
sume there may be six inches rise in that eighty feet. It is a
macadamized road. I know it cost a good deal ; I understand
that, and I propose to show that it ought to cost a good deal,
and that any place which wants such a road as that can well
afford to pay for it. I do not expect tliat a little town up
among the mountains, whose valuation is not more than half a
million of dollars, can afford to build a road costing six or eight
thousand dollars a mile. I understand that ; but, if you want
to see a perfect road, go and see the Chestnut Hill road. It is
perfectly drained, macadamized throughout, the roller has been
used faithfully, and the road is just as perfect as it can be. It
is as perfect as the finest concrete walk when it is in its best
state. Now, what have they got to do to keep that road up ?
They have got to do just what our friends on the other side of

68 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the water do. They have their little piles of rubble on the side
of the road, with the highway surveyor constantly on the watch,
and any defect is immediately repaired, on the principle that " a
stitch in time saves nine." It costs but a mere trifle, and the
road is kept in perfect condition. It is true, there are but few
towns in the State that could afford to construct a road like that,
and there are few places where such a road would be wanted, —
eighty feet wide and perfectly graded ; but there are many streets
that could be graded in that way. It is true that it would be
expensive, and the objection is that towns could not afford it.
Now, the motto which I adopted many years ago, and which I
still believe in, was, " what is worth doing, is worth doing well."
If you cannot make but a mile of road this year, make that mile.
I can remember when the whole appropriation in the town of
Newton for roads was but a very few thousand dollars ; it was
thirty-five thousand last year ; and I was told the other day
that they proposed to recommend fifty thousand dollars for the
next year. I hope they will recommend tiiat sum, and we
shall begin to have pretty good roads. Let us have just such
roads as are needed in the particular locality ; if we need an
eighty foot road, costing $G,000 a mile, let us build that.

And now I ask, right here, what has made Dorchester, Brook-
line, West Roxbury, Somerville, Waltham and Newton, so
popular as they are ? I will not speak for the other towns, but
I will speak for Newton, though it may seem egotistic ; but I
speak as I think. I say that one of the causes which have
tended to l)uild up that town and make it popular is its; excel-
lent roads. I go still further ; I say, if we do not maintain
good roads, we cannot keep the wealth and population there.
It was my misfortune to be sixteen years on the board of select-
men. The last few years, no matter how busy I was, I could
not allow a loose stone upon the surface a week without being
called upon to pick it off. I visited, not long ago, one of the
thriving towns of New Hampshire, where they ouglit to know
better, and do, and I will undertake to say that they have not
picked a stone out of their streets for the last ten years. It
was actually unsafe to drive a horse through the streets ; and
yet they take summer boarders, and charge them good round
prices, too. These are the two extremes. I say no town can
afford to have poor roads, for the reasons I have given ; and I

WORKING OUT TAXES. 69

undertake to say this, — that if a town will have good roads and
appropriate money to keep them in thorough repair, they will
find it for their advantage ; their property will be enhanced in
value enough to pay for the outlay.

I do not mean to say, I repeat, that a little town away back
here with half a million of property, or the town of Newton
even, with its twenty millions of property, can afford to build
80-feet highways and macadamize them all this year or next.
It would put a debt on the town that it could not bear. But I
say they can afford to improve their highways. All the towns
throughout the State can afford to change their system. I
would go for a change at once. I believe the legislature ought
to take up this matter, and declare that no town shall adhere to
tlie old system of working out their highway taxes ; that point
gained, it is something. Then there are several plans proposed
by intelligent engineers and others, to bring about an improve-
ment of the roads throughout the State. I am not competent
to decide which is the best plan of those suggested, but let us
so impress this matter upon the people of the State, that they
will wish to begin to improve their roads, as I think they can in
various ways. I know it is almost impossible in some cases.
A gentleman said, coming up in the cars : " How are you
going to improve the road from Truro to Provincetown, where
the land moves about every day ; where it is taxed in Truro,
and by the time the tax is collected, it has got down to Province-
town ? " I know it is difficult. The way they get a road
down there is by going back into the pastures and tearing up
the whortleberry bushes, like a leather apron, and spreading
them over the sand. But I submit it to you whether Province -
town could not afford to send to our friend Flint, who says he
will furnish plenty of material to macadamize any road, and
have some of this material shipped at once and put their high-
way in good condition ? I ask you if it would not be good econ-
omy in the end ? It strikes me so. But, in most cases, it is not
necessary to transport the material that distance. In many
towns of the State, there is plenty of material that would need
to be carted but a few rods, which, if properly applied, would
make these highways permanently good. I do not know how
long the Chestnut Hill road will last, but I will venture to say
that neither you, nor I, nor our children, nor our grand-chil-

70 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

dren will ever live to see that road in as bad a condition as the
average of roads in this State. Is it not good economy to se-
cure this permanency ? Why, I could speak of certain towns
in our neighborhood which neglect their roads. I know where
there was a piece of road in Brighton, between Newton and
Brookline, over w'hich it was almost impossible to draw a load,
and there was constant complaint of it. It was just such a case
as the one referred to by Mr. Flint. Here was a good piece of
road, then a very bad piece, and then a good piece again, and
invariably the farmers had to throw off a part of their load
when they came to this bad place, when a few hundred dollars
(for it was only some half a mile long) would have put tlie
road in prime condition, and they could have hauled their load
the whole distance. Is it not a matter of great importance,
when we are building railroads and endeavoring to develop the
resources of the State in every possible way, that we should
furnish the very best roads we can to the railroad stations and
to market ? If a railroad company should do as we do, neither
you nor I would dare to ride over their road. They adopt the
system that England, France, Belgium and other countries have
adopted for the repair of their roads, thut is, they keep men
constantly on the track ; not a spike can get out that they do
not see. That is just the place we want. The town of Wal-
tham and Newton and other towns about there keep men con-
stantly employed. The work is so arranged that the men are
engaged in the winter as well as in the summer. In the wiiiter
the crushing is done ; in the hot weather they build the cul-
verts ; in the spring they put on the rubble ; in the fall clear
out the culverts, and so on. There is no time wasted. It is
all employed in one w^ay or another in improving the road.
The same system carried throughout the Commonwealth would
give us roads that would add immensely to the value of proper-
ty in their vicinity. The Hon. William Jackson used to say —
(and here is one prejudice we have to encounter, and I {)re-
sume you all have, the unwillingness of people to give land for
a road of sufficient width) — the Hon. William Jackson, of
whom many of you have pleasant recollections, who was a
shrewd and sagacious man, once said, " Gentlemen, your land
is worth more in your street than in your enclosure, up to a

LAY THE ROADS OUT WIDER. 71

certain width ;" which in those times was 60 feet with him, and
yet a good many of us have not got up to 60 feet yet.

Tiie fact is, tliis matter needs no argument upon my part.
Every man familiar with the city of Boston to-day iinows what
an immense amount of money they have spent in widening
their streets. Take Hanover Street, for instance, and many
other streets, and see at what an immense cost it has been done.
Why ? Simply because, a great many years ago, somebody
persisted in laying out a narrow street, believing that if it was
wide enough for that generation, it would be wide enough for
all time. How strange it is ! I want to enlarge upon this
matter of the width of streets, because it is one of great impor-
tance, and it seems to me people take a very narrow view of it.
A little street was laid out in a certain town, running diago-
nally (which certain'y is a bad way), and I was opposed to it,
but that did not make any difference. Among other objections
which 1 urged was this. I said it was contrary to our plan for
the towii ; but they said, " Well, this will answer our purpose
for a good many years to come." " So it will," I said, " but
not a hundred years hence, or five hundred, or a thousand
years hence." They laughed at me, and I don't know but they
had a right to laugh, but it does not strike me so. When we
are laying out streets, we should remember that we are laying
out those streets for all time to come. Take the city of Boston,
or Springfield, or Worcester, or any other city. Their streets
are laid out and they will remain streets as long as the world
stands or those cities exist. You say, " We can widen them
when it becomes necessary," and so we can. Go to Newton
Corner, where I could buy land a few years ago for $50 an acre,
which is worth to-day from 33 cents to •$ 1 a foot, and when it
becomes a city, and is more closely crowded than now, the land
will be worth $o, $o, or |10 a foot. You can widen the streets
.then, it is true, but it would only be at an enormous expense,
whereas you could have laid out streets of ample width for
comparatively nothing a few years ago. As a general thing,
where streets are laid out, those who want them laid out are
willing to give the land, because they do not consider it of great
value, although they are not generally willing to give it wide
enough ; but it can be had at a small price.

I say, then, in closing, let us have wider streets to begin with.

72 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and in constructing them, let us have them properly drained.
Many of us do not need any talk about this. How often have
we driven along, in the spring of the year, over a flat road,
turnpiked up, and every time the horse stepped, up would come
the water, showing the road to be as full of water as a sponge ;
only for lack of drainage — nothing else. You and I and all of
us believe in draining meadows, and we talk a good deal about
the advantages of draining. There is no place where drainage
can be done to so good advantage as under a road, in many
localities certainly. Then let us have the road-bed constructed
of sufficient width. I do not believe county commissioners are
up to this work when they order roads graded only 13 to 22
feet wide, and it is a positive fact, that there are miles of road
in this State that by express order of the county commissioners
have been graded but 18 feet, and there is no room for more
than one track. Twenty-two feet is the maximum. That is
wide enough where there are only two or three carriages pass-
ing a day, but it is not wide enough in a town like Fraraitigham,
where there are from 300 to 500 passing a day. Then as to
the construction of these roads. I know there are towns that
cart gravel long distances, where the actual cost of the cartage
merely is a dollar and a half a load. They think it is good
economy to do that, and so do I. I believe it would be economy
to cart it at five dollars a load (though I would rather cart
stone), rather than use the material on the ground, such as
was referred to by Mr. Flint ; that is entirely unfit to be put
into a road. Then let us have thoroughly drained roads ; let
us put on proper material. If the town can afford it, if it is a
main road that is to be travelled a good deal, let it be macada-
mized, by all means. I will not speak of city streets, because
that is not a matter which concerns us so much ; but the main
thoroughfares in country towns should be macadamized, and
there are comparatively few towns in the Commonwealth where
there is not stone, hard and soft (and the harder the better),
that can be had for this purpose. Then let us go a step further.
Having obtained this, having built the road just as we want it,
let us give it that care and attention that these first-class roads
receive. It is said that, in some parts of Europe, the rubble is
left in little heaps along the roads, ready to be used when
wanted ; so in the winter, when we are not doing much, we

INFLUENCE OF GOOD ROADS. 73

could cart tins rubble and put it along these main roads in
little heaps, 50 or 100 feet apart, and then it would be very-
little work to repair a break.

Tbink, too, what a satisfaction it is to drive over that
Chestnut Hill road. I would not advise you to go there on
Sunday ; I should rather you would go to church ; but I sup-
pose there arc from 3,000 to 4,000 teams on that road every
Sunday in pleasant weather in summer. Why do they go
there ? They go there because it is the best place to drive that
I' ever saw ; because it is a real pleasure to ride on a good road.
It is magnificent ; it is fine as it can be. We all believe in
more or less pleasure travel, certainly about the large cities and
towns, and there is notliing more attractive than a good road.
There is no one thing that will bring more people into a town
than the fact that it has the reputation of having good roads.
Then, aside from that, look at the teams that must go over all
these roads. I remember going from Yarmouth to Province-
town in a stage with two horses (I never want to go there
again in that way), and the stage, which had only one passen-
ger, had to stop every 20 or 30 rods going up the sand hills.
But some friend will say, '' we can't afford to build good roads
down there." Look at it. That is one extreme. I will ven-
ture to say that a good liorse, such as there are hundreds of in
Ijoston, will draw three tons over the Chestnut Hill road. That
is the other extreme. I submit it to you, all things considered,
whether they cannot afford to do it. Whether it is economy to
have a roaQ over which a horse can draw three tons, or to have
a road over which he can draw 500 lbs., or perhaps but 250 lbs.,
besides the carriage.

I understand very well that some will say you cannot have
these perfect roads in every town. Then I say, put your stan-
dard as high as you please, and come as near to it as possible.
If we cannot get a perfect road, let us make it as perfect as we
can. At any rate, let us take hold and mend our ways in some
degree.

Tlie chairman can tell even greater stories of Dorchester than
I have told of Newton. I know that these results are not
owing entirely to the fact that we have good roads ; I know
there are other influences at work ; but this is among the
prominent influences which have produced the result.

10

74 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The Chairman. We have a gentleman with us wlio is posted
on all occasions, and speaks ably upon any subject of which he
treats. I allude to my friend, Dr. Loring, the president of the
New England Agricultural Society. Shall we hear from him ?

Dr. Loring discussed in a somewhat elaborate manner the
various modes of road making, recommending system and
economy, and the avoidance of any centralized organization
which might interfere with local wants and interest.

Hon. Richard Goodman of Lenox. As the mountain towns
have been referred to, I may as well, coming as I do from a
mountain town, give expression to our views in regard to moun-
tain roads.

I apprehend there are few of us who will differ in the main
from the views expressed by Mr. Flint and Mr. Hyde. It will
not be denied, I think, that the present system of making roads
is inimical to the best interests of the Commonwealth, whether
in the mountain towns or any other parts of the State where it
is carried on by any labor except that of competent hired labor,
paid in money. But, sir, the main question wliicli we want to
discuss here, I apprehend, is as to the mode of remedying these
difficulties ; and notwithstanding the observations of my friend,
Dr. Loring, as to the practice abroad, perhaps we may gather as
much information by the light of past experience, whether
coming from abroad or at home, as in any other way. I appre-
hend that we are really as badly off as they were in Europe at
the end of the last century. They had roads there about equiva-
lent to our present roads here. Many of them ilnpassable,
almost, in winter; muddy at this season of the year, and impos-
sible to get through in spring. We find that in Scotland, as
late as 1730 (a country with as sparse a population as we have
now), they had roads of the same character, and they never
obviated that difficulty until they began to improve them upon
a certain system, and that system was the same which has been
carried out in France and in England, as distinguished from
what they called in France the cor vie system, which is a system
where the taxes are worked out on the roads. We find from
the records of France, that when that great minister, Turgot,
the minister of Louis XIV. came into office, it was costing
about four times as much to repair their roads by the old sys-
tem as it afterwards cost when the money was raised and used

BAD ROADS INCREASE PROFANITY. 75

for the purpose of putting the roads in order. In France, the
government took possession of all the roads, and kept them in
order. In England and in Scotland, the roads are in charge of
a board of public works in each country, and there are com-
missioners who go about and direct the surveyors elected in the
parishes (corresponding to our highway surveyors) how the
roads shall be built.

I will not pretend to say that all the roads in this Common-
wealth should be put in condition equal to the roads described
in Newton and some other towns ; wo could not afford to go at
once into that expensive way of constructing our roads, and it
would not be necessary ; but I will pretend to say that there
must be a homogeneous system of perfecting the highways
before we can have any complete system of thoroughfares which
will satisfy the public. In addition to that, we must make a
distinction, which I think my friend Dr. Loring has not made.
We need not put all the roads in this excellent condition, but
we must make a distinction between cross-roads and what are
commonly called highways. I can answer for Berkshire, that
we arc more neglectful in regard to our roads than the people
in any other part of the Commonwealth, and we shall be so,
just as long as the matter is left to the selectmen or highway
surveyors selected by the town. Take the road from Lenox to
Pittsfield ; I doubt if anything has been done on that road for
fifty years to improve it permanently. I have lived there for near
a dozen years, and it has been just about the same one year as it
was the year before, and it could not be worse. It reminds me
of what Arthur Young, the great agriculturist, in 1780 said of
the road from Liverpool to Manchester: " There was no word in
the English language which would express its nasty and miser-
able condition." That road from Lenox to Pittsfield is in such
a condition, that a man who never swore before will swear when
he passes over it, and he who swore before will swear still
more.

I merely take this as an example. Now, what is the remedy ?
See what towns, situated as Lenox is, are losing. We have a
large numljcr of people who come fi'oni Boston and New York
during the summer. The principal place to do their shopping
is Pittsfield, but half the time it is impossible to get tliere with
a decent carriage. The result is, that there is a great loss of

76 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

trade ill Pittsfield. Then, again, there is a great loss to Lenox,
because people do not come there when they find that the roads
are so impassable that they cannot ride for })leasure. We spend
on our roads some '5^1, 200 or •'$1,500 a year, and a good part of
it goes on to the end of our road — some three miles. Tliis has
been so certainly for the last twelve years, and I apprehend it
has been so for fifty years. That money is all thrown away,
because, as Mr. Hyde has well -expressed it, the work is not
well started to begin with, and it is not well done. Now, that
sum of money, expended every year under the direction of
a competent board of surveyors, or commissioners sent out
by thorn, would give us, in a few years, if only half a mile
was built every year, a perfectly constructed road, which
would last for half a century, with very little expense. So
far as that part of Berkshire and a good part of Western
Massachusetts are concerned, there is the same difficulty, I ap-
prehend, and we shall never get over it until there is some com-
petent authority which can compel the men who are elected to
take care of our roads, to manage them as they should be
managed. It is all folly to talk of the selectmen of our various
towns doing the work, or appointing competent men to do it.
You know the selectmen of these various towns have the least
possible knowledge in regard to the building of roads ; and with
lis, it is an impossible thing to get a man who understands how
a road ought to be made ; "and our roads have always been, and
they always will be (until we get some coni})etent men for high-
way conniiissioners), in such a condition that we cannot pass
over them with any comfort. It is just the same with the
county commissioners ; most of them are respectable men, but
very few of them have any acquaintance with the construction
or repairing of roads. If any gentleman will go to Amherst,
he will see a specimen of road making which, I apprehend, is
unique in any part of the world, and disgust him with the idea
of giving to county commissioners the ultimate authority in
such matters.

Mr. UowE of Bolton. Tlie only reason for that was, they
had State aid.

Mr. Goodman. I hope, then. State aid will be withdrawn, and
the commissoners, too. That is only one instance. What we
want, I say, is some head that can perfect a system ramifying

WHERE THERE'S A WILL. 77

through tlie State, under which all the towns shall be compelled
to make their principal roads on the same system. I would
have that plan carried out until we have thoroughly good roads
through the Commonwealth. I incline, therefore, to no middle
way; I do not believe the old adage will apply here: " In media
via est salus " — in the middle way is safety. What we want is
just such a system as Mr. Flint has suggested, carried into prac-
tice, and our selectmen compelled to make good roads.

The Chairman. We have with us a man who has had a good
deal of experience in travelling at home and, of late, in Europe ;
I allude to Hon. Charles G. Davis, of Plymouth.

Mr. Dayis. I do not know that I have voice to make myself
heard, but I wish to say merely, as you have alluded to my hav-
ing been absent of late, that when I returned home a few months
ago, after a year's absence, I learned one thing which gratified
me exceedingly. The first thing I did was to look up our Ag-
ricultural Report for the last year, and in it I found the three
prize essays which I devoured immediately, and I said to myself
that the Board of Agriculture and the Legislature had done
more by drawing out those essays, than by any and all other
public acts that had been done in Massachusetts, during the
last five years. And I said it to myself, with some feeling, be-
cause I had been more impressed in travelling, not through
Scotland and England alone, but through the different coun-
tries of the Continent, both in the poor countries and in the
rich ones, by the excellence of the roads than by any other
single thing. I do not think that it makes much difference —
although we have our ideas, and I have mine upon the subject,
and mine are pretty radical — I do not think it makes much dif-
ference as to what particular mode of correcting the present
evil we discuss. I think it will be sufficient if we call the atten-
tion of the people of Massachusetts to this subject, and have it
discussed thoroughly. Then, where there is a will there will bo
found a way.

I believe one of the greatest troubles is to know the difficul-
ties under which we labor, and I think Dr. Loring will agree
with me and with Mr. Goodman, that the chief trouble to-day
consists in the fact that those who have the care of our roads
do not know what a good road is. They have no standard to go
by. They have no standard of excellence, uor have they any

78 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

knowledge of the best way to make a road, suppose tlicy have
had the time, materials and money necessary. For instance, the
other day, I saw a surveyor, in my own town, grading up the
road by the water side, immediately in front of Plymouth Rock.
He had to grade it up some two feet and he was actually filling
in chip dirt. 1 called his attention to it, and told him that
would not make a road. " Oh," said he, " I am going to cover
it over with gravel," and he did, some two or three inches deep,
and left the chip dirt to rot under it. That man thought he
was doing a good thing. He was getting rid of the chip dirt,
if nothing else. The trouble I find, is, that our selectmen and
highway surveyors, as a general thing, are ignorant of what a
good road is, and what would be the best way to make a good
road, if they had the material and the money. If we can teach
them how to build a good road, in the first place, we do a good
thing. In the next place, we have got to teach the people of
Massachusetts, that the road which costs the most, the money
being judiciously expended, is the cheapest in the end. Mr.
Flint does not propose, I do not propose, in calling the attention
of the people of Massachusetts to this matter, to lead the towns
into debt. We do not propose to ask tlicm to lay out as much
money, in the next twenty years, as they would lay out under
the present system. Why, Mr. President, it is the interest on
the capital that we have to lay out yearly w^iich creates the
debt. The capital which the taxes upon our road represent,
would more than suffice for all that the most sanguine desire
in regard to the improvement of our roads.

As Mr. Flint says, what we want is highway surveyors whose
minds, in the first place, are upon the subject ; we do not have
them now. AVe leave this matter to selectmen, who have other
duties to discharge ; or to surveyors, w^io are farmers, or wood-
choppers, or engaged in different avocations, and when they
have spare time and can spend a little money upon the road
they do it. In the first place, we do not have officers with any
knowledge upon the subject ; and we do not have the minds of
the people on the subject except occasionally. That, it seems to
me, is the great and radical defect in the present system. I do
not care whether we undertake to make State engineers to have
the care of our roads, or whether we undertake to educate
every man in the community to know what roads ought to be.

. THE ROADS IN EUROPE. 79

The question is which of the two you can best accomplish. I
think every man ought to learn to be a much better road-
builder than he is, and if you could get your surveyors to
appreciate a standard, it would be a great gain. But you cannot
do even that. You could not get one-half of your surveyors
to read the prize essays in the last report ; or, if they did read
them, they would say, " That is a standard we cannot come
up to."

• What are the facts abroad ? It is the poorest countries in
Europe which have the best roads. I will not say that it is so in
all the countries of Europe, because I have not been into Spain ;
but in Switzerland, it is not the Simplon road merely, it is not
the roads alone over the passes of the Alps, that are good. Why,
those roads would be cheap at $100,000 a mile, and they would
probably cost more than that if they were made in our day,
with our system of labor and wages ; but, as I have said, they
would be cheap even at that price, because they made that
which was before inaccessible, accessible, and opened up land
which was good for nothing. They made avenues where there
was no avenue, and where, but for these roads, there could be
no avenue. I do not care whether you go among the Alps, or
into the valleys, you will find everywhere, even in the poorest
cantons, good roads. They are not wide roads. I agree with
Dr. Loring in that matter ; I think twenty-two feet, well built or
worked, is wide enough for our common country roads. You
never find a road in England made wider than that, except near
the cities. The highways through the country towns are more
like narrow lanes than roads : they are not more than twenty or
twenty-five feet between the hedges. Not being in danger of
obstruction by snow, and having no sidewalks, — as most of them
have not, — they are sufficiently wide for their purpose. But go
to the poorest canton in Switzerland, much poorer than any dis-
trict in Massachusetts, and you find the roads made always with
even grades, never with a pitch or a hollow to suit the natural
surface of the country, but always upon even pitches up and
down, sometimes bridging across dry valleys, the engineering and
masonry of the most excellent character. Those roads are con-
stantly watched, as a mother watches her child, as the track-
men upon our railroads tend the track that the engines pass
over ; watched day by day, and swept week by week. This is

80 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

done, not alone that the dust may be swept from the roads, but
to jjrevent, wlien wet weather comes, the accumulation of mud,
which softens the road underneath, and finally tends to make
holes.

I found such roads as these all over Switzerland. You, Mr.
Chairman, can bear me witness, and Mr. Flint also (and there
are others here who have been abroad), that the roads through
Belgium, through France, most of Germany, and through
Baden especially — which are referred to in the prize essay,
which I hope most of you have read — are as smooth as this floor,
and smoother than any sidewalk in this country. I say that
thing is possible in tliis country. I believe that is possible with
a free and independent democracy, which is possible with the
democracy of Switzerland.

I have no doubt that many of you gentlemen are incredulous ;
you think me an enthusiast, but I speak of what I have seen,
and I have no doubt that the county of Berkshire, which has
not the difficulties to surmount that Switzerland has, might, by
the judicious expenditure of the same amount of money which
is squandered now, have as fine roads in twenty years as
any country on earth. It is this waste which we want to stop ;
it is this ignorance which we want to enlighten. This is not a
matter of dollars and cents ; it is a matter of intelligence, it is
a matter of science. The money will come fast enough if we
only have the intelligence to use it, but that is what we have
not got, under the present system.

Allusion has been made to Provincetown, in my own section
of the State. Let me say to my friend, Mr. Hyde, that those
roads have been greatly improved since he was there, and I say
that Provincetown is entitled to more credit for what she has
done for her roads than the town of Newton is. She devoted
the whole of the surplus revenue which belonged to her, to the
laying of sidewalks in the town. She imported the soil from
the main land, if I may so call it, and to-day the main road
through the village of Provincetown is as good as tiiat of any
town in this county. And as to the highways in Barnstable
County, let me tell you there are few better highways in the
State than that from Sandwich to Barnstable, and from Barn-
stable to Yarmouth. We can make good roads even there if we
try. The only trouble is where there happens to be a mile or

PERFECT, INSTEAD OF MULTIPLYING ROADS. 81

two of road through the forest, where there is no gravel fit
for the purpose of road-raaking. It is no light matter to cart
gravel to that spot.

I think that until we can get a law through the legislature,
which will entirely revolutionize this whole system, we can do
something in our several towns. And the first thing we should
do is to use our influence to get the control of the roads out of
the hands of the surveyors. In our town we have about three
hundred miles of road, I think, and I don't know but more, and
the practice is for those who are surveyors, or who desire to be,
to form a ring almost every year and vote that the town shall
choose highway surveyors, and then vote themselves in ; but
once in a while we get through a vote giving the selectmen
power to appoint a surveyor of the roads. A year ago we passed
a vote that the town should own a horse and cart, and keep a
man employed all the time on the roads. We have tried that
system a year, and there is not a citizen in the town who will
not tell you that the roads anywhere within three-quarters of a
mile of the village, are in a better condition than ever before,
and we have saved thousands of dollars by the use of that one
horse and cart, and the committal of the oversight and repair of
the roads to one man. T only speak of that as an illustration of
what may be done by a little change ; and I do think, that now
that our State has become so thickly populated, and our towns
so near together, that it is for the interest of every man that the
roads of the town next to hira should be as good as those of his
own, and that we have a right to call upon the State to adopt
some general system of engineering, constructing and repairing
our roads. And upon this point let me say one other word
— I think that the effort should not be to multiply our roads.
1 think our county commissioners make a great mistake in
giving a road to almost everybody who asks for it. Let them
perfect the roads we have and there will be no trouble about
those who come after.

Now it is almost universally the case (and this is another
difficulty in our present system), that you find the highway sur-
veyor has no sort of engineering knowledge, and takes no
engineering advice whatsoever, and anybody who watches a hill-
side road from year to year, for a series of years, will soon
notice improvements which might have been made and which
11

82 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

would have remained permanent if only the advice of an en-
gineer had been taken.

Adjourned to Wednesday, at 0| A. M.

SECOND DAY.
The Board met at 9.} o'clock, and Dr. LorinTt was elected
chairman for the day. He introduced as the first speaker Prof.
James Law, of Cornell University.

THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.
By Prof. James Law.

Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen : — Year by year the interest
in our live stock deepens, as we realize the increasing impor-
tance of its production and conservation as a branch of agri-
cultural industry. The westward march of empire, and .the
laying under contribution of our vast western prairies for the
production of breadstuffs, combine with the more general diffu-
sion of improved and valuable breeds, to demand the exercise
of the highest intelligence, and the most advanced and correct
knowledge of all that pertains to their improvement, or to the
maintenance of their most estimable qualities.

At the foundation of all excellence in stock lie the principles
of breeding. Error here, however venerable or deeply rooted,
is especially to be regretted, as, like the spores of the cryptogam
in the planted seed, it will fructify in the growing product and
blast the harvest, in spite of the most careful tending and cul-
ture. He who avails of the rich experience of the past hundred
years, reaps his substantial reward in the yearly increasing value
of his stock, while the man who ignores or despises it soon
realizes in his barren fields and stunted, unproductive herds,
that what is not ivell done is not worth doing at all.

The better to illustrate the known facts and principles which
enable us to control the breeding of animals, let us glance
shortly at the organisms through which reproduction takes
place. In all the higiier animals this is by the union of the pro-
ducts of the two sexes, the ovum or eg-g- of the female and the
spermatozoon or vitalizing element of the male. In the female
the two ovaries produce vesicles from birth, like those in which
the ova afterwards grow, but until they reach the bearing- age
these do not mature, nor are true ova produced. When the

THE PRINCIPLES OF LIFE. 83

system has sufficiently matured to afford a surplus nutrition for
the reproduction of its kind, an increased supply of blood and
nervous energy to the ovary hastens the maturity of one or
more of these vesicles ; they burst as a ripened fruit must fall,
and the liberated ovum, descending the Fallopian tubes to the
womb, finds that the new-born activities of that organ have
elaborately prepared and fitted it as a home for its development
in the immediate future.

In healthy females, from the approach of maturity to the de-
cline of life, when many other functions as well as the repro-
ductive ones are lost, this development and discharge of ova
persists, and with it the power of generation. Heat or rut is
the concomitant of such rupture and escape.

But without the addition of the male or fertilizing element to
the ovum, its escape is but the prelude to its destruction, as it
no longer retains in itself the power of assimilation and in-
crease, but is thrown off, together with the exudation in the
womb, as a waste and useless thing. The male semen is an al-
buminous fluid secreted by the two testicles, and in health dis-
charged only during strong sexual excitement. It contains
myriads of minute organisms (spermatozoa), bearing a strong
resemblance in most animals when magnified, to tadpoles, and
having a similar but much more active power of motion. These
last elements appear to be the true fertilizing agents, as Spallan-
zani found that the fluid obtained by filtering the liquid had no
power to fecundate the ovum, whereas the material left on the
filter proved successful. Moreover, these are the only elements
in the male seminal fluid having the innate power of motion,
and since in animals killed a day or two after coition the ovum
is found in the Fallopian tube, undergoing that segmentation
and division of its yolk which results from impregnation, and is
besides surrounded by spermatozoa, there can be no reasonable
doubt that they alone are the fertilizing constituents. Further,
the spermatozoa are found in the testicles, the removal of which
destroys the power of procreation, and have not been found in
the semen of mules and other barren males.

FORM OP THE OVUM AND ITS DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES.

As discharged from its ovarian (Graafian) vesicle, the uuim-
pregnated ovum is a globular mass, with an external granular

84 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

layer of club-sliaped Ijodies (granular layer) ; witliin tliis a
layer of transparent albuminous matter (Tona puUucida) ;
still more internally the spherical yolk granules, among which
lie the g-erminal vesicle with its germinal spot.

Until fertilized it is incapable of change. The ftrst indica-
tions of development are shown in the segmentation of the
yolk into two equal masses, of these into four, of those into
eight, and so on, the numbers doubling each time from the
binary segmentation of each cell until the yolk is largely in-
creased in bulk, and presents a uniform mass of granules, and
a smooth investing membrane. At the commencement of this
segmentation of the yolk, the germinal vesicle and spot disap-
pear, and in the mammalous ova has hitherto eluded all attempts
to trace it, thougii it has been pointed to as the centre of this
work of segmentation and increase in the yolk. At the same
time the spermatozoa can be seen in the membranes surround-
ing the yolk, and even in the yolk itself, as may readily be seen
in the rabbit's ovum, taken sixty hours after connection with
the buck male.

When the segmentation of the yolk is completed, there appear
new developmental changes at one point of its surface, and in
the membrane (germinal membrane) investing it. This con-
sists in a thickening of the membrane in the form of an ovoid,
in tiie centre of which the rudimentary elements of the young
animal soon become apparent.

We have thus glanced at the main points of the phenomenon
of impregnation. AVe have traced the steps resulting in the
union of two living elements, derived from different animals,
incapable of separate existence, but potent when coml/med not
only to lay the foundation of a living being, but to insure that
this being shall develop the qualities of the male and female from
which it sprung, alike in form, size, color, vigor and power of
enduring hardships, constitution, mental powers, and even pro-
clivity to disease. This point must never be forgotten in con-
nection with subsequent developments, that here, in the initial
stage of the individual existence, all the characters of the future
animal are determined by the unseen but not the less real prop-
erties of those two simple germinal structures — the ovum and
spermatozoon. These have no less individuality and character
than the animals from which they sprung, and as the ovum and

THE FCETUS IN UTERO. 85

spermatozoon of the rabbit and horse do not appear to differ
materially from each other, we are here brought face to face
with one of the mysteries of creation, a mystery which we can
no more explain than we can explain why in the adult being
one cell or particle of living matter should always abstract from
the blood and elaborate into tissue the materials of bone, another
those of muscle, and another of nervous tissue.

MEMBRANES OF THE FCETUS.

Our present purpose does not demand that we should trace
the development of the ovum in all its stages into the foetus. I
hasten, therefore, to note the connection of the ftetus with the
mother, and how it is nourished in the latter period of gesta-
tion.

The foetus floats in one water bag (Amnion) enclosed in
another (the AUantois), which among other functions fulfil that
of protecting the young animal from being injured by the move-
ments of the abdominal organs, or by external objects coming
in contact with the abdomen, and that of steadily dilating the
external generative passages by a soft, equable and yielding
pressure, preparatory to the expulsion of the foetus. The
Amnion likewise receives any dejections in case the bowels act
before birth, while the AUantois is the receptacle for the urine
which is conveyed from the anterior extremity of the bladder
through a special channel (uracus) in the navel string. Out-
side the AUantois and lining the womb is the vascular coat (the
chorion), whose functions are the most pertinent to our present
purpose. The blood of the foetus is conveyed to this membrane
by the two umbilical arteries, branches of the internal iliacs,
and after breaking up into capillaries in its substance is returned
by the umbilical vein. Branches are given off from these vessels
for the nourishment of the three membranes, but the blood is
mainly distributed on the villous process of the chorion to
absorb the nutrient matters from the blood of the mother.

NUTRITION OF THE FCETUS.

The inner surface of the mucous membrane of the womb, even
in the unimpregnated state, is perforated by numerous orifices
leading into two kinds of uterine follicles, one consisting in
simple depressions terminating in blind ends, the other consist-

86 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

ing of elongated tubes, usually spiral, and smaller tubes branch-
ing off from their sides like the ducts of a compound secreting
gland. These uterine glands are abundantly supplied with
blood by a rich network of capillaries in thin walls, but are
functionally inactive until conception has taken place. Then
they undergo a great increase in size, become increasingly vas-
cular, and secrete the nutrient matter for the support of the
fojtus. The outer foetal membrane^ the chorion, develops villous
processes, on which the blood-vessels especially ramify, and which
fit accurately into the uterine follicles. Tliese villi may be seen
in the afterbirth of the cow to have numerous small secondary
villi branching off from their sides, and corresponding to lesser
tubes of the uterine follicles.

In ruminants, the uterine glands are not scattered over the
entire surface of the womb, but accumulated at about fifty
points on little rounded elevations, connected with the wall of
the uterus by a narrow neck, and known as cotyledons. These
cotyledons increase to a diameter of one or two inches after con-
ception, and the villi of the chorion are aggregated into an
equal number of cotyledons, which thus fit into the uterine ones.

We have thus brought into the most intimate relations, and
over the most extended surface, the rich network of capillary
blood-vessels in the uterine walls, and the equally rich network
on the outer membrane of the foetus. The maternal and foetal
vessels are only separated by a delicate membrane and a single
layer of cells.

The secretion of these glands in the cow and ewe have been
analyzed by Prevost and Morin, Schlossberger and Arthur
Gamgce. The annexed tables will show the nutrient nature of
the fluid : —

PECULIARITIES OF UTERINE MILK.

87

Analysis of Uterine Milk.

SCHLOSSBERGER.

ARTHUR

GAMGEE.

REACTION^.

Op the Cow.

Of the Cow.

Ol' THE EWE.

I.

n.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

Acid.

Acid.

Alkaline.

Neutral.

Alkaline.

Alkaline.

Specific gravity, .

-

-

10.33

10.40

10.31

10.33

Water,

88.07

88.03

87.91

86.12

88.30

91.88

Solids, ....

11.93

11.97

12.09

13 88

11.70

8.12

Fat, ....

1.59

1.52

1.23

1.40

1.20

1.05

Albumen with cellular
structures,

9.63

9.57

10.40

11.65

9.50

6.12

Alkaline albuminates, .

-

-

.16

.30

.47

-

Salts

.71

.70

.37

.40

.45

.82

Uterine Milk of the Cow. — (Prevost and Morin.)

Water in 100 parts, " . . 86.837

Solids, 13.163

Albumen, Fibrine, &c., 11.028

Gelatiniform matter, ........ .546

Ozmazone, . ......... .714

Fat, . 750

Salts undetermined.

CAUSES OP STERILITY.

One of the troubles of breeding is an occasional /atVwre to pro-
create on the part of the male or female, and this lecture would
be incomplete without a reference to such an unfortunate occur-
rence and its more common causes.

In the male sterility sometimes follows a too early and exces-
sive use. The calamitous al)ortions in the dairy parts of New
York have been shown to be slightly more abundant where male
and female alike have been bred for generations at too early
an age. Confining our attention to the male, we see that the
spermatozoa are developed in the secreting cells of the testicle,
that they require a certain time for development, and that if

88 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

sexual connection is too often repeated, these arc no longer dis-
charged, or are emitted in an immature condition, tlie fluid
being mainly or entirely composed of the secretion of the seminal
vesicles and other glands situated along the course of the
urethra. This condition is likely sooner to occur in young,
partially developed animals, in the very old, and in those in low
condition, and weak constitutionally, or as a result of overwork,
starvation or other debilitating influence. Such weakness is
indeed oftentimes associated with an absence of spermatozoa
in the semen.

Tiic case is the same if the testicles are but partially
developed, and in all cases in man or animals in which the
testicles are retained in the abdomen or the inguinal ring, in
place of descending into the scrotum, microscopic examination
has failed to show the presence of spermatozoa. (Curling,
Goubaux.) Disease of the testicle or of its excretory duct,
whether inflammation which permanently impairs the structure
and functions of the secreting organ, or fatty change in pam-
pered animals, which unfits it for secretion or emission, is an
insurmountable barrier to procreation. Fatty degeneration
may sometimes be overcome in its earlier stages by increased
exercise, and spare diet. But starvation is not to be advocated
in ordinary cases. The animal, whether male or female, that
shows the most vigorous health, being neither too obese and
plethoric, nor too thin and weak is likely to be the best stock-
getter. I have seen two flocks of sheep put to the same ram,
kept in the same field, and on the same diet, yet the flock which
was in the best condition from previous good feeding pro-
duced twins in almost every instance, and several triplets,
whereas the poorer, but by no means low-conditioned flock barely
reached the average of one lamb and a half to each ewe. The
male, subjected to a severe drain by frequently repeated con-
nections, demands a rich, nourishing diet, as well as a moder-
ate amount of exercise to maintain his vigor, stamina and gen-
erative power.

Local troubles sometimes lead to temporary impotence in
the male. Excessive and painful erection from a too frequent
use or some other cause of irritation, such are catarrh or ulcer-
ation of the sheath of the penis or of the urethra, usually con-
tracted from the diseased female, or from one served too soon

CAUSES OF STERILITY. 89

after parturition, and while the consequent discharges from the
womb or passages continue, paralysis of the penis from blows
or otherwise ; sprained loins, spavins, or other malady of the
hind parts which tortures the animal when he mounts.

The female often conceives with difficulty, if she has not been
used for breeding in early life, and hence many follow the rather
questionable policy of putting her to the male at as early an
age as she comes in heat, no matter how young. The New York
abortion reports show the danger of this, in weakening the con-
stitution, and above all the generative organs, when persisted in
for a succession of generations, and when the young animal is
milked after the first calf. A celebrated Scotch breeder of
Shorthorns, however, Mr. Douglass, of Athelstaneford, asserts
that neither constitution nor stamina suffer from breeding at
a year old, provided the heifer is abundantly nourished during
pregnancy, and is not milked during the succeeding year.

A second cause of failure is serving too soon after parturition
— in the mare for instance two or three days after foaling.
The womb has oftentimes not fully contracted at this date, a
condition not conducive to conception ; and it too commonly
still discharges a muco-purulent matter. Now the presence of pus
in the womb or passages is found to be fatal to vitality and move-
ments of the spermatozoa ; so that until this has ceased it is folly
to put to the male. Connection in these circumstances has the
additional disadvantage, as we have already seen, of frequently
inducing disease in the male.

Over-excitement of the generative organs, whether from excess
of highly stimulating food, plethora, or disease of the organs
may stand in the way of conception. Hence it is found that
bleeding before putting to the male often calms such irritation
and secures a successful result. Low feeding before and during
rut in animals showing this tendency . will sometimes succeed,
and waiting imtil heat is passing off will equally favor conception.
A system practised in Arabia of sweating a mare before present-
ing to the horse may have been partly suggested by its influence
in distracting attention and thus quieting sexual excitement,
though it may on the other hand have been resorted to with
the view of calling out the fall vigor of the dam at the time of
conception in order to perpetuate it.

Obesity in the female as in the male, is a cause of sterility.

12

90 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Fatty transformation of the ovaries prevents the evohition of
the ova, and fatty deposit in the Fallopian tubes opposes the
descent to the womb of such as may be formed. This is above
all noticeable among our Shorthorn cattle, and may be prevented
or even cured in recent cases by changing the diet and
regimen. Captain Davy succeeded in getting such heifers to
breed, by turning them out on a bare common with a young
bull, or by using them in the plough, and Mr. Webb was
equally fortunate with two valuable barren cows, after walking
them over one hundred miles to his farm at Babraham. In
animals disposed to the production of fat, any excess of hydro-
carbonaceous food (oil, starch, sugar) will endanger the breed-
ing powers, but curiously enough sugar in man and animals
alike has been found to be specially productive of sterility.

Other diseases of the ovaries or womb besides fatty degenera-
tion will destroy fertility. Thus cows with tuberculous deposit
in the ovaries, though in continual sexual excitement, and ever
ready to receive the male, are incapable of procreation.

The tendency to barrenness is increased by too close breed-
ing, but of this cause I will speak later.

A female is often sterile, because of a rigid closure of the
neck, of the womb, the result of spasmodic contraction or of
disease. Mares previously barren have often been rendered
fruitful by dilating the neck of the womb by the fingers and
thumb drawn into the form of a cone, and passed through the
opening just before putting to the horse. If too rigid to be
opened in this way it must be incised with a knife fitted into a
grooved handle (a bistoury), and the opening maintained
pervious by a sponge tent until healing has been completed. In
cases of this kind I have experienced the advantage of using
the largest female speculum prolonged by a tube of sheet tin.

It is sometimes advised to allow repeated connection in order
to secure conception, and doubtless in the natural state coition
is usually repeated a number of times. But as we keep animals
in an unnatural state, and have changed their forms and func-
tions to serve our own ends, this is no reason why we should
not conserve the powers of a valuable male, that we may mul-
tiply his value in a more numerous progeny, if one service is
found to be sufficient, rather than that we should be wasteful
of his powers by squandering them unduly on a limited number

PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 91

of females. The myriads of spermatozoa discharged in a single
act, amply suffice to render the ovum or ova prolific, provided
there is no obstruction to their entering the womb and being
there retained. At the same time, during great sexual excite-
ment, such obstruction is at times met, or the semen is discharged
after having entered the womb, and a second connection when
the excitement is less intense will prove more successful. But
as some females will take the male after impregnation, and as
connection in these circumstances often causes abortion, the
female should not as a rule be presented to the male more than
twenty-four hours after having been first served.

Ergot, smut, weakened constitution, digestive and urinary dis-
orders, resulting from improper feeding of breeding animals,
fright, mechanical injury and other causes of abortion, need
only be mentioned here as additional causes of sterility.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF BREEDING.

To turn from the consideration of the mere production of
animals to the production of valuable breeds, we find that the
foundation of all success lies in the common aphorism like pro-
duces like. As the acorn develops into the oak, and the wheat
into the wheat plant, as the horse, ox, ass, sheep and pig repro-
duce their respective kinds, so are the corporeal, constitutional
and mental qualities of particular animals reproduced in their
progeny. The rule holds alike as regards good qualities and
defects — the bone and sinew, the fire and vigor of the race
horse ; the muscular development and energy of the trotter ;
the weight, strength and activity of the Clydesdale ; the placid
eye, loose-build, heavy hind parts and large vascular system of
the Ayrshire ; the rounded form, early maturity and fattening
quality of the Shorthorn ; the sweet, juicy mutton of the high-
land breeds of sheep ; the fine wool of the Southdown, or
merino, or the early maturity and fattening qualities of the
Leicester.

Perhaps no better example of the hereditary transmission of
valuable qualities can be found than in the English thorough-
bred race-horse and Shorthorn. The Duke of Newcastle and
Mr. Fenwick are reported to have said in Cromwell's time, that
" the meanest hack from Tangiers would produce a finer prog-
eny than could be expected from the best sire of the native

92 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

breeds." And since then the world-renowned English racer has
been produced mainly by crosses from the best types of Arabs
and Barbs. From the Byerly Turk desccnded'King Ilerod, wliich
got four hundred and ninety-seven winners at the various race-
courses, computed to have gained to their owners <£201,505.
Eclipse from the Darlcy Arabian, got three hu)idred and thirty-
four winners, which brought their owners Xl60,000. The basis
of excellence was laid by infusing the blood of the Turk, Barb
and Arab, yet by a careful selection of animals showing superior
qualities, the progeny has so far improved that the native Arab
is now considered no match for the English racer, but is allowed
a discount of thirty-six pounds when contending with the latter
in the Goodwood races. As showing a similar improvement over
native breeds, it may be mentioned that no '" cocktail " (seven-
eighths or fifteen-sixteenths racing blood) has been known to win
a race of 2|- miles in competition on eqnal terms with the
thoroughbred.

The Shorthorns equally date their origin from the buUcalf
Hubback, purchased by Colling from a poor neighbor. And so
well have the qualities of eaily maturity and power of accumu-
lating fat been perpetuated and improved, that no grade Durham,
however excellent his personal points, is of the same value for
begetting the same qualities in his progeny. And yet this ex-
cellence has been obtained in the case of the racer in about
two hundred years, and in that of the Durham in one hundred.

But the fundamental principle that like produces like, is not
an inviolable rule ; were it so every breed would retain the same
qualities throughout all time and no improvement could be
effected. Variations always take place, sometimes from unknown
causes, sometimes from causes under our control ; and in our
ability to solicit, to foster and to perpetuate such variations, lie
all our powers of improving a breed. As these variations may
be tlie cause of deterioration as well as of improvement in
breeds, an intimate acquaintance with them and their results
is absolutely essential, not only to beget new excellence, but to
maintain and perpetuate the old. I will recount a few of the
known causes of variations.

Ist. Feeding-. — Under a more abundant diet the intestinal
canal of the domesticated cat and swine becomes more lengthy
and capacious than those of their wild progenitors. Hogs

CAUSES OF VARIATION. 93

allowed to run wild on the bleak Falkland Islands, have reverted
in form and other characters to the type of the wild boar; not
so with those turned adrift on the rich soil of La Plata, or
Louisiana. A similar result took place in a pig of Natluisius,
seized at two months old with a disease of the digestive organs,
wliich permanently interfered with digestion and nutrition.
Though a highly bred Berkshire it assumed the long snout, the
coarse bristles, ridged back, flat sides and long legs of the wild
boar or unimproved breeds.

So with the native cattle and sheep of the bleak mountains of
Scotland and "Wales, of Kerry and Brittany, which have degen-
erated to the smallest types of their kinds. The fat-tailed sheep
of Kurdistan is said to lose its fatty rump when removed to
Russian pastures. Tlie ponies of Norway and Sweden, of Ice-
land, Shetland, Wales, Devon, Brittany, Corsica and Sardinia
illustrate the same point. The horses running wild on the
Falkland Islands have degenerated to ponies within a compara-
tively recent period.

Conversely a richer food increases bulk. Ayrshire cows re-
moved at four or five years old to the richer land of the Lothians
increase marvellously on the better keeping. The wonderful
excellence of the Durham cattle was no doubt rendered possible
by the rich pastures of the Ouse and Tees, and is now main-
tained by the artificial and forcing system of feeding so common
in such lierds. So with the English racer ; he is grained from
the very earliest age, and to an extent which would fail to be
remunerative in ordinary priced horses. At a month old he gets
a quarter of a peck daily, and the amount is steadily increased
with his growth.

When we want to develop bone, muscle and vigor, this rich
and dry feeding is demanded, but where rapid growth and early
fattening only are desired, as in animals for the butcher, then a
softer and more aqueous but equally nutritive diet is essential.

2d. Climate is not without its influence on variation. Cer-
tain races can't survive in particular climates ; they must change
their characters or die out. The Newfoundland dog has lost
most of his distinctive characters in England. He has not
hitherto been able to survive in India, nor at the Cape of Good
Hope. Greyhounds, pointers and bull-dogs rapidly lose their dis-
tinctive forms and mental qualities in India. The third genera-

94 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

tiou of the bull-dog has acquired a sharp nose, thin body and
hanging ears, and his native pluck is equally gone. The Thibet
mastiff, taken from his native mountains to the humid plains of
India, speedily dies out.

Horses, as we have seen, fall off in size in bleak islands. The
same appears to hold concerning very humid countries, as in
the Falkland Islands, and to the east of the Bay of Bengal, in
Pegu, Ava, Malabar, Siam, the Eastern Archipelago, and most
of China, They on the other hand attain their greatest native
excellence in a clear, dry climate, like that of Northern Africa.

Shorthorns removed from England to Ireland are found to
become more hairy and coarse in their coats. A once celebrated
breeder of Shorthorns on this side the Atlantic, when remonstra-
ted with for keeping his cow-houses so warm, tersely remarked
that he " could better afford to lose one of his herd at intervals
than to render them hardier at the expense of some of the
excellences due to the forcing system."

It was attempted to breed high class Leicester sheep on the
bleak Lammermuir Hills, in Scotland, but they deteriorated so
rapidly that the attempt had to be abandoned. At Angora
not only goats, but shepherd's dogs, and cats, have fine fleecy
hair (Ainsworili). Tlie sheep of Korakool lose their black
curled fleeces when removed to any other country (Burnes).
The European sheep loses all its wool except on the loins, after
the third generation, in Antigua and the west of Africa, appear-
ing like a goat with a dirty door-mat on its back (Nicholson).
In the lower heated valleys of the Cordilleras the wool of
the sheep becomes thin and hairy, unless frequently shorn.
Changes of a lesser degree take place in the wool of sheep kept
in different localities in England, as well as of those taken
to Australia.

These rapid changes are but indices of the more extensive
ones to whicli climate has largely conduced in producing the
many widely distinguished varieties of animals native to different
localities.

S^. Soil. — The influences of feeding and climate are closely
allied to those of soil. A rich soil abounding in limestone
appears essential to the full development of the larger and
more improved breeds of animals. Mr. Thorn, Dutchess County,
N. y., .gave up breeding Shorthorns because of the deficiency

USE AND DISUSE OF ORGANS. 95

of lime ill the soil. The same breed has been found to degen-
erate on the poorer sandy soils of Massachusetts unless allowed
a liberal artificial diet. The good effects, however, of soil,
climate and diet may be to a large extent obtained by careful
housing, local drainage, a warm southern exposure of build-
ings and parks, and a liberal system of artificial feeding.

Ath. Excessive Use of Parts. — This, if it does not unduly ex-
haust the vitality of the part and its power of nutrition, will
certainly determine an increased development. This is indeed
a wise provision in the animal economy, to strengthen an organ
to perform the work demanded of it. We have a familiar in-
stance of its effects in the blacksmith's arm, or in the professional
dancer's leg. The extraordinary development of one kidney
when the other has been destroyed is equally characteristic.
A patch of inflamed skin (i. e. a pimple on the face) after-
wards grows long hair ; a cock's spur transplanted to his comb
grows to four or five inches long (Hunter). Hard work in-
creases the thickness of the scarf-skin on the hands, pads form
on the knees of the Ceylon sheep, which kneel to browse the
short herbage, and a new growth of bony matter is thrown out
on the concave aspect of a rickety and bent bone. These may
be all referred to the stimulus offered to nutrition in a more
abundant determination of blood and nervous energy to the
part, and the changes seen in the whole body in other cases are
equally the results of a more general stimulus to nutrition.
Thus, in the horse we have demanded the utmost exercise of
muscle, bone, brain and nerve, and have produced animals with
an extraordinary combination of these elements and of their
legitimate fruits, speed and endurance. In the Leicester sheep,
the Berkshire and Essex pigs, and the Shorthorn cattle, we have
fostered and stimulated fat, bulk and early maturity, till we
have all the energies of the system devoted to their production,
and in Ayrshires we have solicited the flow of milk till the
udder and accessory organs have drawn to themselves all the
available powers of the being.

blh. Disuse &f Parts. — Conversely, parts thrown out of use,
waste, as witness the arm carried constantly in a sling, the mus-
cle on the outside of the shoulder joint sprained and disused in
so-called sv^eeney, and the wasting of paralyzed muscles
generally. Tame rabbits have the hind limbs shorter than wild

96 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

ones. If Tanner is correct in saying that the lungs and liver of
high-bred Durhams are lessened, it would merely indicate a re-
sult of the general tendency to lay up hydro-carbons and fat
rather than burn them up for animal heat. "

These five influences which I have named are well under our
control ; we can apply them on generation after generation, and
thus increase and perpetuate many of those properties which
we most desire. Other causes of variation there are which
are less under our control, but which it is none the less im-
portant we should study and avail of when occasion serves.

6//i. Imaginalion. — Under this head naturally comes up the
question why the best of Laban's cattle produced a ring-streaked
and spotted progeny after Jacob had set peeled rods in front of
their watering troughs, and notwithstanding that all the parti-
colored cattle had been carefully removed from the herd. IIow
much was miraculous and how much a natural conseqence, we
don't know. That God took this means of blessing his servant
does not necessarily imply that lie made use of other than the
already existing physiological laws, and intensified them as
wiien he now cheers the land with an abundant harvest.

Though it is often attempted to throw discredit on the influ-
ence exercised over the child by the imagination of the pregnant
mother, yet the general opinion on this subject has undoubtedly
a foundation in truth, and its importance is frequently verified
by occurrences among domestic animals.

Dr. Trail Monymusk, Aberdeen, mentions the case of a bay
mare which worked, was stabled and grazed with a black geld-
ing having white legs and face, straight hocks and long pasterns,
so that tlie feet seemed to be set at right angles On the legs.
Covered by a bay horse she produced a foal exactly like the
gelding in color and shape, and especially in that of the legs.

Mr. John McGraw, Ithaca, N. Y., had a beautifully formed
trotting marc covered by a horse of the same kind. The mare
pastured during pregnancy in the next park to a mule, and the
foal shows an unmistakably mulish aspect about the head, ears,
thighs and gait.

Mr. Mustard, Forfarshire, had a black polled-Angus cow served
by a bull of the same breed, but the calf was black and white,
and horned like an ox with which the cow had pastured.

Mr. McCombie of Tillyfuur, had twenty pollcd-Angus cows

EFFECT OF FIRST IMPREGNATION. 97

sei'vcd by a polled-Angus bull, and all had pure Angus calves
except one, which, threatened with barrenness, had been sent
to starve on another farm, where she grazed with a yellow and
white ox. The calf was yellow and white.

Mr. Cruiksiiank of Littyton, had twelve white calves from
his roan and brown Durharas after whitewashing his steading to
ward off phiero-pncumonia in 1849. He never before had
more than two in one year and always sent tliem away. A
similar occurrence took place in a Yorkshire herd the same
year.

Though this impressibility would appear to be restricted to a
very small minority of breeding animals, yet its occasional ex-
istence should make us careful how we bring animals of im-
proved breeds into intimate or exclusive relationship with stock
of less desirable qualities.

This impressible state of the mental faculties in the brute
may assist in explaining another phenomenon in breeding.

Ilh. The effect of the first sire on succeeding- progenj/. — Hauss-
man long ago noticed that mares bred to an ass, and subse-
quently to a horse, had the qualities of the ass preserved in the
second and third foals. Lord Morton put an Arab mare to a
quagga, and two successive foals thereafter by a black Arab
horse had the striped skin, the dun color, and the short bristly
main of the quagga. So with the Hampton Court mares served
by Colonel, and the following year by Action, the colts in the
latter case bore a striking resemblance to Colonel. A polled-
Angus heifer served by a Durham bull showed the effect on her
next succeeding progeny by a polled-Angus bull, the calf being
evidently a cross in shape, in color, and in having horns. (Mc-
Gillivray.)

Dr. Wells, Grenada, had a flock of white ewes put to a choco-
late colored, hairy ram, and next year, though served by a ram
of their own breed, they produced lambs allied to the chocolate
ram in color and texture of fl^eece.

Mr. Shaw, Lochell Cushine, Aberdeen, had part of his ewes
put to a Leicester, and part to a Southdown ram, and the fol-
lowing year, though served by a horned Highland ram, the
lambs showed extensively the stamp of the two polled rams in
their dun faces and lack of horns.

Mr. Giles put a black and white Essex sow to a chestnut wild
13

98 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

boar, and this sow breeding afterwards with an Essex boar, had
chestnut pigs.

Among- dogs the same result is notoriously frequent, thougli
it must be confessed there are usually more sources of fallacy
with these creatures.

These remarkable results may be due to mental influence
alone, though it would be difficult to disprove the theory that
the system of the mother is impregnated or inoculated by
elements absorbed from the offspring she bears. We know
nothing, it is true, of any function but secretion resident in the
placental surface of the womb, but as absorption and secretion
both take place from some other glandular surface, and as the
organic germs of infectious diseases arc taken up from the sur-
face of the lungs, we cannot consider an animal membrane as
an insuperable obstacle to the absorption of infinitesimal par-
ticles of living animal (germinal) matter. A third explanation
may be sought in the sympathy between the functions of the
ovary where the germs of the next succeeding progeny are then
being developed, and the special processes going on in the womb
and its contents. A striking example of this sympathy we have
in the ruptured ovarian vesicles which increase and remain till
after parturition in cases of pregnancy, but rapidly disappear if
conception does not take place. If pregnancy influences the
empty vesicle why not the growing one, and with this fact
before us, it is absurd to suppose that the peculiar conditions of
one pregnancy will affect the ova then being developed.

But whether this theory or that is the correct one, it will not
change the fact that the earlier offspring often stamps its char-
acter on the next succeeding. This is practically important to
us, and knowing it we can guard against its possible evil effects.

8//i. Atavism. — Reversion. — Breeding- back. — The tendency
to this is seen in all families, human and brute. The child often
resembles grandparents or great grandparents, uncle or aunt,
in place of its own parents. Polled-Angus, Galloway and Suf-
folk cattle which are hornless, occasionally produce a horned
calf. The same is frequently seen among the hornless South-
down sheep. Even the purest bred Leicesters will sometimes
show patches of gray on the face, as if they had been crossed
with Southdown. Black noses are far from unknown among
the best bred Durhams.

ATx\.VISM AND REVERSION. 99

Rev. Mr. Cox had a flock of spotted Spanish sheep which
bred true among themselves, but always got black lambs whea
crossed with Leicesters or Southdowns.

Sidney saw, in a litter of Essex pigs, the exact counterpart
of the Berkshire boar used twenty-eight years before to give
size and constitution to the breed.

McCombie's Durhams continue to get white calves, though
none such are ever retained on the farm.

Every class of animals is liable thus at times to revert to its
original type, though as shown in tlie case of Mr. Cox's sheep,
they are more liable to do so when violently crossed than in the
ordinary course of breeding from one family or from several
nearly related. A second example of this was afforded in Mr.
Beasley's cross between the red Highland cows and a roan
Durham bull. The calves were white with red ears, a close ap-
proximation to the aboriginal cattle found in the Chillingham
and Hamilton parks.

Every breeder who would retain the special features of a
particular breed must thus at times reject particular animals,
however pure their pedigree. And his mind must be ever open
to the liability of his stock to breed back on an extensive scale
when other breeds are resorted to for fresh blood. Unless some
very desirable qualities are to be gained by the cross, the im-
provement in constitution and stamina will be better and more
safely attained by breeding from members of the same family,
whose characters have been modified by the effects of a different
soil and climate.

9/A. Prepotency of races and individuals. — And this caution
in resorting to foreign blood is the more necessary that certain
races and individuals have an inherent power of transmitting
their own characters and fixing them permanently in their prog-
eny to the exclusion of more desirable qualities in the breed
crossed. Orton raised many chickens from a silk cock and ban-
tam hens, but only three had silky feathers. Darwin bred from
a silk hen and Spanish cock, but failed to get any fowls with
silky feathers. In breeding Manx with domestic cats, seven-
teen out of twenty of the kittens had no tails. Among horses,
Eclipse, King Herod and others have transmitted their own
character to a very extraordinary degree. Among Durhams,
Hubback, Favorite, &c., have virtually created the breed. But

100 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

perhaps the mo?t striking instance of the prepotency of quali-
ties in one individual is that reported by Hirschmann, of the
crossing of ^Merino sheep by a native German ram. The ram
had l)ut 5,500 fibres of wool ou the square inch, the third or
fourth cross with the Merino (^ or ^^ German) had but 8,000,
the twcntietli cross G^TtjisYG German) had 27,000, whereas the
pure Merino had 40,000 to 48,000. In other words, though
there remained but one part of German l)lood in the million,
the wool was not half restored to the true Merino typo.

Violent crossing is thus seen to be beset with numerous pit-
falls no less to be dreaded than those of the closest in and in
breeding. But as this prepotency is especially ma»-ked in those
breeds whose characteristics have been long fixed by a careful
selection or an immemorial transmission, it can often be safely
availed of for the amelioration of the races. The Durham bull
which met his match, as regards force and fixity of type, in the
ancient Highland cow, has much more potency of type than the
less carefully selected breeds, and above all, than our nonde-
script native cows, and will transmit his own qualities to their
offspring in greater proportion than he has shared in their pro-
creation. The question is merely one of relative fixity of char-
acter, and while to the ignorant or unwary it may offjr many
pitfalls, to the intelligent and observent breeder it becomes an
arm of power. Crossing a highly improved breed with an
inferior one, with the view even of obtaining more vigor and
stamina is a dangerous practice, but crossing a poor stock with
a male of a select breed, with the view of raising the character
of the first is a safe and remunerative proceeding. The progeny
indeed, if afterwards bred among themselves, rarely maintain
the excellences of the first cross, but if steadily put to thorough-
bred animals, generation after generation, they will soon come
II]) to the standard of that race.

10/A. Breedin<>; in and in — Close breeding'. — To perpetuate
and establish desirable qualities it is usually necessary to breed
from close affinities. But one animal may be found possessing
the property desired, and by pairing it with anotlier, a certain
percentage of the offspring will show the peculiarity to the
desired extent. To these the original parent with the coveted
possession must be put, and to their progeny, until the charac-
ter has become sufficiently fixed.

BREEDING IN-AND-IN. 101

To introduce new blood, however good in other respects, is
to diminish the fixity of character. To breed in close affinities
from these selected specimens is to intensify it. The advantages
of such a system of breeding are patent to all, but the question
arises, whether it has not also its serious drawbacks if followed
too far ? And I fear the answer must be that it has. I have
known certain strains of Cotswold sheep and Durham cattle in
which extreme excellence had been attained by close breeding,
but only at the expense of a troublesome taint of consumption,
and many of us can recall instances of deafness and web fingers
or toes among the children of marriages between first cousins.
Mr. Druce, a successful breeder of Oxford pigs, says : " Without
a change of boars of a different tribe but of the same breed, con-
stitution cahnot be preserved." With the enfeebled constitution
which results from persistent breeding from father and daughter,
brother and sister, uncle and niece, there is also a concentration
of whatever constitutional taint of disease may reside in the
family. Lafosse mentions a breed of small black horses kept by
a farmer in L'Aisne, and bred in and in. They were subject to
specific ophthalmia, and soon the morbid taint became so con-
centrated that the whole family, with scarcely a single exception,
was blind.

The doctrine that close breeding tends to sterility is supported
among others by Sebright, Knight, Lucas, Nathusius, Youatt,
Bates, Darwin, Magne, ^Macknight, Madden, Spooner, W^ood and
Carr. The wild white cattle of Chillingham Park, Northumber-
land, which have had no cross since the 12th century, " are bad
breeders," the annual increase being but one to five. The
equally ancient race in the Duke of Hamilton's park produce
but one to six. Shorthorn cows, proving barren when put to a
near relation, are often fertile with a bull of another breed, or
even of a distant strain of their own.

Among sheep, Jonas Webb found it needful to maintain five
separate families on his farm that he might introduce fresher
blood of the same family into each at certain intervals.

But pigs have, above all, shown sterility from close breeding.
Mr. Fisher Hobbes found it necessary to keep three separate
families to maintain the constitution and fruitfulness of his im-
proved Essex breed. Lord Western bred from an imported
Neapolitan boar and sow until the family threatened to become

102 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

extinct, and at once restored the fertility by a cross with an
Essex boar. Mr. J. Wright bred from a boar and its daughter,
grand-daughter and great-grand-daughter, and so on, through
seven generations. The offspring in many instances failed to
breed, in others they were mostly too weak to live, and those
that did survive were unable to walk steadily or even to suck
without assistance, The two last sows obtained in this way
produced several litters of fine healthy pigs, though one of them
at least had been previously served by her own sire without suc-
cess. This sow was the best formed of the entire race, but there
was no other pig in the litter. This case is remarkable, as show-
ing a steady improvement in form and symmetry, advancing side
by side with a steadily increasing weakness of the constitution,
and of the mental and reproductive powers. Nathusius imported
a pregnant Yorkshire sow and bred the progeny closely in and
in for three generations, with the effect of seriously impairing
the constitution and fertility. One of the last of the pure race,
when bred to her own uncle, who was quite prolific with other
breeds, had a litter of six, and on a second trial, one of five
weakly pigs. He then had her served by an imported black
English boar (which got litters of from seven to nine with his
own breeds), and got a first litter of 21 and a second of 18.

The Sebright bantams closely bred were very barren, and this
tendency in fowls is remarked by Wright, Clark, Eyton, Hewitt,
Ballam, Tegetmeier and others.

But it will be observed that these evil results accrue from a
persistent breeding from the very closest affinities. Experience
has shown, in the case of our high-bred cattle and sheep, that
constitution and fertility may be preserved without sacrificing
the breed by introducing inferior blood. The true course, in
case these evil results are threatened, is to select a male of the
same general family, but which has been bred apart in a sub or
branch family for several generations, and if attainable, from a
different locality, climate and soil. Constitution and fecundity
may thus be improved without even a temporary deterioration
in other respects.

ll^A. Disease and Accident. — That disease, or changes the re-
sult of disease or of accident, are inherited among domestic
animals, there cannot be the slightest doubt. Simple changes of
structure from accidental causes are less frequently perpetuated

TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE. 103

than those giving rise to disease, and a transient disease is not
likely to affect any of the progeny, but those in embryo at tfhe
time of its existence. Diseases with a constitutional taint, on
the other hand, are transmitted from grandfather to grandson,
though the intervening generation may have escaped.

As regards accidents and transient diseases, thougli the pit-
ting of smallpox, the absence of limbs from amputation and the
like, are not hereditary, yet the accidental loss of the tail in the
dog, cat and horse, has determined an offspring void of tails, or
with short ones. A cow which lost her horn, with suppuration,
afterwards, had three calves hornless on tlie same side of the head
(Prosper Lucas). A pregnant mare of Mr. Socrates Scott's,
Dryden, N Y., had a severe inflammation of the left eye, sup-
posed to have been caused by a burdock in the forelock. She
remained blind till after the birth of a filly, and subsequently
entirely recovered. The filly, now a nine year old mare, has
the lefc eye undeveloped, represented by a small black mass
about the size of a field bean, and quite opaque. The dam, after
having recovered her sight, bore four colts with perfect eyes, and
the mare with the undeveloped eye has equally given birth to
several whose eyes were sound. Brown-S^quard found that
Guinea pigs, in which he had produced epilepsy by an operation,
afterwards brought forth litters subject to the same malady, —
which is otherwise very rare in this species. Unusual as such
cases are, they show the greater tendency to transmit a defect
when accompanied by disease. Those diseases that are habit-
ually transmitted are much more important.

The specific inflammation of the eyes in horses is notoriously
hereditary. Its prevalence in England is much more limited
than it was fifty years ago, when less care was taken by breeders
to reject animals the subjects of this infirmity. In many parts
of Ireland and America blindness seems to doom a mare to
breed, mainly because she is less fit for anything else ; and I
regret to say that blindness is a remarkable feature of the Irish
and American horses alike. Stop the stream at its fountain and
in ten years the land would be stocked with a sounder eyed and
more serviceable horse.

I knew a Clydesdale mare with feet preternaturally small, and
kept tender by faulty shoeing, and of her four foals two had feet
so small and weak that they were practically useless, while the

104 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

remaining t^vo, tliougli born with well-formed feet, afterwards
fell victims to founder and were mined.

Bony growths on tlie limbs (splints, spavins, ringbones, side-
bones) are so frequently hereditary that a rule may l)e laid down
to that effect. This is often due to faulty conformation, as
want of breadth, bulk and strength of the joints, upright pas-
terns causing jarring and concussion, or to faulty direction of
the limbs and feet, natural or acquired, but in some cases it
appears due to an inherent constitutional tendency to bone dis-
ease, rheumatic or otherwise. Rheumatism in cattle and sheep
is notoriously hereditary, and it is to be regretted that the taint
is shown in some of our very best families.

Heaves (broken wind) tends to be hereditary from want of
chest capacity or a gluttonous appetite, as well as from a trans-
mitted proclivity. Roaring is often liereditary from the badly
set on head or want of breadtli between the lower jaw as well
as from a constitutional tendency. An instance is on record of
a stallion which got sound stock, till he contracted roaring at ten
years old, and nearly all his stock, got after this date, became
roarers at the same age.

To recount all the maladies which may be transmitted would
be to enumerate nearly all the diseases which flesh is heir to,
but chief among tliese as most likely to be inherited, arc those
with a distinct though perhaps latent constitutional taint, and
to this class belong rheumatism, consumption, scrofula, specific
ophtlialmia, and diseases of the l)ones and joints. It is rarely
advisable to breed from any animal suffering at the time from
any active disease, but tliose points would be valuable indeed
which should persuade us to breed from an animal in whose
person or family the tendency to any of tiie class of specific
constitutional diseases named has been strongly manifested.

As to the mode of transmission it is perhaps idle to offer an
opinion. We know tliat the germs of the futnre being, ovum
and spermatozoa, have in tliem the elements capable of develop-
ing into elaborate organisms similar in nearly all points to their
ancestors, and it is no more nor less difficult to conceive of the
reproduction from these elements of size, shape, color, func-
tional powers of secretion, nutrition, &c., than of tiie disease to
which the ancestors were sultject. Whether as Darwin sup-
poses the original germs are composed of myriads of infinites!-

INFLUENCE OF THE SIRE AND DAM. 105

mal living particles, many of wliicli may remain quiescent and
inactive daring one or two generations but be roused into ac-
tivity and reproduce tiiemselves in the third, or whether all the
living germinal matter of germ and body is tainted with this
hereditary malady, it boots little to inquire. That the germs
contain it we know, and that it will reappear in the product of
these germs or in his descendants we equally know. Knowing
this we can safely strike at the root of the tree and prevent the
development of the evil fruit.

RESPECTIVE INFLUENCE OF SIRE AND DAM ON THE PROGENY.

While all agree that both parents impress their respective
characters on the progeny, much discussion has arisen with re-
gard to the relative influence of the male and female on the
young organism, and what parts and properties each most
powerfully controlled. Whether the male wields the most po-
tent influence, as the common practice of breeding from other-
wise useless females might imply, may well be questioned. We
have already seen that that parent, of either sex, which has the
strongest constitution, enjoys the more vigorous health, and be-
longs to a breed whose characters are more permanently fixed,
will exercise more influence over the progeny than the parent
in which these characters are deficient or wanting. And the
customary attention given to the selection of a sire usually
secures these. But eliminate these and we shall see among our
domestic animals, as we now see among the families of our
friends, tliat the male parent must share pretty equally with the
female one the credit of the family. The Arabs indeed, no mean
judges if experience and success aflbrd any criterion, esteem
the qualities of the mare as much more important than those of
the horse. Thoroughbred Arabian stallions are common, but
whoever persuaded an Arab to sell his favorite mare ? If we
can obtain tolerable animals by selecting as one of the parents
an animal of good quality and pedigree, how mucli better must
they be if both are of this stamp.

As regards the parts whose formation is controlled by the dif-
ferent parents, the most generally received doctrine is that the
male has the most potent influence on color, skin, hair, head,
ears, neck and locomotive system generally, while the female

14

106 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

tends to control the size, the internal organs and the constitu-
tion.

This idea seems to have heen suggested to Buffon by the
brown hair, sliort thin neck, quadruple udder, and long legs of
his nine liybrids between the he-goat and ewe. Also to Flou-
•rens by the fur of his hybrids between tlic jackal and bitch.
Richard Booth is said to have acted under this idea in produc-
ing his unsurpassed breed of Shorthorns. But Mr. Orton was
the first to truly state the doctrine and defend it. He saw that
the mule resembled the jackass his father, in his main external
characters, but approaches the marc in size, stamina and ener-
gy ; conversely, that the hinny is externally like its father
the horse, but in size, sluggishness and want of vigor more
closely allied to the donkey ; that tlie cross between the he
mione and she-ass at the Jardin des Plantes had the external
characters of the male parent mainly, and that the crosses
between certain breeds of fowls presented the same characters.
The exceptions to the rule are neither few nor slight, yet results
so frequently accord with it in the ordinary course of breeding,
that we cannot, I think, afford to look on them as purely acci-
dental. While withholding a full assent thus to tlie broad doc-
trines of Orton, I still tliink them sufficiently well founded to
guard us against breeding from mare, cow or ewe, with an in-
sufficient development, weakness or unhealthy taint affecting
the internal organs ; or from any male deficient in nervous en-
ergy and vigor, and above all, faulty or predisposed to disease
in his locomotive orgcms. It does not follow that a female may
be used with these latter fiiilings, nor a male with the former.
An animal of either sex is likely to transmit any fault it may
possess, but failings of the nature I have indicated should be
specially guarded against.

BREEDING OF MALE3 AS A SPECIALTY.

As we have seen, the male of a highly improved breed usually
impresses the progeny in a higher ratio than the less improved
female. The male too can more quickly cross a whole flock
than the female, wliich can only yield two or three increase
yearly. Hence the importance of raising males specially for
breeding, and bringing them to the highest possible state of ex-
cellence. And wherever this plan is adopted wc see the benefi-

CONTROLLING THE SEX OP OFFSPRING. 107

cial effect on the enhanced value of the progeny. Examples
might be cited among thoroughbreds and trotters, Durhams,
Jerseys, Ayrshires and Devons, but they are specially remark-
able among sheep. The best Cotswold rams raised by Wells,
Beale Browne and others, on their native hills, and the finest
Leicesters will readily let at auction for the season for £20 to
.£40 per head. And the successful bidder finds his profit in
paying these high prices rather than in perpetuating inferior
qualities in his flock. He reaps his reward, as any one who will
examine his flock and his yearly balance sheet will not fail to
sec.

REGULATING THE SEXES OF OFFSPRING.

Could such breeders of males succeed in obtaining male and
female stock at will, their specialty might be made more satis-
factory and remunerative. It is often equally desirable to se-
cure a majority of females in the offspring. No wonder then
tliat men's minds have been in all ages exercised with tliis
question of regulating the sexes. Many rules have been laid
down for this purpose, but the great majority are self-evidently
absurd, while the remainder are but of very questionable value.
I will mention a few of the most reasonable of these hypotheses :

1. The desires and ideas of the parents at the time of con-
ception determine the sex.

2. The nature of the food of the parents, and particularly
of the mother during pregnancy.

3. The manner in which the spermatic artery is given off
from the aorta.

4. The male germ is supplied by the right testicle or ovary,
and the female from the left.

5. The full age and greater strength and vigor in one parent,
■will secure its sex in the majority of the offspring,

G. The ovum impregnated just after the rupture of its ova-
rian vesicle will be a female, while that impregnated later in the
lower part of the Fallopian tube will be a male.

7. The persistent selection of females, for breeding purposes,
which yield one sex mainly, will finally obtain a race producing
mainly males or mainly females.

Concerning the influence of the mother's wishes, 'we have
some of us known instances of a strong conviction and desire

108 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

on the part of the mother, during pregnancy, being fulfilled and
verified in the birth of a son or daughter. But liow often is
the opposite also the case ?

Girou de Buzarcingues alleges that more females are born when
the mothers are well nourished and left in repose than when
worked and on spare diet. This question ought to be easily
settled by some of our Shorthorn breeders, accustomed to the
forcing system.

Tlie supposed effect of the variable origin of the spermatic
arteries and the alleged male and female characters of the right
and left testicles are unwortiiy of serious remark. Even the
authority of the father of medicine, and his curious instruc-
tions for binding up the right or left testicle according to the sex
desired, will not overrule the fact that males and females with
single testicles and ovaries are capable of producing both sexes.

Leroy, Girou and Colin agree that the more fully developed
and vigorous the male as compared with the female, tlie more
males will appear in the offspring, and conversely, that a strong
female served by a weak male will have more female offspring.
This they observed on dogs, but much more conclusively on
sheep. The full-grown, strong and vigorous ewes with a young
or weakly ram, brought forth a majority of females, and the
union of a full-grown, robust ram, and old, weak or diseased
ewes, yielded a preponderance of males. Hofacker snys he has
noticed the same thing in the human subject, and b'addler's
" English Peerage " appears confirmatory of the theory. Bur-
dach has observed a greater proportion of male progeny than
female, from the most prolific women, but whether from weak-
ness caused by child-bearing, may be open to question. Pre-
suming the theory to have some basis in truth, it may serve to
explain a predominance of female offspring among domesticated
gregarious animals, as the females are better fed and have less
exertion than their wild compeers, and the male may be pre-
sumed to be, in many cases, weakened during the breeding sea-
son, by excessive use.

Lastly, Professor Thury, of Geneva, upholds the doctrine that
the ovum impregnated at an early and comparatively unde-
veloped stage becomes a female, whereas if more fully developed
before impregnation, the product is a male. Huber's observa-
tion, that the queen bee lays first female eggs, then males, and

APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES. 109

lastly again females, he explains by the theory, the first eggs
are not fully developed when laid and impregnated, that the
second lot laid later have had more time to undergo full devel-
opment, while the last laid arc but partially developed on ac-
count of the comparatively exhausted condition of the oviduct.
Under his instructions, George Cornaz, an intelligent agricul-
turist in Vaud, applied the principle to breeding cattle. He had
twenty-two Swiss cows served by a Durham bull on the first
signs of heat, and all brought forth heifers. He had six Swiss
cows served in the last stages of heat, by the same bull, with
the view of raising work oxen, and all produced bull-calves.
He had an imported Durham cow served, the last day of heat,
to obtain a pure successor to his valuable Durham bull, and his
wishes were crowned with success. This looks like solid ground,
but alas ! subsequent experiments made by Coste and others, on
cattle, rabbits, birds, frogs and fishes, have given uncertain and
contradictory results. It is difficult to set aside altogether the
results obtained by Cornaz, and, on the whole, there is probably
some truth at the foundation of the theory, but even if so, it
must be granted that modifying circumstances will often, if not
usually, set aside the rule.

And lastly, the proposal to breed in and perpetuate the ten-
dency to produce young of one sex only, though exceedingly
plausible in what it offers, will probably prove still more worth-
less. I am not aware that the attempt has been made to per-
petuate such a power in the lower animals, but my own obser-
vations on human families are altogether unfavorable to its
success. One family of six daughters, all married and all pro-
lific, had each about an equal number of sons and daughters ;
and another family of seven daughters and one son, have so far
had families equally well balanced as regards the sexes.

SUMMARY OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

To recapitulate, we have seen : —

1. That a perfect development and a sound and vigorous
health, constitutionally, and above all locally in the generative
organs, are conditions of fertility.

2. That in the maintenance and improvement of a breed
the truth that like produces like, that the reproductive germ,
ovum or spermatozoon will stamp upon the animal developed

110 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

from it the characters of the parent organism, is the backbone
of all success.

3. That we can in a great degree, at will, produce variations
and improvements in breeds, as by an abundant feeding, a mild,
salubrious climate, a rich, healthy soil, a moderate use, educa-
tion, stimulation or selection of desirable qualities. A disuse
or rejection of undesirable characters and properties, by solicit-
ing the weight of imagination in our favor, by allowing the
breeding animals to mix only with those of the stamp desired,
by crossing less improved breeds systematically by males of a
better race, by crossing animals faulty or deficient in some par-
ticular point with others in which this point is developed in
excess.

4. That the herding together of pregnant high-class animals
and low-bred ones, and above all attachments formed between
the two races, is to be specially avoided, as occasionally afTect-
ing the progeny injuriously, and that strong mental impres-
sions from a new or unusual condition of surrounding objects
are to be equally avoided.

5. That if the valuable female is allowed to breed to an in-
ferior male she cannot be relied upon to produce pure-bred
animals for several succeeding pregnancies thereafter. Through
a strong and retained mental impression, through an absorption
into her system of living particles (germinal matter) from the
foetus, or through some influence during pregnancy on those
ova then being most actively developed, the good or bad features
of the first sire are perpetuated in the progeny of succeeding
ones.

G. That all breeds show a tendency to breed back or pro-
duce an offspring bearing the marks of their less improved and
comparatively valueless ancestors, so that individuals of this
kind must be rejected from the best breeds if we would main-
tain their excellence.

7. That certain races and individuals have their characters
more fixed, and will transmit and perpetuate them in greater
]iroportion than others with which they may be crossed, so that
if their qualities are desirable ones, they prove highly valuable
in raising other stock to higher excellence. If undesirable, on
the other hand, they will, as in the case of the coarse-woolled
•Gorman ram, depreciate the value of any stock crossed for many

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. Ill

generations. That fixity of type, however, is above all a charac-
teristic of those races which have been carefully selected and
bred up to a certain standard for many generations, so that in
our best, longest established and most esteemed breeds, we have
a legacy of the most valuable kind left us by the successful
breeders of the past, with which we may mould our inferior
races almost at will.

8. That while breeding continuously from the nearest rela-
tions tends to a weakened constitution, the aggravation of any
taint of disease in the blood and sterility, yet that these may be
avoided by infusing at intervals fresh blood of the same family,
but which has been bred apart from this branch of it for several
generations. That, moreover, the highest excellence is some-
times only attainable by breeding very closely for a time.

9. That diseased or mutilated animals are generally to be
discarded from breeding. That mutilations resulting in disease,
that disease existing during pregnancy, and disease with a con-
stitutional morbid taint, are above all to be dreaded as transmis-
sible.

10. That there is some foundation for the opinion that the
sire tends to contribute more to the locomotion and external
organs, nerve and vigor, and the dam to the size and internal
organs, so that if we cannot obtain the greatest excellence in
both, we should, at least, seek to have each unexceptionable in
the parts and qualities attributed to it.

11. That with regard to the controlling of the production
of sexes, while the Creator has made them at first male and
female, and will probably continue to do so irrespective of our
meddling, yet there is reason to believe that certain conditions
of the parents influence the sex of the progeny to a percep-
tible degree. If the feminine element in the progeny is in-
creased by rendering the system of the mother more soft,
lax, and adipose by high feeding and want of exercise, by the
strength and vigor of the female as compared with the male,
and perhaps even by having the females put to the male on the
earliest symptoms of heat ; and if the male element is increased
by the greater strength and vigor of the sire as compared with
the dam, and perhaps even by having the female served only
as the heat is passing oft', we need not despair of increasing at
will the number of females or males in our stock, but ordinary

112 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

mortals must not expect the success which attended the efiforts
of Thury and Cornaz.

I could have wished to have gone into other phases of this
subject, and especially into the qualities of the different breeds
and races of animals, and the application of the principles of
breeding to their perpetuation and improvement. But these
will, perhaps, be treated to more advantage iu the discussion
which will follow. Perhaps there is no subject in connection
with rural economy, which is more worthy of study on the part of
the agriculturist than is breeding in all its phases and relations.
Many of its conditions, it must be confessed, are as deeply hid-
den from our sight as is the secret of life itself, but some are
already obvious enough, and with such results as are offered to
us in our various improved breeds, we have the strongest possi-
ble stimulus to continued effort in this direction. An enthu-
siastic devotion toward carrying out the known principles on
which the amelioration of breeds is based, and a zealous inves-
tigation with the view of elucidating more information on the
functions of reproduction, cannot fail to bring a rich reward in
the future as it has done in the past.

Mr. Goodman, of Lenox. Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen, —
This subject is one which perhaps no unprofessional man can
treat well, but I am always roused to the discussion of this sub-
ject, and particularly when I hear the words " cock-tail horse "
or " cock-tail bull " uttered, because there is nothing that we
who are engaged in breeding are compelled to fight so continu-
ally as the persistency of our brother farmers in using these
" cock-tail bulls." We have in most of our societies eliminated
them, cleaned them out ; but every year the question is brought
up, and we have to fight it over again. But we are in hopes
that, this year, this Board or the legislature will fix it so that
hereafler none of these " cock-tail bulls " shall be brought out
for service, or, at any rate, for the premiums at our fairs.

But this subject of breeding is one that very few farmers
understand ; and this arises from deficient education. It is very
difiicult for any man of mature age, who has not been well
grounded in science, to arrive at a nice appreciation of those
distinctions which learned men make, or to understand and
carry away with him much information from a lecture like this,

IGNORANCE OF NATURAL LAWS. 113

replete as it has been with theories and facts. But I trust the
time is coming wlien men will be educated among us, at our
Agricultural College, who can stand up and explain to their
brother farmers the principles of science, and inoculate us with
the necessary learning of our profession.

And not only are farmers ignorant of the principles of breed-
ing in connection with the brute creation, but this ignorance
extends through the community, in reference to the whole ques-
tion of reproduction, and every woman in the country is just as
ignorant of the laws which govern the breeding of the nobler
animal as we are of the laws which govern the breeding of our
inferior animals ; and this ignorance arises mainly from the false
delicacy or mock modesty which pervades the men and women
of the country. It was this feeling which prompted the clergy-
man, who announced last evening that a meeting of the Board
would be held here to-day, to refrain from mentioning the sub-
ject for discussion.

Not long ago I went down to Connecticut to see some cattle.
There had been an auction sale, and when I got to the place I
saw a good-looking young lady and asked her, " Are the cattle
all sold ? " " Yes, sir ; all sold but the gentleman." Said I, " I
suppose you mean the bull ? "• " Yes," said she. It is time that
our women should know that a bull is a bull, and a cow is a
cow, and that all intermixture of them produces calves. In the
course of a public address recently, I had occasion to explain
the various stomachs of a cow, and a very intelligent lady, the
wife of one of the best farmers in the place, expressed her thanks
to me for the information I had conveyed in regard to the cow's
stomachs, as she had always thought, she said, that the cow had
but one stomach, like herself.

There is an old superstition, which has come down to us, that
because woman partook of the apple, there was a curse put upon
her sex, and that women would do wrong if they attempted to
remove that curse. I do not understand that to be the true
reading.

" In sorrow shalt thou bring forth," says the test, alluding to
woman and her offspring. This sentence has resulted in a
general belief that the pains of childbirth in their present aggra-
vated intensity are unavoidable, and many good people suffer
under the delusion that to attempt to alleviate such " sorrow "
15

114 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

by preparing the system for the event would be flying in the face
of the Creator. As the female who observes a suitable regimen
will, ceteris pa?ibus, always enjoy more tranquillity botii of
mind and body and incur much less risk of injury to herself and
child than she who, giving a free rein to her appetite, indulges
to excess in the use of improper articles of food, and as reason-
ing from analogy with the animal kingdom — the book of nature,
the handwriting of God, bears on every page evidence of his
wisdom and goodness — I am inclined to believe that this sup-
posed curse was rather an inference of the sacred historian from
what he witnessed, than a correct report of an actual sentence of
the Almighty. The Rev. Joseph P. Tliompson, D. D., LL. D.,
in answering his own inquiry, whence came the account of the
creation but from God himself, " conjectures " " that what is
given as narrative passed before the mind of the .original nar-
rator in a series of retrospective visions," and we wish to give
women the benefit of this " conjecture," that they may learn
tlmt the functions of gestation and parturition are as natural as
digestion, and should be attended with as little pain.

Is there any farmer here who would undertake to shut his
cows up in the barn, girt them tightly round the waist, feed high,
and expect them to have calves without pain ? We know that
we cannot get a cow safely through parturition unless we give
her plenty of air, nutritious but plain diet, and all the exercise
she needs. If we undertake to tie her up without exercise and
feed lier on rich grains, she is very likely to slink her calves,
and have a great deal of trouble in dropping them.

I apprehend that the assembled wisdom of the legislature,
wlio generally control this subject, and especially that class of
them who consider that the farmer should not be educated,
because if he is he won't do any work, may criticise our friend's
remarks in relation to the breeding of the inferior animal, man,
and contend that we ought to confine ourselves to the considera-
tion of the superior animals, the ox, the cow and the horse. As
to these subjects, it is almost impossible for any man here to
continue the discussion, after the remarks that have been made
by the lecturer ; but we have had such a mass of facts given to
us to-day that we cannot digest them all, and perhaps it may do
us good to bring out one or two salient points.

In relation to this matter of breeding, it seems to me we have

THE ANCON OR OTTER SHEEP. 115

tho control of the whole thhig within ourselves. It seems to be
an axiom, and. especially since this wonderful " Novum Org-a-
nuin'' of Darwin, — this doctrine of the selection of species, —
that we can, by a proper selection, produce just such results as
we desire. There is no more noticeable instance of this than
what took place in Massachusetts, on Charles River, in 1791, in
relation to the"Ancon" or "Otter" sheep. We had, before
that time, no good wool-bearing sheep. Our sheep were a short-
bodied and long-legged animal ; but that year one of the ewes of
Mr. Soth Wright, who had a flock of fifteen ewes and a ram of
the ordinary kind, presented him with a male lamb differing,
for no assignable reason, from its parents by a proportionately
long body and short, bandy legs. He was advised, by some man
who had a little wit about him, to put that ram to his ewes,
which he did, and the result was, that very soon he had a flock
of short, crooked-legged sheep that couldn't jump fences, and
that were the admiration of the country. That breed of ani-
mals remained here until the introduction of the Spanish merino,
which was a so much better sheep, so far as the wool was con-
cerned, that at last it died out. That shows tlie great power
we have in the selection of our animals ; and it shows that we
have within ourselves, if we study this subject, the power of
producing animals of just such type as we want.

But one great difficulty that has embarrassed most of us arises
from a question which was one of the principal questions ad-
verted to by the learned Professor ; that is, the various influ-
ences of the male and the female. It has heretofore been laid
down as an axiom, that the male always gave the locomotive or
external parts of the system, and that the female gave almost
entirely the vital organization. This has led us into a great
many errors. The farmers of this State and elsewhere have
been in the habit of selecting good bulls, but have not selected
the proper females, relying entirely upon the male, so that we
have not produced just such results as we desired. Now, my
experience, and I apprehend the experience of a great many
other breeders, is, that that rule is not the correct one ; and I
apprehend, also, that an examination of the authorities on that
subject will show, as the Professor has shown us, that that is not
the correct rule. So far as the Arab horse is concerned, an
examination was entered into by certain French savans several

116 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

years ago, and they came to opposite conclusions, some of them
claiming the stallion as the most valuable for ])urposes of
breeding, and others declaring that tlie influence of the mare
predominates in the foal. Bakewell, the celel)rated English
sheep-breeder, always contended that tlie fine qualities of his
sheep were owing to the female ; he would sell or let his rams,
but his ewes were sacred.

The result of my investigations is to this effect, that we can-
not get a perfect animal unless we have a perfect female as well
as a perfect male ; and the reason why we get so much benefit
from the connection of the Durham bull with our ordinary
cows is, because the one is so much weaker, is a coarse animal,
and the other so much stronger from its perfect purity of blood.
The result is, that the grade Shorthorns of this country are
always far superior to their dams in form, and superior to the
animals that come from the connection of the common bull and
cow.

I want to bring out this idea of the potency of blood very
strongly, because of its bearing on the question of pedigree in
animals, Avhich so many are inclined to laugh at. What we call
" pedigree " is only the history of the animal, showing his con-
nections and his antecedents. Tliere is no stronger illustra-
tion of this potency of blood than what took place when the
effort was made to cross the Roussillon ram, a comparatively
poor sort of animal, with the English breeds. The result was,
that all the progeny of this mixture partook entirely of the
characteristics of this ram, because of his entire purity of
blood, whereas the English sheep were of a mixed race ; and
it was not until there was an alteration in the system, by the
introduction of hybridization, that the attempt to intermix the
two breeds was successful. This fact, among thousands of
others, shows the great importance of preserving purity of
blood, and the best blood in our cattle.

There is only one other remark which I desire to make
in this connection, and that is, that we pay too little attention
to tlie age of the bull. In this country, we breed from our
youngest animals, and we get rid of them before they mature.
In other countries, they do not use an animal for breeding pur-
poses until he is comparatively mature, and they retain him as
long as he is doing good service. It is the custom hero to

A NICE DISTINCTION. 117

put our bulls to cows when they arc a year old, and by the time
they are three or four years old we get rid of them. The
result is, we have a great deal of immature stock, and there is
no doubt,- as the Professor has stated, that a great many of the
abortions, and many of the diseases to which our cattle are
subject are owing to this fact. I apprehend, that if we would
change our course in that respect, if we would wait until our
bulls get a little older before putting them to tlie female, and if
we would retain them after they get mature, we should have
better stock. I think there is hardly a gentleman here who will
not say, that the best calves he gets are from bulls that are six
or seven years old, which have been properly fed and exercised ;
and I believe we can only keep up our stock, and breed a good
class of animals, by using males that have become somewhat
mature.

Hon. Simon Brown, of Concord. I desire merely to ask a
question. In the summing up of the lecturer, I think in his
fifth item, he states that when a cow of pure blood is put to a
bull of mixed blood, there is danger that the progeny in after
conceptions will take the form and features of the first animal.
Tiie question I desire to ask is this, — whether the semen of the
male in the first conception does not pass into the circulation
and remain there as long as tlie female conceives ; and whether
there is any certainty afterwards that you will get a pure animal
from any other bull ?

Professor Law. The question is easily answered. It does
not ; otherwise, we should find in the circulation those elements.
But the question as to whether certain minute infinitesimal
elements pass into the circulation is one which we cannot
answer. That is a question started by Darwin. He supposes
that the minute living particles or germs, that are afterwards to
be developed into cells, if you please, and to control the develop-
ment of future beings, are really absorbed and remain in the
blood, inactive, it may be for generations, passing through a
number of individuals, and afterwards re-appearing and show-
ing their type. Of course, we cannot trace these minute par-
ticles, many of them so small as to be perfectly inappreciable
by the most powerful microscope.

Hon. Charles G. Davis, of Plymouth. I do not riee to at-
tempt to give any information on this subject, but to confess my

118 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

ignorance. My principal olijcct is to ask a question, which I
think is of great practical interest to us, both as breeders of, and
dealers in cattle, and as persons intimately connected with the
management of our agricultural societies.

The question is asked me every year (and I suppose it is
asked most of those here), what, for all the practical purposes
of dairy stock, more particularly, w^e should call a pure-bred
animal ? I suppose that the Professor is informed as to what is
the proper rule on this subject. I took note of what he in-
formed us in regard to the mixture of the Arabian and English
breeds of horses, and also of the German sheep. But I was
surprised to find, upon a visit to the Dublin Model School this
summer, that Mr. Baldwin, the manager of that institution, who
is one of her Majesty's commissioners of education for Ireland,
laid down the rule, on the authority of the Royal Agricultural
Society, as I understood him, that crossing to the sixtli genera-
tion was considered pure blood, for all the purposes of an agri-
cultural show. He may have said tlie fourth, but his statement
certainly was not anything beyond the sixth.

Now, as I have said, we all hear that question raised, as
breeders or as managers of agricultural shows, and I, for one,
would like to be informed whether, if an animal is exhibited at
a show with all the marks of the breed which it purports to
represent, and is excellent in those qualities, we should consider
it pure blood or not, if it is an animal of the sixth, seventh or
eighth degree.

Of course, I understand that such an animal is not, mathe-
matically speaking, of pure blood ; I do not claim that it is ;
but I want to know where the impurity ends and where the
purity begins, for practical purposes, or whether it begins or
not, and. what should be our rule, as practical men on that
subject.

The CiiAmMAN. So far as we are concerned, practically, as
farmers, the rule is a very simple one. We know, practically,
that the farmers in other countries have established certain
recognized breeds of cattle and horses. There is no question
about that. They are produced ready to our hands. All we
have got to do is to provide ourselves with them. "We have
not established any breed here in America. We have secured
certain local breeds, conliued sometimes to a town or county,

WHAT IS PURITY OF BREED ? 119

often to a farm ; that we all kno\y who are in the habit of
observing the cattle of this country. But we have not devoted
ourselves to the establishment of any specific breed of cattle or
horses or sheep, except an improvement of the Spanish merino.
We have cattle and horses adapted to our specific purposes.
We can, however, go abroad and find the different faimlies, so
that, practically, it would seem to be a sufficient rule for us, to
trace our animals back to a given imported animal, which
started from a good foundation. Everybody knows that the.
rule for an English thoroughbred horse is, that the dam shall
have been bred straight for thirteen generations. What the
rule is for cattle Professor Law can state better than I can.

Mr. Davis. My question did not relate to the establishment
of breeds, but to what we shall regard as pure breeds in milch
stock and cattle.

Professor Law. I feel altogether incompetent to answer the
question. Li the case of the English thoroughbred, you have
heard what is estimated as really coming up to the standard of
a thoroughbred horse. In the case of cattle, the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England have, no doubt, found good reason to
adopt the rule which has just been stated. But my .impression
is this : that we should find the results very different in the case
of different animals, — the cow, the horse, the sheep, the pig, —
and even in regard to different families of those animals. Cross-
ing with a nondescript animal, we get quit, in four or six gen-
erations, of almost all traces of the original inferior strain. By
crossing with an animal possessing some marked physical traits,
we would by no means get quit of them so readily. So what
would apply to one would not apply to all. We saw the ex-
treme tenacity of this German ram upon the French merinos,
in deteriorating the wool through twenty generations — deteri-
orating it by more than one half; and I have no doubt that you
want a careful observation as regards the effects of a continued
crossing of different breeds, in order to establish a series of
rules, rather than one fixed rule to go upon in these cases.

The President, Dr. Loring. Professor Law has brought us
back to the statement I made, that whenever there is a recog-
nized breed of cattle, we should endeavor to start from that
point, and stick to it in our offers of premiums in our agricul-
tural societies. I can conceive of no other way. There is a

120 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

recognized breed of cattle known as Shorthorns, and s'ou may
twist and turn it, and try to get aronnd it any way you please,
but you must finally go back and start with " Hubback," and
come right along down with him. You cannot evade it ; and
why tliere should be any local opposition set up to the Short-
horn,-J do not know. We all know for a hundred years, the
Scotch farmers have been at work to produce the best dairy cow,
in which the vascular system is better developed than in any
other animal in the world, and they have established that. Why
should we say, " We will go to work and get up a breed of
Ayrshires here ? " We have got a cow that has got along so
far, we have got a good animal to start from, and why not stay
there ? For a hundred years, and I don't know but five hun-
dred, the farmers of the island of Jersey have been devoting
themselves to the production of an animal suitable to their
specific purposes, known the world over — the Jersey cow —
famous for the production of milk, so filled with oleaginous
matter that there is probably no better milking animal in the
world. If any man has an animal that he can trace back to
tlie island of Jersey, that is enough. Why go wandering over
the mountains and through the valleys of New Hampshire and
Vermont to find out if there is any way of getting round the
rule. We have found the road, let us stick to it, and we can go
on improving our animals to the credit of ourselves and our
societies.

I often hear the phrase " a thoroughbred horse." There is
no such thing as a thoroughbred horse in this country. The
word is applied especially to that class of horses, bred by Eng-
lishmen for generations from " Godolphin Arabian," and some
other Arabian horses introduced into the studs of England.
The American trotting horse contains an infusion of all known
bloods, just exactly as the thoroughbred Yankee does. After
having filled his veins with the fire of a thorough!»rcd horse,
direct from Arabia if you like, and after having got rid of the
odious knee action of tlie thoroughbred horse, you want a little
infusion of Canadian blood, to bring down his fore feet and open
his hind quarters in order that he may get along as a trotter.
Then he is given a chance to develop himself in just that
pasture land and that clover that will make, as the Professor
told us, a good horse — high dry lands, where their nerves,

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 121

muscles, tendons and sinews will all grow strong. In that way
we have got a trotting liorse in America, which I insist upon it
(and a great many English gentlemen agree with me) is the
best horse for the American farmer there is on the face of the
globe.

I have got sick and tired of hearing about " thoroughbred
horses." A thoroughbred horse is a good liorse, that is all.
You may talk of " Rysdick's Hambletonian " and the rest, as
much as you like, but the moment you get away from the sire,
the dam is in a fog ; you don't know what she is. My word for
it, tiiat the great power of an American trotting horse consists
in this fact : that with the best English blood tl)ere has flowed
down into him, from the Canadian French horses, tliat little
strain of blood that has given our animals that knee action and
propelling power in the hind quarters which charaterize the
mass of trotters all along the northern line of the United States.
That is the American trotting horse. I don't think there is any
rule to lay down about him, except that he is a Yankee horse.

I have tried to answer the question as well as I can. Start
from a recognized breed, and let your societies stick and hang
to that. If any man comes in and says that he has got a bull
whose dam was not exactly pure, ask him if he will be kind
enough to go and get a bull whose dam is exactly pure. That
is the end of it. We have tried to get round it, gentlemen, but
the additional expense is only about fifty dollars, and it is fifty
dollars well invested.

Now, 1 desire to say a word or two to confirm what Professor
Law said this morning. You will excuse me, because this
has been a favorite suiject with me, and some ten years ago I
occupied more than fifty pages of one of Mr. Flint's excellent
reports with an essay upon it. Not one singls proposition which
1 stated then, I am glad to know, has ever been disputed or
refuted by any scientific gentleman who has appeared before
you. You have heard, time after time. Professor Agassiz con-
firm what I then said, and, to-day, in the most elaborate and
comprehensive lecture by Professor Law, who has been
thoroughly educated in the English schools, he has confirmed
every position I took. One or two things which he said will
bear repeating. In the first place, in regard to the use of im-
mature animals. How much we have said about that discarded
16

122 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and outlawed animal, the bull, in New England, —the rww^ of
the farm ! How he has been decried and abused, because we
thought that all we needed was the cheapest male to be found
for the reproduction of the species.

I am not at all surprised, nor are you, that under such man-
agement, our markets have been filled with inefficient animals.
Neither am I surprised, in view of such treatment of our male
animals as that, that we have been compelled to go elsewhere
and bring in matured bulls for the production of suitable
animals for our farms. It is an insult to the animal economy to
call upon a male or female to transact that business for which
he or she was intended by nature, until the faculties are all in
full force. That is true in regard to the animal kingdom every-
where. So you find that cattle always deteriorate under the
use of young bulls, and also, I think, under the use of too
young females. No horse has ever distinguished himself as a
stock-getter until he was mature. More time is wasted in using
young stallions than almost anything else. A horse is a bundle
of muscles, bones and fibres, intended for strength alone, and
he can never transmit tliem until he has reached his perfection ;
and so, in England, " King Herod" and " Eclipse," and in this
country, old " Black Hawk," " Ethan Allen," " Rysdick's Ham-
l)letonian," and all the distinguished stock horses we have ever
had, never did their best work until they had reached the
maturity of life. This is a most remarkable fact, and history
shows it to be true in regard to all of them. I was glad to
hear Mr. Goodman insist upon that point, which was presented
by Professor Law, in regard to the use of immature animals.

Then in regard to the adaptation of animals to particular
localities. If you do not do it yourself, nature will. You can-
not raise Shorthorns upon the dry pastures of Plymouth and
Essex. If you put them there they will l)ecorae something else
in the course of time. It is wiser to go to work and put the
])roper animals there to begin with. Jt is an invariable rule,
which cannot be violated witli impunity. " You cannot raise
grapes from thorns, nor figs from thistles," any more than in
the olden time.

Now in regard to the influences exerted upon animals. Don't
you know how I insisted upon it four or five years ago, that no
man could have two breeds of cattle on his farm at the same

STICK TO ONE BREED. 123

time, and expect that he could breed one of them ; and Prof.
Agassiz rose and said that he had seen that fully illustrated over
and over again in his own native land of Switzerland. But if
you go on some farms, you will find two or three Shorthorns,
and here and there a Jersey, and a few Ayrshires mixed in, and
perhaps a Galway, and what not ; and the owner expects to
take care of them all, but he won't do it. Somehow or other
the influence of association upon the animal economy is almost
as great as it is upon our moral natures. " Evil communications
corrupt good manners." It is just as true in the brute creation
as it is in. society. So the farmer should select the breed
adapted to his location and the character of his farm, confine
himself to that breed, and treat his animals as if he believed
that not only external influences, but his own conduct would
have an influence upon them. And it is a great thing, too.
The quiet, amiable man in the stable produces a very different
effect from the noisy, unreasonable, violent man. 1 have no
patience with noise and abuse in your barns and stables. Man
can stand them, woman can, and have to, I am sorry to say,
but cows cannot.

There are several other points which might be referred to in
connection with this subject, but there is one point on which I
desire to say a few words, because I do not know that it has
been dealt with in any of our meetings. I noticed last night
the delicacy that was manifested by the gentleman who an-
nounced the topic for discussion to-day, or rather did not
announce it — and it has been mentioned here. I do not
know that he was not right. I know precisely the feeling
of elevation and independence and wisdom and good sense
that actuated the remarks of Mr. Goodman, and I am not
sure that I do not agree with him entirely. But, after all, you
cannot introduce into the human economy and into the family
of man the same rules that you do into the economy of the
animals on your farm. It is of no use to talk about it, you
cannot do it. You may say this is a misfortune, but it is not.
Why, my friends, do you know that when Professor Law told
you that locality influenced to a very considerable extent, not
only the physical but the moral condition of animals, and that
they changed entirely, I turned upon this audience and saw a
race of beings who defy all latitudes, all climates, all influences,

124 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and retain tlicir condition imclianged wherever they may be.
Man is the only defiant animal on the face of this earth. You
may put hitn at the nortli pole or the south pole, take him from
here and put him under the equator, transport him into the
most miasmatic marshes on the face of this earth, he is a man
still; you cannot break him down, neither to any considerable
extent can you change his conformation, somewhat by races
you can, not always by locality. God has planted certain races
to dwell here upon the face of the earth, adapted to the localities
in which they live, it is true ; but there is no locality which
man cannot defy and in which he cannot retain .his natural
condition.

Now, my friends, standing here as a representative of this
triumphant race, I am perfectly free to bury the whole question
of human reproduction beneath our innate modesty ; beneath
those affections which bind us to each other, to our wives, to
our sweethearts, "to our daughters, in a way entirely unknown
to any other representative of the animal kingdom on the face
of this great globe. I am willing to acquiesce in it ; I am ready
to recognize the fact, that between us and our mates differences
exist, and superior influences, to which we all are obedient, and
in obedience to which we recognize the great law which in the
beginning made them male and female, and gave every man but
one wife.

It is on this ground that I have always been a little sensitive
with regard to exposing those questions with which we deal by
ourselves to our friends of the other sex. I don't know but I
have been a little too sensitive. I do not find any fault at all.
In fact, I am willing that every man should travel his own track.
I find no fault with those who differ from me, but still, I do
insist upon it, that we have a right to recognize the fact, that we
do stand in a superior scale in the whole animal kingdom, and
we have a right to be controlled by our finest sensibilities, by
our highest moral natures, and by our most heavenly affections,
in our treatment of this whole matter. You who heard the
lecture last night, know how eloquently the distinguished gen-
tleman dwelt upon those feelings which brought the distinguished
poet, Robert jjurns, and his little friend who was reaping with
him the harvest over in Scotland together, so that their hearts
became one. You know well what I mean by what I say. I

PROPER DIET, EXERCISE AND CARE. 125

ask you if any man in this room, having a manly boy coming
forward in life ever regretted for one single moment that the
woman upon whom that boy's affections were becoming fixed,
who was having a good influence upon him, and keeping him
out of difficulty and danger, — I say, did any father ever regret,
before the magnetism of all those great moral influences which
he saw going on, that that woman was not, physically, adapted
to that boy? I do not believe there is a father here who ever
thought of such a thing. You cannot th'ink of it, my friends.
You may sometimes, as you go on in life, wish it had been a
little otherwise, but when you are going down tlio valley, and.
come to that point to which Mr. Collyer referred last night,
where the sweetness and tenderness between man and wife are
superior to the affection between lovers when they began to
climb the hill, then you lose all regard for those animal laws
which you lay down for your stables and your farms, and you
recognize once more the superiority of man in the great scale of
being.

Gentlemen,! beg you to excuse me for making these remarks,
but I thought this was a proper place to put them in. I have
presented them to you because I wanted you to be encouraged.
Do not for one moment think that the race is dying out through
mjjdesty or misplaced affection. It is not. You cannot kill it.

Mr. Goodman. I want to say one word, because this is a
question vital to our race. The point I want to bring out is
this: that while our pulpits are complaining of the secret wick-
edness that is going on by abortions, arising in great measure
from the dread, on the part of women, of the suffering attendant
upon parturition, I think it is important that, if possible,
they should be instructed what to do to prevent the pangs and
pains tliey suffer at that time. Our houses are flooded now with
the advertisements of men and women who profess to prevent
the getting of ciiildren ; who undertake to allow married women .
to live in licentiousness, by furnishing the means to destroy
their offspring before birth, and thus hide their guilt from pub-
lic view. I say that one of the great incitements to this gross
wickedness is the great suffering which women undergo in
childbirth ; and I apprehend that it can be demonstrated that by
proper diet, exercise and care, our women can be relieved of a
great deal of this suffering, as animals can.

126 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The Professor has shown us to-day that the young of animals
can be so acted upon in the uterus, by proper food and exercise,
that they can be produced with half the pain tliat would other-
wise attend their birth, and I apprehend that the same thing is
true of the cliild in the womb of its mother. Now, sir, if that
knowledge can be conveyed to women and to fathers l)y a proper
course of instruction in the principles of breeding, it seems to
me there is no more useful information that can be given to us,
either as farmers or citizens. However much I may agree with
the doctor in what he has said in reference to the sentimental
feelings between the sexes, I maintain that every married woman
in the community should understand the principles of breeding,
and learn how to produce, with as little pain as possible, living
children, that shall grow up healthy men and women.

Mr. BuowN, of Framingham. The question, as I understand
it is this : Can I take a Jersey bull, which I can buy for a small
price, and put him to my scrub cow, and from a series of con-
ceptions can I get a Jersey calf? That is the point.

The President. You hear the question. For one, I don't
know how long Mr. Brown expects to live. (Laughter.)

Mr. Davis. I thank Mr. Brown for recurring to my question.
It is a practical one. I do not care to go into the matter, but I
think the question of Mr. Brown was not put by way of a jok^.
What most of us, perhaps, want to know is this. Here is an
animal presented for sale or for premium. It has been bred to
the fifth generation, and there is not a man in this hall who can
see the difference between a yearling, after the third generation,
and what we acknowledge to be a pure Jersey heifer. In nine
cases out of ten, we cannot see it in the third generation, and
certainly no man can see it when it is the fifteenth or sixteenth
generation. I never have found anybody who could. Now, you
bring it down to thirty-one thirty-seconds or sixty-tlu-ec sixty-
fourths, and what does the difference amount to ? It seems to
me this is a question of practical importance. It is a question
of importance to every one of us who attends our cattle shows ;
it is a question of importance to us in our dealings as farmers,
whether we should consider that stock, for all practical purposes,
as pure blood.

I agree with wliat the Chairman said with regard to the
Anglo-Saxon race and its admixtures, but, unfortunately, it is

WANT OF UNIFORMITY "[N AYRSHIRES. 127

entirely inconsistent with that part of his argument in which he
dechired that we had a pure breed, and that we should adhere
to this, and nothing else. He seems to be unfortunate in his
argument. You say that an animal that comes here from Ayr-
shire is an Ayrshire cow, the Ayrshire breed, and that it is
better, as 1 have no doubt it is, to keep it entirely pure. I also
agree that it is better, if you want to establish a breed in this
countrj^, to begin with one partly or wholly bred, just as it is,
if you want to get up a pair of stairs, to begin half way up, if
you can get there. That is the reason we use a pure-blooded
bull with any stock. But we assume, all of us, — those who are
the greatest sticklers for what is called pure blood, and breeding
over and overj — that everything that comes from pure stock is
pure blood. Now, sir, you know, and Professor Law knows,
that in Ayrshires there is more diversity in color, in shape, and
in almost every quality, except perhaps in the general milking
quality of the animal, than there is in any other animal. You
hardly see two animals alike. You find them of all colors under
the sun ; and at the exhibition of the Scottish Agricultural So-
ciety, which I attended, at Dumfries, — almost within sight of the
tomb of Burns, and the thistles growing about his grave, — there
were yellow and white animals, understood to be recognized by
the judges as pure Ayrshire cows. There were other animals,
that were nearly or entirely pure Devons, almost wholly a dark
mahogany red. There were some animals-^-a very few — that
had the famous " strawberry mark," which we talked so much
about in this country a few years ago, and which Mr. Howard
told us was the best animal ; but there was no sort of regard paid
to color, and there was no uniformity of shape. Any animal
that is brought here from Ayrshire is recognized as an Ayrshire
pure blood, without any question ; but I have no doubt that
many of those animals have had a mixture, within the last six
or eight generations, of something that would not be called pure
blood in Ayrshire. Nevertheless, we take it here and recognize
it as Ayrshire. The question I ask is, whether we should do,
in regard to Jersey stock, as Mr. Brown suggests.

Mr. Goodman. With regard to Shorthorns there is but one
rule — we trace them to the herd-book. We go back a hundred
years in the English and American herd-books, and any man
who cannot trace his animal to either of these books has to be

128 BOARD CfP AGRICULTURE.

thrown out. With regard to Jersey stock, they are of more
recent introduction, but the breeders are coming to the conclu-
sion that the same course is the only safe one, because there is
no stock where the grades so nearly reseml^le the pure bloods as
the Jerseys. You will find that the grade, on the second cross,
is as like the dam as possible ; the best breeders cannot dis-
tinguisli them. The difficulty has been found to be so great,
that an association of breeders of that stock has been formed
who are now getting up a herd-book. The rule they lay down
is, that you must trace both sire and dam back to the importa-
tion. That is the only rule they can lay down ; and when they
get there they are pretty safe, because no other animal is bred
on the island ; all other animals are excluded by law, and they
exclude from the breeding class there any animal inferior as a
breeder, whether male or female.

Mr. Davis has referred to the difference in form and color
of the Ayrshires. That difficulty is one hard to surmount,
because, although our herd-book has been established, and the
rule laid down that the animal shall go back to the importation,
in the old country they have no herd-books of Ayrshires, as
they have of Jerseys and Shorthorns, and the consequence is,
we get animals of an inferior breed, because we have too great
a diversity in those imported. But the only way is to make up
a herd-book, get the best animals we can, and trust to that as
the record of those animals ; because it is too late, when we
have here herds of Ayrshires, Shorthorns, Jerseys and Dutch
cattle, to undertake to raise up another breed of animals in this
country. It would take two hundred years to do it ; and then
all these diversities and variations have got to come out, and
the result would be, we should have a mongrel breed which we
could not rely upon. We have good specimens of animals —
there are none better — and if we stick to them, wo shall have
good stock. The rule is, to exclude every Shorthorn that can-
not be traced back to the herd-books. Next year the same rule
will be applied to the Jerseys, and very soon the same rule
must be applied to Ayrshires, if the breeders make up a herd-
book.

Mr. Davis. I have accomplished my object, which was sim-
ply to get some answer that might go upon our records and be
published, and to which we could appeal at our exhibitions. I

THE SEX OF THE PROGENY. 129

am a pure-blood breeder myself. My object simply was to get
a definite answer of some kind.

The President. The chair regrets very mucli indeed that
when he stated distinctly, and somewhat elaborately, that he
knew of no first-class animal of the various breeds, that could
not trace ^ its pedigree back to some importation, he was not
understood. And when he replied to Mr. Brown, he did not
intend to meet his question by a jest, but simply to state what
the difficulty was. Mr. Brown asked how many generations he
must breed a common cow with a Jersey bull before he could
get a pure-bred Jersey calf; and my answer was, I did not
believe he would live long enough to do it. I don't ; and he
may live to be ninety-nine years old. I think the answer is
very definite.

Now, I want to ask Professor Law one question. There is no
doubt that in all sciences, definite and specific names are of
great value — nomenclature. There are American and English
Shorthorn herd-books, and I have had the impression that the
old name of " Durham " had been translated into " Shorthorn."
Now, I find that in Professor Law's lecture this morning, he
used the name " Shorthorn " and " Durham " as applicable to
the same breed of animals ; and what I wish to ask is, whether
among breeders these two names are used interchangeably ;
whether, for instance, the herd which Mr. Thorne formerly
owned would .be called indiscriminately, by breeders, a " Short-
horn " or a " Durham " herd ?

Professor Law. That is the state of the case. The words
are used, to a considerable extent in England, interchangeably.
On the Continent of Europe, in my experience, the term " Dur-
ham " alone is used, or very nearly alone.

Mr. J. F. C. Hyde. There is one question I would like to
ask, — whether the professor has ever investigated the question
how to determine the sex of tlie progeny, and, if so, what has
been the result of his investigation ? 1 hear dealers complain that
all their heifers are bulls. Can they make the bulls heifers ?

Professor Law. I had prepared some remarks on that sub-
ject, but the time had so far gone that 1 skipped them.

The Chairman. Do you prove anything by them ?

Professor Law. Very little. It would appear that, under
some circumstances, a soft condition of the system of the
17

130 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

female, from soft diet, want of exercise, and the like, predisposes
to the production of females ; and also, that the parent which
was in the most vigorous and perfect health at the time of con-
nection l)etween the sexes, is likely to produce the greater num-
ber of animals of its own sex.

Then there are the experiments of Professor Thury of Geneva,
which, I must say, have been pretty thoroughly disposed of, but
which were carried on with some remarkable results in Switzer-
land, upon cattle. He got the manager of a farm (Cornaz) to
undertake the breeding of the sexes at will, on this theory,
that the ovum which was fertilized in the early stages of rut
would produce a female, and that when it was fertilized lower
down the Fallopian tubes it would produce a male. The
results obtained by Cornaz were very remarkable indeed. The
report gives an account of between twenty and thirty experi-
ments. He crossed his Swiss cattle with a Shorthorn bull, with
a view to obtain females for his dairy, and he produced females
in every case by putting the bulls to the cows on the first ap-
pearance of heat. He next undertook to produce a certain
number of oxen for work, and he put the bull to half a dozen
of his cows towards the close of the period of heat, and he
produced in every case males. IJe imported a Shorthorn or
Durham cow, and wishing to replace his valuable bull by another
of the same breed, he had her served at the conclusion of the
period of heat, and she produced a bull-calf. In every case, so
far as the report goes, he succeeded, but a number of other
experiments upon other animals have failed. Whether it was
luck, or whether there is something in the theory, I do not
know. I am inclined to think there is something in it, but that
there are so many counteracting influences that one can rarely
attain to anything like the success that he attained.

Professor Verrill of Yale College, makes a suggestion which
is worthy of attention, and that is, in regard to breeding from
animals that show a tendency to beget only progeny of a par-
ticular sex. Get a female for example, which is found to breed
mainly females, and take up her progeny, and endeavor to fix
that trait in the breed, if possible. That certainly promises
something. At the same time, I confess that my own experi-
ence in families of human beings is not at all uniform. I can
recall two or three families that had only one male child amdng

CAUSES OF ABORTION. 131

seven or eight females, and yet the females of those families
have girls and boys in about equal proportions.

Mr. SuRTEVANT of South Framingham. I will narrate one
item of experience in regard to Jersey bulls. It is well known
that Jersey bulls are very apt to get bull-calves. In two in-
stances, I have had three bull-calves to one heifer calf. When
the bull was a year old, I put him to three or four heifers or
cows, and those were all he went to that season. He got all
heifer calves the first year, and after, that down to his fifth year
three-quarters were bull-calves.

Mr. WAi^D. I suppose that in a state of nature, the cows
are served in the early stages of heat ; and yet we know that
they produce about an equal number of males and females.

Mr. Goodman. There is a question in regard to breeding
early. There is a great difference in the breed of animals in
this respect. For instance, a Jersey heifer will take the bull
when four or five months old, and come in at thirteen months ;
therefore, those who breed Jersey cattle generally put them to
the bull quite early and have them come in early. Shorthorns
are brought in early, in order to develop their milking qualities,
and then allowed to go barren for a year.

Dr. Peirce of Edgartown. The lecturer has stated that
abortion is frequently the cause of sterility. I would like to
ask if the lecturer or any other gentleman can tell us what is
the cause of abortions, or suggest a remedy.

Professor Law. I presume that abortions are not to be attrib-
uted to any single specific cause. A great number of causes
probably contribute to produce these abortions, and when once
they occur in a herd, the extreme sensibility to odors which cows
manifest, and the sympathy with each other, lead oftentimes a
majority of the pregnant animals to abort, merely because they
have seen otliers abort, not because of any special cause in
themselves, other than this. We are very well acquainted with
many causes of abortion, such as injuries, living and sleeping on
marshy ground, any disturbance of the digestive or urinary
organs, and above all, blows on the abdomen. In connection
with this disturbance of the urinary organs, I will ask for some
information. In those parts of New York where abortions
most prevail, I find we have very hard water. The subsoil is
limestone, and the water is very strongly impregnated with lime.

132 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

In tlic kidneys of animals taken from such places, I have invari-
ably found minute calculi, which may contribute in many cases
to irritate the generative organs and cause the woml) to throw
off its prodnct. Bnt the question I wish to ask is this : whether
in those parts of this State where abortion most prevails, the
subsoil is calcareous, or whether the water is or is not very
hard .

There arc, of course, many other causes. If the generative
organs arc disposed to be weak, it may be from too early breed-
ing through a long series of generations, or the brain is more
particularly disposed to disease, all the animals produced, will
show the effect in one or the other organ, in the one case by
abortion, in the other case by paralysis or disease of the brain.
It is probable that smut in wheat or corn acts in some way upon
the womb. There is a record of nearly all tlie cows in Brazil
having aborted in consequence of eating corn affected with
smut. In Ilalle, Germany, a veterinary surgeon has found
that he could produce abortion at will, in apparently hcaltliy
stock, by placing one animal where it would smell the abortion
discharges of another. Whether it was from the smell of those
discharges, to which the cow is so sensitive, or from some other
cause remains to be seen.

Mr. HuHHARD of Brimfield. I have heard various theories
stated in regard to the cause of abortion in animals. One gen-
tleman, who was formerly a member of the Board, and who was
in the State-house last winter, was very confident that he had
discovered the precise cause ; he was very sure that it was
transmitted from the bull to the cows. I have never suffered
from this cause until this year, but this year one-fourth part of
my cows have lost their calves. The bnll tliat has served my
cows has served several other herds in my vicinity, and 1 do not
know of a single cow, except in my own herd, tiiat has lost her
calf. There was a herd about a mile from mine that a few
years since had the same difficulty, one-half of the cows, per-
haps, losing their calves. Since that time, I have not heard of
a single case in that herd.

It has been stated that this trouble was owing to the use of
too young a bull. This year, the bnll that served my cows was
not a young one. I do not know of any cause. All these
abortions occurred previous to the winter months ; the first was

ABORTION IN COWS. 133

in the latter part of September, and they continued along until
within three or four weeks. No animal has got to the herd, so
far as I know, and they all seemed to be in a perfectly healthy
state before the abortions and immediately after. I have gone
right on with the cows that were in milk, and they appear to be
in just as healthy a state as any cows in my barn. Perhaps
another year the same difficulty will occur in another herd,
without any apparent cause, and I shall be entirely free from it.
In Hardwick and Barre, the same season, without any apparent
cause, from one-half to three-quarters of the cows lost their
calves. Perhaps another year they will lose none.

If we can discover a remedy for this, we shall confer upon the
farming community something that will be of great value to
them.

In my case, the difficulty could not have been caused by
smutty corn, for the corn was all gathered from the fields over
which they roamed, and they went over the same fields over
which they have gone in years past. They had, to all appear-
ance, the same feed. I have no limestone water. The water
the cows get is soft water. I know of no cause whatever, and
I know of no one who has been able to give any explanation
that is satisfactory on this subject.

Mr. Fay of Southborough. In one word I will relate my
experience in regard to abortion in cows. Some twenty-five
years ago, I had a stock of thirty cows, and eighteen lost their
calves, commencing not far from the first of November, and con-
tinuing until about the first of March. I wrote to different indi-
viduals in regard to it, but I could learn nothing satisfactoiy. I
got from the different individuals diffi3rent opinions. I took the
pains to separate the cows that lost their calves from the others,
as far as I could, but I found no benefit from it. I bought six
cows in the fall, from Vermont. Those six cows were put into
stalls near the others, and not one of them lost her calf, although
cows right by the side of some of them lost their calves. I was
convinced that there was nothing in sympathy. If there was,
why did not those six cows lose their calves ?

I believe I kept fourteen out of those eighteen cows. My.
neighbors told me it was no use to keep them ; that they would
lose their calves the next season just the same. But I did not
lose one the next season by abortion, and I did not lose more

134 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

than one or two durinf^ the next twenty years from that cause.
In the town of Westborough, above me, some years one-third of
the stock have produced abortions. If anything can be found
to prevent it, it will be one of the greatest boons we have dis-
covered yet.

Mr. Goodman. "We think, up our way, that feeding wheat
bran prevents it. Mr. Bucklin can state some facts in regard
to the matter.

Mr. BucKLTN of Adams. I have had a good many cases of
abortion in my stock. The first case occurred in 1864. We
had only two or three cases that year. The next season, with
a stock of about forty, we had eighteen. We were using at
that time, as was customary with the farmers in our neighbor-
hood, what is called a " cock-tail bull " or " scrub bull," — young
bulls usually. We were not feeding our stock with anything
except hay. The next season after that, which was 1866, we
Lad thirteen cases. I then purchased a thoroughbred Ayr-
shire l)ull, which was three years old, and have used a thorough-
bred bull ever since, and have fed wheat bran to a considerable
extent ; using coarse wheat bran through the summer quite
extensively, never milking a cow without feeding her two or
three quarts of wheat bran, and we have had no case of abor-
tion for the last four years. There have been a great many
abortions in our town, and farmers who do not feed wheat bran
have had a great many cases this fall.

The Chairman. Do you feed the bran dry or wet ?

Mr. Bucklin. Part of it I wet with whey, the other part I
feed dry. I have no limestone in my vicinity, and the cattle
have soft water invariably.

Mr. NouRSE of Westborough. In Westborough and vicinity,
and in Grafton, the farmers who have suffered most severely
are those who have fed the most wheat bran. In a stock of
twenty-two or twenty-three cows, within a year and a half, I
have lost eighteen calves, and I never fed more shorts than I
have during the last year or year and a half. I have fed six
quarts a day, perhaps, and some of my friends have told me,
" If you will stop feeding your cows so high, you will find they
"will come round as usual." A friend of mine who has lost
thirty calves from the same cause during the last year and a
half, is also one who has fed as much shorts as any man I know.

THE BARRE SYSTEM OF FEEDING. 135

The Chairman. I tliink the reply made by Professor Law to
the question put by Mr. Hyde, whether he knew of any cause
or could suggest any remedy, should be remembered. Profes-
sor Law said there was no one cause, and no one remedy.
That is the key that will unlock the whole thing. By starting
with the theory that there is but one cause and one remedy, we
never shall arrive at any satisfactory conclusion. The causes are
and must be various. A sudden change of food, for instance, a
sudden change from a poor quality of hay to a good quality of
hay, may be one cause. Li Mr. Hubbard's case, he said liis
cattle, had the same grass the year they lost their calves that
they had had before. He did not put that grass to the test of the
chemist and the microscopist, and he cannot tell whether there
was or was not some disease in that grass which produced the
effect of which he speaks.

This is one of the most intricate and difficult problems that
we have to settle. We are sure of one thing : that general good
care, as uniform feeding as possible, and great care in the cur-
ing and storing of hay on which they are fed, are essential.
That is as much as we can do for them. The influence of
smutty wheat — of smutty grass seed — of the various fungi that
will gather upon the stalks of grasses and elsewhere, which
possess the same properties that ergot does in rye and wheat, —
of sudden blows, — of the sympathy which exists in a herd to
which Professor Law alluded, — all these causes are liefore us,
they are all to be investigated, and all to be avoided in the best
way we can. And when as an epedemic it strikes our herds,
we have either got to be as patient as Mr. Fay was, believing it
will pass away the next season, or else we must get rid of our
herds, and start again.

Mr. Goodman. What is the effect of feeding twice a day ?

The Chairman. I cannot answer that question. All I know
about the effects of feeding twice a day accords with the effects
of what is usually called the Barre rule. The fact is, that
animals are kept in as good health by feeding twice a day as in
any other way. I have never been able to produce as much
good" health or as much fat and flesh, as by the Barre mode of
feeding. Cattle will not eat quite as much when fed twice a
day as when fed three times. Let them feed two or three
hours, then rest three or four hours, then feed again two

136 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

or three hours, and repose until the next day. I am ready to
back up Mr. Ellsworth in that, through thick and thin, for I
have tried all modes of feeding, and that is the mode that suits
me best.

Adjourned to two o'clock, P. M.

Afternoon Session.

The meeting was called to order at two o'clock by Dr. Loring,
who said that Professor Law desired to make a statement in
regard to the disease now prevalent among the cattle in certain
sections of the State.

Professor Law. I have asked permission to make a state-
ment in regard to this disease, because of the real importance
of the question to us all at this time.

For a number of years we suffered, in different parts of
America, from pleuro-pncumonia, and it is due to the Common-
wealth of Massachusetts to say, that the admirable manner in
which that disease was stamped out of this State is a lesson to
many on both sides the Atlantic. At the present moment, we
are assailed by another disease, not so fatal as the pleuro pneu-
monia, but one which, to dairy farmers, is even worse, inasmuch
as it interferes very seriously with the products of the dairy,
rendering the milk absolutely useless and dangerous in its fresh
state, and sometimes leading to permanent injury to the animals
themselves. It is the Epizootic Aphtha, or " Foot and Mouth
Disease '' of English writers. It has been imported from Eng-
land, has prevailed to some extent in Canada for some months,
and has reached the United States, certainly by one cliannel,
Buffalo, and possibly by others. As the disease is not directly
fatal, it is quite likely to exist in many different localities where
its importance is not recognized. But since it is a disease prop-
agated, in this hemisphere, at any rate, solely by contngion,
it is of the greatest importance that it should be circumscribed
wherever it is found, and stamped out. It can be very much
more easily done than in the case of pleuro-pneumonia, but it
requires an effort.

The nature of the disease is that of an eruptive fever: It
produces a febrile state of the system, an elevated temperature
of the body and mouth, some costivencss, bleeding teats, tiglit-
ncss of the skin (" hide-bound " it is usually called), and an

SYMPTOMS OF THE CATTLE DISEASE. 137

erection of the coat, or a " staring " coat. In short, the animal
seems out of health for a day or two, refuses its food partially
or entirely, not from loss of appetite apparently, but from sore-
ness of the mouth, and in the course of one or two days you
find that it attempts to eat, but fails to masticate, fails to chew
its food and swallow it ; it begins to froth at the mouth, walks
lame, and shows a tenderness of teats, if it is a milch cow, when
milked. You examine carefully into this, and find that in the
mouth, on the teats of the udder, and in the space between the
hoofs, you have little blisters, in many cases extending half or
three-quarters of an inch across, rising on the tongue, on the
teats, and in the spaces between the claws. In a day or two days
these blisters burst, and where a number existed together, as for
instance in the upper jaw, you find raw surfaces, sores, ulcers,
and shreds of skin hanging loose, and you find at the same
time the blisters bursting on the teats and between the claws,
leaving sores there. Many cows do not lose their milk entirely,
and the operation of milking not only breaks the blisters to
begin with, but continually irritates the sores ; and if the milk
is not drawn away the bag swells, becomes inflamed, and in
some cases the bag is ruined. In other cases, from going in
mud and sand, or otherwise, the cows have their feet perma-
nently injured. In the place of simple sores or ulcers between
the hoof, those ulcers extend, matter forms beneath the hoof,
and goes on extending, so that by and by in bad cases the hoof
will be thrown off, the animal walks upon a raw, sensitive sur-
face, and if still exposed to filth, there may be any amount of
disease resulting.

Such are the general features. First, simply a little fever,
which you may see in any disease ; secondly, this tendency to
lameness, frothing at the mouth, soreness of the teats, with
blisters rising upon them ; thirdly, the bursting of those blisters
with the resulting sores, which may or may not be kept up by
external irritation. If left alone, in the course of ten or fifteen
days the scabs fall off the sores, and the animal recovers. Some-
times the animal dies. In some cases the generative organs are
affected, as in one case I saw yesterday where the animal had an
abortion.

The milk is not only useless, but deleterious, especially when
used in a warm state. Instances are not wanting of its evil

18

138 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

effects upon the human system. A farmer in Djvcr, Mr. Pres-
ton, and his family, suffered from sore mouths from drinking this
milk from his cows, before he knew what was the matter. A
dog of Mr. Preston's sufTered in the same way from drinking
the milk. It had an eruption upon the feet, was lame, and
smacked its lips, which is a maikcd symptom in these cases.
Dogs and other animals which drink the milk are frequently
purged by it, and children have been known to die from inflam-
mation of the stomach and bowels consequent upon drinking the
milk in a warm state, as it came from the cow. The milk
itself does not seem to be diseased ; the danger is that the
liquid in the blisters will be mixed with it, either inside the teat
or outside, and then it becomes injurious. Irritation of the ab-
dominal organs is common in young animals that feed exclu-
sively upon the milk. There is danger of permanent injury to
the foot and the udder, not so much to the mouth.

As I have said, the disease is much more easily controlled
than pleuro-pneumonia, and it is so for several reasons. In the
first place the period of incubation is shorter. It rarely exceeds
half a week, and usually in twenty-four hours after exposure
the animals show some indications, either a hot mouth, or ten-
derness of the mouth. We do not need, therefore, to separate
them for so long a period of time as in the case of pleuro-pneu-
monia,— a month or two months, — in order to make sure that
they are free from the disease. In the second place, as far as
we know, it is either not propagated by the air to any extent or
only a very slight extent. It is transmitted by solid matter, —
the dung and other filth among which the animals tread, and
with which the virus is mixed up. I saw yesterday morning a
number of cattle on one side of the road, in a field, every one
of them suffering from the disease. On the opposite side of the
road, separated merely by the breadth of the turnpike, was a lot
of dairy cattle belonging to the same person, not one of which
showed the slightest symptom. They had been there for a fort-
night, merely separated by the road.

Such separation may be, at times, all we can do ; but it is by
no means satisfactory, inasmuch as any person, or any beast,
passing from one herd to the other may carry the virus on his
feet. Oftentimes it is carried in this way : \ person goes
among diseased stock, and takes away some of the virus ou his

WHAT OUGHT TO BE DONE. 139

boots, and that is left in the places where the healthy stock go.
Dogs have been known to carry it in the same way, and it is a
question whetlier rats do not do the same thing. Hence, with
the short period of incubation, and with this tenacity of the
virus, we have placed in our hands a very easy way of checking
it. Circumscri-be the diseased herds, allow no man or beast
to go near them, except the man who tends them, and do not
allow him to go to the healtliy stock unless he changes his
clothes and washes his hands w4lh carbolic acid or something of
that sort. Tlien he can do it with safety.

The prevalence of the disease in New York, so far as at
present ascertained, has been mainly in Oneida and Dutcliess
Counties. It was imported into Oneida County from Canada
nearly a month ago. In Dutchess County it has appeared witliin
the last three weeks, and was brought tliere mainly by two herds,
brought by drovers from Albany, along *the Hudson River to
Poughkeepsie, and travelled across the country from Pough-
keepsie. Wherever the cattle of those herds have been scattered
they have carried the disease. Some of the cattle of tliose
herds have been traced to particular cars on tlie railroad. One
o£ those herds stood a week in yards two, three and four.
Avenue F, at Albany. Tlicy were brought, it is said, from
Micliigan. Some of them came from Canada. The question is
whether those herds were not themselves previously contam-
inated.

Tlien we know where those cattle went to. Some of them
were taken from Albany to New Milford and Kent and other
places in Connecticut, and there the disease prevails more than
in Dutchess County. As far as I have learned, no attention
was paid to circumscribing tlie herds, so there is imminent dan-
ger of its being propagated from those animals. In Massachu-
setts, you must be in some danger. I believe that a great many
cattle come from Albany along this Boston and Albany line,
and the probability is, that it is being, at the present time,
introduced into different parts of the State. It will be for you
to consider what ought to be done under the circumstances. I
should certainly advise that the importation by the way of
Albany be at once discontinued, and the importation from
Canada subjected to a strict supervision. Shut your doors
against Connecticut, perhaps, until she can show a clean bill of

1-iO BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

health. Ascertain by circulars and by posting up notices in
every post-office, where the disease has got a footing in the
State, and circumscribe it. It can easily be gotten rid of now,
by a little timely effort, and we shall be saved from great
trouble for many years to come.

I have said that it is not very fatal. Sometimos it has proved
fatal, but those were exceptional cases. But the English dairy
farmer says he would rather have the contagious plcuro-pneu-
monia than this disease, it proves so troublesome, and is a source
of so much loss to him.

Mr. Morton, of Hadley. We have a disease in our town
that was brought by a drove of cows tliat came from Connec-
ticut. All those who purchased out of the drove have the
disease among their cattle. Professor Law has described it
exactly. On the first appearance of the disease they begin to
drool, they will not eait their hay or meal, their tongues swell,
and in the course of a day or two some will not or cannot eat
at all. Give them good sweet hay, they will take a mouthful,
roll it round awhile and then throw it out, and reject their
meal entirely. None have died, but one or two have l)een so
sick that a great many supposed that they had been poisoned..

One of our townsmen had some twenty-five steers out to
pasture ; he went after them, and on his way home happened to
overtake this drove of cattle. They did not mix at all, but his
steers took the disease.

There are five or six herds in Hadley that have this disease
now, and nobody seems to know what the remedy is. Some
have used potatoes and salt ; they salt very freely and swab out
their mouths, and some of them have got well to all appearance,
so that they cat their hay well. If there is any remedy I should
like to know it.

Professor Law. The treatment is extremely simple. The
disease will follow its own course. When it makes its appear-
ance in an animal, the great point is to keep the parts clean,
and allow him to go through it. It is like the small or cow pox,
it follows its course and then subsides. What you want to do
is to wash out the mouth with some cooling lotion or tincture.
A wash of carbolic acid to one hundred and fifty parts water
will answer the purpose. Wash the teats with one part carbolic
acid and one hundred parts water, and apply strong carbolic

MARKETING FARM PRODUCE. 141

acid to the space between the claws. Make them raw by draw-
ing a coarse rag between them and then tie them up with tar.
The great difficulty is to prevent the disease from spreading,
and in order to do that' you must guard carefully against dirt.

Mr. Morton. One of my neighbors, who would not use the
milk for anything else, thinking that nothing would poison a
hog, gave it to his hogs, and they are in the same predicament
with the cattle.

Professor Law. Yes, sir. All animals with cloven feet are
especially liable to it.

The Chairman. I hope it will teach him more respect for
his hogs. They are entitled to it.

MARKETS FOR THE FARMER.

BY AVKRY P. SLADE.

Having been appointed to open the discussion this afternoon,
in order that I may not weary your patience, I have decided to
be exceedingly brief.

Experience teaches that the free and universal expression of
opinion by an audience, on a subject in which they all have a
common interest, is the safest way to arrive at practical results.
I feel assured that every farmer present feels the importance of
improving his system of marketing his surplus produce, and I
have no doubt that many present have important suggestions to
make, or matured plans, which in the course of this discussion
they will present to this meeting. Farmers are often undecided
as to what crop will be in the best demand and bring the
greatest price.

I believe as a general thing they decide in the fall what crops
they will grow the ensuing year. And they are more or less
governed by ruling prices, and those articles which from scarcity
or other causes bring the highest prices at that time, are selected
to be grown another year. The consequence is natural and ob-
vious: the following year finds the market overstocked with that
particular kind of produce and at prices ruinously low. In times
past, when from drought or other causes there was a partial failure
of any particular crop, we derived consolation- by repeating the
old saying, that a half crop would sell for as much as a whole
one. •

This was true to a certain extent before the age of railroads.

142 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

But tlie small crop of late potatoes which was harvested this
fall throughout the most of New England, has had but a slight
effect on the prices of that article in our markets. Tlie defi-
ciency in all the various crops the past season, has been more
than supplied -by shipments from distant States. Potatoes from
Pennsylvania and Illinois, cabbages from Michigan and Northern
New York, and onions from Ohio may be found in almost every
market of any note in Eastern Massachusetts. Tiicse are sig-
nificant facts, and indicate very clearly who in future are to be
our competitors.

Next in importance to the production of a good crop, is the
marketing the same to a good advantage.

Much of the pecuniary success in farming is attributable to
good market facilities, and the peculiar tact that some farmers
have of selling their produce at the. right time and place, and
in a way that will turn the greatest profit. Where a farmer is
so situated that he can take his surplus produce on to his wagon
and drive to the door of the consumer, he is sure to realize more
for it than he can in any other way ; while at the same time
the purchaser gets a better article at a less price. This is de-
cidedly the most natural, simple and economical way of mar-
keting farm produce. Here, the producer meets the consumer
face to face, their relations soon become intimate, and they
readily learn to depend on each other. Were this system prac-
ticable with all farmers we should have no more to say. But
unfortunately for many farmers, they are located so far distant
from the great markets of the country, that they are compelled
to consign their produce to some commission house, whose
advertisement has accidentally caught their eye, and who have
earned an enviable reputation for " quick sales and prompt
returns." Whoever has had much experience in this method
of marketing, and received in return the usual " net proceeds to
creditor, trusting that the same will be both pleasing and satis-
factory," need not be told how pleasing and satisfiictory such
returns often are. A large portion of the small fruits, milk
and vegetables that are consumed in our large cities, in fact
nearly all produce that finds its way thither through channels
of public transportation, is handled by parties whose business it
is to make money; that they succeed in their business we have
abundant reason to believe. The freight, cartage and storage

PAIL OF COCHITUATE MILK. 143

are charged to the farmer, and one-tenth of the gross receipts is
the compensation required for selling.

One firm in Qiiincy Market sold in one day 28,000 boxes of
strawberries, which at eighteen cents per box, would amount to
$5,040. To say nothing of other sales made on that day, their
commission on this fruit alone would amount to 1504. And so
with millc. Tlie man who takes fifty or one hundred cans of
milk from the depot daily and distributes it to his customers
throughout tbe city, is in possession of a business which far
exceeds in value the best milk farm in the Commonwealth.

I was recently told by a gentleman who possessed ample
means of knowing the truth whereof lie affirmed, that a certain
man in Boston was in the habit of receiving one hundred cans
or eight hundred quarts of milk per day, for which he paid
$45. On the arrival of the train the milk was taken from the
cars and placed on ice, and allowed to stand three hours. Then
one quart was taken from the top of each can and delivered to
ice cream saloons at the rate of forty-five cents per quart. The
cans were then filled with pure Cochituate, and distributed at
the rate of eight cents per quart to a choice set of customers,
constituting one of the most desirable milk routes within the
city limits. The gross profit of this transaction involves but a
slight knowledge of mental arithmetic.

The man who does this business, uses a capital, invested in a
horse and wagon, to the amount nearly of $500. Most farmers,
I am aware, would object to taking all this business out of the
hands of the contractor. But after divesting it of all the " tricks
of the trade," and making a liberal allowance for bad debts, the
net profits of a single day's work would by far exceed the net
daily income of the best farm in the State. A system of mar-
keting which will divide this profit between the producer and the
consumer is not only a " consummation devoutly to be wished,"
but is absolutely demanded, as one of the first steps to be taken,
with the view of making farming profitable. I am aware that
much has been said and written upon this subject, and remedies
prescribed for the evils of which we complain. And I am also
quite certain that no system has yet been devised or adopted
which has not in many respects proved quite impracticable. A
very able writer, in an essay to the State Board some years ago
upon this subject, strongly urged the institution of fairs or

144 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

regular market days, to be held in different places at stated
times throughout the Commonwealth. That essay sets forth ia
a clear light the numerous advantages accruing to the farmer
from the establishment of such days, and we should rejoice to
see tiiem established in every large town or representative dis-
trict in the State. But a moment's reflection will suffice to con-
vince any one that that does not cover the whole ground.

Much of the produce of the farm is of a perishable nature,
and must find its way to the consumer without delay. Such is
the case with milk, some of the small fruits and early vege-
tables. Although regular market days would be of incalculable
value to the farmer in a great variety of ways, yet we cannot
conceive how it would help him in the sale of the articles above
enumerated. Now, the farmer is certainly entitled to remuner-
ating prices for his produce, — such prices, in fact, as the con-
sumer is able and willing to pay. To devise some practical
method by which these prices shall be secured to him is, I
understand, to be the object of this discussion. While I do not
feel competent to devise any plan which shall be entirely unob-
jectionable, it does seem to me that the cooperative system, a
system wherein the farmer would have a common interest with
the seller, would be found eminently practicable, and if adopted
would speedily insure the best results. Besides offering him
facilities for marketing, this system might be made to fur-
nish him with important information relating to prices, the "best
time and method of forwarding his produce, and also the kinds
and quality which the market demanded. I suggest tliis system
without proposing to enumerate all its advantages, or to adjust
the machinery by which such an organization is to be kept in
running order.

Confidently believing that men can be found in every farming
community — and in this meeting — capable of engineering the
whole thing into successful operation, I submit the matter to
your further consideration.

Mr. S. n. Howe, of Bolton, gave an exceedingly humorous
account of his experience, demonstrating, as he contended, that
amateur farming, at any rate, does not pay.

Hon. Charles G. Davis of Plymouth. I understand some-
thing of what may be called the egotism of travel, but, at the

MARKET DAYS. 145

same time, I am so much impressed with what I have seen and
learned during a short visit abroad, that I hope you will not
consider it egotism in me if I allude to what I saw and heard
in connection with this subject. I know it is unpleasant to hear
a person speak of his own experience and observations, but that
is what we want here.

I have been very much impressed for years with the difficulty
of this subject, and I was one of those to whom allusion was
made, indirectly, by Mr. Slade, who were interested in the
scheme of market days and fairs. Mr. Fay, who was formerly
a member of our Board, a son of Judge Fay, of this county, I
believe, was very much interested in this subject, and he wrote
one or two essays upon it, which were published by the Board.
A united effort was made at one time, on the part of the Board
of Agriculture, to see if the custom of weekly and monthly
market days, which exists to a great extent in Great Britain,
could not be established in this State. That effort, it is only
fair to say, was an entire failure. It was found to be so con-
trary to the habits and customs of farmers and consumers, that
it could not succeed. But what made it fail ? It was owing to
the fact that in a new and thinly settled country where all were
farmers or producers it was not necessary, and that our people
were not accustomed to daily markets, or to markets twice or
three times a week, in the central villages and cities ; because
it was necessary to furnish a market for the perishable articles,
those which are of daily use and necessity, as well as those
which the farmer can sell at a monthly market, anywhere with-
in ten miles of his farm. We all know that not only in Great
Britain, but throughout the Continent of Europe, every city and
every small village, even villages of not more than two or three
thousand inhabitants, has its regular market days — Wednesdays
and Saturdays or Tuesdays and Fridays ; and in addition to
that, once or twice a month it may have a cattle, grain or hay
market day. In Europe also, every large city has one or two
squares which are called " market squares," — perhaps there are
half a dozen of these squares in some of the large cities. But
in addition to that you will find, on two or three days in the
week, the farmers and market-women spreading out their goods
upon the ground, or upon tables arranged for the purpose
along some particular street ; not only articles which are neces-
19

146 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

sary for daily food, but also all kinds of light implements of
domestic manufacture, and some of the cheaper articles of
domestic use, such as crockery, cheap hardware, baskets, wood-
en-ware, cheap calicoes, woollens, domestic hosiery, and so ou.
In addition to that, in almost every village or city you find, upon
those occasions, a large display of flowers, in pots and bouquets,
the market for which is resorted to by all the inhabitants.

Now, gentlemen, what is there in the nature and habits of
our peojile, now thickly settled, and engaged in trade and
manufactures, that should prevent such a system as that grow-
ing up among us ? I cannot see anything. This system is the
result of the experience of older and populous countries.
Prima facie, it is better that the producer should meet the
consumer face to face. Let me illustrate by mentioning one
fact. I spent two months in Geneva, in Switzerland, last sea-
son, and boarded with an old lady of seventy years. Two
mornings in the week she hired a carriage — not at four or five
o'clock in the morning, or sometime before daylight — but at
seven or eight o'clock in the morning, went to the market and
purchased in the street of the various market men and women
all the provisions for her family until the next market day, and
brought them home in the carriage. The market women assem-
ble there, not necessarily at three or four o'clock in the morn-
hig, except that the earliest comers get the best positions, and
they are not driven away, as they are in Market Street, Boston,
at nine or ten o'clock, but remain until two to four o'clock in
the afternoon. The producer and not the buyer fixes the price,
but at whatever price the producer can furnish the article, at
that price it goes into the mouth of the consumer.

Now, I lay down the proposition, that if we are independent
people, if we are sensible people, if we have that common
sense which we are so fond and justly fond of attributing to
the universal Yankee nation, we, who are engaged in farm-
ing, or identified with the farming interest, should not permit
the exactions, the extortions and the robberies to which we are
subjected, day after day, and hour after hour, by the middle-
men of Massachusetts and New England. (Applause.) I say
to you, Mr. President, that if you will require by law — a law
which the cities and towns cannot resist — that every town of
four, five or six thousand inhabitants and upwards shall furnish

DIVISION OF PROFITS. 147

free ground for the producers of Massachusetts to meet the
consumers daily, face to face, — much as I respect and believe in
our agricultural societies, our agricultural colleges, our agricul-
tural science, and our veterinary science, I believe you can do
more for the interests of agriculture in ten years by such a law
than by all these other agencies combined.

I heard of a case the other day of a man who went to a pro-
vision store in Boston, and said, " What do you sell your straw-
berries for?" "Forty cents." "But I want to sell: how
much will you give ? " " Well, if they are well picked, I will
give you ten cents a box." I want you, gentlemen, to reflect
on what is involved in that remark. It tells the whole story,
and if I should talk from now until doomsday, it seems to me
that I could not say anything more than is contained in that
illustration.

Let us demand that some system shall be adopted under
which there shall not be one, two, even to four or five middle-
men standing between the producer and the consumer, and if
we can succeed in securing the establishing of such a system,
we shall do something that will be of immense value to the
agricultural interests of this State.

I think this question is more important than any other that
can be presented, so far as the wants of the common farmer
and gardener are concerned. Why, even here in the town of
Framingham, there are very many persons engaged in manufac-
turing and in professional pursuits, who do not raise what they
consume from day to day, and if there was a free, open market*
to which everybody could resort, it would be of service to the
farmers in this immediate vicinity, and of greater service to
those who purchased from them. Let us divide this profit,
which is made by three, four or five middle-men, equally be-
tween the producer and consumer. Let the man who by the
sweat of his brow produces all these articles of our daily food
and sustenance get better pay, and let those of us who pur-
chase the same pay less, and both of us will be better off. The
tendency in this country to-day seems to be, in everything,
towards monopoly. We see it in railways and telegraphs, in
banking and speculation, in breadstufifs and staple provisions,
and in dry goods ; but it has even reached the market for our
daily food. And it seems to me it is time for the farmers of

148 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Massachusetts and the consumers of Massachusetts to open their
eyes to the importance of this question, and say tliat this thing
shall not 1)0 done any longer.

I want you to look at this matter broadly, throwing out all
narrow considerations in regard to any personal friendships
you may have for the middle-man, or the commission merchant,
or the produce dealer. I ask you to put the question in regard
to most of the articles you purchase or sell, as producers or
consumers, from day to day, whether there is any reason why
there should be such a discrepancy between the price which the
farmer gets for an article, and the price at which it goes into
your mouths ? We are apt to consider only those things rob-
bery which are called robbery, that is, the taking of property
by force from the pockets or houses of men. I speak not of
"moral aspects, I make no charges of crime ; but, in point of
fact, what greater robbery is there in that, than for a set of men
who arc not producers to assume to take all the profits of the
labor of mankind ? That is the tendency to-day in regard to
everything, and it is especially the tendency in regard to
farmers.

I believe I have stated strongly enough in what I have said,
what I mean ; perhaps I have stated it too strongly ; but I want
to set your minds thinking on this subject. It seems to me that
it is a question worthy of earnest consideration, whether a law
requiring every town of over five thousand inhabitants to pro-
vide some suitable place, with shelter for teams, where those
who have produce to sell, themselves being the producers, or
their immediate agents or servants, may meet the consumers face
to face, would not be of great service to both classes.

It is no use for us to say, and it is no use for a committee of
the city council of Boston to say, as was said in a recent report,
that Boston is diflferently situated from other cities in the
United States, and that the markets there have not enhanced
prices. It is a fact, and it must necessarily be a fact, so long as
we know that two, three or four thousand dollars are given for
single stalls, 10 by 15 or 20, in Faneuil Hall market. Mr, Quincy
has said that when he was mayor of Boston, he knew of a case
where hundreds of bushels of peaches were thrown into the
dock below Faneuil Hall Market early one morning, rather than
allow them to be sold at a reduced price. I know of other

CITY COUNCIL OF BOSTON. 149

cases where the same thing has been done in regard to poultry
and meat. These men make so much money that they can
afford to throw these things overboard six or eight times dining
the summer, rather than reduce the price of a staple in which
they are dealing a cent a pound or a dollar a ton ; and as long
as these facts exist, it is idle to say that Faneuil Ilall Market is
not a curse, not only to Boston, but to Massachusetts. It is
time the attention of our farmers was directed to this subject,
and we of the country should demand of the legislature that
we have free trade in Boston, and free access to the people of
Boston. I am tired, for one, of seeing committees of the city
council, year after year, appointed to consider this question,
who travel all over the country, and come back and say that
nothing can be done. I am tired of seeing new markets going
up, to be let out in this way to these monopolists. I want to
see some plan adopted by which the people of Boston can,
every day, meet the producers, and learn something of the
value of the articles they consume, and what they ought to pay
for them.

The committee of the city council state that tlie suburbs of
Boston are thickly settled, and therefore gardening cannot be
carried on in its immediate vicinity. Therefore, if I understand
them, free markets can do no good. In other words the
suburbs of Boston are Boston. But is Boston with its suburbs
larger than London, where almost everything is sold in its
streets. The " London cries " are proverbial. Are Boston and
il9 suburbs more extended than Paris and New York ? Why,
gentlemen, the committee of the Boston city council give that
as a reason, for not having a free market, which is the result of
the monopoly and exclusion which they would perpetuate.
The present system has driven out of existence the numerous
and worthy class of small farmers, the peasantry, which are
found in the neighborhood of all large cities ; your organized
market gardeners remain, but the men who sell the single pro-
ducts of their own industry, from their small plots, are not to be
found. I care not whether they would be Irish or German,
Americans or Norwegians, this class of small farmers is extinct,
because no opportunity has been allowed them to market the
small products of their daily labor. Encourage such a class, for
whom there is still plenty of room within ten miles of the city

150 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

hall, by fro 3 markets ia tho streets; alter tlie habits of your
people by purchasing from tiie producer the articles of their
daily food, aud you will soou fiud that an open market can be
found for the larger farmers and the larger products of the more
distant producer, even to the remotest sections of the State.

Mr. XouRSE, of Westborough. I suppose there is no law
against a young man asking a question here. I was sorry to
see at a gathering I attended lately, — the meeting of the Milk
Producers' Association of Massachusetts and New Ilampshire, —
that the young men were not sufficiently interested to be present.
If they are interested enough to be farmers, they ought to be
interested enough to attend meetings which affect farmers, and
thus become posted in regard to the important matters which
are discussed at those meetings. I came here especially to-day
that I might hear the discussion of this question this after-
noon.

It seems to me that the suggestions which have been made in
regard to markets being held twice a week in the larger centres
of trade docs not meet the great want which we feel, after all,
in regard to marketing the large portion of the products in
•which many of us, at least, are interested. The more perish-
able products of the farm, it seems to me, cannot be marketed
in that way. How shall they be marketed so that the immense
profit of the middle-men shall be, a part of it at least, placed in
the pockets of the farmers ? We are willing, I am sure, to
share it with the consumers. But here is a question which, it
seems to me, is worthy of discussion and candid considcratiA.
Is there not some way by which our small fruits can be taken
to market and we realize something near the cost of producing
them ?

At that meeting to which I have referred in Boston, an
arrangement which had been made for carrying the smaller
fruits and more perishable vegetables to market was described,
which it seems to me it would be well for those interested in
marketing t^uch articles to consider. An arrangement was
made with the railroad corporations by which they took a crate
or a barrel or anything not exceeding a barrel in size, carried
it to Boston, took it down to the place of sale, and returned the
empty crate or barrel, for a quarter of a dollar. The farmer
then knew exactly what it would cost him to have his article

THE COOPERATIVE SYSTEM. 151

carried to market. Sending it to some reliable merchant or
commission dealer, who charged him ten per cent., he knew
precisely Avhat he would get for the article. It was represented
that the farmers had been well pleased willi this arrangement.

Allusion was also made to the way in which produce is carried
to the New York market, a car being furnished by the railroad
corporation, and the farmers allowed to send their milk or
whatever they have to market, without being subject to the
multiplicity of charges to which we are exposed under the
present management of this trade.

Mr. Hapgood, of Shrewsbury. I am engaged somewhat in
market gardening, I commenced the business in 18G5. I
thought I would I'aise a few things to sell, any way, though I never
expected to make much money. I planted some cucumbers,
and raised a fine crop. There was a man in our place who
carried some things to market, and I called on him and asked
him if he could sell my cucumbers for me. " Yes," he said,
" how many have you got ? " I told him I might have twenty-
five or fifty bushels. He said he didn't know as he could sell
as many as that. I told him I thought he could, and in a day
or two he took three or four bushels to market, sold some of
them, left some of them in one place and another, and brought
home some, and that was the end of it with him. "Well, I called
on my brother, who had had more experience than I had, and
he came and looked at my crop. I asked him what he could
do ? '• Well," says he, " you are better acquainted in Worcester
than I am ; take them yourself, and go round from house to
house and sell them." I told him I couldn't go peddling them
round. " Yes, you can," said he, " take them there, you can
sell them." Well, I did. I took a load and went to Worcester,
and finally sold the whole crop. Since then, I have raised
cucumbers largely, a hundred bushels some years, and sold
them too. Last year, I raised seven or eight tons of cabbages.
It was a very unfortunate year for cabbages, as a good many
here have found out, and I sold them for two dollars a
hundred.

Lest I should be tedious, I will state that the cooperative
plan strikes me most favorably. AVe can have an agent in our
cities and towns, wherever we want to send our produce, and
send it to him — sparingly at first, but after a time I tiiink he

152 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

would be able to sell all wc raise. "We could employ him on a
commission or pay him a salary, or compensate him in whatever
way we thought best.

I want to tell you a little more about my crops, for I reckon
myself a lucky man. I have an order now for a hundred toi;s
of my turnip squashes. I have got tons of my fancy cabl)age,
which I am holding for a hundred dollars a ton. One of the
high fancy kinds, I hold for one hundred and twenty dollars a
ton, and I have some orders for them now. So that, after all,
Mr. President, I hope the farmers here will not feel very bad
about the farming business. If we have a good farm and raise
good crops, I think we can sell them and make something,
after all.

I want to say a word about my corn. I raised some corn
this year, not many acres, and I will say that my farming is not
very large. I do it to occupy my time, and what I raise I mean
shall be first-rate. You will be surprised when I tell you my
manner of cultivating corn. I spread on my field fifteen loads
of manure to the acre, then I manure in the hill moderately,
making in all about twenty-five loads to the acre. I plant it
carefully, hoe it carefully and harvest it carefully. I measured
my land and I measured my crop, and I raised this year seventy-
six bushels of corn to the acre. I have got ears of corn about
as long as a gun-barrel. I have heard tell of ears of corn
fifteen inches long. I did not quite come up to that, but I came
within an inch of it. If you will come to Shrewsbury, I will
show you twelve ears of corn that will measure twelve feet.

Mr. I]iiowN, of Framingham. I am a firm believer in local
marketing. I have had some considerable experience the last
year or two in this large town. Last year I was very successful
in raising a celery crop. I found that my neighbors were
willing to accept it, and come after it, and thank me for it.
This year my crop w^as larger than last, and there was a
scarcity in the market, but still they were willing to accept it,
but they wanted me to send it to them. Therefore I believe in
local markets.

J. B. Moore, of Concord. I do not propose to take much of
your time, but as this matter of marketing by railroad from
Concord has been introduced, and as it happens that that sub-
ject was brought to the notice of the Farmers' Club by myself,

STRAWBERRIES ON THE RAIL. 153

and I acted as agent for the club in making that arrangement,
I will say something about it. I have no doubt tliat gentlemen
on the lines of all the railroads could make a similar arrange-
ment for the transportation of their products to the large
cities.

Concord, by railroad, is twenty miles from Boston, and from
sixteen to eighteen miles by the travelled road. The difficulty
we found in raising considerable quantities of fruits and vege-
tables for Boston market was the expense of getting them there.
In the first place, we found it necessary, being that distance
from market, to raise some product that was light freight. You
will find, therefore, that we raise at Concord, strawberries and
other small fruits largely, asparagus more largely than any
other town in the State, and other articles of light freight.
Until this year, everything of the small fruit kind had to go to
market on wagons, and the result was, that it became necessary
for us to pick the strawberries and send them to market at night,
because the morning market is the large one. I thought we
could make some arrangement with the railroad by which we
could do better than that. I went to the superintendent and
president of the Fitchburg Railroad, and told them that the
Farmers' Club desired to effect some arrangement whereby we
could get our strawberries, which were put up in crates mostly,
holding about a bushel, and our asparagus, which was put up
in boxes, perhaps fifty bunches to a box, to market at a reason-
able rate. I asked them if they would carry them in the cars,
and they said they would. The next thing was the terms.
They wanted forty cents a crate for the strawberries and forty
cents a box for the asparagus. I told them we could carry
them cheaper than that by wagons : that was entirely out of
reason. They wanted to know what price would be a fair pric3.
I told them about twenty-five cents. They agreed to that, and
then I said to them, " I haven't got through with you yet. I
want you to carry those strawberries on every passenger tyain
during the day." They said they could not do any such thing
as that, it would cumber up every passenger train. Then I
argued the matter with them in this way : " Two crates of
strawberries are fifty cents. That represents a passenger.
Those two crates do not take up so much room as a passenger,
and you do not give half the accommodation. Now, I want

20

154 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

you should take tlicm to Boston, and deliver tliera at the
market-house, and send back those crates for twenty-five cents."
They said they would do it, and they did it, to the entire satis-
faction of the farmers. The strawberry crates would come
back anywhere between twelve or twenty-four hours. The as-
paragus went down mostly in the morning, and the boxes would
come back the same night. They did the business promptly,
they did it well, and they handled the freight carefully. The
superintendent of the railroad told those baggage-men who were
put in charge of this freight, that any damage from bad
handling would be deducted from their wages and paid to the
freighters, and that prevented bad handling. Therefore, we got
all our products carried in good condition.

Then the next thing was to get barrels of perishable stuff, like
pease and corn, which must go to market pretty quick after being
picked, carried to Boston on reasonable terms. They proposed
to carry these products for twenty-five cents a barrel on the
passenger trains, and they did that, and did it well. They have
carried pickles at the same rate. The pickles usually went on
the milk train, and on some days a great many barrels of pickles
were sent to market in that way.

1 have no doubt, as I have said, that you can effect some such
arrangement as that with the lines on which you live. Believe
me, when I tell you, you cannot raise cabbages, and send them
into Boston market, for two reasons. The first is, that they ex-
haust your land too much, and you cannot afford to buy manure
so as to make it a profitable crop to raise and send to market.
That has been my experience.

In regard to the other part of the question, I would say, that
the city of Boston does not furnish market facilities as it ought
to. The people of that city are the losers, as much as the far-
mers. They pay a great deal more for what they consume
than they ought to, and we don't get as much for growing it as
we should, if they would furnish a large space, with open sheds,
where farmers could stand until they sold their products. Now,
if my man goes to the market after a certain time in the morn-
ing, they drive him off the street. It is true, you can comply
with their rules by driving around a square, and coming back
to the same place, but that is rather an inconvenient way, and I
think the consumers there pay for that, to some extent. It is

MARKETING SMALL FRUITS. 155

an annoyanco, certainly. What they want is a piece of land,
anywhere from five to six acres, with covered sheds, so that a
man can drive under the sheds, and stay there until he sells his
fruit and vegetables, or anything he has to sell. Give him a
chance to sell them at wholesale or retail, and give him a chance
to stay under shelter, so that in case of a storm he shall not be
forced to give his tilings away. For instance, grapes, of which
I sell a number of tons. Last year I found I could do better
than to have those sold on commission. But strawberries and
asparagus, I do not know how you can sell them in any other
way than by commission. In my vicinity, we are growing large
amounts of these things. Tiiere were days last year when there
were two hundred crates of strawberries sent from that station
at Concord, to Boston market. That means sixty-four hundred
quarts. That is a large amount to sell, and going in these
ventilated crates, it is rather necessary to sell them by the crate.
Then it is necessary for the producers, that those men who sell
the strawberries should duplicate the crates, and send them back
other crates as soon as they receive theirs, because, as many of
these strawberries are shipped down to Portland, the British
Provinces, and to great distances, the farmers who raise them
cannot afford to find the crates, because they would not
get the use of them more than twice a year ; therefore, those
men who sell them, and have ten per cent, commission, have to
furnish something beside the selling. I presume Sands, Furber
& Co. have two thousand dollars' worth of crates, which are
necessary for them, in order to do their business.

I am not at all surprised at the statement made by Mr. Davis
in regard to a provision dealer in Boston proposing to buy
strawberries at ten cents a quart, when he was selling them at
forty. Perhaps you are not all aware that there is a difference
in the price of strawberries. Nice, handsome fruit may be
worth forty cents a box, when some other isn't worth twenty ;
no good strawberries were sold last year for ten cents a box.
Some strawberries went from our town that were not fit to send
to market. A man has no business to send strawberries to
market in such shape, and expect to get much for them. There
were times when some crates of strawberries, very large and
handsome, were worth forty cents a quart, and other straw-
berries standing right by the side of them were not worth over

156 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

fifteen cents. There was that difference in the fruit. You will
find sometimes a fancy farmer who will send in some of that
stuff, and then he will wonder why he cannot sell it.

Mr. Barnard of Worcester. I have been raising vegetables
for the market to a greater or less extent for the last quarter of
a century, and I have found it more difficult to dispose of the
vegetables than to raise them. We tried a free public market
in Worcester, but we found, although it worked well for the
first few months, that people were not disposed to come to the
market to buy vegetables. They would rather follow the old
custom of going to the market-house and having the vegetables
sent home. If they bought at the public market, of course
they were expected to take them away in their baskets. That
seemed to be one difficulty. Furthermore, the farmers were
not disposed to give two lialf days, perhaps, in a week to go to
market with their products. There was still another difficulty.
Perhaps the consumer would come to the market, and would
not find the producer, and then the producer would come there,
and the consumer would not be there ; so the public market
has not been as successful in Worcester as it has been in Phil-
adelphia and other cities ; and now we have to carry our pro-
ducts to the market-houses, and sell them for the most we can
get. But it seems to me if the cities would establish public
markets, the people would accustom themselves to visit them,
and farmers would find it for their interest to devote two half
days in the week to selling the products of their gardens.
Then, when the producer and the consumer come face to face,
if they cannot make their interest mutual, I do not know who
can do it for them. I think it would be best for both parties,
but they have got to be educated into it.

Mr. N. S. Hubbard of Brimficld. This is a matter which is
of great consequence to the farming community. The only
thing that we can do, that will be of great benefit to the far-
mer, is to devise some plan in which the middle-men shall not
get too large a share of the profits. There are articles that can
be taken into the market, as the gentlemen have represented,
and sold to a very much better profit to the producer than
under the present system, probably ; but if a man is living
seventy or eighty miles back from the city of Boston, where his
produce is marketed, he cannot go with the produce of his sin-

MARKETING CHEESE AND MILK. 157

gle farm to Boston and sell the articles ; he mvist employ some-
body to do that bnsiness. For instance, there is the article of
cheese. What shall be our course in selling our cheese ? Can
we take any better course than we are now following? It is
said that we should send our cheese to market, and employ
some man there to sell it for us. When we send it there to be
sold on commission, we endeavor to get it done as cheaply as
possible. I never have paid over five per cent., and many times
much less than that. Supposing we should go with our cheese
to these free markets that have been spoken of, and it was not
all sold ; then there would be a surplus left over, and it would
have to be stored somewhere. Now, these men who are selling
our cheese, and are selling other products, furnish the room to
store it, and it is our business to look sharply after them to see
that they are not getting too much. We must either let the man
who is in Boston do it, or send another man there, who will be
precisely in the same condition. For instance, I might kill one
hog at a time, and perhaps I should have three hundred pounds
of pork to sell. I cannot afford to go to market to sell that
pork myself, but some one else will do it, and my business is to
see that he does not get too large a share of the profits. That
is what we are all aiming at ; to see that the middle-man gets
his share, and the farmer his share.

There must be some way to get rid of the products of the
farmer, beyond what the farmer wants for his own use, and one
question is, what is the best way to do it ? For instance, take
the article of milk. The gentleman from Westborough knows
very well about that article ; what shall we do with it ? It must
go to market. I am living some seventy miles from Boston,
and have been engaged in sending milk there for fourteen years.
We claim to be a more honest set than the gentleman says those
middle-men are. We would not like to turn off a quart of
cream from every can of milk, and sell it to the confectioners,
as the gentleman says it is sold, for forty-five cents a quart, and
by that means get a large profit, and then fill up the cans with
water, and pretend to sell it for pure milk. But if we should
have an agent there, I do not know what the result might be ;
the temptation would be just the same to him to turn off this
quart of cream, and sell it for his own benefit, and then fill up
the cans with water. Tiiere are a great many things of which

158 • BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

we have only a small quantity to send to market, and these
must bo combined together. From the town of Warren, where
the milk went, there was a carload went every day to Boston,
and before it started from Warren, it was sold at a stipulated
price. Now, a great deal of the cheese that goes from tlie fac-
tory is sold in the factory, and we sell it at the best price we can
get, studying the markets in the different places to know wliat
they are ; but we have sent some to the city of New York, and
never have paid over five per cent, for selling it, and usually we
have paid half a cent a pound, or less. If we thought we could
do better than that by having an agent in Boston, of course we
should adopt that plan. It is for the interest of the farming
community to study the markets, to exercise the best economy
they can, and endeavor to get these things from the farms wdiere
they are grown to the consumer, without letting too much of the
profit go into the hands of the middle-men.

I look upon the agricultural interest as the foundation of
everything else. Every man must have his breakfast before he
goes to -work, and then his dinner and supper, and it all comes
from the farmer. There you get down to the foundation. If a
man makes five hundred dollars a day, by buying and selling
stocks, is the world any richer ? He has got an accumulation
of labor and earnings. The money is not made rapidly ; it
comes out of mother earth in some way, and by gradual and
slow processes, and if ho gets five hundred dollars a day, he
does not get it because he has made the world five hundred dol-
lars richer ; but what a man gets out of the earth, wliat he pro-
duces, makes the world so much richer. If anybody raises a
bushel of grain, he has made the world a little richer. It seems
to me, that every one of us should aim to do something in some
way, to make the world a little richer.

lion. Charles G. Davis. I wish to allude more fully to one
fact which I consider important, in regard to this matter of open
markets. I think the present system grew up from the fact
that originally everybody in this country was a producer, and
that the i)resent system of marketing in the neighborhood of
large cities, has destroyed all the small producers. For instance,
Mr. Moore says, the people up in Concord raise so many straw-
berries, that they could not sell them in these open markets.
That remark leads to an illustration of what I think would be

THE SMALL PRODUCERS. 159

the result of having an open market. If you had open markets
for twenty years in the city of Baston, there would gradually
grow lip in the neighborhood of Boston, or would remain there,
a large body of small producers.

It would be for the interest of the State and of the consumers,
to have a class of small producers establish themselves in the
neighborhood of these large cities. This class of men, I repeat,
is dying out in Massachusetts. In Philadelphia we used to see
the German women in the market. They would come in and
sell their ten, twenty, thirty or forty baskets of strawberries, a
week's butter, and so on. If we had a class of such persons,
working upon one, two, three, or four acres, within ten or fif-
teen miles of Boston, it would be to the advantage of the city,
and to the advantage of the consumers in the city. It seems to
me that under the present system, that class of people is crushed
out entirely. We have no producers who market their own
products on a small scale.

Then I think the result is, that people become reckless
with regard to the price they pay ; they think they must submit
to whatever price is charged at the retail store. But such a
system of free markets would surely lead to the purchase of
articles in larger quantities, and tend to an easier sale of tlie
products of the larger farmer or market gardener. But so long-
as our people do not confine themselves to specialties in farm-
ing, such a market is more needed by the miscellaneous pro-
ducers than by the man who confines himself to special products,
because the latter is better known and better knows his market.

Every means should be resorted to in order to destroy the
monopoly that exists with the larger agents. If tlicre was a
free market, where, if a man bought a dollar's worth, he would
save more than enough to pay a boy for carrying his basket
home, that would remedy the difficulty spoken of as existing in
Worcester. The consumer would buy so much cheaper, that
he could at least afford to pay ten cents to a boy to carry his
basket home. I think the influence of those free markets
would be to keep the price at such a point, that the Faneuil
Hall men could not set the price, or keep up monopoly. The
people would know where they could go, and what would be a
reasonable price for them to pay, and fur the producer to re-
ceive.

160 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The Chairman. Having had some experience in regard to
market days, and having been engaged on the committee to
which the gentleman alhided, who made the attempt to estab-
lish them in this State, I want to say a few words on the subject.

So far as free markets are concerned, I agree with Mr. Davis
entirely. I have never been able to see the slightest reason
why such a monopoly should exist as now exists in the city of
Boston. 1 cannot comprehend it. I see no argument for it,
even from its friends ; none which an intelligent citizen ought
to accept. But this system of market days was found to be
entirely inconsistent with what may be termed the feelings,
tastes and interests of the producer. Let me illustrate. We
were told by the gentleman who brought the system from Eng-
land, where he had observed it carefully, that it would afford us
an opportunity to go into the market squares of the towns
where these markets are held, and buy hay and other produce
by looking at the samples, and leaving our orders ; so, if I
wanted two hundred bushels of oats, I could go to Danvers, for
instance, on market day, look at the samples of oats, make my
choice, and have them delivered ; and so of hay and other
articles of that description. But it was found that there were
no samples there. The grain coming from the West in large
quantities was held in the great centres, in the large towns and
cities, and it was a great deal easier for a man to go to his own
dealer, and order fifty or a hundred bushels of grain, than to
rely upon samples brought in exceptionally on market days.
We were told, too, that any parties having cows to sell would
drive them in there, and the purchasers would naturally appear ;
but it was found that the competition was not of that kind
which was what the sellers wanted, in order to give them a fair
price for their commodity. There were a few cows in the little
market, but very few purchasers, and it was soon found that the
whole system of trade, as established in this country, was
deranged by that method ; and the gentlemen who brought
their cows were glad enough to get them back on their own
farms, and the gentlemen who came there to buy, were glad
enough to follow them up, so as to sit down and make the
trade right on the threshold of the door. It was found to be
utterly and entirely inconsistent with our organization of
society and our methods of doing business, and it could not be

THE WAY THINGS ARE DONE. 161

developed into proportions large enough to make it succeed
with us. It succeeds well enough in England and on tlie Con-
tinent of Europe, because there are no such producers there as
Mr. Moore has alluded to in Concord, — gentlemen owning large
tracts of land, producing large quantities of fruit or vegetables,
and putting their products together and sending them to market.
The persons coming into the market towns of Europe are gen-
erally small producers. I have seen in Switzerland, for instance,
a little bull hitched to a wagon, and a girl fourteen or fifteen
years old driving him, with about as much in the wagon as half
a dozen wheelbarrows would hold, the produce, perhaps, of her
father's farm for the day. It is a little business. It is the
smallest conceivable mode of transacting business. That is not
the way things are done here.

Mr. Moore has told you what has been done in Concord ; it is
a good plan, and one that can be adopted anywhere. The lesson
to be drawn from what he said is to raise in your own locality
what you can send profitably to market. Mr. Howe cannot
raise cabbages in Bolton, and get them to market at a profit ; I
can, living within half a mile of the market of Salem. It is
utterly useless for a man who has a farm a hundred and fifty
miles from Boston, to make an attempt to raise strawl^errics for
the Boston market, but he can raise an endless variety of com-
modities that he can put into barrels and bales and sell there.
We can raise onions and wheat and barley in proper places, and
send them to the great markets. There is one section of this
State, — the county of Essex, — in which farmers are obedient to
that law which we have laid down. They produce on their
farms what is adapted to the market in which their farms are
located. Tliere is not a cabbage, nor an onion, nor a potato,
nor a bushel of pease, nor an ear of sweet corn, nor a bushel of
turnips, nor a ton of hay, nor a quart of milk, raised in that
county, that has not found a channel through which it flows
readily and profitably to market. Let me illustrate. The mar-
ket of Lawrence sprang up about the year 1845 or 1846. I
knew the region round about it well. It had been occupied by
what we call general farmers. They had been industrious and
prosperous. They raised a little wool, a little pork, and corn
and potatoes, some apples and cider, and they kept along in that
way. But the instant the market of Lawrence opened, tlie sons

21

f

162 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

turned themselves into expressmen, and tlie daughters of one of
those farmers at least, whose father had died just about that
time, turned the old farm into the production of vegetables for
the Lawrence market, and it was not three years before those
two girls had the best barn in the town ; and in three years more
they had as good a house as there was in the neighborhood, and
in five years more they had cleared m6ney enough to retire and
sell their farm to the first purchaser who came along.

My farm is situated within half a mile of Salem, and I never
raised anything in my life that I could not sell the instant it
went into market. My market wagon starts in every morning,
and the vegetables are delivered from it by the ingenuous young
man who goes with it. There is no middle-man to divide the
profits. My milk wagon follows the vegetable wagon, and there
is a milk route that goes with the farm, just as much as the pas-
ture lands and fields go with it.

This same rule is adopted by the farmers in the vicinity of
Newburyport. I know one man who is a prosperous farmer,
who never did anything else but carry on a milk farm, and
never would try to do anything else. He has loaded his mar-
ket-wagon for the last twenty-five or thirty years with what milk
he could produce on his farm, and on top of his milk he puts as
many vegetables as he can haul with one horse, and he is as
prosperous a farmer as there is in Essex County,

So it is with tobacco in the Connecticut Valley. That is the
appropriate place for it. The farmers in that valley are growing
rich by raising tobacco, because they have selected the crop
adapted to their locality. There is the little town of Sunderland
up on the river, where the farmers are growing rich, by devot-
ing themselves to the cultivation of onions and tobacco. Tiiere
are eiglit hundred and sixty-five men, women and children in
that town, and you do not meet any one of its citizens in the
cars, or anywhere else in this State, who does not ask you, the
first thing, if you come from an onion region, " Will you be
kind enough to tell me the price of onions ? " They are just as
keen and shrewd for the market in that town as the wool-growers
of the West to find out the price of wool, or the cotton-growers
of the South, or great wheat-growers of the North- West. They
understand the business perfectly well, and the agriculture of
that town is so well managed that the amount of artificial

FARM PRODUCTS OF THE COUNTRY. 163

manures carried into that place would astonish you as it did
me, — ton after ton of superphosphate and Peruvian guano,
and all the ashes that can be purchased within twenty-five or
thirty miles of the town.

This is the secret of the wliole business — the selection of the
proper crop for each particular locality ; hay, where it is a hay
farm, and onions where it is an onion farm ; rapidly perishable
commodities for the local markets. Wherever you are situated
adapt your business to the locality in which you live. If you
follow these rules there is no piece of land in Massachusetts to
which a certain form of agriculture cannot be applied which
will be profitable.

It is a very easy thing to say that farming is not profitable.
Mr. Hubbard has told you the whole story. Why is it the great
profitable business ? It is the foundation of everything else.
Mills stop, ships sink, banks suspend ; but it is the land which
really keeps the whole machine in motion, and makes the com-
munity really and substantially rich. Three thousand millions
of dollars' worth of agricultural products in this country within
the last year ! Let the manufacturers tell such a story as that
if they can. Of all the articles exported into foreign markets
from this country, to give us a substantial financial basis abroad
for the nine months ending the 31st of March, 1870, two
hundred and fifty-fiv^e millions out of three hundred and
eighty-seven millions were agricultural products. One hun-
dred and seventy million dollars' worth of cotton ; sixteen
and a half million dollars' worth of tobacco ; eight or ten mil-
lion dollars' worth of wheat ; five million dollars' worth of bacon
and hams ; seven million dollars' worth of cheese ; and so it
goes all the way through the two hundred and fifty-five millions.
That is the relation that agriculture holds to the financial world,
and to the financial success of our country. T tell you there is
no crop that a man can possibly raise for which he cannot find
a market, if he will only by some ingenuity or other find a
channel from his farm to his market.

Mr. Moore has told you, and told you well, how he has been
able to manage the railroad in Concord. You can do the same
thing all over this State. I venture to say that there is no rail-
road company in the Commonwealth bold enough to defy the
farming community that lives along its line, when that com-
munity demands a fair, just and reasonable mode of sending

164 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

their crops to market. It is, therefore, only for you to ascertain
what you can send to market from your respective localities, and
avail yourselves of the opi)ortunity. Tlie selling of milk which
has been so much discussed, is the one troublesome problem. I
have suggested over and over again to the milk producers,
that they should establish their own agents in tlie markets
where their milk is sent, l)ut they have not seen fit as yet to
adopt the suggestion. I do not kiiow that they can witli safety ;
I am not sure about it ; but I do think if we who are producing
milk could agree in our localities for a certain season of the
year what would be a ])rofitable price for ourselves, the con-
tractors would pay it. If they are selling milk in the markets
of Boston for eight cents a quart this year, and you are deliver-
ing it to them so that they can get a decent profit from it at that
rate, and next year you cannot afford to sell it to them for the
price at which you are now selling it, they will give you what-
ever price you agree among yourselves is fair and reasonable.
It only needs a combination among the farmers in a given
locality, and the placing of the matter in a proper light bcfote
the contractors themselves, to bring those men to terms at once.
That is my view of the matter.

I have taken this occasion to sum up what has been said this
afternoon upon this subject, because the discussion has been really
an interesting and valuable one, and the question is one which
lies at the very foundation of the whole interest of agriculture.

Mr. Lewis of Framingham. I want to say one word on this
subject of free markets. I think if this Board sliould suggest to
the city of Boston that the farmers of the State wanted some
proper place to market certain articles, they would consider it.
There are some stalls in Faneuil Hall Market that are worth
over three or four thousand dollars a year premium. The rent
itself is merely nominal in comparison, but it is not near low
enough. There are two or three bank presidents in that mar-
ket who do a very large business. Tiiey ought to have their
offices up stairs where the agricultural implement warehouse is,
and make room for small retailers below. The gentleman says
that hay passes through Essex County into Boston. I want to
say to you that very frequently the farmer goes from Framing-
ham, and from other places in this vicinity, into Boston with
hay, and he has to stand with his load out in the street in the

BOSTON BEHIND THE TIMES. 1G5

rain, because there is no place of shelter for it. If the city of
Boston could have, as they have in Liverpool, a large yard of
some two acres, and have cheap sheds erected under which
such teams could be driven, and their contents disposed of, it
would be a great advantage to the city, and a much greater
advantage to the farmer.

Now with regard to disposing of green crops. There are people
near enough to markets who can carry in things very profitably
with their own teams. There should be some place where they
can go without being ordered out. If there was a particular
square which could be used as a hay market, where farmers
could drive their teams and sell at wholesale, as they do in other
places, we should experience very great benefit from that
arrangement.

Now in regard to the selling of milk. I think that matter is
entirely misunderstood. The business is not properly carried
on in this country. These milk routes are worth from one to
five thousand dollars — simply the route, without any horse
or wagon, or milk. It is simply the right to sell milk to a cer-
tain number of people. Now what do they do in the old coun-
tries ? I have seen stores where they sell the article of mixed
mustard and nothing else. Suppose we had stores in Boston
where people could rely upon finding Framingham milk, and
getting the genuine article, would not such a store be encouraged ?
I say it would. There is no reason why the selling of milk
might not be made as much a business as the selling of forty
other things that might be mentioned. It is an article of prime
necessity, and I think if the farmers would present the subject
to the city authorities, it would be properly considered by them.
It has been supposed here that the farmer could save his five per
cent, by the establishment of free markets. I say you can get
merchants of the highest respectability, who will do your busi-
ness for two and a half per cent. They will do it just as low as
they can afford to do it. What folly it would be for the dairy-
men to undertake to ship their cheese to Europe, make all the
arrangements for freight, and attend to all the details of the
business, when they could do it so much better and more
cheaply through gentlemen in the city, who are very much bet-
ter acquainted with the business. The farmers around Liver-
pool come into the city with their vegetables and small fruits,

166 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

which tliey dispose of at the very highest prices. I undertake
to say that that is the very best way in the world. I have
realized over eighty dollars from a load of flat turnips which
two horses carried into Boston. I say there is not a single
product that can be raised so profitable as that, but that is
merely an isolated exception.

I trust that such a degree of attention will be attracted to this
subject through the discussions of this Board, that some good
result may be achieved. If it can be done anywhere I think it
can be done in this State. If we present one solid argument
which will strike either the farming community or the city of
Boston, the object will be accomplished. What we want is some
suggestion that can be carried out. If onions are the crop, if
teazles are the crop, or any isolated thing you can mention is
the crop, go into it. All I say is, if your crops stop, our ships
and our mouths stop.

Mr. Asa Clement, of Dracut. Mr. Slade's remarks upon
marketing have interested me, and so have the speeches of
others upon the same subject ; yet after all which has been said
in relation to our own and European markets, gentlemen
present will not live to see any very radical changes produced
in the modes of marketing here. Why, it seems to me perfectly
visionary that any Europeon system of disposing of the products
of the soil can by our people be adopted, on account of the
habits, manners and customs of our citizens and towns-people
generally. Possibly the citizens of SutTolk County would be
benefited by the purchase of live acres, more or less, out on the
Back Bay, and converting the same into a market place, to
which the country people could resort at stated times when
they had anything in the line of produce to dispose of to their
city friends who chose to meet them there, but under the cir-
cumstances as they exist, with our system of railroads and
freights, many long years will elapse before any considerable
portion of the people can be made to see it in that light.

In ]\Iiddlesex and Essex Counties tlie markets are such that
the ])ruducers may, in the main, convey their products directly
to the consumers, and if too much is not demanded, may
generally dispose of commodities thus, fixing their own price
upon the same. In Lowell, for instance, there are hundreds
of widows and others with moderate means, who have gone

NEW ENGLAND HOMES. 167

thither to procure a livelihood, and secure to their children the
advantages of the city schools, by keeping boarders on tlie cor-
porations or elsewhere, few indeed of whom are so conditioned
that it would be convenient daily to attend a market; therefore
they expect that market-men, and women too, will call at their
doors with the things needful, and they do so. It must be con-
fessed, however, that the labor required to sell to advantage any
commodity of which there is a superabundance, as was the ease
with apples in the autumn of 1870, is sometimes onerous, but
may as well be submitted to philosophically as otherwise. In
the larger cities like Boston, with its thronged and crowded
streets, no way to dispense with middle-men is yet clear to my
mind, however desirable such a result may appear on its face ;
still I would resort to any legitimate means to break up mono-
polies and secure to the producer a fair share of the profits.
Adjourned to evening.

Evening Session.
The Board met at 7| o'clock, to listen to a lecture on

NEW ENGLAND HOMES,

BY PROFESSOR ALBERT HOPKINS, OF WILLIAMS COLLEGE.

Home is a word which has a definite meaning in New Eng-
land. It is a word which cannot be defined in dictionaries ; yet
there is no word the meaning of which is better understood — •
scarce any more comprehensive word. Certainly, there are few
terms of one syllable which enfold and wrap up within them-
selves so much that is precious.

There was a time in New England, and it was a very good
time, when her homes, for the most part, were those of the men
who cultivated the soil. Yet, even then, there were other
homes ; as no profession or calling can be absolutely indepen-
dent of all others. There was a man who exchanged certain
articles, either of luxury or of essential use, for the products of
the farm. This was the merchant. There was a man who laid
cellar walls, and occasionally reared upon those walls an edifice
of stone or of brick — the mason. Usually, however, this artisan
exercised the duties of his ol'fice about the chimneys ; — not a
sinecure office by any means in those days.

168 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The buildings, for the most part, were of substantial wood ;
demanding the services of the carpenter. And because there
were " polite people" in those days, — a class, and in our best
towns, it must be said, a salutary class, tliougb wc eschew and
always have done, even before we broke with England, all arti-
ficial distinctions of rank, — yet there was a polite class of peo-
ple, of more than ordinary refinement and culture, who moved
in a circle not very exclusive, yet somewhat exclusive ; and to
whom the mass of the people accorded as a fitting thing, that
their equipage and style of moving about should have some-
thing more of elegance than they could afford, or than would
have been suited to their means. A class of artisans, therefore,
was demanded who could construct that wonder of a former
age — the high-topped chaise.

I think my memory goes back to the introduction into New
England, at least into the rural districts, of the more convenient,
though confessedly more plebeian mode of conveyance known
as the one-horse wagon. To construct these different styles of
vehicle, intended to facilitate locomotion — to render it at once
rapid and pleasurable, anticipating unconsciously the cars,
which were coming and were soon to arrive, to answer the
demands of the people in this direction, the occupation of the
carriage maker was subdivided. There must be a class of men,
wielding rather more delicate tools than adzes, broad-axes and
beetles — other implements than those used in the construction
of carts, ox-sleds and lumber wagons. Then these wagons
must have tires, and the sleighs must have shoes. To supply
these necessities and to do a great many other things there must
be a blacksmilk. And because his sledges and tongs and big
bellows were too clumsy for certain operations — for mending a
lady's finger-ring, for repairing a time-piece, or perhaps con-
structing one, there must needs be another tradesman. Thus
it came about, while every town, of course, had its blacksmith,
that those of much pretension boasted also a goldsmith.

There were, also, many nice articles of furniture which it was
necessary to have, even in the good old times, which ijy a kind
of courtesy we assume or allow to have existed, even before the
days when extravagance and luxury had begun their undoing,
corrupting work. Stands and tables and sideboards and chairs
were indispensable things, before the days of ottomans and

A PLACE FOR ALL. 169

lounges and brackets and what-nots. The cabinet maker, there-
fore, claimed and had assigned to him a place.

Another artisan who did not ply his trade in every town, but
whose services were still indispensable, was the stone cutter;
witli his chisels and mallets and apparatus for smoothing and
polishing our native marbles, in order that we might have white
jamb stones and hearth stones and door steps, and in some ex-
treme cases, flagging stones to the front gate ; in order, also,
that we might have on our hillsides, or on the plain, some sub-
stantial memorials of departed worth — some tablet, sufficiently
smooth and sufficiently white, to have engraven upon it a record
of what our hearts had cherished and our homes had lost. One
of tlie pleasures and wonders of my childish days was to stand
in the shop where good Dougherty, skilled in lettering and in
the art of making marble urns, plied his trade.

Then there were the most obvious demands of the body for
clothing. And here again, in the fabled days, if they were
fabled, when good taste alone regulated the fashions, and when
a well-regulated love of beauty, which not the beautiful alone
share, but which is a gracious legacy innate in all to some ex-
tent, alone ruled in the sphere of ornament, it was found that
the tailor with his goose, and the seamstress with her needle,
could not supply every article of outward covering. We talk of
a homespun age ; and suppose we know what we are talking
about. But the truth is, there ne"<^er was such an age. Poets
tell us of a time,

"When Adam delved and Eve span,"

but that was a long time ago ; and could we have been privi-
leged to look in upon that prototype of all simplicity — that
sample and specimen of a time which antedated so far the ex-
travagances and follies that have since appeared, we should
have seen something that indicated to us the distinction between
the trade of the tailor and that of a milliner.

The men who made our hats and our shoes, too, especially in
these cold climates, must be admitted as representatives of
necessary callings. It is obvious, also, that in order to manage
our steeds, or sit comfortably upon their backs, or attach them
conveniently to our vehicles, we must have leather variously cut
and stitched. And, since leather in its crude state is unfit for

22

170 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the various uses to which we apply it, room must be made, not
only for the harness-maker and saddler^ but for the tanner as
well.

Three important callings I have omitted, which cannot prop-
erly be called trades. We call them professions — that of the
doctor, the lawyer and the minister. Before introducing the
professions I should have mentioned the cooper, the tinner and
the tinker, — and still another calling, which, to have left out
would have been fatal to a/l the rest. For where would our
grandfathers and grandmothers have been had it not been for
the miller.

Now all these trades and professions used to be represented
in our goodly New England towns. And, if we except the hat-
ters and the tanners, who seem of late to have localized their
trades at points somewhat remote from each other, we still have
them all ; and it is quite astonishing how numerous they are.
I was about to speak of New England homes, and to regard
them almost exclusively as the homes of the yeomanry, as
farmers' homes. But I was reminded of the store where we used
to carry our grain, butter and eggs ; and this suggested the
storekeeper and the other trades and callings, each asserting its
right to live, on the ground that it supplied some human want
— artificial wants, perhaps, in some cases, yet wants which
belong to civilized man.

Tlie catalogue above given, however, large as it is, and nearly
complete as descriptive of the olden time, is still far from being
complete as descriptive of our times, which have witnessed an
influx of trades and manufactures, of which no one dreamed at
the opening of the century. These trades and callings, how-
ever, whatever they may be, and however numerous, are all
subordinate to that great industry which occupies itself with the
soil ; wliich stirs the earth and stimulates it, and adds to its
productive power. The man who draws the waxed ends cannot
live on the leather he sews ; nor he who smiths the anvil, on the
iron he welds, and so on to the long chapter of trades and pro-
fessions. Even the " king himself is served of the field."
Whilst, therefore, the homes of New England are the homes of
all her people, we must rather look to her country homes — to
the homes of those who manage her landed interests and culti-
vate her soil, as her real typical homes. In such homes, those

THE DOMESTIC VIRTUES. 171

virtues which have made the name of New England honored,
have had their root. And the maturity and vigor to which
these virtues have attained, has not been due to accidental
causes, but to causes as permanent in their action as tliose
which secure the equilibrium of the seasons amidst changeful
skies. The generations have changed ; yet, what gave charac-
ter and worth to them remains. Amidst the fluctuations of the
times in trade, in fashion, in politics, there is a substratum of
integrity, of loyalty to truth, of industry, of courage, of patient
endurance and perseverance, of decision, of enterprise and of
hopefulness for the future, based on a prevailing faith in the
power of goodness to vindicate itself, in the long run, against
whatever opposes and may for a time postpone its triumph.
What we have to say is, that from the beginning there have been
in New England, homes, and a great many of them, which have
turned out just such results, just such moral characteristics as
these ; and the natural inference, indeed the necessary inference
is, that there must have been at work in these homes some ap-
paratus adapted to the end actually reached ; just as a beautiful
piece of cloth from a mill, is an advertisement to the public of
the perfection of the machinery of which it is the product.

Now, the elements above named are not physical ; they are
moral and religious. But they are elements of mighty weight,
in any just estimate, whether of a nation's greatness or of a
nation's strength. They do not, indeed, enter into our statistics,
which we collect with painstaking, 'and point to with pride,
which we flaunt in the face of our enemies, as a proof of our
strength, and a warning to them to keep hands off. The old
figure of the lion and the unicorn, with which Britain foolishly
thought to intimidate her feeble colonies, we are tempted to
borrow and use for a like end. But we all see and know, as
well as we know our alphabet, that external resources, however
high up they may be piled, constitute not the strength of a
nation. Beautiful France, with her great resources, her fertile
soil, her climate almost unrivalled, has proved herself not strong
of late ; and one secret of her weakness unquestionably is to
be found in tlie fact, that among the thirty millions of her
spirited, talented, chivalrous people, so few have known the
educating power of a Christian home ; so few have had instilled
into them around the hearth stone, those high qualities of the

172 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

heart, which give stability to the purposes of men, and exalt
patriotism to the rank of a rehgious virtue ; because the State,
with its tribunals of justice, and its sword, with wliich it men-
aces the evil doers, while it stretches forth the same as an ffigis,
over them tliat do well — the State with all its judicial and ex-
ecutive functions, is an ordinance of God. There is a vast dif-
ference between the frantic excitement of a mob, crying " Vive
la Rcpnblique," and that sacred regard for human rights which
lies at the basis of all ration^ liberty. I hesitate not to say,
that of all the precious boons conferred by a New England
home, none can be named more precious, none as precious for
the inmates of those homes, none as precious for the State, as
those cardinal virtues above enumerated. These virtues — and
what I am about to say will give a glimpse, will, in a measure,
unveil the moral machinery already alluded to as so perfect
and so potent — these cardinal virtues, claimed as the product of
New England homes, are not learned from books. They are not
caught up at random, by men when they have come to years.
They are virtues which impress us as they are seen in the con-
crete— and they come down from fathers and mothers to sons
and daugliters, because they are positive elements in the charac-
ter and life of those fathers and mothers. We are made, and
benevolently made, creatures of imitation, that we may be pre-
possessed in favor of virtue through our affections, before our
judgments, wdiich are of slower growth, have gathered strength.
And there is but one place, by way of eminence, where these
prepossessions may be fostered, fed and strengthened. That
place, you will agree with me, is home. It isn't where the home
of a man is the cafe, or a bench in the public gardens, or a
lounging place around the Tuileries. It isn't where the woman
is lost in the doll, and where public amusements and fasliion-
ablc gayetics engross the interest which ought to cluster around
the fireside.

A New England home is a very peculiar institution. I have
travelled over the world somewhat ; and some of you liave
travelled much more and farther than I. We have seen a great
many wonderful things, and a great many good things, and pe-
culiar things. But very few are the directions, very few, indeed,
the points of compass towards which a man or a woman, nur-
tured around the firesides of our native hills, could move, and

THE OLD AND THE NEW. 173

not feel that they were retreating from centres of moral light
and warmth, towards regions of benumbing cold and darkness.
Something analogous miglit be found in Britain, and at a few
points on the continent. But few and far between, if any-
where, would be the spots on our globe, where, laying aside all
prejudice and prepossession, there could be found, clustering
about the sacred spot which we call home, so much to inspire
reverence for what is high and noble, and love for what is gen-
erous and self-sacrificing. I know there are those who seem to
gloat over the past, and to feel a kind of morbid satisfaction in
the belief that our New England homes, in their moral aspects,
are deteriorating. If so, the fact must certainly be set down
as an argument of no inconsiderable weiglit, in fact as a tri-
umphant refutation of that supposed law in assthetics, which
assumes that there is between taste and morals a decided and
friendly relation. It is not long since the old, brown, unpainted,
or in some cases, red farm houses, so common everywhere,
were superseded by more pretentious structures, neatly painted
in drab or white ; whilst the unsightly fence has yielded to the
ornamental hedge, or some tasteful rustic form of enclosure.
In place of a few old fashioned lilacs, ornamental shrubs in
variety are found dotting the lawn. And the inmates of this
new mansion are in some respects more refined, and as a general
thing better educated, better informed. More pains has been
taken and more expense, a great deal more expense has been
incurred to train them to the duties of manhood and woman-
hood. And though there is, no doubt, in our time a good deal
of frivolity, and much money spent upon mere accomplishments ;
though our young men might compare unfavorably, perhaps, in
point of physical stamina, with those of the past age, and our
young women are suffering, no doubt, some of them, because
the cold wind and the rough wind have not been suffered to
blow enough upon their faces and their hands ; though every
age has its drawbacks, and ours, without doubt, has its share,
yet I am loth to believe that the old Puritan stock, on the whole,
is suffering intellectually or morally.

I was lately invited in one of the hill towns of Berkshire, to
open a discussion before the churches, .assembled there by their
delegates, on the question " What are the gains or losses of the
church of the present day, as compared with the past genera-

174 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

tion ? " And after balancing the " pros and cons " as well as I
was able, I could not yield to an inclination, natural to gray
hairs, to pronounce the " former times better than these." ^nd
in this I was glad to be sustained by my venerable neighbor Dr.
Todd, whose writings have found their way into many New
England homes, and have served to make them happier and
better. And I believe it is good logic to infer that if the church
has gained tlie family cannot have lost.

It would have done this convention good, to have looked out
from that meeting-house in the hill country, whose eves on the
one side feed the Connecticut, and on the other the Housatonic
— a house of goodly proportions, and yet shingled from one pine
tree, cut early in this century by the hardy yeomen, and con-
verted into a roof which has weathered the winds of that high
outlook, and shed the rains of more than sixty years. The
sons of these hardy, industrious, intelligent men were present,
to listen to our discussion. Their houses might be seen, nearly
half a mile apart, on points sufficiently bleak, leaving us to
imagine what work there would be, in a few weeks, on those
cross roads. What blinding snow storms and deep drifts, what
digging out to get to school and to church, and what filling in
to call out again the men and the boys and the teams. Yet
those dwellings, sparsely scattered over a high, bleak, windy
region, owned by their occupants, and free from incumbrance,
within difficult, yet possible reach of the post-office, the school
and the church, were homes, if not of affluence, yet of com-
parative plenty, — homes of intelligence, where the sons and
daughters, of a winter's evening, could read together Snow
Bound — that beautiful idyl of Whittier, and read it appreciat-
ingly too ; appreciating, no doubt, better than some of us, how
true to nature are its descriptions of a wild, wintry night in the
country.

We might not covet a home so high, so windy, so bleak in
the winter, or fields yielding a return so grudgingly to the hand
of toil. But if we found under those roofs, as we should, intel-
ligence, a familiar acquaintance with our best authors, if we
found young ladies who would recite poetry, yes, and write it,
and why not, in sight of| Bryant's birthplace, and young men
well read in the history of their own and other times, young
men, some of them, who have made history hj their heroism, if

VARIETY IN THE FAMILY. 175

we found in young and old a reverential regard for what is
good, and just, and pure, our pity would be turned into envy.
We should feel that whilst conveniences, and luxuries, and
tasteful arrangements and surroundings, are not to be despised,
but rather to be rejoiced in, yet neither these things, nor any-
thing out-ward, in the way of architectural display — no variety
of shrubbery, no statues, or vases or fountains on the lawn, none
of these things, nor all of them grouped together can make a
New England home. Such a home must have something more
than external beauty to recommend it. It must be a household
home — not only must the eye be educated to appreciate what is
beautiful, tlie intellect must be quickened by thought and the
language improved by conversation and discussion. There
must be more than this even. That is not a true home which
is not a home of the heart. That cannot be accepted as a
model of a New England home, in which the affections are not
educated, in which love does not intertwine its living chain
between the parent and the child, securing obedience without
constraint, and holding each heart true to the great law of
kindness. Such a home as this will not have all its blessed
tilings to itself, but will be very apt to send out its good angels,
its angels of mercy to the poor, and its apostles, to teach the
world that the maxims and the spirit which can make one home
happy, are sufficient, if accepted and exercised, to make a world
happy — apostles of freedom, of reform, of progress, in every
good cause. Such are going forth year by year from the busy
hives, where the brain and the heart, the bone and the muscle
are being trained in a seminary more important and more
potent than any which the State endows. Our colleges and
our institutes, our theological and technical schools, may do
much to chisel and polish, but if the material which comes to
their hands, comes with no preliminary impress from the ameni-
ties and sanctities of home, that material can never be wrought
by any system of instruction, however well arranged, to the
good uses it might have subserved, whether for the individual
or for the State.

An old-fashioned New England home, I am reminded here to
say, consisted often of many persons, and this element of num-
ber added much. It added variety. It exhibited different
modifications of that one supreme thing, which we call excel-

176 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

leiice, — that multiform unity, whose perfection, as a whole, con-
sists in the perfection of all its parts. It was much to have in
a family, a Mary and a Jared. But it was more to have a
Mary, and a Jared, and an Alvah, and an Elijah, and a Clarissa,
and an Isaac, and a Sarah, and a David, and a John, and a
Rhoda, and a Nathan, and an Ezekiel, and all these under the
regimen of the good old times, growing up to manhood and
womanhood, so as to become veritable uncles and aunts. What
variety in such a family ! Some having an ear for music —
leading singers in the choir. One playing on the clarionet, one
on the bassoon. One having a taste for mechanics and astron-
omy, one bound to go to college, one holding the pen of a
ready writer, so that when he set his copies in coarse hand, it
was difficult to tell whether it was copper-plate or not. One
with a turn for horticulture, others devoted to the general cul-
ture of the soil, and all made familiar with the wonders of
machinery in the old grist-mill belonging to the family, — a mill
which helped supply Washington with flour when his army lay
at West Point ; whose great overshot wheel we children, when
we made our visits, used to go and gaze at, to get a sense of
power. Such a family was a little state ; and such families
there are now. I lately saw four young men, with eyes full of
intelligence, their hair as black as a raven — devoted to business,
yet not so devoted but that one could write a book, and another
a scientific article, based mainly on his own observations. Last
summer one of them called and wished me to go out to the
carriage, where were some of his sisters, beautiful girls, and no
questions to be asked. One could see, at a glance, that they
were accomplished and good. And how agreeable was my sur-
prise, after seeing all this, to be informed that these were only
samples of several others, for whom there was not room at that
time ! What a family. The truth is, it sometimes seems as
though there was too much goodness crowded under one roof.
There was only one drawback about this last family (I must
be honest), and that was that it was not from New England ;
and another drawback, perhaps in the eyes of some still worse,
it was from the city. All I can say on this point is, that proba-
bly the family originated in New England, and tliey show their
appreciation for her hills and homes by yielding, as often as
they may, to that magic power which the country more and more

A WORD OF ADYICE. 177

exerts, and to which the city wisely yields more and more every
year.

I must not close this hasty and imperfect dissertation on so
fruitful and vital a theme, without drawing one practical infer-
ence, which I wish to address to the young men of New Eng-
land. I would put it in the form of advice — the most impor-
tant I ever gave, if I could hope it would be heeded, which I
fear it will not. My advice then to our young men would be,
to remain at home. A nation moving on wheels is a nation
moving to destruction. We must have homes. Certainly they
cannot be surrounded by acres so broad as the farmers in our
Western States can boast. But the question of acres, of their
number and fertility, is not the main question, as we have seen
in connection with the great problem of a home for life. And
even in the matter of acres, if we take everything into the
account, I am not disposed to yield the palm to the Prairie
State or any other State. I travelled somewhat extensively in
the West a year or two since, and returned with the conviction
that it would be as well for me at least to remain in New Eng-
land. I would not certainly exchange my farm in White Oaks,
for any farm in Illinois, if I had to live on it. I like to hear
occasionally the sound of a brook — a brook that has pebbles and
makes a noise as it flows. I like to stumble occasionally upon
a dell or a glen. I like a farm that has hills on it, — high hills
and steep hills, such as used to tempt my feet once, — such as
old men look up at, and exclaim with the patriarch, " 0
that it was with me as in months past," when my feet were
" like hinds' feet," and I could walk on those " high places."

But tastes differ, and perhaps it is all well. Let it be then
that hills, and dales, and streams, and mountain shadows, are
elements not worthy to be taken into the account ; what shall
we say of those moral elements which have been described ? Is
it nothing for our affections to have a home? Is it nothing to
perpetuate to others that which has made us rich — that which
has made our New England homes not only blessings for our-
selves, but model homes for the continent ?

I learn from my friend. President Chadbourne, who has just

returned from a tour to the Rocky Mountains, that numbers,

taught by that most impressive teacher, experience, are taking

new views on the subject of emigration. He met baggagc-

23

178 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

wagons from Oregon headed toward the East ! It wouldn't be
strange if there should be a second exodus, before many years ;
from an illusory Canaan, in search of which many a pilgrim has
lost a home, towards lands and homes less favored in some
respects, towards a climate more rigorous and a soil less fertile,
yet to a region which, taking all things into account, the physi-
cal imperfections, which cannot be escaped anywhere on this
planet, and those elements, intellectual, moral, social and spir-
itual, which give to life its substantial value, and which, \\'hen
withdrawn, render life, to say the least, a questionable boon, —
taking all things into the account, a region as desirable as any
other, whether to live in or to die in — to live in and to die in —
this is what our homes are given us for. We would wish them
less transient, more permanent. We feel as the wise man felt
when he made great works, builded houses, planted vineyards
— when he made gardens, and orchards, and planted them with
all manner of fruits, and pools of water, to water therewith the
wood, that bringeth forth trees ; he felt it to be " a great evil "
that he must leave it all so soon. This is, no doubt, " a sore
evil," yet it is the law", by Heaven's decree, to which our homes
and our estates are subject. And there is this alleviation in the
case, — that what our lives are too short to perfect, and fully to
enjoy, may be perfected and perhaps more fully enjoyed by
others ; so that we may work with good courage, each adding
his mite of influence to make home what it probably will be in
the good time to come — more attractive and beautiful in its sur-
roundings, and the centre of a higher intellectual and moral
life, than it is in this progressive, yet confessedly imperfect time
in which we live.

THIRD DAY.

Thursday, Dec. 15, 1870.
The Board met at nine o'clock, with Col. Eliphalet Stone, of
Dedham, in the chair. The following lecture was delivered
upon —

LECTURE ON MANURES. 179

MANURES, GENERAL AND SPECIAL.

BY DR. JAMES R. NICHOLS.

In commencing a series of farm experiments in 1863, with the
view of deciding;, for my own satisfaction and that of others, some
controverted points regarded as of much importance to the inter-
ests of hushandry, it was felt that no satisfactory results could be
reached in less period of time than four or five years. The mat-
ter oHime in all farm experiments, in my view, was of the highest
importance, and therefore it was resolved to make no extended
statements or venture upon any conclusions until the experi-
ments had been carried through several successive seasons.

It is now nearly or quite seven years since a purchase was
made of a farm of about one hundred acres in Haverhill, county
of Essex, and upon which there has been bestowed considerable
attention and some trials made of fertilizing agents of various
kinds, and under ordinary and extraordinary conditions. I
have thought that perhaps I could in no better way bring the
important subject of Manures^ general and special, before you
than to call attention to the nature and results of a few farm
experiments, those relating more specifically to manurial agents
outside of animal excrement.

So far as I could learn, there were some interesting problems
in agriculture which had never been satisfactorily solved in New
England, or, in fact, in no section of our country. It seemed
desirable and important for the interests of husbandry to ascer-
tain, approximately at least, by careful and extended experiment
the value of special or chemical fertilizing agents upon our New
England soils, and in order to test this matter satisfactorily, it
was clear that the experiments must be conducted upon a scale
of considerable magnitude. If it was proved that a neglected,
exhausted farm, embracing a variety of soils, with uplands and
lowlands, could be brought into fair tilth by the use of special
agents, it would serve as an important fact in the history of our
agricultural industry ; and further, if it could be done at a cost
which would prove it to be practicable and remunerative, cer-
tainly great service would be conferred upon our farming
interests.

The farm which I purchased seven years since was not what
might be considered a worthless or barren tract, for some per-

180 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

tions of it, a quarter of a century ago, were probably in fair con-
dition, producing crops of bay and grain corresponding witb
tliose grown by the farmers of tbat period. For a long time,
however, it had been in the hands of those who treated it with
neglect, and the best fields had hardly been turned over with a
plough, or cheered with a dressing of manure for a score of years.
It had therefore become in a great measure exhausted, and the
thin grasses suffering for aliment. The number of acres not
devoted to wood and pasturing was about twenty-five ; of this,
nearly one-half was a low, boggy meadow upon which water
was allowed to rest until it was removed by evaporation late
in the spring. The remainder consisted of a series of ele-
vations or hills of considerable altitude, dry and silicious upon
the tops, but moist at the bases from retained water and from
springs. The soil of the different fields afforded quite a variety
in character and composition, and probably as fairly represented
the varying nature of our Massachusetts farms as any tract of
land in the State. A portion was silicious, loose and dry ;
another was loamy and retentive ; another, moist and composed
of dark mould with a clayey sub-soil ; and still another, a well-
formed wet peat bog.

It will be seen from this brief description that the farm was made
up of fields eminently suited for fair experiment, and also it will
be understood that it came into my hands under the most favor-
able conditions to test the value of any plan or system of fertiliza-
tion. In 1863, about ten tons of indifferent upland hay was cut
upon the portion embraced in the original purchase ; the produce
of an adjoining field of four acres of upland, which has since been
purchased and added to the farm, I am unable to state. No
corn or other grain in any amount had been grown for perhaps
ten years upon the farm, and I have no knowledge of the char-
acter of any cereals produced prior to the purchase. It should
be stated here that the chemical analysis of soils taken from the
different fields presented a singular difference in composition,
and what I learned in this regard upon my own fields led me to
examine those of others at comparatively remote points, and the
same remarkable variations have been generally found to ])revail.
The soil at the base of a small hill or elevation is of a very
different character from that at the apex, and a level flat at one
extremity of a farm is quite unlike another which is at the

SPECIAL FERTILIZERS USED. 181

opposite. It is not necessary for us, gentlemen, to leave our
own farms to find soils presenting striking dissimilarities in
chemical composition as well as in physical characteristics. This
is a point which should receive more consideration in the con-
duct of our farms.

With the design of attempting to bring this farm into good
condition without the use of barnyard or stable dung, no stock
was kept upon the premises save a cow and a heifer the first
two years, and with the exception of a few loads of manure pur-
chased for garden uses at the start, no excrementitious products
have been bought during the seven years it has been in my
hands. The farm at the present time sustains eighteen cows,
five horses, three hogs, and for a portion of the year, one yoke
of oxen. The product of hay the past season was fifty tons,
corn, two hundred bushels, rye, perhaps twenty bushels, with
large quantities of apples, grapes and other fruits. The pro-
ductive capabilities of the fields have been aroused through the
agency of fertilizing substances outside of animal excrement,
and the farm placed in position to maintain its good tilth by the
manurial products which it is now capable of supplying. To
state the matter explicitly, and thus avoid the possibility of any
misunderstanding, the farm was raised from its unproductive
condition during the first three or five years of the experiment,
by special fertilizers, so that by increase of products it has been
made capable of sustaining a herd of animals, which animals
now supply all the fertilizing material needed, and the manufac-
ture and use of chemical fertilizers have been in a large measure
suspended. In short, the experiment has practically come to
an end through its perfect success.

In bringing about these results, fifteen tons of bones, one hun-
dred bushels of unleached ashes, four tons of fish pomace, two
tons of Peruvian guano, five hundred pounds of crude potash,
one ton of oil of vitirol, ten casks of lime, and several hundred
pounds altogether of sulphate of magnesia, nitrates of soda and
potassa, chloride of sodium, oxide of manganese, sulphate of
iron, sulphate of ammonia, <fcc., have been employed. Eight
tons of the bones have been made on the farm into what is
known as " Superphosphate," by dissolving them in the condi-
tion of fine powder in oil of vitriol, three tons have been com-
bined with unleached wood ashes, and the remaining four tons

182 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

have been used in various ways, one portion in the raw or
natural condition, another by rotting in contact with moist soil
or peat, another for obtaining phosphoric acid, and in other
forms for experimental purposes.

The other agents have been employed alone and»in such com-
binations as was demanded to conduct the experiments under-
standingly, and in accordance with correct scientific deductions.
I regret that time and space will not allow of a detailed account
of the results of these experiments, as they are certainly inter-
esting and instructive. The statement presented is a general
one, given for the purpose of affording a comprehensive idea of
the extent and nature of the labors undertaken, and as prei)ara-
tory to the presentation of the details of a few experiments of
a more special character. During the past three years, atten-
tion has been given to the production, saving and application to
the soil of animal excrements, and these observations ought not
to pass unnoticed.

The cost of the bones and most of the other agents used upon
the farm was less than they could be obtained at the present
time, as they were purchased during the years of great depres-
sion which existed in the time of the war. Twelve tons of raw,
uuground bones were purchased at the start, at a cost of only
twelve dollars per ton. They were placed in a large steam-
boiler, constructed of iron, and submitted to the action of high-
pressure steam for a period of twelve hours. They were then
removed, allowed to cool, and immediately reduced to a powder
by grinding in a machine resembling a common burr-mill.
Bones by steaming are changed in their physical structure, the
animal portion or the gelatine, is in part removed, and the cell-
structure, before tough and refractory, becomes brittle, and is
readily broken up by grinding. After steaming they can be
ground in an ordinary plaster mill without obstructing the
movements of the stones, and without requiring a greater ex-
penditure of power than is needed to grind common gypsum.
The only mill ever constructed, so far as I am informed, that
will grind raw or unsteamed bones fine enough for agricultural
uses, is what is known as the atmospheric centrifugal machine,
which does its giant work by the simple power of attrition.
The fragments of bone are allowed to fall into a strong iron
drum, which is made to revolve with immense velocity, and by

COMPARATIVE COST. 183

the action of air and of the fragments upon themselves, they
are instantly reduced to an impalpable powder.

The rich nitrogenous principle of the bones used upon my
farm, the gelatine, was secured and composted with dry peat and
bone dust, and this was found to afford a most efficient top
dressing- for grass lands. Thus, in the process of steaming
nothing was lost. The cost of preparation was about equal to
the original cost of the bones, and hence I have estimated it at
twenty-five dollars the ton. The present market price of bone
dust is sixty dollars the ton, which affords a wide margin
between the expense of my bone material and that obtained
through commercial channels. The unground bone material
can now be bought for about twenty dollars, and it can be
ground for ten dollars. Why do our bone grinders persist in
charging one hundred per cent, profit upon this most important
fertilizing agent ? We need a reform, and are we not prepared
to say we ivill have a reform in this matter of exorbitant prices
for commercial fertilizers ?

The whole sum expended for special fertilizers during the
past seven years, is seven hundred and ninety dollars, or, in
round numbers, eight hundred dollars, which, applied to twenty-
five acres of land, gives as the cost of renovation, about thirty-
three dollars per acre. The price of fair stable manure in the
city of Haverhill has, during the past seven years, ruled at about
six dollars the cord. Add to this the cost of loading and haul-
ing to the farm, about four dollars, and we have, as the en-
tire cost of stable manure in the field, ten dollars the cord.
Eight hundred dollars, the sum expended for special agents,
would have provided me with about eighty cords of ordinary
long manure. This would have given to each acre a little more
than three cords ; and now the question arises, could I have
secured, by the expenditure of eight hundred dollars for stable
manure, fertilizing efifects of equal value with those afforded by
the plan of treatment pursued, costing the same ? I think not.
1 am confident that to have started my farm and put my fields,
by purchased manure, in the high tilth in which they are at
present, it would have cost perhaps double the sum which has
been expended.

The amounts and cost statements presented are not exact,
but sufficiently so to answer all the purposes of this discussion.

184 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Of course, in contrasting the cost of fertilizers, a great many
little things should be taken into account. The difficulty and
cost of placing bulky manure upon swampy lands and high
elevations must not be overlooked, and the expense of handling
or distributing it after it is deposited is considerable. Nearly
one third of my tillage lands are so low they cannot be entered
upon by any vehicle drawn by oxen or horses, and consequently,
it is extremely difficult or well-nigh impossible to distribute
heavy manures upon these fields. With the concentrated fer-
tilizers employed, the men have been able to carry in a farm
basket an amount of plant nutriment equal in value to that
found in a cartload of animal excrement.

Upon my reclaimed meadows no farm dung has been used,
excepting on a small patch for the purpose of experiment, and
I have secured large crops of redtop and timothy during the
past five years. The method of treatment has been varied
with the view of ascertaining the best way of bringing them
into condition to produce upland grasses. I have dressed cer-
tain parcels with the farm-made superphosphate, with a mixture
of bone and ashes, with guano, fish pomace, combinations of
salt and lime, and with sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of
soda. It must be remembered that my lowlands are pure peat
bogs, of such a nature, if the water was withdrawn and the
deposits allowed to become dry, fire would consume the whole
to ashes. The elevation of the bog above the level of Lake
Kenoza, upon wiiich it borders, is only nine inches in the win-
ter and spring, when the lake is at its highest altitude ; con-
sequently, it is an unpromising and difficult field upon which
to experiment with the view of driving out worthless meadow
grasses. Indeed, no one in whose judgment I placed confidence
would afford me any encouragement to expect success. It was
regarded as impossible to renovate meadows which for so large
a part of the year were almost submerged, and which could not
be drained. Nevertheless, the experiment has proved success-
ful, and crops already secured have paid all tiie expenses of
renovation and treatment. Upon two acres of the six which
are now producing upland grasses, a coating of sand three inches
in thickness was placed, after thorough spading and pulverizing
the bog ; upon this, a dressing made of equal parts of fine bone
and ashes, two thousand pounds in quantity, was evenly distrib-

EXPERIMENTS WITH FERTILIZERS. 185

iited, and it was then seeded down with redtop and timothy,
covered in with a brush harrow. The work was done in the
months of August and September, 1866. The first crop of liay
in 1867 was a little rising one and a half tons to the acre, the
succeeding crop was two and a half tons, and those which have
since been taken from the field have averaged about the same
amount. The present autumn a light top-dressing of farmyard
dung has been given the field, with the view of observing its
effects. Meadow grasses have not yet made their appearance
to any extent. After removing the crop next season, a new
seeding will be given the field, and the experiment continued.
One acre of the remaining six, received no coating of sand, but
after digging out the hassocks and burning them, the patch was
turned over with a spade, fertilized with three hundred pounds
of bone dust and two hundred of guano, and seeded down
similar to the other. This was accomplished in the autumn of
18G8. In 1869 the first crop and aftermath gave three tons to
the acre. The present season, the two crops have exceeded
that amount. Another acre bordering directly upon the lake,
but slightly more elevated, was reclaimed in the same manner
in 1867, and treated with one ton of dry fish pomace. It gave
a crop the succeeding year of one and a half tons to the acre,
and since, the yield has been about two tons each season. In
1869, two more acres were put in condition, fertilizing one-half
with pure bone and spent ashes, the other with farm superphos-
phate. The crop this season upon both sections has been nearly
alike, slightly exceeding one and a half tons to the acre. The
remainder has been seeded down the present autumn, using
upon one portion farm dung, upon another lime, upon two other
portions various combinations of salts, which it is needless to
mention, as no results have yet been reached. Some of these
experiments have been continued long enough to learn some-
thing of the value of the methods of treatment, while the others
have not. Several plats of the meadow have beea put in con-
dition, and left one season without any fertilizing agents, and
the result has been, that ferns and coarse meadow plants have
flourished together in rank luxuriance, thus proving the needed
presence and high utility of the plant stimulants employed.

I think from the brief and imperfect statements presented, it
will be conceded that wet peat meadows can be profitably re-

24

186 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

claimed and fertilized by special or concentrated agents, easy
and convenient to handle. I shall not venture upon the ex-
pression of opinions at present regarding the most effective and
cheapest agents, as these points are not satisfactorily settled.
After a few more seasons have passed, I shall have results which
will enable me to form a more exact and reliable judgment in
regard to the matter. The great value of our lowlands in
Massachusetts, is as yet imperfectly understood, although atten-
tion has been called to them persistently through books and the
agricultural press. Farmers, as a general rule, fear to have any-
thing to do with the soft peat bogs so common throughout the
State. Their experience in miring oxen and horses in attempts
to plough or haul on manure is not favorable to the prose-
cution of the work of renovation. When it is known that the
spade will do the work of the plough and that fertilizers of great
efficiency can be carried in a basket upon the shoulder, a little
more courage may possibly be infused into the owners of such
lands, and they may seek to draw from them their hidden
wealth by the work of reclamation. It must, however, be dis-
tinctly understood, that all meadows are not of a character to
pay for any labor that may be bestowed upon them. It is impor-
tant that every farmer should carefully examine his low grounds
before commencing improvements, that he may not subject
himself to disappointment and loss. It is certainly difficult to
clearly describe a meadow which will not, after working, bear
good crops of sweet grasses, but I am confident I could point
out such, if allowed five minutes' work upon it with a spade.
A piece of low land deficient in peat, with a superficial clayey
covering, overrun with moss or short, matted grass, will not pay
for the labor of renovation ; neither will a meadow pay which
is surrounded with a forest which places ^it in shade half the
hours of the day, no matter what may be the nature of the
deposit. A meadow permanently wet, and which cannot be
drained, is one upon which labor is usually wholly lost. Any
low land open to the air and sunlight, and which has a good
bottom of peat or black mould, and which is raised one foot
above the highest water level in the spring, can be converted
into a profitable field, yielding abundance of the nutritious
grasses. More attention should be bestowed upon such lands,

APPLICATION OF FINE BONE. 187

as the hay crop is one of the most important and profitable of
any produced upon' our farms.

A series of extended and systematic experiments have been
undertaken upon my farm in connection with fields which are
elevated and dry, and which were unproductive at the time
they were commenced. Let me call attention to a single one of
these. A measured acre of land of this nature was ploughed in
the autumn of 18G3, and in the succeeding spring dressed with
five hundred pounds of pure, fine bone, sown broadcast, and
then planted with corn, a handful of farm-made superphosphate
being placed in each hill. One hundred and fifty-seven bushels
of corn in the ear were taken from the field in the autumn of
1864. After the corn was removed the land was ploughed and
again dressed with eight hundred pounds of a mixture consist-
ing of ashes, bone dust and refuse saltpetre, and sowed down to
winter rye and seeded with timothy. The crop was thirty-one
bushels of nice, plump grain. The season of 1866 was exceed-
ingly dry, and the tender grass roots were so parched with heat,
that the hay crop was cut short materially. The product of
this field was only twenty-three hundred pounds. The next
season a top-dressing was given it of five hundred pounds of a
compost of gelatine and peat (the gelatine being the liquid or
resultant product coming from the steaming of bones), and the
hay crop reached forty-three hundred pounds. The crop of
1868, with the aftermath, reached two and a half tons. That
of 1869, after a top-dressing of two hundred pounds of Peruvian
guano, was two and a quarter tons. The present season it was
a little less than two tons. In this experiment, a dry field, orig-
inally exhausted, has been treated exclusively with concentrated
fertilizers, and carried over a period of seven years, the seasons
embracing the extremes of dry and wet, and these are the
results. Are they satisfactory, or is the experiment a successful
one?

The corn crop, seventy-eight bushels of shelled corn to the
acre, is not bad ; the rye crop, thirty-one bushels, would not be
disappointing to most farmers ; and the succeeding crops of hay,
amounting in the five consecutive years to nearly ten tons, are
certainly a fair product for high land, subject to unfavorable
influence of drought. The cash value of the crops at the farm
from the acre, if they had been sold at the time they were

188 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

gathered, would have reached fully four hundred dollars. But
it should be stated that corn in 1864 was worth two dollars and
fifty cents the bushel, and all the crops have ruled high since.
The cost of the fertilizing agents employed has been a little over
forty- four dollars ; the cost of labor cannot be exactly stated, but
it is certain the field has afforded a clean profit of one hundred
per cent, each year.

I fear to weary you with the details of other experiments
undertaken on the farm, as perhaps enough has been said to
convey a general idea of the nature and design of the work.
It is worth something to know that a run-down farm can be in
a fair measure rejuvenated and made productive by a class of
manurial agents which do not partake of the nature of animal
excrement. It is worth much to know that these agents are
proved capable of exerting a sustainbig- m^iience upon our soils,
that these fertilizing effects are felt year after year, and that
crops do not rapidly falter when they can draw nutriment from
no other sources. I think we have learned that remunerative
crop returns are possible and probable when special fertilizing
agents are employed in their highest integrity, and when a fair
profit only is paid in the purchase of the raw materials. Before
passing to the consideration of another topic incident to this
discussion, I will briefly allude to the grain crops produced upon
my farm.

A crop of corn has been raised each season since 18G4, and clso
a crop of spring wheat until the present year. Rye, oats, roots
and potatoes, with the various grasses, complete the list. From
careful records of expenses and results, I find the corn crop to
have been the most remunerative, and the wheat comes next.
During the seven consecutive seasons closing in 1870, we have
passed through great vicissitudes of meteorological changes ; we
have had seasons characterized by extreme wet and unparalleled
heat and drought, some have been quite extended and others
have been very brief. That of 1869 gave us only about one
hundred days in which to i>lant and harvest our corn ; the past
has been of extraordinary length, the warm growing weather
lasting from early in April to November. It has been a period
of great value to those who wish to gain by experiment and
observation a knowledge of the best methods of farming under
the extremes of heat and cold, wet and dry, and of the crops

SUPERIOR TO ITS ACCIDENTS. 189

best suited to our capricious climate. The farmer who by im-
perfect tillage and lazy liabits, has reached the conclusion that
we in New England have no certain crops, is indulging in griev-
ous error. All our cereal and grass crops are certain enough
if our fields are in perfect condition, but corn may be said to
never fail if a reasonable amount of attention is given it. My
crop has never fallen below seventy bushels of shelled corn to
the acre, and in 18G9 I grew in about one hundred days a crop
of one htnidred and six bushels to the acre. So late was this
season that I was able to walk across the ice-bound lake upon
which my fields border on the 10th of April, and snow rested
on my potato patch the 2d day of May, Corn among crops
with us in Massachusetts, is like a Bronsonian democrat, it rises
" superior to its accidents." The crop at Lakeside the present
season, hot and parched as it has been, has reached seventy-five
bushels to the acre. The cost of the corn in the aggregate,
raised during the seven seasons, does not exceed forty-five cents
per bushel. In this estimate we include one-half the cost of
the fertilizers and all the labor from the time of planting to
shelling, but it does 7iot take into account the fodder which has
proved in my experience to have a high value. This has been
fed to milch cows in association with wheat straw in the long
and cut condition, and careful observation and experiment
show that it is worth nearly as much, as a milk-producing agent,
as upland hay. Corn, gentlemen, is the cereal to which we
should give special attention. To grow it profitably we must
grow Ia7'ge quantities on small parcels of ground. It requires
no greater expense for labor to raise seventy-five to one hundred
bushels to the acre, than to raise twenty-five. Corn can be
grown in good quantity for several consecutive years upon the
same field by the use of agents which hold those great essentials
to plant-growth, — phosphoric acid, potash and lime ; but to
attain to the highest success, substances capable of affording the
nitrogenous element must be added. The first three years of
my experiments with the corn crop, I depended solely upon
dressings composed of lime, potash or ashes, and flour of bone,
and my crops were excellent, but I now use in association four
cords of good fresh farm dung to the acre, spread over the
ploughed field and harrowed in with a Geddes harrow. Into
the hills at the time of planting, I place a handful of a mixture

190 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

of fino bone and ashes, and under this treatment, I have learned
to anticipate heavy crops with full confidence. For corn, or
indeed, for any crop, I prefer to plough in the autumn. One
of the most important items to be taken into account in the
cultivation of the soil is the fineness of the mould in which the
seed is placed. A hard, lumpy, imperfectly pulverized field,
holding equal amounts of the elements of plant nutrition with
one that is fine, will fall sliort usually twenty per cent, in product
under the same meteorological conditions. In fall ploughing
we secure the disintegrating influence of frost upon our furrows,
and this is costless aid in soil cultivation. There are other
advantages which I will not stop to enumerate.

For five consecutive years I have not failed under what I
regard as proper soil treatment to secure good crops of wheat.
In one season, that of 1867, it fell to twenty-one bushels to the
acre, but the others have not gone below thirty. It was, indeed,
singular to find what a strong prejudice existed among farmers,
against attempts to raise this noble grain. It was urged that it
could not . be grown on our soils, they were worn out, did not
hold lime or something else necessary to its development ; and
further, if it did grow, rust, mildew or insects would destroy
the crop before maturity. The first year, I startled a neighbor
by growing a crop of plump wheat, thirty-one bushels to the
acre, while over the fence he grew a crop of barley, fifteen
bushels to the acre. I sold my wheat at -$3.50, while his barley
went for 11.40 per bushel. The plan of soil treatment has
been to sow broadcast early in the season five hundred pounds
of farm superphosphate to the acre, mixed with one hundred
pounds of crude nitrate of potassa, or one hundred and fifty
pounds of nitrate of soda and fifty pounds of sulphate of mag-
nesia. The importance of magnesia in the ash of wheat has
been strangely overlooked by chemists and by experimenters,
and I regard the employment of a salt holding this element, in
dressings for wheat land, as of great utility. Nearly one-eighth
of the ash of wheat is made up of magnesia, and as our granitic
New England soils cannot well supply it, we must furnish it in
our manures. As regards the evil influence of rust upon
wheat, I am inclined to the opinion that a well-fed, vigorous
plant possesses a posver of resistance to parasitic growths, which
is in a considerable degree protective. I do not mean to say

THE BATTLE TO THE STRONG. 191

that the farmer can positively and always place himself beyond
the reach of disasters, resulting from fungoid plants or destruc-
tive weather influences ; but I do say, that a good, vigorous, well-
fed stalk of wheat, corn or other grain, will bear up under and
resist adverse influences better than one that is half starved and
weakly. Tlie battle is in favor of the strong and against the
weak among plants, as well as among men and animals.

I do not think it is necessary for me to repeat what I said in
an address delivered before the Massachusetts Board of Agricul-
ture at Salem, in 1868, respecting the importance of farmers
preparing their own fertilizers, or of securing them in some way
in a condition of integrity. After three years' further experience,
I have but little additional advice to give. I deeply regret,
however, that many perhaps well meaning but poorly informed
writers in our agricultural papers, and speakers at agricultural
meetings, should make statements and give expression to views
which tend directly to lead farmers astray, and to confuse and
perplex them upon the subject of fertilizers, greatly to their
detriment. There really seems to be no need for this. There
are those unquestionably who must write and talk continuously,
as this propensity with some often amounts to a disease ; but let
us open wide the gates, and drive them, if possible, from the
field of agriculture into that of politics, a field where gabblers
are harmless, as no one is expected to believe any statements
made.

Unfortunately absurd and erroneous statements and strange
exhibitions of selfishness connected with agricultural matters
do not come from and are not alone confined to those who are
among the ignorant and the obscure ; we have had some sad
examples from the opposite class. It is only about a year since
that a gentleman intimately connected with the interests of
agriculture delivered and published an address upon special
fertilizers, in which he deliberately advises farmers to abstain
from any attempts to prepare their own superphosphate,
assuring them that they cannot successfully accomplish the
work. In another part of the same address, he informs them
that he himself is engaged in the manufacture of superplios-
phate upon a large scale, and the inference is, that farmers
should buy his honest products. As we looked through this
address, or advertising circular, we could not help exclaiming,

192 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

" Alas ! upon whom can the farmer depend ? If interest and
avarice confront him, when moving within the circle of those
who should be safe advisers and trusty friends, to whom can he
flee for counsel and protection ? "

It is not alone in regard to the nature and methods of mak-
ing and applying fertilizers that farmers are led into error ; but
perhaps there is no subject upon which it is more important
that correct knowledge should be disseminated than this. One
of the best known and most widely circulated of our agricultural
journals not long since advised farmers to collect large quan-
tities of bones, reduce them to fragments by pounding, and
then dissolve them by pouring on sulphuric acid ; also the same
wise advice was given by several speakers at a meeting of the
New York Farmers' Club, not long since. Now, it would seem
that every intelligent person ought to know that raw unground
bones cannot be dissolved in sulphuric acid. Whoever recom-
mends this course, purposely misleads, or else is in ignorance
from never having tried the experiment. Fragments no larger
than a raisin, may remain in strong or dilute acid for months,
and not be perceptibly acted upon. They are only attacked
upon the surface when in contact with oil of vitroil, and a film
of insoluble sulphate of lime is formed which effectually arrests
further action. In order to dissolve bones and fit them for
plant nutriment, they must first be ground to fine powder, and
the finer the better, as the acid can then cut through the little
atoms and disintegrate the structure. We must not mislead or
be misled in this matter. If a farmer has a quantity of raw
bones which have been picked up, it is probable they cannot be
ground in any mill within his reach, and he cannot dissolve
them in acid. His best plan is to dissolve them by either pack-
ing in good wood ashes after the method which has been often
described, and which I presume is well understood, or burn
them to whiteness, and then have them ground in a plaster mill.
Bones piled in a heap with wood, will ignite and burn with
great fierceness. The calcined product is brittle and can easily
be ground, and the powder, dissolved in acid, forms an excel-
lent superphosphate.

It seems to be necessary to state again and again, that in
order to obtain from bones the full fertilizing influence they are
capable of affording, they must be reduced to an impalpable

SCIENCE AND SKILL AND JUDGMENT. 193

powder, that it is a waste to sow upon fields bones which are
simply crushed into fragments, so as to be seen readily l)y the
eye. In 18G4, 1 sowed upon a field a bushel of bone fragments,
none of them larger than a pea or bean, and the past summer
upon turning over the field with the plough, tlicy were brought to
the surface entirely unchanged. Ordinary soil and atmospheric
influences will not disintegrate and render available, as plant
food, bones in the Avhole or crushed condition during the life-
time of any farmer, though he may live far beyond the common
age of man. This important truth should be understood by all
who desire to use bones in connection with their crops.

In the renovation of my farm by the employment of special
fertilizers, I have kept a few prominent well established facts
and principles in view, and have never allowed myself to be
diverted, turned aside or confused, by any apparently conflict-
ing statements or alleged results on the part of others.

A truth is a truth, a fact is a fact, no matter how difficult it
may sometimes be to compel all ngencies and influences to con-
tribute to the establishment of verities. I believe we have some
truths, some facts in agriculture, although the contrary view
ought to prevail, if the contradictory opinions and statements of
many of its professed friends are entitled to regard. Chemistry
is an exact science ; it is based on the retort, the balance and
mathematics ; and when its aid is called in to inform us regard-
ing the constitution of plant structures, its teachings are
infallible.

We can no more escape from its demonstrated facts in this
department, than we can from a belief in those applied principles,
which enable us to produce, in our industrial laboratories, the
wonderful and complex bodies which contribute so essentially
to the welfare and comfort of the race. Chemistry has never
rendered and never will render such aid to agriculture as will
direct the farmer how to raise crops without the expenditure of
time and labor, and the exercise of a reasonable amount of skill
and common sense ; but it does inform him precisely regarding
the nature of the plant structures he is called upon to rear and
the food they demand, and this knowledge is of immense ser-
vice. Chemistry, in its practical hints and teachings to agricul-
turists, leaves a void which must be filled up by inferences and by
the exercise of the ingenuity and the judgment, and any farmer

25

194 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

who is incapable of exercising these desirable faculties can never
be greatly benefited in his labors by science.

Since 18G6, the cash receipts arising from sales of produce
from my farm have been steadily increasing. The araou-nt
reached during the past year (1869), as shown from the farm
books, was •$2,458.30, and this year, ending in January, the sum
will be considerably larger. The amount paid out for labor,
seeds, tools, with interest on cost of farm, taxes, <fcc., very
nearly balances this amount. During the time it has been in
my hands important improvements have been made, which have
probably doubled its cash value. These improvements have
been carried on in connection with the farm work, and but little
additional labor has been called in to assist the regular em-
ploy<?s. I have usually employed but one man during the
entire year, who acts as superintendent, and he is assisted in
the spring, summer and autumn, by two others. "With a
multiplicity of other and exacting labors and cares upon my
hands, the affairs of the farm have been managed at a disadvan-
tage, so far as personal labor and oversight is concerned, and
this must be considered in estimating the value of the results
attained. I have reason to believe that the cash returns from
milk, grain, stock, fruits, &c., sold this year will reach to nearly
or quite three thousand dollars, which, under all the disadvan-
tages of hired labor and limited personal supervision, may
perhaps be regarded as quite satisfactory. Is farming profit-
able in New England ? or to modify the inquiry somewhat, so
as to render it more important and interesting. Can farming
be conducted in New England so as to be profitable ? Let us
examine this question in the light of the experience we have
had, and which has been very imperfectly set forth in the
remarks here presented.

The old adage " What has once been done can be done again,"
suggests itself to the mind, and if it is universally true, every
soil cultivator ought to be able to accomplish what has been
done by another. If these results are satisfactory, and if every
one can reach the same or accomplish as much, tiien farming
as an industrial pursuit in New England is fairly remunerative
and satisfactory. If a farm of one hundred acres in poor con-
dition can by the aid of special and chemical fertilizers be reno-
vated and made to support in seven years a sufficiency of stock

FRAUDS IN FERTILIZERS. 195

so that the resulting excrement will fully maintain its fertility,
and if two or three thousand dollars' worth of products can be
sold, then farming is a fair business. But it is not invariably
true, gentlemen, that what one has accomplished, all others will
or can accomplish, for there are certain hinderances and dis-
turbing influences which do come in and modify experiments
and labors, undertaken under apparently similar conditions and
circumstances. But I am certain tliat when the untoward or
modifying influences are clearly understood and intelligently
combated, the variation in the results of different experimenters
will be practically of little account.

The hinderances to success in the use of special fertilizing
agents upon the farm are not numerous, but they are of a
nature peculiarly provoking, and perhaps in some degree dis-
couraging. The greatest of these are connected with the
sources of supply, and it is in this direction that we must bend
all our energies to bring about a salutary reform. I am free to
say that in the farm experiments undertaken, an advantage has
resulted from being able to secure and employ only such agents
as were of absolute integrity, and also my professional pursuits
naturally tend to afford a facility and accuracy of manipulation,
which can hardly be expected of most of those in the pursuits
of husbandry. Still, the great obstacle to success in the use of
special fertilizers lies in their sophistication and general worth-
lessness. It is not alone in the so-called " superphosphate "
that frauds are practised, but deceptions, attenuations and ad-
mixtures are practised in connection with almost all agents
which science and experience have pointed out as sources of plant
nutriment. A certain class of substances which have hitherto
passed almost unsuspected and unchallenged through the
channels of trade, can manifestly no longer remain al)ove sus-
picion. Unleached wood ashes, when pure, are of the highest
service to farmers and gardeners, and they are diligently sought
for by almost every one who has lands to till. Specimens of
dry ashes, sold as those of wood, have recently been brought to
me, which upon chemical examination were found to be com-
posed of more than fifty per cent, of coal ashes. A schooner
load of ashes brought from an eastern port, and purcliased by
a friend at twenty-five cents a bushel, proved to have only an
actual value of five cents a bushel. Analysis of a specimen of

196 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

these ashes was made, with a view of purchasing a quantity if
they proved satisfactory. The examination gave the following
result : —

Hydrate of lime, . . . . .55 parts.

Silica, 13 "

Charcoal, 7 "

Ashes, mixture of wood and coal, . . 25 "

100 parts.

The large percentage of lime is due to the fact, that the ashes
came from a limestone district, and were taken from lime-kilns,
probably.

Another substance known as " fish guano " or " fish pomace "
has acquired considerable reputation in this section as a fertil-
izing agent, especially for grass lands. It consists of the dry
residuum of the fish-oil factories on the New England coast,
and is made up of the cruslicd bones and integuments of fishes,
from which the oil has been separated by great pressure. When
pure and dry we have found it to be a good and convenient
plant stimulant, and wortli about twenty dollars a ton. Proba-
bly but few of those wlio.have become purchasers of this sub-
stance have suspected that it is often so largely adulterated as
to be comparatively worthless. Some specimens found in the
market, and probably sold extensively to farmers, upon analysis
gave the following results : —

Water, 17.26

Sand, 46.00

Phosphate of lime, ..... 8.90
Organic matter holding ammonia and salts of

potash, soda, etc., 27.84

100.00

Here we have sixty-three per cent, of sand ami ivater, which
are worthless materials, and which are paid for at the rate of
twenty or twenty-five dollars a ton.

Another specimen gave : —

THROWING AWAY MONEY. 197

Water, 31.00

Organic matter, ...... 35.00

Phosphate of Ihue and various salts with sand, 34.00

100.00

This is better, but still one-third of the whole bulk is perfectly
worthless. A popular " superphosphate " recently examined,
gave twenty-two per cent, of water and only five and one-lialf
per cent, of soluble phosphate. The fact that husbandmen
are not generally competent to judge of the value of compounds
offered as fertilizers, has led to placing on sale some of the most
absurd substances and mixtures which human ingenuity can
discover or devise.

A heavy powder called the Grafton Mineral Fertilizer has
come into the market within a year or two, and has secured a
large sale at high prices. What is the nature of this powder ?
Let us judge of it by the analysis which is presented in connec-
tion with its sale. Here it is : —

Silica, 30.3

Protoxide of iron, 6.27

Lime, . . 20.6

Magnesia, ....... 11.17

Carbonic acid, ...... 32.11

This statement gives 30 per cent, sand, a small quantity of
iron, and the remainder is carbonate of lime and magnesia. One-
third (the sand), it is plain to see, is worthless ; the iron is of no
account, as every soil in New England furnishes from the
decomposition of the sulphurcts an abundant supply ; the car-
bonates of lime and magnesia are worth something, but how
much ? little more than ground oyster or clam shells. I would
hardly give five dollars a ton for this insoluble, unassimilable
powder delivered at my farm. In fact, I should not want it at
any price.

I make these remarks in tiie interest of agriculture solely. I
do not know the names of the parties who grind the rock or
vend the powder. In justice to them, it should be said, that
they do not appear to sell it under any false statements as to its

198

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

chemical composition ; the evil consists in holding it as a fertil-
izing substance of large commercial value.

A concentrated liquid fertilizer put up in stone jugs, each
holding a (juart, for which the modest sum of two dollars and
fifty cents is charged, has been, I am informed, largely sold in
many sections of the country. This is indeed carrying the joke
too far. France, it is said, sends us these concentrated plant
bitters, and I am tempted to say that any people engaged in
such charlatanry ought to be destroyed by the Prussians, or
by their victims, the Americans. Mr. Dodge Haywood presents
us with a compound he is willing to supply at 827 the ton,
which is not so ingenious and original in composition, as the
published analysis is intricate and formidable. He makes us
acquainted with its composition in the following analysis : —

Aqua and organic matter,

. 10.40

Carbonic acid, ....

. 3.30

Oxide calcium, ....

. 24.20

Phosphorus,

. 1.00

Soda,

. 12.00

Chlorine,

. 10.10

Sulphuric acid, ....

. 30.00

Oxide of iron, ....

.60

Silex,

. 8.40

Plainly stated this is the mixture : —

Moist muck, ....

Gypsum, . . . . .

Salt,

Carbonate and phosphate of lime, .
Sand, . ...

100.00

10 lbs. cost 10.00
45 " " 0.20
22 " " 0.10
15 " " 0.18
8 " " 0.00

100 lbs. cost $0.48

If it were desirable to make this compound, a ton would cost
about ten dollars. It is easy to prepare composts better than
this, and not more costly.

DIFFERENCE IN STABLE MANURES. 199

In view of what we know of the nature of commercial fer-
tilizing agents, is it necessary to inquire why so small an
amount of benefit is received from the application to our lands
of these substances ? When a farmer purchases and employs,
in connection with his crops, fertilizers of unknown value, pray
tell me of what value are his experiments to himself or anybody
else ? If he fails of satisfactory results, upon what or upon
whom can he lay the blame ? If he secures a successful crop,
does he know whether it is due to the fertilizer or to a favorable
season, or good culture, or some other agency ? He certainly
can form no satisfactory opinion upon the subject.

How can this evil be met and overcome ? Legislation has
thus far failed to afford a remedy, and I must confess that it is
extremely difficult to circumvent human selfishness and inge-
nuity by statute laws. There are only two ways: one is to have
all fertilizing agents of home production, of domestic manufac-
ture ; the other is, to form associations among farmers, establish
factories and prepare the agents for use only among those who
are interested in their production. The motive of gain must
be taken away or removed in some way, before the valuable
plant stimulants will come into our hands in a condition so that
they can be employed with confidence and success.

I think we must admit that stable dung is sold upon an im-
proper or wrong basis. So far as I have learned by observation
and inquiry, the price is fixed upon bulk and little or no refer-
ence is had to quality. Now, we know that the stable manure
from one celler or vault may be, and often is, worth double that
taken from another. A man who feeds his horse or other
animals upon run hay, and is stinting in the use of grain, sup-
plies to the purchaser or user a very poor article of excrement ;
and in livery stables the straw and litter serve to give great
bulk, but little weight or substance, to the product of the yard
or vault. I have ascertained by experiment that excremen-
titious manures, as produced at my farm, held of fertilizing
substances nearly two and a half times as much in the cord as
was found in those obtained from stable vaults in the city. The
manure from my cellars is worth" fifteen dollars the cord, when
light, fine, stable manures bring six dollars.

It is of the highest consequence in successful farming that
the actual quality of fertilizing agents be considered rather than

200 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

appearances, bulk or color. Every substance that holds potash,
phosphoric acid, lime, soda, and the nitrogenous bodies, has
value, and the value depends upon the amount and the condi-
tion in which these agents exist in the substance. K we can
know what the exact value is of the agent we are using, then
we can experiment understandingly and successfully ; but if we
are at work in the dark, our results will be wholly unreliable
and valueless.

The results of our experiments have established this point
clearly, that in order to grow crops successfully, a// the sub-
stances needed by plants must be present in the soil in which
they flourish. The soils of cultivatable lands hold in a greater
or less proportion all that is essential to the growth of plants.
Sometimes one or more of these essentials is largely in excess,
or there is more than is needed by any crop for a succession of
years ; and often one or more is held in small amount, barely
sufficient for some crops and wholly insufficient for others. A
soil resulting exclusively from the disintegration or crumbling
of limestone rocks will be rich in the calcareous element, but
deficient in several of tlie other essentials. Soils resulting
largely from feldspathic masses and granite, will hold quite all
that supply the elements of nutrition to plants, and sucli are
therefore good. No two fields or farms are alike as respects the
nature of the soil ; and therefore, when the question occurs,
how can this or that farm be restored to fertility, it is necessary
to know the general composition of the soil as preliminary to
any intelligent attempt to bring it into good tilth. Much of the
confusion and doubt which prevail among farmers springs from
this difference which exists in soils. Farmers seek for some
specific manure which will insure large returns of all kinds ;
but no such specific exists, nor ever will. There is, certainly,
no specific for our bodily diseases, and therefore, doctors in pre-
scribing are said to feel their way in the dark. The farmer
who is searching for specifics is groping in thick darkness. The
intelligent doctor who is acquainted with the constitution and
idiosyncrasies of his patient, possesses in the cure of disease a
great advantage over one who knows nothing of such peculiar-
ities. The most proper business of the physician is to study
the peculiarities of his patients, and the most proper business
of the farmer is to study the physicial and chemical peculiarities

STUDY THE CAPABILITIES OF SOILS. 201

of his soils. Of coiirse, a knowledge of the chemical and geo-
logical sciences is of great advantage to a farnaer in successfully
conducting his labors ; but an intelligent observer can secure a
good knowledge of the nature of his soils in ten years, and
know but little of any of the exact sciences. Without any
knowledge of anatomy, of ])hysiology, the farmer obtains, by
observation, a knowledge of the peculiarities of his animals.
He learns how to feed his pigs so as to fatten them most rapidly
and profital)ly, how to supply nutriment to his cows so as to
cause a copious supply of milk, and he learns the temper and
habits of liis horses and oxen, and accordingly controls them to
his advantage. Why should he not learn by observation the
nature and capabilities of his fields, and be able to a great
extent so to feed them as to obtain the highest and best crop
results from year to year ? Any farmer, from ten or even five
years' observation, can ascertain the extent to which his different
fields are retentive of moisture. He must learn how well they
withstand the drought or the protracted wet of summer, how
different crops behave when the rain-fall is small or copious, in
the growing months. Physically considered, some farms are
not adapted to the raising of corn, and perhaps some other
grains. Corn withstands drought better than almost any other
cereal, but that fact affords no reason why it can be raised to
advantage on loose, dry soils. WeaTf, puny corn can be raised
in a sand bank ; but foolish indeed would a farmer be to plant
his corn in such a locality. Corn requires a good, retentive soil,
a good fine loam, in which to grow in perfection, and if the
owner of lands has none such, let him not attempt to grow it.
His fields are better adapted to melons, beans, rye, or perhaps
wheat. It is useless to attempt to force corn or any of the noble
grains to grow upon naturally wet or low clay bottom lands,
without thorough drainage and deep tillage. Such are better
adapted to grass, and grass farms, if kept in good tilth, are the
most profitable of any. Every cultivator of the soil must first
become acquainted with the physical character of each parcel
he has under his charge, and then he will know what crops are
adapted tq the several localities.

By drainage and deep tillage, the physical condition of most
lands can be completely changed, and with the supplying of such

26

202 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

chemical agents as are needed, crops of every description can be
raised, satisfactory and remunerative to the hiisl)andman.

Colonel Wilder. Can potash be combined with coal ashes,
so as to make them as efficient and useful as good wood ashes ?

Dr. Nichols. I would say that I have made numerous ex-
periments, having that end in view. We make a very incon-
venient and pasty mass in the use of potasii, because we are
obliged to use it in solution before we can' restore to the ashes
the potash, which has been leached from therti. Now, a bushel
of ashes, — the ordinary ashes that are found upon our hearths,
which are a mixture of soft and hard varieties of wood, — will
give us a little more than four pouiids of potash^ I presume
our soap-makers get about three and a half pounds upon the
average. Now, we may buy in the market three and a half or
four pounds of commercial potash, and we can mix that with
coal ashes or muck, and make a mixture which will correspond
in its potash strength with ashes; but it is quite inconvenient.
But when you have added potasli to coal ashes or to muck, you
have not got what is contained in wood ashes, because you get
in them soda, soluble silicate, and phosphate of lime. "Wood
ashes hold in association those elements of plant nutriment-
which correspond,of course, with the structure from which they
are obtained, and consequently you restore to the land the
elements taken from it by placing ashes upon the land. They
have a very high value, in my estimation. I should say that
commercial potash can be used, but not comfortably. I should
never encourage it among my farming friends.

Colonel Wilder. Is it sufficient in restoring all these things
which we call potash, and which are so necessary for plant
growth ?

Dr. Nichols. Oh, yes, sir'. The ordinary caustic potash of
commerce is precisely the material which is taken from ashes.

Colonel Wilder. I formerly combined it in that way, and I
found it quite useful.

1 have never been more gratified in my life than I bave been
by the lecture this forenoon, and doubt not, that is the senti-
ment of this assembly. It was not only a scientific, but a prac-
tical one ; it was science based on practice.

Now, 1 have tried ground bones and leached ashes, as my

LEACHED AND UNLEACHED ASHES. 203

friend, the president of the Horticultural Society, J. F. C.
Hyde, Governor Brown, and other gentlemen are aware, for
twenty years, and I have given my opinion upon that subject,
but I never found anything so useful as wood ashes ; and hence,
I resorted to potash, making a solution and pouring it upon
heaps of coal ashes, shovelling the heaps over from time to time,
and mixing them thoroughly. I supposed it was useful,
although I always had my doubts whether my laboratory was
as good as Nature's .

Mr. Wetherell. I would inquire the difference between
good wood ashes and leached ashes, applied as fertilizers.

Dr. Nichols. There may be some question in relation to ther
relative value of leached and unleached ashes, but I think there
is an undue value put upon leached ashes.* We must remember
that in tlie process of leaching, all that is soluble is removed
from the ashes ; very nearly all the potash and the soda are
removed, and consequently the decrease in value corresponds
with the value of the products that are removed. I should say,
that when unleached ashes can be bought for twenty cents a
bushel, it would be better to buy them, than to buy leached
ashes at ten cents. Leached ashes spread upon grass ground
of course will produce very good effects ; but I think after con-
trasting these effects with the effects of unleached asties, tliat
faVmers are often led into error. Yoit see it is very difficult to
tell precisely what actual results you get. A man buys a dozen
bushels of leached ashes and places them on his field and he
sees that they increase the production of his field. He buys a
quantity of unleached ashes, and applies them to his field, and
he gets good results ; but he does not take time enough to con-
trast the results of the one with the other. Now, unleached
ashes will carry crops several years, or three years at least, but
leached ashes will generally spend themselves in one season.
I should say the relative value of leacliei and unleached ashes
was about as ten to thirty.

Mr. Slade. I understood you to say that the value. of fish
pomace was twenty dollars a ton. I should like to know how
you arrive at it, and what you compare it with ?

Dr. Nichols. I determine it by actual analysis, in contrast
Willi the cost of other products.

Mr. Slade. Peruvian guano ?

204 . BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Dr. Nichols. Yes, sir, you might take that as a standard. I
generally take bone dust as a standard, because that has a fixed
value.

J. F. C. Hyde. You speak of pure bone dust, I suppose.
"Wiiat can a farmer afford to give for pure flour of bone ?

Dr. Nichols. He can afford to use it if it does not cost him
over forty dollars a ton. I do not think it can be used profitably
at sixty dollars a ton.

Mr. Goodman. Is not that very easily adulterated ?

Dr. Nichols. Oh, sir, very easily. They grind the common
oyster shell and mix it with the bone dust very largely. I have
obtained from a Boston company pure bone dust, but I do not
say that they are going to deliver pure bone dust to every-
body.

Mr. Wetherell. Would you apply that to the soil without
anything else ?

Dr. Nichols. Yes, sir, you can do that with advantage. It
undergoes decomposition very readily. In this fine state, you
would want to use judgment in applying it. I should not apply
fine bone dust to a very dry field. I should rather select one
that was moderately moist. Still, I have had very excellent
success with fine bone upon dry fields.

Mr. Wetherell. Do you apply it to ploughed land or grass
land? * . •

Dr. Nichols. I should use it on both grass and ploughed
land. Allow me to make one remark, which I think may be of
some service. I have found the greatest difficulty in determin-
ing the best method of applying these fertilizers. There is a
great deal in little things. For instance, I have said to my
farmer friends, " You put in with your corn a handful of a
mixture of l)one dust and ashes ; " and when I have, met them
again, they have said, " It burned my corn up." " How did
you put it in?" ' " Why, I simply threw it in." " And you
put your corn upon it?" "Yes, sir." Of course a highly
stimulating manure like that will destroy the germ of the corn.
" Now," said I, " spread it upon your soil, kick a little dirt over
it, and your corn will germinate, and as soon as the little roots
start, they will push right down to find that material, and your
corn will do finely."

In applying this bone to fields you should not apply it in such

BONES AND ASHES MIXED. 205

a way as to get it into the soil deeply ; you want to spread it
upon the ground after you have harrowed, and then sirajjly
cover it with a brush harrow. If you cover it very deeply you
will lose a portion of the effect. I say, therefore, that iu the
ap{)lication of these fertilizers, there is a large amount of good
sense and good judgment to be exercised. As far as my obser-
vation goes, I find the same difference in farming matters as in
the mechanic arts. There are some mechanics who can take
hold and do anything, and there are some farmers who can take
hold and do anything, and there are others who do not seem to
have tlie power to do things as they ought to be done.

Mr. Ball, of Upton. You suggested several years ago, a
mixture of one hundred pounds of ashes, one hundred pounds
of bone^ twelve pounds of soda and twenty -five pounds of slacked
lime. Do you think it is necessary to have those additions,
or have you found by experiment the bone and ashes equally
good without them ?

• Dr. Nichols. I have found the two simple ingredients, bone
and ashes, to meet all the requirements of my fields. I have
made a variety of compounds. Of course, it would require a
great many lectures to cover the ground of all my experiments.
I have used about every kind of fertilizer, in all kinds of com-
binations, and under all possible circumstances, as far as I could.
I have kept a record of those experiments, and from them I
deduce certain general conclusions, which guide me in my
operations. As it regards your question, I do not remember
particularly about that composition, but possibly it is one of
those mixtures which I have experimented with.

Mr. Ball. It is in your address at Salem, published in the
report of 1867, I should think.

Dr. Nichols. Yes, sir. I had not then made so many ex-
periments with the simple elements, as I have within the last two
years.

Mr. Ball. I was desirous to know whether that was impor-
tant. I think there have been some experiments tried in our
own town, in which they have used the mixture you proposed,
by putting in the slacked lime and soda, and also by simply
mixing the bone and ashes together. I think that some have
felt that these were very important elements, and no doubt the
soil to which tUey applied the mixture needed some elements

206 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

found ill the lime and soda, but others have found equally good
results from simply mixing together bones, ashes and water, so
that the potash could act upon the bones.

Dr. Nichols. I liave been so much troubled to procure ashes,
that I have not been able to use more than the same quantity of
ashes as bone. I should prefer to use two bushels of ashes to
one of bone. In the mixing of tliis compound you need a
definite quantity of water in order to make it convenient to
handle. If you put in too much it becomes pasty. I think
about two buckets of water sufficient for the mixture.

Mr. Davis, of Northborough. I want to get your opinion upon
this point: farmers can buy shorts and wheat bran for about
twenty-four dollars a ton ; they can buy Indian meal for thirty-
six or thirty-eight dollars a ton. Now, what I want to know is,
whether it is not better to throw aside all these chemical
manures, and buy shorts and meal, and feed them to the stock
on your farm, and enrich your manures in that way, then you
know what you have. I want to cut the knot directly.

Dr. Nichols. Well, sir, I presume all good farmers who feed
a good quantity of grain to their cattle and good hay, are very
well aware that the grain adds value to their manure.

Mr. Boise, of Blandford. I have at my command a large
number of the skulls of slaughtered animals that have been
accumulating for a number of years, and the question has been
how to dispose of them. We can use wood ashes, for wood is
burned wholly in our locality. I think you have suggested that
bones might be burned. I would like to ask the relative value
of burnt bones compared with bones packed with ashes, and
decomposed in that manner ?

Dr. Nichols. Well, sir, by burning you remove the gelatine
of the bone, and lose all that nitrogenous portion, which is a
very valuable portion to retain. If you could take the bones to
a plaster mill and have them ground down, I should advise you
to do so. '

Mr. Boise. There is no plaster mill within ten miles of me,
and I find it takes a long time to work them down with ashes.

Dr. Nichols. In order to dissolve bones in ashes, a littlo
experience and manipulating skill are rc(iuircd. You want to
put them into a shallow 1)0X, and give them ashes enough to
operate upon them. You can do it in that way with great

MURIATE OF LIMB. . 207

facility, but I can see how any one can make a failure in an
attempt of that kind.

•Mr. Boise, I would also like to ask what is the commercial
analysis of a fertilizer sent out to the members of the Board the
past season, under the name of the " Bay State Fertilizer."
AVhat is the value of that ?

Dr. Nichols. I am not acquainted with that. There are
very many of these different substances. I received last even-
ing, just as I was leaving home, a circular from a party who is
' manufacturing " Caploophite," for fertilizing purposes. I do
not know what he means by it, but I was quite amused wkile
passing up in the cars and reading it over, to see the ignorance
and impudence of the man who offers it for sale, or rather, who
offers to sell rights to make it. He has got quite a quantity of
testimonials ; you know testimonials accompany all these things ;
but there is not a single chemical combination involved in this,
that has any sort of basis to rest upon. I should judge from
appearances, that the right to make this article might be very
extensively sold.

Mr. Wetherell. You spoke of farmers combining to man-
ufacture their own fertilizers. Could not that be done by farm-
ers forming associations, and thus cheering each other on ?

Dr. Nichols. Oh, yes, sir. I think that is a very hopeful
view to take of it. I think that farmers could combine and
purchase a mill, grind their own bones, and make their own
fertilizers. Quite a number of such- companies exist in Eng-
land, and they have been very successful indeed.

Colonel Wilder. An article called '.' Muriate of lime " has
been sold in considerable quantities in Massachusetts, and some
very good testimonials are presented in relation to it. Have
you any knowledge of that ?

Dr. Nichols. It is an entirely inert substance. It is not
worthy of a moment's consideration. It is not a manure.

Mr. k^LADE. The conclusion I draw from the manner in
which you renovated your farm was, that it was much more
economical than to have bought stock, hay and grain, and
renovated it in tliat way. The question that I would like to
ask is this : whether, if you were now farming it, and intended
to farm it for years to come, exclusively for profit, it would nut

208 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

be best for you to dispose of all your cattle and all of your
farm products, and continue to keep up your farm by fertilizers ?

Dr. Nichols. If I should sell off all my stock and continue
my experiments with special fertilizers, at the cost at which I
should obtain them, I think I could maintain my farm in as
good tilth, and in as favorable condition, and I' think rather
more 80,lhan by keeping stock. That is the result of the ob-
servations of seven years.

Mr. Slade. Can you not do this better than general farmers ?
Would it be best for us to undertake to renovate our farms in •
thai way, unless we have better facilities for getting purer
articles than we have ?

Dr. Nichols. I should speak with a great deal of caution in
relation to that ; I find it so difficult to convey the idea. Of
course, it must necessarily be easier for me to manipulate in
this way than for others, because my whole life has been spent
in it. But at the same time, I see no difficulty in any person
manufacturing these fertilizers upon their own farms. For
instance, it is a disagreeable thing to handle oil of vitriol. It is
an article with which you may spoil a suit of clothes in a day,
which would be unpleasant. In the first place, there should be
great care used in turning out the oil of vitriol from the carboy
to make superphosphate. I suppose I could turn out a ton of
oil of vitriol, and scarcely get a drop on my clothes. It is my
facility of manipulation. Some people have undertaken to
measure it in wooden vessels ; but an ordinary stone pitcher
would be perfectly safe. By paying attention to these little
things, anybody can make superphosphate, and make it with just
as much facility as I can. But if one is easily discouraged and
allows little matters to disturb him, he would be very likely to
give it up. I have always taken the ground, and insist upon it
to-day, that you can make all these things upon your own farms
just as well as I can, if you will persevere.

Mr. Wetherell. Would your farm continue for generations
to improve by the use of these special fertilizers, as it would
•with the use of animal excrement ?

Dr. Nichols. I might base my reply upon the assumption
that plants need food, and I conceive it to be of no manner of
consequence through what channel they get that food. Pro-
vided we furnish that food for them in an assimilable condition,

VALUE AND COST OF BONES. 209

it makes no difference whether they get it from bone, from
nitrogenous products, or from manure. It resolves itself into
tiie question of cost — which is the cheapest ? You can attain
these results in both ways. Which is the cheapest ? I regard
bones, at a cost not exceeding forty dollars a ton, as a cheap fer-
tilizing agent ; but if you have to pay sixty dollars a ton, I
should probably not advise their use very largely. Of course
there are special purposes for which you must use bones. For
instance, on low ground, where you cannot go with your oxen
or horses. I think that is a very important point to consider —
that you can carry these fertilizers where you cannot carry
manures. But at sixty dollars a ton, I think it would cost more
to produce a crop from bones than to produce it from other
sources. You are not using a strange thing when you use bones.
You are using what the plant requires. If it gets it from bones
that is one source ; if it gets it from manure, that is another
source. Bones will furnish plant nutriment if you put them in
an assimilable condition. If you do not, they are no better
than pebble stones. If you make them fine enough, you will
receive benefit.

Mr. Stone. I recollect thirteen years ago, reading in Stock-
liardt's Field Lectures, that in Saxony, and in some of the adja-
cent provinces, they had abandoned, the use of manure, and
were using only bone dust. Do you know the result of those
experiments, or whether they still continue ?

Dr. Nichols. I do not ; but I have no hesitation in saying
that in Saxony, and through that section, they use bones very
largely indeed, with very great success. There has been some
wrong teaching in regard to bones on tlie part of chemists, but
as soon as we understand them, and know how to apply them,
I regard them as very important fertilizing substances.

Question. Is there not a great difference in wood ashes,
growing out of the wood they are produced from, and will not
some work up bone quicker than others ?

Dr. Nichols Undoubtedly. I have usually recommended
adding to tlie heap a few pounds of caustic potash. You will
find that it will aid you very much in breaking up your bones ;
and you can use caustic soda with great advantage. It is cheaper
than potash.

Mr. Hapgood. I have a quantity of coal ashes, and I thought

27

210 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

tliey might be worth somethuig as fertilizers, though I do not
know how to use them. I would like to know if I can make
any use of them as fertilizers.

Dr. Nichols. I should advise you to use them as a top dress-
ing for low lands. Put them on your meadow^ as tliey are.
They are a little better than sand — not much. Usually, there
is about five per cent, of soluble matter in them.

Mr. Alexander Hyde. In the western part of the State, we
use leached ashes abundantly, and we find somewhat diQerent
results from what you have stated here to-day. I would like to
know if your leached ashes were not commercial ashes, which
were diluted wiih sand ? I fear you did not do leached ashes
quite justice.

Dr. Nichols. I do not know how to present the relative
value of leached ashes except by simply stating, that you can-
not get something out of nothing. That is impossible. We
regard the potash and soda in ashes as being the two great
essentials. You know potash enters into all our cereals very
largely, and is one of our most important mineral agents. If
you ])ut your ashes into the hands of the soap-maker, he extracts
all the potash and soda, and you have them back minus all that
is soluble ; and in order that he may extract the very last parti-
cle of potash and soda-, he will add a little lime, which has the
effect to extract from the ashes all the caustic potash and soda.
I never made a comparative experiment with leached ashes,
because I never felt that I could make one without acting soiiie-
what .empirically. It would be an empirical undertaking to
contrast the fertilizing effect of leached and iinleached ashes,
because I know before I begin precisely what I have, and I
cannot expect to get something out of nothing. I might get
something that would delude me by appearances, l)ut in reality
I could not be deluded, because I know what the composition
of leached and unleachcd ashes is ; at least, if the leached ashes
are thoroughly exhausted. I must confess that in some in-
stances they are not fully exhausted, and in that case, they are
worth a little more than if fully exhausted.

Colonel Wilder. I suppose in relation to the use of barn-
yard manures, where they can be had conveniently, you would
approve of their being used in a mechanical sense. That is,

EXPERIMENTS WITH LEACHED ASHES. 211

they would have a good mechanical effect upon the constitution
of the soil ?

Dr. Nichols. Oh, yes, sir, I do not believe any chemist has
ever said a word against barnyard manure. That would be
perfectly absurd. The great question with us, as agriculturists,
is, can we bring our lands into good condition, can we raise
crops from manures outside of barnyard manures ? That is
the question I have endeavored to solve, and I have satisfied
myself that it can be done. A great many have an idea tliat
these artificial fertilizers are very transient in their effects ; that
you get a little influence the first year and none the next. I
have tried the experiment for seven years, and I have given you
the results. I am manufacturing now considerable quantities
of these different fertilizers for experimental purposes ; but I
have animals enough to give me a very large supply of manure^
and it does away with -the necessity of making these manures.
I sell milk, and of course I have a great amount of manure.

Asa Clement of Dracut. I listened attentively to the inter-
esting and instructive lecture of Dr. Nichols; and I must say
frankly, that on one point his remarks have surprised me ; that
is, in relation to the value of leached aslies. Chemically speak-
ing, the doctor is probably correct when he states that the potash
which is at the time soluble is extracted in the act of leaching ;
but it is apparent that something remains, which, subsequently,
through atmospheric influences, mechanical or chemical agen-
cies, or possibly all combined, acts beneficially upon some soils at
least, and in my humble judgment, based upon experience and
observation on other than sandy soil, that the effect seems to
be more noticeable on the lighter soils.

A neighbor of mine having a large piece of what is usually
denominated pine plains, applied one hundred and twenty-five
bushels to the acre, on some twenty acres, for seven years in
succession — planted the same each year with pop corn, which
improved in quality and quantity from year to year. The soil
also apparently improved, becoming more retentive of moisture ;
when, in 18G9 a portion was sown with grain and clover seed.
In 1870 iwo crops of clover were harvested, the first, as large
as I ever saw standing upon any soil ; the second crop was af-
fected somewhat with the drought, which was very severe and
pinching in that locality. That land, however, bore the

212 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

drought better than any other in the vicinity, and the second
crop was large, comparatively.

There is no commercial fertilizer to my knowledge which is
more universally esteemed than ashes, both leached and un-
leached, and that by practical men who have used them long
enongli to learn what they are about. I would like well to
secure five hundred or a thousand bushels yearly, and there are
scores of others who would gladly do the same, but the -quantity
is limited, if the would-be purchasers are not. I refer, to spent
ashes. To use with peat as a corrective, a sweetener^ undoubt-:
edly unleached ashes at thirty cents a bushel, if of' good quality,
will prove a profitable investment.

[At this point. Colonel Stone vacated the chair, introducing
the Hon. Charles G. Davis, of Plymouth, as the regularly
appointed chairman for the day.]

The Secretary. We have present here to-day a member of
the New Hampshire State Board of Agriculture, who is very
much interested in the question of manures, and I would sug-
gest that he be requested to make some remarks upon the sub-
ject before the Board. I allude to Mr. Lawrence.

Mr. Lawrence. I am sim{)ly a practical farmer from New
Hampshire, and I feel embarrassed in coming before you and
attempting to make a speech ; but, sir, my experience has cor-
responded so very nearly with that of the gentleman who has
given us such an interesting lecture this morning, that I felt
desirous of saying something in regard to this question. Before,
however, I proceed with that, I will say that I am the only
member of the Board of Agriculture of New Hampshire who is
present, and that I am here in their behalf and in their interest,
to ask that more shall be returned to us than we have given
to-day, and to say that we hope, at the future meetings of our
Board, we shall have the presence of some of the members of
your Board and of representatives pf the farmers of Massachu-
setts. We have held the present month, for the first time, a
meeting of the Board of Agriculture of New Hampshire. It
has been a very interesting session of two days, but I did not
see the young men present there that I see here ; neither did I
see that desire to occupy all the time that I have seen here.

I live upon a farm of three hundred acres. It has descended
to me from my father, my grandfather and my great-grandfather,

FARMING WITHOUT MANURE. 213

and I have always been a laborer upon the soil with my own
hands. I have managed that farm for the last eleven years ex-
clusively. At the time of my marriage, my father removed and
left it under my control ; but having' labored with him all my
life, I had decided convictions in regard to the manner in which
he was managing the farm, and in regard to the manner in
which it had been managed. It had been his cugrtom, and that
of those who preceded him, to consume all the hay and other
products of the farm upon it. He had kept forty head of
cattle ; but notwithstanding that, it was in a very poor state.
I determined to adopt a different style of farming, and my first
step was to reduce my stock nearly two-thirds, and undertake *
to carry out a system of farming which I thought miglit prove
profitable ; and, gentlemen, it has. The farmers in my vicinity*
all said that if I adopted this style of farming, I should not
keep the farm up where my fathers had kept it ; but last year
I submitted my farm in competition with others in different
parts of the county for a premium of fifty dollars, and I am
proud to say that I received that premium. (Applause.) Sir,
that result has been reached without the expenditure of ten
dollars for barnyard manure. In competing for this premium,
I had to compete with some of the best farms and some of the
best farmers who live within twenty miles 'of me. Any of you
who know anything about that portion of Stratford Couaty
around Dover, and RoUinsford, and Durham, and Somersworth,
know what I had to compete with. In that section, tlicre is
some of the best land in the State of New Hampshire, and
some of the farms were vrithin two or three miles of Great Falls,-
Salmon Falls or Dover, where manure could be purchased at a
fair price, and where the cost of cartage was but little. I live
six miles, at least, fi'om where I can purchase a single load of
barnyard manure.

I commenced with the idea that, on a farm like mine, I must
use the hoe less and the plough more, because I believe that
experiments have proved that in turning over an acre of land
that is partially run out, we turn under twelve tons of organic
matter, in the shape of roots, which will rot, and very Lirgely
enrich the soil. To do this as easily as possible, I turn over
my land in the fall, apply my manure, harrow it in slightly, leave
it to the action of the frosts during' winter, and in the spring

214 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

put s\iperpliospliate in the hill. I have never failed to get good
corn. This system has been adopted very generally in our
section, and we find that manure applied in the fall is very
much more valuable thsfh that applied in the spring, because
having been worked into the soil and lying there through, the
winter, we believe it gets into a proper condition for the plant
in the spring! Besides, it saves labor in spring, when time
is valuable and labor high, and the cost of the superj)hos))hate
or bone dust will not be much more than the cost of applying
the manure in the spring. I have relied somewhat \ipon
potatoes, and those I plant entirely in my pastures, that had not
been planted for sixty years. I have not got a very large
return in money, thus' far, but when I sell them I hope the
price will be higher. But I have relied principally upon hay,
and I believe that is the only system we can pursue and make
money.

If you ask me what I have relied upon for manure, I will say
that I have expended six or seven hundred dollars for super-
phosphates. I have listened with a g^i-eat deal of attention to
the doctor, and shall endeavor to profit by what he has said.
If it is a fact that I can produce something that is more lasting
in its effects and better for one-half the price, by manufacturing
it upon my own farm, certainly I want to do it, and I shall
have learned a very important lesson to-day. The superphos-
pliate which I have used, I believe, is made in Boston, by Mr.
Bradley. It is a very good article, but if there is a better and
cheaper substitute for it, I surely want to know it.

My custom has been to commence turning over my land just
as soon as my hay \^as secured, and although I am busy in
spring, I have always' been a great deal busier in August and
September. I begin upon my lowland, and when I have turned
it over, I apply superphosphate or aslies, or whatever I can get.
I formerly used ashes ; I did not believe I could get anything
better ; but they have cost so very high, that I have abandoned
their use. I have found I could not manure an acre of land
short of forty dollars, where half of that money expended for
superphosphate has done very well. On my farm there are
three lots which were laid down f )ur years ago, one with ashes,
another with manure, and the third with superphosphate, and I

SECOND CROP PLOUGHED UNDER. 215

really cannot see any difference in regard to the products of
tliose different lots thus far.

As I have said, I begin to plough immediately after haying,
taking my wettest and lowest land first, and applying whatever
manure I have got ; tlien I tal^e lands ,a little liigher, turn them
over, and apply the manure. I wait until the second crop has
started on my high lands, and then plough that under. That I
believe to be a very great advantage indeed, and the committee
who visited my farm said that they had never seen in any one-
field of sixty acres so much second crop as there was in the
field which I presented in competition with the farms in my
county.

By pursuing this system, I have succeeded not only in making
my farming better, but I believe I have made it profitable, for I
have to rely upon that entirely. But there has been one ques-
tion raised here which it seems to me is a very important
one. I have pursued this system for eleven years, but that is
only a sliort time. The question is, can the same course be con-
tinued for generations ? I believe that my fathers, in carrying
on the farm as they did, supplied that land constantly with one
kind of manure — that made from cattle. It may be that in
supplying that, they have not furnished to the land something
wiiich I have furnished in the manures which I have applied,
and in consequence of that, the application of these special
manures has been successful. I am confident that very many
farms can be made profitable by the adoption of this system. I
mean to continue this system as long as I find it profitable ; but
if, after I have turned these lands over three or four times and
continiied this same system, 1 find that it is not for my interest,
of course I shall abandon it.

There is a great deal I should like to say, but I have seen the
eagerness with which you farmers have asked questions, and I
will not longer trespass upon your time. It is possible I may
engage in the debate this afternoon, but at any rate, I return to
you, gentlemen, my thanks for the kindness with which you
have listened to me.

Mr. Ball. I would like to press the question a little further
which was considered a few moments ago. I think there is no
question but what Dr. Nichols has stated the fact in regard to
these fertilizers, but if the doctor has any data from which he

216 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

can give any approximate answer to the question (for I think
the answer can only be approximate), I hope he will do so.
The question is this, whether if twenty-four dollars are spent for
shorts, and the shorts added to one ton of hay, the excrement
resulting from that, if applied to the land, will give anything
near the value which the same amount expended for special
fertilizers would give ? It seems to me that if we can have an
answer to this question^ it will be valuable to us, from the very
fact that we have such difficulty in regard to buying these
things that are offered as fertilizers. The same question might
be asked in regard to corn : whether thirty-six dollars expended
for corn, and the corn added to a ton of hay, and passed through
an animal, the corn wiH add as much to the value of tlie manure
as thirty-six dollars expended for any of the superphospiiates
■which are thrown upon the market, or expended in any way in
which the money could be expended for these various fertil-
izers ?

Dr. Nichols. I don't know that I could answer that ques-
tion, because shorts differ in their value very much. And then,
you know, the manure coming from different animals is very
different. But thirty dollars' worth of shorts would give 'half a
ton of fine bone, as it is sold in the market. I should prefer
that half ton of bone. I could make more out of it.

Question. I should . like to ask Dr. Nichols if he has any
knowledge of the relative merits of ground bone and fine horn.
There are sections in Massachusetts where horns are manufac-
tured into combs quite extensively, and large quantities of fine
horn can be obtained there.

Dr. Nichols. That is a practical question. I have usod horn
shavings in various ways, and' they are very valuable. I usually
rot them. They are very nitrogenous. They will make a mag-
nificient stock of wheat or corn, but they will not give you plump
seed without bone.

The Chairman. I think there is a lurking feeling among
almost all unscientific people, that, after all, there is some
element of uncertainty with regard to the result of chemical in-
quiries. For instance, the statement is very often made, in
regard to the analysis of soils, to see whether they are fitted for
the growth of plants, that there is some jclement or some proc-
ess which is as yet undiscovered by chemists ; that, given a

LEACHED AND UNLEACHED ASHES. 217

certain soil, they do not know by its chemical ingredients what
crop it is best fitted to produce ; that the air may furnish some
elements while the plant is growing. This was strikingly illus-
trated by the inquiry in regard to leached and unleachcd ashes.
There is a very general opinion, and I certainly have entertained
it, that leached ashes produced a good effect for a long series of
years. For fifteen, twenty, twenty-five years, their effects can
be seen on grass land. The doctor puts them at one-third the
value, chemically, of unleachcd ashes. I think there will be
difficulty in persuading the farmers of the Commonwealth that,
practically, there is this difference, although chemically he finds
it so. The question I wish to ask is, — and I ask it in order that
his statement may go out to the Commonwealth fortified with
all the assurance he can give, if he is of that opinion, — the
question I wish to ask him is, whether chemists feel satisfied,
beyond all question, that chemical results can be followed with
the faith with which he has asserted them here to-day ? I think
that such an assurance as that would add greatly, in the minds
of the public, to the good effect of the lecture, in satisfying
them that there is something by which we can supply the defects
in some soils.

Dr. Nichols. I would say, in reply to this inquiry, that I
have great faith in the absorbent power of the soil. Of course,
the audience understand that we cannot obtain from the atmos-
phere anything which we get from the potash. I have always
been extremely cautious not to overestimate the value of
chemistry to agriculture. I have endeavored to be so to-day.
I think chemistry is capable of aiding us very materially ; but
when the question comes up whether the relative value of
leached and unleachcd ashes is what I have stated, I should say,
chemically, I am not certain. I suppose some soap-boilers do
not remove the same quantity of potash that others do. I can
see no necessary connection between the application of unleachcd
ashes to the soil and the atmosphere whatever. I am quite
aware that leached ashes contain soluble silicates to a certain
extent ; they are not exhausted of their entire fertilizing prin-
ciples ; but they are exhausted of those elements which we find
to be essential to plant growth. If leached ashes are just as
good as unleachcd ashes, I should advise you to buy all the un-
leachcd ashes you can, leach them, and sell the potash, for you

28

218 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

can get about nine cents a pound for it, and then use the ashes
afterwards. Don't you see that would be absurd ? I can't tell
you the exact value of unleaclied ashes. I have never tried an
experiment of that kind, and I never should, because I cannot
see any necessary connection between the results I might obtain
and anything practical to be deduced from them. I should ad-
vise, in a general way, the purchase of leached ashes at about
ten cents a bushel. I cannot get at it in any other way. Tliey
either have or have not value, and if they have value, it is a
fixed value ; when we get out of that, we are in the dark.
Here are these certain elements, which are essential to the
growth of the plant ; they all have a commercial value, and if
they are in an assimilable condition, they are worth more than
in an unassimilable condition. I take those two things into
consideration, and that is the only way I can form any opinion.
I cannot guess how much benefit I can get from a bushel of
leached ashes. I infer, if all the potash is removed from them,
as the soap-boilers are very apt to remove it, the value is one-
third that of unleaclied ashes. I do not know but I am over-
estimating it in that way ; I don't know as it is as high as that.
I do not know how I can present this point in any clearer way ;
I wish I could. It is very difficult to state definitely what will
result from a combination of fertilizers, and it is utterly impos-
sible for me to state what will be the result if I do not know
what the fertilizers are made of.

I am afraid we do not carry these experiments far enough to
be able to arrive at fixed results. I have endeavored to do so.
I think we cannot reach solid ground until we carry things far
enough and observe closely enough. In the first place, we
must know what we have got in our hands to work with. I
might make an analysis of leached ashes, and in the course of
years, using them constantly, I should be able to form a pretty
good judgment of the results, but I cannot state them off hand.

The CuAiRMAN. I would not have the doctor understand me
as intimating that one is as valuable as the other ; but the eft'ect
of leached ashes was shown so long, that they were believed to
be a valuable manure.

Dr. Nichols. I think as much harm as good is sometimes
done in meeting a prejudice for or against a thing. I hesitate
to speak of some matters because I am afraid a wrong impres-

COST OF RAISING INDIAN CORN. 219

sion may be conveyed. I do not wish gentlemen to get the
impression from me that leached ashes are worthless, because it
is not so. They are worth something, and they do a very good
work on grass land. They are worth at least ten cents a
bushel, for that purpose. It is the money value that we want
to ascertain. That is really the whole question.

Mr. Brown, of Concord. I have been greatly interested in
the lecture to which we have listened, and very highly in-
structed, as far as I could comprehend it. I have tried to keep
within reach of it, as far as I could ; but I question whether
many of us were able to follow the lecturer through and under-
stand all the terms which he used — and he used very few tech-
nical terms compared with those which are used in his business
generally.

Some points in the lecture are exceedingly encouraging.
The first point was in regard to the culture of Indian corn. I
will venture to say that the good old State of Massachusetts
pays between two and three millions of dollars annually for
Indian corn ; and where does that money go to ? The towns
throughout the State of Massachusetts are furnished with corn
from the West, in the form of corn and corn meal. So it is in
other New England States. I have known of two or three
thousand bushels carried in one year into a town in New Hamp-
shire, with a population of only thirteen hundred souls ; and
yet the cry is among the people all over the State nearly, that
it is unprofitable to cultivate Indian corn. Now Dr. Nichols
has put it down at a cost of forty-five cents a bushel, and I have
no doubt that he is precise in his statement, from my own obser-
vation of his operations. But in my own town, on the farm
adjoining mine, I have seen a crop of eight hundred bushels
grown, and the man who raised it stated to me that the whole
cost was not one mill over twenty-five cents a bushel. For
twenty-five years past, I don't believe there has been a year
when I could not raise corn cheaper than I could buy it from
the West or South. And yet the feeling is general all over
New England that we ought not to cultivate Indian corn. I
think the doctor could reduce the cost some five or ten cents a
bushel, but I am not certain. I should like to know whether
he credited the corn crop with the cost of the preparation of the
land for the grass crop, because that is a very important matter.

220 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE.

The great object in raising corn is to prepare the land for the
grass crop, which he says is the most profitable crop we raise
here. I think if that item were deducted, it would liruig the
cost down to thirtv-five cents a bushel. Can we not do that all
over the State of Massachusetts ? I believe we can.

But I wish to touch upon one or two other points. One is,
the frauds in fertilizers. There is no doubt that we can use
them to very great advantage, if we get what we pay our
money for; but we do not always get it. I think the frauds
are very constant and very great in most of the fertilizers we
purchase. Some instances have come to my knowledge, as they
have, I have no doubt, to the knowledge of every gentleman
present. A friend of mine went to the owner of one of the
large sugar refineries in Boston, and asked him if he had any
use for the sugar waste of his refinery ; I suppose he had seen
some of it. The gentleman said, " It is not good for anything.
I have sent it round to some of my friends in various directions,
and asked them to let me know something about it, and they all
say it is good for nothing." My friend said, " You have not
sent me any." " Well," said he, " I will send you some if you
wish, but I can't sell you any, for a certain man has engaged all
I can make." " Who ? " " Mr. Bradley." " The man who
makes superphosphate ? " " Yes ; we have a standing order
to furnish him with all the waste we have." You will naturally
inquire, " What does Mr. Bradley do with that sugar waste ? "
I am sure I don't know. You must draw your own inference.
This gentleman supposed it was good for nothing, and all the
persons to whom he had sent it had reported it worthless, so far
as they had observed. I cannot conceive that there is any other
than one use to which that waste from the sugar refinery is put.
What do you pay for that superphosphate ? Sixty dollars and
more a ton.

Another friend of mine went into Boston, I think to Long
Wharf, to buy some fish pomace. The man said he had none to
sell. " Don't you manufacture it ? " " Yes, in large quanti-
ties ; but I have none to sell." " Why not ? my neiglibor has
purchased some of you, and I would like a few tons. Why
won't you sell it to me ? " "I have a standing order for all I
manufacture." " Who takes it in such quantities ? " " Mr.
Bradley, who makes the superphosphate of lime." I want to

PUT DOWN FRAUDS IN FERTILIZERS. 221

know if we can afford to pay sixty dollars a ton for fish pomace,
which the doctor tells us is worth twenty dollars, and how we
can afford to pay sixty dollars a ton for the waste of a sugar
refinery, which those who make it and those who liave experi-
mented upon it declare to be absolutely without value. I say
it is a sliame that the farmers of this Commonwealth and of
New England should be cheated in this way. The farmers
ought to combine as one man and put it down ; and there is
not a day to be wasted before we begin upon it, — not a single
day.

I will detain you but a moment longer. I said at the outset
that I was unable to comprehend all that a chemist says when
he speaks of these matters. The doctor has used fewer hard
names than I am accustomed to hear when chemists speak on
agricultural topics, and having conversed with him frequently
on this subject, I am probably able to comprehend more than I
should be able to if I had not had this privilege ; but I declare
to you that I am greatly encouraged by what he has said and
what he has done. I have been over his farm repeatedly, and I
have been amazed to see the crops standing there and the condi-
tion of the land. Even the stubble-land will show you that the
crops have been very large indeed. I went on to one field, on
which no excrementitious manure had been put for seven
years ; a man had just gone over it with a mowing machine,
and I calculated there was a ton and a half per acre of the very
best English hay lying upon the ground that day — redtop and
timotliy — worth some dollars more a ton than the coarse timothy
that gives you two and a half or three tons to the acre. These
things are encouraging, and if it were not that I doubt if the
doctor would be able to talk with all the people who would
naturally visit him, I should advise you all to go and see what
he has done with tliose little fertilizers that he carries in his
waistcoat pocket or in his hat, and drops them at his pleasure
on swamp or plain, and produces such wonderful crops. I
believe there is something to learn in regard to these things. I
am always engaged in looking ahead to see if we cannot adopt
some method of conducting our operations by which we can
realize profits equal to those of men skilled in mechanical pur-
suits. But what I wish particularly to urge is, that some com-
bination be formed among us to put down these cheats and

222 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

frauds at every turn wlicu we undertake to buy fertilizing
matter. We have endured them long enough.

In respect to ashes, I think the effect of leached ashes is more
lasting tiian was suggested by the lecturer. So it is with muck.
I can take you to a field in my town on which an ox-cart load
of muck was put thirty years ago, and you can see the effects of
that muck to-day. I can show you anotlier field of sixteen
acres, one-half of which received a coating of muck thirty years
ago ; the field has been cultivated and manured just alike all
the time since, and the line between the two parts of the field
is just as distinct as the aisle between these seats.

If any word of mine should induce you to use these broad
deposits of muck which a kind Providence has kept in reserve
for us through so many centuries, I should think my time well
expended and yours not lost. Many people of my acquaint-
ance have, during the dry time the past autumn, gone into the
swamps, and I think that thousands and tens of thousands more
loads of muck have been carted out this fall than ever before in
a single season. Notwithstanding some prominent speakers
describe muck as good for nothing except as an absorbent, I
think you cannot do a better thing on your farms than to use
the largest quantities of good muck that you can lay your
hands on. I do not see but that it operates just as well upon
granite lands or upon clay subsoil as upon sandy soil. Peat
has a most happy effect upon all sorts of plants. If I have a
rose-bush that I want to push ahead of all its neighbors, I go
and dig up the earth around it, and put in a quantity of dried
peat. I have not hesitated to declare, at the numerous conven-
tions I have attended, that every cord of muck placed upon the
soil was worth two dollars, and it does not cost that to get it. I
do not think a farmer can do better, or can enhance his profits
more than by the use of good meadow muck.

Mr. Barnard, of Worcester. I am glad the gentleman has
broached the subject of meadow muck. Forty-five years ago
I went on my farm, which was very much run out, and only
able to keep four cows and a yoke of oxen. I commenced
digging out muck and putting it into my barnyard and hog-pen,
and used it very freely. I had one barn 50 by 36, and another
40 by 30, and about twenty tons of hay to put in. At the end of
three years, I filled the two barns to the ridge-pole and one

MEADOW MUCK. 223

barn floor. My father wanted to know where I got so much
manure. I told hhn I went into the swamps for a large portion
of it, I have continued to use muck up to the present time. I
have been told by my neighbors that if I used it so freely I
should run my farm into meadow grass. I told them I would
take the risk, but I did not believe that those rotten leaves and
roots which had lain so many years in the muck bed, were going
to vegetate, and I don't believe they will.

This fall I went into the meadow with my men and got out
some twelve hundred loads of meadow mud. I design to use it
on my farm. I would give more for a load of that meadow mud
on my farm than I would for the same amount of fire-fanged
horse manure. I use it as an absorbent under my barn. I
think three loads of that put under my barn, mixed with one
load that goes through the stable and with the urine and slops,
will come out worth more than four loads of manure would be
worth, if thrown out the windows in the way that farmers usually
do around the country. It would be worth four times as much
as the manure from the same cattle, treated in the ordinary way.
One of my neighbors showed me a field where he used half
meadow mud and half manure, and another field where he
used only manure, and asked me which I thought was the best-
looking corn. I told him, and he said that field was manured
with half meadow mud, and the other with clear manure. The
corn was decidedly the best where the mud had been put.
Using so much mud as that, I have not, in the forty-five years,
paid out a hundred dollars for manure to put on my land. I
am now enabled, on the same farm where I used to cut twenty-
five tons of hay, to keep four oxen, four horses, and a bull in
the barn the year round, and winter (including the oxen and
bull) forty head and over. I use about eighteen acres of pas-
ture, and on that I had twenty cows this summer that gave
me three hundred quarts of milk a day ; eight of them gave
me one hundred and seventy-eight quarts in a day. I have
brought my farm up with stable manure and meadow muck.
An acre of it is worth more than any five acres were when I
began on it. I have dug out the muck where it is fifteen feet
deep.

Mr. Lawrence. I believe the value of muck is in applying
it to soil of a directly opposite character to the muck itself. I

224 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

do not believe it would be of any use to apply muck to cold and
wet muck laud.

Tben in rei)ly to what has been said in regard to phosphates :
I don't think I went into this expenditure of seven or eight hun-
dred dollars for phosphates with my eyes quite so nearly closed
as the gentleman seems to infer. After I had experimented with
phosphates for awhile, I found a particular kind that I thought
good. I chose to take that because it seemed to me it was the
best. But there was another reason why I chose it. I recol-
lected years ago meeting a man who was collecting bones,
which he took to a phosphate manufacturer, and for which he
received thirty dollars a ton. How large a proportion of those
bones entered into the composition of the phosphates, I am
unable to say ; but if it was a fact that those bones, costing that
amount, went into the composition of the phosphate, I tliink
there was more expense attending its manufacture, and more
value in it, than Governor Brown would seem to believe. I
think, moreover, that Peruvian guano furnishes the ammonia
for those phosphates, and I know the price of that is eighty or
ninety dollars a ton. How largely that enters into the com-
position of the phosphate, I don't know, but I think, not-
withstanding bone-black is not worth anything, that I have
reason to know that the phosphate I have used is a valuable
manure.

Mr. Barnard. My farm is very springy, and below my house,
down towards the peat mud, it is very moist. I have put in
miles of underdraining, and I wish I had put in miles more of
it ; but the peat mud has been used exclusively on hard-pau
land ; I have no sand land.

Mr. Forbes, of . Many are aware that Solon Robin-
son, of the " New York Tribune," recommends the use of lime
and salt as a special manure. I would like to inquire wlicther
any of those present have used it, and are able to tell the
results.

President Clark. Two or three questions have arisen
recently in the discussion, which perhaps make it proper for me
to say a word.

In the first place, I was very much surprised at the statement
made here that the refuse of a sugar refinery is of no value.
Gentlemen perhaps know that sugar is refined by solution and

FISH POMACE AND GUANO. 225

filtration through bone-black, and that bone-black is made by
calcining bones. The gelatinous matter in the bones is thus con-
verted into charcoal, and the phosphate of lime remains in a
very porous condition. This substance is a wonderful absorbent
of the coloring matter which the refiners desire to remove from
the sugar. The refuse of refineries, therefore, must be a valu-
able fertilizer. It is pure burnt bone, with a certain amount of
carbonaceous and nitrogenous matter obtained from the crude
sugar. I should hope that Mr. Bradley would put a large
amount of it into his phosphate, especially if its solubility was
increased by a suitable amount of sulphuric acid.

Then in regard to his use of fish pomace. As I understand
it, this fertilizer is advertised as an ammoniated phosphate. It
is not designed simply to supply certain desirable manurial
matter, but also to quicken vegetable growth. It is a partially
ammoniacal or nitrogenous substance, and so is a substitute to
a certain extent for barnyard manure. ,Now the fish pomace
undoubtedly is a vegetable ingredient in a phosphate of this
description, and by its fermentation and supply of ammonia
may prove to be actually worth all its cost in the form in which
it is applied in Bradley's phosphate. It has been said here that
Peruvian guano is put into Bradley's phosphate, to a certain
extent, and into some other commercial fertilizers. It is not
probable the manufacturers use very much of the best Peruvian
guano, but this leads me to a subject which may be of impor-
tance to the farmers here who buy this article. In the valley
of the Connecticut a great quantity is used, especially in the
cultivation of tobacco. Nearly two hundred tons were bought
by one man and brought to the depot in Amherst this year.
Therefore it becomes a momentous question, what this sub-
stance is which we get as Peruvian guano, and for which we
pay sucli an enormous price. Having the facilities for testing
such things at the Agricultural College, we took some specimens
from different purchasers and subjected them to analysis, and
these analyses we shall probably publish. We find a surprising
diversity in the composition of different samples, and some are
certainly not worth one-half what they cost. The Chairman
(Mr. Davis of Plymouth) has' asked whether chemists gener-
ally have faith in chemical science ; whether farmers may
believe that the deductions of Dr. Nichols are reliable. In

29

226 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

reply, I would say, we do believe, absolutely, that chemical
science is more exact and trustworthy than almost any other ;
and we have no fear that any practical trial will invalidate the
statements of an intelligent chemist. This idea of restoring
the fertility of exhausted lands by the direct application of
chemical substances, which has been so ably presented in the
lecture this morning, is of immense importance. The experi-
ments of Dr. Nichols demonstrate the fact that potash and
phosphate of lime are the two most indispensable fertilizers.
These, therefere, we must constantly strive to procure as cheaply
as possible. Wood ashes and bones supply them in the most
desirable form, but they cannot be obtained in sufficient quantity.
We must therefore seek these precious substances in the rocks,
where they exist in exhaustless abundance.

From saline deposits like those at Stassfiirth in Prussia, we
may now procure potassa ; and doubtless at no distant day we
shall be able to disintegrate by chemical or mechanical means
feldspathic and other minerals, and extract economicsflly their
contents of this valuable alkali.

In regard to phosphate of lime, it is certain that enough may
be procured from the recently discovered deposits in South
Carolina to enrich all our worn-out lands, and preserve their
fertihty for thousands of years. Before, however, we can derive
the greatest possible advantage from this mineral phosphate we
must discover some method or rendering it soluble without the
use of sulphuric acid. This is now employed for converting the
mineral into superphosphate, but the process is very expensive
in consequence of the large amount of carbonate of lime asso-
ciated with the phosphate.

Efforts are now making in the laboratory of the Massachu-
setts Agricultural College to accomplish this desirable result,
and, as we believe, with a reasonal)le prospect of success.

The value of scientific knowledge to the farmer was never
more clearly demonstrated than in the discussion we have just
had respecting the preparation and use of special fertilizers.
When we have more educated agriculturists we shall save
much which now goes to waste, and many frauds, now common,
will be no longer possible.

The greatest saving, perhaps, when knowledge abounds, will
be in words, for ignorance is the principal cause of the inter-

ORIGIN OF MUCK. 227

minable discussions so proverbial among those who attempt to
write or talk upon agricultural topics.

^he muck question is a good illustration. One gentleman
here declares he has grown rich simply by the liberal application
of muck to his farm, and thinks he could not afford to cart
stable manure from the city near which he resides. Another
asserts that he has tried muck on his land and found it perfectly
worthless ; while a third says with much feeling that he has
nearly ruined his farm by its use, and wished what he has dug
was all back in the swamp.

Now these different and contradictory views of the value of
muck are at once harmonized by the light of science. If
we consider the origin of the substance we cannot wonder that
its effects are so variable. In one case it may have originated
from the decay of a mass of forest leaves only, and must of
course be very rich. In another case it may have been formed
from the decomposition of mosses and sedges, and contain much
less valuable elements, or it may consist largely of sand, and
so be comparatively worthless, or it may be impregnated with
protoxide of iron, which is a deadly poison to vegetation.

In this connection, it occurs to me that Dr. Nichols publishes
a monthly paper called the " Journal of Chemistry," which is
remarkable among our periodicals for the correctness of its state-
ments in regard to all matters of the application of science to
the common arts.

The subject of aqueduct pipes has recently been discussed in
the " Journal " in a most admirable manner. It has long been
known that lead pipes were unsafe, and within a few years gal-
vanized iron has been largely introduced in its stead. This,
however, is shown by Dr. Nichols to be even more injurious than
lead, and ought never to be used If any one wishes to poison
himself or his stock, let him employ at once a dose of white
vitriol, and he will attain the same result with some saving of
time.

The best pipe for water to flow through under pressure is
wrought or cast iron pipe lined with common hydraulic cement.
If the pressure be small and the water abundant, cement pipe
without any iron may be adopted.

In the case of pumps connected with wells, the best pipe to
stand in the water is block tin, and, in the ground, lead pipe

228 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

lined with tin. Block tin corrodes rapidly in the soil, and is
sometimes liable to collapse under the atmospheric pressure.
The suction of the pump will also occasionally cause the tin
lining of lead pipe to separate from the lead and collapse so as
to close the pipe. Common gas-pipe of wrought iron is per-
fectly harmless, and, after a few months, becomes coated with
rust so as to be altogether unobjectionable. This has the merit
of being both cheap and durable.

Tlie inquiry has been made, whether it was profitable to mix
salt with lime for agricultural purposes.

I am not aware that any exact experiments have ever been
undertaken to determine this question. The real value of salt
as a fertilizer is a subject about which the greatest diversity of
opinion exists among scientific men. Some believe it useful
only to destroy insects and weeds, while others claim it to be
a valual)le special manure. Theoretically, it seems judicious to
slack lime with brine, or to mix salt and lime before slacking
with water. It is believed that a chemical reaction takes place
by wliich caustic soda and chloride of calcium are formed.
These are both very soluble and may be beneficial in supplying
plant-food, and in absorbing moisture from the atmosphere, and
soda must act as a powerful aid in decomposing both mineral
and vegetable matter.

In reclaiming a swamp on the college farm, after undcrdrain-
ing with tile, and ploughing, an application was made of fifty
bushels of oyster shell lime and five bushels of rock salt to the
acre with very satisfactory results. The salt was ground in a
plaster mill, and mixed thoroughly with the lime in the field.
The pile was then slacked with water and spread broadcast.

On the whole, I incline to the opinion that it will pay to use
salt in this manner, unless the chloride of potassium from Stass-
furth can be obtained in its stead. As this is now imported, we
may hope soon to procure it at such prices as will enable us to
employ it as a fertilizer.

Adjourned to two o'clock.

Afternoon Session.
The Board met at the hour appointed, Mr. Davis, of Plym-
outh, in the chair.
The Chairman. This forenoon, Mr. Brown took occasion to

THE BONE-BLACfK QUESTION. 229

say that the bone-black and refuse of the sugar manufactory
had proved of no value agriculturally. After he left the hall,
President Clark was understood to say that chemically they
were considered of value. Mr. Brown would like to say one
word upon the matter in order to explain it.

Mr. Brown. I do not wish to be wise above knowledge. I
have no personal knowledge of the use of what is called bone-
black. What I stated, I thought I stated guardedly. What I
stated was what other people have stated to me, and if anybody
inquires who stated these things to me, I have no objection to
giving the names. I do not know that any person who manu-
factures superphosphate ever uses any foreign article of that
kind. I never used a pound of sugar waste in my life. I only
tell what was told to me. How is bone-black made ? The
bones are put into an iron retort, holding two or three l)arrels,
which is covered with a tightly-fitting iron cover, and let down
into a furnace. In a few moments, the whole becomes red-hot —
the iron retort and bones themselves. In this way, all the oily
matter is driven out of the bones, and passes off through pipes
into another part of the building. After the bones are suf-
ficiently heated in that way, the retort is hoisted out of the
furnace and set away to cool, with the cover still fastened.
When the bones are sufficiently cooled, they are passed into the
mill and ground. All these processes I have seen myself, and
that is the bone-black that goes to the sugar refiner. Now, if
you took bone-black in that state and used it, I have no doubt it
would have a fertilizing power, but when it has passed through
the sugar refinery, it is another article. Whatever of value it
has is used up in the process, and there is no fertilizing power
about it. I should think there might be some fertilizing matter
in the waste of the sugar itself, but that does not seem to be so,
because it not only adds nothing to the fertilizing power of the
bone-black, but destroys whatever it had originally.

FIELD CULTURE OF ROOTS AND VEGETABLES.

BY J. J. H. GREGORY.

My Farmer Friends : — I propose rather to talk to you in a
familiar way, than to deliver a lecture. The subject is " Field
culture of roots and vegetables." Tiiis comes mostly under the
head of market farming, and I shall include under it in my

230 BOARD OF ^AGRICULTURE.

remarks this afternoon, beets, mangolds (mangolds being but a
coarse variety of beet), cabbages, carrots, cucumbers, potatoes,
melons, onions, parsnips, pease, squashes, tomatoes, and turnips.
Of course, I can pass but very discursively over so broad a field.
1 can briefly discuss them, under the heads of soil — prepara-
tion of it — manure — sowing of seed — cultivation of the plants
— gathering of crops. I propose to speak of the roots first.
These are beets, mangolds, carrots, parsnips and turnips. I
will also classify with these onions, for although the onion is a
bulb, the cultivation is analogous.

Of the Soil. — Of these roots, the turnip will accept the widest
scope of soil, from sand down through muck and clay. When.
I speak of the turnip, I mean also the ruta-baga. Of course, I
know the flat English turnip covets a sandy soil, whereas the
ruta-baga does better upon heavy soil.

Next we come to beets and mangolds. These will grow on a
sandy loam down to clay. It is well to remark, however, that
grown on lighter soil, they are sweeter, and, as a general rule,
it is the same with all vegetables, as with all grasses, — the lighter
the soil adapted to them, the sweeter the product. I reccllect
some years ago a friend called on me to buy some mangolds.
I took him out to a field where there were two lots, one on up-
land, the other on lowland. Those on the lowland were the
largest and handsomest, and he said he would take those. I
asked him to taste them. He tasted them, and found those on
the lowland almost tasteless, while the upland mangold was
almost as sweet as the common market beet. Of course, the
more sugar we get, the more nutriment we get. Although
these vegetables have the greatest scope of soil, still, they will
thrive best on the soil best adapted to them, viz., a rather heavy
loam.

The next in its scope of soil is the parsnip. This will grow
on heavy soil to muck ; it will not thrive on lighter soil.

Next, carrots. These will thrive all the way from sand to
muck. On sand, as all our farmers know (I am telling old
truths here), they are long, regular and handsome. On muck,
if it is a dry season, they will be very forked. I never saw
them on rocky land so forked as I have seen them on muck in
a dry season. On rocky land, they will thrive, but it is very hard

THE SOIL FOR ROOTS. 231

work to dig them, and they are forked. Tliis kind of land,
therefore, should be avoided.

Of all these roots, onions are the most limited. They will
not do well on sand, and on clay they grow all the year round
and do nothing. The only proper soil is a medium one, not
very light nor very heavy, a gravelly loam. So much for the
general requisites of soil.

Preparation of the Soil. — If the land is at all moist for either
crop, underdrain it. If it abounds in twitch-grass or chick-
weed, it is wholly unfit for anything but a hoed crop. If it is
very weody, there is an immense amount added to the cost of
production. Very weedy soils should not be put to a bed crop,
unless the party is compelled to do it. Where the soil is very
weedy, it can be prepared by ploughing it in the fall, turning
over the land so early that the weeds will not have time to ger-
minate, then go on with the cultivator, and then throw it up
again. In this way you will get rid of a great deal of the weed
seed. That is the only method for bed crops, strawberries and
all such things, that require much care. It will be found best
to give them up entirely, or destroy all the weed seed possible
before planting.

Freshly turned-up sod is not suited for the cultivation of
vegetables, except carrots and ruta-bagas. It is generally best
to put them on the third year. The first year, the land is too
rough ; the second year there is too much old, half-decayed
turf, for in handling these vegetables you want everything very
very fine. Carrots alone do very well, if the sod is entirely free
from twitch grass, planted the first year. Ruta-bagas do very
well on sod.

Of Manure. — The amount of manure for all these bed crops
must be large. For beets, I should want somewhere about six
cords ; for turnips, from four to eight cords ; ruta-bagas ought
to have eight cords. I am stating the general rule. Of course,
the quantity of manure required will vary with the condition of
the land and the natural qualities of the soil itself. I consider
that clay land does not need so much as lighter land. Carrots,
eight to ten cords ; onions, from twelve to twenty cords.

Now the best way in which to present this manure to plants
is in the form of compost, well fermented, and made very fine.
On the seacoast, where we go largely into these crops, we have

232 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

in our compost muck or clay, which has first been exposed, if
practicable, to the action of frosts, rain and air for a season,
night soil, collected from town and cities, kelp from our beaches,
and barnyard manure. These four ingredients generally con-
stitute our compost heaps. In forming this compost, as soon as
our crops are out of the field, we generally make a bed of muck,
eighteen inches or two feet deep, and then run up a ridge four
feet in height, then send out our night-soil carts, as soon as law
allows, — the first of November or December, — and we expect
to put in about one-third as much night-soil as we have of muck ;
after that, we add our kelp, when it comes in, and also our barn-
yard manure, as may be convenient. These heaps are made
even with the ridges. If, when all these ingredients have been
filled in, the heap is not even with the ridge, we throw the ridge
in. Then, just before the frost is out, for the early spring-time
is very valuable, we go out with axe, pick, bar and fork, and
pitch over the heap, throwing the coarse lumps outside, where
the rains and the frosts can have access to them. We let it lie
a week or ten days, and then pitch it over again ; and, if we
have time, we turn it over a third time. By that time we have
had heat developed probably twice, and the manure has been
very thoroughly comminuted. This is the general nature of our
compost, of which, as I said, we use so many cords to the differ-
ent crops.

We also use ashes, that have been so discussed here to-day :
guano, fish pomace, — " chum," we call it, — and phosphate of
lime. When we use the fish pomace, we make a layer of muck
or clay, and then put on it a thin layer of the pomace ; perhaps
four times the depth of clay or muck that there is of pomace.
I mean such pomace as has been discussed here to-day. The
fish are boiled, the oil pressed out, and the refuse barrelled up
and sold. Sometimes it is thrown into a vast pile and mixed
when in a high state of fermentation. In the green state, when
brought fresh to market, directly from the fishermen, it brings
about twenty dollars a ton. It is landed on our shores at about
that price.

In regard to guano, I use that mostly in connection with
other manures. I use all of these substances, that is, the phos-
phates and guanos, but I depend mostly on the compost for the
great bulk of my manure for roots and vegetables, and add

GUANO YEAR AFTER YEAR. 233

these substances in the lull or broadcast, as may be convenient.
While I am on guano, lot me say, as a little addenda to what
was said this morning, that one farmer in our vicinity has used
it, I understand, for eleven years. That has been his great
article; he has used scarcely anything else. I should expect
that, used for so long a time, it would injure his land, and
gradually reduce his crops, but instead of that, he has the
reputation of carrying to Boston the best potatoes that go into
that market. His success has had the effect to induce his
neighbors to follow the same course. One of them was over to
my place a year ago, when I was buying large quantities of
stable manure. I asked him, " How much do you buy ? " Said
he, " I haven't used any for years." " What do you use ? "
" I use guano. I carry all my crops through with guano ; two
wagon-loads manure my farm." These are very cautious men ;
they have felt their way along, and they have used this manure
for years without any injurious effects. I have known of men
who have raised enormous crops for one or two years on night-
soil, and everything seemed to be going on successfully, but all
at once there was a break, the land baked up, and they were
obliged to go back to stable manure to bring the land back to
its former condition. I have known such things done on land
in places where fish pomace was very abundant. My explana-
tion of it is, that some stimulus is given, by which certain ingre-
dients in the soil are exhausted. In these cases where guano
has been used for a number of years, I presume the quantity
used was not so liberal.

Application of Manure. — We apply the manure for bed crops
either before ploughing or after ploughing. Our general plan,
however, is, to plough the land first. If we can give it a full
ploughing, wc prefer' to do it, unless it is an onion bed, already
stuffed with manure ; in that case we prefer not to plough in
the fall, because a vast amount of the manure is likely to be
blown off. In the spring, we do not plough as deep as in the
fall. After ploughing, we cultivate and work the soil up very
fine, then apply the manure, and then put on our small one-
horse plough and turn that luider, with very narrow furrows. .
Then the men follow with rakes, stretching off in a line, so that
they can work easily, and make the bed as smooth as a floor.
We then have a beautiful seed bed. If we desire to put on any

30

234 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

phosphates or guano, we do it before the rakiiig. I generally
put on my onion bed four or five hundred pounds of phosphates
to the acre, before the raking. Just as the horse gives the final
ploughing, 1 have my men follow the plough and scatter the phos-
phates or ihe guano, and then the men rake it in. 1 may say, in
regard to raking, that there is a great deal of difference in raking.
Those who have never practised it are hardly aware what a dif-
ference there is. There is sucli a thing as raking a bed very
fine and not very smooth, leaving it a sort of rolling prairie.
When raked in that way, it is very hard for the seed sower to
do its work properly. It is very important that the bed should
be rak6d, not only fine, but level.

Sowing- or Planting- Seed. — We put our onion rows fifteen or
sixteen inches apart ; carrots, about the same ; flat turnips,
about the same ; rutabagas, two and a half feet apart, so that
we can get the cultivator between the rows. Of course, when
roots or vegetables are raised on a large scale, machines are
always used. There are various sowing machines. They
might be classified as dropping machines, shaking machines,
stirring machines and brushing machines. The dropping ma-
chine simply drops the seed down. It depends simply on gravi-
tation. This machine will not sow well beets or parsnips, as a
rule ; it does very well with onion, sage and carrot seeds, when
very clean ; when there is any impediment, you want some-
thing more efficacious. The brush machine has a little revolv-
ing brush, which brushes the seeds out, preventing their clogging,
in the hopper. Then comes the shaking machine. The Dan-
vers machine is a very good type of that. That machine jars
or shakes tlie seed-box by means of a spring. That does very
well for small seeds. Then comes the stirring machine ; that
operates by a stirrer or agitator inside, whicji keeps the seed in
motion while the wheel revolves. That variety of machine I
consider the best, as far as I have tried, for the stirrer plays
right over the hole into which the seeds drop, and keeps them
from bedding up. Tiiese machines need to be used with good
judgment. It depends more upon the man than the machine,
as a rule ; and it is surprising what a difference it will make
in the crop whether you have a first-rate man or a second-
rate man to tend the machine. A few hours' work by a first-
rate hand is sometimes worth ten dollars rather than to

IMPLEMENTS FOR ROOT CULTURE. 235

employ an indifferent hand-, because the whole result depends
upon it.

Tools. — 1 will run through the tools. "We first use the wheel
hoe. That is a hoe (I suppose most of the farmers are ac-
quainted with it) running between two wheels. The great defect
of those sold in the agricultural stores is, that the handle is not
long enough, and the man is kept stooping over. It is very-
exhausting work. A man ought to be able to stand up, when
the wheel hoe is used on onions. AVhen the onions get somewhat
large, so that the tops will not interfere with the hoe, then we
use the slide hoe. I saw a very fine variety of that in Connec-
ticut. There are varieties of these implements which are some-
what local in their use ; some local gefiius gets them up. This
one down in Connecticut consists of a series of half ploughshares
set on a spring. I think it was in the form of a triangle. I tried
to get one made, but the man had got out of the notion, and
wouldn't make one, nor let anybody else undertake it, and so
the thing dropped. There is one in our town, made by an old
fariner named Wm. Goodwin, a man who lias spent all his lei-
sure hours in trying to invent something. He has got up a very
good thing in the shape of a slide hoe. The great object is to
get near the root, and avoid the labor of hand weeding. If we can
get within an inch we do very well, but that has to be weeded
over. If we can get nearer than that, we can save a vast deal.
Mr. Goodwin has invented a very simple implement. II3 has
done it by throwing the hoe back somewhat, and he can do as
much .by four slidings as others do in six. Then there is the
Noyes' wecder. Mr. Noyes sent me some last spring, and I
found my boys all liked them. It is a foot in length, lozenge-
shaped, set in a little handle. It will save a great deal of work,
especially where the ground is baked.

Quanlily of Seed to the Acre. — Of onions, we plant from
three and a half to four pounds. The old rule was three
pounds ; then we increased the quantity to three pounds and a
half, and now we think four pounds none too many. Of car-
rots, if we could have the seed-bed in first-rate condition, a
pound would answer, but that is a little risky. The seeds are
very small, and therefore a pound and a half is safer. I see
some seed-men recommend five pounds to the acre. I do not
know what tliey do with them when they come up ; indeed, I

236 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

rather infer that they never expect one-half of the seed will
come at all ; it would take all the season to thin them out. Of
turnips, somewhere about a pound.

Mr. Brown, of Concord. How much beet seed ?

Mr. Gregory. Beet seed is a seed hard to cOme up, for this
reason : it is of a somewhat large size, and it is apt to drop
out rather irregularly, and it needs to go to a considerable
depth. There should be as much as four pounds to the acre to
make that safe. I should say they should be planted an inch
and a half in depth, except the long, smooth, dark blood-beet,
the seed of which is rather large ; let them down two inches. If
dry, add a little to the depth ; if very wet, plant a little
shallower.

After- Cultivation. — Now, we will suppose our seed sown and
our plants beginning to appear above ground, how should we
manage then ? You understand that the whole bed is full of
fermenting manure, and everything will grow fast. As soon as
you can discern the rows, put in the slide hoe and have tlie boys
follow tlie hoe, as soon as possible, on their hands and knees.
You will find that the best cultivators are those who attend to
these things earliest, and allow the smallest possible interval
between the slide hoe and the hand weeding. Again, it is safer
to weed when the weeds are very small, because you are not so
likely to disturb the plants. If you pull them when they get
large, especially in a dry time, you disturb the earth, and may
disturb the roots of the plants.

Carrots come up slowly artd need to be looked sharply after.
It is rather difficult to see them. The man who weeds carrots
should have an experienced eye, and understand what the car-
rot is. Therefore, carrots must be watched very carefully and
the hoe nui through carefully. Onions can be more readily
seen. Sometimes people will allow weeds among carrots to get
some little size before they pull them, if the carrots went in
late and it is very hot, because a hot sun on young carrots
sometimes burns them. That must be a matter of judgment.

We generally expect to weed our crops about four times.
(When I speak of crops I mean the carrot, the onion and the
beet, more especially.) We expect to slide them as often as
that, and perhaps five times. This depends somewhat on the
season. A very wet season, we expect to throw in one or two

COST OF WEED MANURE. 237

slides and hand-weeding also. Tiien we are careful not to allow
any of the weeds to go to. seed, and towards the close of the
season the hands go through the rows with baskets on their
arms, and pull all large weeds up and carry them out of the
bed.

But in spite of all that, of course the great mass of our
ground devoted to vegetables will run too much to weeds, espe-
cially purslane and chickweed. Purslane is the worst weed
we have. Neither of these weeds is sufficiently understood.
They are of a class that grow and seed at the same time, and
they are very apt to deceive people in that way. Chickweed
flowers earlier in spring than anything else. As soon as the
snow leaves the ground you will find chickweed in bloom, and
you never see the weed of any size where,you will not find seed.
Some people have an . idea that it cannot be exterminated,
simply from the fact that it has that habit of blooming all the
time and going to seed all the time. Tiiis has been a very
favorable season for chickweed. These weeds, therefore, are to
be looked after. And how do some parties look after them ?
I once saw the hog-pen of a farmer, who had raised onions for
years, ■three feet deep with purslane. I dare say every cord of
that manure cost him twenty-five dollars, and more too. That is
one of the greatest mistakes a farmer can commit — using weeds
for manure. They are the most costly things a man can use.
In the first place no man can afford to raise them That idea
ought to be knocked out of every farmer's head. If you should
take all the weeds you can gather and put them into your hog-
pen, and count the time it takes you to get them there, you
would find phosphates, at two hundred dollars a ton, cheap
compared with them.

Gathering' Crops. — The -omon crop we begin to pull after the
tops have died down. We aim to get the onion crop in as soon
as we possibly can in the spring, because it needs all the season.
The 10th of June is not very late for the carrot. Tlie onion
crop we gather, as I have said, as soon as the tops die down.
If it should happen, unfortunately, that the land was not ma-
nured enough, so that they still hold their necks up stiff when
the seasun threatens frost, then we have to break them down by
hand or by rolling a barrel over them. After the tops have
gone down and the necks arc fairly dried, pull three rows and

238 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

throw them into one, and so pass over the ground. Let them
lie there two or three weeks. The first two or three days, let
them be together ; that helps decay the tops. Then give them
a very gentle raking with wooden rakes. There is a great deal
of damage done raking too hard and rough. Then they are
taken into a shed and topped, or topped on the ground. If they
are topped on the ground, they can be marketed without any
handling.

Carrots are not so easily handled. There are several ways in
which carrots can be managed. The common way is to take a
digging fork and go along and start them, and then have a boy
pull them. One boy can pull as many as two men can start.
Another way is to take a subsoil plough and run it under the
roots, after which some, take them out with a rake, others pull
them out. Anx)ther way is to take a slide hoe and slide the tops
off, and then run the subsoil plough along. It makes rather
rough work, but carrots will bear a little cutting. Some cut off
a piece of the top purposely, thinking as this hinders sprouting
the carrot won't rot so quick. When the season is long
and they are planted early, there is this risk : they will some-
times begin to make a second growth. That is a critical time.
If they do so it deteriorates the quality. It is apt to happen
when the carrot has got nearly mature, after a long drought,
and they have been checked in their growth ; if then there
comes a rain, they will start a new bunch of leaves, and on
di;.ging them you will find that they have made a great many
fibrous roots. Such carrots will not keep as long, and the fibre
is more woody. They have begun a second stage of growth.
It is, therefore, unfortunate to have a bed of carrots start the
second time. Sometimes carrots will go to seed badly. I do
not know what the reason is. I do not think the seed has any-
thing to do with it. The short horn carrots are more apt to do
this than the long orange.

Varieties. — Of beets, there are a great many varieties. On
the Continent they do not use beets for the table, nor grow them
to any extent, except mangolds, which are raised for stock, and
the Silesian white beet for sugar. We have a very good beet in
Dewing's Early. That is a variety which has been started some-
where in the vicipity of Boston by a first-rate market gardener,
and it is a very nice beet indeed. Simon's Early Turnip, a

BEETS AND MANGOLDS. 239

Philadelphia beet, is a very early variety, very symmetrical, and
excellent quality. It has a little deeper color than the Early
Bassano. These varieties are characterized by great smoothness.
Then we have the extra flat kind, which is very early.

Mr. J. F. C. Hyde. How about the Egyptian beet ?

Mr. Gregory. I can't say. It does not seem to have the
quality of our beets.

Mr. Hyde. It is the finest quality I raise.

Mv. Gregory. There are a great many English beets, — the
Casteliiaudary, Carter's Early, and so on. The great trouble
with the English beets is, they are not suited to us. We want
the turnip beet. I imported from England, one year, all the
varieties I could find, and 'there was not a single good turnip
beet in the lot. The Egyptian beet is very dark colored, and that
is in its favor. Those that I have seen were not so large as ours.

The term " sugar beet " is sometimes used since beet sugar
has become an article of production in Europe ; it is an unfor-
tunate term. The sugar beet is a mangold ; it is not a table
beet. The turnip beet is a svgary beet, but not a sugar
beet. The sugar beet is an underground mangold, makes a
very large top and rather a small bottom in proportion to the
top. As a mangold, it is the most unprofitable kind to grow,
but it is the kind we are very apt to get when we undertake to
import seed from Europe. There is a white mangold which
grows above ground. The rule is that no part of the sugar
beet should be out of the ground. If it is, some chemical
change takes place which is objectionable. It gives a vegetable
taint or color to the sugar, which it causes some trouble to
remove. Therefore, it is desirable that the sugar beet should
grow under ground.

Of mangolds, we have the long red, and improvements on
that. Among them is the Norbiton Giant. One of my neigh-
bors grew a Norbiton Giant that weighed thirty odd pounds.
The Norbiton Giant is characterized by growing freely out of
the ground, without making so hollow a neck as that of the
long red. You know the neck of the large mangolds is all lost.
It is hollow, woody and good for nothing. That is one of the
results where mangolds are planted rather early. Now, we can
plant the Norbiton Giant earlier than the common red, without
having that long neck to trouble us.

240

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

There is another class — the ovoid mangold and the globe
maygold. The ovoid mangolds are oblong, as the name would
imply, and they have this great merit — they grow very sym-
metrically, and with scarcely any small fibrous roots. One
trouble with these roots is, that they catch up a great deal of
mud and dirt, and it is difficult to get them clean. These
ovoids arc very solid and heavy, and have hardly any small
fibres. The French think they arc the best beets to grow. Of
the globe mangolds, I do not know any special argument for
them, but they are said to be rather early and to grow well on
sandy soil. I cannot testify to that from personal experience.

Of Crops. — A first-class crop of carrots is thirty tons. Of
mangolds, it runs as high as fifty tons. I saw one crop of
onions of 936 bushels. But these are extreme crops. A very
good crop of carrots is twenty tons. Five hundred bushels of
onions is a very good crop. .Twenty-five tons of mangolds to
the acre is a good crop.

Cost of Production. — I have figured a little on the cost of
production. Some farmers do not figure on these things at all,
and hardly know how they are coming out. Take an acre of
carrots : —

Interest on land, .....

First ploughing, .....

Harrowing, cultivating and brushing,

Second ploughing and raking, .

Seed, 1\ pounds, .....

Manure, and spreading eight cords, .
Planting seeds, . .
Weeding, four boys, three weedings, two days
time, .......

Pulling large weeds, ....

Three slidings, .....

Digging, •

Topping,

Wear and tear of tools, ....

Total,

each

125

00

5

00

5

00

12

00

3

00

.80

00

1

50

24

00

1

00

4

00

15

00

4

00

2

00

$181 50

The average price of late has been $12 a ton. Estimating
the crop at twenty tons, we have $240. Deduct cost of pro-

WHAT ONIONS COST.

241

duction, and we have about $60 left,
tons we have 1300, and 5*130 net.
Take an acre of onions : —

If we have twenty-five

Interest on land,

First ploughing,

Harrowing, cultivating and brushing

Manure, and spreading, .

Re-ploughing and cultivating, .

Three liundred lbs. phosphate to rake in, .

Raking, five men one day,

Seed, cost will vary, average, .

Planting, ....

Weeding, four boys two days, at four dififerent times

Sliding and wheel-hoeing,

Pulling large weeds,

Pulling crop, two men a day, .

Raking crop to cure it, . . ,

Carting to barn.

Topping, ....

Wear and tear of tools, &c., .

Total, ....

130 00
6 00
5 00

100 00

8.00

9 00

10 00

15
1

32
8
4
4
4

00

50

00

00

00

00

00

10 00

12 00

2 00

$269 50

Then there is to be added the cost of marketing, which will
depend upon how far you have to go. It will cost to produce
an acre of onions all the way from $250 to $300. Two hun-
dred and fifty dollars is the lowest point I can put it at, giving
the crop such treatment as it ought to have. If the yield is
400 bushels, at $1.25 a bushel, that is $500. Deduct expenses,
say $300, and we have $200 left. From that is to be deducted
the cost of marketing. Tlie profit will be all the way from $150
to $300, where we have what we call a fair crop.

We hear of great crops sometimes. Thirty-two tons of carrots !
Why don't that man repeat himself? Nine hundred bushels of
onions! Wliy don't he do it. again ? He cannot. These ex-
treme crops are beyond our reach. Suppose a man does all he
can, is he not dependent upon the weather ? It may be too hot
or too dry or too cold or too wet a season. These are uncer-
tain elements, over which ho has no control.
31

242 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

So mncli for the root crops. I will say a few words upon
other vegetables.

For the squash crop, we want a warm location, warm soil and
plenty of manure. As a rule, all crops that have broad leaves
want plenty of nitrogen. We want, therefore, rich, strong
manure for squashes, plenty of night-soil, plenty of barn
manure, plenty of guano. Kelp does not seem to be adapted to
squashes. It does very well for carrots, first-rate for cabbages,
and several other crops. For squashes, we want about as
liberal a supply of manure as we should have for carrots. I have
seen twenty cords put to the acre, but in that case the man did
not get enough back to pay for five cords. But the difference
between heavy manuring and the common way of manuring
may sometimes make all the difference between a good crop and
no crop at all. How ? Why, in this way. Suppose the season
is dry, as it was last year, and unpropitious for crops. If the
land is very heavy with manure, the plants will hold their own
through the extreme drought, and grow when the drought is
past. You and I saw some crops dry up and disappear last
summer, whereas others, where the land had been heavily
manured, barely holding their own while the drought lasted, as
soon as it broke, went on and produced a good crop. I know
one man in our section who got thirty tons, where he only ex-
pected to get ten or twelve, which sold for from $60 to $100 a
ton, so that his extra manuring paid him enormous returns.

We like new land for squashes, because it is generally more
free from the striped bug and the black squash bug. It is a
singular fact, that wherever we have given up pumpkins wholly,
that large black bug which we used to fear so much has almost
wholly disappeared. I have not seen one for two or three years.
The little striped bug, which we do not fear so much, is some-
times a great pest, and this year I had more trouble from the
striped bug than for the past nine years. I had to keep one
man most, of his time sprinkling the leaves with lime and plas-
ter. I do not like lime so well as plaster ; it is apt to be a little
acrid and burn the leaves, especially if there is rain just after it
is applied. When we use it, we get it well air^slacked, so that
the rain will not act upon it. We scatter it on in the morning
while tlie dew is on. Sometimes these bugs will take half an
acre in half a day. We wish to hurry the vines in their growth,

SQUASHES, AND HOW TO CULTIVATE. 243

to get them beyond injury by the bugs. That is one reason
why we like to manure them in the hill. Put in the compost
broadcast, and reserve the guano, the hen manure and the
phosphates for the hill. I i^iake this rule, and where you have
Irishmen to deal with, it is a very good rule. I take my hand
full of guano, scatter it over a place about eighteen inches in
diameter, and then a man follows with a fork, and turns it
under about four inches. I excavate no hills at all. I have
given that plan up. I don't approve of putting the manure for
heat-loving vines down in cold holes. The idea is to stir about
twice each way, and have the man finally put his fork in the
middle of the hill and give it a twist. You cannot leave it to
their judgment ;, you must have a rule.

We plant about half a dozen seeds to the hill. When they get
up, so as to show tlie third leaf, we thin out to three or four in
a hill ; but we finally tliin out to two in a hill ; and if it were
not for the borer, which sometimes plagues us, we would not
leave but one in a hill. We plant the squashes at right angles,
so that we can run the cultivator through easily. We follow
that with a hoe. We do not, as a rule, pull the earth round
the vines. If we find one that wants support, we just support it.
We do not dig any holes, and do not make any hills. I recom-
mend neither digging holes nor hilling. It saves a great deal
of work, and work that is not necessary. The habit of the
squash-vine is to send out its roots near the surface. They
want the heat of the sun, and where the roots have their choice,
they run just as near the surface as they can. But if you make
a hole and fill it up with manure, of course the roots will go
down after it. With onions, when we come to the final plough-
ing, we don't plough more than four or five inches deep. The
idea with onions, as with most of our crops, is not to have the
manure go too deep.

In regard to gathering the crop, the farmer must exercise
judgment about that. When the squash is about ripe, let the
boys go along with a knife and cut the stems. They rot badly
when left out too long, exposed to wind and storms. There-
fore, we only let them stay out a day or two. In fact, I have
the men go and cut them and give them a turn over just where
they grew, and there they lie until I finally gather them.

In regard to pease, I want to make a single remark, and that

244 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

is, the more dwarf the pea, the more highly they should be
manured. When you come to the very dwarf pease, give them
as much manure as possible. That is where you may make a
mistake. I think it may be laid down as a general rule, that
the dwarf varieties are the ones that requix-e the most manure.

We call the Turban the best fall squash, and the Hubbard
the best winter squash. The Turban varies more than the
Hubbard, but when you get a nice Turban, you will find it the
best squash. The Turban squash has sold this fall for 6*100 a
ton, the Hubbard for $80. The Marrow squash has not brought
anywhere near these prices, so far as I know. We call five tons
of Hubbards a decent crop, six tons a good crop, eight tons a
very good crop. I have known eleven and a Ijalf tons raised,
but that is very exceptional. I have grown fourteen tons of
Marrows to the acre. This year the squash crop has been very
poor, as you all know. I had about four and a half tons to the
acre. I think that is above the average. I do not think they
have averaged much over from two to three tons, take the
country round.

I think I omitted to speak of carrots. The carrot can be
classified under three or four heads. I ask myself what I want
to raise them for ; whether I want them for the general market
or for stock, and if for stock, whether for horses or cows. If
for the market, I should raise the short-horn carrot. The long
Surrey carrot is generally raised for market, but it is not so
sweet as the short-horn carrot. If any man has never tried
them, he will be surprised at the difference. People who have
never liked the carrot, when they try the short-horn often find
it very palatable. For cows, you want size, and you will raise
the improved long orange, which is a very bulky carrot ; it has a
shorter top and does not grow as long as the long orange. Thirty-
six bushels will weigh a ton ; but it takes forty of the long
orange. For horses, the white Belgian is a good carrot. Its
merits are, that it produces enormous crops, and grows partly
out of the ground, so that you can pull them without digging,
when they are of enormous size. If you feed carrots to milch
cows, you want to have the milk colored somewhat, and the
orange carrot will do that. To color butter the Altringham or
Early Forcing carrot is best.

A few words on cabbage. We prefer to take the best land

. ABOUT CABBAGES. 245

for cabbage. It used to be thought that the only cabbage land
worth anything was heavy clay land, or wet land. That is not
so. Any good corn land is good cabbage land. Tlie Win-
nigstadt will grow even on sandy soil. It is the most persistent
heading cabbage we have.

In growing the cabbages you must take into account that
they are very hearty feeders. They want plenty of nitrogenous
manure, and ])hoPi)hates too. We want for a first-class crop of
Marblehead Mammoths, twelve cords to the acre, and in addi-
tion to that, we manure somewhat in the hill. Over our way,
we generally grow the Stone-mason and Foltlcr, and these are
our standard for the general market. There is no cabbage that
gives so much satisfaction as these. They are very uniform in
shape, and make a very large head. Our Stone-mason cab-
bage is an excellent cabbage. It is earlier than the Flat Dutch
by a fortnight, and grows a better shaped, harder and sweeter
head.

Of Savoys, we generally grow the Green Globe Savoys. That
is our standard. It has been so perfected that for heading it is
as reliable as our Drumheads. We have also some very early
Savoys, as early as the Early York. There is a very nice cab-
bage, culled the Schweinfurth Quintal. It will not stand market-
ing, because "its head is very tender, but it is one of the best
cabbages I know for the family. The head is very large, not
very solid, and so tender you could push your hand through it.
It is excellent for cooking. For early cabbages, we grow the
Wyman, the Jersey Wakefield and the Winnigstadt, and there
are one or two other kinds that may amount to something.

Question. How- many heads per acre ?

Mr. Gregory. That depends upon the distance they are
apart. All the way from four to twelve thousand.

Mv. ETowE, of Bolton. I noticed that you gave us the esti-
mated cost and profit of raising some of the root crops, but you
have not said anything about the cost and profit of raising
cabbages.

Mr. Gregory. I have not the figures here, but generally we
should not go much outside of il50 to the acre, as the cost of
the crop.

Mr. Howe. Did you ever make any money raising cabbages ?

Mr. Gregory. I raise mine for seed.

246 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Mr, Howe. I think you are wise there, sir.

Mr. Gregory. Some of our best farmers, as a matter of
profit, would ahiiost as soon think of giving up. their onion
crop as their cabbage crop; no doubt an abundance of sea
manure at their command has something to do with tliis.

FRUIT CULTURE.

BY CAPT. .1. IJ. MOORE, OF CONCORD.

Mr. President : — In discussing the cultivation of fruits, their
value to the public and to the producer should be carefully
considered.

And witli that view, and to show their estimated value, I have
examined the returns made to the State by the officers of each
of its cities and towns, and published in the year 1865.

And according to the estimates there made, the value of the
apples and pears grown in Massachusetts amounted to one mil-
lion seven hundred and thirteen thousand two hundred and
forty dollars. In these returns the value of all other varieties
of fruits are not estimated. Their value would be as much as
five hundred thousand dollars, which added to the amount for
apples and pears would make the whole amount to two million
two hundred and thirteen thousand two hundred and forty
dollars.

These estimates for apples and pears were made in the year
1864, and the apple crop that year was nearly a failure, and
therefore the amount estimated is not as large as it ordinarily
would be.

The farmers of Massachusetts gathered but three other crops
the same year that exceeded in value the fruits, viz. : tlic crops
of hay, corn and potatoes. I have called your attention to
these returns to show the importance of this interest. Another
decade, witli the returns made in a year having a good crop of
fruit, will probably show the fruit crop second only to tlic hay
crop in a money value, and for this reason if for no other, that
while the quantity of corn and potatoes consumed by the same
number of persons has not increased for many years, and prob-
ably never will, the quantity of fruit has and will increase for
a long time, and fruit which has by many been regarded simply
as an article of luxury, will take its proper place in family
economy as a necessary, healthful and palatable article of food ;

APPLES AND PEACHES. 247

tliis will cause an increased demand for fruit for years to come,
which I trust will be supplied to a large, extent by our own
cultivators.

At the last public meeting of the State Board of Agriculture,
held at Pittsfield, it was seriously urged by the most prominent
agricultural lecturer in New England, that we must give up the
growing of the apple ; that from the change of climate, the
ravages of insects, the exhaustion of our soils, apples could not
be grown here in Massachusetts, except perhaps by skilful horti-
culturists, and that in his lectures to farmers in Worcester
County he had advised them to cut down their orchards.

Now let us examine the results the present year and see if
the climate has changed, the soil become exhausted and all the
apples destroyed by insects. What are the facts ? Why that we
have gathered an enormous crop of apples the present year ; and
if the gentleman's propositions were correct, we have gathered
them with an unsuitable climate, and from an exhausted soil,
and in spite of the ravages of insects.

Now if this is correct, is there anything hereafter impossible
in fruit culture ? And I think I can say that almost every apple-
tree with a particle of life in it has been loaded with fruit, no
matter where situated, in the garden of the horticulturist, the
orchard, pasture or brush lot of the farmer. Science or horti-
cultural skill did not have anything to do with it.

And to me it does not look as though the climate and soil of
Massachusetts, one of the homes of this indispensable fruit, the
soil which has produced .those world-renowned varieties, the
Roxbury Russet, Baldwin, Porter, Williams, Hubbardston
Nonsuch and many others, had entirely run out and lost its
productiveness.

A few years ago there were doubts about growing even the
most hardy varieties of grapes in Massachusetts'. Now there is
none w^iatever, and from my own experience I can say that it
does not require anything more than ordinary skill to succeed.
Select a warm soil, tolerably free from frost, and plant good
vines of hardy and early varieties, and with any decent treat-
ment they will produce a crop of fruit. It has been said by
eminent horticulturists, that we must give up growing the
peach, and the principal, if not only reason assigned for its
failure, was the destruction of the forests which have so changed

248 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

our climate, and made it so bleak, arid and unfavorable to this
semi-tropical fruit that we could not grow it. "What arc the facts
about the removal of the forests ? As near as I can ascertain,
and from raj own observation, the old growths of woods which
have been cut, have been constantly replaced by new growths,
and by old pastures running up to wood, and that to-day there
are many more acres of woodland in Massachusetts than there
were thirty years ago, when peaches were grown here in favorable
years in abundance. And although the forest trees now arc not
of so large a size, but being young and vigorous, they have a
larger surface of leaves than the growth of trees removed.

It does not look as though this was the cause. Peach-trees,
when highly manured and grown very rapidly, have always been
liable to suffer to some extent in the winter in Massachusetts ;
but who ever heard of such a thing as orchard after orchard
disappearing, until within the last few years, when attacked by a
disease known as the yellows ? And although there have been
many theories advanced, no one has yet been able to give a good
and satisfactory reason as to what causes, or what will prevent,
or cure a tree once infected with it.

This disease, I am happy to say, appears to be passing away
from us here, as it has in the State of Delaware, and I have no
doubt that we shall again grow this fine fruit as formerly. I
found my opinion not only from the fact that my trees are
healthy and promising, but that within fifteen miles of this place
(Framingham) they have been produced for the last five years
with fair success and in considerable quantities for market.
With these few remarks about the larger fruits, I will leave them
to be discussed by many here who I know are so well qualified.

But before I leave the subject, I would like to call your
attention to what are usually called the small fruits, the impor-
tance of which for home consumption and for market purposes
I fear has never l)een appreciated. The strawberry, raspl)erry
and currant are all easily grown, and ought to be abundant in
almost every family as an article of healthy, palatable and cool-
ing food, ripening as they do in the hot season of the year, when
other fruits are scarce. Their abundant use jji-omotes health,
and perhaps may keep the doctor from your door. I am en-
gaged to some extent in growing these fruits for market, and
for the purpose of satisfying myself as to the best and cheapest

HOW TO CULTIVATE STRAWBERRIES. 249

method of cultivation. I have tried almost every plan recom-
mended. Some of these methods of cultivating the strawl)erry
I will describe. 1st. The matted bed or annual system. (This is
sometimes called the Belmont system in Massachusetts.) The
ground being well prepared, the plants are set out in rows from
three to four feet apart, and from ten to fourteen inches in the
rows, as early in the spring as possible after the soil becomes dry
enough to plant.

The weeds are kept down between the rows with a horse and
cultivator until the runners from the plants begin to spread ; the
ground is then levelled with a rake and the runners spread out
evenly over the whole ground, which will be entirely covered by
the first of October following if the season has been favorable.
The following spring, paths one foot wide are cut through the lot,
leaving it in beds about three feet wide. After the crop is taken
the lot is ploughed and used for some other crop.

The advantages claimed are, first, a full crop ; second, that it
is less work to raise a new bed than to weed the old one, and
although only one crop in two years, it is more profitable. The
objection to this plan is the great expense of weeding, which
after the runners have commenced to grow, has to be done
almost entirely with the strawberry fork and the fingers. And
th€^ liability of having the plants too thick in the bed, which
would injure the crop even if they were thinned, for having
been grown thick they are not as strong and stocky plants as
they otherwise would be. And also from having only one crop
in two years.

This method, however, is perhaps well adapted to varieties
like the Hovcy's seedling, that seldom have but one fruit-stem
to a plant, and therefore must be grown thick to secure a crop.

2d. To plant in the spring in the same rows as the annual
system, except the rows are to be only three feet apart,- and the
plants allowed to cover a space one foot in width. This is a mod-
ified form of the matted bed system and is liable to the same
objections.

3d. Single row or hills. This is setting out plants in the spring
in rows three feet apart and the plants from twelve to eighteen
inches apart in the row ; the runners are to be cut off and the
plants kept in hills. The weeds between the rows are to be
kept down with a horse and cultivator.

32

250 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The crops grown in tliis way are of good quality, althongh
not so large as they would be with the rows nearer together, and
with the objection of a very wide space to mulch.

4th. Single rows two feet apart, plants twelve to fifteen inches
apart in the rows, according to the strength of the variety, run-
ners to be kept off, and the whole work to be done by hand
culture. Under this method and high manuring very fine crops
of large fruit are produced and the plants will bear from two
to four crops without renewing — depending somewhat upon the
variety grown. The objection to this plan would be the neces-
sity of using only hand labor.

5th. Planting in the spring in rows four feet apart, and twelve
to fourteen inches distant in the row, according to vigor of the
variety. The weeds are to be kept down between the rows with
a horse and cultivator until the runners start, which will be
early in July. The spaces between the rows are then to be levelled
with a rake, and two runners from each plant, one on each side,
are to be laid in, directly at right angles with the row and about
one foot distant from the original plant, and all other runners
are to be kept cut ofi' both from the old and the new plants.
When the new plants have become rooted the strings by which
they are attached to the old plants are to be cut. You then have
a bed with three rows in it one foot apart, a space between ihe
beds of two feet. The overhang of the leaves will reduce that
space to about one foot, which will be the path for the pickers.
This perhaps will be better understood by reference to the follow-
ing diagram : —

*

« FEET PATH,

* 12 IncllBS. ••*•*••

STRAWBERRIES AND PExVCHES. 251

I claim the following advantages for this method : first, that
being grown at regular distances, and so far apart as to allow
the use of a small onion hoe between the plants, and a small
horse cultivator in the paths between the rows, you are enabled
to substitute the hoe and cultivator for the weeding fork and
fingers, and that the weeds can be kept down on four beds
arranged in this way easier and better than on one under the
matted-bed system ; and that you have not left it to chance, but
you have placed the plants at the precise distance apart most
favorable to ])roduce a crop of large and fine fruit ; and that
the same space will produce more fruit, and with less labor than
by any other method named ; and by proper care and manur-
ing, will produce from two to four good crops without renewiug
the plants.

Now all those methods that I have named amount to nothing
without a well manured and well prepared soil ; and sucli per-
sistent cultivation as will allow no weeds to grow ; and the
setting of good plants that have not been dried, soaked, and
exposed to the air in our markets, until a portion of tlie roots
are injured.

Therefore, good and clean cultivation is the only desirable
or profitable plan to follow.

Colonel Wilder. I did not intend to say a word on this
subject, although I have been somewhat familiar with it for
forty years. But I suppose I am the person to whom our friend
has referred in relation to the peach. He has certainly given
us a most capital lecture. There is no man in this assembly,
or in the State of Massachusetts, who can compete with John 8.
Moore of Concord, in the culture of small fruits. (Applause.)
I think he possesses as much practical skill, — and that is what
science is built upon, as any man in this assembly, to say the
least. He is one of those rare men who contend with nature,
and will not submit to defeat. But, gentlemen, where will
you find another such example ?

Now, that is the skill that always succeeds. Mr. Moore has
given you instructive lessons frequently, and they are worth
remembering. This is another example. He is sensitive on
this subject. He believes tliat men can succeed. He believes
that, with the same intelligence which he possesses, and the

252 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

same determined purpose, every one can succeed. And so do
I. He has felt sensitive in relation to the prophecy of our dis-
tinguished friend, to whom he alluded [Dr. Loring] in relation
to the apple crop, and I think, as the last season has proved, he
has got rather the better of the doctor. But in relation to the
peach crop, as a crop for general cultivation, with the expecta-
tion that it will succeed, as it did in old times, I think, with
due deference, he has taken for granted what he has not yet
proved. I am as anxious to have you cultivate the peach as
any man can be. I have been cultivating it for forty years. It
is very seldom I get a crop, and I believe the reason to be, as I
said last year, the removal of the forests (and that reason has
been assigned by gentlemen of far greater intelligence and
science than myself), which has had such an effect upon the
atmosphere and the temperature, that the peach cannot succeed
here. It certainly has not succeeded here at the North, of late
years, as it did fifty, sixty or seventy years ago. There are ex-
ceptions. As the gentleman has said, peaches have been raised
here in certain sections in quantities, but they have not been
raised around Boston in quantities. I remember that in the
town of Walpole, in my own county of Norfolk, fine crops of
peaches were raised for years, and it was supposed- that they
could continue to raise them ; but they failed, and nobody cul-
tivates them now.

Not to prolong my remarks, I hope every gentleman Mill be
encouraged by what Mr. Moore has said. Try the peach.
Plant it as you do your corn. You will get your crop some-
times ; but I don't believe we shall ever see the crop of peaches
in this region, — where our fathers used to get them as plenty
as potatoes, without any care, — come round again so that their
cultivation will be successful for a series of years. I hope it
may be.

Now in relation to the importance of the fruit crop. I al-
luded to that subject in the opening remarks which 1 had the
honor to address to the Board. I am glad to know that Capt.
Moore's opinion agrees with mine. I think it is going to be one
of the most important crops in Massachusetts ; second only, as
he says, to the hay crop. And, gentlemen, let us believe that
this branch of farming can be made just as profitable in Mas-
sachusetts as it ever has been, and as profitable as it is anywhere

ABOUT THE APPLE. 253

else. I believe the method of cultivation is to be different in
future from what it has been. We are told that the old home-
steads are being vacated, and the land running up to wood. I
tell you, gentlemen, that the sons who have left those homci-
steads have taken up special branches of farming, and are reaping
better profits. Tliey are bringing their vegetables to market in
the quantities that Mr. Gregory and Capt. Moore have told you
about. They have come to the lines of railroad, in closer prox-
imity to the markets ; they have not gone out of the world. I
think tlie statistics will show in the future that farming is as
profitable in Massachusetts as it ever was.

Mr. J. F. C. Hyde, of Newton. I desire to say a few woids
in regard to the culture of the apple. It is a subject of the
highest importance to the Massachusetts farmer and fruit
grower. I seize this opportunity to say a few words in regard
to apples, because the opinion has been entertained for the last
three or four years, that our apple crop was to be a failure, and
that Massachusetts could not successfully compete with New
York and the States further west in producing this crop, which
I think is a great error.

I am aware that in Belmont, and other places about Boston,
some of the farmers have done just what our friend Dr. Loring
advised them to do — dug up their trees, or cut them down. I
do not blame them. They cannot afford to pay a tiiousaud or
twelve hundred dollars an acre for land on which to raise ap-
ples, unless they raise varieties like the Williams or the Graven-
stein, that are carried into market week after week, and sold at
high prices. I do not blame them for digging up tlieir Baldwin
and other apple-trees, producing winter fruit, because they can
use that land for strawberries and for market gardening to very
much better advantage. Thart is all right. I have done the
same thing myself. I have cut away magnificent trees, of
thirty or forty years' growth that had just come into bearing,
and I have dug up the roots, and cleared the land of those
trees. Why ? Because my land is too valuable to grow apples.
But it will not be denied, I think, that Massachusetts produces
better apples than are grown — I was about to say — anywhere
else ; and so far as my knowledge goes, it is true. If you go
to Maine and Northern New Hampshire, you get an apple that
keeps too long, and never ripens up to an excellent quality.

254 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

You go to the extreme "West, and you get an apple of enormous
size, but it is very soft and flavorless. That is true of all the
varieties of apple cultivated there, to a consideral)le extent.
Western apples lack the flavor that Massachusetts apples have.
1 have never seen any apples grown anywhere, that were equal
to Massachusetts apples for excellence of flavor. They are not
so large as "Western apples, but larger than the Maine apples.

Then, again, there is no fruit so generally consumed and so
important as the apple. I raise a few pears, having some 110
or 115 varieties, but not a twentietli part what ray friend Colonel
"U^ilder has. I have a pear orchard of some ftve or six hundred
trees. I do not want to discourage any one from raising that
very excellent fruit. Raise it in your gardens, and about the
cities, where it does well, and supply the market. But pears
do not compare with apples for culinary purposes. You caa
hardly sell cooking pears. People do not bake them or stew
them, or cook them in any of the great variety of ways that the
French do ; but we shall grow to that. But apples are used in
a variety of ways ; you could hardly do without them ; and for
the last three or four years, when apples have been a partial
failure, some of us have paid six, eight and ten dollars a barrel,
and made up our minds, that as long as we could earn the
money, we could not do without them, and would not do with-
out them.

Now what shall we do ? Shall we annually send thousands
of dollars to "Western New York and States further west for this
fruit, not only buying the apples and sending our money out of
tlie State, but paying for the barrels, many of which are wasted
afterwards and the money lost, when we could just as well
raise them ourselves ? I say that is wrong. "We ought not to
purchase what we can produce profitably. Tliere are many
things we can purchase and had better purchase than raise. I
had the notion that corn was one of them, but I iiave changed
my mind on that since I heard the address of Dr. Nichcils.
"Wheat is not one of them. I have raised first-rate wheat here,
and you can raise it just as well. You can raise rye every
year.

If what I have said be true, shall we not produce apples in
this State ? There is no difficulty about it. You can just as
well grow apples as oak-trees. Do you ask me where and how ?

APPLES A^D APPLE-TREES. 255

I say, don't plant your trees on land in Boston or in the immediate
vicinity of Boston ; you can't afford to do it ; but all the way
back on the hill sides you can buy splendid land for apple-trees,
for twenty-five or fifty dollars an acre — and not a great many
miles from the cities either. You have got a great advantage
over the West, if you send all your fruit to Boston, because,
instead of sending it four, five or six hundred miles, you have
only to send it fifty or a hundred miles, or a hundred and fifty,
if you send it the whole length of the State. Even if you o'o
back fifteen or twenty miles from a railroad to-day, before your
trees bear this whole State is to be cut up with railroads, and the
cars will be running right by your orchard. Perhaps you will
say then your land will be too valuable to keep your orchard.
That may or may not be, but I say plant your trees there. This
year has satisfied you, as it has me, that you can raise apples in
abundance. They are not sure — what crop is absolutely sure ?
But, taking the seasons through, you may be reasonably sure of
getting your crop. This year, it is said (I hardly believe it),
that owing to the shortness of water down-east, they have run
their mills with cider !

Colonel Wilder. Did you ever know a season when apples
were not produced in gardens ?

Mr. Hyde. No, sir. I can remember forty years, and I have
never know a year when we have not had apples on our place.
I say, with locations well selected, and ordinary culture, you
will not fail once in ten years. On the average, right through,
it is as sure as almost any crop you can plant.

Then, judiciously select your varieties, put in your trees and
take care of them. If it is worth doing, it is worth doing well.
There is no crop that will pay you better for your trouble. The
raising of apples is one of tlie most profitable branches of
farming to-day. Witli the exception of market gardening, and
the raising of small fruits about the cities, I believe it is as
profitable a branch of farming as any one can engage in.

I say this much in favor of apples, because I feel a deep
interest in this subject. I have visited almost every town in
this State and in New Hampshire, and know, I tiiink, what I
am talking about. I have made trees my study all my life ; I
know something of fruit culture, and I do not hesitate to say
what I do say.

256 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Mr. DiCKERMAN. One objection that is raised by farmers in
regard to apples is, that when they are plenty, they" are not
worth anything. Now, can you control the bearing of apples ?
For instance when the apples set, can you pick them otf, and be
sure of having, next year, what would have grown this year, if
you had not picked them olT?

Mr. Hyde. I don't think it pays to undertake to change the
bearing year. The Baldwin bears only alternate years, and it
so happens that most of the Baldwin trees bear the even years ;
but we have Baldwin trees, and from those we have propagated
largely (I have no trees to sell now, 1 am out of the business),
that bear the odd years, so that we have as good a crop of
Baldwins in odd years as most farmers have in even years.

In regard to changing the bearing year, I know it was done
in one instance. We had a crab-apple-tree from which ail the
fruit was stripped the bearing year ; it had time to get a start,
and next year it bore fruit, and has continued to bear odd years
ever since. But I don't think it would be profitable to attempt
to do that. Make the best effort you can to get a crop, and
then take what nature sends you.

Question. What is the retail price of apples ?

Mr. Hyde. i2 and $2.50 ; choice, $3 ; fancy apples, -$3.50
and $4.

I would say to those living rather near the city, if you want
to go into apple culture, and have any old Baldwin trees or
anything else you want to graft over, I will tell you what you
had better do, and it will pay you full as well as pear raising.
Put in the Williams apple, — one of the handsomest apples there
is. Put in the Gravenstein, — one of the finest apples, and very
handsome. You can get them into the market before any of
the Western . apples can get here. Mulch your trees with
meadow hay or something of that kind. The Williams should
always be allowed to ripen on the tree ; they are like the peach
in that respect. Mulch your land so that they will not be
bruised when they fall from the tree. I have seen the Williams
apple sold for six dollars a bushel. They will bring from two
dollars and a half to three dollars any time.

Mr. Alex. Hyde. What is the best mode of manuring aii
orchard ?

Mr. Hyde. In the first place I trench my laud — work it

HATFUL OF CANKER WORMS. 257

deep; then I spread my manure — ^largely at first, when my
trees are small. Then I have the habit (some condemn it), of
putting three or four wlieelbarrow loads of compost — no strong,
unfermented manures — round the base of the tree in the fall.
That I let remain during the winter. It serves to support the
tree, and keeps away the mice. There is no straw among it, so that
it affords no harbor for mice, but keeps them away. Then early
in the spring I take that manure and spread it broadcast over
the land, give it a light ploughing, not so as to disturb the roots,
and then it is washed in by the spring rains, and the roots of the
trees seem to get it.

Question. Did you ever try wood ashes ?

Mr. Hyde. I regard wood ashes as one of the most valuable
manures I have ever used ; but it is difficult to get them, and
the price would be very high. I have used bone dust with very
good results, but it costs so high that I have not used it
much.

Question. What do you do with the canker worm ?

Mr. Hyde. I have lived within seven miles of Boston all my
life, and I never saw a hundred canker worms on my trees.
When over in Brighton, there was not a leaf on the apple-trees,
the foliage on my trees was as fine as you ever saw. They do
come, and they are a nuisance, I grant you, but they pass by. The
most effectual preventative I find is a mixture of tar and prin-
ter's ink, but you must follow it up. And a very good thing to
• put around the base of the tree, is a little trough of iron or
wood, filled with kerosene oil, with a little protection over it,
to prevent the rain and leaves from getting in. It is sure death
to them if they attempt to cross it, and none cross unless they
are so numerous as to pile right in, hundreds on hundreds, and
form a bridge over which some can go. I have seen half a
hatful on a tree, within two feet of space. But then, let that
not discourage anybody from growing apples. There is nothing
to be had in this world, that I know of, that is worth anything,
without some difficulties. There are difficulties in the way of
everything. There are some in the way of growing apples, but
no more than there are in the growing of other kinds of fruit.
The canker worms remain but few years and can be successfully
fought.

Question. Will it pay to keep the canker worms off?

83

258 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Mr. Hyde. Yes, sir. It won't do to let them eat your apple
trees up.

Mr. John Johnson, of Framinghara. The committee to pre-
pare suitable resolutions in regard to the death of James Thomp-
son, the member of the Board from Nantucket, report the
following : —

Resolved^ Tliat the State Board of Agriculture learn with
deep regret of the death of our esteemed associate, James
Thompson, of Nantucket, and pay the tribute of deserved re-
spect to the memory of one whose enthusiasm, enterprise and
personal worth had endeared him to our hearts.

Resolved, That we tender our heartfelt sympathies to his
bereaved family, and that the Secretary be instructed to transmit
to them a copy of these resolutions.

Mr. L. H. Bradfokd, of Fitchburg. I would like to say one
word. I knew Mr. Thompson, and was pained to learn of his
death, as I did for the first time last evening. We could better
have spared another man. "What shadows we are, and what
shadows we pursue. Here to-day and gone to-morrow. Fare-
well, dear friend, farewell !

The question was then put on the resolutions, and they were
carried.

On motion of Mr. Slade the Board adjourned to seven
o'clock.

Evening Session.

The Board again met at seven o'clock, Hon. Chas. G. Davis,
of Plymouth, in the chair.

Mr. Goodman, of Lenox. Mr. President, and Citizens of
Framing-ham, — I am requested in behalf of the Board of Agri-
culture, to tender our thanks for the hospitality we have received
during our stay here. At the opening of the meetings Mr.
Brown in behalf of the Agricultural Society, Mr. Esty, in
behalf of the private citizens of Framingham, and Mr. Johnson,
in behalf of himself and others interested in agriculture, said
that they should tender us all the hospitality in their power, and
strive to make our stay pleasant among you. They have amply
redeemed their promise. We have greatly enjoyed ourselves

RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA. 259

here, and those gentlemen, with the Messrs. Sturtevant, Ellis
and others, whose names I cannot now mention, have done all
in their power for us while we have been here. As strangers,
we have been " taken in," not in the Yankee, but in the scrip-
tural sense, " and done for," and last evening we were done
exceedingly Broion ! (Laughter find applause.) In behalf of
the Board, I again tender our thanks for what we have enjoyed,
and trust that the only ill result which sliall follow from our
presence here may be that you will see us again.

The Chairman. Ladies and Gentlemen, — It is said that
Alexander the Great wept because he had no more worlds to
conquer. We have with us to-night a gentleman devoted to
the interests of peace, who has spent a long life in subduing
nature this side of the Rocky Mountains, and I understand that
he has found a new world to conquer beyond. I have the
pleasure of introducing to you the Hon. Marshall P. Wilder.

CALIFORNIA:

A COMPAKATIVE ViEW OF HER ClIMATE, RESOURCES AND PROGRESS, WITH OBSER-
VATIONS MADE IN A Recent Tour to the Pacific Coast.

BY HON. MARSHALL P. WILDER.

California is a wonder ! wonderful alike for the wildness and
grandness of her scenery, for the richness of her mines, for the
fertility of her soils and for the salubrity of her climate, — a
climate as delightful and healthy as any upon which the sun
ever shone ; a soil in whose bosom most of the products of the
habitable globe find a congenial home ; and a country overflow-
ing with the bounties of Providence, where God and nature
seem to have set their seal as the garden of the world. The
fertility of her soils and the salubrity of her climate must always
exercise a powerful influence on the prosperity of her agricul-
ture. In most parts of the State no buildings are needed for
stock, and none for the storing of the crops ; and the bags of
grain during the summer months are allowed to remain in the
open field until removed for shipment.

Why the resources of such a country as California were not
earlier developed seems to our finite minds a mystery. But the
marvellous workings of God's providence are now clearly seen.
Thus when the balance of trade against our country became so
large and continual, thereby causing periodical revulsions and

260 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

distress, then the gold began to glisten in the streams of Cali-
fornia ; when the forests became denuded of wood, then came
the discovery of coal and the working of the mines ; when the
whale was being exterminated for the production of oil, then
came the discovery of oil in the bowels of the earth instead of
.the bowels of the sea ; and when the fertility of our great wheat
fields, moving continually west, began to decline, California
comes to the rescue with the golden harvest of her immense
valleys, rivalling in importance the treasures of her golden
mines.

Wheat is the great crop of Ciilifornia. More than one-fourth
of the cultivated land is devoted to it ; and so fertile is the soil
that frequently the grain which is dropped in harvesting pro-
duces another crop without sowing or tillage. This is called a
" volunteer crop ; " and although it often yields fifteen bushels
to the acre, it cannot be considered a judicious method of farm-
ing. Barley and oats are raised to considerable extent, but
Indian corn was seldom seen in our travels. The annual grain
crop of California is about thirty-two millions of bushels, two-
thirds of which is wheat. In favorable seasons the average
yield of wheat is about twenty five bushels to the acre. In-
stances, however, are not uncommon where in new and very
fertile locations it has reached fifty, and even sixty and seventy
bushels per acre. The seed is large, plump, white, and so well
ripened by the high temperature, that it may be stored in bulk
for months without danger of sweating or injury, and in fact
often requires moistening before it is ground.

The quality of the California wheat is world-wide renowned
for its weight, strength and whiteness. Some of the districts,
such as Alameda, Santa Clara and San Mateo, produce the
finest wheat in the world ; and the quality of the whole State
averages better than that of the States this side of the Nevadas.
As there is no rain in the summer, the grain crops are left
standing in the fields for weeks after they are ripe. Much of
the grain is harvested by a machine called the header, which
passes through the field cutting a swath fifteen feet wide, tak-
ing off the heads eight inches long, throwing them into a wagon
by its side at the rate of an acre in less than an hour. The
crops are generally threshed by a steam machine brought into
the field. This machine requires two horses, two men and

HOW THEY DO, OUT WEST. 261

two horse-forks to feed it, and, we were told, threshed 800 to
1,000 bushels of wheat and put in bags per day. Tliese bags
remain in the open field piled up in rows until taken away by
teams to the railroad stations. We saw acres of bags piled up
five bags high awaiting shipment. On many of the large farms
the ploughing is done by gang ploughs, six abreast, and drawn
by ten or twelve horses. A sower is attached to the plough,
and in this way nine or ten acres of grain may be put in the
ground in a day. And have you ever thought, my friends, of
the importance of labor-saving machines as applied to the arts
of husbandry. Without the modern inventions the crops of our
country could not be harvested, its prosperity would be para-
lyzed and a partial famine would soon ensue. How wonderful
the improvements in our own day ! Some of us remember the
old wooden plough of our boyhood. Compare this with the
modern iron plough suited to all soils and situations, and still
more marvellous, the steam plough, moving like a thing of life
across the broad prairie, turning up its numerous furrows at once,
and leaving behind it a broad wake like that of a majestic ship !
Compare the old scythe and sickle of our fathers, slowly and
tediously gathering up their crops, with our mowing and reap-
ing machines, cutting down their ten to twenty acres per day !
Aye, or go with me to those vast western valleys, look down
that broad expanse, see those two hundred reaping machines,
followed by a thousand men, women and children, binding up
the golden sheaves at the rate of two hundred acres per hour.
Look at these improvements, and I think you will agree with
me tliat we live in an age of remarkable invention and progress.
Nothing surprises the traveller more than the immense fields of
wheat seen on the sides of the railroad. Think of riding for
hours through fields of wheat whose breadth extends miles
beyond your vision, and you will have some idea of the golden
harvest of those ocean-like plateaus of grain that abound in
California.

The supply of culinary vegetables, as seen in the markets of
San Francisco and other cities, is very abundant and of excellent
quality. What surprises visitors from the East is to find such
articles as celery in the market all summer. When we arrived,
on the 20th of June, celery, cauliflowers, melons and marrow
squashes of famous size were on the stands in the market.

262 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

With irrigation, crop after crop can be obtained in varied suc-
cession, so that you may find anything you desire at any season.
The early vegetaljles begin to come in during the month of
February. Asparagus is cut from February to June. One
grower informed us he had six acres. The product was about
five tons to the acre, and was contracted for at nine cents per
pound. Tbe size to which vegetables attain is almost incredible.
We were told of pumpkins weighing 250 pounds ; squashes, 150
pounds ; beets, 100 pounds ; and carrots, 30 pounds. Astonish-
ing as these facts may seem, it is easy to understand how such
results are obtained where growth never ceases. The mean
temperature of the coldest month, December, at San Francisco
is said to be fifty-five degrees ; in the interior it is probably
lower.

Although our attention was mainly given to the orchard,
vineyard and garden, our numerous journeys through the in-
terior of the State afforded us opportunities of learning its agri-
cultural character. We were everywhere impressed with the
immense extent of the fields and farms, and flocks of cattle and
sheep. One gentleman in Sacramento informed us that his
farm embraced 13,000 acres of land, and that last year he sold
$40,000 worth of wheat. We visited one dairy farm, containing
3,500 acres, with GOO cows, only an hour by rail from San Fran-
cisco on the San Jose railroad ; and were told of another farmer
who had 2,300 head of milch cows. In one of the small, very
rich valleys, celebrated for stock raising, we were informed by a
friend of ours, that in favorable seasons 20,000 to 30,000 cattle
might be seen on the plains, and often so thick that they could
not be counted. We met in our travels flocks of sheej) on their
way to the mountains, of 3,000 to 5,000 head, for fresh pasture.
One firm from Maine, who crossed the mountains in 1852 with
2,000 sheep, now shear over 100,000, and own 150,000 acres of
land. Another farmer, who went from Roxbury in this State,
with whom we were formerly* acquainted, now owns 32,000
acres of land and has 7,000 sheep. His neighbor owns an island
devoted to sheep husbandry and has 115,000 sheep. This island
is green with verdure thronghoiit the year, and it is said that
in Los Angelos County one may travel on the road for twenty-
seven miles through the farms and islands of one })roprictor.
While lands in the interior of most excellent quality are to be

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS OF CALIFORNIA. 263

obtained from five to twenty dollars per acre, those near the
market are held at prices far beyond the means of immigrants
or persons of less capital.

With the valley lands so wonderfully rich and productive, with
a climate so mild and invigorat ng that cattle may lie in open
field under mid-day sun, and neither animals or men suffer from
heat, agriculture has progressed rapidly, as has also the ability
to wield such immense farms with profit. It is but little over
twenty years since the discovery of gold in California, and not
until some years after was any considerable degree of attention
given to agriculture. At first the want of experience in that
peculiar soil and climate retarded its progress, and it is safe to
say that the last ten or twelve years have produced the results
w^e now witness. The value of these agricultural products in
1869 is stated to be $30,000,000. This, considering the popu-
lation of the State, — less than 600,000, — is very great. Indeed,
the growth and commerce of the cities of California, and the
increase of agricultural and manufacturing productions and of
mines, in a period of twenty years, is amazing. Tlie variety of
crops which may be grown in this State is wonderful. The
foreign grape yields more abundantly than in any part of Europe.
The fig, orange, almond, mulberry, pomegranate and the olive
come to perfection. Silk culture promises to be successful, and
large companies are formed for its promotion, and orders are
already received from China and Japan for the cocoons on
account of their excellence. The culture of the tea plant has
been commenced and is likely to succeed, and in the Sacramento
valley canals are projected for the culture of rice.

When we consider that it is only about twenty years since
gold was discovered in California and that she has now a popu-
lation of nearly 600,000 souls ; that she has a territory 800 miles
in length and 200 in breadth, — twenty times as large as Massa-
chusetts, three times as large as all of the New England States,
four times as large as the State of New York or Pennsylvania ;
that she has millions of acres of land equally well suited to
tillage as any under cultivation — a soil richer in fertility than
the banks of the Nile, a climate whose very breath infuses health,
energy and enterprise, we can hardly estimate her future prog-
ress, prosperity and power. And now that the great highway
of nations has been opened across our continent, now that the

264 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

tide of population is pouring in on our western shores, a popula-
tion which is strongly influenced by New England blood and
New P]ngland principles, we begin to realize the great future of
the Pacific slope. In view of the addition of tliis wonderful
territory to our union of States, we are tempted to claim the
fulfilment of the sentiment of Bishop Berkeley, —

" Westward the course of Empire takes its way,
The first four acts already past ;
The fifth shall eud the drama with the day, —
Time's noblest oflfering is the last."

Next to the cereals of California, no other production of the
soil, wool perhaps excepted, is so important as the grape. The
State has about 30,000,000 vines, two-thirds of which are in
full bearing. The amount of wine made annually is probably
about 4,000,000 gallons ; that of brandy about 300,000 gallons.
Tliis is exclusive of the large quantities of grapes used for the
table. Many of the vineyards are quite profitable, yielding from
$50 to '$500 per acre. Some of the varieties, such as the flame
Tokay, have occasionally produced 8,000 to 10,000 pounds per
acre. Nearly all the vines are foreign varieties, among which
strongly predominate the Mission, as it is called, the Muscat of
Alexandria, the Black Haml)urg and Rose of Peru, the latter
probably being the St. Peters of our collections. The cheapest
grapes are the Mission, but they have often paid from fifty to
one hundred dollars per acre. The grapes sold for eating bring
from four to ten cents per pound ; but three-quarters or more
of the crop is sold to the wine manufacturer at about twenty
dollars per ton. All the foreign kinds are grown, of whicli
there are at present some two hundred varieties on trial.

California has great advantages for wine growing. The vines
produce very abundantly, and much more to the acre than in
our western vineyards or in those of Europe. The yield is con-
stant and regular in California, without the risks of frost or
damage from rain. Lands suitable for vineyards can be had in
the interior and on the foot hills for a few dollars per acre.
The vine is being planted on these foot-hills far up into the
mountains, and both tlic fruit and wine are considered of finer
flavor tlian that raised on the bottom lands. The vines are
grown in tree form, without stake or trellis. The stems, from

WINES OF CALIFORNIA. 265

two to three feet in height, — some of the oldest ten to fifteen
years planted, — are fully six inches in diameter. No summer
pruning is practised further than the removal of superfluous
shoots, early in the season. The bearing canes are allowed to
run their full length, spreading over the ground, which is kept
clear and well cultivated. They are planted eight feet apart.
The cost of cultivating is $25 per acre, but some put it higher
than this. The average product is about twelve pounds per
vine through the State. Tlie Mission grape is most productive,
and frequently yields thirty or forty pounds to a vine ; the Ilcis-
ling not over four or five pounds. Some of the vineyards are
800 to 500 acres in extent. One of the most elegant vineyards
that we visited had a grape arbor three-quarters of a mile in
length, thirty feet in width and twelve feet high, covered with
grapes trained in the most elaborate and artistic manner. Part
of this grand arbor is used as a drive, in which carriages pass
each other in freedom. California seems to be the home of the
vine.

"We do not intend to discuss here the expediency of crushing
the ripe clusters for " the sweet poison of misused wine," but it
is an established fact that no region whatever has superior
advantages for producing wine. With a temperature higher
and drier than that of Spain, or the most favored portions of
Europe, with suitable lands almost fabulous in extent, where
grapes arc produced at a lower cost than anywhere else on the
globe, where in some sections of the State wines can be stored
in open sheds, instead of costly cellars, without injury, it may
safely be stated that California is destined ultimately to become
one of the greatest grape growing and wine producing territories
of the earth.

I suppose it may be expected that I should express an opinion
in regard to the culture of fruits in California. In the sev-
eral sections we visited, and many others, fruit in general can
be produced at a much less cost than with us at the East. 1st,
In most cases the land can be had of good quality at low prices.
Good fruit and grain land in the coast valleys, except close to a
town or village, can be bought for $20 to $100 per acre. In
the second range of valleys, Sacramento, San Joaquin, and
others at a distance from market, at a much less price. 2d,
The trees grow nearly twice as rapidly as with us, and come
Si

2G6 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

into bearing in less than half tlic time, od, The fruit is sure,
large and handsome, and yet nearly exempt from diseases and
insects. 4th, Tlie atmosphere is so dry during the whole season
that rotting on the trees is unknown ; and the fruits remain on
the trees sound long after they are ripe, thus greatly prolonging
the season of gathering. 5th, The ground requires much less
cultivation than at the East. When the dry season commences
weeds cease to be troublesome, and for a period of between four
and five months very little labor is needed to keep the ground
in order, which is an important saving. And lastly, labor is
quite as cheap as with us. The necessity for good culture
exists there no less than with us, and is probably greater, as we
observed instances where a single year's neglect had nearly
ruined the plantation, owing to tlie exhausting nature of a cli-
mate where heat and drought are so prolonged.

As I have remarked, fruits and fruit trees are, in a great
measure, free from insects and diseases in California ; however,
the few which exist, it is reasonable to suppose, will increase
with the extension of fruit culture, the same as in other countries
grown old. We saw a few caterpillars on the apple, slug on the
pear and cherry foliage, aphis on the orange and olive trees, and
mildew on the grape, cracking of the pear and curling of the
peach leaf; but in all these instances only in a slight degree.

At the time we arrived in San Francisco, on the 20th of June,
we found an abundant supply of all the early fruits. Of straw-
berries the first crop had passed, the second just coming in ;
apricots, early sorts abundant and beautiful ; cherries in their
prime, large, beautiful and excellent ; currants plentiful and
very large ; early pears, chiefly Doyenne d'Ete and Madeleine ;
apples, mostly Red Astrachan ; figs, gooseberries and early
plums. We took immediate steps to ascertain in what locali-
ties we would find the best examples in the several dei^artments
of culture and within easy reach of us ; and ascertained that
the valleys of Santa Clara, Napa, Sonoma, Sacramento and
San Joaquin contained some of the largest and best-conducted
orchards and vineyards in the State. In the valley of Santa
Clara we visited a large orchard which consisted of 8,000 pear
trees, 4,000 apple trees, 85 acres of strawberries, 10 acres of
grapes, — in all 73 acres. Grapes were planted among the pears,
the orchard having been planted in 1855. The pear orchard

ABUNDANCE OF FRUITS. 267

was composed of many of tlic leading well-known sorts ; the
trees remarkaljlo for health, vigor of growth and productive-
ness. The oldest were about twelve years, and some of these
we estimated at thirty feet in height, and a foot in diameter of
trunk at the ground. The crop we regarded as too heavy for
the future welfare of the trees, and we suggested the thinning
of the fruit ; but the owner said the low price of fruit would
not justify the expense. We shall speak of prices hereafter.
Doyenne d'Ete an(i Madeleine pears were being picked, and
compared favorably with those grown at the East ; all other
varieties seemed to do well ; many were already, though not
half grown, highly colored. The apple orchard was less prom-
ising than the pear, we thought, owing to the ground being too
wet at a certain period of the year. Newtown Pippin was said
to be the most profitable, and next to that. Smith's Cider, White
Pearmain and Wine Sop.

The strawberry here, when irrigated, bears the whole year ;
but the principal crops commence in April, and continue into
September. The strawberries are grown in rows three and a
half feet apart by one and a half feet in the row, and kept in
hills. The plants were six years old, the hills fully eighteen
inches across, and were bearing ripe and green fruit and blos-
soms at the same time.

This gentleman has three artesian wells on his premises, vary-
ing in depth from 320 to 340 feet, giving a constant flow of
water during the dry season. The strawberries are irrigated
by carrying the water along the headlands in wooden flumes
about eighteen inches square ; stoppers are inserted opposite
the spaces between the rows, and then the water is distributed
and shut off at pleasure. The proprietor informed us that he
had on his grounds a mile and a half of these flumes. The
Longworth's Prolific strawberry here and elsewhere yielded
more profit, and constituted the bulk of this fruit at the market
stalls and in the shops. The later cherries were in perfection,
and for size and beauty surpassed any we have ever beheld.' in
any country. The Black Tartarian and Napoleon Bigarreau,
sold under the name of Royal Ann, arc much cultivated.

On the 28tli of June we visited the plantation of another
gentleman at San Lorenzo, who has 125 acres in fruits, planted
fifteen years since, and was one of the earliest, most experienced

2G8 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and succcsbfiil fruit growers in that conntry. We found him in
his extensive and well-arranged fruit-packing house, preparing
apricots, cherries, early phlms, pears and currants for market.
All were remarkably fine. He had sent that morning to San
Francisco, cherries that measured three and three-fourths inches
in circumference, and counted thirty-six to the pound. He
sends annually about 65,000 pounds of cherries at from ten to
forty cents per pound, though some of the earliest had brought
seventy-five cents per pound. All are sold in San Francisco,
the Black Tartarian always securing the highest price. He has
forty acres, of cherry currants ; the bushes were covered with
masses of fruit of enormous size. He has sold 140,000 pounds
in one year at from nine to eleven cents per pound. The cur-
rants are trained in bush form on single stems, and the branch-
es are carefully shortened during the growing season, to keep
them compact and prevent breaking down. Of blackberries he
has eight or ten acres, all Lawton. Generally this berry does
not succeed as well as at the East, though we saw exceptions,
td Avhich we will refer hereafter. Pears are packed in fifty-
pound and apples in sixty-pound boxes. Pears thrive here
grandly ; and he has raised the Pound or Uvedale's St. Ger-
main, weighing four pounds throe ounces.

Almonds arc grown to great size, in lines of half a mile, both
in the tree and fruit. AVe saw one tree fourteen years old,
fifteen inches in diameter, that has yielded three bushels, which
were sold at twenty-eight cents per pound. He has 2,000 trees
on his grounds. The English walnut succeeds as well, and
some of the trees are already large enough to bear two bushels
of nuts each.

The sugar beet in this luxuriant soil attains to fully twice the
size and weight it does with us in one season. We heard of
single ones weighing 118 pounds. A company has been organ-
ized here for manufacturing beet sugar ; and this same estab-
lishment proposes to unite the manufacture, on their own
grdinnds, of currant jelly, which is so extensively put up in San
Francisco.

In Napa valley we examined an orchard containing 100 acres;
Here wc saw a fine apple orchard, one of the best in that
vicinity. The Early Harvest and Red Astrachan were fit to
gather. William's Favorite was largely planted, and looked

SIZE OF ORCHARDS. 2G9

remarkably well. The following sorts were named as the most
profitable, in addition to those we have mentioned. Early-
Strawberry, Summer Rose, Early Harvest, Wine Sop, Rawles
Janet, Newtown Pippin, White Pearmain, Roxbury Russet,
Rhode Island Greening, Yellow Bellflower and Smith's Cider.
The Northern Spy and Baldwin failed, and had been grafted
over with Yellow Bellflower and other sorts ; the Newtown
Pippin bearing off the palm as the best.

We visited another of the pioneers in fruit culture in Napa
valley. When he commenced he planted peach stones, and in
eighteen months gathered fruit from the trees, and sold many
thousand bushels in San Francisco, and some at enormous
prices. Cherries also flourished here, the Duke predominant.
His sales of fruit one year amounted to fifteen thousand dollars.
Another orchard lies in the heart of this beautiful valley, of
140 acres of fruit trees and vines, all in the finest state of culti-
vation ; the only defect being that the trees stand too closely
together. They were of twelve years' planting ; many were
eigliteen inches to two feet in diameter of trunk, and twenty-
five to thirty feet in height. Of the 125 acres, 25 are in grapes,
50 in apples, and the balance in pears, cherries, &c. The apple
succeeded here ; the varieties were Early Harvest, Red Astra-
chan, Fall Pippin, Fallawater, Yellow Bellflower, Smith's Cider
and White Winter Pearmain. The view of this orchard, as we
rode througli a lawn seeming more like an English park in ex-
tent, was grand and imposing ; the whole estate with its grain
fields comprising 2,300 acres.

One of the finest pear orchards at Sacramento contained
10,000 trees. The oldest trees had been planted nine years,
and some of them were twenty-five or thirty feet high. Like
others, the trees were crowded in planting. Here we saw the
Beurre Clairgeau and Winter Nelis pear, after only four years
planted, twenty feet high and stems full six inches in diameter,
heavily laden with fruit. The following varieties were very
fine : Beurre Giffard, Rostiezer, Bartlett, Winter Nelis, Duchesse
d'Angouleme, Yicar of Winkficld and Scckel. Of the last-named
the orchard contained 1,000 trees ; of Winter Nelis a long
avenue. This gentleman sent to the New York market in 18G9
800 busl els of the Yicar of Winkficld pear ; and the last year
he sent to the East more than 6,000 bushels of pears, of wliich

270 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

500 bushels were Lawrence. And here in a grove of fig-trees,
as large as apple-trees and twenty-five feet high, we partook of
figs, aj)ricots, pcaclies, plums, pears, blackljcrries, melons and
grapes at the same time. Of the grape, he had one vineyard
containing 10,000 vines, all of the Muscat of Alexandria, and
of these he sent last autumn to Chicago five tons or more.
Another fruit grower, iu Petaluma County, we were informed,
raises 60,000 bushels or 20,000 barrels of apples a year, and at
Cliristmas time sends 300 to 500 bushels a day to market.

.On the 5tli of July we visited the Alhambra gardens, in the
Alhambra valley, near Martinez. The ranch embraces some
700 acres, ninety of which are planted with fruit ; thirty-four
acres are covered with grape, half with the Mission grape, so
called ; the other sorts embrace White Muscat of Alexandria,
Flame Tokay, White Chasselas, Black Hamburg, White Corinth,
Palestine, <tc. Bunches of the last-named we found, on meas-
urement, to be eighteen inches in length, though of course the
berries were not half grown. Isabella and Catawba have been
tested and found unsuccessful. Tlic orchard contained 1,200
apple-trees, 1,000 pear-trees, 1,800 peach-trees, besides plums,
cherries, almonds, apricots, figs, walnuts, pomegranates, quinces
and oranges. The quince-trees surprised us ; they were grown
witli one stem, like an apple-tree, and were the finest and largest
we ever saw. The pomegranates, 180 in number, were superb
plants, about six feet in height, covered with fruit and flowers.
A splendid sight of the kind, and such a one as we never en-
joyed before. They ripen in September and October, and sell
for eight to fifteen cents per pound. In good seasons they pro-
duce GOO pounds. The Alhambra valley is narrow, wholly
occupied by this plantation, and sheltered on two sides by hills
some 600 feet high. The climate is therefore very warm, and
on the first of July the mercury rose to 109 in the shade. The
cottage of this gentleman was surrounded with groves of orange,
fig and pomegranate trees ; and here we dined most sumptu-
ously, everything upon the table being furnislied from his own
grounds.

The next orchard which claimed our attention was a short
distance from Sacramento, owned by the Messrs. Smith, who
formerly carried on an extensive nursery business in addition
to fruit-growing, and their grounds were regarded, and justly

. PRICES OF FRUITS. 271

so, tlie finest in the State ; but the floods so destructive around
the city swept away a large portion of the grounds near the
river, and covered other parts from three to five feet deep in
sand. The finest portions were thus destroyed, and tlie wreck
is still to be seen ; the portion remaining bears a heavy crop.
Pears and plums were especially fine ; of the former. Dearborn's
Seedling, Bartlett, White Doyenne, Winter Nelis, Easter Beurre,
Dix, and Glout Morccau were prominent. Dearborn's seedling
and Glout Morccau surpassed in size, beauty and quantity any
crops we have seen. Trees of Dearborn were bearing eight to
ten bushels of fruit ; the Dix "were high colored and fine ; the
White Doyenne was in its ancient beauty and excellence. The
crops of plums were so heavy as to break down the branches of
the trees ; the early Orleans were just gathered and ready for
market. Washington plums were superb. The ground where
these fine, fruitful trees were growing was covered by sand to
the depth of two to three feet, washed on by the flood ; in our
climate trees would have perished.

The apple, pear, peach, plum, and cherry all thrive and bear
abundantly in California. The apples are larger than in the
Atlantic States ; those growjn near the sea do not keep so well,
and arc not so juicy. Those grown in Sierra Nevada, where
the winters are cool, keep as well as in New England. There
are no worms in fruits ; the curculio is unknown.

Until last year the production has exceeded home demand.
This seems extraordinary when twenty years have not elapsed
since the planting of the first orchard. We were told that in
1853 peaches were first sent to market, some selling as high as
'$6 per dozen, and even $5 for a single peach ; now fruits are so
plenty they are selling at 50 cents to $1 per bushel, and even at
a lower price. In 1854 and 1855 cherries were brought from
Oregon and sold for $2.o0 per pound. A single apple was sold
for $5, and 300 boxes of apples brought $1.50 per pound ;
peaches raised in Sacramento in 1855 and 1856, a single basket
containing sixty peaches realized $Q0. Until last year the con-
sumption was confined to the home market. But now tlie
Pacific and other railroads open new markets, and greatly
augment the demand. The business is now becoming systema-
tized, and cars are being specially constructed to carry fruit to
Eastern markets. We examined four of them just being finished

272 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

at Sacramento, and two of them loaded with Bartlett pears, ten
tons each, came over with us on our train, July 28, hound East.
We hrought some liartlctts home, which remained in good con-
dition three weelvs on the way from the time of picking.

Fruits keep without rotting much longer on the trees and
vines in California than with us. The fig is produced in great
abundance and of excellent quality in many parts of the country ;
indeed, we saw it fruiting heavily along the roadside on trees
only five years old. In Putah Creek, one of the earliest and
warmest locations, the fig comes to great perfection. The trees
of one grove, only sixteen years old, are twenty-five feet high by
forty or fifty broad, and they now cover the ground. Ilere the
fig bears three crops in a year. One grove of four acres produced
nine tons of dried figs, and were sold at 8-00 per ton, or ten
cents per pound, and this was the second crop, the first having
yielded equally large. When the process of drying becomes
well understood, as it will shortly, the fig culture must become
a source of great profit, and will, I think, rank among the most
profitable fruits. At present much of the crop is lost every
year. In a country where fruits can be grown so cheaply, modes
of profitable consumption will soon suggest themselves.

For drying fruit, California is superior to most other countries
in the world. As a general rule, the fruits arc superior to ours
in size and beauty, generally sweeter, but not superior in flavor.
With a few exceptions, the cherries, apricots, as well as the
early pears, are as fine as any raised in any country. The de-
ficiency in flavor, if this exists, may be owing to the unripe con-
dition of the fruit by premature picking and improper ripening.
The early fruits, not of overgrown size, are usually of better
quality, and not so fibrous and mealy as those of autumn. But
we are unable to say how far tlic want of flavor is owing to
improper treatment. In the case of strawberries, the best
varieties have not yet been adopted by the market growers, and
with the exception of the currant, none of the small fruits are as
good as ours. The grapes are almost exclusively what we call
foreign varieties. Wild native grapes abound in all the wooded
parts of the State, but they arc very different in character from
our grapes of the East. American grapes have been tested, but,
as far as we could ascertain, with unfavorable results ; this,

ORNAMENTAL TREES OF CALIFORNIA. 273

liowever, wc do not regard as conclusive, as some experiments
may yet be successful.

The ornamental trees and i»lants of California are unlike
those which adorn our streets and gardens, and we were at once
struck with their singular appearance. Instead of the elms,
maples and chestnuts, which prevail at the East, we saw the'
Cape of Good Hope, Mexican and some other semi-tropical trees
and plants. These are everywhere planted as common, and
they grow as easily as willows do with us. So rapid is their
development that we saw an Australian Eucalyptus tree which
was fifty feet in height, five feet in circumference of trunk, and
only six years old ; and a Pinus Insignis six years old, forty feet
high. We also saw fuchsias (ladies' ear-drop) ten feet liigh,
with heads of four to six feet broad ; beds of scarlet geranium
of immense size and ten feet high, and in many instances
trained to reach the second story windows of the house ; in one
garden, a fuchsia hedge of eight feet in height with stems as
large as a man's arm ; such tender trees and plants as we grow
under glass are here found in open ground for ornament.

The collector of the port of San Francisco, Mr. Phelps, very
kindly invited us to visit the forts, islands and other objects of
interest in the harbor. On this delightful excursion we were
honored with the company of His Excellency Governor Haight
and a large party of military and naval gentlemen, with their
ladies and a full band of music. At Black Point, General Ord's
quarters, there was a glowing mass of scarlet geraniums, full
ten feet high, noticeable far out in the bay ; tree mallows and
fuchsias of enormous size. But what especially interested our
party was the fact of partaking of refreshments from the very
table on which the late General Robert E. Lee signed the sur-
render of the Southern army. At Fort Alcatraz we saw a trellis
of ivy-leaved geranium six feet high ; a mass of flowers form-
ing a division fence ; heliotropes and fuchsias, seeming more
like trees than green-house plants. At xVngel Island we noticed
a hedge of rose geranium fifty feet long and nine feet in height;
and this same plant grown as standards, with clean stems and
large heads, at least five feet high and four broad. Angel
Island is a charming place, and if angels were ever to seek a
residence on earth, no spot is more suitable than Angel Island.
I know not what flowers were grown in Eden, but of this I feel

35

274 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

sure, tliat none had more stately growth, gorgeous hues or
exquisite fragrance ; and I confess it gave me great pleasure to
learn that this delightful spot was a place of favorite resort,
and tliat these beautiful flowers — trained by the fair hands and
nourished by the sweet smiles of a daughter of Massachusetts —
were not

" born to blush unseen,

And waste their fnigrunce on the desert air."

Rose-trees were everywhere to be seen in the gardens, souae of
which were six to eight feet high, with stems as large as the
. arm, — even our delicate tea and noisette roses attain an ex-
traordinary size. We rode through a beautiful avenue one mile
in length, bordered with live oak and rose trees planted alter-
nately. Green-house plants, such as are seen in our windows
for house-plants, here in the open air reach eight to ten feet in
height.

"We were everywhere astonished at the rapidity with which
trees and plants grow in California. We saw the common
garden fennel ten feet high, the lemon verbena ten to twelve
feet, the oleander twenty feet, and the fig, one year old, six
feet. The camphor, allspice, guava and other tropical trees
succeed as well as in our hot-houses. We saw a Mexican
pine which had made a shoot of thirteen feet in one season ;
a hedge of prickly pear six feet high and four feet broad ; and
grapes in fruit the first year from the cutting. We saw noisette
roses and scarlet geraniums trained to the top of a three story
house, covering the whole end ; a tree mallow twelve feet high,
with stem ten inches in diameter ; and an Australian pea,
trained on a water tower, forty-five feet high, covering it en-
tirely.

But what surprised us most was the ease with which such
trees and plants as the palms, the American aloe or century-
plant came to maturity. At one of the fashionable watering-
places we found lodgings provided for us in the cottages, each
having palm-trees before its windows ; and it was a common
occurrence to find in the gardens the century-plant, which
seldom blooms Avith us short of fifty or sixty years, in full flower
at the age of ten or twelve years. We saw several from thirty
to forty feet in height, and with stems one foot thick at the
base.

CHINESE IN CALIFORNIA. 275

Ornamental trees in California are larger and far more beau-
tiful than with us. We saw a sycamore or buttonwood tree
115 feet high ; a California laurel fifty feet high with trunk ten
feet in diameter. On our way from San Jose to San Lorenzo,
on the Western Pacific Railroad, waiting for a train, and seeing
in tlic midst of a grain-field a large horse-chestnut tree, we
thought we would give it a closer examination. The tree ex-
ceeded our expectations both in size and beauty. It was fully
fifty feet higli, witli a spread of branches forty feet by measure-
ment. The branches swept the ground on every side, and were
then, June 28, in full bloom. The flower spikes were from
twelve to eighteen inches in length, many two feet, all in a
drooping or pendulous position. After that time we met with
thousands of this species in different parts of the State, but no
specimen approaches this either in size or beauty. Our party
decided to have this tree propagated ; and in commemoration
of our visit named it " Esculus "VVilderi."

Under this tree we found a party of Chinamen, who had been
employed in binding grain, preparing their dinner. We were
received kindly, and at once invited to partake of their humble
meal. " Want some soup? " " Yes," was the reply. This Avas
served in a bowl with chop-sticks, and we Avere delighted at our
success in using them. "Want some cake ? " "Want some tea? "
"Yes," and after partaking of these, we offered them money, but
they disdained filthy lucre, and we parted much pleased with
these Orientals. Boston is well known to the Chinese, and they
call the white men " Bostons." And here allow me to remark,
that we feel no alarm on account of their immigration to this
country. The introduction of the Chinese is in accordance with
the designs of Providence. It is this that has brought them to
our shores, and we might as well expect to retard the motion of
the heavenly bodies, as to arrest this progress of civilization.
We give it, therefore, a hearty welcome, as one of the means of
developing our vast national resources, and as the best means of
ultimately Christianizing a great heathen nation. Already they
are attending our schools, acquiring our language, adopting our
customs, and some are filling places of trust in financial, com-
mercial and other business. We had intercourse with many of
these men, and found them favorably inclined to our country
and its institutions. We attended a Sabbath school of two or

276 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE.

three Imudred of tlic Chinese, from the ages of ten to forty
years, and on this occasion there were present seventeen Chinese
merchants, several of wliom aJilresscd the school, all in fiivor of
its objects. Nor would we omit the fact, that one of the chief
tellers in the Bunk of California is Mr. Lee Kan, a gentleman
of polished manners, and around whom we saw four of his coun-
trymen counting the precious metals. We say then to the Chi-
nese, as we have said to the people of other nations, come if
you choose, and sit under the genial shade of our tree of liberty.
Come if you choose ; we will educate, elevate and energize
you with American principles and American enterprise, and as
long as the heavens above shall continue to reflect the wisdom,
goodness and mercy of an Almighty hand, so long let this
blessed land of freedom, of schools and of churches, be the
home and refuge of the oppressed and down-trodden, from
whatever source they may come.

Among the wonders of California, we must npt fail to notice
the Geysers, or the famous hot springs. These are situated about
125 miles north of San Francisco. "We take rail to Calistoga,
a celebrated watering place, where we find on arrival that our
good friends, always anticipating our comfort, had provided
quarters for us in cottages on the lawn, each having palm-trees
in front. Hero, too, we found arrangements had been made
with Mr. Clark Foss, the celebrated knight of the whip, to take
us over the mountains. The next morning, with open wagon
and four in hand, he whirls up to the door. " All on board " is
the word. " All right " is the response, and ofT the horses aallop
at the rate of twelve miles per hour. Soon we approach tfte
mountain and commence creeping up its sides, over a road
scarcely wider than our carriage, resembling a spiral staircase
in its frequent curvations, and reach the summit station. Here
the horses are exchanged, the company refreshed, and on we
wind down the hill for thousands of feet, into the valley below.
We soon arrive at the hotel, where Ave find that the thermome-
ter marks 107 degrees in the shade of the piazza. We are now
at the Geysers, which are located in the canyon opposite, but
the weather being hot, we feared to enter it until the next day.
At five the next morning, we start on our excursion to the
dreadful Geysers. We wander down the vale to the foot of the
canyon, where we cross a beautiful little river, whose cool, trans-

THE GEYSERS. 277

lucent stream, placid as Lethe, winds around the base, regardlqss
of the dark, sulphurous waters which gurgle and gush up all
along its banks. But on we creep up the dismal ravine, and
soon we come to the Devil's Pulpit, and the Devil's Arm-chair,
both of which we rejoiced to find vacant. And now I beg the
indulgence of the audience, and especially of my reverend
friends, for any seeming impropriety of language in describing
this awful yawning gulf. And now w^e are in the throat of the
sulphurous canyon, wlrere vegetation dies, and only abominable
things live, where the very air oppresses you above, and where
thousands of boiling springs, around and beneath you, are mut-
tering, sputtering, bubbling and belching, like the long pent-up
fires of a volcano. Imagine, if you can, a combination of the
fumes of sulphur, soda, nitric acid, phosphorus, borax, alum,
ammonia and every other detestable ingredient, and you may
have some idea of the atmosphere of the Geysers. And here
the ground beneath you is covered with an incrustation of sul-
phur, magnesia and other chemicals, like the yellow lava from
an overflowing crater. Now your feet are burning, and your
guide cautions you not to step from the trodden path, lest you
might find yourself sinking you know not where.

On either side, and near your path as you travel up, are
numerous large boiling springs, — the Devil's Inkstand, from
which we took a bottle of ink, and with which these words are
written ; the Devil's Tea-kettle, always boiling and ready to
scald you or your tea, in which you might cook an egg in two
minutes ; but the most noted is the Witches' Cauldron, an
immense cistern six feet wide, casting up scalding, spouting,
turbulent waters from a fathomless abyss. And here I confess
that it required but a little imagination to fancy that Pluto had
established a grand entrepot underneath, and Lucifer himself
was stirring up the fires at the bottom, wherever that bottom
might be, — and with a still further range of thought to imagine
that Hecate and her weird sisters were dancing around this
infernal cauldron and chanting their malefic incantation of, —

" Double, double, toil and trouble,
Fire burn and cauldron bubble
Tor a charm of powerful trouble,
Like a liell-brotb boil and bubble."

278 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

I could stand this no longer. I must escape to the mountain-
top or die in tliis most unchristian place; and having been
brought up in the good old faith to fear sulphurous flames or
something worse as a punishment for evil deeds, and with the
steamboat hissing and wheezing above me, the earth oozing with
l)oiling waters beneath me, the air loaded with unearthly fumes,
liable by tlie contact of soda and acid to throw me aloft or by
brimstone and fire to send me l)elow, I hastened to escape from
those riutonic regions, and once more to revisit the earth and
breathe the pure air of heaven.

Having done the Geysers, we take our carriages for recross-
ing the mountains. We climb up as before and reach the last
station. Here we take a fresh relay of horses, the drivers
regale themselves with mountain dew, some of our company
quaff the crystal rill, some imbibe the ambrosia of the vine.
In a few moments we are all on board and all^'ight. And now
comes the world-renowned feat of our modern Jehu. Crack
goes the whip. " Sharp I " says Foss ; and soon the noble steeds
are on the run. Round and round and round, hugging close to
the mountain side, we go, and down, down, down, like a boulder
from the mountain-top, we dash thousands of feet into the valley
l)clow. "Time! time!" say the passengers. Four miles in
twenty-two minutes, says the redoubtable Foss. Soon we are
on the level road, all thanking a merciful Providence for the
preservation of our lives, and resolving never to take that risk
again.

We did not visit ' the Yo-Semite Valley, that wonder of the
world, for we remembered that sage advice that discretion was
the better part of valor, and so we reserved our visit until the
journey should become less dang^erous.

But someone inquires, "Did you see the big trees?" Oh,
yes; there they stood in sublime majesty, towering above all
around them ; rexiring their lofty heads midway between heaven
and earth, their topmost branches fading from our vision in the
blue ether above. " But are these trees so old and grand as
have been represented?" Yes; time with unerring finger has
inscril)cd in concentric circles on their venerable trunks a his-
tory far liack of the age when Jesus of Nazareth walked on
earth. How marvellous their story ! A thousand years l)cforc
our Saviour was born some of these trees had their birth.

THE BIG TREES. . 279

Nearly nineteen centuries have since passed away, and still
they live on. The Egyptian pyramids arc Avearing away, sand
by sand ; monuments are crumbling into dust ; the ancient ce-
dars of Lebanon are fast passing away ; but the gigantic Sequoia,
in unconscious sovereignty, fit type of tlie magic growth of
American civilization and power, still lives on ; and luho shall
say that it may not continue for thousands of years to wave
its branches in ever-living green, and, like the free institutions
of our beloved land, wave on to the final day !

The trees we visited were in Calaveras County, 190 miles
north of San Francisco, where we also found many large trees
of the Conifera species. Words would fail to describe the sen-
sations in riding through this giant forest, on a road as smooth
as a park drive, just as the sun went down on our approach to
the grove. As we entered the grove the moon had risen so as
to throw a silvery light on the two " big trees," Sequoia, which
form a grand gate-way over 300 feet in height, and called the
Sentinels. As we passed between them we were filled with
amazement, and uncovered our heads in reverence to those
glorious monarchs of the forest. Our heart was too full for
utterance, but our inmost soul cried out. Speak to us, ye chil-
dren of olden time ; Oh, speak ! Tell us in what age you were
born ; tell us who inhabited this mighty forest when you first
came forth from earth. Tell us what tempests, earthquakes
and revolutions you have witnessed in your day and generation !
But the tears in our eyes spoke louder than the noble trees, and
so we passed on to the hotel. Soon after our arrival I stepped
out into what I supposed was a small garden plot surrounded
with trees. Looking up, I could but just see the sky above
their tops. It was like looking through nature's telescope
reaching from earth to heaven. I called my friends and said,
" Do you see that tall tree ? Do you see the star above it ? It
is not a yard from the top of the tree to the star ! ' ' But, my
friends, these were not the BIG TREES !

In the morning, after breakfast, we started on our journey
through the grove which is in close proximity, indeed sur-
rounding our hotel. Tlie grove is said to extend over fifty
acres, but the largest specimens are grouped in a comparatively
small space. We have alluded to the " Sentinels," which form
a gateway, as it were, to the grove. The largest of these is 315

280 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

feet ill liclght, the others over 300 feet, and twenty-three feet in
diameter. Tiicre are nearly 100 of these trees in the grove,
ten of wliich arc tliirty fect or over, in diameter, and npwards
of SOO feet in height. Many of these trees have tablets nailed
to them, looking much like country guide-boards, inscribed
with the names of persons and places. Some are decidedly
inappropriate. Wc do not object to the illustrious names of
George Washington, Daniel Webster or Abraham Lincoln, Drs.
Lindley, Gray or Torrey, William C. Bryant, Henry Wads-
worth Longfellow or Henry Ward Bcccher, the Empire, Granite,
or Bay State, the Father of the Forest, the JMother of the Forest,
the three Graces ; but names like Salem Witch, Siamese Twins,
Old Bachelor or Old Maid, are simply desecrations of the noblest
works of God's creation. As these trees have all been described
so often by travellers, it would be superfluous for us to give a
detailed account of them ; but I will name a few of the largest.
In '1853, one of the largest trees, 92 feet in circumference
and over 300 feet high, was cut down. Five men worked
twenty-five days in felling it, using large augers. But the
monarch was so accustomed to standing, he would not then come
down, and it required three days more work with wedges, to
make him bow his stately head. The stump of this tree has
been smoothed off, and a house built on it which has accom-
modated three cotillion sets. Our party of sixteen persons
assembled on its headless trunk, and there, in commemoration
of our visit, wc joined hands and sang " Auld Lang Syne." With
united congratulations and benedictions, we parted with this
relic of former ages, declaring that it was the most substantial
and the greatest stump orator wc ever saw. The Mother of
the Forest is 327 fect high, and 78 feet in circumference
without the bark ; this was nearly two feet thick, and was sent
to the World's Fair in London in 1851. The tree is dead, but;
a young pine is growing in its top. One of the largest trees, the
Father of the Forest, long since bowed his head in the dust, and
yet how stupendous even in his ruin 1 He measures 112 feet in
circumference at the base, and can be traced 300 feet, where
the trunk was broken by falling against another tree ; it here
measures 16 feet in diameter, the size of the section of the
big tree on exhibition in the city of Boston, and according
to the average taper of the other trees, this venerable giant

HUNDRED CORDS TO A TREE. 281

must have been 450 feet in height when standing, and forty
feet in diameter. A hollow chamber or burnt cavity extends
through the trunk 200 feet, large enough for a person to ride
through on horseback, and whose upper side is wide enough for
a carriage to run on. Walking upon the trunk and looking
from its uprooted base, the mind can scarcely conceive its pro-
digious dimensions, while on the other hand tower its giant
sons and daughters, forming the most impressive scene in the
forest.

But who will believe our report ? What traveller did not
doubt their size until, with measure in hand, he had spanned
these giants of the forest ? Imagine, if you can, a tree whose
height is 100 feet more than that of Bunker Hill Monument,
and, even more marvellous if possible, of one whose height was
more than double that of Bunker Hill Monument, and whose
first branch was 200 feet from the ground, and you would have
a correct idea of some of the largest of the big trees of Calave-
ras County. There are also groves of these trees in other parts
of California, where specimens of even larger size, it is said,
have been seen. In Fresno County a tree was recently taken
down, whose limbs, exclusive of the trunk, made more than 100
cords of wood, and another into whose hollow trunk two men
have ridden abreast on horseback.

And who that has ever stood amidst these miracles of crea-
tion can fail to render reverential awe to Him who mad,e and
has preserved them to this time ! How appropriate the sublime
words of our own poet, Bryant : —

" Father, tliy hand
Hath reared these venerable cohimns ; thou
Didst weave this verdant roof. Thou didst look down
Upon the naked earth, and forthwith rose
All these fair ranks of trees. They in thy sun
Budded, and shook their green leaves in the breeze,
And shot toward heaven. Tlie century-living crow,
Whose birth was in their tops, grew old and died
Among their branches, till at last they stood,
As now they stand, massy and tall and dark,
Fit shrine for humble worshipper to hold
Communion with his Maker."

36

282 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Conclusion.

Our tour was one of continued interest and unalloyed gratifi-
cation, and, did time permit, it would be pleasant to allude more
particularly to our journey across the continent, — to those
heaven-piercing mountains of which Nevada has a Imndred,
each from ten to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the
sea — to the fearful passes, and almost fathomless canyons
l)eneath, some of which are hundreds of feet below the level of
the sea — to the forty miles of snow-sheds, twenty-five feet
high, so strongly built and roofed, and to those almost inter-
minable stretches of desolate plains over which we travelled.
Even these impressed us with a sense of sublimity and sur-
prise, suggesting the thought that although now so a})parently
barren, they might be made fertile, and become the abodes of
civilization. Some of these give unmistakable evidence of fer-
tility, and we were glad to perceive that the good work of
planting trees had in some instances been commenced on the
line of the Pacific Railroad.

A vast amount of these lands, it is believed, may be made to
produce good timber, which will serve to shelter the crops, im-
prove the climate, add charms to the scenery, give comfort to
the traveller, and induce immigrants to locate, where, without
these evidences of fertility, a state of desolation would exist for
ages to come.

And now, I would express our entire satisfaction with the
excellent construction and arrangement of the great trans-con-
tinental Pacific Railroad. In common with the people of our
whole country, we say, honor and gratitude to the noble men
wdio conceived, executed and brought to a triumphant comple-
tion this most wonderful work of modern times, — a work which
will ever be memorable in the annals of history for its bold
enterprise, rapid construction and grand achievement.

Nor can I close these remarks without reference to the courte-
sies and hospitalities extended to us by the good people of Cali-
fornia. The first of these was the reception at Omaha of a tele-
gram from the California committee, with the inquiry, " When
will you meet us at sunrise on the summit ? " To which we
responded, "At sunrise Monday morning;" and just as the sun
was lighting up his fires on the snow-capped mountains around
us, the delegation, consisting of the presidents of several societies

SIC ITUR AD ASTRA. 283

with their ladies, met us, each bearing bouquets of flowers and
baskets of fruit ; and from that time imtil we parted with them
at the same place thirty days later, an occasion made memor-
able by a joyous dinner and a brisk game of snowl)all, we were
treated with a degree of affection and regard that will ever be
remembered with heartfelt gratitude. Never shall I forget the
sensations of that hour when we stood on Nevada's summit to
receive the congratulations of our friends, some of whom we
liad not seen for more than twenty years ; and when standing
amidst those snow-clad cliffs, sparkling in auroral light with sap-
phire and gold, I thought I was never so near heaven before, —
I could almost imagine that I saw the glittering spires of the
New Jerusalem above, and in a moment of exaltation I ex-
claimed, in the language of the old Latin poet, " -Sic ilur ad
astra'' — this is the ivay to the stars.

Some present may think that I have too highly appreciated
the resources and importance of California in comparison with
the blessings and privileges of our own New England. We are
often cliarged with extolling her merit ; but while we acknowl-
edge the rising greatness of our Western States, empires though
they may be, still we would be just to ourselves, cherishing with
undying affection the homes of our fathers, from whence have
gone forth so many of those benign influences which have made
our country what it is. How has she encouraged and fostered
every effort for the spread of the gospel — for the diffusion of
knowledge — for the extension of human freedom — for the sup-
port of constitutional authority — for tlie progress of internal
improvements and the development of national resources ! How
has she sent her sons as pioneers to colonize by her enterprise, to
utilize by her industry, to enrich by her wealth, and to build up
by her example, new States for the diffusion of the piety, patriot-
ism and principles of her fathers ! and so, in the future, wher-
ever their feet shall be planted, however dense the forest, how-
ever distant the shore, there her churches, school-houses and
benevolent institutions shall rise, the blessed harbingers of future
good. But whatever rank may be assigned by Providence to
New England in the future, her name will forever be cherished
by grateful millions for the good she has already done.

Whenever I reflect on what New England has done for the
world, what she has done for the cause of education, religion,

284 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

civil polity, and for the amelioration of the ills that flesh is heir
to, the blood courses more freely ia my veins, and my heart
rises in gratitude to the Giver of all good that he permitted me
here to be born —

" Here let me live, here let me die !
Aud a small stone tell where I lie ! "

Mr. Lewis of Framingham. I would like to make one re-
mark before we close. I want to say to the younger members
of this audience and to the citizens of Framingham, that Col.
Wilder is the head and front of our Board of Agriculture. It is
to his credit that this Board originated with him, and it is largely
to his labors that we are indebted for the existence of the Agri-
cultural College. He is a Boston merchant, who has spent
many years of a long life in doing what some of our farmers
turn up their noses at, — practising hook farming. He is an old
gentleman now, and probably we shall never hear him again in
this hall, though I hope we may, and before we part I wish to
offer him our sincere thanks for his able lecture ; and to those
gentlemen who have, through these three days, given us so
much valuable information, 1 desire also to tender our hearty
thanks. I hope that every person, young and old, in this hall
will not forget the gentleman who, in an eloquent address that
i once heard him deliver, said, " When I am gone, plant a tree
.over my grave." He has done more for agriculture and for
fruits than any other man in the country. You can hardly be
aware how much we are indebted to this one man. I was on
the lioard for six years, and an abler, harder-working man was
not to be found there. I give him the credit for it. I hope we
shall pass this vote of thanks, as a slight tribute to these
gentlemen.

Mr. EsTY, of Framingham. I am very happy to second the
motion. Allow me a word further. It was my pleasant duty
three days ago, in behalf of the citizens of Framingham, to
address a few words of welcome to the members of tlie Board
of Agriculture, and I then promised that we would do all in
our power to make this visit pleasant to you. I hope we have
redeemed that promise. We on our part have received great
pleasure from these meetings, and I believe we have all been
profited by them. The discussions and addresses have been

CLOSING SCENES. 285

such as to make a permanent impression, from which we shall
derive benefit in the future. I doubt not that we all take an
interest in everything that will benefit the material interests of
the country, but I am sure we would not exchange this small,
but glorious old State in which we live, notwithstanding its
cold climate and the hardness of its soil, for that great State on
the Pacific, with its strange and almost fabulous resources of
which we have heard this evening.

I again say, sir, in behalf of the citizens of Framingham, that
we are glad you came here, we are sorry that you leave us, and
hope that you will come back again. It is with regret that we
bid you farewell.

Col. Wilder. I cannot allow the moments to pass without
recognizing the words that were uttered by Mr. Lewis, with
whom it has been my privilege, as a member of this Board of
Agriculture, to labor in this field. I thank him for the expres-
sion which he has given, as your representative, of his feelings.
I can only say, that I hope to live for years and to work with
you ; but if that tree should ever be planted over my head, I
hope it will bear better fruit than I have borne.

The Chairman. As the temporary organ of the Board, I feel
it my duty, and something more than my duty, my most sincere
pleasure, to say something in response to all the kind expressioi s
which have been uttered this evening on the part of the citizens
of Framingham.

The Board thank you, ladies and gentlemen, they thank you
from the bottom of their hearts, for the kindness with which they
have been received. And we feel and we express these thanks,
ladies and gentlemen, not alone for ourselves, but because we
think it indicates upon your part, and upon the part of this neigh-
borhood, some interest in the agricultural prosperity of this Com-
monwealth, and some interest in an appreciation of our labors
in its behalf. We are merely a board of citizens of the Com-
monwealth, acting officially, and prompted to our action by no
salary and by no responsibilities excepting those which we feel
that we bear in common with the other citizens of the Common-
wealth. We believe that as this State grows old, as the West
overpowers and overshadows us, politically and otherwise, that
as the State grows more and more like the old countries, the
interests of agriculture become more and more important to it.

286 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

We believe that the modes of agriculture must change with the
times, and that tlie people of tliis State, if they would preserve
their independence as a people, their morality as men and
women, the purity of their children, they must rely, next to our
high and holy religion, upon an agricultural population, rooted
and grounded in her soil. We are here, ladies and gentlemen,
to help that interest. We are here doing what we can to inter-
est the farmers of the State in their own occupation. We ask
them, for their own interests and the interests, of their children,
to encourage all that may seem to them, after due consideration,
to be of advantage to the interests of agriculture. For that
reason, in the course of our annual perambulations, we have
come among you ; and although we do not say anything in
disparagement of the hospitality with which we have been re-
ceived in other places, — at Concord, at Amherst, at Greenfield,
at Pittsfield, last year, — we only say, that nowhere have we seen
so much general interest manifested and so much hospitality
exhibited as have met us here. We cannot, therefore, but
thank you. I believe that our duties here are ended, and I am
sure that if we could, consistently with our duties, vote to see
you again next year, we would gladly do so. (Loud applause.)
The Board then adjourned, sine die.

ANNUAL MEETING OF THE BOARD.

The Board met at the office of the Secretary in Boston, on
Monday, January 30, 1871, at twelve o'clock, Hon. Marshall
P. Wilder in the chair.

Present — Messrs. Baker, Bassett, Birnie, I. K. Brown, Clark,
Clement, Davis, Durfee, Ellsworth, Fearing, Goodman, Hubbard,
Hyde, Johnson, Knowlton, Loring, Moore, Morton, Peck, Salton-
stall, Slade, Stone, Ward and Wilder.

Messrs. Loring, Goodman and Clark were appointed a com-
mittee on the order of business.

This committee subsequently submitted the following

report:
1st. Reports of Delegates.

2d. Reports of Committees on the subjects assigned to them.
3d. Report of the Committee on the Agricultural College.

NATURE'S DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 287

4th. Miscellaneous Business.

5tli. Appointment of Delegates.

The Committee would recommend that the committees on the
selection of subjects and to consider the arrangements of the
annual country meeting be appointed at an early stage of the
session. (Signed) Geo. B Loring, Chairman.

The reports of delegates to the various agricultural societies
were then submitted as follows : —

Mr. Slade reported upon the Middlesex South ; Mr. Good-
man, upon the Essex ; Mr. Stone, upon the Worcester West ;
Mr. Hyde, upon the Worcester South ; Mr. Clarke, upon the
Worcester North ; Mr. Fearing, upon the Middlesex ; Mr.
Brown, upon the Worcester ; Mr. Peck, upon the Worcester
South-East ; Mr. Clement, upon the Hampden East ; Mr. Ward,
upon the Franklin ; Mr. Knowlton, upon the Berkshire ; Mr.
Hyde, upon the Marshfield ; and Mr. Morton, upon the Nan-
tucket.

A committee to suggest a list of subjects for investigation and
essays, was constituted by the appointment of Messrs. Loring,
Clark and Hyde.

A committee of three to consider and report upon the time
and place of holding the country meeting was constituted by the
appointment of Messrs. Davis, Birnie and Goodman.

Voted, That the returns made in reply to questions concerning
the condition of the various agricultural societies, be referred
to the Secretary and the committee appointed to prepare the
questions.

President Clark submitted the following essay upon

NATURE'S MODE OF DISTRIBUTING PLANTS.
The wonderful adaptation of living beings to every portion of
the earth's surface must impress even the most casual observer.
The red snow of the glaciers, the phosphorescent fungus of
gloomy caves, the drifting lichens of the Siberian steppes, the
brilliant flowers of Alpine summits, the gigantic sea-weeds of
the Antarctic Ocean, the gorgeous air-plants of the tropics, the
venerable cedars of Lebanon, the immense sequoias of Califor-
nia, the towering gum-trees of Australia and the glorious palms
of the Amazon valley, are but familiar examples of the infinite

288 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

variety of vegetable life. These diverse forms are, however,
limited in their distribution by the peculiarities of soil and
climate as well as by their specific characteristics. "While some
thrive only on rocky cliffs, deriving their sustenance from the
atmosphere, others require the rich vegetable mould of the
prairies or the fertile alluvion of the rivers. Some delight in
dry, sandy localities with abundance of light and heat, while
others are never found except in dark, dank forests. Many
aquatic plants grow in the cold, fresh water of mountain
swamps, and others amid the sulphurous vapors of hot springs
or the brackish waters of salt marshes and the sea. The succu-
lent cactus withstands the parching heat of the desert, while the
almost equally fleshy orchid sends out its aerial roots only in a
climate loaded with moisture. The most luxuriant vegetation
exists in equatorial regions, near the level of the sea, where
heat, light and moisture are most abundant and m*ost constant.
The boundless forests of Brazil exhibit the greatest number of
species, and probably the most enormous plant-growth per acre
to be seen anywhere, though possibly equalled in the latter
respect by the evergreen timber of the Sierra Nevada, which
often attains an average height of two hundred and fifty feet.
As we rrcede from the equator toward the north or south, we
notice a gradual change in the appearance of plants, dependent
principally upon the mean annual temperature, but often pecul-
iarly modified by those geographical features which affect the
time, manner and quantity of the rain-fall.

Elevation above the sea level also produces the same result
upon the development of plants as a change in latitude. Lofty
mountains within the tropics furnish examples of vegetation
precisely analogous to that of the whole earth, their summits
often being crowned with the very species whose blossoms greet
the traveller in the brief summer of the polar regions.

The surface of the earth has been divided by botanists into
eight zones, marked by certain isothermal lines, and character-
ized by the predominance of certain vegetable forms. Each of
these zones is represented, also, in the vegetation of mountains
near the equator, which rise above the snow line ; and these
zones of altitude are designated by the names of their peculiar
species of plants. Thus, the equatorial zone is called the region
of palms and bananas ; the tropical zone, the region of tree

METEOROLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 289

ferns and figs ; the sub-tropical zone, the region of laurels and
myrtles ; the warmer temperate zone, the region of broad-leaved
evergreen trees ; the cooler temperate zone, the region of decid-
uous trees ; the sub-arctic zone, the region of conifers ; the
arctic zone, the region of alpine shrubs, and the polar zone, the
region of alpine herbs.

Massachusetts lies within the cooler temperate zone, which
is bounded on the north by the isotherm of 41° Fahrenheit, and
on the south by that of 54.5°. The average mean annual tem-
perature at Amherst, for the last thirty years, is 46.37°. This
is the region characterized by extensive forests of deciduous
trees in great variety, often intermingled with needle-leaved
evergreens. The plains when fertile are covered with rich
pasture grasses, and when barren with heather and other low
shrubs, while the swamps produce sedges and mosses, and con-
tain frequently deposits of peat. The climate is very intense,
and characterized by sudden and decided changes. The winters
are long and severe, with a mean temperature below 32° and
not unfrequently a depression of the thermometer to zero, and
even to 20° below. The ground is often bare during one-third
of the winter, and is consequently frozen to the depth of from
one to four feet. Since the trees are mostly stripped of foliage
and all herbaceous plants killed by the frost, the winter land-
scape presents a peculiarly dreary aspect, especially in the
absence of snow. This extreme severity of the cold season is a
great hindrance to the introduction of numerous desirable trees
and shrubs, to the growth of which the summer is well adapted.
The mean temperature of the three warm months is from 65°
to 70°, and there are often five months without frost. The
annual fall of rain and snow averages about 45 inches of water,
and the distribution of it through the year is tolerably uniform,
though droughts are not uncommon and occasionally injurious.

Those plants which endure the peculiarities of the climate
without special care or protection are said to be hardy. It is
somewhat remarkable that science has thus far sought in vain
for any satisfactory explanation of the peculiar sensitiveness of
many species of plants to cold. The wood of the tender orange
tree is jjs close-grained and as hard as that of our evergreen
kalmias or rhododendrons, with similar leaves, and protected
from severe frost will ripen ks fruit and most of its young
37

290 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

growth every summer. The succulent prickly pear survives the
alternate freezing and thawing to which it is exposed on the
sands of Nantucket, while the guiacum, which produces the solid
lignum vita;, succumbs to tlie slightest frost. In like manner
the tuberous roots of the dahlia are killed by frost while those
of the peony are uninjured. The cormus and foliage of the
delicately beautiful crocus seem utterly indifferent to the effects
of cold, wliile those of the elegant ixia, belonging to the same
family, are exceedingly sensitive — a difference of habit wliich the
keenest botanist would fail to discover, except by actual trial.
The relations of living plants to drought and moisture are
equally remarkable and inexplicable. Tims most seeds and
many bulbs will retain their vitality unimpaired for years in a
dry atmosphere, whjle others, like the seeds of the magnolias
and the nymplieas and the scaly bulbs of the lilies, germinate
with great difficulty after desiccation.

In the study of the vegetable kingdom we find some species
of a truly cosmopolitan character, and existing in a wild state
in all quarters of the globe. The common brake, pteris aqui-
lina, is a striking instance of this sort, being abundant in vari-
ous parts of the five grand divisions of the earth and on many
islands of the ocean. Tliis is doubtless owing to its vigor of
constitution and the minuteness of its spores, which are borne
to great distances by the winds. About thirty species of flow-
ering plants are common to both the arctic and antarctic regions
and are also found upon numerous intervening mountain sum-
mits. "Whether they are the remnants of an ancient flora which
once covered the whole earth, and which has been largely super-
seded by species of more recent origin, or whether they were
created in many widely separated localities simultaneously, are
questions which we have not the data to answer.

The area over which any particular wild species is distributed '
is usually definitely limited, and the centre of greatest abun-
dance from which it seems to have spread is well marked.
Under similar climatic influences in different countries, we do
not generally discover the same identical species, but in most
cases such as are closely allied. Thus the violets of Europe
are not repeated in America ; but we have an abundance of
similar species. The heaths of Europe are represented by dif-
ferent species in Africa, and by a (Jiffereut but strikingly similar

NATURAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 291

family in Australia. There are no pine-trees south of the
equator, but an abundance of peculiar firs, with all the charac-
teristics of the cone-bearing family. Many species are of a
social nature, and occupy the ground to the exclusion of others
less vigorous, and these, like the Canada thistle, often become,
when worthless, exceedingly troublesome and injurious. Such
are the shrubs and coarse herbs which annoy the inhabitants of
the Tartarian steppes, and which encumber the soil, prevent the
growth of grasses, and are useful only for fuel. In like man-
ner, artichokes and peach-trees are said to overrun immense
tracts of the pampas in the Argentine Republic and the Patago-
nia, having been introduced from Europe and supplanted the
native vegetation by virtue of their superior vigor. In the
same way many of our most common weeds have been imported
from other regions, and have become naturalized so thoroughly
that their extermination is well-nigh impossible. The conflict
with evil, however, should never be remitted, notwithstanding
all difficulties and discouragements. It is said that over large
districts in the great plain of China, the most productive coun-
try in the world, all the native wild plants have been destroyed,
and only those are seen which are cultivated. It is hardly to
be desired that Massachusetts should be so thoroughly cultivated
as to destroy all the beauties of her natural vegetation ; but it
would be delightful to have some power capable of delivering
those who faithfully practise clean culture on their own premises
from the weeds and worms propagated upon the lands of their
slovenly neighbors, or of the public.

There are two principal methods observed in nature, and
imitated by man, for the distribution of plants. These at first
seem quite dissimilar, but upon closer examination are evidently
alike in principle, and differ only in the degree of completeness
to which the natural process of reproduction is carried. Buds
and seeds are the essential means for the propagation of all the
forms of vegetation, and, therefore, especially worthy of careful
study with regard to their origin, nature and use.

The simplest form of plant, such as the palmella nivalis,
which constitutes the red snow of arctic regions, consists of a
single cell with its contents. This is seen upon examination
under the microscope to resemble precisely an ordinary hen's
egg. The outer covering or shell forms a spherical cavity, and

292 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

consists of a colorless membrane of cellulose. This is lined in
the young and living cell by a membrane like that within the
shell of an egg, which is called the primordial utricle, or the
original sac. "Within this is inclosed the nitrogenous vital fluid
or protoplasm, corresponding to the white of an egg, in whicli
floats the nucleus, a minute globular body, analogous to the
yolk. Vegetable growth results from the multiplication and
enlargement of these cells ; and the macrocystis pysifera, a sea-
weed, which in the Antarctic Ocean sometimes attains a length
of seven hundred feet, may be regarded as merely an aggrega-
tion of simple cells, and limited in size only by the capacity of
its stem to resist the force of the waves. In the higlier orders
of plants these spherical cells are variously modified and
arranged to accomplish certain important objects. Thus to
form the outer bark, as in the canoe birch, they are compressed
and flattened ; to build up the stout woody fibre, as in the
hickory, they are elongated, and the tapering extremities lapped
upon each other ; to constitute the ducts for tiie circulation of
air through the plant they are joined into continuous tubes;
while solidity is imparted to the heart wood of trees and the
stones of fruits by the thickening of the cell walls.

The multiplication of cells arises in some cases from the
development of new cells within the fluid contents of unicellu-
lar plants, which are thereby destroyed, but at the same time
reproduced and multiplied. Ordinary plant-growth, however,
results from the spontaneous subdivision of living cells on or
near the surface, and the subsequent enlargement of their sub-
divisions to the full size of the original mature cell. This proc-
ess of vegetation, by which living plants continue to increase
in bulk, is, therefore, simply the reproduction of cells by cells.
In this way the roots which supply food, the branches which
serve to expand the foliage to the vitalizing influences of the
sun and the atmosphere, and the leaves, which are the organs
of digestion and respiration, are perfectly developed in the
relative and absolute proportions of the species to which the
individual may belong. This miracle of growth, where all the
organs are present and all the circumstances favorable, is utterly
beyond our comprehension and must command the admiration
of every contemplative person. But the facts relating to the
reproduction of plants and the preservation of species and

CAPACITY FOR REPRODUCTION. 293

varieties arc still more wonderful. Not only have active cells
the power of multiplication in the several parts of a vegetable,
but every cell seems to be endowed with the capacity of repro-
ducing the entire individual. Thus from the fragment of a root,
the eye of a tuber, the scale of a bulb, the cutting of a stem,
or a bit of leaf we can readily produce, first a tender growing
point or bud, and from this a complete and perfect plant with
all the peculiarities of the parent, even to the color of the
flower and the flavor of the fruit.

While this capacity to reproduce the entire individual under
certain circumstances may be regarded as belonging to every
living vegetable cell during its most active condition, provision
has been made for the development of peculiar cells, or clusters
of cells, abundantly endowed with vitality and variously pro-
tected, which are designed to facilitate the growth and propaga-
tion of every plant. The most common forms of these are the
ordinary leaf buds produced in the axils of all true leaves ; the
seeds of flowering plants ; and the buds and spores of various
kinds of the cryptogamia. These bodies, therefore, constitute
the special means by which Nature distributes plants. Buds
are generally designed only to grow upon the parent stock, or in
its immediate vicinity, and are usually destroyed by desicca-
tion. They have the same structure and chemical composition
with ordinary cellular tissue, and, though occasionally used as
food by men and animals, can scarcely be considered as subserv-
hig any secondary purpose in the economy of wild or unculti-
vated life.

Man, however, has learned to use buds in many ways for the
propagation of plants by extension, a,nd, as most of the valuable
varieties of flowers and fruits in cultivation can only be repro-
duced by this method, buds are objects of peculiar interest to
the horticulturist. In multiplying plants by grafting or bud-
ding, the object is to transplant perfected buds from the cam-
bium layer of one stock to that of another. If this be so done
that the sap of the stock flows freely into the transplanted bud,
and the bud be prevented from withering by the exclusion of
the air, the operation presents little difficulty in tlie case of
plants belonging to the same species and possessing a similar
structure and habit of growth. Where the species is the same
in the bud and the stock, the advantage to be gained is the pro-

294 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

duction of some desired variety of flower, fruit or foliage, which
has resulted from the modification of the original or wild plant
by cultivation or accident. Thus all the beautiful purple
beeches are said to have been reproduced from one tree in Ger-
many, whicli was an accidental variety, and many of our
choicest fruits and flowers have been originated by hybridiza-
tion and other artificial means.

In a few instances, different species have been united in this
way, but the size and vigor of the mismated product is very
decidedly affected, and, except for particular, and for the most
part temporary objects, such unions are undesirable. The
most valuable results have thus far been attained l)y grafting
the pear upon the quince, a tree upon a shrub belonging to a
different genus. The dwarf trees thus produced come into
bearing very early, and with high culture yield for a limited
period large crops of fruit, which in some cases is of finer
quality than that borne by standards of the same variety.
When grafted upon the mountain ash, a small tree of the same
genus, the pear is said to ripen its fruit earlier than under other
circumstances. It has also been grown with less success upon
the apple, the hawthorn and the medlar. The peach and
apricot may be grafted upon the j)lum, and thereby become,
perhaps, somewhat more hardy in our climate in consequence of
the check thus imposed upon their tendency to grow and fruit
excessively while young. It is also said tliat in England the
plum stock causes an earlier development of the buds in the
spring from its superior hardiness, and so lengthens the season,
which at the best lacks the heat requisite for the highest ripen-
ing of the peach.

Some varieties of pear refuse to unite with a quince stock,
and are propagated as dwarfs by double grafting, that is, hj
grafting them upon other dwarf varieties, which are growing
freely upon the quince.

In the production of new varieties of apples and pears from
seedlings, the young shoots may be brought to bearing very
soon by grafting them upon a mature tree ; and, when a valu-
able varietji^ is secured, it may be multiplied with surprising
rapidity by the process of budding young stocks.

"Whether the character of the fruit of the stock has any clTect
upon the fruit of the graft is very doubtful, although gardeners

GRAFTING AND HYBRIDIZATION. 295

often prefer to ennoble, as they say, a fruit by grafting it upon
another of excellent quality. Experiments of this kind have
not yielded decided and convincing results, though the custom
at present is to employ vigorous seedlings as stocks without
regard to their origin.

The influence of the scion upon the stock is more probable
theoretically than that of the stock upon the scion, since the
elaboration of sap occurs in the leaves, from which it must be
distributed downward. Recent experiments with the variegated
abutilon have demonstrated that the foliage of the stock
becomes variegated while the scion is growing upon it, and
when the latter is removed from the plant, the variegation of
the foliage disappears. Nevertheless, it is hardly to be expected
that any important results will be attained in this direction, in
respect to the modification of flowers and fruits, though experi-
ments are desirable. It is well known that some varieties have a
remarkable inclination to sport, producing differently colored
flowers upon different branches. This may result from a mix-
ing of qualities by hybridization, or possibly grafting, upon the
supposition that a portion of a cell of the scion has united with
a portion of a cell of the stock to form a sort of mechanically
crossed cell, which has reproduced itself with infinite variations.
But neither hypothesis accounts for the well-known fact that
this tendency to sport is very rare in comparison with the whole
number of hybrid and grafted plants.

Tomatoes, potatoes, cucumbers and even grasses have been
successfully grafted, but the process is generally confined to
hard-wooded plants with exogenous stems. Soft-stemmed and
endogenous plants are usually grown from cuttings, which, in a
moist atmosphere with bottom-heat, root without difficulty. In
this way tens of thousands of potato plants have been started
during the past few years.

Many wild plants, especially among the lower orders of the
vegetable kingdom, are reproduced by buds which either develop
in connection with the parent plant, or separate from it and
establish themselves in the soil. Occasionally buds assume the
form of bulblets in the axils of leaves, as in the tiger-lily, or on
the flower-stalk, as in the top-onion. These fall to the ground,
sometimes before and sometimes after sprouting, and thus
reproduce their kind. Among the numerous methods in which

296 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Nature distributes plants by buds may be mentioned the follow-
ing, viz. : By suckers from widely spread roots, as in the locust ;
by runners, as in the strawberry ; by subterranean stems, as in
the witch-grass and bind-weed ; by natural layers, as in the
gooseberry ; and by the rooting of the tips of canes or fronds,
as in the raspberry and walking fern ; finally, a few species of
plants, like the rose of Jericho in Palestine, the resurrection
plant of California, and the edible lichen of the Siberian
steppes, become detached from the soil, and are distributed in
all directions by the winds, during certain seasons of the year,
when vegetation is checked by drought or cold. When heat
and moisture return, and circumstances favor, these wanderers
take root again and renew their vegetative life.

From the preceding statement it appears that buds, however
useful in cultivation for the multiplication and diffusion of
plants, are but imperfectly adapted for the preservation of
species under unfavorable influences, or for their distribution
over any wide extent of country. To accomplish these objects
with greater certainty, and also to provide for men and animals
more various, delicious and especially more nutritious articles
of vegetable food, Nature produces fruits containing seeds and
spores. The proper limits of this essay will admit only a very
general account of the structure and functions of the organs of
vegetable reproduction, and the modifications to which they
may be subjected by the intelligent efforts of man, but perhaps
even this may not be without interest and value.

When seed-bearing plants reach a certain degree of size and
maturity, a peculiar kind of bud appears, in addition to the
ordinary leaf buds, which develops into a flower instead of a
leafy branch. In regard to size, at the period of first flowering,
plants vary from one-quarter of an inch in height to two hun-
dred feet ; and in respect to age from the seed, tliey vary from a
few weeks to a hundred years or more. Some species, like the
grape, begin to blossom very young and continue to do so for a
long period, while others, like the talipot palm, grow for many
years, and then produce an enormous number of flowers and
seeds, and die exhausted. That the flower bud is only a trans-
formed leaf bud is evident from many curious results of culti-
vation, such as the growth of green leaves in the centre of a
flower, or upon a fruit, or the conversion of the entire blossom

FERTILIZATION OF FLOWERS. 297

into leaves, as in tlic green rose. This is a reason also for the
fact that plants often fail to blossom in conscciucnce of too much
vegetative vigor, which may be overcome by root pruning, by
confinement of the roots in a limited space, or by a scanty
supply of water or food.

Though we are often inclined to accept as literal truth the
words of the poet, —

" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
And waste its fragrance on the desert air," —

yet, the beautiful colors, the peculiar odors and the honeyed
sweetness with which they are endowed, by no means fail to
accomplish a useful purpose. By these attractions countless
insects are enticed to fly from plant to plant, and so to transport
the fertilizing pollen which would otherwise rarely attain its
proper destination. Without entering at all into doubtful ques-
tions of vegetable physiology, we may state that the production
of seeds and spores capable of germination presupposes the
impregnation of ovules or spore-cells by pollen grains or some
corresponding bodies. While the great majority of flowers con-
tain both sets of sexual organs, yet sometimes they are found
upon separate plants. It is believed that in most cases, pollen
is efficient in fertilizing the ovules of some other flower than the
one by which it is produced — in other words, self-impregnation,
if possible, is by no means common. Fertilization is, therefore,
usually effected either through the agency of the wind, of insects
or of man transporting the pollen from one flower or plant to
auotlier. The only species which has from time immemorial
been thus artificially impregnated for the production of fruit is
the date palm, which bears the stamens and pistils upon differ-
ent trees. The caprification of the fig in the Levant, performed
by hanging branches of the wild tree upon the cultivated at the
time of flowering, is designed to effect the same object by the
introduction of insects into the young fruit. It does not ap-
pear, however, to be of any special advantage, though long
practised.

Artificial impregnation of ovules and spores, though unneces-
sary in ordinary cases to the development of fruit, has assumed
in recent times great interest and importance from the fact that
it affords the means of securing new and valuable varieties of

38

298 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

plants by liybridizatioii and cross-breeding. True hybrids or
mules are produced when the ovules of one species are impreg-
nated by the pollen of another, and seeds thus obtained which
are capable of germination and complete development as plants.
Cross-breeds result from the blending of mere varieties of plants
of the same species, which occurs often by accident, as observed
in the mixing of different varieties of Indian corn, when grow-
ing in the same neigliborhood. While the production of hybrids
is more or less difficult, even between closely allied species, and
the seeds obtained often few in number and but feebly endowed
with vitality, cross-breeds are produced with the greatest facility.
Hence the constant tendency to deterioration and change in
the varieties of garden vegetables, since it is impossible to raise
pure seed of more than one variety of any species in the same
vicinity, unless they blossom at different periods.

The difficulty of obtaining true hybrids is illustrated by the
fact that only 259 were procured as the result of 10,000 experi-
ments carried on during many years by Gacrtner, the highest
authority upon this subject. He found it impossible to form
hybrids between many closely allied species, as between the cur-
rant and the gooseberry, the blackberry and the raspberry, and
the pear and the apple. He also was unable to discover any
definite law respecting " the relative influence of the parent
species, sometimes the characteristics of one and sometimes of
the other being most predominant in the hybrid. The majority
of hybrid plants liavc not the power to develop perfect seeds,
but, like the mules of the animal kingdom, are sterile, and
therefore can only be propagated by extension. Moreover, the
seeds ripened by hybrids are usually formed in the earliest and
most vigorous flowers which open, while the later flowers are
barren ; and such seeds often germinate into plants, which may
be called still-born, since they inevitably perish when the nourish-
ment laid up in the seed is exhausted. In the few cases where
hybrids produce perfect seeds freely for several generations, the
plants revert in character to one or the other of the original
species; and, if a hybrid be crossed with one of its parent
species, seeds are yielded in abundance which develop into
plants with the characteristics of that parent.

Tlio principal obstacle to be overcome in hybridizing species
capable of crossing arises from the extraordinary power of the

NEW VARIETIES BY HYBRIDIZATION. 299

pollen of every plant to fertilize the ovules of tlic same species,
even after apparent impregnation by pollen from another species.
It is therefore necessary to remove with peculiar care the
stamens of the flower to be impregnated before the anthers are
fully developed, sometimes even before the petals expand. After
the pollen has been applied to the stigma, several hours, or in
some cases days, must elapse before the pollen tubes attain the
requisite length to reach the ovules, and hence the stigmatic
surface must be carefully protected from the pollen of its own
species during all this period, and until the fruit is set.

The inestimable value to the world of this method of obtain-
ing new varieties of fruits, flowers and esculent vegetables,
would be amply demonstrated by an eniimeration of some of
the more important results attained by skilful horticulturists of
Massachusetts, many of whom are now, or have been, members
of this Board.

Such a lis't wo propose to consider, and report to this Board
at some future time.

A normal seed consists of a bud and a certain amount of
exceedingly concentrated organic matter carefully enclosed
within a double envelope, which is usually of a firm, close text-
ure and admirably adapted to protect and preserve the living
germ within. The nutritious matter which is designed to serve
as food for the germinating plantlet may be in the form of a
large bud simply, or it may be associated with a small bud in
the form of one, two or more seed leaves or cotyledons, or a
portion of it may be in the condition of packing around the bud
as albumen. It exhibits a great variety, however, in its chem-
ical character, though containing in most cases the same ele-
ments. Tlius the milk and flesh of the cocoa-nut are very
much unlike vegetable ivory, which forms the substance of the
seed of another species of palm, and the oily butter-nut is quite
different from the farinaceous grain of rice. These differences
in the composition of seeds determine to a great extent their
hardiness and ability to preserve their vitality under unfavorable
circumstances. As a general rule, dry, hard, farinaceous seeds
are least liable to destruction from long keeping, or from the
effects of heat and moisture. So great is their power of resist-
ance that many of them will lie in the ground one or more
years without germinating. A seed of pandanus utilis brought

300 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

from Cul^a, and planted within thirty days from the time it was
taken from the? tree, remained without germinating eighteen
months in the moist propagating pit at the Durfee PLant House.
It was in a pot of damp loam, and kept most of the time at a
temperature about 60^ Fahrenheit, and finally produced five
vigorous plants. Many species of seeds from Australia, espe-
cially those of the leguminosa), will remain torpid for years in the
ground, unless thoroughly scalded in hot water for a few min-
utes before planting. This inactivity is douljtless, in part, due
to the fact that the seeds are so long out of ground after ripen-
ing as to become very dry and impervious to moisture, and in
part to their peculiar farinaceous composition. Tlie duration
of vitality in seeds which are protected from moisture, after
being thoroughly dried, is quite variable, though there would
seem to be no reason why a seed which can retain its power to
germinate for five years should not equally well do so for five
hundred. Melon seeds have been known to grow when fortj-
one years old, beans when one hundred, and the seeds of the
raspberry are believed by the best scientific authorities to have
germinated seventeen hundred years after they were buried in the
stomach of a man whose skeleton was exhumed from the depth
of thirty feet below the surface of the earth near Dorchester,
England. It is also generally believed that wheat at least
three thousand years old, taken from a tomb in Fgypt, has ger-
minated and produced a useful variety of this valuable cereal,
which is called mummy wheat. In some cases living seeds
have been thrown up from deep excavations, where they appear
to have lain undisturbed for many centuries. In these instances
they have been below frost, and often somewhat protected from
water by layers of clay and other peculiarities of the strata
above or around them.

There arc numerous circumstances which induce the popular
belief that the soil is filled with seeds and spores in a dormant
condition, although it must be admitted that there are no
records of their actual discovery by observation. Whenever the
right combination of influences occurs, countless numbers of
plants of certain species spontaneously appear. Thus upon
land recently cleared of timber and burnt over, fire weed and
willow herb are almost sure to spring up in great profusion.
A clearing in a forest of oak or chestnut, if left undisturbed, is

DORMANT SEEDS AND SPORES. 301

usually soon covered with a dense growth of pines or spruces,
even in cases where there would seem to be no opportunity for
a recent seeding of the tract. In the town of Pauton, Vermont,
it is said that formerly cultivated lands, allowed to remain
fallow, soon became furnished with a fine crop of hickory,
although none was known to grow among the native forests
within fifty miles. All such instances, however, require to be
received with some allowance, as a portion of tiie truth is very
likely to be concealed from the knowledge of the observer, upon
whose testimony these extraordinary statements are made. It
is quite as probable, to say the least, that one or more trees of
hickory were hidden among the forests near the land from
which the new crop sprang, and that the nuts were scattered by
ground squirrels and mice, as that the living nuts could have
lain unobserved and torpid during the cultivation of the fields,
as well as for untold ages before. When we consider that a
single tobacco plant produces fifty thousand seeds, a large elm-
tree more than half a million, and a giant puff-ball thousands
of millions of spores, enough in fact to stock the whole earth,
and when we recollect how readily and widely they may be
scattered by natural causes, we shall hesitate somewhat about
believing that the soil is so full of ancient germs retaining their
vitality as some would have us think.

Will not some zealous microscopist turn his attention to this
. interesting subject and search for seeds and spores in the soil
and subsoil of our forests and meadows, and, having found them,
endeavor to develop tiiem into thriving plants ? The facts are
certainly sufficient to warrant a thorough investigation, though
in all probability the cases of seeds thus buried and retaining their
power of germination would prove to be altogether exceptional.

Spores are minute vesicles or cells consisting of a double
envelope of cellulose filled with a vital fluid, and capable of
germinating under favorable circumstances. Theoretically they
seem rather detached cells than organized buds or seeds. A bud
or seed always begins its growth at a particular well defined
point, but the spore is alike on all sides, and puslies out its
young radicle from the under part towards its supply of food.
The tens of thousands of flowerless plants, such as ferns, mosses,
algaj, fungi and lichens, produce spores and are propagated by
them, just as flowering plants are by seeds. Spores of terrestrial

302 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE.

cryptogams are so small and light as to be readily borne to
distant regions by the winds, and the number produced by each
plant is usua ly very great, so that wherever favoring influences
exist the appropriate species are never long in making their ap-
pearance. The spores of alga; and other aquatic cryptogams
are distributed by running streams, waves and oceanic currents.

The principal agent in the general distribution of the seed of
phenogamous plants is the wind. To favor this operation pro-
vision has been made in a variety of ways. Thus the heaths,
the grasses and the orchids generally have small and very
numerous seeds, and, in common with many other families, have
a dry fruit, which opens gradually and is shaken by the winds
until the contents are widely scattered in various directions.
Again, the needle-leaved trees generally produce winged seeds,
which, as the scales of the ripening cones separate, are wafted
away to considerable distances on the moving air. The small,
dry, one-seeded fruits of the compositaD, like the dandelion and
thistle, are often supplied with beautiful tufts of down or silky
bristles, which bear them aloft and float them through the
atmosphere like balloons.

The seeds of the cotton, the silk weeds, willow herbs and
many others arc furnished with similar means of conveyance,
by which they are carried away from the ripening capsule.

The violent hurricanes of warm regions must prove very
efficient in distributing seeds, even where they are not very
well provided with special apparatus for aerial navigation.

Streams of fresh water and oceanic currents and the combined
influence of wind and wave are most important aids in plant
distribution. Not only are aquatic seeds and fruits thus widely
disseminated, but the fruits of the cocoa-nut, the seychelle and
other species of palm, the screw-pine and other large plants, are
wafted from island to island in the waters of tropical oceans,
while the floating masses of ice in the arctic regions often dis-
tribute the seeds of dwarf alpine species. Those currents of
air or water, which move east or west, will of course be more
useful in this work than those tending north or south, because
the latter would more frequently transport seeds to uncongenial
climes.

A few species of plants have been supplied with an apparatus
for projecting the seeds and spores to some distance from the

MODES OF PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 303

parent. Thus the fruit of the hura crepitans or monkey's
dinner-bell tree explodes when ripe with a loud report, scatter-
ing the seeds far and wide. Every one is familiar with the
peculiarities of the common touch-me-not and the squirting
cucumber. Some of the fungi, as the puff-balls and the spor-
angia of many ferns, burst when ripe with considerable elastic
force, and so spread their minute spores to considerable dis-
tances. Nevertheless, curious as these contrivances are, they
are of comparatively little importance in the general work of
plant distribution.

Finally, plants are scattered over extensive portions of the
earth's surface by animals in a manner often apparently acci-
dental ; Nature having furnished many seeds and fruits with
hooks and claws or with a viscid covering, by which they become
attached to moving objects and are carried often far from their
native habitats.

Familiar examples of plants thus furnished are the burdock,
the clot-burr, the burr-marigold, and the bush trefoil. The her-
bivorous animals, like the buffalo, the antelopes, wild oxen and
wild horses, which often range over a wide territory, are the most
efficient accidental distributors of plants.

Birds also often disseminate the stones of small drupes and
the hard seeds of berries which are unaffected by their digestive
organs, and a few birds as well as many small quadrupeds have
a habit of storing up acorns and other nuts and seeds, which not
unfrequently are by this means brought into favorable localities
for germination.

The influence of man in modifying Nature's mode of distrib-
uting plants is very great and constantly increasing. The de-
struction of forests, the draining of swamps, the introduction of
new plants for cultivation over millions of acres, all tend to the
eradication of existing wild species, and the substitution of a
much smaller number of higher value. Of the hundred thou-
sand species of flowering plants known to botanists, hardly one
hundred are of much importance to agriculture, and probably
not more than a thousand are of any consequence in horticul-
ture for the production of either flowers, fruit or vegetables.
The evident tendency of scientific culture is towards an increase
of hybrids and cross-breeds, rather than to the elevation or
acclimatization of new species. The apple, so attractive in Eden,
still has its charms for us, and we are still trying with encour-

304 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

aging success for better varieties. The fig, so important tliere,
lias never been neglected nor lightly esteemed among men.
The example of the first historical vine-dresser has been, if not
always steadily, at least faithfully imitated by his numerous
descendants. Tiiere can be little doubt that as a few domestic
animals have been peculiarly adapted for the use of man, and
are specially capable of development to meet his wants, so a
very limited number of plants have been from the beginning
designed to hold a prominent place among cultivated species,
and will to the end of time continue to reward abundantly all
intelligent efforts for their improvement.

W. S. Clark.

Marshall P. Wilder.

Nathan Durfee.

The essay, after an interesting discussion, was laid over
under the rule, when the Board adjourned.

Second Day.

Tlie Board met at ten o'clock, A. M., Mr. Hubbard, of Brim-
field, in the chair.

Present : Messrs. Agassiz, Baker, Bassett, Birnie, Bradford,
Boise, I. K. Brown, N. P. Brown, Bucklin, Clark, Clement,
Converse, Ellsworth, Fearing, Goodman, Hubbard, Hyde, John-
son, Knowlton, Loring, Moore, Morton, Peck, Saltonstall, Slade,
Stone, Ward and Wilder.

Mr. Bradford submitted a report, as delegate, upon the Wor-
cester North-West Society ; Mr. N. P. Brown upon the Middle-
sex North ; Mr. Ellsworth upon the Norfolk ; Mr. Bucklin upon
the Bristol Central ; Mr. Hubbard upon the Hingham ; ]\rr.
Boise upon ilie Martha's Vineyard, and Mr. Johnson upon the
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden.

Mr. Goodman submitted the Report of the Examining Com-
mittee of

THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
The undersigned, appointed by this Board, a Committee for
the visitation and examination of the Agricultural College for
the year 1870, report as follows : —

Two of the Committee, Messrs. Goodman and Stone, have
visited the college at the end of each term, and have given

THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 305

close attention to the examinations, and have also examined in
detail the results of the operations on the farm, and all other
matters of importance connected with the institution, while
Professor Agassiz, owing to sickness, has only visited Amherst
incidoitally during the summer. The examinations of the
students in classes have been upon agriculture, horticulture,
botany, physiology, chemistry, geology, mental and kindred
sciences ; and we have witnessed the military drills, and observed
with gratification the topographical drawings by the students.
Having had a previous knowledge of many of the young
men, we arc convinced that the system of instruction is well
calculated for the ends in view, and that the students are mak-
ing commendable progress in their studies, and that the several
professors are not only accomplished in their respective depart-
ments, but earnest and thorough in the prosecution of their
duties.

The leading object, of course, in this institution, in compli-
ance with the Act of Congress to which it owes part of its
endowment, is to teach such branches of learning as are related
to agriculture, and to include military tactics ; and it seems to
us, that the course of study and instruction laid down is
eminently in consonance with that object, and that the sciences
taught are with pointed reference to the uses of the farm.
The theory of scientific agriculture is thoroughly taught, and
the application of such knowledge is made on the farm under the
direction of the professor in that department, who is a practical
farmer ; and all students are compelled to work at the details of
husbandry, so that manual labor becomes a valuable adjunct to
mental application. Chemistry, botany, physiology and zoology
are, of course, invaluable to the farmer in regard to the analysis
of soils, the use of manures, the food of animals, the growth of
grains and fruits, the anatomy and physiology of animals, and
the conditions and habits of destructive insects; and mathemat-
ics and civil engineering, in the use of the chain, compass and
level, are almost equally necessary. Specialties, such as logic,
mental and moral philosophy, political economy, English litera-
ture and modern languages, must also to some extent be
embraced within the curriculum of any educational institu-
tion of a high order. Without entering at all into the dis-
cussion as to the value of classical learning in an ordinary

39

306 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE.

course of education, and without intending to cast a doubt
upon tlic utility of such studies to develop the mind and heart,
exalt the aspirations and improve the taste, it is enough to say
that they are not absolutely necessary in agricultural colleges,
and that during the period (none too long) in which tho stu-
dents arc passing through the course as laid out, there is none
too much time devoted to the more special studies appertain-
ing to the direct object of the institution.

As tho Act of Congress especially includes military tactics as
a leading branch to be taught in all colleges receiving the
bounty of the nation, and without expense to the State, and
details an accomplished officer to instruct the classes in such
tactics, it may appear supererogatory to say more upon the
subject ; but your Committee cannot refrain from alluding to
the interest which all the young men take in the drills, the
evident beneficial effect upon their bearing and health, and the
value of the accomplished soldiers and officers thus made for
the future service of the Commonwealth, in the event of another
call to send forth her sons for herself or the nation. Were
no other result accomplished by this institution, the money of
the Commonwealth could be no more judiciously expended, and
yet this instruction is but an incident to the regular course.

The two members of your Committee who have visited the
college have, as before stated, given special attention to the
farm, both on account of the criticisms current regarding it, and
because to one of said Committee, at least, the farm is the major
part of tho premises. At our first visit last winter certain parts
of the barn adjuncts were in admired disorder, owing to the
violence of the gales in the fall and the inundation of the cel-
lar. For the latter reason the manure could not bo properly
composted, nor were the cattle above so arranged a«d bedded
as seemed right in the eyes of the more advanced farmers ; but
under the personal direction of the farm superintendent, who
brings to his work not only muscle, but intelligence of a high
order, the proper remedies were applied to these disorders, and,
with the exception of a restoration of the cattle-sheds in the
yard, to rebuild whicli there are ho funds, everything about
those premises is in good keeping, and the excellence of the
crops, taken from the fields in which this imperfectly composted
manure was mingled, attests a careful culture. And it must

THE COLLEGE FARM AND STOCK. 307

not be forgotten that this was the first season in which the
whole force of the farm, especially the teams, could be applied
to its development, the appropriations by the legislature of money
to erect buildings having been always made at the beginning of
the farming season. And your Committee in this connection
desire to correct what they regard as a popular error, viz., that
the college should possess a model farm, like a Dutch garden,
complete and formal in every part. On the contrary, we think
it should be a working farm, on which all experiments may be
tried, and, if necessary, over and over again, that the students
may take part in all kinds of agricultural labor ; but, of course,
a main object should be to grow profitable crops, and to plant,
cultivate and harvest them in the best manner and condition.
It is desirable, also, that more attention should be given to the
garden, and the students be early taught the value of so impor-
tant a part of the farm, and we trust that out of the first appro-
priations of money for the college, a sufficient sum may be
applied to the erection of suitable forcing beds for the pro-
duction of early vegetables, by which, not only can the pupils
be instructed in one of the most profitable branches of agricul-
ture, but no inconsiderable revenue could be derived from the
sale of the products in the vicinity of the college.

The farm is now well stocked with cattle, a large proportion
of which are thoroughbreds, and though purchased at reason-
able rates fairly represent the various breeds. They are stabled
and bedded comfortably, and the manure made by their means
and the matter composted with it will enable such enriching
to be given to the soil, that the farm products must necessarily,
under proper cultivation, yield hereafter largely in excess of
previous seasons. Li addition, a valuable young stock will soon
be growing up, and the cattle of the vicinity, and through it that
of the State, will be continually improved by the use of the
bulls, whose services are afforded at such reasonable rates as to
give no excuse for the least prosperous farmer to degrade his
stock by breeding to inferior ones. These pure-bred animals
were put in competition with many others of the same class at
one of the large exhibitions in the State the past fall, at which
one of your Committee was present, and received a due share
of admiration and premiums.

From what we could learn from the students who take their

308 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

meals at the boarding-house we infer that they consider the
board as good as can be afforded for the moderate price charged,
and if we should suggest any alterations as to details it would
be to reduce the amount of meat and add more largely vegeta-
bles and farinaceous food, and especially unbolted wheat bread,
and, in lieu of pastry, substitute fruits of the season. But under
the present system tlie person who hires the boarding-house,
and is limited as to the price which he shall charge the students
who board with him, cannot be expected to do more than give a
fair equivalent for such price ; and probably as the products of
the farm increase, the trustees who have the oversight of this
matter and arc not blind to its importance will contrive some
plan by which the students may have a greater variety at the
minimum price. But as long as the energetic president of the
college has any old apple-trees on the farm to be cut down or
any other active emfiloyment for the young men, there will not
be much complaint from them about their food, if it is abundant
and of good quality. It must not, however, be forgotten that
the only mode of providing board for such students as are unable
to pay but a small price is by some such regulations as are now
enforced on the person keeping the house, and that it is optional
witli otlier students whether they board there or elsewhere.

We commend to the consideration of the trustees the sugges-
tions of the Committee of last year as to the boarding-liouse
being run under their direction, and have no doubt they will
come to a conclusion in consonance with the best interests of
the students and the college.

"No man," said Jefferson, "ever repented of having eaten
too little." Students will hardly subscribe to this axiom ; but
they do not desire, nor should they have, during their life at
college, aught but plain, wholesome fare, similar to what they
had at home. Upon a review of our examination of the college
and the farm, we are satisfied that great improvements have
been and are being made in all the departments, that the stu-
dents are not only well taught the theory of th'? various
sciences in the class-rooms, but are practically instructed in tlie
laboratory, in the field, the garden and the drill-room. The
future usefulness of the pupils in agriculture is also held up
prominently to their eyes, and tiic kindred sciences taught are
necessary adjuncts to its full development, and no more special

EDUCATION OF FARMERS. 309

attention is bestowed upon them than is necessary for such
purpose.

It is too late to re-open the question as to the necessity of
educating the farming community for its own sake as well as
for the sake of all other classes. To the rural population we
must look for the substratum of all society, and from it come
not only those who provide the material means for the subsist-
ence of all others, but from its ranks are recruited the greater
proportion of the most reliable business and professional men,
and useful and efficient women. This class of society should be
able to furnish the best possible material in the future, as it has
in the past, for the use of the State, but as its prosperity has not
increased in the same proportion as that of others, it cannot care
for itself, even as formerly, when the pinchings of parental
economy, the savings of fraternal and sisterly affection, scarce
sufficed to educate one member of the family ; and now that
education in other institutions has become so costly, farmers'
sons can only be instructed in institutions adapted to their
means and objects.

"Whether or no special institutions can educate agricul-
turists, and whether the business of farming can be conducted
scientifically, and to the profit of the farmer and the nation,
are questions of the past. The hundreds of agricultural
schools in Europe attest the avidity with which more thorough
knowledge — of the natural laws which govern the growth of
crops and the atmospheric changes, of the habits, anatomy and
diseases of domestic animals, of the principles of mechanics
applicable to farm implements and machinery, and of many other
things, not possible to be learned without special instruction —
is sought; and the result of such instruction has been showQ
by the greatly increased production of the soil in those coun-
tries which foster these institutions.

With the aid of a national grant, the State of Massachusetts
has initiated an institution to promote the education of the most
prominent and numerous industrial class in the Commonwealth,
and so far as the experiment has progressed it is a success. It
is not, however, complete, for the original scheme of providing
buildings for four classes has not been perfected, and until that
is done it cannot be said that the spirit of the original grant nor
the intentions of the organizers of the institution have been

310 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

carried out; and, if the experiment should by any possibility now
fail, it would be owing, not to any lack of applications from the
class whose instruction is had in view, nor from any want of
energy or ability on the part of the trustees, presidents or teach-
ers of the college, but solely from a want of accommodations
for the tendered pupils. No educated and interested observer
of this institution can fail to note that a four-years' course is
barely sufficient to perfect the students in the necessary learn-
ing for the objects in view ; and that, if sufficient accommoda-
tions are alTordcd, the college will be filled by large classes,
while, as the number of pupils increases, the expenses of the
institution will be met by a corresponding increase of resources.
We hope to see this institution put upon a complete and solid
footing. At present, since it has no wealthy alumni to appeal to,
and the people for whose sons its instruction is intended are, in
the main, of very moderate means, its only reliance is, in the
outset of its career, upon the beneficence of the whole commu-
nity represented in the legislature, and we do not believe tliat
community will desire that an experiment which has been so
far successful shall now fail for need of that support which,
if not expressly promised, was impliedly vouched for at its
inception.

At the proper time, we trust a professorship of veterinary
science will be added to the college, and the diseases and treat-
ment of the horse and other domestic animals be so taught
that we shall have a class of men among us qualified to treat
the ills of those animals in a scientific and humane manner, and
the present system of quackery and inhumanity be abolished.

Louis Agassiz.

Richard Goodman.

Eliphalet Stone.

Mr. Bradford was appointed a committee on credentials of
new members.

Mr. MooRE submitted the following essay upon

MARKET GARDENING.
Market gardening or the growing of vegetables, for the pur-
pose of supplying the demand for such articles in our cities
and large towns, is a subject worthy of our careful consideration,

ABOUT MARKET GARDENING. 311

not only for the reason that vegetables contribute to the health
of every one, but also for the great amount of palatable and cheap
food they furnish to all our people. And knowing as we do
that there is a constant decrease in the quantity of meats pro-
duced in all of the older States in our country, we are at once
reminded that this loss in food for the million must be supplied
by the increased consumption of vegetables. And the proposi-
tion that vegetables are conducive to health, and also one of the
cheapest sources of food, appears to be so well settled as not to
require an argument to prove it.

This business is a form of agriculture combined with horticul-
ture, and to be carried on successfully must have, in addition to
the original cost of the land, a considerable amount of capital
invested in manure, glass and structures, either in the form of
forcing houses or hot beds. And it requires more skill in the
preparation of the soil, more skill in the selection and plant-
ing of the seed, more skill in adaptation and application of
manure to the different varieties of plants, and more skill
and care in the preparation and marketing of the crops than is
usually practised in ordinary farming.

It is also a source of constant care to any one who carries on
the business, and there exists a necessity of doing everything at
the right time, no matter what the state of the weather may be,
wet or dry. And there must be a constant watch kept for
insects injurious to plants, so that they may be promptly exter-
minated, and before they have increased so as to render their
destruction a matter of difficulty, or have done the garden
much damage. And as compared with common farming it in-
volves harder work, but is more profitable. In this business
about the first thing to be done is to select a proper location,
which should be near and conveniently accessible to a good
market. Near, to save cost of transportation of the crops ;
accessible, so that it may be reached easily at any time. A
variety of soils would be desirable, which should be free and
deep for carrots, parsnips, and, in fact, for almost all crops,
although cabbages and cauliflowers might perhaps be better on
a heavier soil.

Having such a soil well broken up, it then becomes necessary
to manure heavily, not what farmers who have never been in
this business would call a good dressing, but at least ten or

312 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

more cords of manure to the acre yearly ; and the amount of
profit will sometimes depend upon the outlay for manure, that
is, the more manure applied, the more profit, up to a certain
quantity, which quantity is seldom reached. And it is evident
that it requires the same, or about the same amount of labor to
plant and cultivate a crop only partially or stintcdly manured,
that it would if there had been a sufficient quantity applied,
and the crop would certainly be less, and usually of a poorer
quality, and therefore, if allowed to partially fail for want of
manure, would be costly grown.

Then, as to the preparation of the land, the manure is to be
of the right kind, and properly prepared, and should be inti-
mately mixed with the soil, and the whole worked by the plough
and harrow very deep, and completely pulverized, breaking all
the lumps and reducing the whole soil to a fine tilth.

This is very important with beets, carrots, parsnips, and we
may say for all crops ; for with a soil hard and full of lumps
we cannot grow good roots tliat are smooth and fit for market
purposes, neither can we have good results with the other
vegetables, without this fine tilth. There are some other crops,
the onion for instance, which would be better with a much less
depth of ploughing ; but there must be the same fine tilth at
the surface as with the other crops.

Having made this thorough preparation of the soil, we next
come to the seed, and this is one of the most important things
in the whole business of market gardening, and one perhaps as
little understood and appreciated, except by the men most active
in this business, and we desire to call the particular attention of
the farmers and gardeners to this matter of seeds ; and what
we may have to say about garden seeds, will apply with equal
force to the other seeds used by the farmer.

In the lecture of Professor Law, before the Board of Agricul-
ture, at its recent meeting at Framingham, upon the breeding
of domestic animals, he urged the importance of breeding from
pure blood, and that by the admixture of bad blood a breed
of animals would deteriorate, and for breeding purposes would
become of much less value.

We would agree to that proposition in every particular, and
would also say that it is just as true in regard to the breeding
of vegetables.

GOOD SEED TO BEGIN WITH. 313

There are pure breeds or improved breeds of vegetables, and
specimens of siicli vegetables are as miicli superior to the
miserable, mongrel stuff often grown, as a fine-blooded animal
is to the meanest scrub to be found in Brighton market, and a
person having a pure stock of any variety of vegetables, wliich
he desires to perpetuate to improve and make still better, will
be obliged to use the same nice care, skill and judgment, in the
selection of stock to breed from, as that given by the best
breeder of Shorthorns to keep his herd in perfection. Why is
it that in our best markets you will always find some men
famous for some particular variety of vegetables, while others
will have inferior ones ? Is it the cultivation, nature of their soil,
and amount of manure applied that make all the difference in
the beauty, smoothness and market value of their crop ?

While admitting the great importance of soil, manure and
cultivation in producing good crops, which we advocate as
earnestly as any others, we are compelled to say that the men
who grow the handsomest and best vegetables are the ones wlio
use the best seed, and they cannot be grown in perfection
without it.

And we can lay this down as a rule, that to grow good vege-.
tables it is necessary to have pure and good seed.

Can good seed be readily procured ? We think that it is a
difficult matter to purchase just such an article of seed as our
best gardeners use ; but it is a difficulty which can in time
perhaps be overcome.

Now, while we have no doubt that a majority of the seedsmen
intend to be honest, and to do right, we think many of them do
not look sharp enough after the growers of the seed they sell
to their customers. If they did, we have no doubt that they
would find some of them growing seed from poor, worthless,
mongrel stock, totally unfit for market purposes. This they sell
to their customers for good seed. .

Let us illustrate this. A grower of seed plants the roots of
two varieties of beets, the turnip blood, and the white Silesian
or sugar beet, in the spring, for the purpose of raising seed,
and in close proximity to each other. The result of this near
planting is a cross breeding of the seed, and roots raised from
this cross-bred seed will be neither turnip blood nor sugar beet.
40

814 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

This seed is sold to the seedsman, who in the course of his bus-
iness sells to the farmer or gardener a sufficient quantity of tiiis
mixed stuff, which he calls turnip blood beet, to seed an acre,
whicli crop he intends to sell in the market. He gives such
cultivation as would ordinarily make a good crop. When he has
done all this, and his crop is grown and secured, he finds, much
to his loss, that he has a lot of mongrel stuff which is unfit for
market purposes ; and that, instead of being worth seventy-five
cents a bushel for market purposes, it is only worth fifteen cents
a bushel for cattle feeding.

Now, five hundred bushels is not a large crop of turnip beets
to be grown on an acre. The difference in value at these prices
would be three hundred dollars. One would not pay the cost of
growing, while the other would pay well. The farmer then
goes to the dealer and finds fault with him for selling bad seed.
The seedsman will say that he bought it for good seed, but buy-
ing of more than one grower, probably could not tell who pro-
duced such poor stuff.

Now, who has to suffer for this bad seed ? Why, the farmer
of course ; he is the one who has to stand all sorts of annoy-
ances— bad seed, insufficient market accommodations, combina-
tions of middle-men to get his rightful profits ; and who, after
giving all the care and expense necessary to produce a good
crop, from his acre gets only seventy-five instead of three him-
dred and seventy-five dollars, simply from sowing bad seed.

This is not an overdrawn picture, and, as far as the growing
of the seed is concerned, we have known precisely this thing.
We have also known a seedsman to purchase a large quantity of
marrow squashes on the field, in the vicinity of Boston, for the
purpose of getting the seeds. This man did not take the pre-
caution to see if other varieties of squashes were growing in the
immediate vicinity, near enough to mix and spoil the whole. If
he had he would have found on the other side of the fence dif-
ferent varieties growing in large quantities, which had surely
mixed with and spoiled all the seed he had bought.

There can be no sufficient excuse for such gross carelessness,
and the person who commits it is just as much to blame as if it
was done with the deliberate intent to defraud and cheat his
customers, and the injury done to the purchaser is precisely the

ARLINGTON MARKET GARDENERS. 815

same, whether there is carelessness or intent on the part of the
seedsman.

These remarks, as we have before said, would apply to only
a portion of the seedsmen. Some of them we well know are
honorable men, who would not think of purchasing seeds of any
persons unless they knew their relia})ility, and were satisfied
that their stock to grow seeds from was right in every respect,
and was raised at such a distance from any other variety of the
same species as would prevent any mixture.

Go to the market gardeners of Arlington, and we do not hes-
itate to say that they are among the best, if not the l)est and
most skilful market gardeners in this country ; see with what
care they procure their seed : first, they do as every farmer
should do, that is, they intend to grow enough for their own
use, so far as they can, either from their own or from the best
selected stock they can procure. Second, if they do not have
enongh of their own, they buy of one of their neighbors who, they
know, has the right sort. Third, they go to the seedsmen, and
after making inquiries of all of them, to see if they cannot find
some seed raised by a gardener who they are certain has tlie
right stock, if they do find any such, you may be sure that they
will take that.

We have stated this to show the extreme care they give to
the selection of their seeds, a matter so important to them, and
one upon which their success in a great measure depends.

"We can all do soxnothing in this direction ; and any intelligent
farmer or gardener can certainly improve the grains or garden
vegetables, if he goes about it systematically and persistently.
Of course, it is a matter of time, and may not be completed in
one or perhaps five years. And we should remember, that all
variations of vegetables have, by a long course of cultivation
and reproduction from the seed, been changed in some instances
from a bitter, worthless weed to an edible plant, and that they
are really in an artificial condition, and that the tendency of all
cultivated plants is to return to their former wild state ; and to
counteract this tendency will require care and selection in this
growing of the seed.

The planting of the seed in the open ground can be done
best by using a drilling machine for most seeds. Some of these
machines do the work well and expeditiously. Care should be

316 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

taken to have the rows of a uniform width and perfectly
straight, because sliding, scuffle or wheel hoes, and cultivators,
can be adjusted so as to run nearer to the rows, and will do
better and cleaner work than they can where the rows are
crooked ; straight rows also look better, and good looks are not
to be despised in the garden or on the farm.

It will be necessary when sowing the seed to so adjust the
machine that the seed will be planted and covered at a uniform
and proper de}>th, which will vary somewhat with the different
varieties of vegetables, and which it will be unnecessary to
describe here. The seed having been planted, if good, it should
soon germinate, and the plants be above ground. Now, there
is hardly a variety of garden vegetable but that will be benefited
by hoeing as soon as possible after it reaches the surface,
because the hoeing will loosen the surface of the ground, which
may have become crusted over and hard. The plants will grow
better, and the weeds can be killed with half of the trouble
and expense that they could be if left for a few days longer, and
in many instances with much less injury to the crop.

We think the economy and importance of early and frequent
hoeing, either is not well understood, or is not so commonly
practised as it should be. Many neglect this, which is one of
the most necessary things in good cultivation, both in the gar-
den and on the farm, and make it their practice to wait until
there is a good stand of weeds to hoe and pull up. The result is
that the weeds are much harder to destroy, and the crop not so
much benefited as it would have been by an earlier hoeing,
and perhaps injured by the delay. The expense is also certainly
increased by the above cause ; in fact, we know of instances
where the actual cost was less to hoe a piece of corn four times,
when attended to in the proper time, than it would have been
to have hoed the same piece twice after the weeds had become
rooted strongly.

Then the advantage of frequent stirring of the soil in a severe
drought, such as we have experienced the past summer, either
by a cultivator or the hoe, cannot be too highly rccommendea,
which, with the entire freedom from Weeds, will in many instances
save the crop from drying up, and sometimes becoming almost
a total lo^, and it will always make the crop better and larger
in quantity.

CLEAN CULTURE THE SECRET OF SUCCESS. 317

We apply a quantity of manure to a piece land, for the pur-
pose of supplying the necessary food to grow a crop. By this act
we have invested in this piece of land a certain sum of money
in labor, use of tlie land and fertihzers. Now, suppose we
neglect to keep down the weeds ; they absorb from the soil the
fertilizers that we have been at so much expense to procure and
apply, and these weeds, by their roots seize upon and take
probably that very portion of manure, already soluble, and in
the best condition for plant-food, which the expected crop
then trying to establish or perfect itself may at this very time
require. Our idea is this : that the manure becomes soluble
and fitted for plant-food by degrees, and not all at the same
time; and that portion which becomes soluble first is seized upon
by the weeds, if they are allowed to grow, to the detriment of
the crop, which oftentimes may need it at that particular time,
to either establish or perfect itself.

Now, if this is so, and by any carelessness or neglect we
allow the weeds to grow and overrun our crop, we should cer-
tainly fail to get any income from the investment we have made
in labor, manure and use of the land. And therefore we can
say that clean culture is one of the"important things to be prac-
tised in farming; and in this branch of the business it becomes
indispensable, and without it there can be no great success.

ROTATION OP CROPS IN GARDEN CULTURE.

There are two theories in regard to the failure or depreciation
of the same crops where grown year after year on the same piece
of land.

One of them is this, that plants exude from their roots excre-
ments which render the soil unfit to a certain degree to grow
the same variety of plants, until by a lapse of years that delete-
rious property has become neutralized. The other is, that plants
exhaust particular elements from the soil, necessary for their
growth, and that by supplying or returning the substances ex-
hausted to the soil, the same variety can be grown indefinitely
on the same piece of land. Both of these theories are advo-
cated by scientific men, eminent as botanists and chemists, and
they give plausible reasons on both sides in support of their
respective views.

Now without undortakinsr to discuss these theories, which is

818 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

iinnecespary for us, as we intend to fall back squarely on facts,
we come to this point, that in market gardening, as practised in
Massachusetts, there cannot be any systematic rotation of crops
adopted -that would be practical, however desirable, owing to
the limited number of acres cultivated by each individual, and
the demand for certain varieties of produce in our markets
which springs up suddenly, crops which it would be desiral^le to
grow, and the want of which could not before seen in time to
be arranged in any system of rotation.

Still there are rules, governed by facts, that must be observed
to be successful in the change from one crop to another on the
same piece of land.

Or to speak more to the point, experience and facts have
taught the best gardeners that cabbages, turnips and pease cer-
tainly should not be grown on the same piece of land without
an interval of at least two or three years ; and although in some
cases they have been grown successfully for a number of con-
secutive seasons on the same land, that would be the exception,
and not the general rule ; and tliis interval should be occupied
by some species of plants entirely distinct from each of them.
This rule probably would apply to all garden vegetables, some
perhaps to a greater degree than others. Onions may be an ex-
ception to this rule, but that is doubted by some of the best
gardeners. Br. Daubeny (see " Book of the Garden," pub-
lished by Mcintosh) has put this to test by causing plants to
grow on the same land and on different plots in successive years,
and noting the results, which were as follows, taking an average
of five years : —

Potatoes, .

. in the same

! plot.

. 72.9 lbs.

, tubers

in different

plots,

. 92.8

Flax, .

. same,

. 15.0

different, .

. 199

Beans,

. same.

. 32.8

different, ,

. 34.8

Barley,

. same.

. 30.0

different, .

. 46.5

Turnips,

. same.

. 104.0

different, ,

. 173.0

Oats, .

. same.

. 28.0

different, .

. 32.4

RESULTS OF PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE. 319

This shows a manifest advantage in shifting crops, varying
from one to seventy-five per cent.

Tlie most successful market gardeners understand this neces-
sity for changing crops perfectly well. One of them recently
said that he would not plant a piece of land to cabbages the
second year, even if the use of the land and an abundance
of manure were given to him for nothing, for these reasons :
first, that the previous crop of cabbages had left something in
the soil which would prevent his obtaining a crop worth har-
vesting, no matter how well manured ; and that if two lots
adjoining were ploughed crosswise, on one of which there hud
been grown a crop of cabbages, that the small quantity of
soil carried by the plough from the lot on which there had
been cabbages, to the other, would ; injure tliat lot to a dis-
tance of six to ten or more feet, so as to unfit that extent
of land for the growth of that particular crop ; and, secondly,
that there would be much more annoyance from insects on
the old than on a new lot, which is another important con-
sideration.

Now if this is true, and we do not see any reason to doubt it,
it would indicate that there was something left in the soil by
the cabbages that was detrimental to a future crop of the same
plant, and it is evident that the adjoining six to ten feet had not
been exhausted of the particular element required for the
growth of the cabbage.

However that may be, the experience of practical men en-
gaged in gardening has demonstrated that success will in a
considerable measure depend upon changing the crop frequently
upon the same land.

In harvesting, all varieties of vegetables are better for being
carefully handled ; breaking or bruising them injures their keep-
ing qualities very much. Therefore they should be carefully
gathered, trimmed, washed or otherwise prepared, and sent in
tidy, clean and attractive packages to market, for when so pre-
pared they will sell quicker and at a better price.

And it is very important when vegetables are to be stored and
kept, either for family use or a late market, that they should be
sound and entirely exempt from disease or injury in any form ;
for if they are stored with any defective ones among them, it
will not only cause their decay, but will rot others near them.

320 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

All varieties of vegetables having succulent leaves or tops, as
celery, asparagus, cauliflowers and some others, are particularly
susceptible to injury from such treatment, and would have to
be sold at a much less price in any good market, if injured in
that way.

Now is there any feasible plan by which the farmers and gar-
deners of Massachusetts can be supplied with the best of seed ?
We think they can in time, with certain varieties, and in this
way, and by the Agricultural College farm. They have an
abundance of land, in our judgment particularly well adapted
to the production of seeds, and of plants to grow them from, if
put into the right condition by good cultivation. Let them in
the course of their farming raise fields of wheat, oats, rye,
barley and corn of the grains ; beets, carrots, parsnips, onions,
turnips, cabbages, squashes, potatoes, or as many of tiiem as
would be desirable ; let them use only the best pure-bred stock
adapted particularly to cultivation in Massachusetts to propagate
from, continue to select their seed grain and their roots to grow
seed from with the utmost care, using such only as come up to
their standard of perfection, which should be of the highest
order. Then give to them the best cultivation possible, for cul-
tivation stands in precisely the same relation to plants, as care
and feeding do to cattle, and the principle so well established in
breeding animals, that like produces like, would be as certainly
exemplified in the vegetable as in the animal kingdom.

Now having complied with these conditions, what can we rea-
sonably expect ? Why, that the crops of grain will be larger and
of much better quality than they have ever produced on the
college or on the neighboring farms, and being better than the
farmers have, there would be a great demand for seed. This
would apply also to seeds to be grown from the other vege-
tables named.

What would be the result to the college if this plan should
be systematically and practically carried out, and the institution
had established a reputation for the best seed ? Why, that the
value of every acre of grain grown on their farm would be
worth more than double for seed what it would for feeding pur-
poses, and that the proceeds of the sales would buy twice as
much grain to feed to their stock. The same results would be

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE SEED FARM. 321

attained, only in a much more profitable ratio, in the production
of seeds of the other vegetables named.

Then the farmers of Massachusetts could get seeds of the
usual varieties of crops grown here of tiie best quality, and
such seeds properly planted and cared for would produce a
good crop of a first-rate article, which would be entirely satis-
factory.

The buyers would be willing to pay a first-rate price, and if
it was one of the market gardeners, to whom we have referred,
he would say, I don't care what the price is, if I can only get
what I want. He knows well that the price of seeds, no matter
how high, is cheap, if good. It would be a source of revenue,
and not a small one by any means, if managed properly, to the
college, and one of the means by which that institution would
be made self-supporting and useful. It would create an opinion
among the farmers that the Agricultural College is an institu-
tion where their sons can get a practical as well as a theoretical
education. That belief is to-day wanting among the great mass
of the farming community in this State. Let us by some plain
and practical results, such as we have named, create such an
opinion ; and when we have done that, anything reasonable that
the college might ask the State for, backed as they certainly
would be by the great mass of the farmers of this good old
Commonwealth, would be granted readily.

And in conclusion your Committee desire to call the attention
of this Board to the great importance of having a supply of
good seed, free from dirt, chaff, thistles and weed seeds.

And we would therefore recommend that field and garden
seeds should be one of the subjects to be referred to one of the
standing committees for the next year.

John B. Moore.
Avery P. Slade.
!N. P. Brown.

The report was laid over under the rule, when Mr. Bassett,
on behalf of the committee on that subject, submitted the fol-
lowing Report upon the
41

322 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

VALUE OF A REGULAR SYSTEM OF FARM ACCOUNTS.

The subject assigned your Committee, viz., " On the value of
a Regular System of Farm Accounts," is one which, perhaps,
has not received the attention which its importance demands ;
but before expressing any ideas directly upon the subject, let us
glance for a moment at the position the farmer occupies in the
community.

It is undoubtedly true that no department of business is more
independent and honorable than that of agriculture. The farmer
occupies a little world of his own, out of wliich he is not neces-
sitated to go, either for the necessaries of life, or for a practical
knowledge of the various departments of business which make a
busy, thriving world. He may find on his farm manufacturers
more wonderful in the textures which they weave, and more
delicate and beautiful in the machinery which they employ,
and more various in their products then can be found in all the
artificial life of the world outside of it. The farmer is a manu-
facturer on the grand and yet simple plan of nature. The pro-
ducts of his mills, too, are reliable. He can warrant the article
which he throws upon the market to be what it purports to be ;
no shoddy constitutes a portion of his merchandise ; hence, he
needs blush before no man who chooses to examine the texture
of his goods. He knows that his looms and all his machinery
are perfect. The Superintendent or Overseer is infinite in
wisdom and power, and the materials from which his products
are made such as to enable him to say, this is an unmixed prod-
uct. The farmer is also tlie merchant to dispose of the prod-
ucts of his manufactures, both wholesale and retail. A part he
turns out upon the market to be carried far and wide, to be
again retailed by the vegetable merchant to the consumer ; a
part he retails to himself to be consumed in his own family, or
in his own yards, among his fowls, his cattle or his swine. The
farmer is his own carrier ; while the merchant employs the com-
merce of the sea or the land to transport his merchandise to and
from his warehouses, the farmer has his transportation all in
his own hands or under his immediate control. The farmer,
too, is his own day laborer, while he is an extensive manufac-
turer, employing an infinity of machinery, and a stirring, busy
merchant, driving a brisk and complex trade, and an earnest

SYSTEM OF FARM ACCOUNTS. 323

and energetic carrier. He is also the toiler in the field, " eating
his bread by the sweat of his brow." And yet, notwithstanding
the farmer occupies such a position, and this is sucli a com-
plex, honorable and independent department, how very few
there are engaged in it who employ any regular system of
accounts in the management of the farm interest. What would
we think of the manufacturer or the merchant who kept no
account whatever of the cost, or even the amount of stock in-
vested in his business ? the manufacturer purchasing his raw
material and converting it into cloth, and disposing of the same
without the knowledge of the cost of production, or proper cal-
culation as to the right stock adapted to the machinery and
power of mill, or the merchant doing his business hap-hazard,
hoping, without a foundation for his wishes, that he is selling
liis goods so that he will secure favorable results in due time,
or at least that he is not eating up his capital ; we should not
consider them judicious managers, their credit would be below
par ; we should not want them as guardians for our children,
or appoint them our executors.

But how is it with the farmer, combining as he does in him-
self the manufacturer and the merchant, and the carrier and the
laborer, — is it customary for him to keep a systematic account
of the various departments of his business ? No ; most of our
farmers are lamentably lax in this matter ; not one in a
hundred can tell you the exact cost of raising a bushel of corn
or a ton of hay ; they sell the product of a field, after they have
taken from it the family supplies, and call it all profit. They do
not know how much the product has cost them. It is a question
if one farmer in a hundred in New England can tell the exact
cost of running a farm a year. Now if the manufacturer and
the merchant find it so much to their advantage, so absolutely
important that their accounts must be kept with the strictest
method in their one line of business, why may not the farmer
expect to derive as great advantage in a systematic account of
the cost and product of his fields ? Why should the farmer go on
year after year raising one kind of grain, when a little calcula-
tion of the cost and product of another kind would bring double
the profit ? Why should the farmer furnish his mills with raw
material in the shape of manures and tillage, &c., at the cost of
double that which may produce a better article ? It is true, a

324 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

systematic agricultural account would, of necessity, be somewhat
complex, and at first perplexing, but not beyond accomplishing;
and it is evident that in the end it would be immensely to the
advantage of the farmer. For instance, if the farmer should
keep an accurate account of the cost or value of the manure,
and the labor and the seed expended in his corn-field, then, on
the other hand, know the exact product of the field, he could
easily estimate the profit or loss in raising corn, and could then
compare corn with potatoes, — then a portion of this, instead of
being converted directly into money, is consumed by his family,
a part is fed out to his poultry, a part to his hogs or to his
cattle. Here then we say, he has three classes of merchandise.
By charging to the poultry ,?the hog, or the cattle the market
value of the corn and other materials given them, he can ap-
proximate near enough for all practical purposes to the cost of
converting grain into meat, and will be able to judge in regard
to the most profitable way of disposing of his corn-field, whether
to sell it in bulk, or work it over into some mixed commodity
which will give him greater profit. In this way he may realize
(depending to be sure something upon the markets) more prof-
it on the first expenditure. In like manner should he manage
each department of his farm — his hay, his potatoes, his rye, oats
and barley, apples and fruits of all kind, cattle, sheep, horses,
poultry and dairy — let all be charged with their appropriate
expense of producing ; which only can be done by a regular,
systematic account ; and then, by looking to his account, he can
tell you the exact cost of every article of his merchandise, and
the best mode of disposing of it, or of working it up. In fact,
he is a merchant farmer. He does not get all his wealth out of
bone and muscle ; some of it, and a large portion, comes out of
his brains.

Now some of the advantages to be derived from this system of
accounts by the farmer are —

1. His intelligence. He knows something about farming
that he cannot learn in any other way. He knows the cost, or
very nearly, of every product he throws into the market, and
if we estimate the value by the cost, he knows the worth of the
article ; at any rate, he knows whether it pays to raise corn or
potatoes, or hay. He will know too which this field is adapted
to produce. Now, a farmer in a hap-hazard way thinks he

ADVANTAGES OF FARM ACCOUNTS. 325

knows tliat the product of his farm this year has been favorable
or unfavorable ; but not many would know whether this iden-
tical field has done the best it could ; perhaps corn or wheat
would have done better here fhan potatoes. A few years of
testing this field in this methodical way would give him a
knowledge of the capability of this ground, which he could not
otherwise obtain (and so of all the items of the farm), and learn
its wants and capacity.

2. It would promote increase in his products. Very soon
he would not be growing corn on land adapted to produce some
other grain, or perhaps hay. You would not see his hay- field
turned into pasturage, nor a corn-field on the north side of a
hill where there was a south side, which he could cultivate just
as well. Neither would you find his barn full of cows of an
indiscriminate quality, nor his pigpen full of scurvy swine, nor his
hen-house cramped into the north corner of his barn cellar. He
would be likely to arrange his outlays so as to reap the most profit.

3. Neatness and order about the farm. Let a farmer keep
an exact account of outlay and income, and it will promote
economy in every department. He will soon learn that an
untidy yard is a constant bill of expense ; that rickety fences,
broken-hinged gates and swinging barn doors require looking
after ; that fences, gates and doors should be made of good mate-
rials well put together. Hay wasted in the barnyard is a loss.
An unpainted house or barn wears out faster than one well paint-
ed and cared for. Ploughs, harrows, harnesses and carriages
last longer when well cared for than when exposed to all kinds
of weather, and generally he will learn that economy requires
neatness.

4. He will find that method in his accounts will promote
the spirit of inquiry into the best methods of agriculture ; he
will not be satisfied with the corn in one end of the bag and the
meal in the other, because his father did so ; he will be stretch-
ing his experiments out into the unknown and reachhig forth
to those things which are before, and so he will not only be
teaching himself but others also ; he will be a discoverer. He
will want to know if some kind of manure cannot be manufac-
tured which will fertilize more ground than that which he and
his father have used ; he will be inquiring whether this plough
or that harrow cannot be improved so as to do more and better

326 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

work in a given time, and so in any item of his farm he will
push his investigations outward, and enterprise and thrift will
mark all his actions, and generally the farmer will be more suc-
cessful, just as the manufacturer or merchant is more successful
who knows exactly every day just how his account stands with
the world.

We are not called upon, neither have we attempted to give a
definite, detailed plan how the farmer should keep his accounts ;
but we have aimed in what we have said to throw out some
hints, which if followed would, we think, prove the value of a
" Regular System of Farm Accounts," because it would neces-
sitate order ^ method and system in all that pertains to the man-
aging of a farm.

Chas. C. Bassett, /or the Committee.

»

The Report was read and laid over under the rule, when the
Board adjourned.

Third Day.

The Board met at ten o'clock, A. M., Hon. Albert Fearing
in the chair.

Present: Messrs. Agassiz, Allis, Baker, Birnie, Boise, Brad-
ford, Brown, Bucklin, Clark, Converse, Davis, Durfee, Ellsworth,
Fay, Fearing, Goodman, Hubl)ard, Hyde, Johnson, Knowlton,
Ladd, Loring, Moore, Peck, Phiuney, Saltonstall, Slade, Stone,
Stock bridge and Ward.

Mr. Bradford, Committee on Credentials, submitted the fol-
lowing

REPORT:

The Committee to examine the credentials of new members
would report that the following gentlemen have been elected,
viz. : —

Leverett Saltonstall,
Jonathan Ladd,
Farwell F. Fay,
Newton S. Hubbard,
Ends W. Boise,
Thomas L. Allis, .
Levi Stockbridge, .

By the Massachusetts Society.
Middlesex North.
Worcester North- West.
Worcester South.
Union.
Franklin.
Hampshire.

CAPITAL IN FARMING. 327

S. B. Phtnney, . . .By the Barnstable Society.

Herman Vincent, ■ . . . Martha's Vineyard.

(Signed) Lewis H. Bradford,

Commiltee.

Mr. Baker reported as delegate upon the Highland Society,
and Dr. Loring upon the Housatonic.

Mr. Hubbard presented the following essay upon the

USE OF CAPITAL IN FARMING.

In considering this suhject, two important questions are in-
volved. First, would it be- wise to abandon the farms of New
England, as some are doing, and give up its agricultural interests ?
If so, the second question, as to how they shall be carried on,
needs no consideration.

I shall assume, and not only assume, but lay it down as a
fixed fact, that it is the most unwise policy that can possibly be
pursued. Agriculture, commerce, manufactures and the me-
chanics arts must go hand in hand. But the agriculture of a
nation is its chief corner-stone, the very foundation on which
the whole structui'e stands. Strike out this and the whole
edifice will crumble and fall. It is the main-spring which
moves the whole machinery and gives vitality to all other indus-
trial pursuits.

In following out this question, I suppose we are to be confined
more particularly to the agriculture of New England, or our
own State. In 1620, the first settlers found their way to our
shores and settled at Plymouth. Ten years later commenced
the settlement of Boston ; and from that time to the present
the population has been increasing and spreading over every
part of the State. During all this time its industrious and per-
severing inhabitants have turned their attention to the various
occupations that have presented themselves, until with some
there seems almost to be an idea that farming is of little con-
sequence, and may be abandoned, and that young men coming
on to tlie stage of action must look for something more lucra-
tive and that will bring its returns without much effort. A
continual repetition of anything becomes so impressed upon
many minds that it becomes to them a reality. And the saying
that " farming don't pay " has been so often repeated, that to

328 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

many it has become a willing reality, and lias afforded them a
plauaible excuse for quitting the farm.

Said a young man who was well situated on a farm, when
asked why he left it, " I thought I could get a living easier,"
and various other reasons, but finally said, "To tell the truth, I
am too well educated to be a farmer." What an idea. Too
well educated ! If there is any branch of industry that needs
intelligence, that needs a mind well cultivated, so that it can
comprehend new ideas as well as originate them, where men
can adapt themselves to their various localities and surround-
ings, that branch is farming, without doubt, for it certainly
needs a class quick of thought, and prompt in execution. Witii
almost every branch of business, definite rules can be laid down
that will answer for all localities. Go to the manufacturer and
ask him what he can manufacture woollen cloth of a certain
quality for, and he will calculate the cost of the raw material,
the capital invested, the cost of labor in the process of manu-
facture, and all other expenses connected with it, and he will
tell you to a cent what it can be done for. Go to the architect
and ask him the expense of erecting a building of a certain
size and finish, and he will go from foundation to roof, and tell
you what it can be done for ; and so with almost every branch of
industry until you come to the farmer. And can he tell you
what a pound of beef or pork can l)e made for ; what a pound
of butter or cheese can be produced for ; what a bushel of
oats, wheat or corn can be grown for ; what our garden vege-
tables, fruits and all the luxuries of our tables can be produced
for ? Certainly not. There are various influences at work day
by day, from the time the seed is put into the ground, until we
behold the ripened fruit. We watch the tender plant, the blos-
som, the first appearance of fruit, and all its various stages
until the golden grain or luscious fruit is ready for our use.
During all this time we look for the early and latter rain, for the
warm and genial influences of the sun. If these are bestowed
upon us, and we use those faculties God has given us, we can
rejoice in the fruit of our labor.

Nowhere is there such an opportunity for thought and reflec-
tion. The book of nature is constantly open before us, so that
the mind that does not continually read from its pages, must be
shut up to all those loftier and nobler feelings of our nature.

FORTUNES GO BEGGING. 329

And if it were true that he did not receive as many dollars, ho
has what is far better, a healthful and vigorous constitution, a
mind not bound down with the cares and perplexities of the
business man, who is on a continual stretch of anxiety lest his
goods and wares should decline while on his hands, or lest some
of his customers should not be prompt in their payments. The
farmer lives so far within himself, that he is subject to few of
these perplexities. The politician is dependant upon the votes
of the people. And if he secures an office, there comes more
of responsibility than was anticipated, and less of real enjoyment.

I have said that we often hear the saying " farming don't pay."
Do we hear it said mercantile business don't pay ? And yet
how small a per cent, of merchants really succeed in their busi-
ness. Still the business is carried on, and some grow vastly
rich. Stewart of New York commenced by dressing and selling
pieces of cloth used as samples, for which he obtained a profit,
and as his means increased he increased his business, and by
his skill, indomitable energy and perseverance has acquired an
immense fortune. Fisk, from driving a peddler's wagon from
house to house to display and sell his goods, went to stock
speculations, and has the reputation of possessing a large for-
tune. But is the world richer or better for it ? Vanderbilt,
who earned his first ten dollars by rowing a boat to carry a man
to a certain place, and returning him safely when the elements
were in such commotion that few would risk their lives in the
undertaking, showed such skill, such courage and perseverance,
that he was employed to run a steamer, and has acquired a
princely fortune. Such cases, though few, seems to dazzle the
eyes of young men about to start in life, while thousands of
others where the process is slow, but much more sure, are passed
by unnoticed.

Said nenry Ward Beecher, " Many young men get the idea
that in the ciljy fortunes go around begging persons to take
them." He says also, " It would promote the morals of the
nation if the city were to vomit out one-third of its young
population." I have said the population of Massachusetts is
increasing, and this increase is mainly in the cities and large
towns. With this increase of population, there is an increased
demand for the products of the farm, which must be supplied

42

330 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

from our own agricultural industry, or from some other section
of the country. Shall we go away for our vegetables ? We
need not to find a soil that will produce them bountifully, and
being grown so near a market, they will find their way thither
in a perfectly fresh and healthy condition. And if the plant-
food that goes to waste in our cities, could be turned back to
increase the fertility of the soil, we should be blessed with far
richer harvests. Shall we abandon fruit in Massachusetts ?
Who that has visited our agricultural fairs in the various sec-
tions of the State, and beheld the various varieties of fruit
exhibited, with a richness of flavor unsurpassed, and in quanti-
ties sufficient to satisfy the most fastidious, will say we need go
beyond our own borders for fruits adapted to our climate ?

If we turn our attention to the dairy, we find many sections
as well adapted to the production of milk, butter and cheese, as
any part of the habitable globe. The supply of milk must be
produced within a reasonable distance of the place where it is
consumed, so that the Eastern cities cannot go West beyond the
borders of our own State for their supply. And even if this
could be done, would it be a wise policy for the producer or
consumer to pay the expense of transporting those articles of
food which can just as well be produced in his own immediate
vicinity ? As the manufacturing, mechanical and mercantile
population increases, the question comes with great force,
whether the farming community should not redouble their
diligence to keep pace with this increasing demand for the
products of the soil ? I have spoken of milk, but I have yet to
learn that better butter or cheese can be found than is made
in our own State. In those portions where the feed is abun-
dant, and pure water never exhausted, cheese factories have
come up and arc rapidly increasing, and the quantity of cheese
from them is annually increasing. With these facilities, and a
ready demand for all that can be produced, is rtiere any reason
for tiie oft-repeated saying, that " farming won't pay ? " If the
farming interest does not pay, what business does ? If the
agricultural interests are checked, where is the prosperity of
other branches of industry ; and from whence comes the revenue
of the country, if not directly or indirectly from the soil ?

A division of labor, or specialties in farming, renders it more

SPECIALTIES IN FARMING. 831

remunerative, as well as more pleasant. Heretofore, almost
every farmer was attempting to do a little at almost everything
connected with his business, and carrying nothing to so great a
degree of perfection. He has finally taken lessons from the profes-
sional man, the mechanic, the manufacturer, and other branches
of industry, and is making one prominent department lead, while
all others are subservient to this. The fruit-grower makes a
specialty of fruit, and we see his orchards and vineyards show-
ing evident marks of careful culture. He knows the best varie-
ties of fruit for his* location ; the best market, and the best
mode of getting his fruit to market. The market gardener
also knows the best soil and manure for the different varieties of
vegetables, tlie preparation of the soil, the proper time for
putting in the different seeds for early and late markets, the
care each must have, and the time and mode of getting his prod-
ucts to the best market. The professional man does not engage
in all the professions at the same time. The manufacturer of
cotton goods bends all his energies in that direction. He builds
his mills for this one purpose, supplies himself with machinery
for doing this work, and seeks for his best market for procuring
the raw material and selling the manufactured goods. The
woollen manufacturer does not trouble himself about others, but
is devoted to his particular branch. And so it is with all the
various trades. The blacksmith does not have a dry goods store
connected with his shop, or the shoe-maker carry on the gold-
smith's business ; but each one in his separate department
finds a greater success. So the farmer finds a greater success
when one branch leads, and all others succumb to that. I do
not mean, if the farmer gives his attention to dairying, he should
do nothing else, but that this should be his leading pursuit, and
should not be neglected for anything else. He may raise corn,
potatoes and vegetables, but all looking to the improvement in
his one particular branch.

Having given some reasons why it would not be a wise policy
to abandon our agricultural interests, and having touclied at some
length on the division of labor, we turn more particularly to the
manner in which this should be done in order to make it most
remunerative. The first investment necessary is a good educa-
tion,— one that will tend to fit us more particularly for this
branch of industry. I have said that no man can be well fitted

332 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

to manap:c different departments of business, and be snccessful
in all his operations. The doctor cannot be a successful farmer,
and at the same time be thoroughly versed in the practice of
medicine. Nor could the farmer leave his fields and flocks and
herds, and be a successful lawyer. The preacher of the gospel,
if he would be strong in his profession, cannot be a successful
merchant or manufacturer. Life is too short to attempt a
thorough knowledge of all, or any considerable number of the
different branches of business. Blot out the idea that some
entertain, that any one can be a farmer, wliether he knows any-
thing of his business or not. I am glad it is becoming more
and more exploded, and the desire for agricultural knowledge
increased. We have our agricultural papers, books and lec-
turers, who are scattering information broadcast over the land.
We have our agricultural societies, which are schools of object
teaching, schools of experiments, schools where we can get an
interchange of ideas, and a new impetus in the great work of
agriculture. We have our " Board of Agriculture," and our
valuable Secretary, who is not only giving the community the
benefit of his own intelligence, but is collecting the researches
of others for the benefit of all who desire such information.
We have also our Agricultural College, which in prosperity has
far exceeded the expectations of its most sanguine friends, and
from which we soon expect to see a class of young men educated
especially for the business of farming, and who by the applica-
tion of science to the art of agriculture, will, we trust, inaugu-
rate a new era, when there will be an attractive, instead of a
repelling force operating on the minds of young men. After
acquiring what theoretical and practical knowledge a young
man can in the business of his choice, he either has a farm left
him or seeks to obtain one for himself.

Now comes the decision as to how much land he will have.
This will depend upon what particular branch of agriculture he
is to pursue. But whatever it may be, he must use capital
enough, so that the proceeds will more than balance the expend-
itures of the family and the cost of cultivation. If market
gardening or the raising of small fruits is to occupy his atten-
tion, less acres are needed. If the raising of grain (which we
could hardly recommend as a specialty in Massachusetts), he
would need more land. If in the dairying or stock growing

CAPITAL REQUIRED IN FARMING. 333

sections, a larger farm will afford a better profit. Tlic expenses
of a family on a small farm are nearly as mncli as on a large
one, with the exception of increased labor. Horses, carriages,
and the implements of husbandry are nearly the same in the
one case as the other. If it requires the income of six or eight
cows to meet the necessary family expenses, the ninth and tenth
cow, and so on to a much greater number will be largely profit ; so
that in whatever branch we engage, see that the income exceeds
the expenditures. If this is not done we may well cry out
" farming don't pay."

Should the manufacturer do but a small amount of business,
could he say that manufacturing paid ? He builds large mills
and finds the same wheel will turn a large as well as a small
number of spindles, so that cloth comes out in large instead of
small quantities, and if the profit is but small per yard a large
income will be realized. To do this, capital must be invested or
there will be no profit above expenses. Just so in farming.
Enough ca[)ital must be invested so that the foundation will be
broad enough to build upon, and then the necessary labor must
be performed in the most economical manner. To do this
requires still another investment. The best tools must be
brought into requisition, and all the machinery that can be
worked to advantage. The mowing machine, tedder and rake,
now so much in use (and their use is spreading farther and
wider every year), render that part of farming which was for-
merly the most laborious and expensive, comparatively easy
and less expensive, so that grass can be cut and cured so much
more rapidly as to render its nutritive qualities far greater.
When all the labor was performed by hand, I have known hay-
ing to linger till nearly September, when the hay was hardly
worth the expense of getting.

But some one says. My farm has too many rocks and is too
uneven for machinery. Only on a small proportion could it
be used successfully. When the Boston and Albany Railroad
was in contemplation there was but a small proportion of the
route that was perfectly level. The hills had to be brought low,
the valleys raised and the rough places made smooth. And did
it not pay to do all that ? Nothing could have been done suc-
cessfully without it. Grant that your farm may have rocks and
rough places. You will by the use of machinery make a better

334 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

farmer ; you will more readily see the rocks that ol)strnct your
way, and the rough places tliatwith a little cai)ital can be made
smooth ; and some part of the time when other thing? do not
drive, you will turn your attention in that direction, and when
once accomplished you will he surprised that you did not do it
sooner, and your courage will be increased from year to year
to do more, thereby rendering the land more productive and at
the same time easier of cultivation. We take no steps back-
ward in civilization or improvement. Things may look formid-
able at first sight, but when fairly met the battle is half won,
and what were supposed to be almost impossibilities are readily
overcome.

One of the great obstacles in the way of successful farm-
ing was the great labor and care of the dairy. At early morn
the dairy-woman was seen at the cheese tub, which would hardly
be left until the sun had reached its high meridian, added to
which was the care of the cheese already made. This would
sometimes bring discouragement to the dairying community.
But we have arrived at a new era in this department. With
the use of a small capital in the erection and furnishing of a
cheese factory, the milk in a circle of from four to six miles is
brought together, and there manufactured into cheese with an
economy almost as great as the present manufactory of cloth
over the primitive times. These, although of recent date, are
as sure of permanency as the cotton factories now scattered all
over New England. Who that has had experience with cheese
factories would desire to return to the old system of cheese
making ? And yet it requires capital, energy and perseverence,
for advancement in this direction and all the departments of
farming, as well as in all the various industries to which the
attention of man is called. And no one will succeed here or
anywhere else who is not willing to put his shoulder to the
wheel, and who does not feel that he has a business that is best
for him, and one in which he is determined to succeed.

What should we think of a merchant who should stand at
his counter and complain to his customer that his business did
not pay ? Should he take that course, it probably would not pay.
We should all say, do not spend your breath or energy in tliat
direction, but by the investment of a sufticient amount of capital,
and a close attention to your purchases and sales, and feeling

POSSUNT QUIA POSSE YIDENTUR. 335

that you have a good business, you probably will be among
the successful ones. Just so with eveiy branch of business.
The energetic, the industrious, the persevering, will succeed.
Said Governor Bullock at the reunion of the legislature of 1862,
after extolling that assembly of representative men in high
terms, " I ought not to conclude this strain of partiality for one
popular assembly without admitting that there are at all times
those in our community whose measure of wit and satire is sat-
isfied in speaking of the general court in terms quite the oppo-
site of those I have learned to use, but I think you rarely
find one of those persons who was ever known to decline an
opportunity of election to the House or who would be eminently
useful if he should happen to be chosen." There are those who
are constantly croaking and complaining, who are ready to say
they wished the rich were obliged to divide with them. Would
this change their character ? Would they not still complain,
and five years hence call for a new division ? Let every man
leave his neighbor and attend to himself ; leave his neighbor's
business and attend to his own. Let every one strive to make
the world richer and better, that he has lived in it, and we
sliould hear less of the complaint that " farming won't pay."
Try it, and try it with a feeling that it does pay.

The sacred page tells us that, " He that tilleth the land
shall have plenty of bread." . We find this to be the first busi-
ness of every nation, its main support. If this fails, all fails.
All must have their daily bread. If the land does not produce,
the merchant cannot move his goods, ships would rot at our
wharves, steam cars would not stalk through the land ; in fact,
all other business would be of no avail. But with a productive
soil, and careful and well directed labor, all the other industries
will flourish. Agriculture was the first business of Massachu-
setts, as of the nation ; and with the stand she has taken in
the history of the nation, with the influence she has exerted
through its whole length and breadth, and the world, in a moral
and intellectual point of view, with her common schools and
other institutions of learning, with her charitable institutions,
with her men, who from the earliest history of the nation to the
present time have sent their influence far and wide, who have
taken the lead in all the industries of the nation, — shall we
abandon her agriculture, and allow her to decline in this direc-

336 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

tion ? Xo. For the honor of the old Bay State and the good
of her teeming population, let all friends of agriculture bestir
themselves, so that Massachusetts shall bud and blossom as the
rose, and yield her increase for man and beast. I am glad that
the idea has to so great an extent vanished, that all wc need
for a farmer is bone and muscle, a strong physical frame, with-
out that motive power which underlies all our action, which
plans and carries into execution well directed labor.

An engine may be built very strong, every part as perfect as
the skill of man can make ; a road may be graded, the hills may
be brought low, the valleys raised, the rough places made
smooth, the track laid and the engine placed upon it. But
does it move ? Not until the motive-power is applied, with
man's skill and knowledge to direct all its movements. Who
attempts to argue that a man can make and manage a steam-
engine without being educated for that purpose ? Who attempts
to say a man can practice law without a knowledge of law, or a
physician medicine, without a knowledge of the diseases flesh
is heir to and the remedies to be applied, or our teachers to
attempt to give instruction in those branches of science of which
they have no knowledge ? From whence is this knowledge
derived ? From teachers, from books, from the experience of
others, from our own observation ; and then, in the application of
those principles to practice, we still gather fresh information,
for it is said " we never more than half know anything, until we
are able to explain it to others."

Shall we discard in agriculture what we claim everywhere
else ? This, it seems to me, is not a wise policy. Expel the
idea that is in the minds of many, that to educate a young man
is to give him a distaste for the farm, and unfit him for farm
labor. But the opposite, that a theoretical knowledge is essen-
tial, and then an application of the principles he has learned to
practice, and with a mind educated, he will be continually draw-
ing from his own resources and from the researches of others.
In this way shall it not be thoroughly demonstrated, that knowl-
edge and the use of capital are as essential to the prosperity of
agriculture as to any other branch of industry ?

N. S. Hubbard.

The report having been read and laid over, the Board pro-

ASSIGNMENT OF DELEGATES.

337

ceeded to the assignment of delegates to attend the various
agricultural societies, as follows. To the

Essex, .
Middlesex,
Middlesex North, .
Middlesex South,
Worcester,
Wo7-cester West,
Worcester North, .
Worcester North- West,
Worcester South, .
Worcester South-East,
'Hampshire, Franklin and
Hampshire,
Highland,
Hampden,
Hampden East,
Union, .
Franklin,
Berkshire,
Housatonic, .
Hoosac Valley,
Norfolk,
Bristol,

Bristol Central,
Plymouth,

Hingham,
Marshjield, .
Barnstable, .
Nantucket,
Martha's Vineyard,

Hampden

John T Ellsworth.

E. Stone.
A. P. Peck.
Albert Fearing.
Thomas L. Allis.
George B. Loring.
John Johnson.

n. s. hubbakd.
L. Saltonstall.
a. j. bucklin.
Wm. Knowlton.
J. F. C. Hyde.
H. Vincent.
L. H. Bradford.
N. P. Brown.
George M. Baker.
Levi Stockbridge.
Jonathan Ladd.
Hiram Converse.
A. P. Slade.

F. F. Fay.
Richard Goodman.
Thomas W. Ward.
William Birnie.
John B. Moore.

E. W. Boise.
George B. Loring.
S. B, Phinney.
Wm. S Clark.

Mr. Davis, from the Committee appointed to consider and
report upon the time and place of holding the country meeting
of the Board, reported in favor of holding it at Pall River, on
the 21st, 22d and 23d of November.

The Report having been accepted after discussion, and
adopted, it was

Voted, To appoint a Committee of five on Meetings. This
Committee was constituted by the appointment of Messrs. Dur-
fee, Slade, Davis, Goodman and Phinney.

Voted, To change the time of holding the Fair of the Union
Society to the last Thursday and Friday but one in September.
43

338 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Voted, That no society receiving the bounty of the State
shall, after the jircsent year, bestow any premiums or gratuities
on grade or native bulls.

Voted, That any society joining with the New P]ngland
Agricultural Society's exhibition have authority to change its
time to conform to that.

Dr. LoRiNG, from the committee appointed to select a list of
subjects for investigation, submitted the following preliminary

REPORT:

They would recommend that the members of the Board be
directed to prepare accurate and elaborate statements of the
condition of agriculture in the various sections of the Common-
wealth, and that a list of questions be prepared for their guid-
ance in the preparation of these reports. In making this
recommendation, the Committee would be understood as con-
fining each delegate to the locality included in his society.

(Signed) Geo. B. Loring.

Jas. F. C. Hyde.

W. S. Clark.

This Report was accepted and adopted, the questions to be
prepared by the committee, to which the Secretary was added.

A paper was presented by the Secretary, as the First Annual
Report of Dr. Packard, as the Entomologist to the Board, to
which position he was appointed at the Amherst Meeting of the
Board in August last.

Voted, That the thanks of the Board be presented to Dr.
Packard for his valuable paper on insects, and that it be pub-
lished in the Secretary's Report.

The Committee on Printing was constituted by the appoint-
ment of Messrs. Goodman, Moore and the Secretary.

The Examining Committee of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College was constituted of Messrs. Agassiz, Fay, Knowlton,
Hubbard and Johnson.

Voted, That the various Agricultural Societies of the Com-

FARMERS' INSTITUTES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 339

monwealth, be requested to organize an annual meeting for
lectures and discussions at such time and place as may be con-
venient to each society ; these meetings to be denominated The
Farmers' Institutes of Massachusetts.
Adjourned.

Fourth Day.

The Board met at ten o'clock, A. M,, Mr. Peck in the chair.

Present: Messrs. Agassiz, Allis, Baker, Birnie, Boise, Brown,
Bucklin, Clark, Ellsworth, Fearing, Goodman, Hubbard, Hyde,
Johnson, Knowlton, Ladd, Loring, Moore, Peck, Phinney, Salt-
onstall, Slade, Stone, Vincent, Ward and Wilder.

Dr. Loring, from the Committee to select and assign a list
of subjects, submitted the following : —

The Breeding of Domestic Animals. — Messrs. Agassiz, Lor-
ing and Hyde.

Field and Garden Seeds. — Messrs. Moore, Hyde and Clark.

TJie CuUivation and Use of Forest Trees. — Messrs. Clark,
Goodman and Durfee.

Tlie Cultivation and Preservation of Fruit. — Messrs. Wilder,
Fay and Hubbard.

The Blanagement of the Dairy. — Messrs. Ellsworth, Allis and
Phinney.

Agricultural and Horticidtural Education for Women. —
Messrs. Goodman, Wilder and Birnie.

The Report was accepted and adopted.

Voted, That each society receiving the bounty of the State
be directed to publish a catalogue of its members, in connection
with the Transactions of the present year, and that, in arranging
this catalogue, the occupation of each member be set down
against his name.

Mr. Johnson submitted an essay on the

TIME OF CUTTING AND MODE OF CURING HAY.

It will doubtless be remembered that we presented a rather
hastily written essay upon this subject (by appointment) last

340 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

year, and that it excited a discussion whicli continued for
several hours, when the whole matter was recommitted, with
the names of Messrs. Saltonstall and Ellsworth substituted in
the place of Cole and Blair. At the time the Board met at
Framingham, December last, Mr. Ellsworth examined some
hay, and was invited to write the committee in regard to his
opinion on the whole question, that it might be incorporated in
this report. We received a line from him a short time ago
referring to an address of Mr. Hyde of Lee, read before the
Board at Amherst, in 1868, as comprehending his own views.

This was a very clear, comprehensive and elaborately written
document, recommending as the best time to cut herdsgrass
and red-top, when it is in full bloom ; and red clover when
about half the heads are in blossom. This recommendation is
not in accordance with our views, after close and careful experi-
ment. The ideas advanced by Mr. Hyde, in regard to the stor-
age of hay, we can fully or nearly so concur in. These two
items are nearly all the points that touch upon the sub-
ject now under consideration. The hay crop is undoubtedly
the most important crop to the farmers of Massachusetts. " No
hay, no cattle ; no manure, no crop." It is an absolute neces-
sity that our domestic animals should have some hay ; some
requiring more, some less. By consulting the statistics of
Massachusetts for 1865, we find that the value of the hay crop
for that year was about $13,195,274. If to this be added the
value of grass grown upon our pastures, we find it will exceed
all other agricultural products.

Nature has better adapted some of her soils to the growth of
grass than others ; still all our New England soil requires
manure to insure a crop ; and just in proportion as we furnish
manure, in some form, will the soil send up her crops. No soil
can long stand close cropping without some return. Again,
we find by statistics that the domestic animals in this country
are increasing at a much greater percentage than is the hay
crop, showing conclusively that the farmer's higliest interest
and first study should be the increase of his hay crop, and the
proper time of cutting and best method of curing the same.

We all agree, as we have intimated above, that to increase our
hay crop, we must apply manure in some form, either incor-
porated by means of the plough or harrow into the soil, or by

CUTTING AND CURING HAY. 341

applying a dressing of finely composted manure to the surface ;
or in many other ways, some of which may be suggested as we
pass along. The best time of cutthig, and proper mode of cur-
ing and storing* our hay crop, have not as yet been settled in the
minds of our farmers. It is a law in nature, that cropping a
plant at a certain time before it has arrived to a state of ma-
turity, it more readily throws up a second growth and is more
vigorous than if left until it has matured. The truth of this
law every farmer has noticed. This is one reason urged for
cutting grass early, for when cut early we secure at once a
covering or hiding place for the young and tender grass roots ;
protecting them from the hot and scorching rays of an August
and September sun. Also this covering, or if this second crop
is cut and put into the barn, a third crop will soon start and
form for these same roots a sufficient clothing to protect them
from the frosts of winter. Experience has taught us how
much more readily the grass will start in the spring, after its
roots have been protected from heavy frosts by a good and suf-
ficient covering, whether of top-dressing or even by its own
aftermath, and that it will cut one fourth more hay at least
than where no protection has been furnished.

Grass roots need protection from the rays of the sun, and frosts
of winter, as much as man or beast. God made the beast of
the field and covered him with sufficient clothing, according
to his nature. A late-cut field will, of necessity, wear a brown
coat the rest of the season, unless it is very rich, or quite wet.
It will not produce, under any circumstances, as much or as
good a quantity of grass as will the early-cut fields, and will
not arrive to a state suitable to be cut the coming season as
early. Hence by continuing to cut late, we reduce our fields
rapidly, and get no return, and a less valuable crop of grass or
hay. Again, it is very questionable whether the manure made
from late-cut hay is as valuable as that made from the early
cut, and if the object be to protect the roots, then the soil gets
the advantage of the second crop much longer than if the grass
had been cut late. It not only answers as a protection, 'but as
a fertilising stimulant and manure. Where a good second crop
is secured and allowed to remain on the ground, once in three
or four years scatter some clover seed in March, and it will
catch and grow and make a very good quality of hay, especially

342 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

if the land had been previously top-dressed. The clover roots
growing deep, serve to keep the ground light and friable for the
roots of the finer grasses. These clover roots decay, and make
a deposit, in which is good food for the remaining grasses.
Again, a small amount of manure used as a top-dressing on
early-cut fields is worth and will produce much more than the
same put on late-cut fields (always apply the dressing as soon
after the crop is removed as possible). The heat and light of the
sun are all-important, but tlie young plants and rootlets re-
quire protection from its direct rays at certain seasons. By
applying certain chemicals, or in other words, by putting back
just the same compound in quality and amount that the gras3
has taken out, we may continue to grow from year to year good
crops of grass, if cut early. Experience and observation have
demonstrated the fact to my mind, that the proper time to cut
our English grass, without considering the effect upon the soil,
and with reference to crop and quality (in the term English I
do not include clover), is before the time the grass blossoms.
At this time it contains the greatest amount of succulent matter.
In converting grass into hay our object should be to cause as
little change as possible, preserving as nearly as we can all the
solid constituents in the same state as when the grass is young
and green.

In grass cut at this state of growth, we have very little woody
fibre in the stem. When the woody fibre begins to form, all
the rich nutritive matter, such as starch, gum and a large
amount of sugar, are carried by a certain process and stored
almost entirely in the seed. At the time the seed has ripened
the stem of most of our cultivated grasses has become a hard,
dry substance like straw, and not much more fit for animal
food. Clover has three sorts of heads or blossoms. At the
time when the second blossoms are seen this crop is at its high-
est point of value ; therefore this most valuable crop should be
cut at this stage of its growtli, and if cured properly is as valu-
able to the farmer as any of his grasses. One ton of herds-
grass^ red-top or clover, cut at the stage of its growtli we have
indicated, and cured in the manner which wo shall indicate here-
after, will produce more milk or butter than the same weight of
late-cut hay, and dried in the ordinary way, even when fed
with a certain quantity of grain, fed daily to cows of equal

MAKE HAY WHILE THE SUN SHINES. 343

milking capacity, and the same relative value will be found for
making beef or feeding any farm stock ; and certainly the early
cut is much more palatable, being more like green grass. It is
also all-important, having cut our crop at the proper time, to
cure it in such a manner that it will contain as nearly as possible,
as we have indicated before, the same composition as when in
a green state. It is difficult to say just how much time will be
required to make hay, as it depends entirely upon circum-
stances ; but certainly we cannot cure it properly without the
aid of the sun. And we all know that some days twenty
minutes of sun will dry more than sixty minutes will at other
times, although we are under a full sunshine.

Again, the wind has much to do with the drying process; a
north or east wind will not influence the drying of hay much,
while a west or south-west wind hastens the drying process very
rapidly. While grass remains green after it is cut rain injures
it very little, as it has a coating of oily matter which renders it
nearly water-proof. But if the rain continues several days and
the hay is turned over several times, and becomes broken and
bruised, then it is (chemists tell us) the sugar, gum and other
soluble matter are liable to be washed out, and the bruised state
of the plants admits at least of a partial solution of the various
constituents, which Induces fermentation, and during fermenta-
tion soluble albumen and sugar are destroyed, two of the most
valuable elements of nutrition.

The old adage, make hay while the sun shines, is as true
now as it was in the days of our fathers. We do not cut grass in
wet weather if we can avoid it. The practice of carting hay into
the barn the same day it is cut saves much anxiety about wet
weather. To have the hay all nicely packed away in the barn
every night, one can go to sleep and sleep quietly, and if per-
chance he is awakened by the sound of distant thunder or rain-
drops upon his window, he merely thinks to himself, what a fine
thing a little rain will be just now to revive my pastures, and
how beautifully green and rich the field I carted hay from yester-
day will look in three days ; and again he goes off in sweet
sleep and dreams of his hay crop all dry and secure from injury
— a happy man ice know. But on the contrary, imagine a farmer
with six or eight tons to remain out over night — some in cock,
some in winrow, some spread ; as he retires at eve he takes a

344 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

lingering look at his hay, and a glance at the west, and with a
heavy sigh he retires to rest. He will hear the most distant
thunder or the first drop of rain upon his roof, and as he hears
the drops begin to fall, his feelings can be better imagined than
told, but an unhappy night we know. This is only a contrast
of comfort, to say nothing of the gain or loss in either case.

I am convinced that in most parts of New England our Eng-
lish hay should be cut and stored, if the weather allow, before
the seed has set ; commencing to cut with the mowing machine
as soon certainly as the dew is oif, and one hand trimming around
the walls, trees, &c. At eleven o'clock commence turning with
forks or tedder, and lose no time until twelve M., when by
this process it will become wilted. In this way we can begin,
if the grass has been properly tedded, to cart into the barn as
soon as one o'clock, always taking care to have help enough to
finish carting as early as half-past four or five o'clock, after
which the dew has fallen and renders hay unfit to be packed.
By this process we allow from three to four hours for the out-
door curing of our crop. Wc have in many instances packed hay
in our barn, not having had more than two hours' sun, and it
came out in spring perfectly sweet, and was relished by the
cattle next to green grass, and certainly they must be considered
good judges of such food. In this way of securing the hay
crop, we avoid the danger of having much of it wet and also
save in the process of storing it. We are always careful not to
put hay into our barn that has any water in it, but never fear the
sap if properly packed. When hay is taken from the cart or
wagon it should not be rolled off, and then over and over on to
the different parts of the mow, but it should be pitched on to
the hay mow, and evenly distributed over the mow in even fork-
fuls, and each fork full packed and trodden upon. In this way
the mow becomes solid and closely packed, which is absolutely
necessary for the preservation of the hay, always remembering
that the greener the hay is put in the closer it must be packed.
In rainy weatlier let tlie hay be trodden upon by the men. Re-
member to keep the barn closed as much as possible afterwards.

Gentlemen of the Board — Farmers of Massachusetts — it
seems to us that the subject of this essay more nearly interests
the farmers of Massachusetts than any other agricultural ques-
tion now before us. If you will investigate and experiment we

CURING OF SWALE HAY. 345

know you will be convinced, and thereby much money may be
saved annually to the farmers of Massachusetts alone. The
question is^often asked us, " Do you use salt on your hay ? " We
have experimented with salt on our mows and find that salt
ruins hay when put in, in a green state. The salt separates or
sets at liberty the water which is held in the succulent matter
which would be otherwise retained. Therefore, by the use of
salt we have a certain amount of water diffused all through our
mows, and the consequence is the hay mats, moulds and smokes,
and is unfit for feed. We have said nothing in regard to
meadow or swale hay ; we do not regard it very valuable for
feed unless cut and mixed with a good allowance of meal.

More care is required in the curing process than with our
English grasses. If put in the barn in a very green state it
does not come out sweet and good ; therefore we would not
recommend putting meadow or swale hay into the barn with as
little drying as we would our English grasses grown upon high
land. John Johnson, for the Committee.

Framingham, January 27, 1871.

This essay led to a long discussion, when it was laid over
under the rule.

Voted, That the officers of the Agricultural College be re-
quested to institute a series of experiments with regard to the
period of growth at which grass can be most profitably cut, and
also a series of experiments by which the various processes of
curing can be tested, and that a committee of three be appointed
to confer with the college on this matter.

Messrs. Loring, Johnson and Ellsworth were appointed as
this committee.
Adjourned.

'Fifth Day.

The Board met at ten o'clock A. M., Mr. Davis in the chair.

Present — Messrs. AUis, Baker, Birnie, Boise, Brown, Bucklin,
Clark, Davis, Ellsworth, Fearing, Hubbard, Hyde, Goodman,
Johnson, Knowlton, Ladd, Loring, Moore, Saltonstall, Slade,
Stone, Vincent and Ward.

44

346 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE.

Dr. LoRiNG submitted a report as delegate to the Union
Society.

The fact that it was in contemplation to lay out a road across
the Agricultural College farm having been brought to the atten-
tion of the Board, it was —

Resolved, That in the opinion of the State Board of Agricul-
ture it is not desirable that a highway should be run through
the centre of the college farm, nor near the buildings on the
farm, and that if a road has to be laid across any part of the
farm it should be at a point most remote from the buildings.

The several reports of delegates and the various essays that
had been submitted and laid over, were then read a second time
by their titles and adopted.

Mr. Bradford, Chairman of the Committee on the Necrology
of the Board, submitted the following: —

IN MEMORY OF JAMES THOMPSON.

All of the members of this Board have known and highly
respected James Thompson, Esq., our late associate from Nan-
tucket. The fact of his death has been feelingly announced to
us by the Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, and we have passed appro-
priate resolutions to be entered upon our records, and the Com-
mittee on the Necrology of the Board desire now to present a
brief tribute to his memory.

The appointment of this Committee met his hearty approval
at the last annual meeting. But he hardly realized that his
name would be the first enrolled upon our record since its for-
mation, as having " passed to that bourne from whence no
traveller returns," — but such is life ; we are here to-day in
health ; to-morrow we are gone, and in the language of inspira-
tion, " the mourners go about the streets."

James Thompson was born on the island of Nantucket,
August 10, 1819. He was the youngest of three brothers, sons
of James Thompson and Diana (Gibbs) Thompson. They were
respectable farmers, of good Puritan stock, and came to the
island from Plymouth County. They gave their children the
usual common school privileges of the times. The subject of

IN MEMORIAM. 347

this sketch died at " Ehn Dale Farm," near "Worcester, October
12, 1870, aged fifty-one years.

Mr. Thompson was elected to this Board in 1863 by the Nan-
tucket Agricultural Society, and was the efficient president of
that society at the time of his decease and for nearly ten years
previous. He had been known as one of its leading members ;
always among its principal contributors.

It was truly a sad day to that society, when he and his family
bade them farewell, and removed last April with his fine herds
to Worcester County.

Mr. Thompson was a member of the Massachusetts House of
Representatives from Nantucket in 1861, but the political arena
had no charm for him. Often would he say, the good points of
Jersey stock had more attractions than the caucus. He was
selectman of his native town seven years, and a faithful servant
too. In this Board he was a valued member, and we remember
him as constant at his post of duty, a ready debater, a courteous,
high-minded gentleman, entering into the discussions with great
enthusiasm, exhibiting good culture, honesty of purpose and
persistent effort in the cause of agriculture, to which he was
ardently devoted.

Of Iionored Puritan extraction, his character and bearing were
dignified and transparent, and if not a great man in the ordinary
sense, he was better — a practical man.

He remained in the paternal home and on the farm until his
father's death, and then bound himself to learn the trade of a
carpenter, which business he successfully pursued until the
year 1860. Afterwards commenced the manufacture of woollen
hosiery and mittens, in connection with the dry goods business,
and with these interests on his hands carried on farming, making
a specialty of rearing Jersey stock. His stock soon outgrew
his room, and he removed to " Elm Dale Farm." This pllace in
colonial times belonged to Governor John Hancock, and his
deed, now extant, shows the value of farming lands in that early
period in Worcester County, for it was sold for one shilling- per
acre.

His last illness, of about six weeks, was attended with much
pain and suffering, but he bore all with submission, giving
directions from time to time as to the business of the farm and

348 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

household, with strong faith in God, through the blessed Re-
deemer, and thus he passed away to be forever at rest.

Just six months after the time he left Nantucket, Jacob-like
driving his cattle before him to his new home, the stricken
family brought all that remained of the honored and beloved
husband and fatlier, agreeably to his dying request, back to his
native island home, and the moaning winds of the stormy
Atlantic shall sing his requiem until time shall be no longer.

In concluding this tribute we give an extract from the " Mas-
sachusetts Ploughman," written by a personal friend who visited
" Elm Dale Farm " after his decease : —

" To this spot ho had given, along with an estimable wife of
similar tastes, his best thoughts and care. Here he hoped to
establish his chosen home and rear his happy family. He had
retouched a dwelling that bespoke in every feature the dignity
of the ancient family living. He had his meadows, his arable
lands, his pastures, his orchards and his woodland snugly about
his homestead. A noble lawn stretching before his windows,
on all sides he saw his fine blood horses and his pure Jerseys
peacefully grazing. His home was becoming the paradise on
earth he had designed it, and quiet prosperity and perfect con-
tentment reigned around him. But death interrupted the
beautiful plan, and all was instantly changed. Such a man, an
agriculturist with the healthy and enduring enthusiasm, cannot
drop out of human sight without exciting our profouudest
regrets. His bereaved and worthy family will receive the sin-
cere sympathy of all." Lewis H. Bradford.

The Board then adjourned sine die.

Further time having been allowed the Committee on Fruits,
the following was submitted by the Chairman, Col. Wilder, as
the

REPORT ON THE CULTURE AND PRESERVATION OF FRUITS.

In submitting this report the Committee would remark that
they desire to confirm and perpetuate the principles and practice
recommended in their report of last year. These may be briefly
stated as follows : The necessity of perfect drainage and tlie
proper preparation of tlie soil. The regular application of man-

CULTURE AND PRESERVATION OF FRUITS. 349

ure to fruit trees as to other crops. The importance of clean
culture without injury to the roots of trees by deep ploughing
or spading. The early and proper thinning of fruit, and lastly,
that constant care and vigilance are the conditions of success.

Tlie year 1870 has been in some respects the most remark-
able on record, and it may be profitable to note some of the
obvious results of such a season on certain fruits. The heat
and drought of the last summer were unusually severe ; but
notwithstanding this, the crop was abundant throughout New
England. The fruit, although perhaps not so large as usual,
was never smoother, handsomer or of better quality. This re-
mark will apply especially to pears, for even the Beurre Diel,
Flemish Beauty and some other varieties, which almost always
crack and blast, were perfectly fair and free from imperfections,
the old St. Michael or White Doyenne in many instances bear-
ing fair fruit. All the varieties of out-door grapes ripened per-
fectly without spot or mildew. Some of the varieties of grapes,
which seldom ripen in this latitude, came to maturity, and there
was neither mildew on the foliage or rot on the fruit, and
although the size of the clusters and berries was not of extra-
ordinary size, it was never more excellent in other respects.

From these facts may we not draw the conclusion that mildew
on the foliage, the cracking and blasting of fruits in former years,
was the result of too much moisture, either in the air or the
earth, or perhaps both ; and do not these facts go to confirm our
theory in favor of the thorough drainage of lands used for fruit
culture? What the effect of such an extraordinary season may
be on fruit-trees, time only can determine.

In regard to the small fruits, we advise that more attention be
given to their cultivation, especially the strawberry and currant.
Of the necessity of an increased supply, we need only to refer to
the able report of our associate member, Mr. Slade, in 1868-G9, in
which he states " that while the market increased in population
in seven years about forty per cent., the increase in consumption
of strawberries was over two hundred and fifty per cent.," or in
18G1 one box would supply a family of seven persons, and in
1868 the same family required three and a half boxes.

With reference to the currant, it may be proper to observe
that the demand is constantly increasing, both for home use and
for shipment. True, the worm is a serious drawback on its

350 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

cultivation, but an early application of powdered white hellebore,
when the dew is on, will readily exterminate the pest.

Fruit has become almost a daily condiment of many families.
"We know of some where fruit constitutes more than half of their
subsistence daring the warm months, and that in these families
neither fever nor dysentery has appeared for nearly thirty years,
and in fact scarcely any other disease, and there is no doubt
whatever that where fruit is most regularly used, as food, there
health most abounds. This opinion having become more estab-
lished in the public mind, the demand for fruits will continue to
increase, especially for the strawl)erry, currant and other small
fruits which ripen in the summer months, when the constitution
requires their cooling, acidulous influence. Our market now is
largely supplied by strawberries brought from other States, but
we doubt not that, by judicious management, this fruit can be
made a highly remunerative crop in Massachusetts ; instances
of which are not now unfrequent, as is shown by its extended
cultivation by our friend Captain Moore and others at Concord.

There still exists some difference of opinion in regard to the
best methods of cultivation ; but good results have been obtained
both with culture in hills and in beds, the opinion however
strongly prevailing that hermaphrodite varieties produce best in
hills. By the latter method weeds may be kept down with the
hoc at much less expense than by hand-weeding of beds.

In regard to the preservation of fruits we have but little to
add to our report of 1869-70, and the opinions expressed by the
chairman of this committee in his lecture before the Board at
Pittsfield in 1869, page 95 of the Secretary's report. While the
patent fruit-houses are of undoubted benefit where carefully
watched and controlled, especially in preserving for a limited
time early fruits, when the market is glutted with a superabun-
dance of autumn pears, yet we cannot but fear that the expense,
constant care and superintendence necessary for success of these
houses, will prevent their general use.

Fruit-houses constructed with greater simplicity and cheap-
ness are necessary for general use, and our fruit-growers must
rely upon their rooms and cellars to be constructed by them-
selves. Fruits are of a perishable character, and require con-
stant care and watching ; but there are many cellars where they
can be kept to good advantage if the necessary conditions for

INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS. 351

their preservation are observed. We have seen fruit rooms in a
dry cellar with northern exposure, where fruits have kept admir-
ably through the winter, where Duchesse d'Angoulcme and
Beurr(i d'Anjou pears have kept fresh to January, and early
winter apples equally well to April or May.

In conclusion, wc therefore would repeat and enforce the
necessity of adhering to the following rules as indispensable to
success for the perfect preservation of fruits, viz., sound and per-
fect fruit, cool pure atmosphere and exclusion of light, control
of temperature and moisture, constant and careful supervision.

Marshall P. Wilder,
J. F. C. Hyde,
Asa Clement,
Wm. Knowlton,

Committee.

The following is the paper submitted to and accepted by the
Board, as the

FIRST REPORT ON THE INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL
INSECTS OF THE STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS.

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR., M. D.,
Entomologist to the State Board of Agriculture.

IMPORTANCE TO AGRICULTURISTS OF A KNOWLEDGE OF INSECTS.

In presenting my first annual report on the insects of our
State injurious to vegetation, or in any way affecting human
interests, it may not be out of place to state some facts, showing
the importance to farmers of a knowledge of the habits and
appearance of the insects with which they have to contend in
•their farming and gardening operations.

In the first place, however, we must not forget the good done
by insects. They undoubtedly tend by their attacks to prevent
an undue growth of vegetation. The pruning done to a tree
or herb by certain insects undoubtedly causes a more healthy
growth of the branches and leaves, and ultimately a greater pro-
duction of fruit. Again, as pollen-bearers, insects are a most
powerful agency in nature. It is undoubtedly the fact that the
presence of bees in orchards increases the fruit crop, and the
thousands of moths, wild bees and other insects, that seem to

352 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

live without purpose, are really, though few realize it, among
the best friends and allies of man.

Moreover, insects are of great use as scavengers, such as the
young or maggots of the house fly, the mosquitoes, and numer-
ous other forms, that seem created only to vex us when in the
winged state. Still a larger proportion of insects are directly
])eneficial from their habit of attacking injurious species, such
as the ichneumons, or parasitic hymenoptera, and certain para-
sitic flies, allied to the house fly, and many carnivorous species
(wasps, beetles and flies, dragon flies and Aphis lions, etc.) that
live upon other insects.

But few, however, suspect how enormous are the losses to
croi)S in this country entailed by the attacks of the injurious
species. In Europe, the subject of applied entomology has always
attracted a great deal of attention. Most sumptuous works,
elegant quartos prepared by naturalists known the world over,
and published at government expense, together with smaller
treatises, have frequently appeared ; while the subject is taught
in the numerous agricultural colleges and schools, especially of
Germany.

In the densely populated countries of Europe, the losses
occasioned by injurious insects are most severely felt, though
from many causes, such as the greater abundance of their insect
parasites, and the far greater care taken by the people to exter-
minate their insect enemies, they have not proved so destructive
as in our own land.

Ill this connection I might quote from one of Dr. Asa Pitch's
reports on the noxious insects of New York, where he says : " I
find that in our wheat-fields here, the midge formed 59 per cent,
of all the insects on this grain the past summer ; whilst in
France, the preceding summer, only 7 per cent, of the insects
on wheat were of this species. In France, the parasitic de-
stroyers amounted to 85 per cent. ; while in this country our
parasites form only 10 per cent."

As the writer lias already remarked in the current volume of
the American Naturalist, "a true knowledge of practical ento-
mology may well be said to be in its infancy, when, as is well
known to agriculturists, the cultivation of wlieat has almost been
given up in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and
Virginia, from the attacks of the wheat midge, Hessian fly, joint

PLATE 1.

1 /

2.

11.

DAMAGES BY INSECTS. 353

worm, and chinch bug." According to Dr. Shimer's estimate,
says Mr. Riley, which may be considered a reasonable one, " in
the year 1864 three-fourths of the wheat, and one-half of the
corn crop were destroyed by the chinch bug throughout many
extensive districts, comprising almost the entire North-West.
At the annual rate of interest, according to the United States
Census, in the State of Illinois, the wheat crop ought to have
been about thirty millions of bushels, and the corn crop about
one hundred and thirty-eight million bushels. Putting the cash
value of wheat at $1.25, and that of corn at 50 cents, the cash
value of the corn and wheat destroyed by this insignificant little
bug, no bigger than a grain of rice, in one single State and one
single year, will therefore, according to the above figures, foot
up to the astounding total of oyer seventy-three millions op

DOLLARS ! "

The imported cabbage butterfly (Pieris rapa), recently intro-
duced from Europe, is estimated by the Abbd Provancher, a
Canadian entomologist, to annually destroy two hundred and
forty thousand dollars' worth of cabbages around Quebec. The
Hessian fly, according to Dr. Fitch, destroyed fifteen million
dollars' worth of wheat in New York State in one year (1854).
The army worm of the North (^Leucania unipimcia), which was
so abundant in 18G1, from New England to Kansas, was re-
ported to have done damage that year in Eastern Massachusetts
exceeding a half million of dollars. The joint worm {Isosoma
hordei) alone sometimes cuts off whole fields of grain in Vir-
ginia and northward. The Colorado potato beetle is steadily
moving eastward, now ravaging the fields in Indiana and Ohio,
and only the forethought and ingenuity in devising means of
checking its attacks, resulting from a thorough study of its
habits, will deliver our wasted fields from its direful assaults.

Tliese are the injuries done by the more abundant kinds of
insects injurious to crops. We should not forget that each fruit
or shade tree, garden shrub, or vegetable, has a host of insects
peculiar to it, and which, year after year, renew their attacks.
I could enumerate upwards of fifty species of insects which prey
upon cereals and grass, and as many which infest our field crops.
Some thirty well known species ravage our garden vegetables.
There are nearly fifty species which attack the grape-vine, and
their number is rapidly increasing. About seventy-five species
45

354 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

make their annual onset upon the apple-tree, and nearly an equal
number may be found upon the plum, pear, peach and cherry.
Among our shade trees, over fifty species infest the oak ; twenty-
five the elm ; seventy-five the walnut, and over one hundred
species of insects prey upon the pine.

Indeed, wc may reasonably calculate the annual loss in our
country alone from noxious animals, and the lower forms of
plants, such as rust, smut and mildew, as (at a low estimate)
not far from five hundred million dollars annually. Of this
amount, at least one-tenth, or fifty million dollars, could prob-
ably be saved by human exertions.

To save a portion of this annual loss of food stuffs, fruits and
lumber, should be the first object of farmers and gardeners.
When this saving is made, farming will become a profitable and
comparatively safe profession. While a few are well informed
as to the losses sustained by injurious insects, and use means to
ward off their attacks, their efforts are constantly foiled by the
negligence of their neighbors. As illustrated so well by the
history of the incursions of the army worm and canker worm, it
is only by a combination between farmers and orchardists that
these and other pests can be kept under. The matter can be
best reached by legislation. We have fish and game laws ; why
should we not have an insect law ? Wiiy should we not frame
a law providing that farmers, and all owning a garden or
orchard, should co-operate in taking preventative measures
against injurious insects, such as early or late planting of cereals,
to avert the attacks of the wheat midge and Hessian fly ; the
burning of stubble in the autumn and spring to destroy the joint
worm ; the combined use of proper remedies against the canker
worm, tlie various cut worms, and other noxious caterpillars ?
A law carried out by a proper State entomological constabulary,
if it may be so designated, would compel the idle and shiftless to
clear their farms and gardens of noxious animals.

In the succeeding pages will be noticed a few insects which
have lately attracted attention as new to the State, and several
others, not yet common, but with which it is desirable to become
acquainted. A few beneficial insects are described as types of
an immense number, which prey on noxious caterpillars and
other insects.

ENEMIES OF THE CURRANT.

355

INSECTS AFFECTING THE CURRANT.

The Imported Currant Savj Fly. — As there is no account of
this destructive insect to be fouud in any very accessible source,
the following notice is prepared. The writer is indebted partly
to Western naturalists for information regarding its habits, as it
is a comparatively new insect to this State.

It was imported from Europe into nurseries at Rochester, New
York, during the year 1860. It seems since that time to have
spread westward and eastward, arriving in Eastern Massachu-
setts about 1865, as I am informed by Mr. F. G. Sanborn. For
two seasons past it has been very destructive in gardens in
Essex County.

The parent of this worm is a saw fly, so named from bearing a
saw-like sting, or ovipositor, with which it pierces the leaves or
stalks of plants, cutting a gash, in which it deposits an egg, the
egg passing out from the ovary through the oviduct, and thence
through the blades of the ovipositor into the wound made in the
plant. While most of the members of this family cut a gash in
the leaf, into which an egg is pushed, a few, as in the present
insect, simply place them on the under surface of the leaf, as
seen in Fig. 1. (1) The fly has four wings, and belongs to the
same group of insects (Hymenoptera) that comprises the bee,
wasp, and ichneumon fly.

The following account of its habits is taken from the writer's
Guide to the Study of Insects : " There are about fifty species
of Nematus in this country,

of which the most injurious
one, the Gooseberry saw fly,
has been brought from Eu-
rope. Professor Winchell,
who has studied this insect
in Ann Arbor, Mich., where
it has been very destructive,
observed the female on the
16th of June, while deposit-
ing her cylindrical, whitish
and transparent eggs in reg-
ular rows along the under
side of the veins of the leaves, at the rate of about one in forty-
five seconds. The embryo escapes from the egg in four days.

356

•boaed of agriculture.

It feeds, moults and burrows into the ground within a period of
eight days. It remains thirteen days in the ground, being
most of the time in the pupa state, while the fly lives nine days.
The first brood of w^orms appeared May 21st ; the second brood
June 25th." Fig. 1 shows the eggs deposited along the under
side of the mid-ril)s of the leaf; 2, the holes bored by the very
young larvee ; and 3, those eaten by the larger worms.

Fig. 2, (a, enlarged) represents the worm when fully grown.

It is then cylindrical, pale green, with a pale green head, with
the segment next behind the head, and the third segment from
the end of the body, together with the last or anal segment
yellow ; the 16 false or abdominal legs are also yellow ; the
six thoracic legs are horn-colored. The body is transversely
wrinkled, csjjccially on the bade, and is slightly hairy. The
eyes are black, and the jaws (mandibles) are black, and on the
inner side of the edge reddish. It is about three-quarters of an
inch in length.

Previous to the last moult, however, and before it has gained
its full size, preparatory to passing into the adult or winged
condition, the body is covered with black tubercles ; from each of
which arises a stiff black hair. There is also a supra-anal, or
dorsal black patch on the last segment of the body, from which

CURRANT WORMS.

357

arises a pair of black spines. On the back of the false caterpillar
the tubercles become smooth and transversely oval, and arranged
in two regular rows. Moreover, a still more important charac-
teristic of the worm in this stage is the jet-black head, which in
the fully grown insect is pale pea-green.

In Salem, my attention was drawn to the ravages of this worm
by Dr. William Mack, who found them feeding on the currants
in his garden June 8th. At this time they were spinning their
cocoons, which were of silk, tough, dense, like parchment, and
at first green, then becoming blackish, and covered with particles
of dirt, and attached to the leaves in the breeding box. Out of
doors they may be found the first week in June, and again dur-
ing tfte first week in July among the leaves and stalks on the
bushes, or among the leaves lying on the ground, or perhaps
more frequently a little under the surface of the ground. Here
they remain between two and three weeks in June, the adult
flies (in Salem) appearing June 25th. At nearly the same date
(June 29th) the worms of the second brood were spinning their
cocoons. These cocoons (belonging to the second brood)
remain under ground or on the leaves about the roots through
the winter, the flies appearing in the spring and laying their
eggs as soon as the leaves unfold.

Not having specimens of both sexes of this saw fly at hand I
compile the following descrip-
tion (often using their own
words) from Messrs. Walsh and
Riley's account in the Amer-
ican Entomologist, Vol. 2, p. 16,
from which these illustrations
(Figs. 3 a and 3 6) are taken.

The female (Fig. 3 &) is a
quarter of an inch long Qyqq-
-^^^ inch), and is of a bright
honey- yellow color. The head
is black, with all the parts be-
tween and below the origin of
the antenna?, except the tip of pj^, 3_

the mandibles (jaws) dull honey-yellow. The antenna? are
brown-black, often tinged with reddish above, except towards
the base, and beneath entirely dull reddish, exceptthe two basal

358 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE.

joints. They arc four-fifths as long as tlie body ; the third joint,
when viewed sideways, is four times as long as wide ; the third,
fourth and fifth joints are equal in length, the remaining joints
slowly diminishing in length. On the thorax are four conspicu-
ous black spots, and other smaller ones. The legs arc bright
honey-yellow ; the basal or hip joints (coxae and trochanters)
whitish, wliile the extreme tips of the hind shanks (tibia?) and
the whole of the hind toe-joints (tarsi) are blackish brown.
The wings are glossy, with dark veins, and expand a little over
half an inch.

The male (Fig. 3 «) is rather smaller (^^o ^"^^^ ^^^ length),
and is black. The head is dull honey-yellow. The antcnnte
are brown-black, often a little reddish beneath, except toii^ards
the base ; they are as long as the body, and while longer than
in the female are also somewhat flattened out. The thorax has
the wing-scales and the prothorax, or collar, honey-yellow. The
under side and tip of the abdomen are honey-yellow.

The injury done to currant bushes during the past year was
very great. In June we saw them in great numbers in a garden at
Lawrence, where they had stripped the bushes, eating the leaves
down to the leaf-stalk, myriads clustering upon the branches.
The Ijirds evidently do not feed upon them, and thus in dealing
with this insect we are deprived of one of the most powerful
agencies in nature for restraining a superabundance of insect
life.

As this is an important and practical subject, let us digress for
a moment, to notice some facts brought out by Mr. J. J. Weir,
of the London Entomological Society, on the insects that seem
distasteful to birds. He finds by caging up birds whose food is
of a mixed character (purely insect-eating birds could not be
kept alive in confinement), that all hairy caterpillars were
uniformly uneaten. Such caterpillars are the " yellow bears "
Arctia and Spilosoma), the salt-marsh caterpillars (^Leucarctia
acroca) and the caterpillar of the Yaporer moth (Orgyia), and the
spring larvae of butterflies ; with these may perhaps be classed
tlie European currant saw fly. He was disposed to consider
that the " flavor of all these caterpillars is nauseous, and not that
the mechanical troublcsomeness of the hairs prevents their being
eaten. Larvae which spin webs, and are gregarious, are eaten
by birds, but not with avidity ; they appear very much to dislike

THE CURRANT SAW FLY. 359

the web sticking to their beaks, and those completely concealed
in the web are left unmolested. When branches covered with the
web of Hi/ponomenla evonyniella (a little moth of the Tinea fam-
ily) were introduced into the aviary, those larva; only which ven-
tured beyond the protection of the web were eaten." " Smooth-
skinned, gaily-colored caterpillars (such as the currant Abraxas,
or span worm), which never conceal themselves, but on the con-
trary appear to court observation " were not touched by the
birds. He states, on the other hand, that " all caterpillars
whose habits are nocturnal, and are dull-colored, with fleshy
bodies and smooth skins, are eaten with the greatest avidity.
Every species of green caterpillar is also much relished. All
Geometrce, whose larvae resemble twigs, as they stand out from
the plant on their anal prolegs, are invariably eaten." Mr. A. G.
Butler of London has also found that frogs and spiders will not
eat the same larvae rejected by birds, the frogs having an
especial aversion to the currant span worms (Abraxas and
Halia).

The natural enemies of the Currant saw fly are three kinds of
ichneumon flies, of which one is a minute egg-parasite. Mr.
Lintner of New York states that of fifty eggs laid by the parent
saw fly, only four or five hatched out the currant worm. We
see, then, that though the birds apparently destroy none, an
immense number are carried off, even before they have a chance
of doing any mischief, by minute insects of their own order.

One of the best remedies next to picking them off" by hand,
and which is really the most practicable method of getting rid
of them, is to dust powdered white hellebore over the bushes,
by sprinkling it from a muslin bag tied to a stick, as it other-
wise excites violent sneezing. Used in this small quantity it is
not poisonous. This is the remedy used with most success in
the West, and recommended by Messrs. Walsh and Riley. Dr.
W. Mack of Salem tells me that he has used a solution, consisting
of a pound of copperas to six gallons of water, with much success.
It blackens the leaves, but does not injure them permanently.

Dr. E. Worcester, of Waltham, according to the Boston
Journal of Chemistry, finds that this worm " may be fully and
almost immediately destroyed by the use of carbolate of lime.
The doctor tried the powder in many instances during the past
summer, and found that while it was fully as effective as helle-

360 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

bore, it was less disagreeable, less costly, and perfectly safe.
The method of using it is to sprinkle it over the vines as soon
as the worm makes its appearance, bringing it well in contact
with the leaves, and soon the insect is destroyed. It will need
but two or three applications, and the work is done."

This worm attacks the gooseberry as well as the currant,
though in Massachusetts its ravages have been more confined to
the latter shrub. As a preventative measure against its farther
spread, in buying or transporting gooseberry and currant bushes,
Walsh recommends that the roots be carefully cleaned of dirt,
so that the cocoons may not be carried from one garden or
nursery to another.

The Native Currant Saiv Fly. As this species may be con-
founded with the European saw fly, though belonging to a differ-
ent genus (^Pristiphora^, the following brief account of it is
extracted from my Guide to the Study of Insects : —

This saw fly (Fig. 4 a, larva ; b, female, from the " American

Entomologist": P .<rross-

ularicE of Walsh) " is a
widely diffused species in
the Northern and Western
States, and injures the cur-
rant and gooseberry. The
female fly is shining black,
while the head is dull yel-
low, and the legs are honey-yellow, with the tips of the six tarsi,
and sometimes the extreme tips of the hinder tibijB, and of the
tarsal joints, pale dusky for a quarter of their length. The wings
are partly hyaline, with black veins, a honey-yellow costa, and
a dusky stigma, edged with honey-yellow. The male differs a
little in having black coxte. Mr. Walsh states that the larva is
a pale grass-green worm, half an inch long, with a l)lack head,
which becomes green after the last moult, but with a lateral
brown stripe meeting with the opposite one on the top of the
head, where it is more or less confluent ; and a central brown-
black spot on its face. It appears the last of June and early in
July, and a second brood in August. They spin their cocoons
on the bushes on which they feed, and the fly appears in two or
three weeks, the specimens reared by him flying on the 26th of
August." This worm may at once be distinguished from the

Fig. 4.

CURRANT SPAN WORM.

361

6, 1, 2,

V.-.^^

imported currant worm, by the absence of the minute black
warts that cover the body of the latter. The same remedies
should be used for this worm as are recommended for the pre-
ceding insect.

The Currant Span Worm. (Fig. 5,
caterpillar, 3 pupa, from the " Ameri-
can Entomologist.") Many persons in
speaking of the "currant worm" con-
found the caterpillar-like saw-fly larva
with the well-known geometer caterpil-
lar, which is a native species, and was
long since described by Dr. Fitch, under the name of Abraxas
ribearia. As soon as the
leaves of the currant are
fairly expanded, late in
May or early in June, the
young caterpillars, scarce-
ly thicker than a horse-
hair, may be found eating
little holes in them. In
about three weeks after
hatching, it becomes fully
grown, being about an
inch long, and bright yel-
low in color, the body be-
ing covered with large
black dots. The chrysa-
lis is shining reddish
brown, about half an inch
long, and may be found
late in June, either upon the ground or just under the surface.
In two weeks after entering the chrysalis state the moth may be
observed flying about the garden, or resting upon the leaves
during cloudy weather. The moth is yellow ochreous, with dark,
often nearly transparent blotches on the wings. It is not easily
mistaken for any other moth. Mr. Riley, in an article on this
insect in the "American Entomologist," states that by sprinkling
powdered hellebore upon the leaves, or applying a solution of
eight or twelve ounces to a bucketful of water, the caterpillars
will be killed. Hand-picking assiduously followed up, and a

46

362 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

vigorous shaking of the bushes over a sheet, or newspaper, re-
peated twice a day will keep this insect within moderate bounds.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE.

The Apple Leiopus. (Plate 1, Fig. 1, Leiopus facetus Say.)
This new borer in the limbs of the apple was found June 11th
in all its stages of growth in the rotten limb of an apple-tree in
Chelsea, by Mr. C. A. Walker. The grubs, or larvae, were fully
grown, and more numerous than the pupse or adult beetles.
How destructive it is, or what the habits of the grubs are must
be ascertained by further observation. It is evident from the
facts already known, that there is probably but one brood of
beetles a year ; that they fly aljout and lay their eggs in the
bark of the tree late in June, and probably during July ; and
that the young larvae bore in under the bark, and become fully
grown in the autumn, spending the winter under the bark prob-
ably both in the larva and pupa states, the beetles appearing
during midsummer.

The larva is rather long and slender, covered with fine hairs,
and the end of the abdomen is rather blunt. The abdominal
segments are very convex, and deeply separated by a wide
suture. The thorax is about a third wider than the rest of the
body. The three thoracic segments together are as long as they
are wide. The prothoracic, or segment next the head, is some-
what lunate, and rather longer than the two surrounding seg-
ments ; on the upper side is a slightly marked somewhat horny,
square plate, but there is no thickening of the skin on the back
of the succeeding segments, as usual in the larv£e of the family
(Cerambycida)) to which this borer belongs. It agrees in all
respects with tbe larva of Leiopus xanlhoxyli Shimer, except
that the head is considerably smaller, including the under side
and the mouth-parts, while the body is not so thick. In all
other respects the description of the prickly ash borer (L. xantli-
oxyli) will agree with the present larva, for the larvae of the two
species, which differ very considerably in the beetle state, would
be easily confounded. The same remedies may be used against
this insect as against the well known striped apple-tree borer
(^Saperda Candida).

The beetle itself is a slender, smooth-backed species with no
ribs on the wing covers. It is pale ash gray, with a slight pur-

APPLE-TREE INSECTS.

363

plish tinge. The head and prothorax are blackish except on
the hinder edge of the prothorax. Tlie antenna:) are yellowish
brown, with the basal joint and articulations between the other
joints dark brown. The wing covers are pale ash, with a pur-
plish tinge, and an irregular rounded spot just behind the scutel-
lum, united when the Avings are folded with a similar spot on
the other wing cover. The shoulder of each wing-cover is
tipped with black, which extends l)ackwards from a longitudinal
large black spot extending backwards and connecting with a
broad black band which crosses the terminal third of the wing,
leaving the tip pale gray. The front edge of this band forms
an acute angle in the middle of the wing ; this band is some-
times partially wanting, and is then broken up posteriorly into
a few black spots. In front of this broad band is an oblique
row of short (longitudinal) lines, the first and innermost being
shortest ; the second one nearly three times as long and parallel
to the costal spot. It is a little less than a quarter of an inch
(.20) in length.

The Prickly Ash Borer (^Leiojms xanthoxyli Shinier, Plate 1,
Fig. 2). In this connection descriptions of the different stages
of this species, which has only yet been found in Illinois by Dr.
Sliimer, to whom I am indebted for specimens, would seem
necessary, inasmuch as they throw light on the structure of the
apple Leio))us. According to Dr. Shimer it bores into the limbs
of the prickly ash.

The larva (Fig. 7, «, larva ; b, upper side ; c, under side of
the head) is very much like
that of the preceding spe-
cies. Tiie head is a little
more than half as wide as
the prothoracic ring. The
basal (occipito - epicranial)
region is transversely ol>
long, the basal piece (occi-
put) being very short, and
transversely almost linear,
and separated by a well-marked suture from the middle portion
(epicranium) of the head, the latter being nearly four times as
broad as long, with the front edge straight ; it is white, with the
front edge pitchy black. The clypeus is smooth, trapezoidal in

364 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

form, and three times as -^nde as long. The upper lip (lal)rnm)
is thin, hairy, transversely elliptical, a little less than one-half
as long as l)road. The basal chin piece (submentum) is a large
transversely oblong area, with the front edge piceous, and very
slightly hollowed, while the posterior edge is very deeply hol-
lowed out. The chin (mentum) is nearly square, widening at
the base, which is continuous with the base of the maxillae, the
whole posterior edge being well rounded. The labial palpi are
three-jointed, the basal joints of each palpus being large, and no
longer than Inroad, and touching each other ; the second joint is
much slenderer, and about half as thick as the basal joint ; the
third joint is not quite so long, and is scarcely half as thick as
the second ; its tip is acute and reaches out as far as the end of
the second joint of the maxillary palpi. The maxillary palpi
are four-jointed, very broad at the base ; the first joint is scarce-
ly half as long as broad ; the third is a little longer than the
second, while the fourth is much slenderer than the others, and
about the length of the second joint. The niandil)les are large
and powerful, when closed not reaching as far as the end of the
maxillary palpi ; the ends are truncated, gouge-like. On the
prothorax is a large, obscurely marked, squarish, very slightly
horny (chitinous) area, scattered over with hairs, especially on
the anterior edge. On the upper side of each segment of the body
is a broad oval area, with a series of oval gatherings or folds, on
each side of the transverse mesial main fold ; those on the three
rings succeeding the head (thoracic) are the same, but broader.
There are no rudimentary thoracic legs. The end of the abdo-
men is blunt, well rounded, with the extreme tip forming a
o-oimded portion. It is .35 of an inch in length.

The pupa is white, and in the single specimen observed was
quite far advanced, the body being covered with hairs. The
wings were quite free from the body, and the antennas curved
around outside the wing-covers, their tips meeting at the base
of tlie liead. The first and second pairs of legs are folded at
right angles to the body, the third pair being oblique to the
body. The tips of the first pair of tarsi reach to the base of
the second pair of tarsi ; the tips of the second pair of tarsi do
not reach to the l)ase of tlic third ])air of tarsi, tlie third tarsi
not reaching to the tip of the al)domen by a distance equal to
nearly their longtli. The prothorax is full and convex, the hinder

THE GRAPE INSECTS.

365

portion being larger in proportion to the rest of the body than
in the adult beetle. It is a quarter of an inch in length. Tlie
beetle is characterized by four raised lines on each wing-cover,
with five or six black dots on each line or rib. An oblique
black line diverges from each side of the scutellum. Just in
front of the middle is a tviangular, pale space, bounded behind
by an oblique, dark line. In color it resembles the bark of the
ash ; it is a quarter of an inch in length.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE.

The Grape Callidium. -^(Flsite 1, Fig. 3.) Several years ago
I received from Dr. Shimer of Illinois, specimens of the larva,
pupa and adult of this pretty insect ( CaUidium amamum of
Say), which is not uncommon in our own State. So much
alike are all the borers of this family of long-horned beetles,
that long and prolix descriptions and carefully drawn figures
of the mouth parts (wherein most of the differences lie) are
absolutely necessary for their identification.

The larva (Fig. 8, b, head seen from above ; c, seen from
beneath) has a small head,
which is a little more than
half as wide as the prothorac-
ic segment. This latter, be-
ing the segment immediately
succeeding the head, is half as
long as broad, with a distinct
median suture and four chiti-
nous patches, the two middle
ones transverse and irregu- fiq. 8.

larly oblong, being about twice as broad as long, the outer spots
being longitudinal to the segment, and oblong in form, or about
twice as long as broad. The three segments succeeding are of
nearly equal length and width, being about half as long as the
prothoracic segment, and not much narrower. The body
decreases in width towards the posterior half, which is of equal
width throughout, the end suddenly rounding off; the terminal
three segments are indicated by very slightly marked sutures,
and together form a straight cylindrical portion nearly as long
as the three segments in advance of it taken collectively. The

3^6 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

body is slightly hairy, witli a few fine, pale hairs on the top of
the segment next behind the head. The basal portion of the
head (cpicraninm) is ])road and smooth, with a few hairs on
the edge. The eyes are two small black dots, each situated a
little behind the base of the antennce, and in a line with them.
Tlie frontal piece (clypeus) is very small, a])ont three times as
broad as long, while the minute upper lip (labrum) is two-
thirds as long as l)road ; they together form a somewliat trian-
gular portion resting on the inner edge of the mandibles, which
are broad and short, the ends broad and square, and blackish in
color. The antennse are not quite so large or as long as the
maxillary palpi ; they are four-jointed ; the first joint being
thick, the third joint a third shorter than the third, while the
fourth joint is filiform, and about as long as the second joint.
The under side of the head is chitinous, with a mesial subtrian-
gular fleshy area. The chin (mentum) is square, not much
longer than broad. Tlie under lip (labium) is one half as long
as broad. Tlie lalnal palpi arc three-jointed, the basal joint
being one-half as long as the second ; the third joint is minute,
short and hairy. The maxillary palpi are four-jointed, the
first joint being twice as thick as the third, the second and tliird
are of nearly equal length, while the fourth is slender and
nearly as long as the second or third. The maxillary lobe is
large and broad, reaching out to the labial palpi and as far as
the end of the third joint of the maxillary palpi ; there are a
few hairs on the end of it.

On tlie upper side of the segments behind the prothoracic is
a faint, transverse imjiressed line, with two or throe short
creases radiating from each end. On the eighth, ninth and
tenth rings these creases become much longer and are parallel
to the median line of the liody, while the transverse crease dis-
appears.

There are nine pairs of stigmata, one pair on the mesothorax,
the remainder on the first eigiit abdominal segments. There
are three pairs of rudimentary thoracic feet, represented by very
minute two jointed tubercles, the basal joint consisting of a
simple chitinous ring. The under side of the body is more
hairy than above. On the under side of the prothoracic seg-
ment is a pair of round, smooth, very slightly chitinous spots,

CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. 367

which are succeeded on each of the other rings by a pair of
short, impressed oblique lines.

It is nearly half an inch (.45) in fength.

It may be readily recognized by the four chitinous patches on
the prothorax, and by the very minute clypeus and labrum.
The upper side of the prothorax is inclined downward towards
the head, but not so much as in Clytus.

The pupa is white, with the wing-covers reaching to the end
of the second abdominal segment. The antenna) are not much
curved, reaching to the end of the third abdominal segment, and
resting above the legs. The prothorax is swollen just l)ehind
the middle, and is just as long as broad. The maxillary palpi
are long, reaching nearly to the end of the coxae. The labial
palpi reach a little beyond the middle of the maxillary palpi.
The two anterior pairs of legs are folded at right angles to the
body, the third pair obliquely. The first pair of tarsi reach to
the base of the second tarsi ; the second pair of tarsi reach to
the 00X93 of the third pair of legs. It is a third of an inch
(.33) in length.

The beetle itself has a reddish body, with Prussian-blue wing-
covers. The prothorax is just as long as broad, with the sides
moderately convex, and broadest just behind the middle. The
antennae and tibiae' are blackish brown, the tarsi being dull red,
the hind pair being darker than the others, and the femora are
reddish. The prothorax is distinctly punctured, while the
elytra are very coarsely punctured. The scutellum is pale red-
dish. It is a quarter of an inch in length. The description of
the beetle is taken from a single specimen received from Illinois.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CROPS.

The European Cabbage Butterflii. — "We have two native kinds
of white cabbage butterflies which have never done much harm
to our cabbage and turnip crops. The first of these is the com-
mon white Northern cabbage butterfly, Pieris oleracea of Harris.
Its ha1)its are thus briefly described in the " Guide to the Study
of Insects." "We have found the larvae of this species on turnip
leaves in the middle of August, at Chamberlain Farm in North-
ern Maine. They are of a dull green, and covered with dense
hairs. When about to transform they suspend themselves by

368 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the tail and a transverse loop, and their chrysalids are angular
at the sides and pointed at both ends (Harris). The butterfly
is white with the wings dusky next the body, the tips of the fore
wings are yellowish beneath, and the hind wings arc straw-
colored beneath. The yellowish, pear-shaped, longitudinally
ribbed eggs, are laid three or four on a single leaf. In a week
or ten days tlie larva) are hatched. They live three weeks before
becoming full-fed. The chrysalis state lasts from ten to twelve
days.* There is an early summer (May) brood and a late sum-
mer (July) brood of butterflies."

While this kind feeds on the leaves of the cabbage and
turnip, the Southern cabbage butterfly (^Pieris Protodice~), while
in the caterpillar state, feeds on the outer leaves of the cal)bage
plant. It is often destructive in market gardens in the Middle
and Southern States.

The European Rape butterfly (^Pieris rapes Schrank) is, how-
ever, a much more formidable insect, as it is more abundant
where it occurs, and the caterpillar feeds inside of the cabbage-
head when forming.

It was introduced from Europe to Quebec about the year 1857,
having been captured in 1859 by Mr. Bowles, of that city. It
rapidly spread into New England along the different railroads
leading in from Canada, and is now common- about Boston and
New York. During the past year it has done much damage in
gardens in Monmouth County, New Jersey, as I am informed by
Dr. S. Lockwood. About Quebec it annually destroys 250,000
dollars' worth of cabbages, according to the Abbe Provancher.
It is evident that, in this newly arrived insect, we have another
formidable pest added to our list of imported insects.

As I have not personally had an opportunity of studying this
insect, the following account is taken from Curtis' Farm Insects.
The male butterfly (Fig. 9) is white, with the tips of the fore
V^^ /^ __«^ wings Ijlack, dusted with white,
; while on the fore wings is a
single, and in the female (Fig.
10) there are two large black
spots, situated two-thirds of the
distance from the base to the
outer edge of the wing. It ex-

INSECTS ON THE CABBAGE.

869

Fig. lO.

pands about two inches. The female lays her eggs singly on
the under side of the leaves. The
caterpillar (Fig. 11, a) is green,
and so densely clothed with min-
ute hairs as to be velvety ; it has
a yellowish stripe down the back,
and another along each side, the
belly being of a paler, brighter
gi'een ; it is often more than an inch long, and about as thick as
a large crow-quill. It changes in September under some board
or stone, to a chrysalis, suspended by a thread spun over the back,
as shown at fig. 11, b. It is of a pale flesh-brown color, freckled
with black. It does not appear to have been
very destructive in Europe, but, like other intro-
duced species, it suddenly becomes a fearful
scourge. The best remedies are evidently hand-
picking when the caterpillars can be seen, and
the capture of the butterflies by means of a light
gauze net mounted on a wire ring a foot in
diameter, and attached to a short pole. Affected
cabbage heads should be carefully examined, and
if much infested by worms, be burnt, for if they
are suffered to lie about the garden after being
pulled up, the caterpillars will attack the other plants.

A correspondent of the " American Agriculturist " for Nov-
ember, 1870, states that " it is estimated that the loss from this
insect will, in the vicinity of New York [city] alone, exceed half
a million of dollars ; and already the price of cabbages has
advanced." He says that Mr. Quinn, the owner of a large
plantation, " has found carbolic powder, superphosphate, and
lime together, to destroy them. The carbolic powder appears
to be sawdust impregnated with carbolic acid. Salt has been
recommended, but Mr. Quinn did not find dry salt efficacious,
tlipugh lime has been reported by others as useful."

Mr. C. S. Minot, in an interesting article entitled " Cabbage
Butterflies," in the " American Entomologist," vol. 2 (from
which Figs. 9, 10 and 11 are taken), strongly recommends de-
stroying the chrysalis, which may be found under chips, boards,
stones, (fcc, and advises that boards, raised two inches above
47

370 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the surface of the ground, be placed among the plants to attract
the caterj)illars when about to change to a chrysalis.

^Ir. Curtis has described and figured several parasites of the
three species of cabbage butterflies found in England, and he
shows how thoroughly they keep in check these troublesome
worms. Certain minute ichneumon flies (Chalcids) lay their
eggs in those of the butterflies. Another chalcid fly (^Pleromalus
hrassiccB) lays its eggs on the outside of the chrysalis of the
•white cabbage butterfly (^Pieris brassicce)^ and sometimes 200
or 300 of the little chalcid maggots have been found living riot-
ously within a single chrysalis. They turn into minute brilliant
flies, which multiply in excessive quantities. Mr. Curtis remarks
that " some species of this extensive genus (Pteromalus), prob-
ably comprising nearly 1,000 species (!) swarm even in our
houses, especially in the country, where in October and Novem-
ber I have seen immense numbers inside of the windows, and I
believe that they hybernate behind the shutters, in the curtains,
ifec."

The ^ean Weevil. — Since the article entitled " New and
little known Injurious Insects " was printed in the last report of
the Board of Agriculture, I sent specimens of the bean weevil,
mentioned under the name of Bruchus granarius, to Dr. G. A.
Horn, of Philadelphia, who pronounces it to be not the European
B. g-ranarins, but a native species (5. varicornis of Leconte).
Mr. S. S. Rathvon, in the " American Entomologist " (Vol. 2,
p. 118), states that Dr. Leconte, of Philadelphia, has had
specimens of this species " raised from beans and cow-peas."
Another common weevil is the Bruchus ohsolelus of Pay, a
smaller species than the one mentioned above. It is blackish
ash colored, and differs, according to Dr. Leconte, " in having
the foot and the base and last joint of the antenuje black,
whilst in varicornis they are testaceous (honey-yellow)."

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE AND FOREST TREES.

Tlie Juniper Span Worm. — Many insects, either in the young
or adult stages, or both, bear a wonderful resemblance to the
plants, or portions of them, on wMiich they feed, or disguise them-
selves in various ways to protect themselves from their insect or
bird enemies. One of the most wonderful examples I have ever
met with is the Juniper Span worm, (Plate 1, Fig. 4, and chry-

SHADE AND FOREST TREES. 371

salis, top and side views), which with difficulty can he distin-
guished from the twigs on which it lives. The caterpillar of
this family (Phalasnida;, or Geometers) are well-known to
resemble in color the leaves on which they feed, or the twigs
among which they live, and some are ornamented with tul)crcles
and other appendages, causing them to strikingly resemble the
twigs on which they rest. Moreover, their habit, when at rest,
of holding themselves out stiff and motionless, adds to the
resemblance.

The caterpillar on the common juniper, was sent me from
Norwich, Conn., by Mr. S. H. Scudder. The best description
that could be given of it is to say that it would easily be mistaken
for a portion of a twig of the tree on which it feeds. It is about
an inch and a half long, and less than a line in thickness. Its
body is rather rough, and with a few prominent tu1)ercles in size
and form resembling the scales left by the falling of the leaves
of the juniper.

On the 17th of June it changed into a beautiful pea-green
chrysalis, of the form indicated in Mr. Emerton's drawing. On
the 29th of June the moth appeared, so that it lives about twelve
days in the chrysalis state.

The moth proved to be an undescribed species, which may be
called Drepanodes juniperaria (Plate 1, Fig. 5). It has unu-
sually falcate fore wings. The ground color of the upper side of
the wings is a pale fawn brown, with a rusty, but no purplish
tinge, as in some other species of the genus ; but the body and an-
tennae are pale fawn brown. The fore wings at the base are fawn
brown, but with rather thick-set black scales, especially towards
the inner line. This line is curved zigzag, rusty fawn brown
and is very distinct ; it begins at the basal third of the costa,
and curving around opposite the discal dot, in a generally oblique
direction, ends nearly as far from the base of the wing on the
inner edge as on the costa ; below the median vein the line is
acutely zigzag, forming a tooth just below the lowest median
veinlet, followed by a curve inwards on the submedian vein.
The discal dot is small, black, but distinct. Just beyond the
dot, the wing inside of the outer line is rusty, becoming deeper
in tone next the line. The outer line is straight, white, narrow
but sharply defined, and forms an acute angle opposite the apex,
being reflected back on the costa. The line is shaded externally

372 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

with dense black scales, becoming thinner towards the outer
edge of the wing. From the apex of the bend on the outer line
starts a black streak, which is interrupted in the middle, but
ends on the lower side of the hooked apex of the wing, which is
unusually long and large. The fringe is rust colored, with the
edge white. The outer edge of the wing is deeply hollowed out
just below the apex, but below is full and convex. The hind
wings are like the fore wings, but without the inner line. The
discal dot is distinct, and the outer line is straight, ending
just before reaching the costa. There is a broad costal white
area. The legs and under side of the wings are fawn colored,
densely speckled with black, giving it a peculiar silky, glossy
appearance, suffused with a very slight wine-colored tint. The
surface of both wings is uniform ; the discal dots are more diffuse
than above, being more distinct on the hind wings. The outer
line is white, distinct, broader than above, and bent at right
angles on to the costa, but the line disappears before reaching
the hind edge, which is whitish. The black stripe sent out from
the angle of the line, and reappearing on the hinder edge of the
apex of the wing, is much as above. On the hind wings the line
is straight, broader than on the fore wings, and extends on to
the costa. The body is half an inch (.50) in length, and a fore
wing measures .65 of an inch in length.

This jfine species more nearly resembles Grote's D. aquosus
from West Virginia, but differs in the outer line, and by not
being at all tinged with purple on the upper side of the wings.
It will undoubtedly soon be found in this State, and its cater-
pillar should be looked for on the Juniper during the last of May
and early in June.

The Cedar 7'meic?.— (Plate 1, Fig. 6, enlarged ; a, cocoon, nat.
size.) This is a little moth, of which the caterpillar is unknown,
though 1 found the moths and cocoons in abundance on a cedar
tree in Brunswick, Maine, July 10th. It is undoubtedly similar
in its haljits to a little moth which lives not uncommonly on the
a])plc-tree, and has been described by Dr. Clemens under the
name of Bucculatrix pomifoliella. Its long, slender, white co-
coons may be found, at any time after the leaves have fallen, on
the branches of apple-trees.

Dr. Clemens says that " the larva feeds externally on the leaf
of the apple, at least at the time it was taken, in the latter part

ENEMIES OF THE CEDAR. 373

of September. It is cylindrical and siibmoniliform ; tapers an-
teriorly and posteriorly ; with punctiform points and isolated
hairs ; first segment with rather abundant dorsal hairs ; three
pairs of thoracic feet and five abdominal pairs. Head small,
ellipsoidal, brown ; body dark yellowish green, tinged with red-
dish anteriorly ; hairs blackish and short. Early in October the
larva enters the pupa state, wearing an elongated, dirty white,
ribbed cocoon, and appears as an imago during the latter part of
the following April, or early in May." The present species
seems to be iindescribed, and may be called Bucculatrix thuiella.
It belongs to the extensive Tineid family, and its general ap-
pearance is sufficiently indicated by the drawing. The body and
wings are pearly white, and the antennae are white, with brown
wings, while there is a low broad tuft of white scales between
the antennoe, the crest being much flatter than in the species
living on the apple. The fore wings are white, and crossed in
the middle by a broad brown band, and beyond this band by
alternating white and brown stripes, crossing from the front edge
(costa) of the wing. On the end of the wing, and in the middle
of the outer edge, is a conspicuous black spot, like the eye in a
peacock's feather. To describe the wing and its markings more
fully, — the basal half of the wing is white, unspotted, except a
short, transverse brown band, extending from the inner edge,
not quite to the middle of the wing. On each side of this
band is a row of two or three minute dots. The middle baud is
broadest on the hind edge. " Beyond and arising from the costa,
where they are broadest, and extending to the opposite side of
the wing, are six brown lines, alternating with white interspaces.
These lines run together in the middle of the wing, brown dots
being added, but which end as distinct lines on the inner end
of the wing. The three outermost lines are much curved, and,
with the curve of the fringe, form a circular area, in the middle
of which, on the base of the fringe, is the curvilinear, rather
thick, dark ))rown spot. The long"fringe on the end of the wing
is white at base, and brown at the end. The hind wings are i)ale
brown, acutely pointed, with a long silvery fringe. The tibiae
and tarsi of the fore legs are brownish, while the hind legs are
white, with a long fringe on the hindermost tibiie. The length
of one fore wing is .18, and the length of the body is .13 inch.
The cocoon is white, tough, dense, slender cylindrical, and

374

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

.20 inch in length. It is fastened by one side to the leaf, and
differs from tliat of the apple Bucculatrix in not Ijcing ribi)ed
longitudinally. A minute, beautifully brilliant green ichneumon
(Chalcis) fly seems to attack in considerable numbers tlie chrys-
alids of tliis insect, as nearly half of those reared by me turned
out one of these parasites. It is a species of a genus allied to
Eulophus, having the antenna? pectinated, the terminal joints
throwing off five long branches. It differs, however, from Eulo-
phus among other characters by having a short, thick body, a
small, conical abdomen, and short, thick antennae. The fore
wings arc broad, triangular.

The Tvw-Iined Telephorus. — (Plate 1, Fig. 7, beetle ; Fig. 8,

larva. Fig. 12, a,
top view of head
and prothoracic
segment ; at, an-
tennas ; md, man-
dibles ; 6, under
side showing mp
the maxillary pal-
pi ; //?, labial pal-
pi ; /, first pair of
feet. The beetles
of this and other
species whicli belong to the family of fire-fiies feed on the leaves
of forest deciduous trees, especially the birch. The larvte, how-
ever, devour snails and insects, and do no injury to vegetation.
The larva of this species was identified by Mr. P. S. Sprague,
who found it near Boston, under stones in spring, where it
changes to a pupa, and early in May becomes a beetle, when it
eats the newly expanded leaves of the birch.

The body of the larva is rather long and slender, thickest in
the middle, where it is about twice as wide as the head, and
tapers slightly towards each end of the body, the terminal seg-
ment being a little less than half as thick as the middle segment.
The segments of the body behind the head are unusually con-
vex, the sutures between them being very deep. The body is
covered with fine, dense hairs, giving it a peculiar velvety
appearance. Its general color is horn brown, the head being

BIRCH-TREE BEETLES. 875

darker. The head is remarkably flattened and square, being
scarcely longer than broad, and densely covered with short
hairs above and beneath. The antennas are inserted on the side
of the head, and imniediately behind them on the side are the
eyes ; the occipital suture is situated midway between the base
and the front edge of the head, forming a straight line just
behind the eyes. The antenniB are two-jointed, and received
into a large socket; the first joint is very short; the second
joint four times as long as the first, a little slenderer, and
increasing slightly in width towards the end, which is abrupt,
and contains a minute, rudimentary third joint. The maxillae
are broad, subtriangular, projecting a third of their length
beyond the labium, with the ends broad and square. ■ The palpi
extend out from the head as far as the antennae, and are three-
jointed, with the basal joint quite thick, rather longer than thick,
while the second joint is very short, and one-half as long as
thick ; the third minute, rudimentary. The anterior edge of the
occiput beneath is deeply hollowed out ; the chin (mentum) is
oblong, with very square edges, and is one-fourth longer than
broad. The labial palpi are three-jointed, the basal joint very
short, one-half as long as broad ; second nearly twice as long
as thick, third minute, rudimentary. The mandibles are large,
stout, two-toothed, the inner tooth situated a considerable dis-
tance from the tip. The labrum is broad and perfectly square in
front, with a median notch dividing the edge into two slight
lobes. The clypeus is an illy defined oval, convex area.

Along the median line of the body is a slightly marked row
of short, paler streaks, more continuous on the thoracic than the
abdominal segments, forming on each of the latter segments an
elongated spot situated on the anterior edge of each segment
except the last. On each thoracic and the last abdominal seg-
ment is a pair of lat*al oval brown spots, paler in the centre.
Behind these on each abdominal segment (except the last) is a
row of pale short lines, placed in the middle of the segment.
Further d(^vn on each side is a similar row of short lines, which
are, however, subdivided into two spots, which on the thoracic
segments form a row of four or five pale dots. Between these
two lines is a row of black dots, one on each segment. The
legs are rather short, and quite hairy. The terminal segment of
the abdomen is about as long as broad, and well rounded behind.

376

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

It is three-quarters (.75) of an inch in length. The pupa was
not preserved. The beetle itself is soft-bodied, brownij^h black
and reddish yellow. Its specific name (bi/ meatus') was given
to it from the two short, broad, blackish bands on the prothorax,
which is reddish yellow. The head is reddish yellow, with a
broad black Imnd between the eyes, and the antennae are black.
The body beneath is pale reddish, except the under side of the
middle of the thorax (meso and meta-thorax). The legs arc
pale reddish at base, while the end of the femora and the tibite
and tarsi are entirely black brown. It is about a third (.oO) of
an inch long.

BENEFICIAL INSECTS.

It is quite as essential for one to know what insects are bene-
ficial to agriculture as what are injurious, and whenever any
new facts relating to the habits and transformations of the
former come to our knowledge, it will not be out of place to
mention them in such a Report as this. Foremost among the
beneficial kinds are the Tiger beetles (^Cicindelid(B) and the
ground or carniverous beetles (^Carabidcn). A good example
of the latter is the American Galerita (&'. Jamis Fabr., PL 1,
fig. 9), which is especially common in the spring months under
stones, where it undoubtedly feeds largely upon cut-worms and
other noxious caterpillars and grubs which take refuge in the
same places.

The beetle is rather large
(the cut representing it
slightly larger than the life
size), with a blackish body
and reddish antennae, legs
and prothorax. The wing
covers are blackish blue,
while the body beneath, with
the exception of the protho-
rax, is blackish brown. It
is three-quarters ©f an inch
long.

The larva (Fig. 13, o, up-
per ; 6, under side of the
head) is a most singular
creature, and was discovered

THE TIGER BEETLES. 37T

by Mr. J. H. Emerton of Salem, running under stones July 1 ,
1869. It is closely allied to the larva of Galerita Leconlei of
the Southern States, a figure of "which, with that of the pupa,
is given in the " Guide to the Study of Insects " And though
the beetle has not been directly reared from the young, there
can be no doubt but that is tlie species to which we have re-
ferred it, as no other is found in the Northern States.

The body is long, slender, flattened, and of a dull, horny
brown. The head is horny brown, but whitish on the sides
and beneath ; in form it is equilaterally triangular ; hairy on
the sides behind the eyes ; one or two of the hairs on a side
being nearly as long as the head itself. The eyes form two
rounded black spots, each situated about one-third of the dis-
tance from the insertion of the antennae to the base of the
head. The clypeus is triangular, shield-like at the base, and
reaching near to the base of the head. On the front edge,
which is as broad as the clypeus is long, is a mesial bifid
process nearly as long as the head, and dividing in the middle
into two forks, each division being half the length of the en-
tire process, and ending in a stout hair. Tlie antennae are
long, slender, and four-jointed, the basal joint being equal in
length to the bifid tubercle ; second joint a little more than
one-third as long as the basal ; the third slightly longer than
the second ; fourth joint short, scarcely half as long as the third.
From the third and fourth joints arise long, slender hairs, one
or two of them being from one-half to two-thirds as long as the
entire antenna. The maxillae are .long and slender, the basal
joint curved, and as long as the under sidp of the head from the
base to the end of the labium ; from the basal joint arise two
articulated divisions, the outer one four-jointed, the joints grad-
ually increasing in length, the last obconic, acute. The inner
division is nearly one-half shorter than the outer, and is two-
jointed, the basal joint being rather thick, the second very slen-
der, and a little longer than the first. The chin (mentum) is
squarish, a little longer than broad, being slightly trapezoidal;
the labium is somewhat trapezoidal in shape, about as long as
broad, with an acute tooth between the base of the palpi. Tliese
last are two-jointed, the joints of equal length. The mandibles
are very long, curved, sickle-shaped, as long as the head itself,

48

378 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

with a large acute tooth just before the middle, projecting-
straight out ; beyond this the mandible is much slenderer.

Tlie prothorax is remarkably long, being a third longer than
broad, and widest very near the hinder edge. The succeeding
segment is trapezoidal in form, as wide as long, and the third
segment is shorter than broad. The basal segment of the abdo-
men is very short, being three times as broad as long ; the re-
maining segments gradually increase in length. From the ninth
al)dominal ring arises a pair of remarkably long, four-jointed,
filamentary appendages as long as the whole body, except the
head ; the basal joint is as long as the succeeding ones, and the
fourth is half as long as the basal joint. A single long fine hair
arises from each joint, and three similar ones radiate from the
end of the last joint. The two last joints and base of the first
one are whitish, the remainder brown ; the bases of the first
joints are so dilated on the inside that they touch each other.
Between the anal stylets is the tenth segment of the abdomen ;
it is one-half as wide as the next segment, and is a little longer
than broad ; and terminated by two short, conical, contiguous
appendages, slightly separated at their base, however. The dor-
sal thickened plates extend far down the sides of each segment
of the abdomen ; below, is an oblong longitudinal brown plate.
The legs are long, and whitish at the base ; the hip joint (tro-
chanter) about as long as the tibia} ; tarsi longer than the tibiiij.
Tlie hind legs are nearly as long as the thorax and abdomen
together. The legs are covered thickly with stout hairs. The
body is .38 of an inch long, and the stylets .32 in addition.

Dragon Flies. — These animals do great service, both in the
larval state when they live in ponds, and in the adult winged
stage, when they consume immense quantities of mosquitoes,
gall flics, midges and other noxious and troublesome insects.
In the young stages these insects live at bottom of ponds or
quiet brooks, and have the form figured on plate 1, figs. 10, 11.
Their ha!)its and structure are interesting, as ihey are very car-
uiverous and wily in their mode of attack. The labium, or
under lip, covers the face like a mask, concealing their jaws.
The pupa only differs from the larva in having rudiments of
wings.

At a field meeting of the Essex Institute, held at Wakefield
in June, 18G9, Mr. F. W. Putnam, Director of the Peabody

THE DRAGON FLIES. 379

Academy of Science, found the pupa (PI. 1, fig. 10) of ConhiHa
htern/is Burra., and reared from it the dragon fly, wliicli was
kindly identified for me by Prof. Hagen, of the Museiun of Com-
parative Zoology at Cambridge. This pupa may serve as a type
of the larval form of this genus.

Tlie body is broad and somewhat fiat, the al)domcn ending in
two rather long spines. The head is somewhat triangular when
seen from in front, and the eyes are rather large, though not so
prominent as in the next species figured. The occipital region
is rounded and smooth behind. The antenna are seven-jointed,
the two basal joints being thick, the remaining ones hair-like,
and all of the same thickness. The space between the antennae
is smooth. The mask, or labium, is full and convex, reaching
fiu'llier up the front, and nearer the base of the antennai, and
the teeth along the edge are small, blunt, and do not interlock.
The thorax is scarcely wider than long, and the rudimentary
wings extend to the fourth abdominal segment. The abdomen
is scarcely twice as long as broad ; along the l^ack is a median
row of compressed spine-like processes projecting backwards.
It is of a pale horn color, with a row of round lighter spots on
each side of the abdomen, while the legs are banded with paler,
and on each side of the thorax is a dark stripe. It is .80 of an
inch in length, and .28 inch broad.

With this may be compared the pupa of another dragon fly,
Didymops ? (PL 1, fig. 11), in which the head is square above,
and the eyes are very small and projecting, adding to the angular
appearance of the head. On each side at the base of the occiput
is a blunt tubercle, and between the antennae is a large triangular
tubercle which is thin and up-curved, reaching to the end of the
second joint of the antennae. The teeth of the labium are large,
triangular and interlock. The wing covers are long, and the
upper pair extend to the end of the fifth segment of the abdomen.
The legs are long, the tarsal claws are scarcely curved, and are
remarkably long and slender, being nearly half as long as the
tarsus itself. Tiie abdomen is much flattened, nearly as broad
as long, with a median row of dorsal, short, compressed, hook-
like tubercles. The eighth abdominal segment cuds in a pair
of short spines. The creature is of a dark horn color, and is
an inch long and half an inch wide.

PEABonY Academy of Science. )
Salem, Jan. 2J, 1871. j

880 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The annual returns or Transaetions of the various agricultu-
ral societies for the past year are more complete, full and valu-
able than they have usually been, though still, as a general rule,
far below tlie standard which societies enjoying the bounty of
the Commonwealth ouglit to maintain. Practical statements in
regard to the cultivation of crops, especially results of experi-
ments carefully tried and accurately reported, have a peculiar
value to every farmer who is proposing to cultivate and raise
similar crops, lint the difficulty with many of the statements
which appear in the Transactions of the societies, is that they
are not suificiently definite. I have so often called attention to
this defect, that it is a matter of regret to be compelled to al-
lude to it again, and to urge it upon the notice of the secreta-
ries of the societies, who have it in their power, in many cases
at least, to remedy it.

Many of the Statements are necessarily omitted from the Ab-
stract, or second part of this Report, simply because they fail
in this most essential point, that of defmiteness, which makes
them utterly worthless as a guide to any farmer who should
propose to himself to repeat the experiment. To speak of ap-
plying so many " loads " of manure to an acre of corn, without
specifying what is meant by a load, conveys no clear idea of the
amount to a farmer in a distant section of the State, and the
publication of such a statement is of no use by way of instruc-
tion. 1 trust a mere allusion to this point will be sufficient to
lead to improvement in this respect.

At the time of the preparation and presentation of the Re-
port of the Cattle Commissioners, which appears in the early
part of this volume, the disease known as the Epizootic aphtha,
or the " Foot and Mouth Disease," had but recently appeared
in our midst, and little time had been devoted to the investiga-
tion of its character and symptoms. It was not publicly known
to be the disease so very prevalent and so disastrous in Europe,
till the meeting of tlie State Board of Agriculture at Framing-
ham, about the middle of December, and then it was found to
have come through Albany and Brighton market, and to have
reached several large herds, and to be spreading like wildfire
in various directions from Brighton as the great centre and
focus. When it became known that we had a highly contagious

MILK OF DISEASED COWS. 381

disease to contend with, the commission was promptly filled ,
and active measures taken to prevent its further spread, and to
confine it, as far as possible, to the points which it had already
reached. The sale of milch cows and store cattle at the public
markets was prohibited, a competent inspector appointed, and
the officers of towns were required to isolate herds where the
disease existed. General trade in cattle was suspended, and
the rapid spread of the disease stopped. The virus or poison,
which had infected the cattle yards of Albany and Brighton, re-
mained latent while the ground was frozen in January and
February ; but cattle exposed in those yards after the ground
opened from the frost, took the disease in the same acute form,
and rendered the continuance of rigid sanitary measures imper-
atively necessary, making it probable also, that, notwithstanding
the restrictions put upon trade by the cattle commissioners, the
disease will linger among us for many months to come, if not
permanently, to plague the owners of neat stock.

Meantime the Board of Health instituted a series of experi-
ments and investigations, by which the highly contagious nature
of the disease was proved beyond all question ; and though a
fatal termination is uncommon, the use of the milk of diseased
cows has been followed not only " by lesions of the mouth and
intestines, but also by a well-marked cutaneous eruption," caus-
ing more or less distress. " In one family, the members of
which partook freely of milk from this source, a peculiar dis-
ease broke out in the course of five or six days, causing at the
same time similar and well-marked symptoms in no less than
three individuals, all adults. These symptoms consisted of loss
of appetite, nausea, slight acceleration of the pulse, swelling of
the tonsils and sub-maxillary glands, the appearance of a few
vesicles upon the lips and tongue, and a singular cutaneous
eruption on the lower extremities, consisting of clusters of
papules, vesicles, pustules* and ulcers of different sizes — the
latter characterized by a dark red color, while their peripheral
margin was slightly elevated and inflamed. Tiiese appearances,
in varied stages of development, were all seen at one and the
same time, indicating that a fresh outbreak of vesicles was tak-
ing place as rapidly as the old ones disappeared. In each in-
stance the eruption was confined to one limb, in two instances
appearing upon the front and side of the thigh, and in the other

382 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

just below the knee, and although attended by no great consti-
tutional disturbance, was, nevertheless, rather tedious in its
progress, lasting six or seven weeks." This was a family in
Brighton.

These facts, perfectly well authenticated, are sufficiently con-
clusive ; but to test the specific nature of the eruptions caused
in this way by drinking the milk of cows affected with the
disease, the virus or lymph was taken on quills from the vesicles
on one of the persons above mentioned and transferred to the
bodies of two young rabbits. In two days the inner surface of
the lips was swollen and covered with a bloody discharge,
ymall white specks soon appeared on the inflamed spots, and
the animals were seized with convulsions and died, one in two,
the other in four days after the inoculation.

On the 10th of February, 1871, portions of the same lymph,
taken from one of the persons alluded to, were introduced, by
the ordinary process of inoculation, into the arm of a healthy
man, when in two days vesicles formed at two of the three
points of inoculation. In four or five days more, these vesicles
attained the size of a split-pea and were ruptured, and un-
healthy looking ulcers appeared in their places, and these con-
tinued to enlarge. Twelve days after the inoculation these ul-
cers gave no indication of healthy action, thus leaving no doubt
as to the contagiousness of the disease.

Tiiough far less fatal than the well known pleuro-pncumonia,
■which was imported and disseminated among us a few years
ago, yet, when complicated with other organic difficulties, it has
been fatal to cattle ; and we know of many losses by death,
cases which have not, for various reasons, been reported to the
public, but which prove the serious nature of the malady, and
the importance of taking every possible and legitimate measure
to eradicate it from our midst.

This, like j)lcuro-pneumonia, is an imported disease. It was
brought into Canada from Europe a few months ago, and though
the journals of Canada have strenuously denied that it has
ever existed there, it is perfectly well known to have arrived
there in the summer of 1870. The name of the owner and im-
porter of the stock, the name of the vessel which brought the
cattle and introduced the disease, even the number of the car
by which the disease was first brought from Quebec toCompton,

STATE INSPECTOR OF CATTLE. 383

Canada East, are perfectly well known, so that there is no doubt,
and can be none, in the mind of any intelligent man, that it is
a foreign and imported disease.

It is evident that no amount of effort or expense to eradicate
so troublesome a disease, and to prevent it from obtaining a
permanent lodgment in our midst, should be regarded as too
great a price to pay for exemption.

The experience we have had in the introduction of two serious
and contagious foreign diseases, with the delays of necessary
legislation and the immense losses and public disaster due to
such delays, suggest the importance of appointing a competent
State Inspector of Cattle, with an adequate salary, whose duty
it shall be to visit all parts of the State, examine all cases of
supposed contagion, and report the facts for the prompt infor-
mation of the government. Had such an officer existed in
1859, he would have saved the Commonwealth enough to pay
his salary for twenty years, and a vast amount of suffering and
loss on the part of individuals besides. Had such an officer ex-
isted in 1870, he would have saved the community enough to
have paid his salary for ten years at least, and probably much
more, as the end is not yet.

Now it requires no great amount of foresight to see that we
cannot expect the general exemption from contagious and infec-
tious diseases among stock which generally prevailed in New
England previous to the introduction of pleuro-pneumonia.
Europe is suffering the loss of millions every year from such
diseases, and the chances of having some one or more of them
landed upon our shores are very great. We should place our-
selves in a position to grapple with them more promptly and
more intelligently than it has been possible in the circumstances
in which we were placed on the sudden breaking out of those
we have had occasion to know so much about. To be fore-
warned is to be forearmed. I feel quite confident that a thor-
oughly competent Cattle Inspector, cooperating with an intelli-
gent Board of Cattle Commissioners, would be of great service
to the farming community, and give us an immense public
advantage in grappling with any newly imported contagious
disease among stock.

The suggestion in regard to Farmers' Institutes, made by the
Board of Agriculture at the annual meeting and to be found on

384 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

page 339 of this Report, has been promptly adopted by the Mid-
dlesex North Agricultural Society, which called an Institute
meeting at Lowell, on the 5th of April, for the purpose of lec-
tures and discussions. That meeting was well attended, and
was productive of good results ; and though the season of the
year was unpropitious, at the opening of the active labors of
the spring, it clearly proved the possibility of great and substan-
tial good to be accomplished by the Farmers' Institutes of
Massachusetts. It is believed that other societies will find this
the means of awakening a greater degree of public interest, of
diffusing valuable information, and of fulfilling their important
mission among the people of this Commonwealth.

CHARLES L. FLIIS^T,

Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture.
Boston, January 25, 1871.

APPENDIX

ii REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES

APPOINTED TO VISIT THE

AGRICULTURAL EXH IB ITI 0:N"S

ESSEX.

In pursuance of assignment by the State Board of Agriculture, I
attended what I suj)posed was the fiftieth annual exhibition of the
Essex Agricultural Society, at Ipswich, on the 27th and 28th days
of September, 1870. The Hon. INIarshall P. Wilder, in his report
of last year, says that the fifty-second annual exhibition was held the
preceding fall ; but as he also states that he had been absent twenty
years, it is not wonderful that like Rip Van Winkle he " was sorely
perplexed " after remaining away from the scenes of his earlier days
for so long a period, and even without " that flagon" which addled
Rip's poor head so sadly, our honored associate might well confound
dates, and out of sheer respect for the hospitable officers of this
ancient society, push it backward a year or two towards a riper old
age. In fact, when one learns that it has had presidents, secreta-
ries and treasurers holding office ten, twenty and twenty-five years,
it is but natural to look upon it as a time-honored institution, and
deserving of all the longevity man or time can bestow upon it.
This society was really formed in 1818, and is fifty-two years old ;
but as the programme calls the show of last fall the fiftieth annual
exhibition, I presume the organization of the society preceded any
exhibition of stock or crops, two years, so that it is not necessary
to abate in our respect for it on account of any immaturity. I'he
antique flavor of this society betrays itself in many peculiarities —
such as the absence of trotting and racing matches, the special at-
tention given to ploughing matches, the possession of a farm and
library, and no charge for entrance to fair ground, the remnants of
lace-weaving among its manufactures, the premiums offered for sub-
stantial improvements, the requirement of full reports to be signed
by all the members acting on the committees, and a request for fur-

APPENDIX. iii

ther reports from the chairman of each explanatory of the opinions
of the committee upon tlie subject referred to them, the migratory-
character of the annual exhibitions — the mountain going to Ma-
homet instead of Mahomet to the mountain, — and last but not least,
the sterling, old-fashioned hospitality of the officers and members
of the society.

I cannot undertake to report upon all, nor hardly any portion of
what was exhibited on this occasion ; but can only mention a few
of the most noteworthy and striking objects ; and as animals come
first in order, the two of noblest sort, that drew crowds and shared
the interest of all s})ectat()rs with their competitors in other de-
partments, were the Hon. B. F. Butler and the eloquent delegate
from the Essex society to this Board. The female sex especially,
ap])eared to be captivated by the eloquence or the appearance of
these gentlemen, and the large church Avas crowded to suffocation
to listen to the first attempts of the member from Gloucester to
expound the principles of agriculture, and the dinner-table was
subsequently abandoned when it was ascertained that each of tke
day's favorites was to address the multitude in the edifice above.
Full as rare curiosities, and perhaps more highly colored for the
occasion than even the eloquence of the orators, were a trio of pur-
ple Leghorn fowls whose gay plumage excited the most intense
interest, until the discovery was made that it was dyed.

The other stock on exhibition was of an excellent character, es-
pecially the kiue of Messrs. Appleton, Rogers, Dane and others,
and the Jerseys of the last-named gentleman were richly deserving
of the premiums and apjirobation they received. The horses of
the same gentleman, and his flock of Cotswold sheep, those of Mr.
Appleton (D. F.), and the promising colts of Messrs. Rogers, Grif-
fin, Balch, Martin, Gardner, attested public spirit and private enter-
prise in these departments, and the united testimony of the habi-
tues of the society's exhibitions was that at this one there was the
best show of horses, cows and sheep within their memory. The
horticultural hall was the only place at which an entrance fee was
charged ; and accustomed as we are in our part of the State to
exact the last penny from the most juvenile aspirant before he can
enter even the gi'ounds of the society, it was really refreshing to
behold the cattle-shows free to all comers, yet " still the wonder
grew " how this society could be in such a.floui-ishing condition on
the slight returns from the fruit and vegetable visitors and the an-
nual dues of members. When inquiry is made as to this anoma-
lous condition of things, the url)ane i)resident refers to the " Tread-
well Farm " owned by the society, and valued at seven thousand

iv REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

dollars, or thereabouts ; but that fact only adds additional mystery
to the riddle, as what sane raau could suppose a farm could be ruu
to any profit by a "committee of arrangements " headed even by
such practical and accomplished farmers as the president of the
society and its delegate to this Board ? Without further essaying
to evolve a solution of this puzzling conundrum I pass to the exhi-
bition of fruits, flowers, vegetables, bread, butter, honey, and fancy
work generally, wliich w^as gratifying to all observers, and the fav-
orite and most profitable fruit of the county even brought tears
into the eyes of the more contemplative. Apples and pears seem
to be specialties also in that favored region, so fine and luscious
were they in appearance, and their taste not breaking the promise
of their looks ; and Dr. ISTichols, no mean judge of fruits, was ob-
served noting with admiration the rich complexion of each flivored
variety, and drawing, possibly, favorable conclusions as to the efii-
cacy of some newly manipulated compounds which had been tested
in manuring the orchards.

The ploughing matches in the absence of horse trots, were of
course well attended, and at their conclusion the crowd, like the cele-
brated French army,,marched down the hill, and then, headed by the
orator of the day and a band of music, marched up again, and into
the church, where an address was delivered by Hon. B. F. Butler,
on French husbandry — i. e. husbandry of the soil, the other being
rather soiled husbandry — and a very flattering tale was told on one
side ; the great ditterence in the wages I'eceived by the toilers on
that side of the water as compared with the same class here, not
being taken into the argument. But the crowd came to see and
hear the representative of tlie scali/ classes, and were not disposed
to criticize severely, and the hardy fishermen who inhabit near where
their clmmjnon pitches his tent, probably considered that those who
ploughed the furrows of the land earned their living as easily and
were as well paid as those who plough the vasty deep.

The Dinner

Was provided in the basement of an adjoining church, where fish,
meats, poultry, vegetables and fruits of all kinds, and the inevitable
coflee and pies, were like an army with banners ; and some 400 to 500
guests soon made such a clatter that all mouths were closed save to
receive the food entering therein, and the monotony of eating was
agreeably broken, after a wholesome hour not unwisely spent, by
the announcement that the concluding exercises would take place
in the church above. Thither all at the tables repaired, together
with numerous outsiders, and the genial president. Gen. Sutton,

APPENDIX. V

opening the hawl by some sensible and practical remarks, was fol-
lowed by other members of the society, by the orator of the day,
Dr. Loring, Secretary Flint and others. The Doctor and the orator
had a good-natured tilt at each other, to the satisfaction of the spec-
tators who were probably as indifferent to the result as the woman
who witnessed the combat between her husband and bruin. Your
delegate was also called upon to respond in behalf of the State
Board, and he did so ; but it was so soon after dinner, the ladies
who filled the body of the church looked so fresh and charming,
the sturdy old farmers so knowing, the president of the society was
so complimentary in his introduction, and the gentlemen just allud-
ed to, between whom your delegate was sandwiched, glanced so ob-
liquely across or at your delegate, that he has much reason to doubt
if he did justice to his position, though he stood up manfully for
farmers being educated, and thus piit in all respects upon an equal
footing with the rest of American kind, and even went so far as to
hope to see the day when farmers' wives and daughters would pos-
sess such knowledge of the pursuits of their husbands and parents,
and especially of horticulture, that they would be valuable ad-
juncts instead of hindrances in the progress of agriculture. The
Secretaiy of this Board, Mr. Flint, made some very happy and ap-
posite remarks on roads^ of which he is just now the Colossus, and
his audience appeared to swallow his remarks as greedily as if they
believed them all. But I fear the stones which the Secretary threw
into them instead of bread, much interfered with their after diges-
tion.

Finally your delegate came away from the pleasant precincts of
Ipswich, satisfied that the Essex Society is flourishing, notwithstand-
ing horses trot not on its tracks, money is not taken at the grounds
of its exhibitions, that it runs a farm by a committee, that it keeps
its ofticers in ser\'ice for a great number of consecutive years, and
that it has only a half century of experience.

R. Goodman.

MIDDLESEX.

The seventy-sixth annual exhibition of the Middlesex Agricultu-
ral Society, was held at Concord, on Tuesday and Wednesday,
October 4 and 5, 1870. This is one of the oldest societies in the
State, dating back in its origin, almost to the period of the Revolu-
tion, yet exhibiting no indications of decline, but manifesting all

vi REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

the elasticity and vigor of youth. With well-located grounds, a
large, convenient building, adapted to all the wants of the society,
a government composed of active, energetic men, and surrounded
by an intelligent and industrious population, it may confidently look
forward to increasing usefulness and prosperity, and to the exertion
of a wider and yet wider influence upon the agricultural commu-
nity. Perhaps the debt incurred in the erection of the hall may
stand in the way, but I am sure that the wealthy and public-s]»irited
members of the society will not permit this, but will say the word
and it will cease to exist.

There were more than one hundred head of cattle of the various
breeds in the pens, and had it not been for the severe storm on
Monday, and the unpromising state of the weather on Tuesday
morning, the number would probably have been much larger. The
Ayrshires, including several fine specimens, were most numerously
represented. The Jerseys, Shorthorns and grades carried off sev-
eral premiums. The Dutch cattle from Mr. Chenery of Winthrop,
and J. S, Munroe of Lexington, made an imposing appearance, and
the Swiss bull, and five cows from H. M. Clarke's of Belmont,
needed no musical bells to call attention to their gentleness and
beauty. I would respectfully suggest to the formers, the impor-
tance of bringing out next year more young stock, and also fat and
working oxen, of which there must be large numbers in the county.
Calves and young heifers mark the progress of improvement in
raising stock, from year to year, and a long team of handsome oxen,
with calm and dignified step, marching round the track, makes an
interesting feature in any cattle-show. The ox is a noble animal,
an<l I can readily understand why Mr. Webster, as his life was
drawing to a close, was so desirous to cast one more look uj)on the
petted animals which knew his voice and step, and always wel-
comed liim whenever he entered the barn.

The collection of swine was quite good. Most of them were of
the Columbia County and Chester White breeds, and gave evidence
in many cases of careful kee})ing, and sound judgment in selections.

The ploughing match was finished before I arrived on the grounds,
but a view of the lots which had been ploughed, satisfied me that
there must have been excellent ploughs, and skilful drivers and
holders, to have made such good work as was exhibited on several
pieces of ground.

I do not feel competent to speak of the grand cavalcade, nor of
the trial of colts, family and matclied horses on the track ; still less
of the trial of speed of trotting horses ; but I was informed by
•

APPENDIX. vii

several good judges, that in all these departments the exhibition
was very successful.

The ])roduct8 of the farm and garden, as well as tlie handiwork
displayed in the large hall, afforded much gratiiScation. The extent,
beauty and excellent arrangement of the numerous articles present-
ed for the examination of visitors, cannot be too highly commended.
In the large display of vegetables, there was a freshness and fullness
of growth quite remarkable, when we consider that there had been
little or no rain for nearly twelve weeks. Of tomatoes, onions, po-
tatoes, corn, rye, wheat and oats, the samples were very fine. A
dozen cauliflowers from Mr. Webster Smith, of Lexington, were
remarkably large, and sold, during the fair, at one dollar each. Most
of the samples of tomatoes were of the " Gen. Grant " variety.
The raising of tomatoes for the market is said to have been quite
profitable the past season. The president of the society stated that
from three acres of land, he had raised and marketed fourteen hun-
dred boxes, each containing about one bushel, at an average price
of one dollar and forty cents the box.

Among the potatoes were large and handsome specimens of
" Breese's Peerless." Mr. G. Heath, of Concord, stated that he
had raised fifty-one marketable bushels, and three bushels of small
potatoes, from one bushel of seed.

There were about two hundred dishes of apples on the table.
Fair and handsome specimens of the Hubbardston Non-such, were
exhibited, from the original tree. The samples of the Baldwin in
all the collections were quite fair. The president of the society
stated that he had now fifty acres under cultivation, set with this
variety alone. The show of pears numbered one hundred and
twenty-five plates.

An interesting feature in the display of grapes was their perfect
maturity. Ko samples of Concord could be more perfect in clus-
ter, richer in bloom, or more fully ripened, than were the contribu-
tions from the vineyard of Capt. J. B. Moore, of Concord.

A fine show of pot plants by the president of the society, many
specimens of cut flowers, and two extensive collections of native
plants and lichens filled the centre table. One of these collections
put up by Mrs. Elizabeth Fisher, of Waltham, included three hun-
dred species. The other collection, numbering two hundred and
twenty-three specimens, was contributed by JViiss M. E. Carter, of
Woburn.

Of bread, preserves, pickles and jellies, the show was large.

The ladies of the county contributed largely, useful and fancy

Tiii REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

articles, which were arranged in glass cases, and attracted great
attention.

The poultr}% arranged in the basement story of the hall, was said
to equal in numbers and quality, that of any preceding show.

The Amos Plow Co., Parker & Gannett, of Boston, and Wm. E.
Barrett & Co., of Providence, R. I., exhibited a large collection of
farming implements, well made, and highly finished.

On Wednesday, at 12 o'clock, a procession was formed on the
groun<^s, and marched to the hall, where about six hundred persons
sat down to an excellent dinner, provided by Mr. J. B. Smith of
Boston. After this had been disposed of, the president, John
Cummings, Esq., made an interesting and instructive speech, upon
the cultivation of vegetables and small fruits, exprcs'sing with great
confidence, his opinion, that the farmers of Middlesex would find it
very profitable to engage largely in this branch of business, for the
supply of the Boston market. He was followed by Hon. Judge
Hoar, and Hon. Geo. M. Brooks, the deservedly popular represen-
tative of the seventh congressional district, who, with wit and elo-
quence, held the close attention of the assembly, and added very
much to the interest and pleasure of the occasion.

I cannot omit to say that I did not see a single intoxicated per-
son, or hear a profane word, and that the most j^erfect order every-
where prevailed, during the two days of the show ; and I am sure
that when the large assembly separated, it was with the feeling that
it had been a pleasant and profitable gathering ; and for my own
part, I have the most agreeable recollections of the kind attentions
and hospitality of the president and many fi-iends in Concord.

At the close of the exhibition, by the polite invitation of Mr.
Moore, I visited his farm, in company with several friends. I have
only to say, that if any one wishes to learn how to raise grapes,
strawberries, raspberries, asparagus, &c., economically, successfully
and profitably, let him visit Mr. Moore, and take a few lessons from
his practice and experience, and the time will not have been sjjcnt
in vain. Albert Fearing.

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

As a delegate from this Board, I attended the sixteenth annual
exhibition of the Middlesex North Agricultural Society, held at
Lowell, September 28 and 29, 1870.

The first day was devoted to the reception and arranging of the
stock on the ground, and the articles for exhibition in the hall.

APPENDIX. ix

There was a fair exhibition of stock of the various kinds ; among
those we noticed were some fine specimens of Jerseys, and other
pure breeds. We also noticed a strnig of oxen from Dracut, con-
taining some very fine cattle ; also a pair of steers three years old,
tliat exhibited remarkable training.

The entries for horses were but few, and those not of superior
quality, we should judge. We think we shall be supported in say-
ing that the show was not all horse.

There were but few entries of sheep, and those were not of su-
perior quality. Of swine, there was a fair exhibition.

The exhibition of poultry was excellent. Among them we no-
ticed some nice turkeys, and also fine geese ; one bird was said to
weigh forty pounds.

In the hall there Avas an excellent display of the various articles.

Vegetables were there in abundance, and of superior quality.

We were particularly pleased with the fine display of fruit. We
noticed that our friend Clement contributed liberally to the fruit
department, and we think the society is largely indebted to him for
the arrangement and fine effect in this department.

The products of the dairy were fully represented. We were
pleased to notice in this department that those receiving premiums
on butter were required to furnish' statements of the manner in
which it was made. We think it might be a good idea for other
societies to adopt ; it certainly would tend to diffuse a knowledge
of good butter-making.

At one o'clock a large number of ladies and gentlemen sat down
to a dinner at which Col. Ladd, the president of the society, pre-
sided. After a few appropriate remarks, he introduced to the au-
dience His Excellency Gov. Claflin, the agricultural orator of New
England, (which proved to be Dr. Loring, a member of this Board),
Gen. Butler, and Ex. -Gov. Smyth of New Hampshire, all of whom
made excellent remarks, which are fully reported in the printed
reports of the society to this Board.

The fair thi'oughout was characterized by good order and sobriety,
and in the opinion of your delegate, was a success.

I would here tender my thanks to the president of the society,
and to their delegate to this Board, for courtesies and attentions
received during my visit to the fair.

Nahum p. Brown.
b

REPORTS OF DP:LEGATE3.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

I attended the fair held at South Framingham, on the 20th and
21st of September last. The weather was fine but hot, and exceed-
ingly dry. The fair was well attended and the display in the
various departments, was large and of a superior quality. The
society is in a flourishing condition, a good share of its members
possessing both the will and the means for advancing the cause of
progressive agriculture.

Their real estate valued at 820,000, consists of a spacious park,
conveniently located and well fenced, a commodious exhibition
hall, and covered stock pens and sheds sufficient to shelter a large
amount of stock. A new covered shed, built the last season, and
costing $1,500, is, we think, unsurpassed for economy, utility and
convenience, and we desire to recommend it as a model, to socie-
ties contemplating similar improvements.

Much attention is given by farmers in this vicinity, to the breed-
ing of neat stock, horses, sheep, swine and poultry, and judging
from the specimens on exhibition, they are not a whit behind the
best breeders in the State.

Among the leading exhibitca's of neat stock, were T. B. Wales,
Jr., E. F. Bowditch, the Sturtevant Brothers, of South Framing-
ham, and C. H. Tilton, of Ashland.

The show of fruit in the hall, was much better than we expected
to see, considering the long continued drought, which was severely
felt in this county. A very large variety of grapes grown in the
open air, apjjcared to be perfectly ripe and made a fine display.

The society pays 81,129, in premiums, none of which is offered
for grade or native bulls, or horses owned out of the county. Lib-
eral premiums are offered for the best reports and prize essays on
subjects of agricultural interest.

One suggestion by way of improvement, we very respectfully de-
sire to make. The usual amount of side shows, lung-testers, deal-
ers in patent medicines and Yankee notions, which seem to accom-
pany agricultural fairs, were allowed to prosecute their business
quite too near the hall. Were they located more remote, say in a
soiith-easterly direction from the new shed, it would add much to
the comfort and convenience of visitors.

I would here express my obligations to the delegate and the offi-
cers and members of the Middlesex South Society, for their uniform
kindness and untiring efforts to make my visit both.j)leasant and
agreeable. A. P. Slade.

APPENDIX. xi

WORCESTER.

The fifty-second annual exhibition of the Worcester Agricultural
Society, was held in the city of Worcester on the grounds of the
society, September 22 and 23.

The fair opened well, the weather was good, and at an early hour
the large collection of people showed that they were interested in
the success of the society.

The show of stock as witnessed by your delegate was very cred-
itable to the society, there being about four hundred head on the
grounds.

The Jerseys were the most numerous, there being 9C entries ; of
Ayrshires, 45 ; North Devons, 15 ; of Durhams, 13.

The principal exhibitors of Jersey stock, were O. B. Hadwen, 22
head ; .John Brooks, of Princeton, 12 Jersey cows ; W. T. Merri-
field's herd of 24 head ; and James Thompson, of Worcester, 20
Jersey cows and 3 bulls.

Of Ayrshires, Benj, Harrington of Westborough, herd of 13
cows and his Ayrshire bull, " Jethro"; Nelson Walling of Mill-
bury, herd of 17 Ayrshires ; Wm. Eames of Worcester, Devons
and grade Devons ; Samuel Ellsworth, Worcester, herd of grade
Durhams.

The specimens of stock on exhibition were of high quality, indi-
cating, however, that the principle of stock-growing in this section
seems to be, not to improve the size of the animal, but to produce
the most butter and cheese.

Elliot Swan, of Worcester, presented the largest pair of oxen
on the ground, weighing 5,100 pounds.

The ploughing match came off on the society's grounds, there
being sixteen yoke of oxen and two horse teams for trial. The
ground was very dry, but the work was well perfonned. Soon af-
ter the ploughing match came the trial of working oxen and steers,
twenty-five pairs competing, most of them Devon, and what was
called by this society, mixed. Both classes performed their work
with superior excellence, and we are happy to say that with some
few excei)tions, the teamsters are entitled to the highest commen-
dation for the perfect control they had over their teams without the
brutal use of the whip.

There were but few entries of sheep, mostly Cotswold and Lei-
cester. A few specimens of Chester County swine. Thirty entries
of poultry, some fine specimens.

Of agricultural implements on exhibition, the Ames plough, the

xii REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

Buckeye, Union and Little Giant mowing machines, the Bay State
and Whitcomb rake, the BuUard and American liay-tedders, rank
higli in the estimation of the public.

Of butter and cheese, there was quite a respectable show. It is
not necessary for me to enlarge upon this subject as the statistics
have been laid before the public by the dairymen's associations.

The show of apples, pears, grapes and vegetables in the hall, was
very creditable. It was manifest that the horticultural exhilntion
which was being held at Mechanics' Hall, detracted very much
from the show in the Agricultural Hall.

The annual dinner, which was excellent, was served in the socie-
ty's hall to over three hundred guests. After the repast, speeches
were made by the president of the society, Hon. Oliver Warner,
Dr. George B. Loring, Rev. J. O. Peck, of Springfield, and Judge
Chapin. All spoke in their usual felicitous manner, quite as inter-
esting to most as a set address would have been.

The second day was devoted to the exhibition of horses. The
show of matched horses was very fine, with a fine place to exhibit
them. J. G. Wood of Millbuiy, exhibited several brood mares
with fine colts by their sides. F. E. Abbott, his thoroughbred mare
and colt. The specimens of colts two and three years old were
excellent.

After dinner the second day the reports of committees were read.

Then the delegate of the State Board from this society (Thomas
W. Ward), very politely invited me to his hospitable home in
Shrewsbury, where we spent a few hours looking over his large and
valuable farm.

This society has large and commodious, grounds with fine, con-
venient buildings, and the funds of the society are judiciously ex-
pended. Imla K. Brown.

WORCESTER WEST.

The twentieth annual exhibition of the Worcester West Agri-
cultural Society, took place at Barre, on the 29th and 30th of
September. By your favor, it was my privilege to represent this
Board on that occasion.

The long ride of twenty miles from Worcester, over the Paxton
hills, was greatly alleviated by the genial company of our worthy
secretary. Brother Johnson, and a friend from Wayland, whose
mirth -provoking jokes, and lively repartees seiwed to make us un-

APPENDIX. xiii

mindful of the rough hills and the deep valleys that we encountered
in our journey. Our sorrel span, partaking of our hilarity, soon
brought us to the entrance, where the ofllcers of the society awaited
our arrival, and took us in charge and conducted us through the
extensive grounds, amid throngs of happy people who are gathered
to celebrate this autumn festival. This society is located among
the hills whose crystal springs flow eastward into the ocean, and
westward into the beautiful Connecticut. Among the green pas-
tures of these hills, roam the finest cattle, and the fertile fields
yield the richest products of the farm and dairy.

The fail- poetess of the occasion can best express my meaning : —

" Tliongh autumn with his gorgeous robe

Reigns sovereign in sweet summer's place,
So kind and genial is bis smile,
We scarce the Hues of change can trace.

The wealth of orchard, field and wood,

He gathei*s in his nut-brown hand;
Behold the treasures he hath brought

Aided by labor's tireless band. ,

Let those who say our grand old hills

Will not repay the farmer's toil —
That wealth and comfort are not wrought

From out our Bay State's rugged soil, —

Come to our pleasant hall to-day,

See beauty, art, and taste arrayed,
With nature's gifts, for household use.

In all their loveliness displayed."

That the character of a people may be correctly judged by the
character and climate of the counti-y they inhabit, there can be no
doubt. The free, energetic character of the sturdy yeomanry of
this region fully conforms to the beautiful and picturesque scenery
of its hills and valleys, and its clear and invigorating climate. Far
away from railroad facilities enjoyed by most other societies in the
Stake, yet the farmers of this section are justly celebrated for their
excellent management and successful operations of the farm and of
the society.

The first day's exhibition was devoted almost entirely to the
farm and its products, and the second almost as entirely to the
" horse," or the " sports of the track." I think this arrangement is
commendable, especially where it is thought " the horse " is becom-
ing a too prominent feature of our agricultural shows. There is a

xiv REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

large and very respectable portion of the community, that rlesires to
participate in this liarvest festival, who do not care to come in con-
tact with horse-racing. And the arrangements of the first day are
made in conformity to tlie feelings of tliis class. The second day
being devoted to the horse features of the exhibition (if we may
so speak), attracts many people from a distance, beyond the bounds
of the society. The grounds being clear of all obstructions, they
enjoy tlie whole range of the ample grounds for this piu'pose.

A hasty examination of the several departments of the exhibi-
tion of the first day, convinced us that the exhibition was one of no
ordinary character. Every department refiected great credit on the
management and interest felt by the members of the society. The
cattle department was most prominent, embracing a great variety
of fine specimens of almost every breed and grade of stock. Grade
Durhams ruled in the dairy class. Working oxen, and fat cattle,
very superior. Sheep and swine good, but not numerous. The ex-
hibition hall presented a feast for the eyes. Fruits, vegetables and
flowers, graced the tables. The long rows of splendid cheese, the
excellent bread, and yellow butter, well attested the skill of the
good* housewives of this section. There was also a great display
of art and fancy-work. The dining-hall was filled with a goodly
company of ladies and gentlemen ; as fair and intelligent as ever
discussed the dainties of a good agricultural dinner. The presi-
dent presided in an easy and hap])y manner, while His Honor, the
Lieut-Governor, and our Avorthy secretary, supplemented the luxu-
ries of the table with the luxuries of the intellect.

The answers to the questions contained in the document issued
by this Board, are herewith submitted, and I am greatly indebted
to the Hon. Charles Brimblecom for his aid in this respect.

Mr. Chairman, I feel that I cannot close this report without
referring to two things witnessed at this exhibition, — the one of
cruelty, the other of kindness. I noticed a pair of oxen chained to
the fence, covered with stripes from the Avhip of their cruel owner
or driver. What was the cause, I know not. This much I will say :
the goad or lohip as an instrument of terror or punishment ought
not to be tolerated on the exhibition grounds. Animals that cannot
be managed in any other way, should not be there, and he who
would thus abuse them, should be taught to know that the cxliibi-
tion ground is neither a cock-pit nor a bull-ring in which he is to
exhibit his brutality and cruelty. Call me Hindoo if you will, still
I must believe in the intelligence and affection of our domestic ani-
mals. I believe in the power of kindness to command their service,
and that is all we have a right to claim.

APPENDIX. XV

An illustration of this beautiful principle was seen in the training
of a pair of year old steers, by the young lad Miller, of Pliillipston.
His management and control of them, as an instance of the power
of kindness in the training of animals, were wonderful, and entitle
him to the highest praise.

"That which the fountain sends forth, returns again to the
fountain." Eliphalet Stone.

WORCESTER NORTH.

The eighteenth anniial exhibition of this society was held at
Fitchburg, September 28 and 29. Nothing is more dependent for
success upon the weather, than an agricultural fair, and on this oc-
casion it was all that could be desired. The grounds and buildings
of the society are ample and convenient, and when the approach to
the main entrance is tastefully laid out, and the land in the vicinity
improved, will be admirably adapted to the uses for which they are
designed. The location is easy of access both by the highways
and the Boston and Fitchburg Railroad, and being near a growing
city the property must increase in value with advancing years.

It is to be hoped that the officers, now that their president is also
president of a bank, will make a successful effort to pay up the
indebtedness of the society, and so render it financially indepen-
dent. If the farmers here will but do their duty in prompt attend-
ance at the annual meeting, and at the fair, they may derive im-
mense advantage from the active cooperation of the wealthy, intel-
ligent and enterprising manufocturers of Fitchburg and vicinity,
-who have done so much to introduce improved stock and render
their exhibitions attractive. The working oxen and fine grade or
native cows and young stock, should be brought out in full force,
notwithstanding such famous breedei's as Augustus Whitman, E. T.
Miles and John Brooks are expected to exhibit Splendid herds of
thoroughbreds.

The grade bull, however, can hereafter be excused from putting
in an appearance, as this society will pay him no more premiums.
Peace to his ashes.

There were upon the grounds for exhibition, admirable specimens
of Shorthorn, Hereford, Ayrshire and Jersey bulls, of the best form
and pedigree, which may be of inestimable value to the agricultu-
ral interest of the region, if properly appreciated and used.
■ The whole number of herd-book animals was eighty-four, and

xvi REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

among them some remarkably fine milch cows of three different
breeds.

Mr. Whitman's herd of sixty Shorthorns, the best in Massachu-
setts, was well represented by seven cows, which were models of
size, form and milking capacity. The greatest amount of milk given
in one day by any one of them, was forty-four pounds. " Mountain
Belle " yielded in three hundred consecutive days, an average of
more than twenty pounds and a half per day. Such a Shorthorn
cow would not need the aid of another to raise her calf, as has been
reported of some. Mr. Whitman deserves much praise for his well-
directed efforts to bring together a herd of this breed with good
milking qualities, which have been too often neglected by breeders.

The beautiful xVyrshires of Mr. Miles were evidently chosen with
excellent judgment and taste as to form, color, udder and horns, in
fact, everything desirable in a perfect cow to please the eye. If
this herd is bred as skilfully as it has been selected, the stock of
Maplewood will be in active demand. Though wanting in the
magnificent proportions of the Shorthorns, it is highly probable
that these cows will afford for the food consumed, as much value in
milk and beef as those of any breed. Mr. Miles has published a
catalogue of his herd with a complete record of their milking for
one year, — an example worthy of imitation.

The .Jersey herd entered by John Brooks, of Princeton, has an
established reputation ; and while the farmers generally do not
admire the style of this breed, they command high prices for the
use of those gentlemen who can afford the luxury of cream, when
ordinaxy mortals must be content with milk. Mr. Brooks also ex-
hibited a fine Hereford bull and two well-trained pairs of superb
grade Hereford steers, raised in Maine. He thus offers his brother
farmers an opportunity to improve their working oxen, grade steers
of this kind combining the activity and beauty of color of the
Devons, with greater size.

There were many fine native and grade cows at the fair, of which
the best were entered by Mr. J. P. Reed, of Princeton. One of
his grade cows of the Holderness breed, gave an average of more
than fifty pounds of milk per day for one week in June.

The show of horses was meagre in respect to breeding animals,
and gave abundant proof that the farmers of the county do not at-
tempt to supply the home market. There were present, however,
two stallions, a few breeding mares, and some very good colts. The
carriage horses were excellent, especially the stylish pair of bays
belonging to Col. Crocker. The driving horses and trotters were
numerous and of good quality.

APPENDIX. xvii

The races broiight out the people of all classes, and were for the
most part as interesting and as well managed as conld be expected.
The foot-race was not such as is usual or desirable ; one of the com-
petitors appearing literally stripped for his work, having substi-
tuted a single breech-cloth for the ordinary articles of dress. As
even with this light weight he was unable to win, his excited friends
rushed on to the track and pushed him forward, at the same time
preventing his competitor from getting before him. This created
intense excitement, and of course deprived him of any chance he
might have had to cross the line first by special exertion of his
own.

There were several lots of swine, all of the large breeds, some
specimens having a \ixe weight of about 600 jiounds. The Chester
White seems to be the fiivorite breed among the farmers of this
society.

Sheep were very few and of the large breeds, the best being
Cotswolds.

The exhibition in the hall Avas very creditable, excelling particu-
larly in apples and grapes. Of the latter, fifteen varieties were well
represented ; the finest in appearance being the Concords of Dr.
Fisher, and the lonas of M. S. Heath.

J. M. Sawtelle contributed a large collection of cut flowers and
plants in pots, and among other interesting species was a Turk's
ca]") cactus from the West Indies.

The address was a home production by an honored and active
member of the society, Col. Alvah Crocker. His subject, " A New
England or a Western Home," was a most important one for the
young farmers of Massachusetts. The doctrine inculcated was that
with industry and intelligence a young man could find no better
place to live in than our own Commonwealth, and no more honora-
ble, healthful or desirable occupation than farming.

A good dinner was provided on both days of the fair, and the
hour after the manual exercise was occupied in the usual American
style.

On the whole, the aflfairs of the society appear to be judiciously
conducted and its usefulness increasing.

Your delegate was enabled by the kindness of the proprietors to
visit the farms of Lyman Nichols, Esq., and Jabez Fisher, M. D.,
and was deeply interested in the story of their many improvements.
The Board of Agriculture may feel a peculiar pleasure in the re-
markable success of Dr. Fisher, who was in part, at least, educated
on the Board, in his eiforts to demonstrate the value of intelligent
skill and thorough business habits in agriculture. He has just re-

xviii REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

ceived the first premium of $50 for the best cultivated farm, and
has sold from thirty-four acres during the past three years, produce
worth an average of 12,575 per annum, besides the amount ])aid for
labor. The doctor is a bright and shining light in the agricultural
world, and earnestly and successfully striving to shine more and
more. May he find many worthy rivals among the farmers of Wor-
cester County. W. S. Clark.

WORCESTER NORTH-WEST.

The fourth annual exhibition of this young and vigorous society
was held on Wednesday and Thursday, October 5th and 6th, 1870.
My engagements were such that I could not reach Athol until the
afternoon of the first day of the show, consequently I did not see
quite all of the neat stock on exhibition ; but that remaining upon
the ground on my arrival was very creditable to the farmers of
that hardy section of the CommonAvealth and gave convincing,
unmistakable proof that already this society has made its mark, and
exerted a beneficial influence upon this very important and leading
branch of husbandry.

I was prepared to find the members of this society had improved
on their early efforts, when they used the public common for their
show ground, and a neighboring church basement to exhibit articles
on exhibition, but not hardly prepared to see the leading citizens of
that and the surrounding towns, vying with each other to benefit
the society and make sure of success.

A very pleasing feature of the occasion, was the large number of
fanners present, with their wives and children, and I was glad to
look into their honest, sunburnt faces, rejoicing as they were in the
success of the two days of the exhibition, and beautiful autumnal
days they were, neither too hot nor too cold, contrasting wonder-
fully with the days preceding their last exhibition,

Perha])s I may be allowed to say here, that I improved tliis op-
portunity and took my helpmeet with me, partly to see friends,
and to assist me, knowing that four eyes coidd see more than two,
especially in the crowd that filled the hall of exhibition.

The time would hardly suftice to speak of the contributions under
the head of manufactures, fancy articles, fruits, flowers, fine
arts, all worthy of honorable mention and sure witnesses of the
advanced culture and taste of the people.

The grounds owned by the society are beautifully located, bound-
ed as they are by groves, rolling hills, and a charming, transparent

APPENDIX. xix

lake, uniting distant and picturesque landscapes unsurpassed for
natural beauty and loveliness, or suggestive of happiness and enjoy-
ment.

The second day of the fair satisfied me that no portion of the
State could excel the show of fine horses entered for exhibition, and
I was completely surprised at the large number of beautiful animals
on the grounds, owned in that locality.

The dinner tables were crowded by members of the society, with
their ladies, showing conclusively, that the people appreciate the
value of this social occasion, and among them were veterans of the
soil, and' some high in social position in our beloved Commonwealth.

In the department of flowers one lady contributed nearly two
hundred varieties of cut flowers, all arranged with taste and beauty
unsurpassed. Another lady contributed twenty odd varieties of
pinks fragrant with perfume, surpassing Solomon in all his glory,
who was not arrayed like one of these.

The oflicers of the Society have shown a wise forethought in all
of their arrangements, and I could but congratulate them on their
deserved pecuniary success, and have no doubt but there is a suc-
cessful future in store for them.

I have not entered into detail, as their annual Transactions will
show who were the principal and successful contributors.

We are indebted to the President and Secretary for marked at-
tention, iind to our worthy associate, Charles C. Bassett, Esq, and
his family for hearty Christian hospitality.

Lewis H. Bradford.

WORCESTER SOUTH.

At the request of Hon. L. Saltonstall, who was appointed a d*ele-
gate to the Worcester South Society, I went to Sturbridge on the
first day of the exhibition, September 8th. This society possesses a
fine tract of land, embracing some twenty -five acres, on which stands
a large, substantial and well arranged building admirably adapted
to the purposes of the show. There were several entries for the
ploughing match, and the work was very well done considering the
condition of the soil, for the ground was exceedingly parched and
dry from the protracted drought. The show of cattle in the pens
was rather limited, and the same is true in regard to sheep and
swine ; some good fowls were shown, but the exhibition was deficient
in this department. Of working oxen there was a very fine show,
some of the sturdy pairs being fully equal to anything we have

XX REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

seen. The town teams were Avortliy of praise. In the hall there
was a f:ar (lisjjlay of apples and other fruits as well as of vegetables.
The exhibition of butter and cheese was extremely meagre, and,
exceiiting a single large cheese from my friend Hubbard, not worthy
of attention. The ladies' department was well filled with articles
very creditable to their taste and industry. Some good specimens
of wheels, harness, and other manufactured articles were contributed.
There was an excellent dinner provided by the society in their
own building, where for a reasonable sum all the members, with
their wives and daughters, could find a place. After the dinner an
address was delivered by the Rev. Mr. Richardson of Worcester.
It was replete with good sense and sound suggestions and was well
received by the large audience. This society has no reason to be
discouraged, for the season was a very unfavorable one. The pas-
tures were brown and sere, the brooks and springs were dry, the
corn fodder even parched and withered, and vegetation on every
hand drooping or destroyed by the long and excessive drought. The
fair grounds were so dusty that it was impossible to go from point
to point witliuut serious discomfort, and these causes without doubt
operated largely to lessen tlie interest in this annual festival.

Jas. F. C. Hyde.

WORCESTER SOUTH-EAST. ^

The annual cattle show and fair of the Worcester South-East
Agricultural Society, held at Milford on the 27tli and 28th days
of September, was attended by your delegate, in accordance with
his assignment therefor.

In making his report he may be able to do no more than his
predecessors have done before him. As their reports will not
absolve him from his duty, and their eyes are not those he looked
through, he can do no less than oifer his notes at this time.

With vivid recollections of the nature of the soil, the character
and (piantity of the farm products, the quality of cattle and other
stock, the style of larming hi vogue in that section of the State
some thirty years previous, and having very little knowledge of it
since that time, it can be imagined that a continued residence
during that interval of time on the banks of the Connecticut had
not tended to exalt the opinions of your delegate in the matter of
farming on the granite hills of Milford, Mendon, Upton and the
nei'-hboring towns, or of the i)eaty swamps and meadows bordering
on the streams and brooks watering those localities.

APPENDIX. xxi

The first matter that occurred to unsettle any preconceived
notions of your delegate, was the inspection of the farm premises
of the president of the society, Wm. Knowlton, Esq., at West
Upton. Valuable and extensive improvements, returning abundant
and remunerative crops, covered grounds once familiar to us as
stumpy, rocky pastures and out-lands. Convenient buildings
erected and filled with hay and other crops, excellent work houses
and utensils and thorough bred stock, confirmed your delegate in
an old o})iiiion, that it is not the place but the man that makes the
farm, and that the president of that society possessed one more
farm in the Greeley sense of the term than Greeley himself, viz.,
his own farm, one above him, one below him, and one all around
him ; for the example of such substantial and paying improve-
ments will be infectious and stimulating to all around him to do
likewise.

Early upon the fair grounds upon the first day of the show we
were fully able to note the many choice aniTnals brought in.
Among the cattle Ayrshires and Jerseys predominated. A very few
Shorthorn Durhams were present. Taking it for granted that
dairy products were more profitable than beef-making, in a popvda-
tion so largely mechanical, the fact was not a surprise.

Mr. Knowlton, the president of the society, exhibited Durhams,
Ayrshires and Brittany cattle, all thoroughbred and choice animals.
He had also on exhibition several imported Ayi'shire calves, which
with his careful rearing and good feeding, must in the future add
much to that class of stock in the limits of that society.

C. H. Tilton, of Ashland, exhibited his herd of Dutch cattle.
Their fine figures and peculiar markings of black and white attracted
much attention.

There were many fine specimens of milch cows and heifers
which would grace any man's farmyard and no doubt please his
wife by the quality of milk and butter they would yield. If not
the crowning excellence of the cattle department, it was at least
the most interesting, to witness the training of the working oxen
in the trials of draught and docility. Long ago " Dull as an ox,"
passed into a proverb. At Milford the proverb is totally ignored.
The intelligence and aptness displayed by some of the trained oxen
were remarkable. One was disposed to place them and their
trainers on the same plane with the deaf and dumb who learn to
talk, and their teachers.

Their evolutions in drawing, backing, changing places, lying
down and getting up again, going and coming at the gentlest call,
without the slightest appearance of being actuated by fear, have

xxii REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

been fully set forth in other papers, but were nevertheless novel
revelations to your delegate.

The show of horses was particularly fine in the class of colts.
Some of them were animals of great promise, showing marks of
good breeding and sensible training. The profit of rearing and
breeding horses in that section of the State, is a matter upon which
your delegate is not competent to give an opinion.

The long continued drought had affected all the interests connected
with the show, and none more than the ploughing, which was indifier-
ently done, from that cause alone, as the teams and teamsters
seemed fully competent to perform their allotted tasks.

The stock in the pens sufiered for the Avant of water. They
made their wants known as intelligently as they could and in a way
that all understood, but were powerless to remedy.

The exhibition in the hall, reported not equal to some of former
years, would satisfy any reasonable mind that the finer fruits, vege-
tables and flowers could be made to adapt themselves to the locality
of Worcester South-East as well as other localities.

A dense population of non-producers, increasing in numbers annu-
ally, should be provided with all their needs by home productions. If
the farmers of Long Island and New Jersey can afibrd to raise small
fruits and vegetables, and that at a profit, by supplying Massachu-
setts mechanics, surely those who live right by their own doors
should do the same.

That it can be done is no experiment to be tried. Were this the
proper place, instances could be cited of persons living within sight
of the show grounds of this society, who have accumulated hand-
some estates from what (tAventy years since) was considered almost
worthless land, yielding scanty support for a couple of scrubby
cows.

The address of Rev. Merrill Richardson was listened to with
marked pleasure by a goodly number who had partaken of a boun-
tiful dinner in the capacious hall of the society.

Learning that the fast trotting of the second day Avas controlled
in a measure by parties not ofl^cers of the society, your delegate did
not give that attention to its operations and trials of speed that its
merits might have receiA^ed, and he left the grounds with the feeling
that if his future experiences as a delegate were to be equally
pleasant as his visit to Mil ford was made by the hospitality and
attention of the president and oflicers of the Worcester South-East
Agricultural Society, he would not fear of trying to do his duty in
that ofiice. A. P. Peck.

APPENDIX. xxiii

HAMPSHIRE, FRANIO^IN AND HAMPDEN.

The fifty-second annual cattle show of the Hampshire, Franklin
and Hampden Agricultural Society was held at Northampton, on
Thursday and Friday, October 6th and 7th. The weather on the
morning of the first day was cold and uninviting, yet the grounds
were thronged with people at an early hour, comparing their own
stock and products, on exhibition, with that of their neighbors and
competitors.

The collection of neat stock on this occasion cannot easily be for-
gotten by your delegate, as I regard it the best I have ever wit-
nessed at any local exhibition in the Commonwealth.

Mr. Chairman, I do not intend to particularize individual stock,
as I have in some instances in former reports, because if I did I
should be guilty of great injustice if I did not mention the name of
every owner of neat stock on the ground.

Allow me simply to say, that from the specimens of Shorthorns,
Ayrshires and Jerseys, presented for exhibition, we must regard the
exhibitors as men of rare taste and judgment ; comprehending fully
the laws and principles of breeding.

The stock presented by the Massachusetts Agricultural College,
compared well with that of any other on exhibition, and showed that
the farmer, Mr. Dillon, had given it good care and proper attention.

The exhibition of sheep and swine was very commendable. Some
very fine specimens of fowls were presented.

The show of draught horses, breeding mares and carriage horses,
was large, and represented by good specimens of each kind. The
show in the hall was truly a magnificent display of all the usual
varieties on similar occasions. Hon. Richard Goodman of Lenox
gave the annual address, subject — " Cattle Husbandry;" which was
listened to by a large and intelligent audience.

Remarks were made by other gentlemen, when Colonel Clark,
president of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, was called for ;
and it affords me great pleasure to record the marked favor with which
he was received upon the platform by the audience, showing clearly
that he is one of the favorite sons of the Connecticut Valley. The
second day was a bright, genial day, devoted entirely to the show of
horses.

The concourse of people was larger than the day previous ; still
good order and propriety were preserved throughout the day. The
bounty which this society receives from the State, is in my judg-
ment judiciously expended, and pays a good return.

xxiv REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

To withoUl the bounty would be injurious to the society, and to
the Conimouwealth.

Respectfully submitted.

JoHX JonxsoN.

HIGHLAND.

In compliance with your appointment, the undersigned attended
the annual fair of the Highland Society at Middlefield, September
15tli and 16th, 1870.

Starting from Chester Station on the morning of the 15th, we
wended our way upward for several miles, over a country anything
but inviting to the agriculturist, until, emerging into a higher and
more open country, neat cottages and costly edifices, with well tilled
fields, were passed, showing what industry and thrift can accom-
plish.

Arriving at the fair grounds, an area of some eight acres, on the
top of the Berkshire hills, we were forcibly reminded of the signifi-
cance of the name of the society, and impressed with the remarkable
landscape spread out before us.

From the roof of the hall, a two-story building, ample for the ac-
commodation of the society, the eye grasps a circuit of country of
some twenty miles in extent, ])artially overlooking fourteen towns
in the Commonwealth, and a scene of varied beauty, such as had
never been our good fortune before to witness.

It was soon evident that this was to be a gala day to the com-
munity, for on the A'arious roads were to be seen herds, flocks and
vehicles, en route for the fair.

The forenoon of the day was occupied by the usual routine of
prei)aration and arrangement.

At 12 M. dinner was served in an Lto the hall, specially set ajiart
for the purpose.

All the j)arts of the fair were now in working order, not except-
ing the inseparable accompaniments of the whip merchant, the
candy stand and the fimdango.

The grounds are not so well adapted to an exhibition as in some
more favored portions of the State, for the irrepressible rock pro-
trudes itself in many places, and interferes with the fullest success.
The marked feature of the occasion, as one would infer from the
appearance of the countiy, was the stock, and the exhibition in this
department was truly gratifying.

APPENDIX. XXV

It might be invidious for us to discriminate between the herds of
the several contributors, neither shall we presume to point out the
particular excellences of the various breeds, as our practical knowl-
edge in that particular is, to say the least, very limited.

The exhibition of sheep, swine and poultry, though good in qual-
ity, was somewhat limited in numbers, there being but four entries
of SAvine and three of poultry.

The display in the hall was not so extensive as would have been
])leasing to your delegate, but was fine in quality.

In the domestic department, there were 21 entries ; in needle-
work, 13; in flowers, house plants and jiaintings, 6; in butter and
cheese, 24 ; in fruits and vegetables, 48 ; in mechanical productions,
7 ; and in miscellaneoias articles, consisting of tidies, tattens, crochet
work, etc., the skilful handiwork of the housewife and the lass, there
were 43.

In the evening the hall was crowded to listen to addresses from
the president of the society and others, interspersed with music by
the Haydenville Band.

The second day was occupied by the exhibition of horses, which
was creditable both in quality and numbers, and the exercises were
closed by an address fi-om Rev. Mr. Rockwood.

We missed the jDloughing match, which is an interesting feature
at the fairs in the eastern part of the State. We presume that there
are good reasons for dispensing with this instructive exercise.

One important quality of excellence we must not omit — the per-
fect quiet and order that prevailed. In our notes we find, " no
alcoholic liquors, no intoxication, no rowdyism, no profanity."

As our fairs are attended largely by our children and youth, how
carefully should we watch that no baneful influence be exerted on
their plastic minds.

We visited this society a stranger ; in leaving it we bade adieu
to many friends.

To the president and secretary, with his amiable wife, we are
under special obligations, for " I was a stranger and they took
me in."

Long may we remember our pleasant interview Avith the High-
land Society. Geo. M. Bakek.

EASTERN HAMPDEN.

The eighteenth annual exhibition of the Eastern Hampden Ag-
ricultural Society was holden at Palmer, on the 11th and 12th days
of October, 1870.

d

xxvi REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

Arriving at the park belonging to the society late in the forenoon
of the 11th, we at once commenced an examination of the stock on
the grounds, and found a large number on exhibition, in which the
different breeds of blood stock, common in stock breeding districts,
were well represented. In this connection it will be fair to say that
there were no specimens which could be regarded as prodigies in
size, while much the larger portion were young and thrifty animals ;
especially so, if we set aside the seven yokes of oxen and forty-one
coAvs shown by Dr. Wakefield, Superintendent at the State Alms-
house at Monson, which alone was a grand show. The ox-team
and the cows would be hard to beat on any single farm in this State.
H. M. Sessions of Wilbraham was there with a herd of 21 fine
Devons, O. M. Graves with a herd of 26, Wm. R. Sessions with
a herd of 18, and there "were numerous smaller herds, mainly of
young and thriving animals.

The ploughing match was a spirited one, Avith both horse and ox
teams, but owing to the severity of the drought it was almost like
ploughing baked clay and ashes, with the ashes largely preponderat-
ing-

There was a somewhat extensive exhibition of Chester White

swine of various ages, and good specimens.

There were a few fine-wooUed sheep, though there appeared no
evidence that sheep husbandry is made a specialty in the region of
East Hampden.

The poultry department was well represented, — turkeys, geese
and ducks, with numerous breeds of others of the feathered tribe.

The vestry of a church in the immediate vicinity of the park was
used for the exhibition of fancy articles, needle-work, butter, cheese,
fruit and vegetables. The ladies, it was clearly apparent, had inter-
ested themselves in efforts to make the show a success. Domestic
manufactures of all kinds, which are usual at such shows, appeared
remarkably well. The bread, butter and cheese served as genuine
appetizers.

Of fruit and vegetables there were quantities of either, and
many of the specimens were large, which surprised us, for we
learned that as much rain had not fallen in that locality, from the
20th of June to the time of holding the fair, as is requisite for one
good shower.

In some of the n])])les upon the tables we observed the workings
of larvie of the codling moth in the form of ugly looking holes, and
that too where it was apparent the contributor could have placed
upon the table better specimens, if not quite as large ; this is Avhere

APPENDIX. ' xxvii

some are inclined to err. Let it be remembered that form^ with
natural color, should be considered with size in order to make an
exhibition of perfect specimens, and that no specimen can be per-
fect or appear well, which shows the tracks of a worm.

After the address, which was delivered by Dr. Loring, and which
was listened to by a large concourse of people Avho seemed to be
gratified and we trust were benefited, there was an exhibition of
trained steers given by J. C. Pease and Geo. A. Converse, both of
Longmeadow, and A. J. Hooker of Warren, each with one pair and
unyoked. Never having witnessed anything of the sort before
except with the educated elephants, we had formed no conception
of what steers could be made to do ; we were not aware until then
that they so nearly possessed the sagacity conceded to that flap-
eared quadruped of more huge proportions. That the steer, and
indeed all our domestic animals possess a higher degree of docility
than we have been accustomed to award to them, we were fully
convinced by what we there observed.

In order to develop the docility of the class of animals to which
we have alluded, it is obvious that a hasty, fractious disposition
should have nothing to do with the training. On the contrai-y it is
indispensible that the educator should himself possess a large
amount of sagacity and docility. Much patience and perseverance
will be requisite in all such training.

"With the exhibition of trained steers closed the show for the
11th.

On the morning of the 12th the rain descended, and the show of
horses to which that day was to be devoted, was in consequence
thereof postponed to a future period, not named in the original
programme.

Many of the horses which wei-e designed for exhibition had,
however, been already taken to the village and were being cared
for at the difierent stables in proximity to the park. In company
with President Holbrook and several other gentlemen, with over-
coats and umbrellas, we visited several of the stock horses intended
for exhibition, which had every appearance of being fine animals.
One particularly interested us on account of his history. That
horse was taken South by Dr. Holbrook, who was a surgeon in the
Union army, faithfully served his master by carrying him many
thousand miles, through dangers seen and probably some unseen,
for three years, then returned with the Doctor still looking plucky
and patriotic, will even now dance to the music of the bugle. Pie
has drawn no pension, but is kindly treated and cared for, as all
patriotic horses should be.

xxviii REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

President Holbrook and others manifested considerable enthusi-
asm in relation to horses, their breeding and training, improving
upon, so far as is practicable, their present excellent stock.

There was evidently a much larger number interested than in the
breeding of neat stock, and the rain wet their clothing some. We
judge that the ardor of those devoted to breeding cattle, and
those desirous of improving the horse was in no respect
dampened.

We learn that no premiums were oiFered on farms ; but on almost
every product thereof, and of the garden, which is worthy of cul-
tivation, premiums were oifered.

We found also, upon analyzing the list of premiums offered, that
three were on experiments Avith manures, sixty dollars in all ;
thirteen dollars, in two premiums, on composting. The same in
experiments to ascertain the relative value of concentrated
manures.

Twenty-five dollars in two premiums for the best experiment in
reclaiming pasture lands. Eighteen dollars in meadow lands.

Ten dollars each on apple and pear orchards. Ten dollars on
ornamental trees. Twenty-five dollars on white oak or other forest
trees.

Seventy-five dollars were placed at the disposal of a committee
for display of " farmers' tools and mechanic arts."

Eighteen dollars in three premiums on vegetables, largest and
best display. Also, small awards for single varieties of a long list
of vegetables. Asa Clement.

THE UNION SOCIETY.

The annual exhibition of the Union Agricultural Society was
held at Blandford on September 26th and 27th, in accordance with
the assignment of the Board of Agriculture. The grounds of the
society are located near the village of Blandford in an elevated
and picturesque situation, and are remarkably well calculated for
the purposes to which they are dedicated. The agriculture of the
section covered by this society is chiefly of that description which
is adapted to lands somewhat removed from a market and especially
fitted for grass cro])S and grazing. The firms, both on account of loca-
tion and (juality of the soil, can undoubtedly be devoted to the pro-
duction of large quantities of good hay, of a quality much superior
to that grown on lower and heavier lands. And it is to be hoped
that by the aid of artificial fertilizers of the best quality, combined

APPENDIX. xxix

with barnyard manure and the natural materials found there for
composting, this region, and all others similar in New England,
may become the great sources of supply for our hay markets.

The exliibition of tlie society the last year was encouraging, and
indicated a laudable and intelligent interest in the objects of the
organization. The show of cattle was in many respects unusually
good, and attracted a number of judicious admirers as well as j^ur-
chasers to the ground. The oxen and steers were of good form,
thrifty, in excellent condition, and trained as cattle are only trained
where the New England skill is still retained. The number of
cows was large, and of good quality and size ; and there were several
bulls on exhibition whose blood indicated careful attention to breed-
ing. Noticeable among these were specimens of Ayrshires of a
high standard, which had been introduced into this section by the
delegate of the society at this Board and by others, Tliese ani-
mals were all hardy in apj^earanco, and of a size well adapted to
the hill pastures on which they graze.

The horses on exhibition were such as are especially useful to
the farmer in his work upon the farm and on the road.

In the hall, the collection of apples, pears, grapes, peaches,
quinces, cranberries and vegetables indicated great care and skill on
the part of the cultivators, wiio inhabit this exposed and elevated
locality; and the domestic manufactures gave evidence that the
industrious habits of our ancestors are still retained in the farm-
houses of the region.

The condition of the society seems to be good, and it is evidently
stimulating the agriculture over which its influence is extended.
The emulation Avhich it has roused, and the responsibilities and
honors which it has laid upon its active and useful members, are
all producing those good efibcts which rivalry and position always
exert. As one of the educating agencies of the Commonwealth,
it is worthy of liberal encouragement and support.

Geo. B. Lokixg.

FRANKLIN.

The twenty-first annual cattle show and fair of the Franklin
Agricultural Society Avas held at Greeufield on the 29th and oOth
days of September, 1870,

The first day of the fair was ushered in with all the beauties of a
September morning, and was improved by the farmers in that county
from its earliest dawn till the mid-forenoon in gathering their stock

XXX REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

and fruits and ornamental work and designs, preparatory to the
great competitions of the day.

The president of the society was on hand everywhere, and in his
place at all times.

The secretary was prompt at his post of duty, and, as M'ell as the
, president, was attentive to the wants and comforts of the society's
guests.

The society own a handsome plat of ground, which is well located,
containing eleven acres.

On the outer part of this plat is a track for the exhibition of
horses. So the fair ground is surrounded by the track, except a
strip of land varying in width from perhaps one rod to four rods in
width.

A fence, a post and one rail, runs the entire round between the
track and the ground on which the exhibition is held. The stock
on exhibition, as well as the people, are generally within the en-
closure.

Here also is a small building called the " stand," to accommodate
public speakers. In this building is a room for the accommodation
of the secretary and the comfort of those who may be fortunate
enough to gain admission on a rainy day, as was the second day of
the exhibition.

On the grounds of the society are a number of pens, well-roofed
and secure, for the comfort and safe-keejiing of horses and other
stock, not proper to be in less safe situations. Thei-e are also other
pens used for well-disposed cattle, sheep and swine.

On an elevation, in front of the speakers' " stand," arc seats like
" tun-ets on a rising ground," sufficient to seat some five hundred
persons.

There are no other accommodations on the fiiir ground, if Ave ex-
cept a well of pure water, which was freely drunk, without making
the drinker drunk.

The stock on exhibition was of superior quality, indicating that
their home was in a hill country abounding in luxuriant herbage.

Stock on exhibition at other fairs spoke unmistakably of the
drought of the season, and that of Franklin County came in for a
hearing, but there were some noble specimens of the various breeds.

The Ayrshire, that well deserving race, took a high stand on
that occasion, doing credit to the owners as well as to the exhibi-
tion.

The Kerry, black as a full-blood African, was allowed to be
present, without an objection being raised by the most fastidious.

The Jersey, a very popular breed in some sections, and worthy to

APPENDIX. xxxi

be kept by all butter-makers, was represented by a herd of some
twenty, each with a bell attached to a strap, which passed around
the animal's neck. They spent the time grazing together, like a
flock of so many sheep, and were not disturbed by man or beast.
This herd made a most beautiful appearance, and although not en-
closed within the fiir ground proper, were on exhibition, and were
a power of great attraction.

The Shorthorns, a most noble race, came in for their share (which
was not small) of commendation. The grades were there in large
numbers.

No language could speak with gi-eater emphasis in praise of the
farmers in Franklin County than does the stock generally grown
within its limits. If what was on exhibition was a fair specimen, it
indicates a spirit of enterprise worthy to be imbibed by some of its
neighbors.

The working oxen were most of them grades, large and generally
well formed animals.

A string of thirty pairs, from the town of Deerfield, was very
prominent in the exhibition.

There was no trial of skill, either of man or of beast, in the art
of ploughing.

The trial of working oxen on the cart to a load of 3,960 lbs. was
well nigh, and would have been an entire failure, had the spectators
pressed a little harder and closed up the drive-way. An ox must
have a free pass if you would have him show himself to advantage ;
and his driver ought not to be compelled to dodge among a crowd
when guiding his team.

The trial of oxen and horses on the drag, to a load of 3,400 lbs.,
was good ; the performance was well, but no doubt would have been
much better if no obstruction had been in the way.

Much credit is due to the society for the arrangement for a load,
both on the cart and the drag, which consists in having square blocks
of stone, with the weight of each block marked on it, and an iron
bolt with a ring by which to handle it. A load is made up with
ease, and the material is always on hand.

In the opinion of your delegate, the society very much need a
larger room than that they now occupy to accommodate their
necessities. They are in ample funds to do all that is necessary in
the way of building a hall, which would add greatly to their con-
venience in the display of fruit and other articles which should be
favored with shelter. Then, too, they would have of their own a
place for public gatherings, where addresses might be made, heard
and understood, without the almost constant interruption by the

xxxii REPORTS OP DELEGATES.

brute creation, as was the case during the delivery of Rev. Mr.
Moor's most admirable address. The address itself was worth the
cost of a new building, and would be found so if people would heed
its teachings on physical economy.

Tlie society now occupy a hall centrally located in the village, in
which to display their fruit, flowei's, works of art, needle-work, field
crojts and vegetables.

The vintage gathered and exhibited was abundant, — grapes of
every hue and name, in clusters far surpassing moderation, and in
flavor most delicious, were exhibited.

One need only to be there to be convinced that the past had been
a most favorable fruit season.

Truly, Franklin County had been highly favored with both fruit
and vegetables, as the display evinced.

No further evidence was needed to prove that the ladies in this
society take a deep and commendable interest in these county fairs,
than was given on that occasion. They not only exhibited their
own work, tastefully wrought and gracefully displayed, but they
were there themselves, right where they should be, with their
husbands, their brothers, and those for whom they had great regard.

These exhibitions are not for the benefit of the fathers and the
sons exclusively, but for the good of all concerned. And is not the
interest of the wife and the daughter in the art of agriculture and
horticulture suflicient to warrant their attendance and participation
on these festive occasions ? It is commendable in them to do so,
and it is praiseworthy that they pi-esent tlieir own labors for the
inspection of the public and the awards of the society.

On this occasion, the work of their hands was profusely displayed
in great richness and surpassing beauty.

The society seems to be in a prosi^erous condition. The members
are in full belief that they are engaged in a good cause, and are
generally zealous therein.

Harmony in feeling and in action enables a community to accom-
plish wonders ; and so does division and strife, but they are oppo-
sites. Thomas W. Ward.

BERKSHIRE.

The sixty-first anniversary of the Berkshire Agricultural Fair
opened on the 4th of October, 1870. We confess to having great
anticipations of seeing here the perfection of a cattle show.

APPENDIX. xxxiii

The age of the society, its ample means and reputation, the fine
pasturage of this region, the fact that it had not suffered as other
I^arts of the State from the long continued dry weather, all con-
spired to create this expectation.

In the main, we were not disappointed. The grounds of the
society are now extensive and beautiful. The scene presented on
the opening of the fair was animating and exciting to the lover of
the form and its interests. Every one seemed interested and deter-
mined to make it a success. The good natui-e with which they
met all inquiries concerning it, the attention of the officers, the
large number of past officers present, all gave you the assurance of
interest and prepared you for its success.

On examining the stock we found 132 head beside some four
herds ; 64 sheep beside some eight flocks ; a score of swine of both
sexes. We were disappointed iji one point, viz., in thoroughbred
Shorthorns.

"We supposed this region excelled in 'the perfection of this breed.
We found fine native cows, which we think led all other breeds for
numbers. The Alderneys, Ayrshires, Plolsteins and Shorthorns
were well represented in the milking stock, but we think the latter
were the smallest in number.

Th^ working oxen were large animals, showing great power.

The fowls were fully represented in some thirty entries. If
judged by the purpose of furnishing eggs or meat, this part of the
show is seldom excelled. .

There were also a large number of agricultural instruments here,
as at other fairs.

We noticed four different instruments, invented and exhibited by
one man, showing that Berkshire farmers are evidently using their
brains to lighten and hasten the work of their hands.

The visit to the hall showed us very large quantities of bread
and biscuit with their counterparts of golden butter and rich cheese.
There is, as there should be, great competition for the premiums in
this department. When the shows stimulate a large number to
try for the prizes, we may be sure of their good effects. Let me
then simply state that over one hundred wives and daughters of
the Berkshire farmers presented bread and biscuit, some sixty put
'forth their butter, over fifty presented factory and family cheese,
and one can see that the right ambition is aroused. Nor are fancy
articles wanting.

As every where, this year the fruit was very extensive. The
vegetables and seeds especially attracted our attention. The num-
ber of specimens was large, and the quality very fine. We con-

xxxiv REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

sider the latter very, important. As far as our observation goes, we
think the growth of seeds too much neglected, and in this respect
this exhibition deserves most hearty commendation. Henry S.
Goodale had arranged most beautifully one hundred and fifty varie-
ties of potatoes. Another exhibited twenty-four varieties. All of
which at once begot the assurance, that the farmers and their wives
and daugliters, nay judges and artisans, were incited to that cai'e^
whose products will bless the State pecuniarily, physically and
morally.

The second day, October 5th, opened for an exhibition of horses.
We confess to little interest in raising horses for fancy purposes
only. When, however, agricultural societies encourage the raising
of fine animals for driving and work, it is perfectly legitimate to
their aims. We think the society here are doing a good work.
Their farm horses showed great p9wer, excelled only by their long-
trained draught animals. Rarely have we seen a finer stock ot
voung horses ; their form, style and gait bid fair to make Berkshire
celebrated for the fine horses raised among her own hills.

The display of fine matched horses, raised or not raised in this
region, must cultivate both taste and judgment in those engaged in
this branch of agriculture, and lead us to look forward confident-
ly to a time when this part of our fairs may be lifted above the
demoralizing tendencies of the race-course and its accessories.

The third day, October 6th, was given the address of Hon. Levi
Stockbridge of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which has
since been published in full by the society. Then came the novel
feature of awarding and distributing silver plate as premiums, fol-
lowed by the races.

To the above brief glance at this fail*, we wish to add a convic-
tion or two produced by it.

1st. That the State's encouragement has done and is doing much
to bring u}) the agricultural interests of the State, and generally
the annual grants from the treasury are well expended. I think
this will hold true of this long established society, as seen by
reference to the answers to questions put forth by this board and
herewith returned.

lid. The societies generally need, and will be i>rofited by, the
continuance of this aid from the State.

The time is rapidly hastening when both economy and necessity
will demand that we produce much more from our own soil. In fact,
with fertilizers accumulating from abroad to enrich our lands, we
shall be unfaithful to our opportunities, if we do not produce more
and more food each year, for man and beast. Indeed we owe it

APPENDIX. XXXV

to the increasing populations of the world, — to the ever increasing
demand for bread. Let the State not refuse her aid when the duty
is becoming more important and apparent to her people.

Since the fair we have received published documents from this
society, showing their good working condition, and opening all
their transactions to the public eye, not only to invite investigation,
but also to offer to all interested in it the fullest information.

Wm. Knowlton.

HOOSAC VALLEY.

In obedience to the appointment of this Board, I attended the
eleventh annual fair of the Hoosac Valley Agricultural Society,
which waa held at North Adams, on the twentieth, twenty-first and
twenty-second of September.

A visit to the valley of the Hoosac cannot, under any circum-
stances, fail to be interesting and instructive. The Commonwealth
has not within her limits a spot which displays more creditably the
intelligence and enterprise of her people. A mountain lying across
the traveller's path affords an opportunity for the exhibition of an
engineering skill and indomitable energy, which are proceeding
with unerring certainty to pierce the solid rock with a long avenue,
through which the commerce of the east and west may pass. The
waters of the turbulent mountain streams are made to supply the
power for a variety of manufactures. Something of the super-
abundant labor of the old world is here made available.

The miner from Cornwall brings his energy and skill, and the
Celestial Empire sends her children half around the Avorld ta con-
tribute to these productive industries.

In the midst of such surroundings it is but natural to expect the
farmers to conduct the business of the farm with a good deal of
sagacity and vigor. The excellence of the display at the exhibi-
tion attended by your delegate certainly leflected much credit upon
them. Of the show outside the hall, that of the cattle was large '
and of a superior quality. There were a few fine specimens of
Jersey and Ayrshire stock, but the valuable cattle were to a great
extent Durhams. There were some excellent sheep, both of the
fine and coarse wool. There is much force in the suggestion made
by the committee, that more attention should be paid by the farm-
ers of this society, to the raising of coarse-wool sheep. The horses
upon the grounds were numerous, and comprised not only the large,
strong-limbed and muscular animal adapted to the heavy work of

xxxvi REPORTS' OF DELEGATES.

the faitn, but also those more lightly moulded and fitted for hard
work and long endurance on the road and for speed.

The exhibition within the hall was admirable. The. dei")art-
ments most conspicuous in merit were those of the dairy and fruits.
The society has occasion to congratulate itself on the foir of 1870.
The general management of the society is evidently in faithful and
competent hands.

Your delegate is indebted to officers and friends of the society
for hospitality that was especially kind and courteous.

Geo. a. King.

HOUSATONIC SOCIETY.

The annual exhibition of the Housatonic Agricultural Society
was held at Great Barrington, September twenty-eighth, twenty-
ninth and thirtieth. The exhibition in every branch was excel-
lent, one leading feature of which was a large and interesting col-
lection of crops of all descriptions. The entries of summer crops
numbered 122, and consisted of wheat, rye, oats, barley, grass, and
garden vegetables. Tlie fall crops numbered 171, and consisted of
sowed corn, corn, buckwheat, potatoes, beans, mangel wurzel,
carrots, Swedish turnips and cabbages. x\ll these crops were care-
fully examined by committees appointed for that purpose ; and the
value of the samples presented at the fair, was gi-eatly enhanced by
the statements which the committees were able to make Avith re-
gard to the quality of the land on which they grew, and the modes
of cultivation.

The products of the dairy were well represented. The forty-two
samples of butter were of fine quality, and gave assurance that
the farmers of Berkshire have lost none of their interest and skill
in this most important branch of the domestic economy of the farm.
The entries of cheese were seventeen in number, "and the opinion
that the farmers' wives had excelled in this production, and had
surpassed the factories engaged in the same business, seemed to be
very generally entertained. The example set by this society in
this respect is worthy of imitation.

The exhibition in the hall, of fruits, flowers, domestic manufac-
tures, implements, and articles of taste, was admirable and extensive.

Among the cattle, were to be found some fine fot oxen, and
many pairs of well trained and well shaped working oxen and
steers. The milch cows were of superior quality generally ; and

APPENDIX. xxxvii

there were many specimens whicli in size, shape, condition and
development could hardly be surpassed.

A valuable collection of horses was on the ground, and attracted
great attention.

The importance of the proper breeding of these animals seems
to be thoroughly understood by the farmers of this section. The
committee on stallions and colts, have well remarked :

" A stallion before the public is either a curse or a great benefit
to any locality where he happens to be in use, and it takes years to
recover from the damaging efiects of a poor stock horse ; conse-
quently, we must know beyond question the breeding and blood,
for at least three generations of any stallion on both sides ; and best
of all his stock must and will prove whether he is worth the atten-
tion of breeders. Your committee would urge all owners of good,
well-bred, sound breeding mares, ' as no other can breed a s.ound
colt,' the importance of a judicious selection.

" We also believe that a stallion can and should combine qualities
so as to produce, not only well developed, good-sized carriage and
family horses, but have bone and muscle enough to draw the plough
and light road-wagon. * * If one should show a little speed,
we have yet to see the farmer that did not know it was worth some-
thing. But your committee would not recommend breeding for
speed entirely ; but a stallion — weight not less than 1,000 pounds,
showing blood-like courage, head and neck fine and clean cut, fine
skin, good disposition, strong, well muscled, clean limbs, large,
strong barrel, powerful, strong back and quarters, good feet, a full
long tail, good square trotting action, showing lasting qualities when
driven at a high rate of speed. Your committee believe such a
horse will produce good farm, carriage and family horses, and
occasionally a trotter, taking your common breeding mares as a
foundation."

These principles and suggestions applied to the general business
of breeding would undoubtedly improve our animals and increase
their usefulness and value.

The care taken by this society in regai-d to the pedigrees of
animals entered for premium, is especially praiseworthy and should
be observed throughout the Commonwealth.

The exercises of the occasion in the hall, consisting, mainly of
an elaborate and scholarly address by President Clark, of tlic Agri-.
cultural College, upon the iin})ortance of professional and scientific
education of our young men, were interesting and instructive.

Geo. B, Loring.

xxxviii REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

NORFOLK.

Tlie twenty-second annual exhibition of the Norfolk Agricultural
Society was held at Readville on the 22d and 23d of September,
and I hatl the pleasure of visiting it.

Our brother delegate from that society met me at the depot and
took me in his carriage, and I Avas landed safely within the Avails
of the society's grounds on the morning of the first day of the fair.

The AVeather Avas clear, but A^ery dry and dusty.

The society has ample grounds, a A'ery good track and excellent
accommodation for horses, stock and products of the farm, &c.
The first thing to attract attention, as per programme, Avas the
ploughing match, Avhicli took place on the grounds outside of the
enclosure.^ There Avere a goodly number of teams promptly on the
ground, of all sizes ; double and single teams of horses, also of oxen.
As the ground Avas A^ery dry and hard, it Avas Avell suited to test the
poAver of the teams and skill of the ploughmen. The Avork as a
Avhole Avas Avell done, and some of it A^ery skilfully so.

After the ploughing came the draAving match, Avhich Avas princi-
pally done Avith horses, and Avas a very good show. It Avas very
evident that there Avas perfect confidence betAveeu the driver and
his horse, and the Avork Avas Avell performed, Avithout loud talk or
the use of the Avhip.

The stock on exhibition looked very Avell for the season ; no one
could expect stock to look as Avell in a long continued dry season
as in a groAving, luxuriant one. The past season has been an ex-
ception, and it is our duty to make the best of it and i)ress on ; if
we look about us Ave shall find that in all kinds of business and
trades there are some dry seasons. But I noticed that there Avere
but few competitors for the premiums. Much the largest part of
the stock on the grounds Avas owned by one man. I am told that
there are a large number of good cattle owned Avithin the limits of
the society. Then, farmers, Avliy not bring out the best you have
and get your share of the premiums, and }nake a good cattle show?
Had not Mr. Eklridge, the i)resident of the society, opened his
gates and contributed to tlie show his fine herd of Jerseys, it Avould
have looked lonely in the stock department.

There Avas but one lot of sheep on exhibition, those owned by
Mr. Eldridge, and a very Avorthy flock they Avere. In swine there
Avas more competition. Tiie exhibition of poultry Avas very good,
and Avould do credit to any society.

Of fruit there Avas a good exhibition of all kinds, but I Avas told

APPENDIX. xxxix

it was not nearly so good as usual, as the great hail-storm of June
20th spoiled a very large amount of the crop in that section. But
noth withstanding the storm, Hon. Marshall P. Wilder presented
one hundred and fifteen different varieties of pears, all choice ; he
also exhibited three plates of pears, which looked very nice, grown
in California. There was also a plate of twelve Bartlett pears on
exhibition by J. C. Bradley of Milton, especially nice. There was
a large collection of grapos, which were very fine.

The exhibition of flowers was very good.

The i^roducts of the dairy were very small, but should judge
them to be good.

The show of agricultural implements was very good ; there were
some improved machines.

Roots and vegetables not very plenty, probably on account of the
drought.

The ladies' department was well represented.

The collection of manufactured -articles was small. There were
some very tine carriages on exhibition.

Some attention is given to breeding and raising of horses. I
noticed some very good colts of all ages presented for premiums.
The carriage and draught horses were very fine.

The exhibition of horses on the track seems to be the strongest
feature of the show. There was a full attendance of anxious spec-
tators on and around the grand stand each day.

Your delegate staid to witness but a small portion of the trotting,
but has no doubt that they had a good time, as there was a large
number of entries, good weather and good regulations.

There was an excellent dinner provided and served to as many
gentlemen and ladles as desired, under a large pavilion. After
dinner, Hon. M. P. Wilder gave an interesting account of his travels
in California. Kev. E. P. Dyer of Shrewsbury read an original
poem, which was very interesting. Also a fine band of music, a
good police force and a chief marshal who knew and did his duty.

I will briefly add, that, in my opinion, if the exhibition of the
Norfolk Society was not as good as in former years, there must be
other causes than lack of effort and interest on the part of its officers
and members who had the management of it. To make an agricul-
tural exhibition useful, interesting and attractive, tlie cooperation
of the farmers and producers Avith the officers is of the utmost im-
portance. This society has been one of the first and foremost in
agriculture and horticulture, and I see no reason why it may not
continue on with its unbounded usefulness. I was informed that
there had been two hundred and fiftv new members added to- the

xl REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

society the present year ; thisis certainly a good indication of pros-
perity.

In closing, I wish to express my thanks to the officers and to
Col. Stone and lady for their hospitality and kindness, making my
visit pleasant and profitable. Jonx T. Ellsavortii.

BRISTOL CEXTRAL.

As delegate from this Board-, I attended the eleventh annual
cattle show and fair of the Bristol Central Agricultural Society, at
Myrick's, September twenty-first, twenty-second and twenty-third,
1870. ■

The grounds of this society containing about 40 acres enclosed,
and conveniently near the railroad station, seem admirably adapted
to the required purpose. They have a large and beautiful hall, also
roomy and convenient stables, sheds and pens for the accommoda-
tion of horses, cattle, sheep and swine.

The weather was fine, the attendance large, and I am happy to
remark that the best of order prevailed during my stay on the
grounds.

The ploughing match at 10 o'clock the first day, was attended with
much interest, and the ploughing well executed considering the dry
and sandy character of the soil.

.At 11^ there was a procession of town teams on the track,
headed by the Fall River band. The team from Taunton was
drawn by S2 yoke of oxen, and the one from Lakeville by 27.
They were the only competitors.

The exhibition of neat stock was not large, though said to be ■
the largest ever seen upon the grounds. Among the most notice-
able, was a pair of fiit oxen exhibited by Jonathan Slade, of Somer-
set. They were of the Durham breed, five years old, weighed five
thousand pounds, and took the first premium at the New England
Fair, at Manchester, New Hampshire.

William L. Slade, 'of Somerset, also exhibited a beautiful jiair of
fat oxen.

The representation of milch cows was very good, consisting
mostly of Jerseys and grades from this and the Durham stock.

Several very fine Jersey and Ayrshire bulls Avere exhibited, indi-
cating a lively spirit of improvement in breeding dairy stock. The
society offer no premium on grade bulls, yet I could not learn that
any pedigree was required.

APPENDIX. xli

The show of sheep and swine was not extensive, but tliat of
poultry, including most of the modern fancy breeds, was the best
I ever saw, and attracted much attention. • A premium was offered
for the best coop for exhibition purjioses.

The morning of the second day was devoted to the display of
horses on the track. Some excellent single and matched carriage
horses were shown, but the greater interest seemed to be manifested
in the trotting horse.

The show of breeding mares and colts, and young horses, was
quite extensive, some of them very fine animals, indicating cai'e
and good judgment in this important branch of stock-raising.

The exliibition in the hall was very su2:)erior, almost every de-
partment being well represented; choice vegetables, and fruit of
every variety, as well as beautiful flowers graced the tables.

On the afternoon of the second day General Butler delivered an
address to a large and attentive audience. The subject was a 'com-
l^arison of the state of agriculture in this country, and in England
and France.

At the close of the address a very happy and eloquent speech was
made by Judge Russell, of Boston ; also some very appropriate
remarks by General Underwood, of Newton.

The society seems to be in a thriving condition, and supported
by many zealous and intelligent farmers, yet much of its success is
due to the liberality and untiring effort of their president, Dr.
Durfee, to whom the thanks of your delegate are especially due for
his kind and genial hospitality during the fair.

A. J. BUCKLIN.

HINGHAM.

The twelfth annual exhibition of the Ilingham Agricultural
Society was held at that place on Tuesday and Wednesday, Sep-
tember twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth.

From the long continued drought of the summer and autumn, it
was hardly to be expected that any of the fairs in the State would
be up to their usual standard, and I visited this society with the full
expectation of finding it below its own average of exhibitions.
But I am happy to say that I found it very full in all its depart-
ments and fine in quality. In the stock department the show was
good, thoroughly interspersed with Jersey, except the oxen, and
there I noticed but one pair of this breed. Fifty-two yoke of oxen
were marshalled in one team, although not all from one town. We

/

xlii REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

are accustomed to think, that for fine oxen we must look to the
interior or western section of the State, and more to horses in the
eastern. But we seldom see finer oxen than Avere in this team.
Tiie lieaviest weighed nearly 4,000 pounds.

More flit oxen M^ere on exhibition than I have usually seen at
other fairs. Nearly one hundred hogs and pigs were noticed and
many of them of superior quality, and largely of the Chester County
breed. One fat hog of enormous size was exhibited by Greorge
R. Ripley.

Over a hundred sheep were noticed of the Leicester and South-
down breed, which shows that sheep are not entirely ruled out in
Eastern Massachusetts. The ploughing match was contested by
seven teams, all with drivers. The double teams ploughed ten
inches, and the single teams eight inches deep. It was stubble
ground and although ploughed very deep did not reach moisture,
so that the ground could not be left as evenly as it otherwise
would be.

The exhibition of horses was good. The driving was more
particularly to show the horses, their docility and movements, with-
out regard to speed. The dralt horses showed power and careful
training. The trial of working oxen was excellent, on a load of
over 4,000 pounds besides the wagon. The test was by starting
the load over four-inch scantling, placed. in front of the wheels,
which showed the training of the oxen to a steady and heavy draft.

In the ])0ultry department Avere one hundred splendid Avhite
ducks, exhibited by the President of the Society, Hon. Albert
Fearing. In the hall the show was unusually full, and showed no
traces of the drought. Apples were abundant, 3G7 plates and of
superior quality. Also, 348 plates of })ears of all the standard
varieties, showing the interest in fruit-growing in this section of the
State. There were thirty-one entries of bread, five of which were
by misses not OA'er fourteen years of age. This is an interesting
feature in the exhibition, showing that the young ladies are being
trained in the art of cookery.

There were beans, rye, barley, potatoes, tomatoes, beets, man-
golds, onions, corn, — a splendid exhibition, — watermelons, sweet
potatoes, a fine collection of squashes and muskmelons, carrots, that
looked as if they had penetrated deeply for moisture and nourish-
ment, and found it. Pumpkins and grapes were seen in large
quantities, the grapes looking very finely. In fact without enume-
rating further, I can say the exhibition in the hall and outside was
one that the society might well be jM-oud of

The members of the society and others to the number of over

APPENDIX. xliii

five liundred entered the spacious liall and partook of a sumptuous
dinner, after Avhicli there were speeches by the President of the
Society, Hon. Albert Fearing, His Excellency Governor Claflin,
Governor Stearns, of New Hampshire, Hon. Thomas Russell, Hon.
Oliver Warner, Colonel "Wilder and others. Also, there was a
poem by Rev. E. P. Dyer, of Shrewsbury.

After dinner and the intellectual feast in the hall, your delegate
left with many pleasant recollections of his vist in Hingham and the
kind attentions of the president and other officers of the society,
and feeling that this society is doing much to promote the interests
of agriculture in this section of the State.

X. S. Hubbard.

MARSHFIELD.

As delegate from the State Board of Agriculture I attended the
annual exhibition of this society held at Marshfield October 6th,
7th and 8th. The weather the first day was very unfavorable and.
the attendance was not large, but this was more than made up on
the 7th which was the principal day of the exhibition. With a
full knowledge of what the season had been I went down to Marsh-
field not expecting to find a very good exhibition, but in some
departments I was happily disappointed. The show of stock in
the pens was not large, but some of the animals were good. The
swine were not largely represented. There were some fine fowls,
including some splendid geese ; of horses and colts we saw but few.
The ploughing match attracted a good deal of attention, though the-
weather was not favorable. The ground ploughed was light, alaiost
sandy with but a tender sward, and not altogether a good jjlace to
show the best results, however skilful the guiding hand might be.
The work was creditably performed. There was what is called
the "town team," embracing 112 yoke of oxen, that woiild do
credit to any owners, in any town or county. The great attraction
to many was within the Avails of the fine building, of which this
society is the fortunate owner. Of apples, pears and other fruits
there was a large and fine display, one that would do credit to
older societies.

The display of vegetables was extensive and very fine, fully
equal in some respects to any Ave saAV the past season. The
squashes and sAveet potatoes attracted, much attention from their
superior size and excellence.

In the department of jellies and preserves, there Avas a large and

xliv REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

excellent exliiljition, and the same may be said of bread, butter and
cheese ; of the bread and butter we can truly say tliat avo have
seldom seen a more extensive show, or samples of better quality,
which sjieaks well for the hoiisekeepers of this county. The
handiwork of the ladies was visible on nil sides, fully attesting the
taste, industry and thrift of the better halves and the fair daughters
of the members of this society.

The dinner, with the intellectual repast that followed, was all that
could be desired. The members of this society have reason to be
greatly encouraged when they remember the success of their last
exhibition in spite of drought and all the other obstacles with which
the farmer must contend. The grounds with the large and admira-
ble building owned by this society are well arranged for the pur-
poses for which they are designed, and we hope may long be en-
joyed by those who have labored to bring this young society to its

present high rank.

J. F. C. Hyde.

NANTUCKET.

At the meeting of the Board at Amherst in August, I made ar-
rangements with Mr. Thompson to meet him in Boston on Tuesday
morning, the 27th September, at 8 o'clock, A. M., to take the cars
for Nantucket, and was disappointed in not finding him there, and
did not learn of his sickness until I arrived at the island. I was
met at the boat by one of the vice-presidents, William II. Waitt,
Esq., who accompanied me to the hotel where I found a pleasant
home. The town was all alive in preparing for the show the next
day. The weather of the 28th Avas all that one could wish. I
started eai-ly for the fair ground, which is a mile distant from the
centre. The society own twenty-one acres of handsome level
land, surrounded Avith a substantial fence, and having a smoothly
finished track and ample stands for the committees and the band.
There is a large number of stanchions and hitching posts Avhere
the cattle are all secured, and where the committees have a fine
chance to vicAV them. There were 215 head of cattle on exhibition.
Of these, 142 Avere coavs, seventeen Avere thoroughbreds, sixty-one
grades and sixty-four natives ; the largest and best shoAV of cows
I ever saAV. The thoroughbreds and grades were mostly Alder-
neys and Ayrshires ; there Avere four full-blood Durhams, very good
animals. There Avere ten bulls, excellent types of their breed, as
they offer no premium except to thoroughbred bulls. There were

APPENDIX. xlv

eleven yoke of oxen on exhibition, and some fine young stock.
The show of sheep was good, mostly Southdown. There were but
few swine, good specimens of the Chester White. The exhibition
of poultry was large. All breeds were represented ; I noticed a
number of coops of native and China geese, ducks and turkeys.

At two o'clock the ploughing match was contested by five single
teams, two ox and three horse teams, on the society grounds, which
is a sandy loam, which was well done. The fine weather, large
disjilay of stock, enlivening amusement and music, with the large
company assembled at the grounds, rendered the fair a success.

At the hall in the evening, they held a social gathering. The
opening address of welcome was made by the vice-president,
William H. Waitt, Esq. We had speeches from other gentlemen,
music from the glee club and band, and the evening passed off very
pleasantly. In the hall the exhibition was very fine. There were
many articles of curiosity, interest and taste, beside the fruits and
vegetables, of which there was a splendid show. There was fine
bread and about 100 lbs. of good butter on exhibition. I have
never seen better pears, and never so good grapes as were here ex-
hibited in large quantities. I think Nantucket can beat the world
in raising pears, graj^es and vegetables, and I think, with the facili-
ties which they have for enriching their soil, that they might make
farming profitable.

At nine o'clock the second day, the examination of horses came
off. Among the breeding stock, were some fine mares, with colts
by their sides. Several fine family horses were driven around the
track, showing action and some speed.

In closing my report, I with pleasure mention the cordial recep-
tion I received as the delegate of the State Board from the acting
president, William 11. Waitt, Esq., and the secretary, Alexander
Macy, Jr., and others, and those' kind attentions shown me during
my stay rendered my visit to that society very pleasant.

John A. Mortobt.

MARTHA'S VINEYARD.

The thirteenth annual exhibition and fair of the Martha's Vine-
yard Agricultural Society, was held at West Tisbury, October
eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth.

Leaving New Bedford, I passed over a rough and boisterous sea,
giving me, an inland farmer, to say the least, plenty of sea experi-
ence, all of which was dispelled, on arriving at Holmes' Hole, and

xlvi REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

meeting there the worthy secretary of the society, David Mayhew,
who was waiting to convey the orator of the year, Dr. Geo. B. Loring,
and myself, to the then attractive feature of the island, — the annual
farmers' holiday. 1 found it this in a true sense. On arriving at
the society's grounds the crowd in attendance first drew my at-
tention, as it seemed to me composed wholly of farmers and their
families. The day being well advanced, and the hour being near
allowing the removal of neat stock, I was conducted about the
grounds that I might see this fine display of cattle, a total in num-
ber of two hundred and forty-nine (249) head, consisting of
natives, grade Ayrshires, and thoroughbred Ayrshires. The dis-
play of oxen and steers, (75) seventy-five yoke, was commend-
able, but not what it should be viewing it in comparison with
the excellent display of bulls and cows, from which one would
infer fine steers might be reared, and as proved in the oxen and
steers shown by II. D. Norton, Herman Yincent and Stephen
Luce.

The bulls I found all thoroughbred Ayrshires, eight in number,
and with pleasure I report that this society offer no premiums on
grade bulls. Well worthy of standing prominent among the bulls
two years and over, was McDonald 3d, shown by Captain F. O.
Rotch, while in the yearlings, the one shown by Allen Tilton
gives promise in the future. The display of cows and heifers, as
before expressed, was excellent, and consisted of thoroughbred
Ayrshires, and high grades of the same breed, thirty-one being
shown in the various divisions, aside from the class "herds of
cows," of which there were five entries. F. O. Rotch led in both
the show of cows and heifers. My attention was next called to the
sheep, of which I found on exhibition seventy-six (76), consisting
in the main of Avhat is termed natives, and I think I can say
nothing better in reference to this' class of farm stock, than to refer
to the report of the committee, in which is urged on the mind of
the farmer the importance of obtaining pure-bred animals to breed
from, but ending in these words, " It is useless to purchase fine
sheep, with the expectation that they or their ofispring will prove
satisfactory imless properly cared for," referring, I think, to the
practice on the island of letting the' sheep run at large most of
the year.

I observed, next the sheep, three pens of swine, the total on
show, and near by was the fine display of poultry, fourteen coops,
consisting of hens, guinea-hens, turkeys, geese and ducks. Viewing
these, I neared the hall, which, on entering I found full to overjlow-
ing, of the productions of the farm, the garden, the orchard, the

APPENDIX. xlvii

workshop, and the many fancy and domestic articles the farmers'
wives and daughters everywhere know so well how to manufacture.

The long tables of fruit first met my eye, embracing ai)i)les,
pears, peaches, grapes, quinces and cranberries, in a total two
hundred and thirty-six (236) plates ; Mrs. Shubal Smith, of Holmes'
Hole contributing the largest display, twenty-eight of pears, four-
teen of grapes, two of quinces and ten of apples, among which
was shown " The Smith Seedling," a seedling from the R. I. Green-
ing, very large, and, as I was informed, with all the qualities of the
parent apples, adding thereto keeping qualities equal to the Rox-
bury Russet, the tree being very hardy where other of our stand-
ard New England varieties will not thrive. The tables of
vegetables were more than full, the potatoes being legion. One
would have good reason to judge from the display that the people
here had the fever to the highest point, all the new and fancy
Varieties, as well as the old being shown. Beets, onions, turnips,
cabbages, huge pumpkins, and mammoth squashes, the product from
six hills being fifteen hundred pounds, tempting watermelons, all
had their allotted places. Of the grains I found fifty-seven sam-
ples, corn predominating.

The dairy was represented by fifteen samples of golden butter
and three samples of cheese. Added to this the culinary show, of
forty-three loaves of bread and cake, made a tempting table to look
upon. Preserves and canned fruits were shown in large quantities.
With these, I saw twelve specimens of wines. Not sampling, can
only say, "distance lent enchantment to the view." The handy
workmanship of the wives, and daughters, occupied a large space in
the display of domestic and fancy articles. Plants and flowers,
though late in the season, added much to adorn and beautify the
hall. E. T. Dunham was on hand with his sample of Sicily nut-tree,
extolling its merits highly, and informing all that he had " but a few
more for sale ;" " purchase while you can " was his continual advice.
Painting and drawing covered one end of the hall, and in conspicu-
ous position, as well they should be, on account of. merit, were the
copied j)ictures by J. H. Nickerson, an infirm boy, whose practice had
been his only teacher. Agricultural implements were represented
by one each of Buckeye mower. Bay State rake, and ox yoke, added
to these the mechanical implements, and manufactures, as shown in
wagon, household uirniture, leather, brick and tile, tfcc, closed my
inspection of the hall, and brought me to the second day of the
exhibition, which was devoted to ploughing match, and horses.

The j)remium for ploughing was contested for by three ox teams,
on a fine loam soil, and was skilfully executed, the first premium

xlviii REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

being taken by the person'who had taken the same at several past
exhibitions. I ■would suggest to the farmers of the society, that
they in future seek a little harder for the honors of this department
of the show, or else " throw up the sponge," and accept the present
winner as the chamj^ion ploughman of the island. Next in order
of the day came the colts, mostly of the Messenger stock, the get
of the stallion Hiram Morton, purchased in Maine, and owned by
Hiram Smith. They all appeared well, and if properly cared for I
have no doubt will make good farm horses. The farm and driv-
ing horses were shown off the society's grounds, on the track owned
by the Hon. H. L. Whiting, a total in number of tliirty-five (35) ;
am pleased to report there was no racing, all tlic horses l)eing
shown at their natural motion. This being the actual closing of the
fair, I wondered if the third day could be well sustained, but to
my surprise, in spite of the rain and wind, at an early hour the
crowd began to gather, to view the hall, and in the P. M., to hea:r
the true closing feature of the show, the annual address, by the
able agricultural orator, Dr. Geo. B. Loring, who was, as ever, inter-
esting and instructive, and was throughout listened to with the
closest attention.

From all I saw on the island, from the statement of the com
crops, etc., raised here, — one acre of com raised the past ^ason, by
Mr. Geo. D. Cottle, the yield estimated by a portion weighed, was
one hundred and twenty-seven and one-seventh (1271) bushels, fifty
loads of manure only being applied, all ploughed under, — and from
the high tone of morals that prcvades the entire community (for in
the three days' mingling among the people I did not hear a jirofane
word), intoxicating liquors, or persons intoxicated not being seen,
and I was informed that liquor could not be purchased on the
island, as it were starving out Major Jones and his assistants ; and
after acknowledging the courtesy and hospitality extended me by
the ofllccrs of the society, and many others, especially the kind
family under whose roof I found so good a home, will only say,
that in my estimation Martha in this vineyard made a good choice.

E. W. Boise.

APPENDIX. xlix

HAMPDEN.

Agreeably to appointment, I attended the exhibition of the
Hampden County Agricultural Society, on the 4th and 5th of Octo-
ber. The morning of the first day was unpleasant but it cleared off
at noon, succeeded by a pleasant afternoon. Notwithstanding the
unpropitious morning, which, in some measure, restrained the exhibi-
tion, there was a fine show of cattle on the grounds. Thorough-
bred and grade Shorthorns were the most numerous. Next came
the Ayrshires, then the Jerseys, with here and there a solitary ani-
mal of other breeds. The cattle were in very good condition, con-
sidering the drought of the season, embracing many superior
animals.

Phineas Stedman, president of the society presented his fine
herd of Shorthorns, headed by the " Princess Bull," " Duke of
Carlisle," renowned for his excellence. N. T. Smith of West
Springfield, exhibited 28 head of cattle, including his fine bull,
" Vicksburg," including grade and thoroughbred Shorthorns,
Josiah Fogg, of South Deerfield, exhibited a remarkably fine herd
of thoroughbred Shorthorns, whose gratuitous presence added
much to the show. This stock is from the royal line of " Arabella."
One of his cows, 19 yrs. old, is her last calf. These are all bred as
milking stock. His magnificent bull, " Master Buttercup," is from
the line of stock of Mr. Sheldon of New York, who has recently been
offered $10,000 apiece for some of his cows. W. R. Sessions, of
Wilbraham, exhibited 17 head of Shorthorns and gi-ades, among
which was his admirable thoroughbred bull " Waterloo." In the
line of Ayrshires was the exhibition of William Birnie's cele-
brated herd of thirty-six head, marshalled by his famous bull " Sul-
tan," a herd of Ayrshires not to be surpassed by any other exhi-
bition in New England. Among others we would name, as worthy
of notice. Col. Thompson's herd of Grade Shorthorns ; M. C.
Graves' herd of Shorthorns, embracing a cow giving 40 lbs. of milk
daily ; H. C. Sherman of Chicopee ; Hezekiah Pease, of East
Longmeadow, of good Grades.

The exhibition of working oxen was not large, but among them
some fine yokes. Of fat cattle, there was a splendid exhibition, by
Charles Fowler of Westfield, consisting of seven yoke of grade
Durhams ; Seth Bush, of Westfield, also had some good fat cattlc'
The show of swine, sheep and poultry, was not large, and although
each department had some good specimens there were few of which
we took note. There was a fine show of agricultural implements

1 REPORTS OF DELEGATES.

on the ground consisting of ploughs, mowers, and other imple-
ments connected with agricultural labor. We arrived too late to
witness the ploughing match, but understood the scene was very
interesting and the work well done. The exhibition of vegetables,
fruits, &c., was interesting though not so extensive as usual, prob-
ably owing to the character of the season. Mr. N. T. Smith, of
West Springfield, was an extensiA'e contributor. He contributed
68 varieties of apples and 19 of pears, besides grapes. John W.
Adams, had a good show of various fruits. A. D. Briggs, some
fine pears ; J. G. Chase, some extra apples, among which we no-
ticed the Congress ; W. R. Sessions, of Wilbraham, had a fine show
of apples. There were some fine Duchess D'Angouleme pears.
There were a few fine peaches, but neither these nor grapes were as
abundant as usual. Of vegetables, Mr. N. T. Smith showed more
than 100 kinds, of which the potatoe figured largely in variety
the Early Rose, and Jersey Peach Blow, with some of the newer
sorts were very fine. Mr. George A. Kibbe showed 11 squashes
from one vine, weighing 830 lbs. ; one weighed 109 lbs. H. C.
Sherman showed one weighing 108. C. C. Thompson, of Mid-
dlefield, Ferre, Batchelder & Co., fine shows of potatoes, includ-
ing seedlings. The dairy products were limited. Of cheeses,
there were three from E. W. Boise, of Blandford, handsome ; and
samples from a lot of sixty, by Miss Ladd, 14 years of age, of South
Wilbraham. There Avere a few lots of very fine butter. Of me-
chanical and miscellaneous articles there was a good display, both
connected with husbandry and housewifery, and with the attend-
ance of a band of music, the hall attracted its usual patronage.

The address was delivered on the grand stand of the exhibition
grounds. This was by Rev. J. F. Moors, of Greenfield. It was
able and sensible ; it consisted in contrasting the old with the ncAV
Avorld, He believed that in public schools, social equality and
progressive civilization, we have the elements of true life beyond
any other country. That man, who has to make himself, has far
better advantages here than elsewhere. He enlarged upon the bad
character of our roads, stating the fact that the poorest road in
Europe, is better than the best one in Massachusetts. He alluded
forcibly to the faults in our buildings, the lack of ventilation, the
the neglect of drains, &c., the importance of free air and ex-
ercise, to the more frequent usage of Avomen in out-of-door em-
ployments, and in general to a greater simplicity in the habits of
living.

TI\e exhibition closed Avith the usual trials of horses in the vari-
ous departments of draft, Avork, road and family horses. There

APPENDIX. li

was also an exhibition of the Percheron horses and colts to which
premiums were awarded, by the Massachusetts Society for the Pro-
motion of Agriculture ; but our time did not permit us to be
present.

The usual dinner was given at the Massassoit House, where the
president, and other gentlemen, addressed the audience. In- re-
sponse to a call from your delegate, he alluded to the promising
condition of the Hampden Society, under the guidance of an able
and experienced head, to the magnificent grounds in possession of
the society, that valuable as they were for an agricultural exhi-
bition, they were still more valuable in a sanitary j^oint of view,
as a park for the city of Springfield, destined as it is to become one
of the largest cities of the Commonwealth ; that now while the
opportunity exists that great boon, for the benefit of coming gen-
erations, might be secured.

Marshall P. Wilder.

lii

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Ixii

PREMIUMS xVXD GRATUITIES.

Analysis of Pkemiums and Gratuities awakded — Concluded.

MISCELLANEOUS.

SOC lETIES,

o

— Mil'

5_ O

•=a

Massachusetts,

Essex, .

Middlesex, .

Middlesex North,

Middlesex South,

Worcester, .

Worcester West,

Worcester North,

Worcester North- West,

Worcester South,

Worcester South-East,

Hampshire, Franklin )
and Hampden, j

Hampshire, .

Higliland,

Hampden,

Hampden East,

Union, .

Franklin,

Housatonic, .

Berkshire,

Hoosac Valley,

Norfolk,

Bristol, .

Bristol Central,

Plymouth,

Marshfleld, .

Hingham,

Barnstable, .

Nantucket, .

Martha's Vineyard,

Totals, .

$.31 00
78 00
23 00
36 00

5 50
34 00

10 00

20 00

4 00

$030 50

$1,000 00
30 00

60 00
22 00
80 00
50 00

35 00
30 00

20 00

12 00

15 00
25 00

15 00
30 00

00 00
50 00

7 00
21 00
25 00

$1,547 00

$1,000 00

f25 00

15 00
10 00

40 00

20 00
9 00

14 00
6 00

16 00

$1,026 00 $101 00

$8 00
123 00

8 50
5 00

99 00

5 00
10 75

20 00

33 75
17 22

*$770 00
93 00
163 50

86 00
36 00

87 82
215 50
123 75

50 00
132 50

33 50

111 20

107 90

78 28

76 25

54 59

105 25

J481 00

352 00

117 25

9G 50

325 00

301 50

173 50

110 00

330 59

83 C5

56 50

123 35

4

282
262
204
194
129
236
161
127
139
199

181

219
157
76
123
113
212
323
570
260
210
550
276
440
473
600
268

251

$236 22 $4,881 78 , $71 45

I I

• $500 for fish culture ; $270 for four scholarships at the State Agricultural College.

t On reports and statements.

X $205 trotting horses premium not paid.

APPENDIX.

Ixiii

N'AMJES of Cities and Toions to ichich the Premiums and
Gratuities loere disbursed^ and the amount to each.

ESSEX,

Beverly,

Boston,

Bradford,

Danvers,

Essex,

Georgetown

Gloucester,

Groveland,

Hamilton,

Haverhill,

Ipswich,

Lynnfield,

Marblehead,

Methuen, .

122

00

15

00

25

00

134

00

39

00

20

00

11

00

31

00

132

00

35

00

190

00

5 00

15

00

9

00

Middleton, .

Newbury, .

Newburyport,

North Andover,

Peabody,

Rockport,

Rowley,

Salem,

Topsfield,

Wenham,

West Newbury,

Total, .

,?2 00
99 00
57 00
55 00
25 00
5 00
25 00
59 00
19 00
29 00
10 00

1,077 00

MIDDLESEX.

Acton, . . . .

$113 75

Arlington, .

71 25

Assabet,

7 75

Bedford, .

6 25

Belmont,

117 00

Billerica,

5 00

Boston,

40 00

Boxborough,

4 00

Burlington, .

51 00

Cambridge, .

71 00

Carlisle,

5 00

Chelmsford,

6 50 \

Concord, . . >

349 00 1

Dracut,

. 16 00

Fitchburg, .

. 13 00

Framingham,

. 33 00

Groton,

Hudson,

Lexington,

Lincoln,

Leominster,

Littleton,

Marlboroug

Medford,

Pepperell,

Providence,

Reading,

Shirley,

Somerville,

Stoneham,

Stow, .

Sudbury,

R.I

$3 00

21 00

197 25

88 25

2 00
20 75

5 00
50

3 00
13 00
10 00

3 00

6 00
13 25

3 50
30 00

Ixiv

PREMIUMS AND GRATUITIES.

MIDDLESEX — Concluded.

Waltham, .

. $93 75

Woburn,

. $69 00

Wayland, .

. 16 75

Worcester, .

3 00

Weston,

. 17 50

Winchester,

. 32 75

Total, .

§1,561 75

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

Acton,

Billerica,

Chelmsford,

Dracut,

Dunstable, .

Groton, .

Lowell,

Tewksbury,
Tyngsborough,
Wilmington,
Winchester,

Total, .

5^106 25

35 00

50

7 00

§761 25

MIDDLESEX SOUTH,

Ashland,

m 40

Sherborn, .

. $3 00

Framingham,

732 77

Southborough,

. 32 00

Holliston, .

11 75

Sudbury,

. 41 00

Hopkinton, .

12 00

Wayland, .

. 82 25

Marlborough,

12 50

Natick,

34 00

Total, .

11,077 17

Out of the district,

111 50

WORCESTER.

Auburn, . . . . $4 00

Mendon, . . . . |10 00

Barre, .

108 00

Millbury,

123 00

Bolton,

5 00

Nashua, N. H.,

100 00

Boylston, .

31 00

North Braintree,

14 00

Charlton,

11 00

Oxford,

25 00

Dudley,

16 50

Princeton, .

76 00

East Brookfield,

5 00

Rutland,

9 00

Grafton,

12 00

Shrewsbury,

6 00

Holden,

6 00

South Framingham,

20 00

Leicester, .

6 00

Sterling,

3 00

APPENDIX.

WORCESTE R —Concluded.

Ixv

Sturbridge, .

Sutton,

Northborough,

Warren,

Webster,

^18 00

117

00

6

00

27

00

24

00

Wilkinsonville,
Worcester, .

Total, .

. $15 00
. 961 75

$1,759 25

WORCESTER WEST.

Athol,.

S5 25

Petersham, .

$15 25

Barre,.

586 85

Phillipston, .

26 00

Brookfield, .

32 00

Princeton, .

92 00

Charlton, .

14 00

Sturbridge, .

17 00

Fitchburg, .

32 00

Sutton,

52 00

Framingham,

75 00

Unknown, .

40 00

Hardwick, .

95 00

Warren,

60 50

Hubbardston,

9 25

West Brookfield,

6 00

New Braintree, .

36 85

Worcester, .

87 00

North Brookfield,

24 00

Oakham,

25 62

Total, .

$1,411 57

Palmer,

80 00

WORCESTER NORTH.

Ashburnham,
Ashby,
Boston,
Fitchburg, .
Greenfield, .
Lancaster, .
Leominster,
Lunenburg,

S2 00

12 50

105 50

925 75

18 00

5 00

124 50

97 50

Oakdale,
Princeton, .
Shirley,
Sterling,
Westminster,
Wilton, N. H.,

Total, .

$6 00
204 00
35 00
18 00
28 50
25 00

$1,607 25

WORCESTER NORTH-WEST,

Athol, .
Barre, .
Boston,

$291 00
30 50

Brattleborough, Vt.,
Fitchburg, .

25 00 Hartford, Conn.,

$6 00
150 00
200 00

livi PREMIUMS AND GRATUITIES.

WORCESTER XORTII-AV ES T— Concluded.

Manchester, N. H.,

. $8 00

Royalston, . . . . $34 00

Montague, .

9 00

Templeton 31 17

New Salem,

30 00

Winchendon, . . . 8 67

Orange,

22 25

Worcester, .... 67

Petersham, .

20 00

Phillipston, .

. 78 00'

Total $944 26

WORCESTER SOUTH.

Boston, . . . . $10 00

Spencer, . . . . $5 00

Brimfield,

25 50

Southbridge,

111 25

Brookfield,

65 00

Sturbridge, .

123 00

Charlton,

128 50

Sutton,

50 00

Dudley,

23 25

Warren,

71 50

Grafton,

20 00

Wales,

1 00

Holland,

41 50

Ware, .

2 00

Leicester,

9 00

Webster,

45 00

Melrose,

1 25

Wilkinsonville,

8 00

Palmer,
Rochdale,

50
7 00

Total S748 25

WORCESTER SOUTH-EAST

Ashland, . . . . $17 55

Milford, .

. $241 40

Bellingham,

9 95

Northbridge,

1 60

Blackstone, .

12 75

Sutton,

15 95

Framinghara,

28 75

Upton,

39 55

Grafton,

21 15

Uxbridge, .

21 15

Hopkinton, .

31 95

Westborough,

26 35

Holliston, ;

13 15

Woonsocket,

7 10

Medway,

9 65

Mendon,

148 20

Totai $646 20

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

Amherst, . . . $46 00 Chicopee $6 00

Buckland, . . . . 8 50 Conway, . . . . 19 50

APPENDIX. Ixvii

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND H A M P D E N — Conoi>udbd.

Cummington,

$37 00

Deerfield, .

203 00

Easthampton,

34 50

Goshen,

4 00

Granby,

20 00

Hadley,

66 00

Hatfield, .

71 50

Holyoke,

8 50

Huntington,

6 00

Middlefield, .

8 00 !

Northampton,

224 50

Rowe, .

Shelburn, .
South Hadley,
Southampton,
Sunderland,
Westfield, .
Whateley, .
Williamsburg,

Total, .

U 50
123 00
18 64
54 95
23" GO
62 00
7 00
32 00

$990 09

HAMPSHIRE.

Amherst,

$227 65

Belchertown,

11 30

Conway,
Hadley,

7 25
136 00

Hatfield, .

18 25

Holyoke,
Leverett,

2 12
16 25

Northampton,

4 00 ,

Pelham,

4 75

Prescott,
South Deerfield,
South Hadley,
Southampton,
Sunderland,
Various other towns,

Total, .

$9 00

6 00

20 00

4 00

122 25

23 13

$611 95

HIGHLAND.

Becket,

$64 25

Northampton,

. $6 00

Blandford, .

8 25

Otis, ....

25

Chester,

44 50

Peru, ....

. 58 50

Dalton,

22 00

Pittsfield, .

20 CO

Easthampton,

75

Plainfield, .

50

Hatfield, .

1 00

Sandisfield, .

2 00

Hinsdale, .

102 90

Washington,

8 00

Huntington,

2 50

West Chesterfield,

4 00

l^anesborough,

9 00

Worthington,

8 CO

Lee, .

8 00

Middlefield,

223 75

Total, . . . .

$600 15

Montgomery,

3 00

Ixviii PREMIUMS AND GRATUITIES.

HAMPDEN.

Aquawam, .

. 1825 00

Middlefield,

. 82 50

Blandford, .

3 00

SpringGeld,

. 162 75

Buckland, .

2 50

West SpringBeld,

. 115 25

Chicopee, .

. 96 75

Westfield, .

. 66 00

Deerfield, .

. 10 00

Wilbraham,

. 32 00

Longmeadow,

. 98 00

Ludlow,

. 15 00

Total, .

. S628 75

HAMPDEN EAST.

Belchertown,

Brimfield, .

Holland,

Longmeadow,

Ludlow,

Monson,

$33 50

Palmer,

30 50

Sturbridge,

16 00

Warren,

4 50

Wilbraham,

10 50

240 35

Total,

§175

00

5

00

26

25

65

13

$606 73

UNION,

Agawam, . . . . SI 50

Pittsfield, .

. U 60

Becket,

2 50

Russell,

. 10 50

Blandford, .

305 60

Sandisfield, .

1 00

Chester,

2 87

Suffield, Conn., .

. 15 00

Granville, .

34 00

Tolland, .

1 00

Iladley, .

16 67

Westfield, .

. 22 17

Middlefield,.
Montgomery,

3 00

4 18

Total, .

. $427 84

Otis, .

6 25

FRANKLIN.

Athol, .

. $1 00

Erving,

. $4 50

Bernardston,

. 26 50

Gill, .

. 19 75

Buckland, .

8 00

Greenfield, .

. 161 25

Coleraine, .

. 20 00

Guilford, Vt.,

3 00

Conway,

. 77 00

Hatfield, .

2 00

Deerfield, .

. 195 50

Leverett, .

3 50

APPENDIX.

FRANKLIN — Concluded.

Ixix

Leyden,

|2 00

Shelburne, .

. $262 75

Montague, .

. 32 25

Sunderland,

. 73 00

Northfield, .

8 25

Rowe, .

1 50

Total, .

. $901 75

HOUSATONIC.

Alford,

$96 00

Pittsfield, .

$5 00

Becket,

10 00

Richmond, .

. 24 00

Egremont, .

187 00

Sandisfield, .

5 00

Great Barrington,

471 00

Sheffield, .

. 398 00

Lee, ....

137 00

Stockbridge,

. 148 00

Lenox,

115 00

West Stockbridge,

. 40 00

Monterey, .

32 00

Mount Washington,

17 00

Total, .

$1,743 00

New Marlborough,

68 00

BERKSHIRE.

Adams,

Alford,

Becket,

Cheshire,

Dalton,

Egremont,

Great Barrington

Hancock,

Hinsdale,

Lanesboroug

Lee, .

Lenox,

Monterey,

New Ashford,

$379 00

8 00

8 00

118 00

78 50

27 00

156 00

38 00

50 50

242 50

153 50

290 50

50

28 50

Peru, ....

$12 00

Pittsfield, .

. 700 00

Richmond, .

119 50

Savoy,

2 50

Sheffield, .

45 00

Stockbridge,

. 150 50

Tyringham,

1 00

Washington,

3 00

West Stockbridge,

18 00

Williamstown,

96 00

Windsor, .

7 00

Total,

$2,767 50

HOOSAC VALLEY.

Cheshire,
Clarksburg,

$90 50
5 75

Dalton,
Florida,

$8 00
31 75

Ixx

PREMIUMS AND GRATUITIES.

IIOOSAC VALLEY — Co:<cLaDED.

Great Barrington,
Huntington,
Lanesborough,
Lee, .
Lenox,

Manchester, N. H.,
New York City, .
North Adams,

. $15 00

5 00

7 25

6 00

9 00

6 00

1 50

365 50

Pittsfield, .
Pownal, Vt.,
Rowe, .
South Adams,
Stamford, Vt,,
Williamstown,

Total, .

«9 00

42 00

3 00

147 75

7 00
257 75

1,017 75

NORFOLK.

Boston,

$113 00

Brookline,

42 00

Canton,

56 00

Dedham,

131 75

Dorchester,

287 00

Dover,

58 25

Franklin,

12 00

Halifax,

20 00

Hyde Park,

87 25

Medfield,

2 00

Milton,

101 75

Necdham, .
Quincy,
Randolph, .
Roxbury, .
Sharon,
Stoughton, .
Walpole,
West Roxbury,
Wrentham, .

Total, .

1146 00

25 00

8 50

139 00

18 75

194 75

24 50

95 00

22 00

$1,584 50

BRISTOL CENTRAL.

Acushnet, .

$92 75

Berkley,

180 75

Boston,

4 00

Bridgewater,

222 00

Campello, .

5 00

Dartmouth, .

156 50 t

Dighton,

24 50 1

Fairhaven, .

59 00

Fall River, .

353 75

Freetown, .

43 00

Lakeville, .

204 50

Long Plain,

5 00

Middleborougb,

. 50 00

Myrickville,

Norton,

New Bedford,

Providence, R. I

Raynham,

Rehoboth,

Rochester,

Seekonk,

Somerset,

Taunton,

Westport,

Total,

$33 50
28 00

611 00
89 00

136 00

8 00

24 25

50 00

34 25

193 75
56 00

$2,664 50

APPENDIX.

PLYMOUTH.

Ixzi

Ablngton, .

$82 75

Marshfield, . . . ,

$33 00

Bridgewater,

712 00

Mattapoisett,

6 75

Boston,

6 00

Middleborough, .

144 75

Carver,

19 50

North Bridgewater,

368 25

Duxbury, .

20 00

Pembroke, .

9 25

East Bridgewater,

210 75

Plymouth, .

. 100 25

Halifax, .

135 50

Plympton, .

49 75

Hanson,

3 75

Rochester, .

8 75

Hingham, .

23 75

Wareham, .

. 40 00

Kingston, .

26 00

West Bridgewater,

. 248 75

Lakeville, .

55 00

Marion,

8 00

Total, .

$2,310 10

MARSHFIELD.

Abington, . . . . $5 00

Marshfield, .

. $374 88

Boston,

10 75

Middleborough, .

50

Carver,

50

Pembroke, .

. 31 05

Chelsea,

3 00

Plymouth, .

. 23 50

Dedham,

2 00

Scituate,

. 36 35

Duxbury,

113 85

South Scituate, .

9 75

Halifax,

3 50

Stoughton, .

75

Hanson,

6 50

Hanover,

•

. 16 00

Total, .

. $645 13

Kingston,

7 25

HINGHAM.

Boston,

. $34 10

North Bridgewater, .

. $8 00

Cohasset,

. 16 50

Quincy,

. 50 15

Hanover, .

4 25

Scituate,

. 48 90

Hingham, .

. 868 57

Weymouth, .

. 64 40

Hull, .
Marshfield, .

. 25 00
8 25

Total, .

$1,128 02

Ixxii

PREMIUMS AND GRATUITIES.

BARNSTABLE.

Barnstable, .

. $290 55

West Barnstable,

. fglOl 00

Chatham,

. 14 00

Yarmouth, .

. 53 00

Deonis,

. 53 00

Hyannis,

. 55 00

Total, .

. $587 55

Sandwich, .

. 41 00

NANTUCKET,

Nantucket,

$509 50

MARTHA'S VINEYARD,

Chilmark, .
Edgartown, .
Gay Head, .

21

80

78

12

3

00

Tisbury,
Total,

S287 14
$690 06

ABSTEACT OF liETUKNS

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES

MASSACHUSETTS,

18 7 0.

EDITED BY

CHARLES L. FLINT,

SECRETARY OF THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

BOSTON:

WRIGHT & rOTTER, STATE PRINTERS, No. 79 MILK STREET.

1871.

PEEFACE.

I am indebted to William Birnie, Esq., of Springfield, for the
use of tlie cuts of stock, whicli were drawn and engraved at his
expense for this Report.

The cow " Betsie," No. 274 Ayrshire Herd Book, is a dark red
and white, calved August 6, 1862. She was bred and is owned by-
Mr, BiEXiE. Her sire, " Blossom," No. 10, and her dam, " Betty,
5th," No. 24.

" Rob Roy " was also bred by Mr. Biekie. His pedigree will
appear in the forthcoming third volume of the Ayrshire Herd
Book.

The illustrations of the able paper on Insects, by Dr. Packard,
are also new, and were drawn and engraved expressly for the Re-
port. Dr. Packard hoj^es that farmers and gardeners will take an
interest in informing him of the habits and injuries done by nox-
ious insects, and send specimens enclosed in pasteboard, or wooden
or tin boxes, or vials carefully packed, by mail or otherwise, of the
insects and portions of trees or plants injured. In this way mate-
rials for future reports can be collected. He will always be ready
to answer any inquiries regarding injurious and other insects, name
specimens or collections, and, if convenient, visit gardens or farms
peculiarly infested. Caterpillars, grubs, maggots, etc., should, if
possible, be packed in tight tin boxes (air holes are not necessary),
accompanied with leaves of their food-plants or other food.

I must repeat the suggestion that I have already so often made,
that the Statements which appear in the Transactions of the sev-
eral agricultural societies are, as a general rule, too indefinite.
This applies to the statements of experiments and the cultivation

IV PREFACE.

of crops rather than to the reports of committees. Owing to the
unusual length of the Secretary's Report, it has been necessary to
condense the returns of societies to a greater extent than has some-
times been the case. It is proper, however, to say that, taken as a
whole, the work of most of the societies, so far as appears in their
returns, shows a marked improvement upon previous years. It is
to be hoped that the desire for progress, now so widely diffused,
will lead to new efforts to raise the standard higher every year, and
thus comply with the spirit as well as with the letter of the law, by
returning a just equivalent for tlie bounty so generously bestowed.

CHARLES L. FLINT.

Boston", January 25, 1871.

OFFICERS OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES.

18 7 1.

MASSACHUSETTS.

President— GEORGi: W. LYMAN, of Boston.
Secretary— TETER C. BEOOKS, Jr., of Boston.

President— WILLIAM SUTTON, of Peabody.
Secretary— CKARLES P. PEESTON, of Danvers.

MIDDLESEX.

President— JOHN CUMMINGS, of Woburn.
Secretary— JOHN B. MOOEE, of Concord.

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

President— JONATHAN LADD, of Lowell.
Secretary— E. T. EOWELL, of Lowell.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

President— GEORGE B. BEOWN, of Eraminghara.
Secretary— JAMES W. BEOWN, of Eramingliam.

WORCESTER.

President— SOLOMON H. HOWE, of Bolton.
Secretary— WIN SLOW S. LINCOLN, of Worcester.

WORCESTER WEST.

President— JAMES W. JENKINS, of Barre.
/S^e«re(ar(/— CHAELES BEIMBLECOM, of Barre.

WORCESTER NORTH.

President — J. II. LOCKEY, of Leominster.
Secretary— GEORGE S. HOUGHTON, of Fitchburg.

WORCESTER NORTH-WEST,

President— EARWELL W. FAY, of Athol.
Secretary— E. T. LEWIS, of Athol.

VI OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETIES.

WORCESTER SOUTH.

PresifZene— DANIEL DWIGIIT, of Dudley.
Secretary— A. C. MORSE, of Sturbridge.

WORCESTER SOUTH-EAST.

President— WYLJAAM KNOWLTON, of Upton.
Secretary— J. ALLEN FAY, of Milford.

HjVmpshire, franklin and hajipden.
PresicZe?i«— ELNATHAN GRAVES, of Williamsburg.
Secretary— A. PERRY PECK, of Nortliamptoii.

HAMPSHIRE.

PresWe?i«— WILLIAM S. CLARK, of Amherst.
Secretarij—'E. A. THOMAS, of Amherst.

HIGHLAND.

President— SIMOl^i H. WHITE, of Hiusdale.
^Secretor?/— JONATHAN McELWAIN, of Middlefleld.

HAMPDEN.

Presi(Zen(— PHINEAS STEDMAN, of Chicopee.
Secretary — J. N. BAGG, of West Spriuglleld.

HAJIPDEX EAST.

President— \s^M. HOLBROOK, of Palmer.
Secretary— C. C. SHAW, of Palmer.

T'NIOX.

P/-es«?e?i^— WILLIAM M. LEWIS, of Blandford.
Secretary— II. P. ROBINSON, of Blaudford.

FRANKLIN.

President— WILl A AM KEITH, of Greenfield.
/Secretory— SAMUEL J. LYONS, of Greenfield.

BERKSHIRE.

Preside7it—J0lil>i E. MERRILL, of Pittsfleld.
Secretary— ^Y^SL II. MURRAY, of Pittsfield.

HOUSATONIC.

President— SAJil.lf^Y A. RUSSELL, of Gt. Barriugton.
/Secretory— HENRY T. ROBBINS, of Gt. Barriugton.

HOOSAC VALLEY.

President— J Oni^ M. COLE, o Williamstown.
Secretary— U. CLAY BLISS, of North Adams.

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETIES. Vll

NORFOLK.

Fresident—JOU^ S. ELDRIDGE, of Canton,
Secretary—llE^RY O. IIILDKETII, of Dedham.

MARSIIFIELD.

President— G'EOllG'E M. BAKER, of Marshfleld.
Secretary— ^yARU^^^ W. BARKER, of Marshfleld.

BRISTOL.

President— W11.LIAM MASON, of Taunton.
Secretary— EZRA DAVOL, of Taunton.

BRISTOL CENTRAL.

PresiVZenf— NATHAN DURFEE, of Eall River.
Secretary— ROBERT ADAMS, of Fall River.

PLYMOUTH.

President— CHARLES G. DAVIS, of Plymouth.
/Secretory— LAFAYETTE KEITH, of Bridgewater.

HINGHAM.

President— ALBERT FEARING, of Hingham.
^S'ecretory— FEARING BURR, of Hingham.

BARNSTABLE.

Presi^eni— CHARLES C. BEARSE, of Barnstable,
^ecre tori/— CHARLES F. SWIFT, of Yarmouth Fort.

NANTUCKET.

President— A':^T>REW M. MYRICK, of Nantucket,
Secretary — ALEX. MACY, Jr., of Nantucket.

JIARTHA'S VINEYARD.

President— HEBRO'M VINCENT, of Edgartown.
/Secretory— DAVID MAYHEW, of North Tisbury.

AGRICULTURAL EXHIBITIONS

1871.

Essex, at Ipswich,

Middlesex, at Concord, . . . .
Middlesex North, at Loivell, .
Middlesex South, at Framingham, .
Worcester, at Worcester, . . . .
Worcester West, at Barre,
Worcester North, at Fitchhurg,
Worcester North-West, at Athol, .
Worcester South, at Sturhridge,
Worcester South-East, at Milford,
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden, at

Northampton, .
Hampshire, at Amherst,
Highland, at Middlefield, .
Hampden, at Springjield,
Hampden East, at Palmer,
Union, at Blandford, .
Franklin, at Greenfield,
Berkshire, at Pittsfield,
Housatonic, at Great Barrington,
HoosAC Valley, at North Adams,
Norfolk, at Readville,
Marshfield, at Marshjield,
Bristol, at Taunton, .
Bristol Central, at Myrick's,
Plymouth, at Bridgercater,
Hingham, at Ilingham,
Barnstable, at Barnstable,
Nantucket, at Nantucket, .
Martha's Vineyard, at West Tisbury,

September 26 and 27.
September 27 and 28.
September 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
September 20 and 21.
September 21 and 22.
September 28 and 29.
September 26 and 27.
October 4 and 5.
September 14 and 15.
September 26 and 27.

October 5 and 6
September 26 and 27.
September 14 and 15.
October 3 and 4.
October 10 and 11.
September 21 and 22.
September 28 and 29.
October 3, 4 and 5.
September 27, 28 and 29.
September 19, 20 and 21.
September 21 and 22.
October 5 and 6.
September 26, 27 and 28.
September 20, 21 and 22.
September 28, 29 and 30.
September 26 and 27.
October 3 and 4.
September 27 and 28.
October 17 and 18.

AGRICULTURE OF MASSACHUSETTS,

AMERICAN MANIA FOE LARGE FARMS.

From au Address before the Essex Agricultural Society.

BY BENJAMIN P. BUTLER.

Our fathers came from a land-loving, land-hoarding race,
whether the blood wliich flows in our veins is drawn from the
tenant-farmer of England or the lord of the soil. From the first,
our ancestors knew, by bitter experience, the want of land, the
grinding oppression of rent-paying — had felt the power which
possession of it gives — the place which the lord of the soil held
amongst princes and kings ; aye, and had felt what was the fate
of the landless, and how little he could withstand the oppres-
sion of the landlord. If, as may be, we reckon back our blood
from some noble house of England, it came through the veins
of the cadet, the younger son of that house, whom the law of
primogeniture had made as landless as the tenant. He had
seen all of it swept away by the elder brother, while he was left
to seek his fortune and his livelihood in the wilds of a new
world. Or, if our ancestry was of the down-trodden sons of
Ireland, they had learned, through tyranny, wrong and starva-
tion, that without land man was nothing ; that to be landless
was to be helpless.

Thus we came naturally, and by inheritance, to be imbued

almost with a mania for soil-getting ; and our fathers strove to

possess themselves of as much land as possible to encompass

with their fences, and to assure its title in themselves by the

1*

2 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

most carefully guarded records. Whoever looks orer the farms
of New England, even, will see that quantity of land in the
hands of the individual was all that was sought for, while in the
far West, where land was practically illimitable, and to be had
almost without price, we hear of farmers counting their acres
by thousands upon thousands. And in New York, in the earlier
days, the manors of the patroons equalled in extent and ex-
ceeded in richness of soil many a German principality. Singu-
larly enough, the laws of primogeniture and entail, in their
principles and effects, although not in force, took strong hold
upon our people, so that the father, in fact, gave the bulk of his
land substantially to one of his sons. Both these laws made
strong battle to maintain themselves as a part of our systems of
government in the conventions which formed the earlier consti-
tutions in most of the States, and not by strong votes in numbers
were they cast out. But while the law, through its enactments,
divided the estates among the children equally, yet in practice,
almost as a rule, the farm went to one. Who ever in New Eng-
land thought, or who ever now thinks, of dividing his land among
his daughters ? How rarely is the land divided by will among
the sons ? The practice which has obtained is, as we all know,
for some one of the sons to remain with the father with the ex-
pectation of being given the farm, either by paying small lega-
cies to his sisters and larger ones to his brothers, or when the
estate is inconsiderable in value, or, as a very common practice,
by being the assured recipient of the farm, by giving a bond for
the maintenance of his parents during their lives.

Thus has it come to pass that the agricultural land of New
England — and it is equally true of Massachusetts — has remained
substantially vm divided. The boundaries of many farms are
the same that they were in the time of the Revolution, save
where house lots may have been sold from them, if bordering
on a village. Some have been increased in their boundaries ;
and is it not to-day a boast among some of the farmers who sit
before me, that the boundaries of their farms are the same as
those of their fathers, their grandfathers, back even to the third
and fourth generations ?

In the settlement of the country there were reasons for this
aggregation of land which do not now obtain. New England
men depended upon the forest for their fuel and for their tim-

MANIA FOR LARGE FARMS. 8

ber ; so that large portions of land might well have been held
to supply the fence, the fire and the building material. Still, it
will be seen that in most of the farms, even, that reason did not
obtain, for a most eager desire was manifested for clearing the
land — avarice, apparently, prompting the owner to burn the
wood and skim the cream from the virgin soil. It is evident
that a wish to preserve woodland for fuel, in the absence of coal
and peat which now supply so largely the fuel of Massachusetts,
did not deter our fathers from cutting away the forest. Indeed,
the early New England farmer seemed to have two controlling
ideas in the selection and management of his farm : first, to set
his house on the top of a hill, so as to render access to it as dif-
ficult as possible ; and, second, to cut off all the wood upon
his land, so as to render it as dismal and bare as possible.
These results obtained, he became comfortable and thoroughly
respectable. Statistics show that to-day there are more acres of
growing woodland in the Commonwealth, although not as valu-
able, than there were in the days of the Revolution.

This aggregation of large quantities of land in one hand has
resulted in so poor tillage and so little productiveness, because
of the inability to till so much in a proper manner, and has
made farming so unprofitable, that — taking the waste and bar-
ren pastures, the unimproved woodland where the shrub-oak
and the stunted pine have filled the place of the maple, the
beech, the birch, the ash, and the oak — if all the agricultural
land of Massachusetts were put at sale to-day at a price which
is asked for it, the proceeds would not be sufficient to dig the
stones and rebuild the stone-walls which fence it.

Again, we see that farming presents so few attractions as a
business, that all our young men are flocking to the cities, or
engaging in commerce upon the seas, or seeking adventures
abroad, or homes in the "Western uncultivated lands. Anything
rather than here pursue the occupation of a farmer. If they
farm at all, they go to the West, to make themselves new homes
there. And if you ask the reason of this, you are told, " Who
would spend his time upon the sterile, broken lands of Massa-
chusetts when he can have the rich prairies of Illinois and Kan-
sas, without a stone, or a stump, or a hill, on which to make his
farm! " Probably there was never a greater fallacy than that
farming can be made more profitable in the West than in New

4 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

England. What crop will you plant there of which you cannot
raise more here than there to the acre ? Is it corn ? Compare
Massachusetts, in 18G7, with Ohio and Texas, to see why our
sons should go either West or South to raise corn. In 1867,
corn here averaged thirty-five bushels to the acre ; in Ohio
twenty-eight bushels to the acre ; Texas twenty-eight bushels
to the acre. So that, in fact, the average worth of an acre of
corn in Massachusetts was from $50 to $54 ; in Ohio, $20 to
$23, and in Texas $17 to $22. Is it wheat? The average
yield of wheat in Massachusetts was sixteen bushels to the acre ;
in Ohio, fifteen ; in Texas, nine. While the wheat of Massa-
chusetts was worth $2.75 a bushel, or 814 to the acre, the wheat
of Ohio was worth $2.40 per bushel, or $27 to $30 to the acre ;
and of Texas, ninety cents a bushel, or $17 to $18 to the acre.
Do you wish to raise oats ? Then the average yield of Massa-
chusetts was twenty-eight bushels to the acre ; of Ohio thirty ;
of Texas twenty-eight. The oats of Massachusetts average
seventy-five cents a bushel, year in and year out, while in
Texas and Ohio they are forty cents a bushel. Is it tobacco ?
The yield of IMassachusetts is 1,100 pounds to the acre ; of Ohio,
700, and Virginia, 700 pounds to the acre ; and the cash value
of an acre of tobacco in Massachusetts is quite treble in value
that of an acre in the great tobacco State of Virginia. Is it hay ?
Then we averaged one ton of hay in Massachusetts to one ton
and a half in Ohio, and a ton and two thirds in Texas. But for
years, when harvested, the hay of Massachusetts was worth $25
a ton ; the hay of Ohio from $12 to $15 ; and of Texas from
$16 to $18. In no State in the Union are the productions of
the soil, acre for acre, as tilled, taking the different kinds, so
great in quantity s^s in Massachusetts, and no State where the
product of the soil, when harvested, is so valuable. California
and Minnesota exceed us in wheat, acre per acre, but fall behind
us in other products. The statements I have made are so ac-
curate that they are literally borne out by statistics to be pro-
cured at any time from the Bureau of Agriculture at Washington.
It may be answered, " All that you say is very true, but it
costs so much to till an acre of ground in Massachusetts, in com-
parison with what you get out of it, that our brother-farmers of
the West have great advantage of us." Let us meet that argu-
ment, and compare again the same States ; and it will appear,

MANIA FOR LARGE FARMS. 5

taking the average of the whole amount cultivated and of the
prices of the crops by the actual results, that the produce of
Massachusetts of cultivated land, on an average of the whole
amount, is ^28 to the acre ; of Ohio it is $18 to the acre; of
Texas $21 to the acre ; and California, which boasts of her
richness in agriculture, overtopping even her mines, gives but
^21 to the acre.

Both farmer and statesman will be led to inquire what is the
cause of the languishment of agriculture as a business in tlie
United States, because we have seen it more remunerative in
New England than anywhere else in proportion to the amount
of land under cultivation. True, we hear of the immense crops
and immense farms of the West ; but there it is a question of
quantity and extent of farms, and not of the value of the crops.
It is also true that, for a few years, when the adventurous settler
takes the virgin soil, he gets crops far, far surpassing these
which I have brought into comparison ; but then, that is but for
a few years, and he quits the land which he has cleared and re-
duced to cultivation, and which he declares worn out, for " fresh
fields and pastures new " ; and for a while (yet a moment in tlie
nation's life), this maybe repeated; but the second and the
third generation certainly will find a necessity to retill the lands
that their fathers have exhausted. There can be no more
striking illustration of this than that which has occurred within
the memory of men here.. All can remember when the Gene-
see Valley in New York supplied not only its own inhabitants,
but all New England with the finer brands of flour. The
Genesee brand of flour was the only one called for in its day,
and we older men can remember the glowing accounts we read
of the productiveness of the New York lands in wheat and
their richness in breadstuff's. Next we hear of St. Louis flour ;
then we read of Minnesota flour. But the fact which most
vividly portrays the rapid exhaustion of land in this country is,
that wheat from California was brought in ships fifteen thousand
miles, in 18G8, around Cape Horn, carried by railroad and
canal to the Genesee Valley, and in the Rochester mills ground
to supply the wants of its inhabitants, sons of those fathers who
supplied all New England, within a generation, with their
surplus flour.

In searching for a remedy for this exhaustion of the soil, to

6 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

find the moans by which farmhig can become one of the profita-
ble occupations, to bring back our boys to the homestead and
the cultivation of the land, — the natural occupation of men,
because men in all professions, men in trade, men in every pur-
suit of life, the shipmaster on the sea, and the lawyer in the
forum, are all looking forward to that time in their old age when,
having accumulated a fortune more or less extensive, they can
come back to Mother Earth and finish life tiUing the land at
last, — we will see that the remedy cannot be found by any com-
parison we can make of the different sections of our own
country. For we see the same causes producing the same
effects, the same impoverishment of the soil, after a few years
of skimming it, the same aggregations of land which cannot be
tilled, the same unwillingness in the sons to follow the business
of their fathers in tilling the earth, and everywhere even greater
want of productiveness than in New England. Therefore it is
that we must go to other sources of comparison to find by
analogy what shall be the remedy. In this search we must turn
aside from England ; for there, cheap capital and tenant-farming
on long leases, and non-proprietorship of the land, make a state
of things which gives no room for comparison with America.
Tenant-farming here is almost wholly unknown, and wherever
the farmer is a tenant, it has become proverbially unprofitable.

Let us direct our attention, therefore, for the purpose of this
comparison, to a land where all eyes are now turned for a wholly
other and different reason. Let us examine the agriculture of
France, and compare its productions with our own, and compare
the habits of its people, as farmers, with ours, and see, if we
can, what is it that tends to show differences in their favor.
Here we may find facts which will teach the statesman and farmer
both lessons in agriculture, and quite possibly facts which will
arouse the attention, as surprising in themselves and containing
not a little rebuke to our general self-gratulation. One of our
vices as Americans is self-gratulation, a little vain-gloriousness,
a little boast. We speak of our teeming West. We speak
flippantly of our capability of supplying all the world with
breadstuffs. True, wo have the capability so to do ; but it is
equally lamentably true that we do not do it. The boastful
Western man upon his })rairics, or the Californian uj)on his
ranche, will, not a little astonished, learn the fact that the

MANIA FOR LARGE FARMS. 7

Empire of France, with not so much area as the State of Texas,
raises more wheat, in quantity, than the United States of
America, all told, reckoning from Alaska to Florida and from
Texas to Maine ; the area of France being only 207,480 square
miles, or 132 million acres, while Texas contains 237,321 square
miles, or 154 million acres. And yet the product of wheat in
France, in the year 1868, was 350 million bushels ; the total
product of wheat in the United States for the same year was
only about 240 million.

So far from our supplying the markets of the world with
wheat, in the year 1867, we sent to England only four million
hundred weight of wheat, or about nine million of dollars in
value, while France exported to England eleven million dollars'
worth of butter alone, to spread on the bread made from our
wheat, or to speak less lightly, France sent more value in butter
to England than we did in all kinds of breadstuffs.

Again, we go back to the year 1860, where only we can get
accurate statistics of the products of the United States and the
products of France : let me call your attention to the following
remarkable but reliable statistics of French agriculture, France
then produced 230 million bushels of oats against our 170 mil-
lion ; 70 million bushels of rye against our 20 million ; 60 mil-
lion bushels of barley against our 12 million ; and 32 million
bushels of buckwheat against our 12 million. Nor was she
without the products of grazing and pasture land, which we
suppose to be the necessity requiring our extended farms. She
had 4 million horses and mules against our 4 million and a
quarter ; 12 million of neat cattle against our 13 million ; 30
million of sheep against our 24 million, and 6 million of swine
against our 16 million.

As an example of what may be the profits of the smaller
industries of farming, which, by the farmers of the United
States, was reckoned almost valueless, it is an astonishing fact
that in the year 1866 France exported as much in value of eggs
to England alone as we exported of bacon and hams, one of our
chief exports of provisions, in 1868, to all the world ; that is to
say, in round numbers, rising of five million of dollars, while
we exported eggs last year to the paltry number of 412
dozen.

No man who has not had these figures brought to his consid-

8 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

eration, and who lias not examined the agricultural productions
of France, both in variety and amount, can believe that the 38
million of her inhabitants, on a territory so small as to give only
three and a half acres to an inhabitant, could vie, in agricultural
productions — of all that goes to make up the necessaries of living
and national wealth, save cotton and tobacco — with a nation like
ours, of about the same number of inhabitants, whose territory
gives more than fifty acres to each inhabitant, or nearly seven-
teen times as much land for cultivation ; and from this estimate
we exclude Alaska, of which none know the extent save the
walrus and polar bears. Of course a very large portion of
our lands, say three-fourths, are substantially uninhabited ; but
these are always reckoned when we make up our national
resources.

Nor is the common idea a true one, that the people of France
are poor, or that our people are drawn away from farming into
other and more profitable occupation, so that France does not
more than equal us in the value and amount of her industries —
all her industries as compared with ours ; for the year 1868 her
imports amounted to 079 million, and her exports to 581 million,
while in the same period the imports of the United States were
only 381 million and the exports were 441 million, of which
exportation 72 million were gold and silver and 1G3 million of
unmanufactured cotton, neither of which, to any extent, was
exported by France, leaving only 206 million as the product of
our agricultural and manufacturing industry for export, after
what is consumed by our people, against 581 million, which is
the surjilus of her agricultural and manufacturing industry ex-
ported after maintaining her own people. And although we
boast of our cotton and tobacco as sources of wealth, yet she
has her wines, brandies and sugars, of which latter France
exported in 18G8 six million dollars, and we imported sixty
millions.

The common idea in this country, that wealth is not diffused
in France as with us, but is only in the hands of a few rich
nobles, is another mistake quite as illusory as any of the mis-
understandings of the agricultural and industrial condition of
our ancient ally. While the national debt of France at the begin-
ning of the present year was almost precisely the same as ours,
being 2,700 million, yet instead of being as ours is, — 1,500

MANIA FOR LARGE FARMS. 9

million owed to foreigners, to say nothing of State and county-
debts, which are things unheard of in the departments of
France, — it is divided among and held by more than eleven hun-
dred thousand Frenchmen., giving a share of about 2,500 dollars
to each. The actual diffusion of wealth among the middling
and industral classes is evident, because when a loan of 90 mil-
lion of dollars was offered by the Emperor to the people, an actual
subscription of 3,152 million, or more than 35 times the sum
asked for, was made by 781 thousand different persons (all
Frenchmen, and generally in small sums), because the provi-
dence of their government, differing from ours, gives to the man
who desires to invest ten dollars in the national fund the prefer-
ence over him who desires to invest ten million, the small sub-
scription being first received, and first filled.

It may be interesting, although not exactly in consonance
with the purpose we have in this analysis, to compare the division
of the debt of France among the people, showing the diffusion of
wealth in the middling classes, with the national debt of Great
Britain. Her debt amounts to 3,800 million, which is held by
126 thousand persons only, giving an average share of 30 thou-
sand dollars to each individual as against less than one-tenth as
much to each holder of the French debt.

Nor are the French people burdened with taxation more than
we are. They have nothing of the taxation known with us as
State taxes, but their entire taxation is a national one, and
amounted with the revenues, which are another form of taxation
in the aggregate, in the year 1868, to 403 million of dollars,
while our taxation and revenues for the same year, paid to the
national government alone, was 405 millions. But it will be
observed that this taxation, while nominally about the same as
ours, yet, being with us based on a much less product of trade
and industry than in France — almost 50 per cent, less in fact —
is really a taxation nearly 50 per cent, greater on the industry
of this country than is imposed upon the industries of the French
people.

But another and more certain test of the distribution of wealth
in France is seen in this : the population being divided into 9
millions of families, allowing four to the family, which is nearly
the ratio, one million of those families, or four million of people,
are in easy circumstances, that is, able to live without work or
2*

10 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

business. Of the remaining 8 million, which may he said to be
composed of the industrial and working classes, 3 million only
are inhabitants of the towns. That is, of the whole population,
two-fifths of the people in France live in the cities, and three-
fifths live in the country. This gives a very surprising result as
compared with England, where four-fifths of the whole people
live in town, and one-fifth only in the country. We have yet no
data with which I am acquainted to make a like comparison
with this country.

All property is, then, very equally distributed among the bulk
of the population. There are six million of houses in France,
the greater part of them cottages with small plots of land.
Nearly the whole of this number are small freeholds belonging
to their occupants. In other words, more than two-thirds of the
entire population own their own houses.

After hearing these statistics, the question, I have no doubt,
arises to the lips of each one of my auditors, as it came to me, —
how are these very great results possible ? What is the secret ?
This may be told in a word. It is the thorough cultivation of
the soil. Of her 132 million of acres, 61 million are arable ; 12
million only are in meadows, or, as we say, fields and grass ; 5
million in vineyards ; 1^ millions in orchards and gardens ; 2|
million in miscellaneous crops ; 20 million in wood and forest ;
a half-million in ponds ; 20 million only may be called heath or
waste lands, the remainder being for roads, public squares,
canals and pleasure grounds — about 7 million of acres. Thus
it will appear that two-thirds of the entire area of France are
under actual cultivation every year.

But the question still recurs — how can this be possible ? The
answer is, it becomes possible because of the minute subdivision
of the land, the small freeholds into which all France is divided.
Before the revolution of 1792 the lands were holden largely by
the nobles and by the clergy, large })ortions being covered with
forest. These lands, of course, were cultivated by a tenantry,
and as the nobleman was exempted from the most oppressive
portion of the taxation, all exactions fell upon the land and upon
labor. But the French revolution changed all that. All the
lands of the Church and of the nobles were declared public
domain, and being made the basis of the currency, were sold out
in small parcels. Much of the forests were cut olf, the land put

MANIA FOR LARGE FARMS. 11

into form for tillage, and, in jealousy lest the nobles should again
accumulate land in large quantities through laws of entail and
primogeniture, the people made it a portion of the fundamental
law that all patrimonies should be equally divided among chil-
dren, leaving but one-third to be disposed of by the parent if he
had two children, and one-quarter only if he had three. This
provision of law has withstood the several changes of govern-
ment, and an attempt to modify it by Charles X. was, perhaps,
the primary cause of the revolution of 1830. The effect of this
salutary law has been the subdivision of landed estates and other
property in France until the result has been attained which we
have seen. The farms average less than fifteen acres, and there
are over three million of farms containing ten acres or less. The
farms in Massachusetts average 100 acres each. Do we wonder
now at the difference in cultivation ?

May we not deduce, therefore, fairly from this analysis and
comparison of the agricultural industry of France, the proposi-
tion that the great fault of our farming is too great extent of
land in each farm and too little cultivation ? Is it not the duty
of the statesman to inquire whether legislation should not be
fitted to subdivide the land for the benefit of the whole people ?
and is it not equally the duty of the farmer to inquire whether
less land and more cultivation would not produce greater crops ?

I have given you the facts and figures and have studiously
avoided giving any opinions of my own which would not be
valuable. But I have endeavored to impress these very valuable
and vital statistics upon you, in order to bring the questions I
have last indicated to your consideration. It will be observed
in this that I have not taken into account the advantages we are
supposed to derive from the political liberty which we enjoy com-
pared with France bearing the burdens of an empire, which we
have seen, in fact, are no greater than the unholy and unneces-
sary war, through which we have passed, have imposed upon us.
Nor would it have been just if I had undertaken to make any
allowance in our favor for this, because, to the statesman and
statistician, it is evident that for the last twenty years the agricul
tural portion of the people of France have enjoyed the best gov-
ernment possible for them. After a democracy, a pure despotism
is the best government. The wrongs, sins, crimes if you please,
of one man are iufinitessimal in their bearing upon thirty-eight

12 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

million of people. The citizens of no country have enjoyed
greater protection of life, liberty and property, than has the
French nation for nearly twenty years past. A man there need
only so conduct himself as not to injure his neighbor and let
politics alone, and for him the government was nearly perfect.
I know we arc accustomed to decry Napoleon, and some men do
so all the more now that he is deposed and powerless. But it is
not to be denied, in justice, that ho has given to agricultural
France the very best government she ever had, whatever may
have been the action of his government upon the people of Paris,
or whatever the theoretical objections to him as a usurper or
personal ruler.

This is evident from two perfectly cogent series of facts :
First, that since 1851 the production of grain in France has
been raised from 912 million of bushels to 1,006 million in
1868 ; the production of wine from 739 million gallons in 1851
to 1,664 million in 1868 ; that the exports and imports of France
have been raised from 522 million in 1851 to 1,625 million in
1868 ; that the inland trade has been brought up from 248
million to 1,312 million ; and the value of the personal property
from 1,152 million to 3,733 million, and the commercial marine
from 5 million of tons to 12 million tons. And in Paris, too,
the valuation of the houses is raised, under Napoleon, from 511
million to 1,191 million.

Can a government that works such results have been oppres-
sive to the people ? Have the mass of the French people been
satisfied with the government ? Of this there were two very
conclusive proofs. It is commonly said that the votes in the
several elections in favor of the Empire have been controlled by
the army. But in the rural districts, where the army was not
stationed, the vote in favor of the Empire has been almost unan-
imous, and the entire vote against it has been in the larger
towns and in the city of Paris where soldiers were stationed.

But there is a still better and more conclusive answer. When
people are misgoverned and dissatisfied with their government,
they emigrate. Ireland has been pouring her population into
this country for many years, until, from a population of less than
six million, we have naturalized citizens of Irish birth, 1,611
thousand ; from England, which boasts of being the freest and
best governed country in Europe, with a population of 20

MANIA FOR LARGE FARMS. 13

million, wc have half a million of naturalized citizens ; from
Scotland, with a population of 3 million, 100 thousand ; from
Switzerland, the free republic of Europe, with a population of
21 million, we have 54 thousand ; from Norway, with a popula-
tion of a million and a half, we have 43 thousand ; from the
Netherlands, with a population of 3 million, 28 thousand ; from
Germany — free, enlightened Germany, whose king proclaimed
" her march the march of civilization " — we have a million and
a half of naturalized citizens out of a population of 37 million,
while from France, with a population of 38 million, we have but
one hundred thousand, or about the same number that we have
from Scotland with one-twelth of the population. Besides, it
will be remembered that Great Britain has large colonies all
over the world, making a large drain upon her surplus popula-
tion.

With this exhibit of favored industry under an empire, the
inquiry presses home at once, in what production have we in the
.republic of America any superiority over a despotism ? Why
should we prefer the one form of government rather than the
other ? The answer is an obvious one. The republic excels in
the production of men. For while the population of France, not
depleted by emigration, as we have seen, increased from 1820 to
1800 only 7 million from 31 million, the population of the United
States increased from 9 million in 1820 to 31 million in 13G0 ;
and although greatly swelled by emigration, yet the increase
from that source during that period was only 5 million, while
the actual increase was 22 million. Or, to state facts in other
words, the percentage of increase in France was, for the whole
period of forty years, about 22 per cent., or one-half of one per
cent, per annum, while the increase in the United States was for
the same period 244 per cent., or six per cent, per annum, being
twelve times greater increase in the United States than in
France ; and this too effected by less than one-fourth by immi-
gration, leaving the actual increase, without immigration, nine
times greater in this country than in France. Here we see the
work of a republic.

14 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

DECLINE OF NEW ENGLAND AGRICULTURE.

From an Address before the Worcester Xorth Agricultural Society.

BY ALVAH CROCKER.

Why are we cultivating less and less land every year ? Why
such decadence and decline in keeping up farms ? Why in this
district do we find such quantities of land going to waste ; with
the very stone walls, which formerly enclosed mowing lands and
pasturage, obscured by scrub oak and alders ? Why are wer
compelled to gaze upon so many dilapidated or deserted dwell-
ing-houses or tumbling cellar walls, where once was the happy
abode of some independent yeoman ?

The same inquiry is pertinent to all New England. Vermont,
for instance, wliosc mountains are verdant to their very crests,
and whose valleys are bounded by some of the loveliest rivers
and lakes on the globe, — for where can you find anything su-
perior to the river bottoms of the Connecticut, Passumpsic and
Otter rivers, or Lake Champlain, — yet Vermont, perhaps the gem
of all New England States, has lost farming population the last
decade. And this, though the soil, for all purposes of the farm,
excels that of Great Britain and Belgium, less of course their
scientific culture and manures.

With our agricultural colleges and societies all around ; with
rewards or premiums offered for the best farms and crops, do
the people get an adequate return for the money expended for
these objects ?

Take, if you please, our own Worcester North District. I
admit the full benefit of our social meetings, but I am talking
about the farm. We owe much to such men as Lyman Nichols,
Dr. J. Fisher of Fitchburg, Augustus Whitman, E. T. Miles
and Solon Carter of Leominister, and men like them in enter-

DECLINE OF NEW ENGLAND AGRICULTURE. 15

prise, in every other town of the district, for their improvements
in breeds of animals, agriculture and horticulture.

There are many such cases in the district, but are they not
altogether too exceptional ? Are we keeping pace, I repeat
again, with other pursuits, or dwindling down, in many cases,
to little patches of land, when peradventure the rest of the
farm may either be indifferently tilled or even going to waste ?

I do not propose to answer these queries ; I have no time ;
and while I hope that in some respects we may be slightly im-
proving, we still need a great many more balance sheets of cost
and profits of whole farms each year, to excite a more general
interest in agriculture. Let us have the figures, is the impor-
tant question now, and this was well put at a former anniversary
by my friend George E. Towne, Esq.

We wish to know the number of acres in the farm — acres of
tillage land. What crop, cost and profit ? Mowing land, in-
cluding reclaimed bog and meadow. What crop and profit ?
.Pasture lands, with description and what they feed. What
profit ? Cows (with breed). What profit, butter, cheese or
milk ? Horses (with breed). What profit ? Poultry of every
description. Cost and profit ?

But the farmer says he cannot do all this, for he cannot afford
to hire labor. Let him try. This is the word. If successful,
no young lady of culture will hesitate to unite her fortunes with
his. She understands how much less of risk she takes for her-
self and family, than in the vicissitudes of trade and manufac-
ture. She can not only enjoy his society more than in any
other pursuit whatever, but she knows full well that the old-
fashioned churn exists only in history. Ciieese is made in the
factory, or milk sold at the door, to say nothing of beef, pork,
mutton and poultry taken in similar manner, mostly at live
weight, and, what is more, at such prices that if our old Puritan
Fathers should ever come back to look after their progeny, they
would hang them up for extortion quicker than they did the
Salem witches.

Cannot afford to hire ! Then why on earth does he not marry
early — putting his boys to work as early, both in seed-time and
harvest, and sending them to school the other six months of the
year, in the good old-fashioned way ? I know this is plain but
not popular talk. I am told at the very threshold that it is now

16 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

the fashioa to send our boys to school ten months in the year.
But it was not so, ladies and gentlemen, when sucli men as
George "Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Henry Clay, Daniel
Webster and Abraham Lincoln were boys. It was their train-
ing upon the farm that gave to them their stalworth forms, their
physical power, not only to sustain them in their mental efforts,
but to grapple successfully, aye, triumphantly, with the strong-
est intellects of their age. I next meet another delusion, I might
almost say a general hallucination, " that the West is the only
spot for farming," and this idea, Utopian as it is, is doing us
more harm than everything else. My farming interlocutor says
I should like to stop here. I love a New England home, dis-
like to leave parents and others to whom 1 am fondly attached,
the graves of dear friends, the old church and school-house, but
I must go where I get better crops, forty bushels of wheat or
eighty bushels of corn to the acre.

I once chanced to hear a Western farmer explaining to a
candidate for emigration the astounding difference of crops in
the two sections. The AVestern prairie, for instance, grew eighty
bushels of corn to the acre, against forty here in Massachusetts,
which was not fit for a farmer, and to use his words, the sooner
he pulled up stakes the better. Seeing that the Illinoisian had
it his own way, and that my young friend was drinking it all up
as law and gospel, I ventured to ask the former somewhat as
follows : What do you get a bushel for your corn in Illinois,
average price ? Not obliged to sell it. Well, if you do sell it ?
Twenty-five cents at depot. Sometimes you cart it in the mud ?
Ye-e-s. You give to us forty ? Not always. It is notorious
that our river valleys grow as much corn to the acre as you
claim for the prairies — eighty bushels. Well, I give it up and
allow you an average of forty bushels.

Corn raised here, I mean the good old yellow corn of Massa-
chusetts, is worth one dollar per bushel, cash, one year with
another. I had now, as you perceive, got |40 per acre against
his ^'10, to say nothing of the extra labor of harvesting, with
the privilege of getting the shakes to boot. It is easily cured
with quinine, never entirely. I hope sometime for leisure to
discuss more fully a market at your doors, or from 1,000 to 2,000
miles off. I mean with the jrivilegcs and comforts of life taken
into consideration ; not cabins, against our dwelling-houses, not

DECLINE OF NEW ENGLAND AGRICULTURE. 17

a prairie sea, with hardly a tree or a stone for fencing, against
our churches, school-houses and stone walls ; not mud and lime
water, against our pure and limpid springs and fountains, gush-
ing from a thousand hills.

With nothing but the kindest feelings toward the great West,
a Massachusetts farmer, in emigrating there, in this short life
sacrifices too much altogether — the home he loves — the exquisite
feeling that thrills every noble heart, of sleeping with his fathers.
The reflection that, comparatively, the tears of strangers only
can water his grave ; certainly not those bound to him earliest^
by the heart's best affections, in life's happy morning. Never
did I see this feeling so strongly developed as in my recent visit
to California. The eyes of those who went from us would fill
in a moment when I told them of home, sweet home. When
once addressing a Dutch farming population on the Tunnel
Railroad, between North Adams and Troy, N. Y., urging upon
them the duty of subscribing to the stock, both for the saving
in the transportation of produce as well as prospective value of
the stock when the tunnel was done, I perceived, after an hour's
effort upon dollars and cents, in looking round upon my audi-
ence, that for all practical purposes I might as well have been
talking to an iceberg. " Bury me with my kindred is God's
inspiration," I exclaimed. Every phlegmatic Teuton or son of
a Teuton raised his head and opened his sleepy eyes. " Where
are your children ? Aye, and your children's children ? Why
not give them the means and facilities of staying at home ?
What are you doing with this part of God's own vineyard but
diminishing every day in population, as appears by your own
census ? You are going to the wall with your homes old and
dusty. In scripture parlance, you seldom marry or are given
in marriage. Have you forgotten to read the book of Genesis ?
Do you wish to hear of the death of a beloved son, daughter,
sister or brother, long after they have been consigned to native
earth, always in some distant State ; or to keep them on your
farms till you or they arrive at that shadowy valley where the
soul's yearning is for its loved ones, on its transit to eternity,
to close the eye upon Heaven's light ? " There was too much of
the " Auld Lang Syne" of the immortal Burns in this. The
subscription was forthcoming.

If then we love our own homes and kindred, why should we

18 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

not manage to keep them at home ? Let those who come to us
from abroad, the German or the Scandinavian, people the West.
We have given enough of our blood and character there until
we can restore ourselves here. We must combat the mistaken
idea that, after weighing the whole matter, pro and con, the
West is superior to New England, especially Massachusetts, if
we wish to spend our lives in health and comfort.

We must adopt a higher standard of education, physical as
well as mental, admitting the great truth, that the latter depends
for its vigor and life v])on the former.

We must make our l)oys work on the soil six months of the
twelve. They will probably learn more at school the other six
months than if they attended the whole year. Give them
patches of land to cultivate on their own account, with all they
can realize above cost and expenses. Give them a premium
when they deserve it, but make them sell their own products in
market. Give your daughters plots of ground for flower-beds,
in the same way ; drive them, at least two hours in a day, from
the stinted atmosphere of the house and piano, to open air and
light, to digging in mother earth, developing thereby the future
mothers of our race. Introduce the most improved implements
of husbandry, on the farm and in the house. Do not wait —
lead your neighbors if possible.

Improve your stock ; don't keep a poor animal of any kind.
Grow roots, fruits, grains most productive and nutritious. I
raise upon two acres in Fitchburg almost enough to support a
small family. Let us grow such crops as will pay best, or at
least have the best probability of a good return. If you make
your farms attractive to men of education, of refined taste and
manner, by flower gardens, fr\iit and shade trees, you give to
your family a standard for mental culture. The want of edu-
cation is so plainly written that the most stupid cannot fail to
preceive it, and without it the birds of the air and the beasts of
the fields are our superiors.

The farmer should look upon his occupation as a profession,
fully equal to Divinity, Law or Medicine. It is in fact superior.
They cannot live without him ; but he can live without them.

Let his sons, who are to have his old homestead (for with
scientific culture there will probably be enough for all), that
dear spot, filled with shrines the heart hath builded, not only

DECLINE OF NEW ENGLAND AGRICULTURE. 19

represent the intelligence and refinement of the present genera-
tion, but the simple manners, homely virtues, pious trust and
warm-hearted liospitality that characterized his ancestry. With
a practical education, let him be a good chemist, and he is sure
to be a good farmer.

Although I have attained the limit which I prescribed for
myself in this address, I must crave your indulgence to say a
word about English and Belgian agriculture. Belgium with
only 11,373 square miles, yet sustains a population of 5,000,000,
and is made by the hand of labor a garden. In my two visits
there tlie past year, I was unable to see what possible advantages
it had over Massachusetts, save a little larger territory and beds
of coal — in fact in the broken character and face of the country
and its soil, as in England, especially in the county of Kent,
with the same cultivation, I could almost imagine myself at
home — as England and Belgium are confessedly so similar in
soil and climate. I will describe a visit which I made to
Benjamin Brown, Esq., a tenant farmer in Tunbridge, Kent. I
told him that I came for information, and was welcomed with
that warm English hospitality so grateful to a stranger. He
insisted upon my making his house my home.

When his boys returned from their work, the daughters and
mother had prepared an excellent supper. I found them all
full of culture and taste, devouring with avidity such informa-
tion as I could impart about our country. I forgot what
became of the evening in this lovely family, till I was asked to
join in a hymn of praise to God in one of our well-known airs.
Then one of the daughters took the organ as easily as she had
taken the frying pan three hours before. After kneeling in prayer
I was ushered to my sleeping room, " neat as wax," with quaint
old furniture. Before I dozed and slept I came to this conclu-
sion, that if five righteous men could have saved Sodom, Eng-
land, with all her sins, was still safe.

Cock crowing and turkey gobbling were my breakfast boll ;
afterwards came the routine of the evening prayer system every-
where ; the morning hours, measured and divided as our own
existence is spanned by an Almighty Power.

One of the daughters invited me to visit her flower garden.
1 hope if ever she visits me it will be in the winter.

Mr. Brown now took me over his farm. Like most English

20 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

soil it had the curse of entail upon it. But as it was much
run down when he took it, he succeeded in getting a lease from
his landlord for thirty-five years, for .£150 per annum.

To make the farm more profitable, he had himself expended
during the eight years, more or less, while he had occupied it,
£3,000 more, so that calling his investment five per cent., his
rent would be .£300, or -$1,500 our money per annum, which
does not include loss or betterments at the end of his lease.
His farm was divided as follows : to wit, twenty-five acres were
growing hops, with old woollen rags for manure ; forty acres
wheat, crop about thirty-five bushels to the acre ; thirty acres
woodland, on which he could only cut underwood, to be ap-
praised at the end of lease ; fifty-five acres meadow or hay land
and pasturage. The cattle which he raised were Shorthorns, of
which you see more both in England and Ireland than of other
breeds ; his horses were the heavy Flanders, or Belgian breed,
which he used on his farm almost exclusively ; his sheep were
a cross of Leicester and Cotswolds, yielding a fleece from
eleven to thirteen pounds ; though he regarded the South
Downs, with a fleece of only six to seven pounds, best for light
soils, like much of his. In manures and composts there was
nothing he did not resort to. His crop of grass was excellent.
In his haystacks, for he had no barns except for his cattle,
1 noticed that he would first put a layer of wheat or oat straw,
then of hay, which was cut down and fed out together to his
stock.

Without wearying you with more details, what do you think
was the income of this one hundred and fifty acres, not so good
by nature as the Wilder farm, not three miles from where we are
sitting ? X400, or $2,000 per year, over and above rent, exorbi-
tant taxes, interest and cost of carrying it on, while the whole
secret of success was system, industry of his family and making
everything tell. Mr. Brown, in the after part of the day, was
too busy to go with me to Tunbridge Wells, five miles, and sent
his daughter with the carriage. In closing, I can only wish that
the farmers of this society could have been there instead of
myself.

Massachusetts, with so small a territory, only 7,000 square
miles, demands of her sons the cultivation of every acre ; every
facility, too, for a full development of all her resources ; the

DECLINE OF NEW ENGLAND AGRICULTURE. 21

quickest, cheapest transit in her every section for intercommu-
nication with the produce of her farms and manufactures.

We must, in short, re-people our acres if we continue to
maintain our noble prestige and political pre-eminence. Unless
we do this, by the growth of our Western sister States, quad-
ruple and quintuple in territory, we must in the end, even with
our noble race of men, pale away to insignificance.

In short we must afford any and every facility to our people,
and do away with every obstacle that stands in our path. We
can in this way, and in this way only, sustain the most dense,
active, industrious and therefore virtuous population in the
whole sisterhood of States.

O)

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

CATTLE HUSBANDRY.

Address before the Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden Agricnltural Society.

BY RICHARD GOODMAN.

In the year 1624, in the month of March, Edward WinsIo\r,
one of the most enterprising members of the Plymoutli Colony,
who had been sent to England by his associates, the " under-
takers," successors to " The Company of merchant adventurers,"
returned, bringing with him an important accession to the Pil-
grims— three heifers and one bull, supposed to be Devons, the
first neat cattle that came into New England, and the beginning
of those importations from which the dairy and working stock
of our forefathers and ourselves have descended. In 1636,
twelve years subsequent to this first importation of cattle, cows
were worth <£25 each, and of course at such price were not then
used for eating, yet a quart of milk could be then bought for a
penny. " One Taylor of Lynne," according to an ancient
chronicle of those days, " on his passage over with a cow had
sold her milk at two pence the quart, and after hearing upon
landing a sermon upon extortion, went distracted."

The races of cattle existing in England at the period of the
settlement of this country by our Puritan ancestoi's comprised
not only the distinct classes of middle-horned, long-horned, the
Durhams or old Shorthorns and the polled or no-horned cattle,
but grades or crosses from the best stock of Europe, including
the Dutch and Alderney or Channel Island cows, and cows from
Flanders, Normandy and Brittany, which were then noted for
the quality of their milk. Centuries prior to that period the
English made predatory escursions into France and adjacent
countries and brought back not only men to be ransomed, and
fair women to be wived, but cattle to be eaten and to adorn the

CATTLE HUSBANDRY. 23

parks and domains of the nobility. Just one hundred years
antecedent to the Mayflower's advent to the inhospitable shores
of New England, Henry VnL,king of old England, sent an army
into France and took many towns and castles ; and no less than
14,000 head of neat cattle, with sheep and swine, were plundered
from the French and brought into the south part of England,
along the coast of the English Channel.

Like excursions were made into Scotland by the same king
and into Ireland, -and multitudes of cattle from each country
were brought into England and disposed of to the owners of the
land and crossed with the English cattle then existing. So that
at the time New England was settled, and during the emigration
for years after from the various parts of Old England, there were
in the latter country races of cattle combining the best qualities
of all known animals, each county or district possessing a kind
peculiar to it, and the people going from any particular county
took with them the cattle belonging to it. Li the north-west of
England the longhorns were most prominent, and the emigrants
from the counties of Westmoreland, Cumberland and Lancas-
ter brought over stock of that description. This herd of cat-
tle were distinguished by a great length of horns, which fre-
quently projected nearly horizontal on either side, and some-
times hung down so that the animal could hardly reach the
grass with its mouth, or met under the jaw so as to lock the
lower jaw. It was this breed upon which Robert Bakewell, the
great improver of long-woolled sheep, exercised his art and
brought them to such perfection for the grazier and butcher.

Early in the present century a few of the improved breed were
imported into Kentucky, but they were not received with much
favor, and the Shorthorns have driven them out. The middle-
horned cattle, including the Devons and Herefords, were favor-
ites of the early settlers, and as the people from the districts in
which these cattle were most ^^numerous came in greater num-
bers to our shores than from any other region of the mother
country, they were brought in large numbers. The Devons
especially were imported largely into Massachusetts and Con-
necticut, but the colonists of the latter State gave them the most
decided preference over all others, and to this day there are
more pure Devons in that State than in any of the United States ;
and at the recent New England fair held at Manchester, New

24 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Hampshire, as fine specimens were exhibited as have ever been
bred.

The county of Suliblk in England had for centuries been cele-
brated for its dairy produce, which was chiefly obtained from a
polled breed of cattle, the prevailing color of which is dun or
pale red, from whence they were and still are known as the Suf-
folk Duns. In the days of Henry VIII., they were held to be
royal animals, and the effigy of a fine cow of this breed was
painted on the national flag of England. Many of this race were
brought into Massachusetts by its first settlers, and introduced
into the counties of Norfolk, Essex and Middlesex, and from
thence into Worcester, whence the known superiority of those
counties in dairy products.

As the modern " Shorthorn " was not in existence until after
the improvements upon the old herd by the Colling brothers in
and after 1780, it was only the old Durham cattle that came
over with the emigrants from the north-eastern counties of
Northumberland, Durham and York, and many cattle from these
counties were brought into the counties of Essex and Middlesex
in Massachusetts, and crossed to the benefit of all herds with
those then there, or subsequently brought there.

The Normandy and Alderney cattle were very common in
those counties of England opposite the coast of France, and were
noted for producing an excellent quality of milk, and were
brought over in large numbers by the early emigrants from
those counties. In addition to these well-known breeds, other
varieties of cattle not so well known to us, and most of which
are now extinct, being either merged into other breeds or
allowed to die out, were brought over, among the most prom-
inent of which were the Leicestershire and Sussex the Glouces-
tershire and Somersetshire cattle of England.

The Welsh, also, who emigrated so strongly into Rhode Island.^
southern part of Massachusetts and eastern part of Connecticut,
brought with them their Anglesea, Glamorgan and Montgomery-
shire cattle, dark, hardy, vigorous and easy to fatten. The Irish
(Puritans from the north of Ireland) and the Scotch, who first
settled the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket, brought
with them the Argyle and Ayrshire cattle, and other herds
peculiar to the places the emigrants came from, and the Danes
and Swedes introduced some of their own country stock. By

CATTLE HUSBANDRY. 25

the year 1640 the price of a cow had fallen to X5, and in
addition to the picked men and women from the old country, we
had a selected assortment of cattle in New England, and if the
latter had been as well attended to as the former were able to
attend to themselves, we might have to-day animals superior to
all others for useful qualities of dairy and shamble. Beside these
direct importations into New England, the cattle of Berkshire,
Massachusetts, came partly from the Hudson River, and included
many of the Dutch or Holland stock. These latter were im-
ported largely by the early settlers of New York. The Huguenots
ajso brought French cattle into the Carolinas and Maine, but as
none except a few breeds have been kept distinct, we call the
admixture wherever found " homebreds or natives."

Like their owners they have become Americanized, and to all,
the climate, bracing air and fresh pastures have proved ben-
eficial— they have become more docile than their progenitors,
more healthy and hardy, and when taken care of properly, large
milkers, great travellers, and able to put on fat with ease, mak-
ing them excellent stock for the dairy, the grazier and the
butcher, as well as fine working animals on the farm.

The experiments of Colonel Zadoc Pratt at his dairy farm in
New York, with fifty native selected cows, for a period of three
years, showed that in the production and quality of milk they
equalled the same number of selected Ayrshires in Scotland,
and would probably have found no superiors in dairy qualities
among any of the improved breeds. Why, then, you may ask,
are not these cattle just what the dairymen and farmers in New
England want, and why trouble ourselves about the Shorthorns,
Ayrshires, Jerseys, Devons, &g., concerning which so much
noise is now made, and for which such large sums are demanded
and obtained ? The difficulty arises from the laws of breeding,
which are as certain as all the other natural laws, and cannot
be cast aside any more than we can pretermit the laws of cli-
mate, the effects of feeding, or any other causes which change
the size and qualities of animals. The sins of the fathers (and
mothers too) are visited upon the children, and the deformities,
the bad qualities of the preceding generations, are more apt to
crop out in the descendants than the good ones in mixed races
of impure stock, and therefore we find our native cattle are gen-
erally faulty in form, slow in maturing, poor handlers, heavy-

26 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

boned and unequal milkers. Even if the best had been culled
out from time to time during the preceding two and a half cen-
turies, the law of diversity would have precluded the formation of
a good breed with hereditary qualities of transmission, unless the
bulls had been of pure descent, and such breeding continued to
the progeny.

Owing to their variegated origin, the natives have unfixed
hereditary traits, and even those possessing desirable character-
istics cannot be relied on as breeders to produce progeny of a
like excellence. " Instead of constancy there is continual varia-
tion and frequent breeding-back, exhibiting the undesirable
traits of inferior ancestors." In all thoroughbred animals the
good qualities are concentrated ; that is to say, they breed alike
from sire to son, mother to daughter, and so on down to indef-
inite generations, and they infuse their blood so strongly into
their offspring that the fixed characteristics of the pure-bred
animal will in time modify and eradicate the irregular qualities
of the mixed stock. Such was the origin of the improved Short'
horn, of the Ayrshire and other known breeds ; and Col. Jacques
of Massachusetts, came near rivalling his English prototypes in
producing a breed of" Cream-pots " from his imported Shorthorn
bull Coelebs, and would undoubtedly have succeeded in establish-
ing a fine tribe of cattle if he could have continued his breeding
long enough. The native or even the half pure-bred bull produces
inferior instead of improved progeny ; because in the case of the
first all the inferior qualities of the ancestor arc subject to trans-
mission, and as to the other one-half, or rather more than that —
as the bad qualities, both in two and four footed animal nature,
since Madam Eve's transgression, are more likely to crop out
than the good ones, when opportunity is offered. I don't wonder
at the Irishman's explosion after being annoyed by the frequent
jiltings of his lady love, " Oh ! Father_^Adam, why didn't ye die
with all your ribs inside of ye ! "

Our ancestors were at great pains in settling their colonies ;
they themselves were mostly persons of high intelligence, knew
what good farming was and how to choose their stock, and
brought over the best animals they could find and kept a sharp
lookout for good milkers. But their descendants failed to keep
up their interest in the matter, and for want of good selection
of calves, good breeding, and good care and abundant feed during

CATTLE ffUSBANDRY. 27

winter, the native cattle of New England as a whole gradually fell
off, and it was early noted by prominent agriculturists that there
must be fresh infusions of improved blood to keep up the cattle
to what they had been. Early in the eighteenth century cattle
were imported especially for breeding purposes, but it was not
until the present century that such importations were regularly
made ; but from 1815 to the present period importations of thor-
oughbred ncjat stock have been carried on with regularity, and
in 1868 the amount of importations rose in value nearly two
and a half millions of dollars, and in 1869 probably more. The
breeds from which selections have been made are the Shorthorns,
the Devons, the Herefords, the Ayrshires, the Jerseys, the
Galloways, a few Dutch by Mr. Chenery, a few Brittanies by Mr.
Flint and occasionally a Kerry cow from Ireland.

It is not worth while for me to give a history of any of these
breeds in detail, and I will only repeat what you all probably
know, that what are styled " Shorthorns " are improvements by
long continued breeding on a large, roving and rather coarse
cattle known as the Teeswater breed, so called from the river
Tees, a stream dividing the counties of York and Durham in
England. These Teeswater cattle were the earliest dairy breed
of which we have any account, and their excellence at the pail
was an^inherent quality, which all the long after-course of breed-
ing to produce beef has not eradicated, and which still charac-
terizes some families and tribes of the improved Shorthorns.
The Colling brothers, Robert and Charles, are pre-eminent as
the earliest breeders of the modern Shorthorns, but great im-
provements have been made since their day, and none of these
animals could successfully compete with the prize winners of to-
day in England, nor with the herds of Messrs. Thorne & Sheldon,
and the unequalled herd of Messrs. Wolcott & Campbell, of New
York, and Mr, Cochrane, of Canada. There are probably now in
the United States 7,000 to 8,000 well-bred breeding animals of
the Shorthorn family, 6,000 of which are females ; and nearly
all those in New England are of good milking families, whilst
those of the West are more famous for beef making.

The Devons, which were largely introduced into New England
by the early settlers, were a very early race in England, but have
been much improved by careful breeding. They are of medium
size, color invariably cherry red, not very heavy in the brisket,

28 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

and being narrow between the shoulders, are enabled to move
briskly and are therefore adapted to working under the yoke.
They come early to maturity, but are excelled at the pail both
as to quality and quantity by other breeds.

The origin of the Ayrshire is even yet a matter of dispute ;
but recent criticism leads to the conclusion that the improve-
ments in this breed were effected by a cross with compact Short-
horn bulls, descended from good milking families. Of late, the
Ayrshire has increased in popular favor in this country, and if it
continues to improve in size and quality of milk, it bids fair to
take possession of our dairies, especially where quantity of milk
is most desired.

The Alderneys, or, as now designated, the Jerseys, were
well known in England a century and a half ago, are men-
tioned incidentally in the literature of that day as good milkers,
and are supposed to have come from Normandy into the
Channel Islands. They have been improved there, especially in
the Island of Jersey, one of the three, by the severe laws
prohibiting other cattle coming on the island, and by close
attention to selection and breeding. Many good specimens were
brought to this country from time to time by captains of vessels
half a century ago, but it has only been during the past twenty-
five years that they have been largely imported, and we now
have probably as fine Jerseys as are to be found in the world.
As hereditary butter-makers they are unequalled, and if we can
improve their sliape, give them more size and adaptability to
take on flesh, they will prove more valuable than they are now,
and be desirable for any class of farmers.

The Herefords, which are creeping along in the public estima-
tion, especially as working cattle, date their origin far back in
English history. They were originally deep red, now usually
red witii white face, throat, belly and sometimes backs, and
once in a while one almost white, with red ears, is found amongst
them. As a dairy cow the Hereford has but little reputation ;
as a working ox he is equal to any, and also as a beef animal.

The Dutch cattle are an ancient breed, and transmit their
characteristics to their progeny with regularity. They are good
at the pail, though the milk is said to be inferior in quality, have
a large, compact frame, are invariably black and white in color,
with short horns and hair.

CATTLE HUSBANDRY. 29

I doubt if either the Hereford or Dutch will to any extent
usurp the place of the Shorthorn ; and certainly for the improve-
ment of our native stock, the fineness and general symmetry of
the latter will always give it a preference among skilful breeders,
and the quality of its milk cause it to be desired by the dairy-
man and farmer.

The dairymen of New England cannot afford, nor can the
ordinary husbandmen, to shift their present stock and supply its
place with any of these thoroughbreds, but they can select the
best of the native stock and breed to such bulls of pure descent
as will not only keep up the present average goodness of our
dairy stock, but improve the progeny to an indefinite extent.
As to what breed should be used for this purpose every farmer
is his own judge, looking to his needs and situation ; but con-
sidering all things, I should prefer the Shortliorn, selecting the
compact, short-limbed, milking families bred in New England,
for the reason that they add to the best qualities of the native
stock, increase their size and render them not only valuable as
dairy animals, but profitable to the grazier and butcher when
thrown aside as poor milkers or over-aged.

We can hardly estimate the importance of thus improving our
stock by attention to breeding, considering it only in the light
of increased weight of cattle and the value thereof in money.
Look for a moment at the great improvement of live stock in
Great Britain since the Ceilings started upon the Shorthorns.
Then the average weight of beef cattle at Smithfield market
was 370 pounds each. In a report of a committee of the House
of Commons in 1795, it was stated that since 1732 English cattle
had increased in size or weight, on an average, a quarter or
twenty- five per cent., making the weight at that time (1795)
462 pounds. Thirty years later we find 656 pounds the average,
an increase of nearly forty per cent, in thirty-five years, and
instead of being fatted at five years they were considered ripe
for the butcher at four, thus saving a year's attendance and feed,
equal to another twenty-five per cent, in weight.

According to the census of 1860 there were in the whole
United States and Territories about nine millions of milk cows,
two and a half millions working oxen, and fifteen millions other
cattle ; nearly six millions of these milk cows and one-half
million of the working oxen were in the Northern States. Give

30 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

the proportional improvement the English stock has received
to the milk cows and fattening stock of the United States, or
even to those of New England, and one-half or one-third to
their weight, ripen them for the butcher at four years of age,
have produced from them a quality of calves superior in every
respect to their dams, and we at once make a long stride on the
road not only to individual but national wealth. To do this we
must ignore half-bred bulls, use only those of pure pedigree
and of the right form and size and proper age ; and persist in
selection and breeding, and not give up, as a majority are dis-
posed to do, if any streak of ill-luck befalls the enterprise at the
outset. Most if not all of our local societies have refused to
bestow premiums on grade bulls, and the State Board of Agri-
culture will soon make it imperative upon all to do so, leaving
it to the farmer, if he pleases, to raise and use such animals, but
depriving him of the opportunity of getting premiums for thus
hindering the march of improvement.

A good deal is said at our agricultural meetings about certain
local breeds which compare favorably with the imported, and
because they are not recognized among the thoroughbred classes,
their owners feel aggrieved. But the fact is, no breed can be
considered established so as to insure a hereditary transmission
of good qualities and an inability to return to evil ones until
many generations have been passed, and as we have breeds
which two centuries have endorsed and it would take several
more to surpass, it is hardly worth while to attempt a competi-
tion. Had we the length of life of the old patriarchs when
courting was a seven years' pastime, and other duties of life
proportionately elongated, we might indulge in the luxury of
starting new breeds and expect to see the experiment brought
to a close, but with our shortened period of existence and mi-
gratory habits, we must rest content with what has been done
for us already. But we need not be satisfied with merely im-
proving our native stock. We can have in addition a few
thoroughbred animals and strive to improve upon them and
raise a breed of superior cows for the dairy, at the same time
educating ourselves into a more vivid interest in our occupa-
tions and add to the material improvement of the stock of the
country.

When therefore there is a bull of improved breed in the

CATTLE HUSBANDRY. 81

vicinity, let each farmer who can afford it get one or more fe-
males of the same kind, and the natural competition in breed-
ing and raising such stock will soon produce an improvement
upon the sire and dams, and put money in the owners' pockets.

Mrs. Glass's first receipt for cooking a hare was — to catch it.
Having now got our animals, ihe next question is, how shall we
take care of them ? We manage our bulls badly. We either
let them (if scrubs) range about at will, or if pure bloods keep
them up, fed high and not exercised, so that their usefulness is
over before they attain maturity , and their progeny wanting in
constitution. Our Puritan ancestors did better. We find no
mention of horses among them until 1644, and it was not an
uncommon thing to ride on bulls. When John Alden went to
Cape Cod to marry Priscilla Mullins, he covered his bull with
broadcloth and rode on his back. When he returned, he placed
his wife there and led the bull home by the ring in his nose.
Longfellow, in his poem, relates this incident, but substitutes a
milk-white steer for the bull — a poetical license, but a depart-
ure from the true history. Another incident of the story was,
that Alden at first went to ask the hand of Priscilla for his friend,
the renowned Capt. Miles Standish. The father referred him to
the daughter, who listened with attention, but fixing her eyes
on Alden's handsome face, said, " Prithee, John, why do you
not speak for yourself? " Such frankness John could not resist
in those good old Colony times !

But if we don't feel inclined to ride on bulls we should early
subject them to the yoke and harness, and work them double or
single. Reasonable amount of work will keep them in better
health, prolong their usefulness and improve their progeny ; a
first-rate place for the " gentleman," as I heard a young woman
style the head of the herd, is in the horse-power, where he can
earn for two hours a day his living and improve his health by
cutting wood, thrashing the grain, chaffing the hay, <fec. He
soon gets accustomed to the work, and bellows for it as little
boys are said to do for sugar-coated pills, though I never heard
of the latter making the outcry but once. A pair of Jersey,
Devon or Ayrshire bulls make a neat team to handle, and become
very docile, and in fact regular work will take the " old Harry "
out of any animal. It is only idleness that breeds vice, and for
idle horns and hands his sable majesty generally finds something

32 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

disagreeable to do. Martin Luther is not the only person who
instead of dying a natural death has been excommunicated by
a bull !

In our treatment of domestic animals, it is best to compare
their condition with our own, and vice versa, and we shall find
that in the main they need about the same care, attention and
requisites that we do. I have also found in relation to horses,
for instance, that when there was any doubt as to their need of
drying, rubbing and clothing, after a long and hot drive on a
chilly day, I had only to put myself hypothetically in the same
condition, and all doubts vanished. So as to eating immediately
after quick work, or being fed irregularly, or driven on a full
stomach, the same inconveniences or evils that would be felt or
result in our case would so act on the lower animal, and what
was good or bad for the man was good or otherwise for the beast.
We often hear about cows being mere machines, as if their whole
duty was to stand in a stall, be crammed with all they could eat
and drink, milked by machinery if possible — treated in fact just
like a pin manufactory, bars of metal being thrust in at one end
and pins coming out at the other. I believe with Mr. Beccher,
that the cow is the saint of the barnyard (and if homeliness is
necessary to goodness, our native cow has this prime qualifica-
tion), the very ideal and pattern of a saint, giving her whole
strength to lacteal benevolence, patient, gentle, guileless, con-
tented, and instead of being in any manner ill-treated, she should
be worshipped Let us keep a niche in our hearts for St. Dur-
ham, St. Ayrshire, St. Jersey, and St. Homebred, and a memory
for their capacious udders, patient disposition, mild eyes, home-
loving desires, and the pure milk, which, like that of the
" word," is conducive to godliness, and we shall not err in our
care of these harmless natural saints.

A young lady who was rebuked by her mother for kissing her
intended husband, justifies the act by quoting scripture, "What-
soever ye would that men should do unto you do ye even so unto
them." And if we would carry this golden rule into not only
our treatment of each other, but our dumb brethren and sisters,
we should but do justice to their merits and our own duties as
their conservators. Our cows need, equally with ourselves, good
shelter and food, proper ventilation, pure water and plenty of it,
clean bedding and daily exercise. It is all folly to think of

CATTLE HUSBANDRY. 33

keeping them up in stables night and day, even in the winter,
and expect health in themselves or offspring. You may by such
a course for a brief season increase the production of milk, but
it will be at the expense of the constitution, and in a short time
the animals and the race will run out.

The two most common modes of stabling cows in practice with
us, are in stalls and stanchions. The former method is best for
large animals, and if the stalls are about seven feet six inches
wide for two cows, the mangers not lower than twenty inches
from the floor, the platform on which they stand raised six inches
above the walk in the rear, the cows can be secured with chains
and be kept clean and comfortable. But the most usual way
among dairymen is putting in stanchions, as it insures cleanli-
ness in all cases, and if the platform is of the proper length,
and if the animals are turned out a sufficient time daily, and
sawdust or other material put well forward, so that they can
get up and down easily, they seem to suffer but little inconveni-
ence. In laying the plank when such stables are constructed,
they should run across, and not up and down, as in the latter
case they become sooner smooth, and, when insufficient bedding
is under the cow, she slips and strains in getting up. It is com-
plained that under the restriction of stanchions the cow cannot
scratch herself. A well-bred cow don't want to scratch at im-
proper seasons, — she learns like flea-bitten denizens of warm
climates to bear her itchings until a fair opportunity offers, and
then like them she goes in for " a good time." Sydney Smith,
the celebrated English divine and humorist, had in his farm-
yard a scratching board for every animal, so that the ox and
the pig could be accommodated ; and if our cows are kept
cleanly, washed occasionally with soft soap and water or with
carbolic acid soap, curried, bedded and turned out daily, with
opportunity for rubbing, they will not complain of the confine-
ment of the stanchions.

This of course is not the most humane way of keeping ani-
mals, but taking the economy of the farm into consideration,
the costliness and quality of hired labor, and our own tendency
to slovenliness about our barns and yards, it is the most likely
way, with the least injury to the cows, to insure them and their
production cleanliness. A person asked an Irishman why he
wore his stockings the wrong side outwards. He answered, be-

6*

34 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

cause there was a hole on the other side. So in almost every-
thing we do, there is a gap left on one side, and the true mode
is to leave as small a one as possible. It is hardly necessary to
urge the importance of a plenteous supply of pure water for
cows, to an assemblage of milk producers, for they have learnt
the necessity of that liquid both for the inside of the cows and
the cans ; and running spring water is becoming a requisite to
the cheese farmer as well as the milk seller, the milk in both
cases requiring sufficient cooling to destroy the animal heat and
flavor before transportation to the factory. But in ordinary
farming a great loss results in waste of manure, time and dry-
ing up of cows, by driving them to a distance from the yard.
The rain shed by the roofs will supply all the animals sheltered
under them, if preserved, and the simplest mode is to dig a well
in a spot near by, and yet so placed as to preclude the washings
of the yard dripping into it, and turn into it the leaders from
the roof troughs. You thus have water in your well from each
end, and of a much better quality than either rain or well water
alone. Tlie best eave troughs for a barn are those manufac-
tured by machinery of wood, scooped out of plank, without joint
or any place for leakage, and they are cheaper and more perma-
nent than tin.

There is no doubt that our native cattle owe their deteriora-
tion greatly to want of proper nourishment. The late-cut hay
of our forefathers, with no succulent food, and no variety, left
its traces upon the stock as sensibly as did insufficient shelter,
and we owe to such treatment not alone the inferiority in size
but the malformations, excess of bones and the like, which dis-
tinguish the native cows. It is a part of the science of human
nature that all the nations that live miserably are ugly and ill-
formed. We know that the man who lives in a marshy district
undergoes a chronic poisonous influence which destroys his
healtli and produces hereditary deterioration. So insufficient
nourishment and the exclusive use of certain articles of diet, as
maize or potatoes, produce morbid results of an endemic charac-
ter in the human system.

The Esquimaux, who live altogether on train oil and flesh,
are dwarfed in body and mind. The Irish, originally one of the
most beautiful of the Celtic races, by partaking almost exclu-
sively of the potato as food, have, among the poorer classes, lost

CATTLE HUSBANDRY. 35

all their beauty of feature and form, and it has been observed
that in some of the counties of that country where poverty was
the greatest, and nourishment most insufficient and exclusive,
the inhabitants have become dwarfed in stature in the second
generation. By an intermixture with other blood in America,
sufficient food and a variety of it, wc already discern a great im-
provement in the appearance of the children of the Emerald Isle
amongst us, and the future will witness a yet more wonderful
transformation. The Chinese undoubtedly owe their ill-favored
countenances to an exclusive diet, meat (of large animals at
least) being a great rarity with them ; and we Yankees have
fallen away from the luxuriousness of our English ancestry, by
too close adherence to pork and pastry, irregular periods of eat-
ing, and allowing our children to be brought up on the indis-
criminate food we put on our tables, — gorging them with sweets
instead of giving them muscle and good constitutions by a liberal
allowance of oatmeal and bean porridge, good bread and butter, a
little meat, vegetables in abundance, and '•'■nopison things'" what-
ever. There is no country in the world where quack doctors
and dentists flourish as they do here, owing principally to bad
diet, and the hereditary tendency to decay bequeathed by our
parents, and noticeable in the early fading of the beauty of our
women, as well as in the decay of our masticators.

From the formation of the cow we learn that grass (tender
grass) is her natural means of subsistence. And the nearer we
can get our fodder, wliether hay, straw, cornstalks or the like, to
the consistency of her natural food, so much the better for her
and for us who live by her. If she is to be kept on hay only, it
should be cut early, not overdried, and secured without the
sugary quality being washed out, which is an important element
in her food. When grass first springs above the surface of the
earth, the principal constituent of its early blades is water, — as
it rises higher into day, the deposition of a more indurated form
of carbon gradually becomes more considerable, — the sugar and
soluble matter at first increasing, then gradually diminisiiing, to
give way to tlie deposition of woody substance, and it is before
the last change, before it shapes into seed, that the grass should
be cut.

But the difficulty of keeping a cow on hay alone, and keeping
up her quantity of milk, is, that it is not as tender as grass, and

36 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

she has too little time for rumination, so much being taken up
in squeezing it between her jaws preparatory to its being
swallowed ; consequently, she gets tired of the operation and
don't get into her more than is necessary for her maintenance.
This must be at least fifteen lbs. of hay a day, and you may con-
ceive, if you have ever tried to eat a pound or two of dry bread
without water, the difficulty of the operation. Now in addition
to a mere living, the cow must supply a certain quantity of milk
secured from the food she consumes, and perhaps is at the same
time nourishing the future calf. The more food you can make
her eat and digest, the greater your products from her. She
milks from the mouth. She is not a breech-loader, but the am-
munition is put in at the muzzle. Besides, after swallowing her
food, you want to give her time to pursue her cliief end of exist-
ence,— rumination, — without which digestion cannot go on, nor
her health and condition be maintained. A variety of food will
help to keep up her appetite, and this is the main use of turnips
and other roots. For I believe with John Johnston, that four
quarts of corn meal will go farther than 120 lbs. of turnips, and
that corn can be raised with as little labor, taking feeding and
everything into consideration, as roots, and we have the corn-
stalks for fodder, — the very best food, if properly cured, and fed,
cut and moistened. But every farmer should raise some roots —
the mangel-wurzel beet or the sugar, and carrots are the best, —
for an alterative and appetizer, as animals feed on hay and grain
alone will get cloyed, and fail to eat as much as they should.
A cow, to sustain herself alone, will eat one fifty-fifth of her
weight in hay. To nourish the calf, an additional quantity of
food must be administered daily, as the dam approaches ma-
ternity. To yield twenty-two quarts of milk, producing twenty-
four ounces of butter, the cow must be compelled to eat one
hundred pounds of hay, as that quantity is required for twenty-
four ounces of fatty matter. Here you see why we have so
many stunted calves and broken-down cows every spring.
The cow has not had such variety of food as her situation
demanded.

And it is not only in the winter feeding that we need observa-
tion and correct conclusions, but also while the cows are at pas-
ture, if we desire to keep up their production to the. utmost and
continue their improvement. To this end, the pasture should

CATTLE HUSBANDRY. 37

be good, and, if not naturally so, should be improved by ploughing
and re-seeding, or top-dressing, or in some way cleaned and fer-
tilized. Cows should be enabled to fill themselves without wan-
dering long distances, for quietness produces not only digestion,
but secretion of fat, and increases the richness of the milk. In
many places it will pay to stable the animals most of the day
during summer, especially during the hottest part, and soil them
from the rich meadows near the barn, from which several crops
can be taken in one season,' by high manuring, — top-dressing.
But cows in confinement need more change of food than when
at pasture, and even at pasture observant dairymen often detect
a falling off of the casein or curd adapted to cheese making, and
a larger production of fatty matter yielding butter, or vice versa.
Sometimes a change of pasture will remedy the difficulty, or it
may be necessary to supplement the feed of grass with artificial
food, or even hay, the latter decreasing the curd and increasing
the butter, whilst potatoes, beets, or oil-cake will increase the
cheese-making constituents. The superior influence of our
natural pastures is owing to the variety of grasses and other
plants contained in them, and it is therefore desirable, when they
need improvement, to do it by sowing artificial fertilizers on the
top, — plaster, bone-dust and the like, — instead of taking them
up and re-seeding to one kind of grass only.

38 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

WOMAN AND HOME SCIENCE.

From an Address before the Hampshire Agricultural Society.

BY H. W. PARKER.

If science be good outside of the farm-house why not inside ?
If it be a blessing in agriculture, why not in that which may be
termed domicuUure — the great art, the hundred arts, of house-
keeping ? This has been acknowledged indirectly in our agri-
cultural fairs, much of the interest of which depends on the
lady exhibitors.

Such an application of science is especially important to the
farmer's wife, not only because she has peculiar work to do, but
because she only, with few exceptions, is supposed to have
strength and wisdom to do her own housekeeping, — is not help-
lessly dependent on Celt or Cliinaman.

Home science is an appropriate study for woman, and cer-
tainly would be a great aid and joy to her in her toil. The
daily round of in-door work is often felt to be discouraging and
degrading. Life seems to be wasted in endless cooking, scour-
ing, mending. High aspiration is quenched in a sea of dish-
water. And every occupation must be degrading where there
is not a noble participation in it of the mind and soul.

There is such a science. Knowledge so applied is brought to
view in various books. And there are special volumes, such as
" Chemistry of Common Things," " Familiar Science," and one
entitled " Household Science," a book of 470 pages, treating of
light, heat, vision and colors ; air and ventilation ; food, its
principles, forms, preparation, preservation, effect and nutritive
value ; cooking utensils ; cleansing processes ; and, finally, of
poisons. To such a book should be added volumes on domestic
medicine, physiology, household architecture, gardening, insects,

WOMAN AND HOME SCIENCE. 39

the education of children, and the beautiful arts. A few books,
however, are of comparatively little avail, without systematic
education and laboratory practice. Few have the genius to
educate themselves.

The common objection to everything of the kind is, that
practical knowledge is enough, without book knowledge. Some
one may say : " All this science is stuff; my grandmother did
not know orcygen from stear'ino ; she did not know ' sal soda '
from ' sal ammonium,' or any other Sally ; but she could cook
such doughnuts as you never saw." A sufficient answer to the
excessively practical "people is the instance of the doctor who
killed a fever patient with codfish, because another fever patient
had secretly partaken of the same and recovered. It was a very
practical inference he drew. Of course, science alone will not
make a housekeeper. It will not make a physician. The
medical student needs to practise with an old expert, as well as
to attend lectures and read books.

Another objection is, that much of this science is but the
learning of hard names for common things. It may lio said,
why not know pearlash and saleratus simply as such, not as
carbonate and bicarbonate of potash ? The answer i.s that
potash is a powerful alkali ; it must be injurious in considerable
quantities; and the same, to a less degree, is true of soda. If
the right names were used, what lady would have the face to
say to her guests : " Shall I help you to some potash bread or
potash cakes ? " Scientific knowledge is a knowledge of things
and their action.

First, therefore, a scientific in-door agriculture would save
us from many hurtful practices. The use of fine flour, from
which the phosphates have been removed by bolting, is another
example.

Secondly. Scientific knowledge would influence us to carry
out the floating knowledge we already have. We do no feel a
truth and act upon it, till we thoroughly know it. We know,
for instance, that the effluvium rising from the waste-pipe of the
kitchen sink is noxious, and so likewise when the sink-washings
discharge into the open air near a house ; we half know that all
this can be remedied by a closed drain and closed cesspool, with
a pipe leading from the drain to a chimney, whereby all foul air
is removed, the kitchen admirably ventilated, and cholera sent

40 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

up chimney like a witch on a broomstick. But who, unless
interested in science, ever acts on such a suggestion ? So in
respect to the whole vital subject of ventilation, and the entire
sanitary condition of the house. It is a singular fact that
farmers' families, which should be the healthiest, are as subject
to sickness as any other households, especially to fevers, —
perhaps from the inattention which seemingly robust health
gives to sleeping-room ventilation, and the fact that there is
much decaying or drying vegetable matter in the cellar and
around the barn.

Thirdly. We are thus led to see that this study is imperative
on woman, because she is the physician of the family. To
illustrate : there is that boy or girl reading at a distance of ten
feet from the lamp. His unscientific mother does not notice it ;
or perhaps she learned at school the law that light decreases as
the square of the distance, with no idea that it had any house-
hold application. The rightly educated mother at once sees
that, at ten feet distance, the light is twenty-five times less than
at two feet. Again, in all probability, there is a child facing
the liglit, tlie pupil of the eye contracted, and the page of the
book in shadow. If health depends at times more on the
doctor's ministrations, these are more rare. Woman is really
the family physician and the whole Board of Health.

Fourthly. Science would facilitate home work and improve
the great art of living. Mrs. Stowe rightly asserts that house-
keeping sliould be elevated to the rank of a profession, and be
thought worthy of a course of study. She says: " Women study
treatises on political economy in schools ; and why should not
the study of domestic economy form a part of every school
course ? If it be thought worth wliile to provide at great ex-
pense apparatus for teaching the revolutions of Saturn's moons
and the precession of the equinoxes, why should there not be
some to teach what it may greatly concern a woman's earthly
happiness to know ? "

I hope a Professorship of Domestic Economy will be estab-
lished in the Massachusetts Agricultural College, for tiie benefit
of the many young women who will ere long claim the advan-
tages of that institution, especially the excellent facilities it
offers for the study of chemistry, botany and horticulture.
Woman has a right to all educational advantages. On the

WOMAN AND HOME SCIENCE. 41

opening day of the noble Agricultural College of Iowa, a large
number of ladies were received among the pupils, and no harm
has come of it yet. At the West the co-education of the sexes
is no longer an experiment. It is fully proved that it promotes
a higlier tone of study, of mind, manners and morals, than can
be found in our old Protestant monasteries and nunneries.
Even old England is getting ahead of New England on this
subject. It is all very well for us to be slow and sure, but there
is no merit in being as slow as the farmer' S' horse, which had but
one fault, — he was " as slow as cold molasses." Our extreme
conservatism, however, may be " not a fault but a misfortune,"
as in the instance of the consumptive horse that was sold as
being without a fault.

Certainly, this study will smooth and bless home life. The
scientific housekeeper, for reasons she understands, never, for
example, washes cotton or linen in hard water, and she can
soften water in a variety of ways, if it be hard ; she knows how
to detect &,n excess of silicate of soda in the soap, invented after
the war had cut off the supply of South Carolina rosin ; she never
uses rosin soap for woollen ; and she can remove all kinds of
spots and stains by using the proper class of solvents. Having
made her own indelible ink by dropping a piece of silver into a
pennyworth of nitric acid, she removes an accidental drop of it
from the tablecloth by using a pinch of moistened common
salt, that turns the blot to chloride of silver, which can be dis-
solved with a drop of ammonia. And she never forgets how to
do anything or loses a good hint, because she knows the whole
simple philosophy of the matter.

And, with such intelligent housekeepers, there would be prog-
ress in the art. The fact that your grandmother's doughnuts
have never been excelled, proves that housekeeping has made
no advance, and hence that science needs to be applied to this in
education. Woman is intuitive and therefore would be inven-
tive, were she not left to believe that her work is mere routine
drudgery. It is reported that a poor apple-woman in New
York invented the paper strings now in common use. The
rightly educated woman could at least appreciate and apply all
good inventions, and reject the many foolish ones hawked about
the country. She would have the mechanical knowledge, too,

42 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

necessary to keep all household machinery in good order, and
so be saved from much vexation.

But some one may say, the difficulty is not so much in needed
facilities, as in the slavish nature of the work. This leads me
to remark, in the next place, that home science would dignify
and inspirit, yes, glorify the drudgery of household toil. Chem-
istry is kitchen work, dish-work, and dish-washing ; yet, not for
a moment does the chemist feel degraded or weary. The sci-
ence transmutes the glass to crystal, the iron to gold, the labor
to lofty play. The Emperor of Brazil has his laboratory, where
he does this chemical work. And what is all kitchen ,work but
chemistry ?

A thing of science, like " a thing of beauty, is a joy forever."
A drop of water falls on the hot stove. The good housewife,
who is an unthinking drudge, does not notice it, or she only
says to herself — " La, sakes ! how hot that stove is ! " The
drop, still round, rolls along the stove and dances till it rolls
off. Why did it not change to vapor at once ? Because the
heat converts its outer particles into a cushion of steam, on
which it rests. How is that ? Each outside particle of water,
changed to steam, flies off with such energy that its recoil holds
up the drop. Let it roll to a part of the stove less hot ; it sinks
down flat and is wholly transformed to vapor. This drop sug-
gests a thousand wonders, and the entire amazing theory of
heat, as recently demonstrated by men of science.

Hence, further, if our housewife, in her kitchen laboratory,
has a devout spirit, she is exalted by continual suggestions of
the Great Divine Cause. As quaint George Herbert wrote, two
hundred years ago : —

" A servant with this clause,
Makes drudgery divine :
Who sweeps a room, as for Thy laws,
Makes that, and th' action fine."

And the new discoveries of science would ever freshen the
eternal freshness of scientific work. In beets, in tea and coffee,
the comparatively new metal. Rubidium, has been detected by
that marvellous spectrum analysis which shows us the metals
that exist in the sun, and in the far-off fixed stars — even detects
nitrogen in a comet and sodium in a shooting star. So, also,

WOMAN AND HOME SCIENCE. 43

the recent doctrine of dialysis, while applied to so humble a use
as the separation of meat-brine into pure salt and excellent
soup, at the same time explains one of the profound mysteries
of animal and vegetable life.

Woman's happiness, moreover, would be negative as well as
positive. Ignorance is full of fear and disgust towards inno-
cent things. That odorous fermenting pailful of waste from
the table is really an interesting mixture of many acids and
bases, entering into new combinations. That dreadful spider is
not poisonous, and has eight jewels of eyes in his head. That
medicine is no more a metallic poison than the oxydized metal,
lime, which makes your bones. " Do not be afraid of dirt,
young gentlemen," said a distinguished medical professor ;
" dirt makes bread, and bread makes the lips you kiss."

Our lady bachelor of science would likewise have the pleas-
ure of exact economy in the use of materials. Woman, nat-
urally, is impulsive. If she thinks the biscuit require more
soda, she throws in enough to neutralize a gallon of the acid in
the milk, — " There, I'll see if I can't make the biscuit right
this time ! " Whether it be impulsiveness or ignorance, it
would be rectified by knowing the exact proportions in which
all substances combine. At least, there would be knowledge
enough to use a bit of cheap test-papor, as the chemist does, to
know exactly when an acid is neutralized.

And the exactness of nature teaches habits of neatness, care-
fulness, attention. Scientific work is the most nice and precise
of any in the world, and inevitably affects all habits.

But this is not all. There is an element of moral illustra-
tion, often humorous, that would be enjoyed by the scientific
housekeeper. There is a tragedy in a loaf of bread. Gluten is
a gummy, weak-minded individual, having too much nitrogen in
his composition, and exists in flour, hence in dough. He is
easily demoralized by the least association with that restless son
of a brewer. Yeast, or with that destructive rogue. Oxygen.
And when Gluten loses what little stability he has, his example
at once affects the sweet children of the Sugar family, also pres-
ent in the dough, until they become as ungovernable as alcohol
and carbonic acid, — in fact are changed into these. But Gluten
maliciously holds them as they struggle to get away ; and at
last Heat comes on with a vengeance, and striking Gluten stifif

44 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

for his mischief, drives them away from their bread, and so they
go to bed siipperless, because they have been in bad company.
That is the way bread is raised ; and the scientific housewife
would be able to tell her children the edifying story.

The young lady who wastes her time in reading novels might
find a salutary romance in a soda-biscuit. Soda is a giddy girl
who accepts the society of that respectable youth, Carbonic
Acid, he being chiefly engaged in the limestone business, though
also a worthy agriculturist, raising plants. In a biscuit picnic,
she — Soda — first meets Tartaric Acid, who is a dissipated per-
son, known to be found around wine-casks. She forsakes Car-
bonic for Tartaric, and finds that she has caught a Tartar.
Surely, our lady-chemist would be better occupied in prying
into the doings of Soda, Gluten and the rest, than in gossiping
about her neighbors' affairs.

This word " gossip " suggests another reason for the pursuit
of Home Science. It would lift the whole matter of housekeep-
ing above the low level of idle talk about housekeeping itself.
What everlasting table-talk on this subject do we hear, of a sort
no more elevated than that which geese indulge in over a din-
ner of polly wogs. Perhaps a quarter of an hour is spent in dis-
cussing the price of sugar, and telling where this or that per-
son buys silgar, whether at White & Co.'s or Brown & Co.'s,
and who does like sugar in tea and who doesn't, and whose aunt
does and whose doesn't. Now, what an infinite fund of thought
and interest there is in sugar, its sources, manufacture, chemi-
cal varieties, physiological effects — the last point suggesting a
series of experiments recently made on the muscle-forming
valu-e of non-nitrogenous food, disproving the doctrine of our
text-books. What entertainment in the thought that sugar and
starch are simply the forms in which we, human locomotives,
take our coal and water.

However, there is one weighty consideration that alone should
recommend the study of science in this connection, namely,
health. Health is physical happiness. With strength enough,
there is no such thing as hard work. Our philosophic house-
keepers would secure greater vigor in a thousand ways — dress,
diet, ventilation, etc. Take a single illustration — moisture in
the air. They would be able at once to determine the amount,
and thus would know whether an evaporating pan is advisable

WOMAN AND HOME SCIENCE. 45

in the stove or furnace, — would not bo left to any writer's un-
iqualified recommendation or condemnation of this expedient.
In the kitchen, they could have a large hood over the cook-
stove to carry off the excessive vapors and fumes which saturate
the air, cloy the appetite, and prevent the healthy invisible per-
spiration, which may be even fatally arrested while one seems
to be in profuse perspiration.

Why is it that our women are often overtasked and broken-
down in health ? Is it not in part through ignorance, such as
that now indicated, and, above all, through lack of real interest
and spirit in work — the degrading and dispiriting nature of all
labor that is pursued mechanically, with no lively participation
of intellect and soul, especially if it be confined in-door toil, and
with no end in view but the finishing of a day's task ? There
must be fresh air, and either an intellectual or a money inter-
est, to keep up one's vigor and spirit. All this woman lacks, for
the most part, as things are. She has nothing but affectional
motives, and these are often chilled and disappointed.

In the good time coming, we shall have a thousand professors
of home science, and hundreds of thousands of lady-graduates
from our scientific schools. And it shall be said of the virtuous
woman, " she openeth her mouth with wisdom." She maketh
no fire in summer, but boileth her water in ten minutes by agi-
tation in a vessel turned by a wind-mill, after the manner of
Prof. Tyndall, in his hand experiment. She buyeth condensed
extract of meat and milk, and never seeth steak or milk-pan.
She sendeth her linen to the steam wash house. She scoureth
her woodwork with her own patent revolving spring-brush.
She useth enamelled paper plates and cups, like paper collars,
and throweth them away after every meal. She analyzeth sugar-
candy, and findeth deadly coloring matters, as red oxide of lead
and yellow sulphide of arsenic ; and she bringeth the confec-
tioner before the lady-justice of the peace. She discardetli all
but loose dress, and sweepeth not the streets. Her bonnet is
visible and protecteth from the sun. She inventeth a steam-
cook and an electric chambermaid, like unto a steam-man that
draweth a chariot.

46 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HOMES.

From an Address before the Franklin Agricultural Society.

BY J. F. MOORS.

One of the most obvious instances of the superiority of the
Old World over us, is in the character of the common roads.
The poorest road I saw in Europe is vastly better than the
best road there is in this region. Macadamized roads are well-
nigh universal. The road-bed is dug out two or three feet,
according to the nature of the soil, and filled with loose stones
that will allow complete drainage ; over these a heavy layer of
small stones, not any so large as a hen's egg, broken up for this
purpose, is spread. These soon form into a compact mass of
stone under the pressure of the wheels, thus forming a natural
mosaic, impervious to the rain, uninfluenced by frost, as smooth
as the floor, as hard as iron. It is never muddy, seldom dusty.
I think one horse would do the labor on a common road in Eng-
land or France or Germany or Italy, which it would require two
horses to do in our country. The bridges of hammered stone,
are marvels of art and of strength. Such roads, such bridges,
are out of our reach as yet. We have not the wealth to build
them. They are the product of hundreds of years of labor.
It is not two hundred years since this was a wilderness.

In comparison between the Old World and this, we must al-
ways take into account the exceeding cheapness and abundance
of labor al)road. Labor is the one thing that does not have to
be economized. Human labor, I mean. In every country in
Europe, an immense amount of labor is done by men and wo-
men, that in this country would be done by machinery, or by
oxen and horses. The farther east and south you go, where the
climate is warm, and as a consequence the population more

AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HOMES. 47

dense, this use of human muscle is more apparent. In Egypt,
for instance, I watched on one occasion a swarm of human
beings, there could not have been less than two or three tliou-
sand, repairing a piece of road which had been washed out by
an inundation of the Nile. They were men, women and chil-
dren, half or wholly naked. All the machinery they had were
some rude shovels and baskets. With the shovel the basket was
filled with earth, then carried upon the head a fourth of a mile
or so, and dumped into the hole it was designed to fill. These
people, employed by the government, received five or six cents,
the men ten cents a day, for their enforced labor, continued un-
remittingly under the eyes of severe taskmasters day by day,
until the work was completed. There was no Sabbath-day rest,
there was not even the welcome prospects of a rainy day to sus-
pend their dreary round of toil and suffering, for in that coun-
try it never rains. You may calculate with unerring certainty
upon 365 days in the year of unclouded sunshine.

In England, a common laborer upon the farm would receive
about twenty-five dollars a year and his board In Germany it
would be a little less. Women in Germany receive about six-
teen dollars a year and board. There is very little chance for
labor-saving machines where labor is so cheap. Except in Eng-
land, agricultural tools were very clumsy and rude, such as no
New England farmer would use for a single day. They are the
same patterns that have been used for centuries.

Farming throughout Europe is gardening rather than farm-
ing. The fields are small, but there is the utmost economy of
room. Every spot is occupied, and shows the utmost care. In
Italy a great deal of wheat is raised. But it is never sown
broadcast. It is always carefully planted in drills, and care-
fully hoed and weeded. The absence of weeds and all foul stuff
in the midst of growing crops, cannot fail to attract the atten-
tion of the traveller accustomed to our more slovenly husbandry.
In Germany the eye is never weary with looking upon the neat
and beautiful fields, variegated with growing crops of all kinds.
The fields are small, but not a fence of any kind is to be seen,
not even by the side of the road. They often reminded me of
the Deerfield meadow. Of course no cattle were allowed to
roam unattended. They are usually stall-fed.

In England, on the other hand, fences abound. The fields

48 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

are small, and are separated by fences, but not of unsightly posts
and rails. They are almost invariably of living hedge, usually
of hawthorn, neatly trimmed, and a very attractive feature of
the landscape.

In our country, as the forests diminish, and timber becomes
more scarce and costly, we shall learn to dispense very largely
with fences which now so often disfigure our farms. The sup-
port of fences is an immense tax upon the owners of land, a
tax from which they will free themselves in time. As soon as
it is known in the community that cattle cannot roam at will,
that our domestic fowls must be restrained within the precincts
of their owners, the necessity of one-half the existing fences will
be done away.

One must study farm life abroad chiefly to observe its con-
trasts with the same life here. The circumstances are so en-
tirely different that but few of the methods abroad would answer
with us. For instance, there is no country one visits more
interesting than Egypt. In no country is there such fertility
and such abundant crops as on the banks of the Nile. " Rich
as Nile mud," is a comparison I feel the force of as I did not
until I saw the Nile. But we could not introduce Egyptian
agriculture into New England. Let me speak of it very briefly.
No rain falls in Cairo, where I spent two weeks ; and yet the
country about there is the most fertile I ever saw. Its fertility
is wholly due to artificial irrigation. The Nile is everything to
the country. It is not strange it was esteemed a god and wor-
shipped by the Egyptians. Fed by melting snows and rains
hundreds of miles to the south, among the mountains, it flows
to the sea without a tributary. About the last of June its
waters begin to rise, and continue to increase till the middle of
September, when it is at its flood.

At Cairo, its usual and desirable rise is twenty-two feet. It
varies from nineteen to twenty-four feet. If it does not rise over
nineteen feet, it is not sufficient to water the land ; the crops
fail, and famine ensues. If it rises over twenty-four feet, it
breaks down dikes, floods villages ^and towns, and makes a ter-
rible destruction. Both extremes have occurred several times
within a century.

In an average season it flows over the whole valley eiglit or
ten miles wide on both sides of the river. The water is charged

AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HOMES. 49

with mud, which it deposits everywhere to the average depth of
a twentieth part of an inch every year, sufficient to enrich the
soil abundantly. The water is let into canals prepared for that
purpose, and when the canal is full at high water, the opening
into the river is closed, and the water is retained for future use.
Every depression into which the water settles is surrounded*
with mud walls, making a pond for the precious fluid when the
deluge runs off or is soaked into the ground. These immense
reservoirs of water are made to last through all the season.
The great business of the Egyptian farmer is to coax the water
of the river on to his land, and to make a pond of water near at
hand for future use. As soon as the water is sufficiently sub-
sided and dried, the land is ploughed with a rude plough of the
same pattern as that used in the time of Moses. The seed is
sown, and then the chief labor is to keep the field sufficiently
irrigated. The skill, patience and labor displayed in this rude
industry are most interesting to behold. The result is the most
abundant harvests — three in succession, in a year, from the same
spot of land, of wheat, beans, barley and cotton. Where the land
is overflowed and watered, it is the most fertile you can imagine ;
but a rod beyond where the water reaches, the desert begins ;
from a fertile, fruitful garden, you step at once to the dry, bar-
ren sand, as destitute of vegetation as the floor of this platform.

The water is raised in buckets, by men, with the rudest ma-
chinery, and poured upon the upper level. Thousands are thus
employed. No manuring is needed, no ploughing and hoeing of
crops. To plant, to water, to reap, is the endless round of labor.

One is often asked about the dwelling-houses of the Old World
as compared with the dwellings here. Of course they are very
different, and a comparison would be altogether in favor of our
own country, as far as comfort and convenience are concerned. I
do not speak of the elegant and costly palaces of the nobility ; I
speak of the dwellings of the great mass of the people. They
are built almost invariably of stone or brick, chiefly of stone, in
country as well as city. A wooden house one never sees, except
in Switzerland. The houses are old, very old, for the most
part ; they look old, and weather-stained and dingy. As con-
trasted with houses with us, the windows are very few and very
small. The floors and stair-cases are chiefly of stone, the roofs
are of slate, or eartlien tiles, or straw thatch. Very little wood

50 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

enters into the construction. Built three or five, or even ten
centuries ago, it is almost impossible to introduce modern im-
provements. Tlie old house, and the old clumsy furniture
which belonged to the fathers and grandfathers, are transmitted
unchanged to the children. Some writer, I believe it was
* Thoreau, says in substance, that it would be a blessing to the
world if all houses could be torn down once in fifty years, in
order that in rebuilding men might build better than their
fathers. I have often felt what a curse it was, in almost every
country in which I have travelled, that the present generations
should be saddled with those old antiquated absurdities in the
way of houses, too strong to be remodelled, and too inconvenient
to be really enjoyed.

In the old countries, houses are concentrated into villages and
towns much more than with us. This was required for safety
and protection hundreds cW years ago, and so fixed and stable
are all customs that it continues so to this day. One of the
results is, that men and women often live at a great distance
from the land they cultivate. The houses are huddled together,
and are gloomy and monotonous. Very beautiful and sacred is
the tie that binds one to the house in which he was born, and in
which his ancestors for hundreds of years have lived ; but those
associations are often bought at great cost. We have nothing of
that stability with us. We love the new more than we rever-
ence the old. We are constantly seeking how we can tear-down
and alter and build anew, for the sake of securing greater con-
venience. So far as my observation goes, the people of no
nation are on the whole better housed than we are. One of the
special charms of our landscape is the neat and comfortable farm-
houses that dot our hillsides and nestle in the valleys, and yet
we have by no means reached the summit of excellence in our
domestic architecture. I speak now not as regards taste, not as
to what is well pleasing to a cultivated eye. I think we have a
great deal to learn in this direction. But I speak of the defects
of our domestic architecture as affecting the health of our people.
We are often told that the New England farmer and mechanic,
if he secures nothing else, has it in his power to secure health
and a home.

And now I have reached at last, beyond the middle of my
address, the subject I want to talk with you about — " our homes

AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HOMES. 51

as affecting our health." Our homes, I say ; I mean to include
our whole manner of living. I think there are but few houses
in which any of us live, here in Franklin County, which do not
in some way conduce to avoidable sickness and disease. It may
seem extravagant to say so. I believe it to be the fact with the
houses occupied by all classes of people. Farmers, mechanics,
merchants, professional men, all alike live in unhealthy houses.
Every day that I ride about this county, I see houses that are
situated in unhealthy localities, on the north side of hills, in
damp valleys near swamps, and meadows where fatal miasma
is bred. Riding in the evening, you often pass from a warm,
dry stratum of air into one that is cold and damp and chilly. A
house situated in the latter cannot be as healthy as if situated in
the drier atmosphere.

Very many houses are made unhealthy by a superabundance
of shade trees. I could point you out houses within five miles
of this spot upon which the sun rarely shines, in which the air
is like that of a cellar. That house is not a healthy one to live
in. It is very pretty and poetical to have a house embowered
with graceful elms and symmetrical maples ; very comfortable
is such a house in the hot, sweltering days of such a summer as
this just past. But it is not healthy, that is all. The people do
not all die off at once, it is true, but they have not that measure
of vigor and strength they ought to have, and would have if they
did not live so much in the shade. It has become the fashion
to set out shade trees about the house — a good fashion if not
carried to excess. Trees are often too numerous, and set too
near the house. Tliey absorb the air and sunlight, both of which
are indispensable to health.

I must speak of another source of ill-health in our houses. It
is the condition of the drains and water-closets. There are
multitudes of cases where these things are so bad as to be a dis-
grace to the owners and occupants. In front of the house all
will be very clean and tidy and dry and wholesome, and bear
all the marks of taste and refinement, but go round to the back
door, and all is changed. There is filth and disorder ; amid
decaying vegetable matter, chips, blocks of wood and timber,
and rotting weeds, there will be a pool in which is collected the
water from the sink, reekhig with poisonous exhalations, and

52 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

filling the very room in which the family lives with deadly
odors.

I knew a farmer once who suffered fearfully every summer
from musquitoes, which deprived him of his needed rest and
made his bed a place of torture instead of repose. Musquito
bars were unknown, so he used to burn old boots or anything
that would make a smudge, to keep off the tormenting insects.
He never suspected that he was supporting a grand musquito
factory just under his nose, in the drain from his sink. The good
Lord sent these musquitoes, that the ignorant farmer was
tempted to curse, on purpose to devour the decaying vegetable
and animal life from that drain, which would have been poison
to that family with every breath they drew. I know of a family
in which there has always been a good deal of sickness, fevers
and the like. I confidently believe that one cause was the fact
that their pig-pen was right close to their kitchen windows, and
the chips from their winter stock of wood were allowed to rot by
the kitchen door. The family simply invited disease to enter
their house. They set traps to catch him. Not half attention
enough is paid to cleanliness and health in the matter of house
drains. When vvc find more occasion for economy than we do,
as yet, we shall utilize all the refuse from our houses. Till that
time comes we cannot be too careful to carry all such so deeply
into the ground that no noxious gas from them can pollute the
air we breathe. God in his goodness has provided an abundance
of fresh and pure air, and made the use of it the condition of
life and health. It is a sin for us to abuse his gift as we so often
'do. It is not wise nor manly to neglect the conditions of health,
to invite disease and death to enter our homes, and when he
comes charge it all upon Divine Providence. To a considerable
extent we have the conditions of health in our keeping.

Entering the house, the cellar is the first place that claims
our attention. The health of the family is materially affected
by the condition of the cellar. A cellar that is wet or even
damp is unhealthy, a breeder of sickness and disease. How
many such cellars there are in which water stands for a consider-
able part of the year, or into which it oozes through cracks in
the wall whenever there is a rain. Health demands as one of
the first conditions in building a house, that it should stand
over a dry, ventilated cellar. The difficulty is not confined to

AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HOMES. 53

a wet collar. Very many houses are rendered unhealthy by
decaying vegetable matter in the cellar. Old tubs and barrels,
and boxes and boards are allowed to accumulate there and
moulder away to dust, furnishing a harbor for countless loath-
some insects, and worse still, the winter's stock of vegetables,
not quite exhausted, is allowed to remain and rot and send up
their invisible, noxious gases into the rooms in which the family
live, mixing an element of death into the very air they breathe.
When our good women boast of their neatness and their
thorough house- keeping, I want to see not only their parlor and
kitchen, but I want to see how it is away out in the back kitchen
and shed, and especially I want to see how it is in their cellar.
A neat, even elegant parlor, will not atone for a dirty, disease-
breeding out-house and cellar. I fear there are many such.

It has become almost universal to have outside blinds upon
our windows ; a good thing to have if used judiciously, to shut
out a hot summer sun, and mitigate the noonday heat, but used
as they so commonly are, to exclude the sun altogether, to keep
the carpet and curtains from fading, they become a nuisance.
We need the sun in our houses. We need to live within reach
of its beams. It is the source of life and strength to the human
frame as well as to the vegetable world.

A very fruitful source of sickness, disease and death in our
community is to be found in our defective methods of warming
our houses. It is done now almost wholly by close, iron stoves
in our rooms or by a furnace in the cellar. It is very easy to
warm a house in this way. It is an economy of fuel. But one
result is that our houses are almost universally heated to an
unhealthy degree, — to a degree that but few are aware of.

The healthy and comfortable temperature of a room in which
one is to be^ active, is sixty degrees Fahrenheit. If one is to sit
down there and be quiet, he needs either a little more heat or a
little more clothing. The latter would be the best. If more
heat is required the thermometer should not be raised above-
sixty-five degrees, seventy degrees is the extreme height that
should be allowed. The majority of the people in this county
will live this winter in rooms heated to seventy-five and eighty
degrees, often higher ; and the common form of salutation will
be, " IIow do you do ? " " Pretty well, except a cold."
" How are your family ? " " All well, except colds." The

54 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

close, iron stove destroys the vitality of the air. How sleepy
and dull we all are when the fire is first kindled in the
autumn. There is very little ventilation in our rooms thus
heated. The air is made impure and unwholesome by repeated
use. There is no question about it. There has been a decided
lowering of the public health since tight stoves came in use.
There is no denying the fact that the average physical vigor of
the people abroad, especially the women, is greater than with
us. The difference of climate will not account for it. It is
owing largely to two causes. The people abroad live a great
deal more in the open air than we do. They walk more. I
saw English ladies in Switzerland that considered it a trifle to
walk twenty-five miles a day.

The other cause of better health abroad is, that when in-doors
they do not live in hot and close rooms as we do. For seven
months of the year we must have some artificial heat. We
have fallen into the habit of heating to excess, and an immense
amount of sickness and disease results from it. But what
remedy can one propose ? The regulating the heat of the room
by a thermometer would, at least, admonish us when our rooms
were too hot. Putting suitable ventilators into our chimneys
would lessen the evil in a measure. The use of open stoves
would lessen it still more. But the expense ; who can afford
an open fire, with wood at ten dollars a cord ? Very many can
afford it better than pay a doctor's bill or see consumption
wasting away the lives of their family. At that price we can
afford to learn economy in the use of fuel. As a people we are
exceedingly wasteful. There is such an abundance of every-
thing around us, that we are accustomed to use the best and
throw tlie rest away. It is a common remark, and it is nearly
true, that a French or- Italian family lives on what an American
family would throw away. It is especially true of fuel. We
are excessively wasteful of it. Many a farmer will cut down
beautiful trees and convert them into fuel for his winter's fire,
when there is useless rubbish enough piled up, or rather scattered
about his house and barn and fences, to keep his family warm
all winter, and the removal of which would turn his premises
from slovenliness to neatness.

I learned something last winter about economy in fuel. I
was keeping house in Rome. I bought my wood by the pound,

AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HOMES. 55

and I found it made a great deal of difference in the amount
used whether I bought by the cord or the pound. The thought
of buying a cord of wood was never entertained by a Roman.
I don't suppose the Pope himself, if he had wanted to warm all
the four tliousand rooms of his imperial residence, would have
bought a cord of wood. It would have been extravagant. All
the cuttings of the grape-vines were saved, tied up into bundles
and sold. Sawdust and tan-bark were pressed into delicate
little cakes and sold for fuel, and very excellent fuel they were.
Nothing of vegetable matter was allowed to l^e wasted.

I saw the necessity which is felt for economy of fuel carried
to a sad extreme. In the city of Alexandria I went to see
Pompey's pillar, as it is called, the most beautiful shaft I ever
saw. Near by I saw a squad of women at work. I crossed
over to see what they were doing. I saw that some were bring-
ing from the city in baskets on their heads the manure of the
streets which they had carefully saved. They dumped it down
in a pile, and several women were busy working it up in their
hands into little round cakes, a foot in diameter and an inch
thick, and spreading them out to dry. That was the fuel of a
great part of the population of the city. May it be long before
we find the necessity for such economy.

The table is set with a lavish profusion in our country which
is witnessed nowhere else. We eat more meat and more rich
pastry than other nations.

They make more account of fresh fruit than we do, and eat
it with the first meal of the day, which is the time to eat it. I
confess to a preference for our cooking over the made-up dishes
of France and Germany, where you can hardly tell whether it
is beef or horse on which you are making your dinner. But
when our housekeepers learn to dispense with hot bread, with
saleratus, with fried meats, with green tea, which is made only
for the American market, with mince pies and that frightful
compound called wedding cake, and adopt plainer and simpler
fare, tliere will be far less dyspeptics and far less weak and
disordered nerves.

Upon one topic more intimately connected with my subject, I
want to add a few words. I refer to the employment of women
in out-door pursuits. Womeif are engaged in all kinds of out-
door labors abroad. In England they work in the fields chiefly

56 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

at harvest time. In France they take care of the vines. In
Germany they join with men in most of the labor that is done.
And everywhere they' find time to cultivate the most beautiful
gardens filled with the choicest varieties of fruit and flowers.
I certainly do not desire to see the women of our own land, the
young women, become such beasts of burden as are their sisters
of the Old World. There is no necessity for it. But I should
rejoice to see the women, the young women, taking more inter-
est in and sharing more abundantly in out of door pursuits. It
is not necessary for the farmer's wife or daughter to hold the
plough or dig the ditches ; but there is a great deal of work
that women can do and ought to do, and which would make
them happier and healthier to do. Happier, for it would give
an abundant and inspiring occupation. Healthier, for it would
drive them out of doors, out of the hot, poisonous air of the
house, out into the free, fresh, health-quickening, out-of-door
air. I speak not of farmers' wives and daughters alone. I
speak of women of all classes, the richest and the poorest.
They can and ought to cultivate all the smaller fruits, like
strawberries and raspberries and the like, a healthy and refining
food which ought to be abundant on every table, till it expels
the salt pork and other like abominations, — food which would
be sweeter to all tastes if raised by the fair hands of wives and
daughters.

The same is true of the culture of the grape. It should not
be a luxury on a few tables, but cheap and abundant enough to
be on all tables, and watched over, and studied, and understood,
and cultivated by the women. And so of the vegetable garden.
The men ought to be driven out of it as valiantly as the chickens
or the pigs. Do you say that our women do work in the gar-
den ? Yes ; I know how bravely they start out in the spring,
trowel in hand, and after the ground has been prepared for
them, they manage to plant a few China asters, and marigolds,
and dahlias, and their work is all over. Our women love
flowers, but they love them as results, as bouquets upon their
tables. It does not compare with the love they would have for
them if they had watched their growth from the seed, and had
cultivated a life-long and intimate acquaintance with them.
They would thus find the cxc^ui^ite bloom of health on their

AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HOMES. 57

own cheeks of incomparably more worth than that of the most
delicate flower.

I confess to a good deal of disgust with the standard of educa-
tion which is set up for our young women in this country. A
little French and less Latin, a good deal of drumming the keys
of the piano with painful results, a little fancy needle-work.
Well, it is dangerous ground I am treading upon. I will not
say how much enters into the average education of our girls.
The result is to make very interesting but very delicate speci-
mens— exquisite dolls, rather than noble, womanly women.
About the most disagreeable feature of our social life now, is
the result of the fact that domestic service has been so far dis-
carded by our women, our young women, till it has become
unfashionable. It leaves all our house-keeping, all the peace
and comfort of our families, in fact, at the mercy of ignorant
labor of foreign origin. All our women are praying that they
may lay hold of a Chinese man to keep their house.

There are but two ways out of this trouble about domestic
service. One is a radical change in the ideas of our people as
to what constitutes a proper education for our young women.
"We must learn, as we are learning from painful experience,
that merely intellectual training may be, and often is, carried to
a fatal excess ; and that merely fashionable accomplishment is
an aim wholly unworthy a true-minded American woman.

Let our young women be sent to school a great deal less, and
learn a great deal less about fashions and novels, and be sent
into the kitchen and garden a great deal more, and they would
be happier and healthier, and we should be able to declare our
independence of Ireland, which we now so humbly serve.

The other remedy I had in mind is to secure in our homes a
simpler style of living, one that will not impose such burdens
upon the housekeepers. It could be done. Let the baking of
the family be done at the bakery, as it invariably is in the old
countries. Let the washing and ironing be done at the laundry.
Dispense with the unhealthy preserves and pastries that load
our tables and give us dyspepsia, and our household burdens
would be lightened.

The New England homes, when compared with homes else-
where, stand the test well. I know how mucli refinement and
taste and intelligence and virtue is found in them. I know not

58 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

where their equal is found. But there is yet much for us to
learn. We have not that measure of health and strength we
might have. There is among us an immense amount of sick-
ness and suffering and premature death which is to he attrib-
uted to our ignorance or our neglect of the Divine laws. The
standard of health is not so great among our native-born citizens
as it once was. Some of the reasons I iiave hinted at. It is for
us all to learn, whether we cultivate the soil or practise the
mechanic arts, that the great end and aim of life is the culture
of noble, true, God-serving men and women. In our homes let
there be health and purity and intelligence and virtue, and our
community will be peaceful, happy and prosperous. Give us
such homes. Earth furnishes no worthier employment. The
heart can find no happier duty. The Heavenly Father can
smile upon no more acceptable offering.

OUR PRODUCING INDUSTRIES. 59

MUTUAL DEPENDENCE OF OUR PRODUCING
INDUSTRIES.

From an Address before the Berkshire Agrioultural Society.

BY LEVI STOCKBRIDGE.

Now, can we provide for this demand, or for any, and what,
portion of it ? We should remember what the great producing
West will be sure to supply, and avoid competing with their
special crops and mode of culture. The system of the com-
peting culture is of the utmost importance, for no man who is so
managing his land that it is constantly increasing in fertility,
can compete with him whose plan and practice is to take up
rich fields, produce crops at the expense of the soil, and to sell
out and remove when its fertility shall measurably fail. The
West, with the fact looking them full in the face that their crops
are annually decreasing, are selling grain, and in all probability
are bound to do so, so long as there remain so many untilled
acres to be despoiled. Pork and beef also, the feeding at home
of which is a great improvement in their mode of culture, will
be articles which they will forward in large quantities. We had
better do nothing to compete with or stop this inflowing stream
of Western products of prime necessity, but receive it, especially
the grain, and make it aid in the improvement of our fields,
while we give our attention to products less exhausting and more
profitable. Not that a Massachusetts farmer cannot make as
much money on, or raise a bushel of corn and wheat, and put it
into the market as cheap as the farmer of Illinois or Iowa, if he
will pursue the same mode of cultivation and live in the same
manner, but that he can, in consequence of his home market,
and their follies, produce crops with which they cannot compete,
and make more money. Grain, beef, pork, while they are

60 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

articles of prime necessity, go but a little way in supplying the
wants of a family in a New England village, and for which they
are able and willing to pay. Choice vegetables of every variety,
early and late, fruits, large and small, the old standard kinds
and tlie new varieties, roots of every kind, forage, milk, butter,
cheese, young meat, veal, lamb, poultry, these are all in great
and increasing demand ; they are preferred, and sought for the
home supply, and no attempt is or will be made to obtain them
from abroad, so long as they can be procured here.

The condition of our soil to-day is such that no efforts of ours
would avail to furnish all the food of our people, even if it was
desirable. It is undoubtedly our wisest course to thoroughly
understand the wants, present and prospective, of our consuming
population ; the capabilities of our soil, the. crops we can grow
best and preserve its fertility, the special advantages and disad-
vantages of our respective locations for supplying some one or
more of the wants of the market of our immediate neighborhood.
It is impossible to say what should be the leading crop or crops
of each individual farmer. This matter each must decide for
himself according to surrounding circumstances. As a rule it
is well, but not imperative, for each and every farmer to supply
from his soil all the food of his family which it is capable of pro-
ducing, as this can be done as an adjunct to his main business of
producing other crops for sale, and by the rotation necessary to
his process of culture. In this way it may be well for him at
times to grow the wheat for family consumption, for there are
few farms in the State on which, in this sense, it cannot be prof-
itably grown. If the first attempt fail, indicating a want in the
soil or uncongenial climate, early sowing and an application of
the mineral constituents of the wheat plant, which can be cheaply
made, will make success a certainty.

The farmer, before adopting the line of husbandry to be pur-
sued, and the crops to be sold from the farm, should know pre-
cisely what effect that culture and the deportation of those crops
will have upon his farm, that ho may guard against its deterio-
ration. If the wants of his market induce him to engage in
vegetable culture, and ho sells potatoes, cabbages, onions, and
the varied products of the market garden, he should know that
he is rapidly exporting the potash of his soil, and in no small
amount the lime and magnesia. And if he would be able to

OUR PRODUCING INDUSTRIES. 61

keep his land in condition to continually produce such crops, he
must continually supply the loss. If milk is taken as his market
product, he should be aware that in this article he is sending
away a concentration of all the finest, best elements of the soil's
fertility, both mineral and nitrogenous, and the land won't long
bear the drain, without losing its power to produce those fine,
succulent grasses necessary to produce milk. If he make cheese,
it is but little better, and the exported material must be supplied
with some sort of fertilizer. If butter is his chosen product for
sale, and his skimmed milk is consumed at home, he has little
care to take about depleting his soil, but must watch with closest
scrutiny the process of manufacturing his product, feed judi-
ciously and kindly care for his stock, while he grows as rich as
the golden balls he sends to market. For this crop takes almost
nothing of the mineral elements of fertility from the soil, but is
composed chiefly of carbon, which the acid of the air will supply
to the herbage of his fields without thought or care of him.

If, owing to circumstances, he chooses to enter the lists and
compete in the beef market with the Western farmer, let him
purchase of that farmer or somebody else mature animals, not
to grow, but simply to fatten upon his pastures or in his stalls,
and his profit will come quickly and in satisfactory amount, and
he takes from his land little else but carbon in the fat he puts on
the carcass purchased. If his taste and his farm incline him to
try his skill and intelligence in growing stock, let him select
some one of our thoroughbred breeds, and rear for a live market
(and here, at the present time, is one of our most inviting fields
of culture). But he is actually making up into animal form,
into bones, muscles and tissues, the choicest elements of the plant-
food of the soil, to be carried away, and which he must return in
grain purchased to facilitate their growth, or in lime, potash,
phosphoric acid and nitrogenous materials, or the land will ere
long cease to yield its increase.

If the farmer has a love for it, he will find in fruit culture a
large field in which to exercise his skill ; for in some form it is
fast becoming a staple article of consumption, and ordinarily
the demand is far beyond the supply. Besides the care of the
plants and the harvesting and marketing of the fruit, no great
attention is needed. A crop of fruit depletes the soil but
little compared with our cultivated crops, and needs only a

62 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

friable soil, with occasional applications of mineral manures in
solvent form.

But again, if the Massachusetts farmer would make the most
of his advantages, he must enter fully into the spirit of this
wide-awake, competitive, driving age. No man now, who shuts
his eyes and moves at a snail's pace to prevent a catastrophe,
ought to expect or deserves to win. We are moving by the force
of steam, and with telegraphic speed, and with these modern
appliances we do it safely. As others do, so must the farmer, —
concentrate all his skill, intelligence and energy on one main
pursuit, and in this way command success. How successful,
think you, would be the manufacturer, who, in one and the same
establishment, and with the same set of hands, should attempt
to manufacture all the different kinds of cotton and woollen
goods, or to produce the different kinds with the same ma-
chinery ; who should add to his establishment the making of
cutlery, locomotives, machinery and every variety of Yankee no-
tions, instead of giving all his care, thought and study to the
production and perfection of one article, and the machine of its
manufacture ; or who should this year fill his establishment
with cotton machinery, run it a twelvemonth, then take it out
and put in that for the manufacture of woollens ; another, engage
in iron manufacture, and the next in plate glass ? Would he
succeed ? No ; he would, as he deserved, miserably fail in all ;
he would declare that manufacturing did not pay, and sell out
and go into other business, or move West.

So, too, in agriculture ; the farmer who attempts to cultivate
for market all the crops our soil and climate will produce, will
signally fail of that high success to which he might attain if his
attention and study were directed to the perfecting of a single
crop. The evil is twofold. First in the cultivation, and next
in marketing his produce. Concentration of skill and energy is
essential to success, but he scatters himself and his power over a
great variety of objects, and liis blows are not effective at any of
them. He does not have the best appliances for successful cul-
tivation, as he would have if his object was single ; he cannot so
divide and train his labor as to make it skilful, and the proper
cultivation and care of one crop is continually interfering with
another. So in marketing his products ; he has so little of a kind
to sell, and that not of the best, that he is unable to seek the

OUR PRODUCING INDUSTRIES. 63

best market, nor can he create one, for he is not a reliable pro-
ducer. He is in the hands of the middleman, and of the market,
whatever it is ; for his products of each sort are so limited in
amount that he can have no control of it, or influence, except to
depress it and injure others. In this case, also, the cost of mar-
keting is a large share of the gross proceeds, for it takes as much
time to sell each of his kinds of produce as it would if he had ten
or a hundred times as much to sell.

Now instead of pursuing agricultural business in this way,let
the farmer select one or two branches of culture which would
follow each other in rotation, for which he has a taste, tlie pur-
suit of which surrounding circumstances favor ; procure the best
appliances and skill known ; by thought, care and study discover
new and better methods ; bend all his power and thoughts to
make the best article and the greatest quantity at the cheapest
cost, and he will, in a measure, control or make his market, and
have no occasion to complain that other pursuits are more remu-
nerative than his.

Finally, if the Massachusetts farmer would make the most of
his advantages, he must educate himself for his business, and
for the position which the wants of this intelligent age demand.
That general intelligence and special education of a high order
are essential to the successful pursuit of agriculture, would
seem to be an axiom to which all would assent. But the fact
is far otherwise. The shadow of a darker age than the one in
which we now live yet overspreads and lingers upon us, and
often in this matter darkens the understanding and perverts
the judgment of well meaning and well educated men. The
idea that agriculture is a practical pursuit ; that it is one re-
quiring energy and labor, and that therefore well-knit bones,
tough, elastic muscles, are about the only requisite ; that in-
telligence and education unfits a man, or disinclines him to
engage in a laborious pursuit as this is said to be, is the honest
opinion of a great many, and of some, I fear, who do not
choose to avow it.

Agriculture is a practical pursuit, requiring hard work and
energy, practical knowledge, and practice, to make it a success.
But it is no more so than that of the medical jjrofession, no
more than of the engineer, no more than the artisan or manu-
facturer. Practical knowledge is the test of your physician's

G4 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

skill. Will you on that account say that the most thorough
discipline and theoretical education is not essential for him ;
that it will make him simply a theorist, a book physician, and
give over this noble profession to born physicians, seventh sons,
and quacks, who have had no training for their work ? We
have lived w^itli our souls darkened, and behind the age, if we
have not yet taken in, and made a part of our being, the idea
that mind controls matter in everything, everywhere, and shapes
it to its will, and that the more thoroughly the mind is
trained and disciplined, the more fully it is stored with facts,
truths and principles, the more powerful is its possessor in deal-
ing with practical material objects.

It is this education which has made the medical profession
what it is ; this, which has enabled one laborer in the nineteenth
century to perform the work of ten in the sixteenth ; this,
which has built those solid structures which breast the flow of
your great rivers, which has invented your modern machinery,
built up your thriving manufacturing towns, your endless lines
of railroads, with their marvels of engineering, bridges and
tunnels, and it is this which has given practical power and effi-
cacy to the blows of the laborer in every department of im-
provement. Now, shall we deny to or neglect to provide for
agriculture that special training which has been the cause of
this wonderful progress in every other department of industry ?
No ; not if we are wise. Yes, if we are otherwise, and would
have those who come after us despise us for our short-sighted-
ness.

But there are strong and sufficient reasons why the agricul-
turist should be the last to be neglected in regard to that
which is special and relates to this calling alone. The pursuits
of many of our people lead them to deal with dead matter,
over which they have nearly supreme control. Give to the
cotton or woollen manufacturer a pound of cotton or wool, and
he can tell you to an inch how much yarn or cloth it will make.
He can tell you to a mill how much it will cost to manufacture
it. The reason is, his machinery works with unvarying pre-
cision, and he controls all tlie circumstances of success. Not
so the farmer. His occupation, when he possesses the highest
intelligence, will have much about it that is uncertain and pre-
carious, for his success depends largely on those elemental and

OUR PRODUCING INDUSTRIES. 65

natural laws over which he has little control. How absolutely
essential it is, then, that he should be thoroughly versed in all
those great underlying principles which relate to the soil, its
combinations, its chemical and mechanical changes, the processes
by which plant-food is created and carried away, the laws
which relate to and govern the ^ life, growth and perfection of
the animals and plants of the farm, — be qualified by training
and discipline to think out, discover and systematize the great
truths of his profession, and thus to wring success out of cir-
cumstances which would dishearten the ignorant, as well as a
most thorough practical knowledge of all the minutiae of the
pursuit and acquaintance with the principles of business, which
will enable him to meet on equal ground all tlie sharp competi-
tions of this competing age.

When the men who own and superintend the working of the
soil of Massachusetts shall be thus disciplined and educated ;
when they adopt a system of cultivation which inures to its
gradual improvement, concentrate their energies and intelli-
gence on the production of such special articles as their location
demands, then, and only then, will they reap the benefits that
may be derived from the home market of our dense and increas-
ing population, and complaints of agriculture as an occupation
cease, and we shall occupy the position, by universal consent,
which is ours by virtue of our intrinsic importance to the Com-
monwealth.

9*

6Q MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

PKOFESSIONAL EDUCATION THE PRESENT
WANT OF AGRICULTURE.

From an Address before the Ilousatonic Agricultural Society.

BY "WILLIAM S. CLARK.

Among the outward circumstances which contribute to human
happiness, doubtless all right-minded individuals would enumer-
ate, as of primary importance, pure air, bright sunshine and
pleasant scenery ; wholesome food, delicious fruits and charm-
ing flowers ; instructive and entertaining books and delight-
some music ; comely and comfortable clothing, tasteful and
convenient buildings and furniture ; loving and intelligent
friends, and an abundance of healthful, agreeable and remuner-
ative employment ; and these are the natural possessions of the
properly educated and truly enterprising husbandman. The
country homes of Massachusetts are indeed too often sadly
deficient in these elements of comfortable living, but it is not
the fault of agriculture as an occupation. Tliese things are
freely offered to every farmer who desires to have them, and
neither wealth, nor political power, nor extraordinary talent is
necessary for their acquisition. The great majority of our race
must be in the future, as they have been from the beginning,
tillers of the soil, producers of food and of the necessary
material for commerce and manufactures ; but they need not
be ignorant and devoid of taste.

On the contrary, in the good time coming, the refining,
elevating and strengthening influences of high intellectual and
aesthetic culture will be considered as desirable in the agri-
cultural profession as they are in medicine, law or theology.

It is, however, an indisputable fact that the farmers, even of
Massachusetts, to-day, with a few exceptions, fail almost utterly

AGRICULTURAL WANT OF EDUCATION. 67

to appreciate the importance of professional or scientific educa-
tion for their sons, and feel far less respect than they ought for
their business. Washington declared this to be " the most
useful, the most healthy and the most noble occupation of
man," and followed it, so far as his public duties would allow,
with energy and ability. Yet J;here are multitudes on our
farms, who will make far greater sacrifices to send their sons to
a classical college, or establish them in some branch of trade or
manufacture, than they will to prepare them in the best manner
to become influential and prosperous in the profession of their
fathers.

A celebrated painter having been asked with what he mixed
his colors to render them so perfect, is said to have answered,
" brains." The most difficult and most complicated of the arts
also requires brains in him who would master and improve it.
Accordingly we find agriculture most wisely and properly con-
ducted where nature is not too lavish of her favors, but where
the circumstances of soil and climate compel men to the exer-
cise of forethought and diligence. In favorable situations
within the topics the support of a family requires an exceed-
ingly small amount of labor and skill. Clothing is almost a
superfluity, and food springs from the earth in constant and
luxuriant profusion. Thus the plantain, which is the staff of
life in some equatorial regions, yields one hundred and thirty-
three times as much food to the acre as the wheat plant, and
needs scarcely any cultivation or care. It is only necessary to
renew the plantation once in twenty years, so that the principal
labor consists in picking the fruit, which grows within thirty
feet of the ground. The plantain is nutritious and healthful in
a great variety of forms, and is eaten both ripe and unripe,
cooked and uncooked, and in the dry as well as the fresh state.
The cocoa-nut, date and sago palms furnish food, drink and
clothing, almost as readily as the plantain does food.

How unlike this is the agriculture of Massachusetts, with her
rough and sterile soil and her severe climate, demanding a con-
stant and vigorous struggle with both the burning heat of sum-
mer and the icy blasts of winter ! With anxious care the
farmer must provide, during the few brief months when there
are no frosts, for the maintenance and shelter of his family and
his domestic animals during half the year when no food of any

68 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

kind will grow. To do this lie must be industrious, intelligent
and prudent, and to secure more than a bare subsistence he
needs all the aid which the highest science can afford.

Notwithstanding the difficulties which beset the farmer in the
cooler regions now inhabited by the most civilized nations of the
world, the total amount and value of agricultural produce are
constantly increasing, and in Great Britain, and doubtless in
Massachusetts, this increased product is obtained with a contin-
ually diminishing expense, and in many cases with an absolute
improvement of the soil. This is the goal towards which a true
and perfect system of agriculture should ever be tending — to
secure the most desirable and profitable crops with the least
expenditure of labor and fertilizers, and, at the same time,
to enrich the soil and enhance the salubrity of the climate
and the beauty of the landscape. The effect of modern im-
provements applied to estates in England during the present
century has been to increase their annual value many fold.
This result has been attained by thorough tillage, clean culture,
under-draining, rotation of crops, cultivation of roots, improved
methods of saving and applying manures, use of commercial
fertilizers, and proper adaptations of crops to soils and markets,
together with the application of horse and steam power to farm
work and the invention of many new and useful hand imple-
ments ; the irrigation of " water meadows ; ". the introduction
of better breeds of animals for specific purposes, and the diffu-
sion of knowledge upon topics of interest to the farmer.

In our own Commonwealth the change for the better is almost
as marvellous. How different the appearance of the country
to-day from what it was a hundred years ago ! What improve-
ments in the variety and quality of farm and garden products ;
in the number and perfection of agricultural implements and
machines ; in the treatment of swamps and other wild or waste
land ; in roads and fences ; in orchards and vineyards ; in the
location and construction of farm buildings; in the beauty,
usefulness and value, and the care and breeding, of domestic
animals ; in the saving and appreciating of fertilizers and in
general farm management, and above all in the intelligence and
eagerness for progress of the farmers themselves. This in-
creased mental activity and desire for information is clearly
indicated by the enormous sales of agricultural books of every

AGRICULTURAL WANT OF EDUCATION. 69

description, and the almost incredible circulation of agricultural
periodicals, which have come into existence within a compara-
tively few years.

Not only have the out-door labors of the farm been rendered
much lighter, more agreeable and more profitable by these
modern betterments and inventions, but the household duties
of the farmer's wife and daughters have been greatly diminished
both in number and severity. The quiet enjoyment of domestic
life is now possible, even upon large farms, since the rude hired
men of the olden times are mostly replaced by the sleek horses
which perform their work. The milk train, the cheese factory,
the machines for washing and wringing, churning and sweeping,
sewing and knitting, and a thousand other improvements lighten
their responsibilities, lessen their labors and shorten their hours
of toil.

While it is thus encouraging to review the history of our
agriculture, it is evident that much remains to be accomplished
before our system of farming as actually practised will derive
the benefit it ought from the best knowledge of the present day,
and the farmers as a class have that degree of intelligence and
skill which is most desirable.

We are assured on good authority that the soil of the United
States has been devastated and impoverished by our past agri-
cultural operations to the extent of more than 11,000,000,000,
and that the loss from poor cultivation of crops — from what
Henry Ward Beecher styles the horizontal, in distinction from
the vertical method of farming — in the year 1869 was not less
than $200,000,000. It is also undoubtedly true that the actual
waste of fertilizers from want of proper shelter and care
amounted in the aggregate to many millions of dollars. Even
in Massachusetts there are probably 75,000 barns to-day without
cellars or other suitable means for saving the more valuable
portion of animal excrement.

It may be safely asserted that money wisely applied to the
advancement of agriculture is most profitably invested. When
Henry Colman was occupied, from 1836 to 1840, as commis-
sioner in making an agricultural survey of this State, there
were many even among the farmers who regarded his work of
little if any value, and it was finally suspended before its com-
pletion for want of an appropriation from the legislature. In

70 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

his final report he says, that the total expense to the people had
been about one cent for each inhabitant, and that one of the
best informed men in the State had expressed the opinion that
it had already been worth thirty times its cost in its beneficial
effects upon the agriculture of the Commonwealth. If he had
been instrumental in reclaiming an average of three acres of
peat bog in each town, as he supposed he had, he shows tliat he
had thus created property worth at least $150,000 and yielding
an income of 820,000 per annum. If he had led to the making
each year in every town an average of two hundred loads of
compost worth one dollar more a load than it cost, he demon-
strates that he had thus developed an annual income of
860,000.

The money expended was therefore obviously returned many
times over during the progress of the survey, and will be every
year while agriculture is practised. It is an important fact that
such agencies for good, once put into operation, continue with
constantly increasing power to benefit mankind to the remotest
generation.

Near the beginning of the nineteenth century, when the
science of chemistry was rapidly assuming its present form and
revealing to the waiting world the wondrous truths relating to
the composition of soils, water and air, the food of plants and
animals, and the true relations of the three kingdoms of nature
to each other, Sir Humphrey Davy published his great work on
Agricultural Chemistry. The deepest interest in regard to pos-
sible improvements in agricultural operations by the direct ap-
plication of science was excited in the minds of many most
intelligent men, both in this country and in Europe. It had
been for centuries previous to this time the belief that chemical
science could devise some method for transmuting the baser
metals into gold. Kings, nobles and scholars had been alike
interested to secure this result, but chemical analysis demon-
strated that it was no longer to be hoped for.

The enthusiastic devotion of the alchemists to the mystic
science was now in a measure replaced by the unwarranted ex-
pectations of those wlio sought the advancement of agriculture.
Many imagined that chemical analysis was to reveal at once the
causes of sterility in soils, and to discover forthwith some sim-
ple but sufficient remedy. This resulted in an immense amount

AGRICULTURAL WANT OP EDUCATION. 71

of chemical investigation into the composition of soils, manures,
plants and animals, which is still in progress, and though the
precise object of search has not been discovered, a vast amount
of valuable knowledge, both theoretical and practical, has been
attained. The methods of enriching soils, preparing and apply-
ing manures, stimulating plants to produce the crops desired,
and feeding animals for special purposes, which have been de-
vised by intelligent men under the guidance of science, have
been, and will to the end of time be, of inestimable value to the
world.

Tlie surpassing worth of any, even the smallest improvement
in agriculture, and the rapidity with which one invention fol-
lowed another, awakened the public mind to the necessity of
some new means for the diffusion of knowledge, and for the
excitement among farmers of a desire for better tools, seeds,
stock and methods. Hence the organization of agricultural
societies, which aimed to accomplish these results by the publi-
cation of useful information, by the discussion of various impor-
tant subjects, by the exhibition of the best agricultural tools
and products, and by the offering of premiums for the trial of
experiments, the invention of improved processes or implements,
and the production of the largest crops, the finest specimens of
the most desirable farm produce or domestic animals, and for
the best essays upon specified topics.

The Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture
was incorporated in 1792, and has always been composed large-
ly of gentlemen of wealth and culture, residing in Boston or its
vicinity.

In addition to the other more common modes of advancing
the interests of the great art, this society has repeatedly im-
ported valuable animals of choice breeds from England and
France, and distributed them for service in various parts of the
Commonwealth. The farmers of Middlesex County organized
a society in 1794, and those of Berkshire in 1811. The people
of other counties soon followed their example, until now there
are thirty incorporated societies enjoying the liberal patronage
of the State. Most of these own from thirty to sixty acres of
land and suitable buildings for their fairs, which are attended
by from 3,000 to 25,000 visitors. Their total real and personal

72 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

property amounts to §350,000, and their annual premiums ex-
ceed 825,000.

The New England Agricultural Society, under the leadership
of its talented founder. Dr. George B. Loring, in addition to its
most successful annual exhibitions, has instituted at the farm of
the Massachusetts Agricultural College grand trials of the im-
plements and machinery of husbandry. These have awakened
much interest and competition among manufacturers through-
out the United States, and have been exceedingly serviceable to
the farmers of New England, affording them the opportunity of
seeing in operation a great variety of the best machines.

After the first establishment of agricultural societies, the next
step for the improvement of our farming was the employment,
already alluded to, of the learned commissioner, Henry Colman,
to make an agricultural survey of the State, and suggest meas-
ures for promoting this important interest. From his entire
familiarity with the history and progress of English agriculture
he was admirably qualified for the task. In his final report he
urges the necessity of special education for farmers as follows :
" In order to render the agricultural profession more attractive
and respectable, we must seek its intellectual elevation. Im-
provement of the mind confers a rank which wealth cannot
purchase, and commands a respect which the proudest aristoc-
racy may envy. It is too late in the day to decry the value of
science in agriculture. Who can name an art, or trade, or
business, in which knowledge is a disadvantage or a prejudice
to success, or in which, indeed, it is not a substantial help ?
"Why should agriculture, combining as it does so many reasons
and opportunities for the application of skill and knowledge, be
an exception to every other art and business ? "

The first effort to carry these ideas into practical operation
was not made till 1850, when Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, then
president of the Norfolk Agricultural Society, and also presi-
dent of the Massachusetts Senate, introduced a bill, which passed
the Senate, but failed in the House of Representatives, author-
izing the governor to appoint a board of ten commissioners who
should have power to establish an agricultural school or college,
and who should consider the expediency of the formation of a
board of agriculture as a department in the State government.
The result was that a commissioner was authorized, and Dr.

AGRICULTURAL WANT OF EDUCATION. 73

Edward Hitchcock was appointed to visit and report upon the
agricultural institutions of Europe. This report was made to
the legislature of 1851, and contained a detailed account of
more than 350 schools.

One recommendation of the commissioners, based upon this
report, was, that the legislature establish a central agricultural
college, with a model and experimental farm. Another recom-
mendation was that a State Board of Agriculture be created,
with a permanent secretary and office at the State house, for
the collection of agricultural statistics and information, and the
advancement of the farming interests of the Commonwealth.

The operations of the Board of Agriculture, as recorded in
its annual reports, are too familiar to need rehearsal. It has
most nobly done the work for which it was created, and by its
constant advocacy of agricultural education prepared the way
for the success of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which
was finally incorporated in 1863.

It has been customary in years past for most of the societies
to have an annual address, which has usually been printed.
These addresses have generally been delivered by distinguished
clergymen, lawyers, physicians, professors or editors, and the
prominent theme has been education, brains, science for far-
mers. Wise and eloquent as these orations have been, it is to
be hoped there will, at no distant day, be educated farmers who
can speak for their own profession with even greater effect. It
should then, however, be gratefully remembered that up to the
present time almost every successful attempt at improvement in
the agriculture of Massachusetts has been originated and pros-
ecuted by educated men who did not belong to the class prop-
erly called farmers.

When, in 1862, the national government granted 360,000
acres of land to Massachusetts for the establishment of one or
more colleges for the education of the industrial classes, the
advocates of agricultural education perceived that the long-
lookcd-for day had dawned, that their often deferred hopes were
about to be realized. It was conceded at once by all, that pro-
vision should now be made for the special instruction of farmers.
His Excellency Governor Andrew, the legislature of 1803, the
Board of Agriculture, and all who were for any reason inter-
ested in the subject, began an earnest and thorough discussion
10*

74 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

of the question, how the fund accruing from the sale of this
land could be best applied to promote education in agriculture,
and thus to elevate the profession and perfect the art.

Three distinct plans for the accomplishment of the desired
object were brought forward and ably advocated by their friends.
The first was eloquently presented by the governor in his annual
message, in which he advised the establishment of an agricul-
tural school in connection with Harvard College, and the bestow-
ment of at least two millions of dollars, in addition to the fund
derived from the sale of the land, upon that institution, so as to
render it a grand university worthy the name and fame of Mas-
sachusetts. The prime object of an agricultural school of this
kind is not to educate farmers, so much as to advance scientific
agriculture, by affording at the university the most favorable
opportunities for experiments and original investigations in the
various departments of science which are specially applied to
agriculture. Such an institution would, undoubtedly, under
good management, accomplish much for the advancement of use-
ful knowledge, and is now organizing as a department of the
university of Cambridge, which has a fund of $250,000 be-
queathed to it for this very purpose by Benjamin Bussey of
Roxbury.

A second plan for promoting agricultural education, which
has been urged by some intelligent men, the most prominent of
whom is the Hon. George S. Boutwell, is diametrically opposed
to the first, and has for its main object the diffusion of knowl-
edge upon agricultural topics among the farmers themselves.
The means to be employed for this purpose are not colleges or
professional schools, but agricultural societies, farmers' clubs, and
lecturers going from town to town, and imparting such practical
knowledge as the farmers are competent or willing to receive.
Some would also introduce an elementary text-book on agricul-
ture into the common schools, with the same end in view. The
attempt to teach agriculture in the public schools, even with an
excellent text-book, has been tried and proved a failure from
lack of knowledge and interest on the part of teachers. With
competent instructors, it might be very profitably taught in the
higher schools. The objections to this second plan arc that it is
hard to teach old men new ways, and hence education must
begin in youth ; that to secure the ready adoption of improve-

AGRICULTURAL WANT OF EDUCATION. 75

merits there must be not only a knowledge of the improvements
themselves, but also of the scientific principles upon which they
are founded ; that if practical farmers are to remain ignorant
of all the higher branches of learning, and to have only the
mental discipline and culture of the country public schools, they
can never occupy their proper position in society, nor retain
upon the farm their more talented and ambitious sons and
daughters ; and finally, that the stream will not rise higher than
its source. The supposition that the mass of farmers will ever
educate themselves, or even appreciate the advantages of high
culture, before means are provided for giving it, and the 1)ene-
fits of it demonstrated, is without foundation. Most of the
leaders, in all the improvements that have been made, have
been not ordinary, uneducated farmers, but men of other pro-
fessions and liberal education. Our State system of public
schools, maintained by voluntary taxation, has been referred to
as a proof that the farmers would see their need of education
and then spontaneously provide for it. But Harvard College
was established before the system of public schools, and the
high culture of her professional men has ever been the glory
and the power of Massachusetts. The history of the schools
throughout the State shows that they have been brought to their
present state of efficiency by the persistent and laborious efforts
of liberally educated men, and in many towns it has required,
years of warfare to bring the people up to the standard of the
laws, which have been devised by learned, and not by ignorant
legislators.

The third plan was proposed by the joint special committee of
the legislature of 1863, the chairman of which was the Rev. E.
0. Haven, who has since gained the reputation, in connection
with the University of Michigan, of being one of the most suc-
cessful educators in the country. He is now president of the
North-Wtstern University near Chicago.

The fundamental idea of this jjlan was the establishment of a
strictly professional school for farmers, as an independent insti-
tution. It was regarded as important that it should be in an
agricultural region, away from city influences, and that it should
equal, in its educational facilities, the other colleges of the State.
Its object was to teach the theory and practice of agriculture,
and to give its pupils a literary and scientific training of a high

76 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

order. It was to be well equipped with apparatus and books, a
farm with stock and tools, and the necessary professors, not only
to systematize and teach all useful agricultural knowledge, but
also to make original investigations and experiments for the
advancement of the art.

The Board of Agriculture heartily approving this plan, it was
adopted by the legislature, and the Massachusetts Agricultural
College was incorporated. It is somewhat remarkable that it is
the only institution in the United States designed exclusively
for the education of farmers. The members of the corporation
were elected by the legislature for life, and were chosen from
among the prominent friends of agriculture. Subsequently the
Board of Agriculture was made a Board of Overseers of the
College.

It having thus been decided that the farmers were to enjoy
the benefits of an independent, professional school, its precise
character and location came under consideration. Tlie law
required that it should be called the Massachusetts Agricultural
College, from which it must be inferred that the legislature
designed it to hold a prominent position among our educational
institutions. The course of study and instruction was obviously
intended to be superior, at least in some respects, to that of our
existing public schools ; and to secure the proper establishment
of the college upon a basis satisfactory to the people, it was re-
quired that the location, plan of organization, and course of
instruction, which might be adopted by the trustees, should be
approved by the governor and council, before any decisive steps
were taken for its erection.

President Henry F. French, having given the subject of agri-
cultural education a great amount of attention, and having
visited the principal schools and colleges of this country and of
Great Britain, prepared a plan for the establishment of the col-
lege at Amherst, which was unanimously adopted by the trus-
tees and approved by the governor and council.

An excellent farm, of nearly four hundred acres, having been
purchased in the valley of the Connecticut, and suitable build-
ings completed, the college received its first class on the second
of October, 1867. On that day thirty-three young men, averag-
ing nearly eighteen years of age, most of them sons of farmers,
presented themselves for examination. The growth of the insti-

AGRICULTURAL WANT OF EDUCATION. 77

tution, so far as money and members are concerned, from that
time to the present, has been constant and rapid to a degree
which has satisfied its most hopeful friends. Its estate, build-
ings and equipment have cost more than $225,000, and it has a
cash fund of $150,000. Its organization is now complete, and
with a competent faculty of instruction, and four classes of stu-
dents, numbering in all one hundred and twelve, it may, with-
out any boasting, be affirmed that no institution iu the country,
among all those endowed by the national government, offers
better facilities for agricultural education than the Farmers'
College of Massachusetts.

Having thus considered some of the more important facts con-
cerning the efforts made during the present century, by enter-
prising men of science and political wisdom, for the advancement
of agriculture, we come to consider the obstacles to complete
success in this last and noblest attempt to increase the intelli-
gence, wealth, power and popularity of the profession so largely
and so well represented here to-day.

In the report of the committee, which accompanied the Act of
incorporation, passed by the legislature of 1863, occurs this
somewhat remarkable sentence, which has proved to be almost
prophetic : " There can be but one serious impediment in the
way of making a true professional agricultural school in this
State prosper, and that is a want of interest in it among the
agricultural population."

To one who understands fully the greatness of the preparatory
work which has been done at Amherst, and the advantages there
oflfered'for practical training, scientific instruction and original
investigation, the utter indifference in regard to their college
manifested by most of the 75,000 farmers of Massachusetts is
truly astounding. It calls to mind the almost incredible fact in
the history of the South Sea Islands, that, in 1797, thirty-nine
English missionaries, with every needed appliance for teaching
Christianity and the arts of civilized life, began their earnest
and devoted labors for the elevation of the native population, but
did not succeed in making a single convert during the first
sixteen years.

It was the belief among the pioneers in the missionary work
that if men could but see the advantages to be derived from
Christian civilization, they would readily accept it ; but experi-

78 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

ence has demonstrated that efforts for the improvement of a
people are most wisely directed to the mental and moral culture
of the young.

It is therefore obvious that while much benefit may result
from public meetings for the discussion of practical questions,
and from the publication of agricultural documents, which in
the form of books and periodicals are now spread broadcast over
the country, yet the real want of the times is thoroughly edu-
cated farmers — men who combine exact science with profitable
practice. We have workers enough, writers enough, and talkers
in excess. Let us have the three in one. Let us have men pre-
pared for this profession by years of study, during which they
shall not only become familiar with all the most important
knowledge pertaining to the subject, but shall acquire, by
thorough discipline, that ability for close observation and accu-
rate experiment which is indispensable to any considerable prog-
ress. This is the needed remedy for that crudeness and super-
ficiality and frequent worthlessness of agricultural literature of
which we are all the constant victims.

But just here we are met by the popular notion that much
culture is incompatible with manual labor, and that the farmer
who sends his son to college for education, will find that as he
increases in intelligence he will decrease in industry, pro-
fessional zeal and capacity for successful farm management.

Now, to assert that a young man cannot be immensely
strengthened and benefited by special, scientific preparation to
practise agriculture, is to admit that though so loudly praised
as the first, last and noblest occupation of the race, it is a-eally
degrading in its nature, and designed, in the organization of
society, only for those poor, stupid, ignorant or unfortunate
persons who are unable to secure a livelihood in any other
way — a doctrine which the Massachusetts farmers are hardly
ready to accept.

But perhaps the inquiry may arise, Why the graduates of our
older colleges are not more commonly found engaged in agri-
culture, if it be so excellent a business and one so greatly advan-
taged by education ? The explanation is obvious and most
satisfactory.

In the first place, the course of study is not at all adapted to
qualify a man for farming. Seven years of the best of life are

AGRICULTURAL WANT OF EDUCATION. 79

necessarily spent away from all practical pursuits, and almost
exclusive attention given during most of this period to the dead
languages, pure mathematics and metaphysics. The natural
sciences and mixed mathematics are studied comparatively
little, and without reference to their application to agriculture,
or any other art.

Again, nearly all students when entering upon a classical
course have in view one of the three learned professions, and
naturally come to regard themselves as rising above the level of
the agricultural community, precisely in proportion to the
extent of their literary attainments.

Finally, most college graduates are destitute of any other
capital than their education, and are therefore compelled to
begin life in a small way by teaching, or the practice of a pro-
fession which requires but a moderate investment of money.
Without land, stock, tools, or ready cash, without a knowledge
of business in general, or farming in particular, and without the
respect or sympathy of the farmers themselves, the graduate of
a classical college has few inducements to enter the profession.

Let no one, however, imagine that study tends to indolence,
or that professional men are less laborious than farmers, or that
an educated farmer will accomplish less than an ignorant one.
It has been well said that " what is often called indolence is, in
fact, the unconscious consciousness of incapacity." On the other
hand, knowledge is power, and its conscious possession must ren-
der the farmer, as well as every other man, more ambitious,
more energetic and more efficient. Genius has been well de-
fined as capacity for labor, and the most patient and enthusi-
astic Workers of the world are the great scholars. Thought is
" brain-sweat," and mental labor is vastly more exhausting than
the exercise of the muscles ; yet there are multitudes of studious
men who toil more hours every day than the most diligent of
farmers.

Professor Agassiz while engaged in writing his great work
upon the glaciers, after spending some months amid the ever-
lasting snows of the Alps, remained for two whole years in gown
and slippers, as it were in a chrysalis state, before astonishing
the world by his appearance as the author of one of the most
surprising and original scientific theories ever propounded. Who
of us could be hired to perform one-half the filthy, disgusting

80 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

"vrork, in collecting and handling fish, which Agassiz has volun-
tarily done in acquiring that knowledge which has made him
the greatest ichthyologist of all the ages ? Who can realize,
while listening to his brilliant and instructive lectures or con-
versation, that he has been the most laborious and zealous collec-
tor of specimens in zoology ever known ; or that he, of all men,
should have passed many of the best years of his life in studying
the embryology and habits of the slowest and coldest-blooded
quadrupeds — the turtles ? When importuned to leave this
apparently unprofitable and disagreeable labor to engage in lec-
turing, which seems to most persons so much more useful and
delightful, and by which he could readily amass a fortune, he
answered with most unselfish devotion to the cause of science,
" I cannot afford time to make money." Education certainly
did not spoil him for work, and the people need have no fear
that their sons would become unfit for labor, if sent to Amherst
for instruction.

But from present indications it would seem that scientific
attainments and professional training for farmers are not very
highly esteemed in this part of the Commonwealth. While the
wisest statesmen and the most intelligent friends of progressive
agriculture are profoundly impressed with the necessity of
special education for that business, and while institutions for
this purpose are being numerously established and riclily
endowed in all civilized countries ; while Prussia, whose power
and resources now astonish the world, is justly celebrated for
the number and surpassing excellence of her agricultural
schools ; and while the Massachusetts Agricultural College, with
its beautiful farm, its commodious buildings, its ample equip-
ment, its competent instructors, and its crowd of students,
invites their attention and patronage, what is the interest
manifested in this momentous subject by the citizens of
Berkshire ?

Precisely this. With a population largely engaged in culti-
vating the soil ; with three flourishing agricultural societies ;
with three memljcrs of the Board of Overseers and two of the
trustees of the college residing among them, and with the
standing offer of a free scholarship to any suitable applicant,
not a solitary student has appeared for admission to the college
this year.

AGRICULTURAL WANT OF EDUCATION. ' 81

Now ill trying to account for this surprising fact, no man can
trutlifully affirm that the education there given is not suited to
the wants of a practical farmer ; or that it is inferior to that
offered at any other agricultural college in the country ; or that,
under all the circumstances, it could reasonably be expected to
be better than it is. The college is by no means perfect, but its
warmest friends are found among those who are most familiar
with its history and operations. The thirty young men who
have been there three years, and are now engaged in the studies
of the fourth year, are too intelligent and shrewd to be deceived
in regard to the character and value of the education they are
securing. The truth about the matter is simply this : — the
farmers do not realize that the greater includes the less ; and
the very men who would be most enthusiastic over a new cliurii,
or a seedling potato, or a recipe for some patent fertilizer, fail
to see that the direct road to all possible improvement lies in
the development of mental power, and the acquirement of
scientific knowledge. This manifest disregard of the agricul-
tural community for their college, affords the most unanswerable
argument to those who for any reason wish to defeat the legis-
lative appropriations necessary for its development and support.
Even those who admit the propriety of special governmental aid
to promote the farming interest, and who believe great good
might result from such an institution properly patronized, must
soon become disheartened in the vain attempt to help those who
will not help themselves. Time-serving politicians, and unprin-
cipled newspapers, seeking only to float on the tide of public
opinion, will, of course, readily unite in an opposition, which
appears to be popular, and eagerly seize every opportunity to
prejudice the people against the enterprise and its friends.

Massachusetts promptly accepted the generous grant of the
national government and in good faith provided an independent
school for the special education of young farmers. No other
preparation is required for admission than can be obtained in
every town at the public expense. The students all reside on
the State farm, and are every day engaged in the study and
practice of agriculture. The course of instruction has been
adopted after the most careful investigation into tlie organiza-
tion of similar institutions in other countries, as well as in the
United States, and after five years of discussion and trial by the
11*

82 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

.trustees and faculty. Much effort has been made to secure the
services of professors and lecturers distinguishtd not only for
scientific attainments and general culture, but for practical skill in
their several departments ; and particular pains have been taken
to reduce the necessary expenses of the students to the lowest
practicable point. In short, every exertion has been made to
establish a true professional school, fitted to educate in the best
manner the leaders of our agricultural population. All this
has been accomplished, but the principal work yet remains to be
done. There can be no complete and satisfactory success
until cordial cooperation of the farmers themselves has been
assured.

The danger concerning the college is not that it will lack
students, for it is full ; or appreciative friends, for their num-
ber is large and constantly increasing ; or necessary funds for
its maintenance, for it is well endowed. But the difficulty is to
preserve its peculiar agricultural character, upon its present
economical basis. Unless the farmers will feel more responsi-
bility in the matter, and make more effort to educate for their
profession young men of enterprise and ability, and send to the
legislature representatives and senators who shall be willing to
carry out with wise liberality the plans which have been adopted,
it will be impossible to retain the tuition at its present low rate
(which is not one-quarter of the usual charges at institutions
affording similar advantages), or to give to agriculture that
special prominence in the course which it now has. It should
be remembered that there will always be many influential
members of the legislature, from various professions and locali-
ties, who will know little and care less about the college ; and
unless the class for whom the State has established it rally
around it and give it their hearty support, they will inevitably
lose those valuable privileges which are now so freely offered
them. Already the Secretaries of the Boards of Education and
Agriculture are instructed to inquire and report at the next
legislature whether the college can be made selfsupj)orting.
The educated men interested in other schools and colleges are
jealous of this new rival, and will not permit appropriations
from the State treasury for its benefit, unless they are earnestly
demanded and wisely improved by the people.

The farmers, then, ought to rejoice in the fact that they have

AGRICULTURAL WANT OF EDUCATION. 83

a college for the education of their sons, and they ought to
bestow its advantages also upon their daughters. They should
not regard their most talented children as too good for the
profession of their fathers, but should afford them every facility
for the best possible preparation to honor and to elevate it.
They should resist all attempts to reduce the standard of agri-
cultural education, and clearly understand that, if nine years
are required to qualify a lawyer, minister or physician for his
duties, no farmer can reasonably claim to be thoroughly
instructed in his profession, and fit to enjoy full equality with
other educated men, who has devoted less than four years to the
acquisition of discipline and knowledge. They should take care
to be well and truly represented in the general court by men
who will see that their college suffers no detriment, and that its
essential wants are promptly supplied.

Every farmer should secure a copy of each annual report of
the trustees, that he may learn the facts respecting the real
condition and working of the institution, and so be able justly
to appreciate its merits, in spite of the unfair criticism which
sooner or later assails every enterprise under State direciion,
however beneficent its object or judicious its management.

Mr. President, there can be no more appropriate or eloquent
conclusion to these remarks than the peroration of an address
on Agricultural Education, delivered before this society in 18-53
by the Hon. Henry L. Dawes, who has been so long your illus-
trious representative in Congress, and who, in 1862, efficiently
aided in securing from the national government a munificent
endowment for the very institution for which he then so ably
pleaded. May his exhortations and warnings add tenfold force
to the words already spoken, and stimulate every farmer present
to a faithful performance of his duty towards the Massachusetts
Agricultural College and the cause it represents : —

" Gentlemen, I have sought on this occasion to draw your
attention to your position and duties, and to the radical defects
and shortcomings in all our struggles to elevate the standard of
agriculture in this Commonwealth. I have also attempted to
point out the remedy to be a systematic, a thorough and a liberal
professional education for the farmer, furnished by the State
cooperating with private munificence. And on an institution
thus founded and endowed I have endeavored to ground your

84 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

hopes for tlie regeneration of the soil of the Commonwealth, and
for the proper elevation and true dignity of her sons.

" And permit me, finally, to add, that it lies with yourselves,
under a gracious Providence, to say when this golden age shall
be ushered in. For though you cannot build this great temple
with your own hands, yet you may give tone to the policy of
our common government, which can lay its foundations deep as
perpetuity, and spread its ample arches broad as the land. You
are, in the multitude as well as in the individual, the architects
of your own fortune.

" You may, by indifference, suffer the half-finished walls of
this temple to tumble down in neglect, or rise, if at all, dispro-
portioncd and incongruous, repulsive to the votaries at its shrine,
inefficient in its influence and abortive in its mission — or you
can, if you will, adorn and beautify its rising columns, crowd its
broad and lofty portals with devotees bringing their sheaves
with them and fixing their trophies in its very dome, till it shall
become the just pride, and, under God, the ultimate preserver,
of the Commonwealth. Build ye for yourselves and for
posterity."

THE FARMER'S ADVANTAGE. 85

THE FARMER'S ADVANTAGE.

Address before the Hoosac Valley Agricultural Society.

BY A. L. PERRY.

My topic is the Farmer's Advantage ; by which I mean the
tendency of all that the farmer has to sell to buy more and
more of all that he has to buy. There is a natural tendency
which God has inwrought into the framework of things, and
which science has demonstrated beyond a question, in accord-
ance with which a load ot hay, a bushel of wheat, a pound of
cheese, and all farm products whatsoever, tend perpetually to
buy more, rather than less, of cloth, of clocks, of cutlery, and
all manufactured articles whatsoever. This tendency I call the
farmer's advantage, because the things he has to sell are agri-
cultual, and the things he has to buy are manufactured. Unless
the natural and proper condition of things be thwarted by the
foolish legislation of men, the products of the farm will com-
mand, as time goes on, more and more of the products of the
factory.

Let me illustrate in two or three articles the important natural
law of which I am speaking. At the beginning of this century
a pound of raw cotton was worth about twenty cents, and a yard
of cotton cloth about sixty cents ; consequently it took at that
time three pounds of the agricultural product to buy one yard
of the manufactured product. From that day to this the power
of a pound of cotton to buy cotton cloth has been steadily in-
creasing, until now, one pound of raw cotton will buy one yard
of cotton cloth. Seventy years ago it took three pounds, now
it takes but one pound. Thus the purchasing power of raw
cotton, the agricultural product, over cotton cloth, the manufac-
tured product, is three times as great now as it was then. The

86 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

price of the cotton has indeed declined, we will say from twenty
cents to fifteen ; so that while in seventy years the agricultural
product has only lost one-fourth of its value as estimated in
money, the manufactured product has lost three-fourths of its
value as estimated in money, while as estimated in each other
the cotton is three times as valuable now as it was then. This
simple example, which is a perfectly fair one for our purpose,
throws the principle we are unfolding into a strong light.

But take another instance. Old uncle Eli Porter of Williams-
town used to make brass clocks, which were sold for about 870
apiece. Seventeen years ago I bought of George B. Perry a brass
clock for $7, which keeps as good time, and for aught I know
will last as long, as uncle Eli's. If corn was worth a dollar a
bushel when the Porter clocks were sold, it would take seventy
bushels of corn to pay for a clock. Corn is worth about a dol-
lar a bushel now, but seven bushels of it will buy a clock prob-
ably as good as those clocks were, so that the power of a bushel
of corn to command a good clock is ten times as potent now as
it was fifty years ago. Thus we have another illustration that
what the farmer has to sell tends to buy more and more of what
he has to buy. On the whole, the price of corn has kept pretty
steady thoughout this century thus far, but the power of a
bushel to buy most other things has kept steadily increasing
throughout this country thus far. If we had at the present
time in this country a sound currency, and a free system of ex-
change with our neighbors of other nations, both the general
principle of which we are speaking, and this particular illustra-
tion of the corn, would appear in a more striking light than
they now do. But notwithstanding the badness of our currency
and the restrictions on our trade, the truth still maintains and
illustrates itself on every hand that the products of the farm
are constantly becoming more valuable relatively to the products
of the factory.

I shall now give three reasons why this is so. Of these the
first is, that madiinery can be applied more completehj in manu-
factures than in agricultvre. The effect of the use of machinery
is always ultimately to cheapen the article produced by its help ;
since machinery itself is nothing but an expedient to take off
lal)or from human muscles and throw it on the ever-willing
slioulders of Nature. To replace an expensive agent, namely,

THE FARMER'S ADVANTAGE. 87

human labor, by a gratuitous agent, namely, a force of Nature,
cheapens the product. The only motive for the introduction of
machinery ever or anywhere is to make water, air or steam do
a part of our work. But we pay Nature absolutely nothing for
these her forces. Therefore man will not pay us for what costs
us nothing. Therefore the more machinery that is employed,
the cheaper so far forth will be the product. But from the very
nature of farming, machinery can never be employed in it to
anything like the same extent as in manufacturing ; because
the processes of farming are so varied and multiform, so depen-
dent on location and weather, so different in different circum-
stances, in one word, because while the processes of manufac-
turing are mechanical, the processes of agriculture are vital,
that is to say, have to do with life and growth. So far as machin-
ery can be employed on thef farm, it ought to be, of course,
and it will be under pressure of the same motive as leads to its
use in the mill ; but for the reasons just given it never can be
used to the same extent on the farm as in the mill ; and here
we find the first fundamental reason why farm products, whicii
are mainly created by human muscle, become more and more
valuable as compared with factory products, which are mainly
fabricated by the free forces of Nature brought to bear through
machinery.

The second reason for this is, that division of labor cannot he
applied in agriculture as it is applied in manufactures. In tlie
factory, as a general rule, each person does one thing and noth-
ing else. The spinner spins, the weaver weaves, and the finisher
finishes. Division of labor cheapens productions ; l)ecause it
imparts dexterity, saves time and tools, leads to inventions, and
distributes the laborers according to their strength and skill, to
the processes according as they are more or less difficult. But
on a farm there can be comparatively little of the division of
labor. The same hand that holds the plough must sow the seed
and reap the grain. One man must be familiar with many proc-
esses. The farmer must pass from one thing to another con-
tinually. The old fellow whose conscience troubled him for not
paying for his newspaper illustrates this point very well, though
his verses are rather homely : —

88 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

" I ploughs, I sows,

I digs, I hoes,
I gets up wood for winter ;

I reaps, I mows,

I 'taters grows.

And yet for all I knows
I'm 'debted to the printer.

I do suppose

All larniu' flows
Right from the printing press ;

So off I goes.

In these 'ere clothes,
And settles up, I guess."

This variety of avocations, though favorable in some other
respects, is not favorable to cheapness of production. There is
involved in it a loss of dexterity, of time, of tools, of inventive
skill, and of an economical distribution of labor. Therefore
farm products created under this disadvantage have an advan-
tage in point of value over products to whose fabrication divi-
sion of labor contributes more.

The third reason is, that nothing- can materially shorten the
time during ivhich farm products matvre. Not so the processes
of manufacture. They can be hurried up. The wool that is
on the sheep's back to-day may be scoured to-morrow, dyed the
third day, spun the fourth, woven the next, finished the next,
the tailor's shears may be in it as soon as Sunday is over, and a
man may walk in pride in what ten days before clothed the
humble sheep. So of most other processes of manufacture ;
they can be put rapidly through ; and the manufacturer may
speedily realize on his completed product. But the farmer
must watch and wait. No diligence of his can ripen his grain
one moment before the time. He must have the former and
tlie latter rain. He must wait on the seasons. He can rarely
realize on his efforts in less than a year's time. But when in
God's time, and by God's blessing, his corn is ripe and ready for
market, his fruits are gathered, and all his products offered for
sale, he finds year by year, if he is a careful man, that his corn
will buy rather more cloth, his butter rather more buttons, his
hay rather more harness, his cheese, roots, beef and wool rather
more of all those manufactured articles which he has occasion
to procure. He may not know the reasons of this, but I have
now given him the reasons ; the fact may be disguised from his

THE FARMER'S ADVANTAGE. 89

notice, and if he notices it, it may seem to bim less important
than it is ; and he may even doubt the principle itself, but the
principle will vindicate itself in spite of his doubts.

Does it seem strange to any of you that I urge what may ap-
pear the disadvantages of farming as the farmer's advantage ?
The three differences which I have just explained between farm-
ing and manufacturing are not disadvantages to the farmer, but
differences which result in his great advantage. If he can but
hold his own, that is to say, produce his crops at no greater ex-
pense than before, these crops, in consequence of methods which
manufacturers follow, but which he cannot follow to any great
extent, will purchase more and more of their products. The
price of raw materials tends constantly to approach the price of
the finished goods made out of them, owing to the less and less
cost of manufacture through the increased perfection of machin-
ery ; and therefere, he who has the raw materials to sell has a
great advantage for the supply of his wants of finished goods.
This principle is very important, because it shows that there is
inwrought into the very framework of society a provision by
which the masses of mankind, who have always been the tillers
of the soil, may rise constantly in a scale of comforts as the years
go on. This " farmer's advantage" is the law of the progress of
the masses.

But, gentlemen, this beneficent principle, by whose action
God designs a progressive improvement in the condition of the
masses, is more or less disguised and thwarted at .the present
time in this country by two things, which, if you know your
own interests, you will both hate and labor to remove, namely,
our depreciated currency and our so-called protective tariff.
The currency and the tariff, and if possible the currency more
than the tariff, make against the interest of the farmers of this
country every day they live. Daniel Webster said a good many
good things in his lifetime, but he never uttered, a truer senti-
ment that when he said this : " Of all the expedients for cheat-
ing the laboring masses of mankind a depreciated currency is
the most effectual." I hold in my hand what is called a two-
dollar bill. I will read it: "The United States will pay the
bearer on demand two dollars at the treasury at New York."
This, therefore, is not two dollars as we are wont to call it, it is
Q, promise to pay two dollars. The place of payment is speci-

12*

90 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

fied — " the treasury at New York." "Well, then, suppose you
take this promise to the proper place and demand your two
dollars. Your demand is refused. The United States acknowl-
edge the deht, but will not pay it. You are bowed out of the
treasury, politely perhaps, but more prol)ably with a scornful
expression at your greenness for supposing that the government
will fulfil its own promise. This, then, is a dishonored note,
precisely as your own note would be dishonored at the Adams
Bank after the last day of grace had expired. This note has
been long dishonored — eight years. It is not only not two dol-
lars, it is only an unfulfilled, long-dishonored promise to pay
them. But this is not the worst of it. A protested note neces-
sarily becomes depreciated. This note is depreciated, that is to
say, it is not worth two dollars. It was worth, on the average
of the fiscal year 1869, -^1.40, and on the average of the fis-
cal year 1870, -$1.70, as compared with coin, that is to say,
as compared with real dollars ; for the only dollar known to
our laws is the gold dollar composed of 25 4.5 grains of a metal
compound of which nine parts are gold and one alloy. This
note promises to pay two such dollars. No other kind of dollar
is possible. Government gave up long ago the attempt to
make a commercial dollar even out of silver.

But the trouble with this note is, not any doubt about the
kind of dollar it promises to pay, but the fact that its own
value as a promise is so variable. At one time this very note
of two dollars was only worth 70 cents ; now it is worth !|1.76,
and it has passed up and down every one of the interme-
diate points. Now, money is a measure of all values, but a dol-
lar so variable in value as this, is totally unfit to be a measure
of anything. A uniform measure in the field of values is vast-
ly more important than a uniform measure of length or of
capacity. Would an india-rubber yard stick, extensible at will
and contractible without will, be a good measure of length ?
Would it be likely to give good satisfaction to all buyers and
sellers by the yard ? Would it or would it not throw our ag-
ricultural community into confusion, if the bushel measure
held three pecks at one time, four pecks at another, and five
pecks at another, and was constantly passing from one extreme
to the other through the intermediate points? Vastly worse
than cither of these, or both of them together, is it to have the

THE FARMER'S ADVANTAGE. 91

measure of values, which is the current dollar, variable from
day to day and from year to year. Especially is this disastrous
to farmers, who make all their calculations in the spring and
only realize on them in the fall or winter. Their expenditures
are a long way off from their sales. They cannot tell what
the dollar is to be. Under a system like this, the farmer does
not know what to expect; his business becomes a lottery, his
enterprise is chilled, the shrewd take advantage of his ignorance,
and all his settled foundations are thrown out of course. Per-
haps the great injustice of the legal-tender act, which under-
took to make mere promises equivalent to their fulfilment, and
which robbed the whole creditor-class of the country of one-
third of their debts due, may be justified by the extremity into
which we were thrown by the war ; but the act added nothing
to the resources of the country, it merely made a violent par-
tition of goods among the citizens, and furnished the unscrupu-
lous an opportunity, which they have not failed up to the
present moment to improve, by the legalized destruction of the
old measure of value, to take advantage of the ignorance and
the necessities of the masses for their own profit. The money-
changers, the bankers, the brokers, the whole brood of per cents,
have rioted in the untold losses of the people. It is almost six
years since the war ended, and yet no repeal of the legal-tender
act, no intelligent effort to restore the specie standard, no con-
sciousness, apparently, in high places, of the national disg-race,
in times of peace and providential prosperity, of a thoroughly
debauched currency. There is no commercial need in this
country at this hour so pressing as the need of an honest dollar !
And I invite you all to unite with me in raising the cry, that
shall pierce the dulled ears of our rulers, an honest cry for an
honest dollar !

In conclusion, gentlemen, and very briefly, let me call your
attention to the way in which what is called a protective tariff
makes against your interests, and neutralizes the natural ad-
vantage that God gave you as farmers. Did you ever think
distinctly what a tariff is, and how it works? Is a tariff any-
thing in the world but a combination of taxes which you have
to pay? Read the tariff from beginning to end, turn it upside
down and inside out, and you will find it nothing under heaven
but a schedule of taxes ! The only thing a tariff says, or can

92 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

say, is, " Thou shall pay ! " It has nothing to give ; it can only
demand. Tliey who say that a tariff enriches a country, virtu-
ally say that a people can he enriclied by taking money out of
their pockets ! Some men say this in ignorance, having never
looked into tlie nature of a tariff, and others say it in craft and
guile to deceive the people and make merchandise of them. Now
all taxes in their very nature are a burden ; they are so much
out of our pockets ; but you and I are willing to pay all taxes,
even tariff taxes, that are laid simply for the support of the
government and its credit. But taxes laid for any other pur-
pose than this we are not willing to pay ; as men of sense and
spirit, we object to paying them, we protest against paying
them, and with the help of others like-minded, please God, we
shall abolish them ! But it is the very purpose of a protective
tariff, so called, to lay taxes on the people, not for the support
of government at all, but to raise the price artificially of
certain articles, which you and I have to buy, for the benefit of
the " protected " classes. Government gets revenue from a
tariff only as foreign articles, subject to duty, come into the
country. Protection desires to keep some of these articles out
of the country, and thus to cut off the revenue from govern-
ment, and yet to make the people pay on the corresponding
domestic goods the full amount of the tax. You are paying to-
day enormous taxes on certain articles, of which taxes govern-
ment does not get one penny ! The people are paying several
millions of dollars a year in consequence of a tax on coarse
blankets, of which the government does not get one cent ! The
tax is so high as to exclude the foreign blankets on which it is
laid, but the domestic blankets are raised in price in consequence
of the tax, and the people pay to the blanket manufacturer, and
not to government. So of many other things. " Protection "
likes nothing so well as to exclude the foreign article by a tax,
and thus take away its revenue from government, but make
the people pay the tax just the same. Protectionists, as such,
are the worst foes of the government and its credit.

On many other articles the people pay a great deal more in
consequence of the tariff-tax than the government gets. The
foreign articles are not wholly but only partially excluded ;
government gets something on what still comes in ; but t' o
people have to pay on all they consume, domestic a. well as

THE FARMER'S ADYANTAGE. 93

foreign. It is so with salt. You pay a dollar a bushel for
coarse salt to salt jour sheep, when without the tariff-tax you
could buy it for fifty cents easy. But only about half of this
extra fifty cents goes to the government ; the other half goes
mainly to the Onondaga Salt Co. of Syracuse, N. Y., at whose
instance the salt duty was put on. So of iron, steel, lumber,
and other things too numerous to mention. Protection and
revenue are incompatible. Where protection begins, there
revenue begins to diminish ; where protection ends, there reve-
nue has ceased. On the other hand, revenue is largest where
protection is wholly eliminated.

Let no one say that free traders are hostile to manufacturers.
They are better friends to manufacturers than the manufactur-
ers are to themselves, so far as the latter are protectionists.
The manufacturers of Berkshire County to-day are paying a
good deal more "protection" than they get. They would be
relieved and benefited if protection were abolished to-morrow.
So should we all, especially the farmers. Then let us abolish
it. Abolished it will be, either with our help, or in spite of our
withholding it.

94 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE.

From au Address before the Plymouth Agricultural Society.

BY CHARLES G. DAVIS.

Many Englishmen and many Americans carry England or
America with them as they go abroad, and return with very
little besides what they took away. But some of us who remain
at home, think that we have stricken out a new path, and can
learn nothing from the old countries ; forgetting that human
nature and physical nature are essentially the same everywhere ;
that all progress and civilization are merely products of the
past ; that we have no past ; and that the past is across the
ocean, where science and experience have been garnering fruit
for many centuries. I saw the cotton plant near Naples, fur-
nishing raiment and comfort for man upon soils formed of the
debris of the volcano which had overwhelmed cities and
destroyed a whole people. Those ruins and those ashes thus
symbolized a great law, that the present and the future flour-
ish upon the experiences, failures, the debris, nay, the ruin
of all which has gone before, just as you enrich your fields from
the off-scourings of life and carcasses of the dead.

Passing by, then, all tliat we learn to avoid from the experi-
ence of the past, which in other words is the experience of the
old countries, what, as farmers, may we learn to adopt and imi-
tate ? To me the first, most striking and impressive lesson was
what I may best express in the word " Thoroughness ; " and
first in thoroug-h culture. The advantage and necessity of
thorough culture are so apparent in Europe, and theoretically
so well recognized here, that I will not enlarge upon them, but
content myself with stating that whatever is considered worth
doing is worth doing well. The people have learned to act

AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 95

upon this axiom in Europe, but we as a people liavc not. It is
there demonstrated that tliorough culture, cleanness, method,
system, an accurate knowledge of the wants of plants, and close
adaptation to those wants, are the conditions of success, wiiilst
the absence of these qualities is sure to result in entire failure
or great comparative loss.

This thoroughness applies to everything ; but to an Americaa
is, perhaps, more striking in the perfection of roads, whether
highways or railways, culverts, bridges and tunnels, as well as
masonry and engineering of all kinds. You know to how great
an extent facility of communication is of benefit to the farmer.
You recognize the value of railways, and see how they raise
the value of land ; you know you like a good highway better
than a poor one, but have not been brought to reflect how much
economy there is in a good road in other respects than mere
facility of transit. It is demonstrated in Europe what the sav-
ing is in horses, in carriages, in time, in the increased amount
of travel, and, what is more remarkable, that there is saving in
the cost of the road itself. A good road, thoroughly built and
constantly watched, is cheaper in a series of years than a poorly
constructed road, repaired by fits and starts, or once or twice a
year ; just as you already know that a good carriage or locomo-
tive to run upon a road, constantly watched, is the cheapest in
the end. "What would you think of roads with never a rut,
smoother than the sidewalks of your town, rising to points more
than 3,500 feet above tlie level of the sea, cut through rocky
promontories, bridged over dry valleys and tumbling waterfalls,
rising and falling on even grades or pitches for miles, swept
every day, watclied as carefully as the road-builders search our
railways, tended as a mother tends her child ! Yet we have
such roads in all Europe, and many of them where the country
is not so populous nor so rich as we are. If there is a county
commissioner here, or a man who expects to be ; if there is in
this hall a town surveyor, or contractor, or one who hopes to
be, I tell him, as a citizen, that it is his first duty as a citizen to
stop this waste ; to read and study the essays on road-building
in the last State agricultural report ; to make himself master of
the experience of otliers who have investigated tliis subject, and
tlius learn how little he knows, which is the first great step
gained in learning everything.

96 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Nearly allied to this thoroug-hnessy thus displayed in careful
culture and finished roads, is that stability and permanence
which is shown in all structures, from the cart-house, cattle-
steadings, barns and outbuildings, to the farm-house, dwelling
and })alace, in town and country alike. All are built of stone,
with partition walls of stone or bricks. I do not remember
seeing a building erected of wood throughout England and
Scotland, and nowhere on the Continent, except perhaps the
roof frames of the poorest cow-houses in Switzerland. But I
do not intend to detain you on this topic.

The next great lesson which I think an American farmer
may learn from the experience of the past, which is taught by
the old countries, is the necessity and economy of dispensing
almost entirely with fences on the farm, and in the open coun-
try. It has been estimated that more than half a million dol-
lars is annually expended in Massachusetts alone in the erec-
tion and repair of unnecessary, perishable, wooden fences ; and
habit leads us to believe that we cannot dispense with them.
In no purely agricultural district which I have visited on the
Continent is a fence to be seen. Look along the highways of
France and Belgium, go with me down the open valley of the
Rhine from Basle to Strasbourg, from Strasbourg to Heidelberg
and Frankfort, take the railway through the plains of Bavaria
to Augsburg and Munich ; extend your survey from Vienna
across the plains of Eastern Germany to Berlin ; see the long
narrow lands, each one a farm by itself, devoted to separate
culture. You see no dividing barriers, except a stone post set
low in the ground, and no hedge, fence or wall along the high-
ways. The milch cattle are fed in the stalls ; the young stock
are in the mountains. A pair of milch cows in the field are
earning their own living, and saving the labor of the horses, by
conveying green fodder to the barn. A woman is cutting the
fodder and loading the cart. (I do not ask you to follow her
example in this country.) The law of the country, or a custom
more binding than law, forbids cattle-grazing on these fields.
Here and there is a flock of sheep nibbling stubble, on a strip a
hundred feet in width, with grain securely ripening on one side
and a neighbor's beets on the other, the land separated by open
furrows. A shepherd's dog circles around them and keeps them
at home, whilst a boy carelessly loiters in the neighborhood, and

AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 9T

occasionally signals to his faithful dog. Animals are led along
the liighway, and the convenience of a drover is sacrificed to
his own convenience as a farmer as well as to the public welfare.
But it is not my object to delay you upon this point.

The next lesson which tlie farmer may draw from the experi-
ence of Europe is the value of small farms. Whilst in Great
Britain and in parts of the Continent there are large landed
estates, the land is nevertheless generally tilled in compara-
tively small holdings, and, connected with these small holdings,
you must remember that agriculture is divided into specialties
much more than with us. It would perhaps be difficult to
decide which was most the result of the other ; whether the
small area of cultivation is rather the cause or the result of the
devotion of the farmer or the peasant to one or two crops only.
Perhaps each custom acts and re-acts upon the other, though
both are affected by other considerations. Each of these long,
narrow strips of land is a farm, and each is devoted as far as
possible to the production of a single crop. For this purpose it
may be necessary to vary the product by a certain rotation, but
nevertheless the general fact remains that specialties of culture
are the objects and the result of successful farming. Here is
a strip of vineyard, like a corn-field laughing in the sun ; next
to it grain is yellowing for the harvest. There is a strip red-
dening like a ribbon with clover heads, and beyond it the deep
green of the beet leaves shades the ground. This land, in the
open country in the neighborhood of Heidelberg, is worth, I
was told, 5,000 thalers a metzen, a thaler being about seventy
cents in gold of our money, and a metzen less than an acre.
But wherever it is possible the land is devoted to a single crop,
and one farmer is an orchardist, another is a vine-grower, a
third is devoted to flax, another to hops, beets, or the dairy.
When we speak of a mechanic we do not mean a man who is a
carpenter and a mason, blacksmith and machinist ; why should
we speak of a farmer as if he were all-wise in all the depart-
ments of his calling ? I say unto you, farmers, devote yourself
to some pursuit in agriculture. Raise Jerseys, breed Devons,
if you please, but be the genius of Jersey or of Devonshire. Be
a pomologist ; make yourself known and beloved the world over,
like our honored friend beside me. Devote yourself to straw-
berries or small fruits ; raise asparagus, train a vineyard, let

13*

98 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

your neighbors supply your beans and pease, and your inciden-
tal wants, but devote yourself to that work of a lifetime, the
knowledge of all which appertains to a single branch of hus-
bandry. By so doing you raise your articles or animals cheaper
than your neighbor, your product is better and more abundant,
and your market is constant, well known to you, and always in
the same direction. But time will not permit me to linger
upon this topic, of which much has been said already. I con-
tent myself with stating that successful agriculture can no
longer exist in New England under any other system.

There is another custom, well known in this country, which
prevails, so far as I know, throughout Europe, but wliich we
have never adopted. I allude to free and open markets and
market days. In every central village, and in every city, on
two or three days of the week, you see a large square or a
street a quarter of a mile in length devoted to a market. The
producer is brought face to face with the consumer, and tlie
household is thus supplied directly from the farm or market
garden. Under our system the producer does not obtain a fair
price for his labor, the consumer pays an exorbitant price, and
one, two, three and sometimes more middle-men take the lion's
share. A monopoly is created which to a great extent regulates
prices, and produce is often wasted, or given away, or destroyed,
to sustain the market. Mr. Quincy has been honored, among
many things for which he was so well worthy of honor, for the
erection of Quincy Market. I believe it was more injurious to
the people of Boston and the Commonwealth than any public
act of its citizens. It is reported that while his son was mayor
of that city hundreds of bushels of peaches were thrown into
the harbor, in preference to effecting a ready sale by a reduction
of prices. We have committees of the city and State govern-
ments, year after year, who investigate this question. How
happens it that nothing comes from these inquiries ? We are
told that the agricultural interests of the State are on the
decline. Let the farming interest of Massachusetts demand a
law that every city, aye, and every town of upwards of 5,000 in-
habitants, shall furnish free and open market-places for all, pro-
tected when required from the inclemency of the weather, and
a more lively encouragement maybe furnished to the producing
interest than all your cattle shows, your Agricultural College

AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 99

and agricultural chemistry and science can furnish in a decade.
It is discouraging to the farmer to know that he does not obtain
that fair reward for his labor which the consumer would be
willing to pay. " What is the price of your strawberries ? " asked
a friend of a market-man in Boston. " Forty cents a box,"
was the reply. " But I have strawberries to sell, what will you
give?" "Well if they are well picked, I will give you ten
cents a box ! " No further comment is necessary. This con-
versation illustrates the whole difficulty.

There is another lesson many Americans learn from a visit
across the ocean, which, I doubt not, may appear trivial to many
before me, but which to my mind is of vital importance. I do
not remember of seeing a roll of hot bread during my absence,
and, except in Italy, no bread which was not good, sweet, light,
and slowly and thoroughly baked. I cannot speak confidently
of the domestic habits of the people. Warm bread or biscuit
may possibly be sometimes served in private houses, but not
generally, because almost all bread is purchased of the baker.
Private cooking is avoided as much as possible. Fuel, especially
wood, is dear, and fires are dispensed with as much as possible.
Our people do not realize what miserable, sour, heavy, half-baked
stuff under the name of bread is served and devoured at the
family table in this country ; and even this is bolted down steam-
ing and hot. Ladies and gentlemen, you are responsible in most
cases for the sin of dyspepsia, so prevalent in this country, so
much less known in Europe. When a foreigner comes among
you, or an American who has tarried abroad, I recognize, as
they do, the anxious and pointed countenances, which are not
familiar to their eyes. Other causes may contribute to this
national characteristic, upon which it is beside my purpose to
enlarge, but bad cooking, hot bread, overhaste and overwork,
are the most prominent causes for our continual decline in
physical vigor. You are saying to yourselves this moment that
these things do not injure you. Ask the physician, inquire
of the chemist, question the dentist, — they will give you the
same answer.

A large proportion of the travellers from this country whom
one meets in Europe are persons who have broken down by
overwork, whose nervous system has been disturbed, and who
have overtaxed the brain. I am happy to state that few farmers

100 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

are of that number, but that bad bread and new bread fur-
nish a foundation for much of our domestic invalidism cannot
be denied.

Time will not permit me to tax your patience further. I
should like to liave spoken to you of the cattle of Europe ; to
have described my visit to the London cattle market, and shown
you the crowded rows of long, spreading-horned cattle from
Portugal and Spain, the cattle from France, Holland and Bel-
gium, and even from Austria, the tlu-ifty Shorthorn and shaggy,
long-horned Highlanders. I should like to have pointed out
to you the floral and horticultural beauty of the old countries,
and the neatness of the flower gardens and ornamental grounds
around every country railway station ; to have visited with you
Alderman Mechi and his farm at Tiptree Hall, and the Model
Agricultural School at Dublin, where I found one farm of five
acres, another of twenty-five, and a third of two or three hun-
dred, all carried on separately, as models suited to the capacity
of farmers of different means.

FARMS. 101

FARMS.

WORCESTER NORTH.

Statement of Jabez Fisher.

My farm, which was entered for the premium offered in 1868,
to be awarded during the present autumn, was purchased by me
in 1854. It contains thirty- four acres, nine of which are covered
with growing wood and buildings, ten are in fruit, and the re-
mainder in grass. At the time of purchase, some ten acres
were in pasture. My purpose originally was to make of it a fruit
farm. That plan has since been adhered to in the main, though
the amount of land thus devoted proves to be less than at first
intended.

About ten acres were set with orchard in the first two or
three years, four and a half in apples, with peaches and plums
interspersed, four and a half in standard pears, with dwarfs
between, and one acre in cherries, with peaches. The remainder
of the tillage land was cultivated with the various farm crops
ordinarily grown. After two years' experience, while living at
the village, a mile and a half distant, as a practising physician,
I came to the conclusion that if I was to make agriculture other
than a plaything, I must give it my personal and constant
supervision. I then moved to the farm where I now live, and
have since that period allowed it to absorb nearly my entire
time and attention.

As time passed on, I found that certain products paid a profit,
while certain other products either paid no profit or else cost
more than they were worth. I had no alternative but to devote
myself to the former and discard the latter, as my surplus capi-
tal was insufficient to permit me to pursue an unprofitable cul-
ture for mere gratification, even if I had been so disposed.
Under this rule I have retained fruit and grass, and have given
up the growing of corn, grain or root-crops to any extent. I
have learned that a field may be kept in grass profitably for

102 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

twelve years at least without a falling off in productiveness, and
without ploughing or reseeding. All of my tillage land that is
not in fruit, is kept in grass for hay, and is managed as follows :

My barn is so constructed as to save every particle of the
manure, both liquid and solid, in a water-tight cellar. A suffi-
cient quantity of rain-water is added to dilute the liquid por-
tion. Each spring, about the time that the grass begins to look
green, the liquid is raised by means of a chain-pump and dis-
tributed by a simple box and spreader, upon that portion of the
grass nearest tlie barn. So much of the solid portion as may
be needed for any special purposels removed, and the rest al-
lowed to remain. At any convenient time in late summer or
autumn, the accumulated liquid is again spread upon other
grass. The solid residue is then entirely removed, and spread
upon grass more distant from the barn, choosing each year the
portions least productive. This plan has given satisfactory
results thus far, and will be continued.

The farm is one field, having no interior fences or walls. Of
the division Avails standing at the time of the purchase, some
two hundred rods, I have removed the whole either into road-
beds, under-drains, or into a vacant corner. The original pas-
ture fields are now either in grass or fruit, and no stock is
allowed to be at large upon any part of the premises. In the
summer season but one cow is kej^t, and she is fed in the barn
upon early-cut grass and meal. In winter, enough additional
farrow cows are procured to consume all of the hay, and they
are fed freely with grain, by which means, through the butter
made and the increase in the value of the animals, I can realize
about twenty dollars per ton for the hay wliile retaining the
manure. At the present time, the probable price for hay looks
more |)romising than the price for butter, and this may change
my plans fur the coming winter. The purchase of grain to be
fed on the farm is very much more likely to increase the pro-
ductiveness of the soil, than the growing of the same grain in
preference to grass. At the present price of labor, I can produce
the price of a bushel of corn upon my land easier than I can
produce the bushel of corn.

My experience with fruit has been very instructive, if not in
all cases profitable ])ccuniarily. Of the one luindrcd and ninety-
six apple-trees originally set,^one hundred and thirty-two have

FARMS. 103

this fall been rooted out. They were sixteen years old, set
thirty feet apart, many of the branches meeting, and the trunks
fourteen inches in diameter, and less. In growth they have
been extremely satisfactory, but in productiveness, much less so.
The fact that the canker-worm has secured a lodgment makes
the sacrifice less felt. The land thus cleared is to be planted
with grapes. Of about six hundred standard pear-trees set,
something like fifteen per cent, have died and been replaced by
others. Two-thirds of the whole number have grown satisfac-
torily and look well for the future. Of about eight hundred
pears on quince-roots, nine-tenths have seen their day, and,
taken as a whole, they have not paid their cost. Nearly all
have either blighted, died, thrown out pear-roots, or have been
removed, leaving the standards to occupy the ground. Tliree
hundred peach-trees survived from ten to twelve years and pro-
duced four very fine crops in that time. Eighty cherry-trees
stood ten years, grew very finely, but never produced a bushel
of fruit for sale, and were then removed. Fifty plum-trees
stood the same length of time with the same results.

Strawberries were grown in quantity a number of years and
always at a handsome profit.

The Concord grape I began to set in 1856 and have increased
the amount until I have an acre and two-thirds, and propose to
add upwards of two acres where the hundred and thirty-two apple-
trees have just been removed. This fruit has been an eminently
satisfactory product with me, yielding in good years a very large
profit, and in the worst seasons giving a better return than any-
thing else grown.

In winter I find sufficient employment in the management of
a forcing house used for growing cucumbers for the New York
market ; two horses are kept and about fifty hens are wintered.

My gross sales for 1868, were, .... $2,359 95

" " 1869, " .... 3,848 24

" 1870, about .... 3,400 00

Amount paid for labor in 1868, was . . . 632 10

" " " 1869, "... 685 66

" " " 1870, about ... 550 00

Jabez Fisher.

FiTCHBURG, October 25, 1870.

104 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Statement of Cyrus Kilburn.

My farm contains one hundred and twenty acres, is pretty
well divided into tillage, mowing, pasturage, orcharding and
woodland. I have not kept an accurate account in detail of my
farming operations, so as to show a debit and credit side, and be
able to strike a balance, and thus exhibit the loss and gain for
the last three years ; but I will attempt to give some general
account of my operations.

In the first place, I raise wheat sufficient for my family, an
average of twenty-five bushels a year, — a winter Ttheat called
the blue stem, which I have raised for about twenty-five years
without any apparent deterioration.

Indian corn is my staple cereal ; I raise from one hundred to
one hundred and fifty bushels a year ; this year but one hun-
dred bushels, owing to the extreme heat and drought, the heat
being almost as unfavorable for making a crop of corn as the
drought. I raise from twenty-five to thirty-five bushels of rye
yearly ; thirty-five bushels this year, the straw selling for $35
at my ])arn ; potatoes yearly, about two hundred liushcls, one
hundred only this year, fifty of which are the Early Rose, a
potato that fills the place so long needed, an early, prolific, good-
eating potato ; also, one that can be taken from the ground be-
fore the potato malaria stalks abroad with destruction in its
wake. I cultivate the various vegetables for culinary use, such
as cabbages, pease, beans, beets, onions, parsnips, squashes, toma-
toes, etc. Also melons of the various kinds, and when I have a
surplus of any of them, I dispose of them in the market. My
squashes this year, for the first time, have proved a failure.

My hay crop is usually good, sufficient for thirteen neat cattle
and two horses, and frequently I sell my surplus hay after win-
tering my stock. My corn forage is usually equal to three tons
per acre, which is cured by cutting up as soon as the ears are
well glazed, and stocked, and put in the barn as soon as it is
cured enough to keep, although it may mould some, which I
consider no detriment to it, thereby being more tender and
palatable for the cattle.

]\Iy oi-chard yields a good supply of apples, pears and peaches,
for home consumption, and I have a surplus which is sold yearly
for about !5>75.

In the spring of 1869, I procured two hundred peach-trees,

FARMS. 105

which I set out on a piece of ground elevated about one hun-
dred and fifty feet above the meadow bottom, prepared for the
purpose and fenced. They lived and grew well, and now look
well, notwithstanding the drought of this year, and will com-
mence bearing probably next year ; they were selected to raise
peaches for the market, many of them being late varieties to
supply our market after the Southern peaches have been ex-
hausted. I keep six cows and sell the milk and calves for
about $300 yearly. Also, fifty hens to lay eggs for the market,
finding them more profitable than swine, especially as I sell my
milk.

I have this autumn constructed a dam across the brook flow-
ing through my farm, of sufficient width for a road, to pass
over it with my team, which road I very much need to have ac-
cess to my field lying contiguous to the brook, for the purpose
of hauling stones for a fence to enclose the field and to trans-
port manure from my barn to the field, and crops the other way.
My intention is to flow my meadow bottom (containing five or
six acres) above said dam, admirably adapted for a cranberry
meadow, till the grass roots and bushes are killed out, which
will take one or two years, and then draw down the water into
its natural channel, and smooth the meadow and set it out to
cranberries of the most approved varieties.

I have aimed to make such improvements as will in a few
years be much more lucrative that at present.

My reclaimed swamp has produced two excellent crops of
corn, last year and this, with comparatively little manure, and I
think is susceptible of producing many more crops with very
little labor, as it is well drained, and has a deep vegetable
mould, that will wear like the prairies of the West, and whicli
was, when I commenced, a desolate wilderness.

My wood lot furnishes me with fuel and lumber by its annual
growth, sufficient for our consumption and use ; and I occa-
sionally sell some.

I have one and three-fourths acres of wheat on the ground,
and two acres of rye ; and have sold this fall to the butcher one
beef creature, and I have three more fattening which will be
ready soon for the shambles.

My earnings off the farm go a good way to pay my hired help
on it. Cyrus Kilburn.

14*

106 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

UNDER-DRAINAGE.

ESSEX.

From the Heport of the Committee.

It has been said that he who makes two Ijlades of grass grow
where but one grew before is a public benefactor. Perhaps this
assertion should be received with some degree of qualification.
Such an one maj be so considered if he did it at an outlay that
will make it a paying operation. If it is not such an example
as would be safe for the ordinary farmer to follow with a limited
income derived from his farm alone, then we think it would par-
take too much of the character of much of the gilt-edged farm-
ing which we sometimes see — beautiful to look upon, with the
nice-faced walls, the fancy breeds of cows, horses, pigs, and
poultry, the nicely shaven lawns, etc. But Mr. Appleton's case
stands on no such foundation. Here is really an example
worthy of imitation by the men of small means, to say nothing
of the improvement in the appearance of his place, lying as the
under-drained land did in front of his residence.

The foundation of all the improvement in this, as well as of
another larger tract of meadow upon which Mr. Appleton has
commenced operations, is a large open ditch passing near this
lot and into which the main drain has its outlet, and emptying
into Ipswich River, some half mile distant. But as this ditch
existed before, we did not thiuk it worth while to make any
account of its expense in the drainage of the lot.

Mr. Appleton is fortunate in having for his farmer a practical
engineer, who not only laid out the work and made the plan of
the lot, but also adjusted all the tile in the drains. This lot was
not a muck bed, but a basin kept wet by springs, which had
their origin at some low level, as no less than eight were cut
through in making the drain. The lot is a long and narrow
one, being 1,815 feet in length, and requiring the main drain to
be 2,000 feet in length to get an outlet. It contains thirteen
acres, one rood and eleven rods. About one acre is taken up by
a road way, leaving twelve acres to be operated upon. The soil
was a sandy loam on one side, a pretty hard gravel on the other,

UNDER-DRAINAGE. 107

with some slight elevations, with some decomposing granite
cropping out, and a kind of plastic clay in the middle. There
were no trees or bushes of any consequence on it, and it was
wholly worthless for cultivation.

Operations were commenced in this lot on the 14th of April,
1860, and fuiished in August of the same year, and it was suf-
ficiently drained to commence planting on the 8th of May, of
the present year. The drains being all dug to the right grade,
the descent being uniform, any places that might be too soft for
the tile to remain in place were filled with gravel before the
work of laying the tile began. The main drain was commenced
with one and a half inch tile — the lot being narrow where it
was begun — and larger ones were introduced as the work pro-
gressed, and it was finished with six inch tile. The fall to the
main is on an average five and thirteen one-hundredth inches to
the hundred feet, the greatest being thirteen, and the least
three and forty-five one-hundredths to a hundred feet, which is
thought to be as small a fall as is prudent to lay a drain. The
minor drains were laid with one and a quarter, one and a half
and two inch pipe, as the nature of the work seemed to require.
The main drains were laid some four inches lower than the
minor ones, so as to have a slight fall to the water as it entered
it, and care was also taken that none of the minors should
enter the main drain opposite each other. Tlie drains were
generally placed thirty-three feet apart, sometimes a little more,
sometimes a little less, as there was more or less water to be
taken away. The tile used were the round stone, in sections
of about two feet in length, the ends when laid being butted
together, and a collar of the same, in the form of a ring,
placed around every joint. This form of tile the engineer
claims is superior to the sole tile, as the water enters it by fil-
tration. We are not prepared to express an opinion as to the
superiority of one over the other.

The value of under-draining depends in a great measure upon
the way in wliich the work is done, because if there should be
a slight defect in the work it may spoil the whole operation.
In the case under consideration, the end of every section was
placed in exact juxtaposition to its fellow; any one not making
a good fit, the ends were cut away with a cold chisel. After
the tiles were placed, the collar was put over the joint ; a sod

108

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

from the surface was inverted over it, and then the surface soil
was carefully packed around and over the tile to the depth of
some six inches, and then the ditch was filled with whatever
came handy, extreme care being taken not to displace the tile ;
but we should think, in order to insure the permanency of the
work, some leather shavings should have been placed over the
tile, after the surface soil had been placed on them to prevent
the silt from working through, though it is claimed that is not
necessary, as the surface soil will answer all purposes.

So much for the work and the way it was done. Now for the
expense :

By data exhibited to us the cost of tile was . . $476 12
Cost of labor, 83-4 00

Making the whole expense, .... il,310 12

The cost of cultivation of the crop is set down by the farmer
as follows :

Ploughing, part done with one yoke of oxen and a
horse, and part with two yoke of oxen,

Harrowing,

Planting the various crops, .

Hoeing, ......

Value of manure (S-l cords),

Add cost of drainage, ....

Balance against the lot,

$140 00

34

00

120

00

80

00

420

00

1,310

12

i2,004 12

Your Committee very much regret that this Report could not
have been deferred till the crops were harvested, so as to have
had the exact amount of the different crops instead of esti-
mates ; but as it could not, wc were obliged to content ourselves
with what we could get, as we do not understand the Society
to require a written statement from the claimant. The crops
were as follows :

Nine acres of corn, 50 bushels to the acre (this
we think a reasonable estimate), at one dollar
a bushel,

150 00

UNDER-DRAINAGE. 109

One and one-quarter acres of ruta-bagas, eleven
hundred bushels (which we think is large both
in price and quantity), $550 00

Four hundred bushels merchantable potatoes,

measured, 400 00

Three thousand cabbages, at six cents apiece, . . 180 00

$1,580 00

The corn fodder and one hundred bushels of small potatoes
are supposed to cover the cost of harvesting.

The manure used was a compost of meadow muck and barn-
yard manure, two parts of the former to one of the latter.

The corn was planted four feet apart each way, on account of
the sod in some part of the land being so tough that it was
difficult to obtain soil enough to work the crop.

We arrive at the following results :

Cost of drainage, cultivation and manure ; nothing

being allowed for the seed used, . . . |2,004 12
Estimated value of crops, ..... 1,580 CO

Balance against the lot this year, . . . 8514 12

We think that the increased value of the land should be
considered a fair offset for this amount.

J. L. Hubbard, for the Committee.

RECLAIMED MEADOWS.

PLYMOUTH.

Statement of Philander Cobb.
The piece of meadow I have entered for premium is situated
in the south part of Kingston, on the road leading to Plymouth,
and contains three acres and ninety-one rods. I bought it in

110 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

1865, in a very rough state, covered with biislies and brakes, a
part of it rocky. It was very wet and cold, too soft to drive a
team iii)on. In July I mowed the whole piece, Imrned it over
and cut four ditches through the whole, sinking them four
inches into the hard pan, so as to drain off all the water. A
part of it soon became firm enough to plough ; other parts we
dug over, filling the holes and covering the wild stuff with
sand and soil.

In 1866, I planted the part which was ploughed the year be-
fore, with potatoes and cabbages ; the crop was small, owing to
the land being so wet and cold. In August we covered the
two and a half acres, which had been broken up, with soil, put
on seventy horse-loads of stable manure and seeded it down,
using thirty-five pounds of clover, five pecks of timoth}" and
three bushels of redtop seed. Many would say that quantity
of seed was too large, but I worked by the rule laid down in
Holy Writ, " as a man soweth so shall he also reap." The
seed took well, and in the following year, 1867, it gave a heavy
crop of first quality of English hay, eight and three-fourths
tons at the first cutting and three and a half tons at the
second.

In 1867, 1 ploughed and dug over the balance of the lot,
taking from it at least one hundred tons of stones, selling the
large ones and filling cross ditches with the small ones. In
August, 1868, 1 sowed it down in the same manner in which
the previous piece had been sown.

The quantity of hay cut in 1868, was about the same as in
1867, except the second crop, which was about three-fourths of
a ton. In October I top-dressed a portion of it with stable
manure and a portion with leached ashes, at the rate of seventy-
five bushels to the acre. The ashes proved to be a better
dressing than the manure, and also killed the rust, which had
injured the grass the year before. I have used ashes on high
land with very satisfactory results, and their use on low land,
provided it is well drained, has proved equally satisfactory.

In 1869, the whole lot in grass, I got twelve and a half tons
of hay at the first cutting, and one and a half tons at the
second. After mowing I put on a slight dressing of manure
and ashes.

KECLAIMED MEADOWS.

Ill

In 1870, 1 cut eleven tons of good hay, but the second crop
was light in consequence of the drought.

The whole lot can now be mown and raked with horses.

18G5-6.

1867.
1868.

u

1869.

u

1870.

EXPENSES.

Ploughing, ditching, carting sand, etc.,
Manure and carting.
Grass seed and sowing,
Ploughing, getting out stones, etc..
Manure, .....

Seed,

Manure and labor, .

Ashes, . . . . . •

Manure, etc., ....

Interest and taxes,
Total,

$366 42

111

50

15

00

133

00

80

00

12

00

68

00

30

00

35

00

85

00

)36 72

PER CONTRA

1866. Potatoes and cabbages, net,

1867. 121 tons of hay at |18,
" Stone sold, .

1868. 8f tons of hay, at 125,

1869. 12f tons of hay, at 820,

1870. 11 " " at $27,

Total,

$50

00

220

50

21

00

218

75

275

00

297

00

.,082 25

The land cost me $200 when I bought it ; what it is worth
now I am unable to say, except as its value may be computed
from what it produces.

Philander Cobb.

112 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

RENOVATED PASTURES.

PLYMOUTH.

Statement of Spencer Leonard.

My pasture, containing about fifteen acres, came into my pos-
session in the spring of 1855. More than three-fourths of it
was cold, moist swale, with clay sub-soil, free from stones. It
had, like a large proportion of the pastures in Plymouth
County, been managed by taking off all the feed that could be
obtained and putting nothing back in return. As a result, the
lowest places produced little but bushes and sour grasses which
the cattle would not eat, except early in the season, while the
remainder was partially covered with laurel, rose-ljushes and
hard-hack.

In 1855, 1 mowed the bushes where they were thickest and
Ijurncd them ; then ploughed about four acres and harrowed as
well as was practicable, sowing grass-seed on about half of it in
September, and on the rest the next spring, applying no manure
except on a small portion of it. The result was a partial
failure. I succeeded in destroying a portion of the bushes, but
where I applied no manure there was but little improvement in
quality or quantity of feed. Where the manure was put there
was much more grass of a better quality, but not being properly
drained, the cultivated grasses died out in a year or two and the
wild, sour grasses took their place. By this time several acres
more had been ploughed and treated in a similar manner, with
like results.

I now commenced where I l)egan in 1855, but being, like
many other farmers, in debt and short of money, I was under
the necessity of adopting some comparatively cheap method of
draining. As my pasture is somewhat undulating, I ploughed
in lands two rods wide, leaving the dead furrows as deep as
possible and of nearly an even grade, that the surface water
might run off freely ; cutting across ditches Avhere necessary,
and harrowed it well, using the grub-hoe and rake where the
harrow would not smooth it sufficiently, then applied what
stable manure I could spare from my other crops, the chip-dirt
and other scrapings I could find about my buildings, some

APPLE ORCHARDS. 113

ashes, lime, plaster, and such other fertilizers as I could afford
to buy, and sowed grass-seed in August or September, with the
best results.

I have usually fenced and mowed it one or two years, and
then turned it to pasture, fencing off and ploughing more, to
be used in a similar manner. I have now about ten acres, from
"which, with comparatively small outlay, I have destroyed the
bushes, got one or two crops of hay, and my pasture is four
times as good as before. Where I have succeeded in getting
good surface drainage, I retain the cultivated grasses. Where
the water does not drain off freely, the wild, sour grasses come
in, in two or three years.

When pastures have been used for a long time, mainly for
pasturing milch cows, they become somewhat exhausted of the
phosphate of lime a:nd magnesia, which form quite a percentage
of milk, and our cows are inclined to chew bones and other
substances in order to obtain a supply, frequently at the expense
of their flesh and to the injury of their teeth. I "would there-
fore recommend that, in improving old pastures, in addition to
draining and a supply of stable manure, leached ashes, lime or
other substances containing the phosphate, should be used.

Spencer Leonard.

APPLE ORCHARDS.

WORCESTER NORTH.

From the Report of the Committee.
Every farmer should pursue some special branch in agricul-
ture, best suited to his tastes and circumstances ; if it is con-
genial with his taste, and his farm be well adapted to stock
growing, that is the branch for him to pursue ; if his farm is
well adapted to growing vegetables, and his mind leads to that
branch of agriculture, it is for his interest to make it a source
of livelihood. Again, if he is interested in fruit growing, he
should enter into it with his whole heart and make it his lead-
ing pursuit. Simply because Mr. Reid, of Westford, or Captain
Pierce of Arlington, have acquired little fortunes in their or-
is*

114 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

cliards by their care, industry and perseverance, it is no evi-
dence that another individual can, after transplanting the best
selected trees in good soil, accomplish the same without far-
ther effort on his part, — he may as well expect to grow a hun-
dred bushels of corn to the acre without any cultivation.

But how painful it is to pass through a section of the coun-
try where good, thrifty trees have been transplanted in good
soil, and in a few years afterwards to see that grass and weeds
and the borer have taken possession of the field to such an ex-
tent that the money value of the trees is not as many dimes as
it should be dollars ; yet such is the fact, even in Worcester
and Middlesex counties.

Every farmer, however limited his acres, should cultivate a
taste for growing fruit sufficient for his own family consump-
tion, and to accomplish the object he need not, unless he
pleases, set out more trees than there are months in the year.
For summer use we would recommend the Early Harvest
and Early Williams ; the Red Astrachan also begins to ripen
about the 20th of July, and continues to fall till Septemljer.
For fall apples, the Porter, Foundling and Gravenstein ; of this
class none supersedes the Foundling, especially for its long du-
ration ; the fruit begins to mature in August, and continues to
November. Although this variety is not spoken of in the fruit
books it may be thus descril)ed :

Large, greenish yellow, ribbed mostly, covered with bright
red, calyx large, open in a narrow basin, flesh yellowish, quite
juicy and melting, a sprightly sub-acid flavor ; supposed to have
originated in Groton, Mass. ; known in Middlesex County by
the name of the River apple. Before these are all used, the
New York Pippin comes into use, a valuable fruit in November
and December. The Mother apple, excellent for family use,
large, red, flesh tender and melting, — November to January.

For early winter use nothing supersedes the Hubbardston
Nonesuch, but it loses its flavor by long keeping ; the Bald-
win and Roxbury Russet are too well known to need mention ;
the latter, if proper care be taken, will keep till June. There
appears to be no variety to fill the space between the Russet
and Early Harvest except the Runnels. This variety originated
in Andover, Essex County ; the best recommendation it has,
however, is that it is fit for use when others are not to be found,

APPLE ORCHARDS. 115

and serves to take the same place in the apple department as
the Madeleine in the catalogue of pears, very good when others
are not to be had.

Soil and Location. — Fruit trees, as far north as Worcester
county, should have a southern aspect ; if an orchard he trans-
planted upon the summit or north side of a hill, the l)leak
winds from the north and north-west cause the trees to have
a bend in the opposite direction, so tliat it is impossible to train
an orchard into a beautiful appearance ; aside from this it is
noticed that orchards in such locations are by no means prolific,
and the fruit is of poor quality, not unlike the form of the tree,
rudely shaped and ill-balanced.

Sandy soils have sometimes been looked upon as favorable
for the growth of fruit trees. The easy manner in which these
soils are cultivated, and the rapidity with which some of the
earlier crops come to maturity, have induced people to look
upon these soils with favor ; but reason as well as observation
should teach every practical farmer that such soils are among
the very worst for this purpose ; for under the hot sun of July
and August, the moisture is absorbed and the roots robbed of
one of the elements necessary for growth and sustenance ;
hence, the tree soon begins to assume a sickly appearance,
withers, droops, and finally dies, producing but little fruit while
it lived, and that of poor quality. No experienced farmer would
expect to see a fine grass field on soil of this class. Hence, a
sufficient reason why they should not be chosen for the cultiva-
tion of orchards. A gravelly loam is much better, especially so
if the loam has the preponderance ; if the gravel is in excess,
and this is a matter for the cultivator himself to decide, it will
be for his interest to set this aside with the other.

In alluvial soils, or soils composed of vegetable matter, found
upon the banks of rivers, washed down from the hills, trees
make a rapid growth, but the fruit is said not to mature as well
or to be so highly flavored as in soils more calcareous.

It may also l)e objectionable to put out orchards in such soils
where the valleys are deep, as the late frosts of spring might
destroy the fruit-buds, or the early frosts of autumn injure the
fruit.

Soil of argillaceous formation and black surface soil arc prob-
ably among the best for apples and pears ; although the trees

116 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

may not make so rapid growth, yet they are more hardy and
the fruit of higher flavor.

It is said by some of our best orchardists that clay is almost
indispensable for the growth of apples and pears ; it is proba-
bly for want of this ingredient in the subsoil that the Baldwin
does not mature before the fruit falls from the trees ; therefore,
in selecting fields for orchards, judgment should be exercised
in relation to the subsoil as well as the surface. If the subsoil
be of such character as to retain the water it should be under-
drained before transplanting, for when water stands and be-
comes stagnant, as most certainly it will at the depth of twelve
or fifteen inches, thus far will roots extend, but they refuse to
go farther. At this stage the tree assumes a sickly appearance.
Now if drains be cut to the depth of thirty or thirty-six inches,
the water will be removed to that depth, thus opening passages
in the soil for the roots to make their researches at pleasure,
which again gives health and vigor to the tree. Draining soils
that are impervious to water is in effect giving a new soil to the
tree ; for W'hen once freed from constant pressure of stagnant
water the soil becomes drier, sweeter, looser and more friable.

PreparcUion of Soil. — The year previous to transplanting, the
•field should be ploughed deep and well manured, and cultivated
witli some hoed crops ; at tlie time the trees are " set out," the
field should again be well ploughed and manured. In laying
out and staking the grounds the rows should be at least two
rods distant, and the trees in the rows the same ; if placed at a
less distance or only twenty-five feet, as has been done in many
cases, in twenty years the branches will interlock and produce
less fruit and of poorer quality, and finally prove an injury to
the orchard.

The holes for transplanting should not be less than two feet
deep and six feet in diameter, and filled with compost made
from rich loam, decayed wood and leaves, and only a small
quantity of barn manure. The object of making the holes exten-
sive and filling w^ith rich compost is to give a loose rich soil for
the small roots to work in the first year or two. In planting
out the trees, instead of making a hollow to place the roots in,
construct a hillock to place them vpon, and all mutilated roots
should be cut ollf in a slanting direction on the under side be-
fore setting. Here again care should be taken in placing the

APPLE ORCHARDS. 117

roots in their natural order, and the fnie compost sprinkled in
and about the roots through fingers till the tree will stand of
itself. It is well to be thus careful in setting trees, as the roots
send out fibres in all directions through the soil for food.

Great mistakes are frequently, made in selecting trees from
the nursery ; trees of poor quality are purchased for the reason
that they are cheap, and the argument is used that they will do
about as well in the end. Now it is more economical to make a
journey of twenty miles and purchase the best trees in a good
nursery, and pay thirty or even forty cents, than to have very
indifferent ones brought to the field and given.

It would also pay the expense to make this journey and take
charge in removing the trees and spend hours in the work,
than have them taken up as they frequently are in as many
minutes, with broken and mutilated trunks and roots. A large
amount of good roots is of more consequence than fine-looking
trunks and heads ; and all trees should be set as soon as possible
after being taken from the nursery, while their rootlets are yet
soft and tender. If trees cannot be set out till the roots become
dry and withered, some planters have recommended to bury
trees, root and branch, for a day or two, till the buds become
plump and the roots soft ; and if the transplanting can be done
in a cloudy or misty day, " all the better " ; and above all, we
should say to the young farmer or orchardist, beware of itiner-
ant tree peddlers who are able to make a good display and talk
of new varieties, and perhaps give their large experience as
orchardists, when they never cared for or set out the first tree.

Mulching, says Mr. Barry, of Mount Hope nurseries, should
be looked upon as an indispensable operation in all cases. It
consists in laying on the surface of the ground around the trees,
to the distance of three feet or so, a covering of half-decom-
posed manure, sawdust, spent tan bark, etc., two or three inches
deep. This prevents the moisture from evaporating, and main-
tains a uniformity of heat which is highly favorable to the
growth of new roots ; it also prevents the growth of weeds
around the trees, and obviates the necessity of hoeing, dressing
or watering during the season ; a deep mulching should always
be given to fall planting to prevent the frost penetrating the
roots or drawing up the tree.

Captain Pierce, of Arlington, says he would rather pay forty

118 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

dollars a ton for meadow hay to mulch his trees than do without
it.

I have practised mulching my trees for the past two years ; I
begin in March to throw out my meadow hay into the barn-
yard ; my young cattle feed as much or as little as they please ;
about the first of May the mulching is forked in heaps or ridges,
and about the first of June it is applied to young trees. It
works so well that I shall continue the operation. For trees of
older growth or those in bearing, the hay may be applied at any
time at the rate of a load to the acre. The operation secures a
four-fold object : it prevents grass and weeds from growing, it
keeps the ground moist in the dry part of the season, and in the
end it makes manure ; the fruit is not in the least injured by
falling from the trees.

Ephradi Graham, Chairman.

BERKSHIRE.

From the Report of the Committee.
In our report last year we took occasion to give our views of
what constitutes a well managed farm, and we propose this year
to speak of fruit, and especially of the apple as the leading fruit
of New England. While we rejoice to see the increased atten-
tion given to grapes, and to bear testimony to the variety and
excellence of the clusters of this most healthful fruit, whicli we
have seen growing in Berkshire this summer, as also to the
large and luscious pears, and more luscious peaches, still the
apple will ever remain the staple fruit of this section. It can be
raised in great abundance and in great perfection, and lasts from
the beginning to the end of the year. It is good for the dessert
and good for cooking. The acid of the apple is congenial to
most stomachs, and is a great auxiliary in digestion, counter-
acting the bilious tendency which is so prevalent, especially in
the latter part of summer and in the autumn, when the api)le is
in its most perfect condition. Could all men be supplied with
an apple or two each day in the year, as they can be with a little
jiainstaking, we are confident that there would bo less dy?i)epsia
in the community. Children are extravagently fond of apples,
and the natural craving which they all liave for the fruit proves
that it is congenial to their natures, and that they should be in-
dulged in the use of it. In cooking, certainly, there is no fruit

APPLE ORCHARDS. 119

which is so economical, and at the same time so satisfactory, as
the apple. We tire of a berry pic, but for a dessert which is
acceptable 365 days in the year, we commend the apple either
in its raw state, or made into sauce, dumplings and pies.

There is no danger of the market being overstocked with this
fruit, as some suppose. True, in a good fruit season the price
may be comparatively low, but it is always remunerative, as the
cost of raising is small. When the price is -12 per barrel, as
it is this year, producers must console themselves with the re-
flection that multitudes of families can indulge in the purchase
of a few barrels that would feel compelled to deny themselves
were the price twice as great. Then^ again, apples are worth
much more than the cost of production, for feeding to stock.
Hogs eat them with the same avidity as do the children, and,
w^hat is an exception to the common rule, seem to prefer them
raw, and thrive better upon the raw fruit than when it is cooked.
One of the best modes of feeding sw^ne upon apples is to let
them have the run of the orchard, as they will do their own
harvesting, eating all the windfalls, which are generally wormy,
thus preventing tlie worm from burrowing in the eartli, and
rising again the next summer in the perfect or insect state, to
multiply their species. Cows are fond of apples, and if fed judi-
ciously they greatly increase the flow of milk. Horses also
love them, and we can see no reason why they should not be
indulged occasionally with a dish of this fruit. Horses have the
most artificial diet of any of our domestic animals, and are the
most subject to disease. We are confident a few apples would
not only give a pleasant variety to their food, which all animals
like, but also remedy some of the ills to which our horses are
now subject.

If there is a surplus of apples after the wants of the family
and the stock are supplied, and if the market demand is con-
sidered not sufficiently remunerative for careful piciiing, they
can be made into cider and subsequently into vinegar. Pure
cider vinegar is always in great demand, and commands a high
price. Much that is sold under this name never emanated from
the cider mill. There is more cider vinegar sold in the United
States than there is cider manufactured. It is said that in order
to be sure of obtaining a cask of genuine port wine, it is neces-
sary to go to the vineyard near Oporto, watch its manufacture and

120 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

ride home outside of your cask, and the case is pretty much the
same with cider vinegar. To be certain that you have the
prime article, you must manufacture your own cider, or buy it
of a dealer in whose honesty you can confide.

The law now allows the manufacture and sale of cider in
Massachusetts, and we hope to see great improvements in the
production of this article, which, if made and used properly, can
become a source of health to the community and wealth to the
farmers. Much of the cider formerly made in New England has
been spoiled in the making. The apples have not been mature,
or else half-rotten, and the juice expressed through musty straw
has been put into still more musty casks. When apples are fit
to eat, then and then only are they fit to be made into cider.
As the apple ripens the starch is converted into sugar, and it
is only wdien sugar abounds in the apple that good cider can
be made. Of course when the putrefactive process has com-
menced in the fruit, it is only fit for the dunghill. Probably
more cider has been spoiled from being put into old casks than
from any other cause. These casks cannot be cleaned by a
simple washing out with cold water. If they have formerly
contained cider, a little of which was left, as is apt to be the
case, to pass through the acetous fermentation into the putrefac-
tive state, some seeds of putrefaction will remain in spite of all
cleaning by water, which wdll speedily corrupt the new cider.
Some fresh slacked lime or strong solution of potash we have
found efficient in refreshing these old casks, but we feel more
sure of good cider when we put it into barrels in which alcohol
or whiskey has been kept.

"We have taken much })ains in New England, where grapes,
it has been supposed, would not flourish, to make wine from
currants, blackberries, pie-plant, etc., but we are satisfied that
the true w^ine of New England is made from apples, and if the
same care were taken in the manufacture of cider that is be-
stowed upon wine, the former would compare favorably with
the latter. There are already some manufacturers of cider in
the eastern part of this State who are reaping great profits from
the production of a superior article, and we commend this sub-
ject to the careful consideration of the Berkshire farmers. It
is a reputation for superiority which commands a market for
any commodity. Dr. Fisher, of Fitchburg, has this autumn

APPLE ORCHARDS. 121

found a ready sale for his grapes at twenty cents per pound,
when other producers were glad to obtain half this price.

The notion has prevailed more or less extensively, that Xcw
England could not compete with the West in the production of
good apples. We are ready to acknowledge that the Western
fruit looks larger and fairer than ours ; but in flavor. Western
apples are not equal to eastern, and they certainly do not make
so good cider. We have admired the products of the Missouri
and Kansas orchards. The apples are large, tender and free
from worms, but we miss the delicious flavor which character-
izes our comparatively inferior-looking fruit. The same obser-
vation has been made by those who have visited Utah and Cali-
fornia, and the want of flavor in the Western apples is especially
manifest in the cider made from them. By skilful cultivation
we are confident fruit can be made to rival even in size the pro-
ductions of California, and if to this be added superiority in
flavor, there is no necessity for New England farmers to retire
from competition with the West in orchard products. Our soil,
by long cultivation, has become partially exhausted of inor-
ganic elements, but these can be restored by drainage, so that
the roots of our trees can penetrate deeper without encounter-
ing a cold, wet hard-pan, and by liberal top-dressings of lime,
plaster, bone-dust, and especially wood-ashes. The latter con-
tain all the inorganic elements which vegetation demands, and
are therefore at the present prices the most economical and the
most reliable of all the commercial fertilizers. The West has
the advantage in having fewer insects injurious to fruits, but
these are marching westward with the progress of empire, and
Ave have the advantage of long acquaintance with our insect
enemies and the means of counteracting their baneful effects.

We have thus briefly given some reasons for increased
attention to apple culture in New England, and we hope our
farmers will not neglect this profitable branch of agriculture.
We may not be able to compete in the New York markets with
our Western friends, but we can at least supply the wants of our
families and the home demand.

Alexander Hyde, Chairman.

16*

122 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

VINEYARDS.

PLYMOUTH.

Statement of R. E. Packard.

The vineyard set by Mr. Otis contains four lumdred and
twenty-five Concord vines, twenty-five Delaware and six Hart-
ford Prelifics. The Concords and Hartfords were two years old
when set ; the Delawares were raised in a hot-house the pre-
vious winter. The soil is a gravelly loam, nearly level ; it had
been mown six years without dressing, and was in a worn-out
condition. In 1866 it was planted to potatoes, with a little
supcrphospate in the hills, the crop paying for cultivation.

April, 1867, seven cords of stable manure were ploughed in
seven inches deep, and the ground harrowed with a heavy har-
row. The vines were set in May, the rows nine feet apart, and
the vines six feet apart in the rows. The ground was kept
clean by using the cultivator and hand-hoe. The Concords and
Hartfords were trained with two horizontal arms, the Delawares
with but one. All other shoots were pinched back, and all
laterals, tendrils and fruit blossoms were cut off. In the fall,
eight hundred and eight3^-seven cedar posts, from four to six
inches in diameter and eight feet long, costing eight cents a
piece were bought, stripped of their bark and housed.

In the spring of 1868, two posts were set to each vine, two
feet deep, with the exception of the Delawares, for which but
one post was used, and the two arms were trained around them
in serpentine form. The land was kept well loosened by culti-
vating and hoeing three times, but not very deep. Mr. Otis not
being able to prune the vines in the fall, they were left until the
spring of 1869, when, he having died in March, I proceeded to
carry out his intentions as nearly as I was able to do without
practical experience.

After the vines were well leaved out, I pruned them back to
two eyes, and when the new shoots got about two feet long, I
pinched them off, cutting off all laterals and tendrils. The
vines, now four years old, were considered old enough to bear,
but only two of the best bunches were allowed to remain on
each shoot, and vines which were not stx-ong and healthy were

VINEYARDS. 123

not allowed to bear any. As fast as the vines got to the top of
the posts' they were clipped off.

The crop of fruit in 1869 was about twelve hundred pounds.
I selected the best for table use, wholesaling them for fifteen
cents per pound, and retailing them for twenty cents ; the others
I sold for preserving at ten and twelve cents per pound. The
cultivation was the same as in previous years. In the fall, I
pruned back to three eyes, one of which I took off this spring,
1870.

The present season I have pursued the same method of train-
ing and cultivating, getting a crop of about three thousand
pounds, wholesaling them from eight to ten cents per pound
and retailing from twelve to fifteen cents, averaging nine cents.

The fruit has ripened from September 15th to October 5th.
In 1869, there were two quite severe frosts before harvesting,
but no injury was done to the crop, the vineyard being in an
open field without protection. The long continued drought this
season somewhat injured a small portion of the vines, the leaves
becoming dry and the fruit failing to mature fully, although
suitable for preserving. The grapes generally have been very
nice, free from disease, worms or any other imperfection. In
marketing the fruit, we have been careful so to handle them as
not to bruise them or rub off the bloom. They keep much
longer and sell more rapidly when so handled.

The Hartfords and Delawares I do not consider worth raising
in an open vineyard. The Concords exceed my expectations,
being sufficiently hardy to stand the winter without protection
and producing a good marketable grape. If I were to set
another vineyard I should put the vine nine feet apart in the
rows, instead of six.

The land in 1866, cost $67 ; seven cords of manure at |12 =
$84 ; spreading, ploughing and harrowing, $12.50 ; four hun-
dred and fifty-six vines, $114.90 ; setting vines, $13 ; cultivat-
ing and hoeing in 1867, $6.30 ; posts and setting, $100 ; culti-
vating, hoeing and training, 1868, $12 ; do. in 1869, $25 ; do.
in 1870, $25 ; interest and taxes, $75. Total, $535.70.

The amount of fruit in 1869 was about twelve hundred

pounds, value, $150 ; in 1870, about three thousand pounds,

value, $270. Total, $420. The estimate cash value of the

vineyard, October 1st, 1870, is 11,000.

R. E. Packard.

124 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Note hy the Committee. — The late remarkably hot and dry
summer has been generally considered very favorable' for the
grape crop. In view of this fact Mr. Packard may err in attril)-
uting to the drought the failure of some of his fruit to ripen
fully. If anything relating to grape culture is settled beyond
controversy, it is that grapes exposed to the sun, or growing
upon vines denuded of foliage, do not ripen as perfectly as
those more completely shaded. It is quite possible that his
vines, trained to single upright posts, and pinched back and
summer pruned severely, may have been in some cases so de-
ficient in leaves as to prevent the proper elaboration of the
juices of the plant, or that the direct rays of the sun acting
upon the fruit itself, may have caused some chemical change of
a nature to retard or wholly arrest the process of ripening.

Statement of the Messrs. Barnes.

Our vineyard, situated on the east side of Bedford Street,
North Abington, contains one hundred rods of land and four
hundred and twenty vines. The land slopes a little to the
south-west, the soil being a sandy loam, which had been planted
with corn and root crops the three years previous to 1867. It
was ploughed to the usual depth for corn, early in April of that
year, and cross-ploughed, then harrowed the first of May, and
furrowed out ten feet apart for the rows, which run east and
west. The vines are six feet apart in the rows, and trained to
trellises formed of posts twelve feet apart, with two rails nailed
to the posts horizontally, two and a half feet apart, the lower
one being eighteen inches from the ground. On a part of them,
laths were nailed perpendicularly, about one foot apart on the
rails ; on the rest telegraph wires were fastened to the posts
between the rails.

The vines are trained on the double tier and arm and spur
system, as described by Fuller. Our vines were purchased of a
nursery agent in Boston, but were not received by us until three
weeks after the time agreed upon, making it the last of May
when they were set out, which, as we think, materially checked
their growth for that and the subsequent season. Concord
vines only were ordered, but when they had thrown out new
buds and leaves we found about sixty of them were Dianas.

Two rows of potatoes, heavily manured, were planted in each

VINEYARDS. 125

space between the rows of vines, paying the cost of cultivating
the whole piece, most of the work being done with the horse-
hoe. The middle of November, the vines were pruned back to
two or three strong buds.

In the spring of 1868, we found twenty of the Concords and
one-half the Dianas dead, or making but a feeble growth, and
they were replaced by Concords of our own raising. With us
the Diana has proved a failure, being subject to mildew and
winter-killing, while the fruit does not ripen evenly enough to
be fit to sell. Before the vines started, the posts were set twelve
feet apart with a stake between to which the growing vines were
kept tied during the season. In November the vines were
pruned to form the arms, and the rails nailed on for the trellis.
In 1869, the stoutest vin^s were allowed to bear a few bunches
each, in all about two hundred pounds. The great gale in Sep-
tember, injured the fruit and vines, lessening the crop for that
year.

This year nearly all the vines threw out fruit-buds, and after
the grapes had set, about one-third of them were taken off,
mostly from the weaker vines. We have found that Concord
vines, when allowed to bear all they will the first year or two,
exhaust themselves and make the crop uncertain for a year or
two after. Our aim has been to obtain increasing crops each
year, by summer pruning, so as to get good canes for the next
year's fruit. Notwithstanding the severe drought, the vines this
season have made a splendid growth of strong, healthy, well-
ripened canes, giving promise of a fine crop next year.

Expenses: 1867, 100 rods of land, at 180 per acre, 150;
ploughing and harrowing, |6 ; 420 vines at 30 cents, $126 ; set-
ting vines, four days, $8 ; pruning, $1. In 1868, 252 posts, at
six cents, $15.12 ; setting posts, four days, $8 ; 230 rails, at six
cents, $13.80 ; 1,000 laths, $3.50 ; nails, $2 ; wire, $4 ; making
trellis, six days, $12 ; cultivation, $6 ; pruning, $2. In 1S69,
cultivation and training vines, $10 ; pruning, $4. In 1870,
cultivation and training, $16 ; interest and taxes, $54.50.
Total, $341.92.

Receipts, 1869, grapes sold, 200 pounds at twenty cents, 140.
In 1870, grapes sold, 1,200 pounds at twelve and a half cents,
average $150. Total, $190. Excess of expenses, $151.92.

Deducting the expenses the present year, $16, from the

126 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

amount of sales, $loO, we liave an income of S134, which taken
as a hasis of valuation would warrant us, as we think, in esti-
mating the present value of our vineyard at $1,000.

We would offer the following suggestions to those ahout
planting vineyards. Obtain strong, healthy vines from responsi-
ble parties. Choose a warm and well drained soil, where there
is a good circulation of air, which will tend to prevent mildew.
The soil need not be rich ; our vines have had no manure ex-
cept what was applied to other crops between the rows. Set
the posts when you set the vines to prevent subsequent injury
to the roots ; the trellises may he completed at any time after-
wards. Be satisfied with moderate crops the first two or three

years of bearing.

T. & J. Barnes.

FRUITS.

MIDDLESEX.

From the Report of the Committee.

Grapes. — The last summer, as you are aware, was remarkal)le
for dryness, for the brightness of the sun, and long continued
heat,^ust the conditions for maturing the grape to the highest
degree of excellence, provided the vines were properly cared
for, which leads us to state what we regard as suitable care
under such circumstances. In the first place, hawcver, it may
not be amiss to say that, owing to the conditions alluded to,
grapes rii)encd over a large extent of territory at nearly the
same time, and the variation in the time for the different
varieties maturing, was not so marked as in ordinary seasons ;
hence the difficulty of judging as to comparative merits of many
of the new sorts on the point of early maturity. Tlie quality
of each has not been surpassed by itself in any previous year
within our recollection.

Now then, to the care and want of care to which we alluded,
and which has been clearly oljservable ; on soils similar in
character, indeed, the difference is so slight as not to be dis-
cernable, except in the mode of treatment.

Dry as the season was, those who gave clean cultivation to
their vines, eradicating all noxious weeds (all weeds are such)

FRUITS. 127

early nipped them in the hud, and kept the soil frequently
tilled and light on the surface, during the dry and hot weeks
with which we were favored, secured a good growth of mature
canes for next season's fruiting, together with a good crop
of average-sized bunches and berries, and in many instances
both were very large. On the other hand, those who gave one
or two hoeings early in the season, leaving the weeds to grow,
and the soil to bake and crack, affording additional facilities for
evaporating the water contained therein, need not be surprised
that their berries were small, neither should they if denied any
crop next year, for vines that produce half grown fruit are not
in a condition to set fruit-buds for the next season. On that
point our experience enables us, as we believe, to judge
correctly.

These remarks are not only applicable to grape cult^ux, but
equally so to all crops for which the cultivator or hoe are put
in requisition. If any one has doubts as to the damaging
eifects of neglecting to stir the surface, and destroying all the
little pumps which are worthless, standing in the soil, let him
try the experiment thoroughly, for once, on a small scale, on
the weedy side, and he will be cured in theory at least, and we
trust in practice, unless he is one of those unfortunates who
frequently lay out more work than they find time to carry
through. That disease has become chronic with some,— the
losses which accrue in consequence producing no cure.

Does any one doubt that a weed is a pump ? let him cut off
one some sunny morning in July, watch the same twenty
minutes, more or less, and see its head begin to droojD — no
source of supply, and evaporation continually going on, it must
be obvious, that on an acre thickly covered with weeds, many
barrels of water are daily drawn from the soil, which should be
retained therein for a more useful purpose. Weeds not only
exhaust the soil of moisture, but' they are also gross feeders on
the elements of fertility artificially applied, as is clearly evi-
denced in all cases where manure is applied. That is under-
stood by intelligent cultivators everywhere ; and being a Yankee,
we venture to guess that if Secretary Moore should be asked,
he will assert that if he neglected to stir the surface soil in his
grapery frequently during the dry season, keeping the grounds

128 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

clear of weeds, his yield of fruit would have been only about
two-thirds of what he did secure.

"We are also more fully conviuced that a warm soil, say a
sandy loam, is the most suitable for grapes, and we need not
aflfirm at this late day that a southern slope, considerably ele-
vated above the frosty hollows, is the best location, for that is
already understood. No matter how much heat can be concen-
trated in the soil, and we were about to say that rain or iio
rain, if the soil has been prepared so that the roots will pene-
trate to the depth of twelve inches, and cultivated properly, a
crop may be regarded as a sure thing. No plant, to our knowl-
edge, will stand a pinching drought better than a grape-vine.
We believe, too, that the most approved method in planting
vines is to have the rows running north and south, giving each
vine about sixty feet of land ; rows ten feet apart, and plants
six feet from each other in the row, varying a little as circum-
stances may require ; that, in our judgment, is right for the
strong-growing kinds, like the Concord, Hartford and others.

Asa Clement, Chairman.

FRANKLEs'.

From the Report of the Committee.
It may not be amiss to advise any one who contemplates
starting in the fruit business, not to set out an orchard or vine-
yard on ground that has once been occupied recently by the
same kind of stock he intends planting. I should fear to set
young apple-trees on the site of an old orchard, from which
worthless apple-trees had been taken, but I should not fear to
let it succeed the pear or peach or grape, and I apprehend the
same may be said of all other fruits ; rotation may be as essen-
tial to that as to auy other crop. May not our lack of attention
to that, account in part for the unsatisfactory results in our pom-
ology ? I need not refer to the fact that nearly all the choicest
fruits are obtained by grafting or budding, only to allude to the
influence of the stock (if it has any). Is the stock a mere pas-
sive vehicle through which the sap is drawn by the leaves, hav-
ing no influence in the elaboration of the fruit ? If so it makes
no difference what the stock may be. But I do not believe
that to be the case.

FRUITS. 129

I find that fruit grafted on strong, rapidly growing stock, en-
tirely different from the scion, loses some of its original flavor;
perhaps more concisely s})eaking, its flavor is modified. Now
admitting this modification of the stock to be the law, may we
not use it to advantage ?

If, for instance, we wish to plant a thousand apple-trees, say
Baldwins, if grafting must modify the flavor, may we not choose
the modifying influence ? Say graft first as many promiscuous
trees as we wish to plant, with scions of any kind we may fancy
as a modifier., and then in due time regraft with the kind
wanted, then shall we not have a uniform modification and at
the same time an advance in quality ? Of course these remarks
will apply alike to all kinds of grafted fruits. Speaking of graft-
ing, how great has been the improvement in that method of
propagation since the swingietow and clay have been superseded
by the artistic and sure method by which the operation is per-
formed. The fruits of our county are receiving, of late, a very
valuable reinforcement in the grape. How very short is the
time since hardly any one here knew anything about any other
than our native fox grapes, except through " hearsay evidence."
Now almost any choice, and many of the choicest varieties, are
so plentiful that it is almost difficult to sell them.

This may be in part because the taste of the people has not
become educated ; but tlie amount is really abundant, so great
in our county that much has been sent to considerable distance
to find a market. No feature of our fair was more interest-
ing than that presented by our grapes.

Our grapes are raised mostly in the towns of Greenfield, Shel-
burne, Sunderland, Deerfield, Montague and Leyden, all of
which towns were well represented. I hope it may not be amiss
to admonish fruit growers, especially growers of grapes, not to
multiply kinds recklessly ; better, after finding which are best,
stick to them, than to fill up your ground with doubtful va-
rieties.

Of what use is it to try to cultivate for profit in our climate,
kinds that will not ripen before October ? The lona or Con-
cord, both excellent when perfect, cannot be relied upon here.
The same may be said of many other varieties presented at our
dirs by amateurs. And purchasers of stock for setting should

17*

130 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

be on their guard, and not be cajoled by high-sounding names
into buying such worthless'' rub] )ish.

And this suggests the idea that the practice of our society is
wrong- in offering premiums for the largest collections ; it should
be only for the best specimens of the best varieties adapted to
our climate. I would not discourage propagators from experi-
menting for the purpose of bringing out better varieties, of
course ; I should recommend that a very high premium be of-
fered for an]/ real improveinent upon our best kinds of grapes or
any other fruit.

Every fruit grower should have some knowledge of entomol-
ogy. He will find this knowledge a great help in distinguishing
his friends from his enemies. A great deal of pains arc often
taken to kill an insect which, if suffered to live, would be worth
a good many days' work. Let us look into the matter. We
cannot become masters of our business without patient, persis-
tent study, and unwearied perseverance. No labor can yield a
more noble reward than that which we may devote to this pur-
suit, if we devote enough of it to perfect ourselves in our art.
It is nothing less than the power to compel our common mother
to set up and run the machinery and find the stock for convert-
ing the dust of the earth and the moisture of the air into the
choicest and most delicate food for man.

D. MowKY, Chairman.

PLYMOUTn.

From the Report of the Committee.

In this country too many of the most scientific pomologists
arc compelled to reside in cities, and have made discoveries,
originated valuable varieties of fruit, and produced specimens of
unsurpassed beauty, from patches of ground which we should
consider hardly large enough for a child's garden..

Magnitude may be considered a test of respectability in some
professions, but not in pomology. Tlie cultivator who operates
with science upon a limited scale, takes precedence over him
who manages a magnificent plantation with less skill. It is
hoped that the premiums offered for best specimens, may be
monopolized hereafter by those who grow fruit on a small scale.

The Committee took the liberty of asking all the exhibitors,

FRUITS. 131

whose fruit presented unusual merit, their method of culture,
and have to thank most of them for careful and elaborate re-
plies, the substance of which we have endeavored to embody in
this report.

Apples. — Within the past year statements have been made
uj^MDu very high authority, that apple culture in Massachusetts
was becoming uncertain and unprofitable, owing to the superi-
ority of Western apples.

The Western orchards are all young, and young trees if prop-
erly cultivated, uniformly produce the handsomest fruit. An-
other advantage which the Western cultivator enjoys is the
absence of old orchards. Probably there are more decaying
and half dead apple trees in this county than in the two States
of Indiana and Illinois.

These same old trees are more than " cumberers of the earth."
They harbor and propagate all manner of evil insects, but have
not sap enough to support them, and are therefore compelled to
colonize them upon their more vigorous neighbors. This is one
serious drawback upon Eastern culture, and we believe the sub-
ject of removing old orchards to be equal in importance to that
of planting new.

A distinguishing feature in the Western tree, is its open top
and smooth limbs, which are longer and straighter than ours.
The buds are further apart and fruit-spurs are not so numerous.
For this reason the tree is not over-loaded with fruit at the
start, as our trees uniformly are in bearing years.

We think this is a valuable habit in the Western tree, and
that it can be imitated in our own by proper pruning. If a
limb of three inches in diameter is carefully sawn from a tree
in any season, it will never heal w/?, though it may heal over ;
it will prove a permanent injury, and sooner or later will kill
the tree. When a saw or an axe is used in an orchard, it
should be applied close to the ground. A pocket knife is the
only pruning instrument admissible, and the proper season for
pruning is whenever a limb is seen out of place. The form of
the tree, and position and number of the main limbs, can be
determined when the tree is three years old ; tliin the boughs
and twigs afterwards as required, and remove all limbs growing
towards tlie centre as fast as they appear.

132 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The l)aik slunild never be scraped or wlutewashcd, l)ut kept
constantly clean by some alkaline or saline solution. An excel-
lent wash is the bitter or mother water, which is a refuse of
salt works. Cultivate the trees in a style practised by a
prominent exhibitor, whose language we use as better than our
own, and there will be no more complaints made of the inferi-
ority of Eastern apples : " My trees are planted on a rich,
moist soil. I spread manure on the land and plough it in every
spring. The a])ple crop requires manure as much as any other,
and no other crop should l)e taken from the land."

The following list of apples is recommended by different ex-
hibitors, as suitable for this county. The figures are not to be
taken as an index of quality, but extent of acquaintance. :

Number 1, shows that the fruit is recommended by one or two,
and is not widely known. Number 2, shows that half at least of
the exhibitors are acquainted with, and recommend it, and
Number 3, that most of them do so.

Those in italics are Plymouth County seedlings.

Red Astrachan, 3 ; Early Joe, 2 ; Sweet Bough, 2 ; Manomet
Svjeeting-, 1 ; BurreWs Sweet Russet, 1 ; L'orter, 3 ; Tower, 1,
Spice Sweet, 2 ; High-top, 2 ; Yellow Pearmain, 1 ; Esopus
Spitzenljcrg, 1 ; English Codline, 1 ; Tallman Sweet, 2 ; Rox-
bury Russet, 2 ; Golden Russet, 3 ; Greening, 3 ; Baldwin, 3 ;
Burr's Winter Sweet, 2 ; Peck's Pleasant, 2 ; Hubbardston
Nonesuch, 3; Jewell's Red,l; King, 1; Lady's Sweeting, 1;
Northern Spy, 1.

Pears. — Without assuming to decide how many varieties to
■cultivate, or the proper stock to grow them upon, we will say
that the grower who confines himself to six varieties will leave
out of his list a great many good ones, and if he has no dwarf
trees, there will be some even of his six that he will not taste
in perfection.

An excellent manure for pears is home-made superphos-
phate.

Grapes. — Probably the culture of the " vitis vinifera " or
European grape was as well understood and practised two thou-
sand years ago as at present ; but it is settled we cannot grow
this grape out of doors.

FRUITS. 133

Tliis fact was stated by ^[r. Longworth, about twenty years
ago ; and about tbe same time he made the statement, as the
result of his large experience, that our native grape could be
improved and finally brought to perfection by continued cultiva-
tion and reproduction from seed. About the same time, or some-
what later, other cultivators attempted hybridizing our native
grapes with the vinifera, in order to obtain a good fruit, adapted
to our country, more rapidly than by the slow but certain process
of Mr. Longworth. The result, so far as the fruit is concerned,
is all that the advocates of the process expected, and we have
hybrid grapes of finer quality than we could ex|)ect to make
our native grape in a century of careful culture. There seems,
however, to be a natural law by which a hybrid, Avhicli partakes
in some degree of the characteristics of both parents, must also
partake of the disabilities of both, and be subject to the diseases
of both ; and it is this that prevents in nature the long continu-
ance of hybrid races. A hybrid cannot become a new species,
but is merely a combination of old ones.

The statements of the exhibitors show that the hybrid grapes
are uncertain. Some give the preference to one variety and
some to another. It is also stated that varieties which did well
last year, did poorly this, and vice versa.

All the grape growers with whom we have corresponded, have
evinced their appreciation of an attempt to systematize their
knowledge, and their disposition to impart it freely.

We advise a person about to plant grapes, and having a
choice of situation, to select the south side of a gravel hill ;
having no hard-pan, but open to the level of the springs, and
sheltered from east winds, and from all others, if possible.
The soil on such hills is generally pretty uniform, and of no
great consequence. Apply bone dust and ashes, but no excre-
mentitious manures. Muck can be used. The training to trel-
lis or stake is purely a question of convenience or fancy. No
pruning is dangerous before January, but excessive pruning mar/
be so in summer, according to the season. We further advise
the planter to read up everything in late reports favorable to
rolnns. Otherwise he may feel disposed to anathematize the
bird when his grapes ripen ; particularly if the plants be the
Delaware and Rogers.

Varieties. — Concord. — For describing this we give the Ian-

134 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

guage of an exhibitor and fully endorse it : " It is the best
grape to grow in Xew England, for those who like it."

Allen's Ili/brid. — The best, the most difficult to grow and the
most uncertain.

Rogers' Hybrids. — No. 4. The most hardy of either and the
earliest, the best for the vineyard so far as tried.

No. 15. The highest flavor of either, the worst to set and
the most sulyect to mildew.

No. 19. Handsomest bunches and sweetest.

Nos. 3, 22, 83. Not superior to those already mentioned,
but good for variety.

Delaware. — First rate and pretty sure ; tender in some
places.

lona. — First rate, but very uncertain.

Israella. — Not so good this year as last.

Eumelan. — First rate, and has done well so far as tried.
Northern Muscadine ; Hartford Prolific ; Early Amber. Very
sure and better than wild grapes.

Dracut Amber. — Early, good for those who like a strong
grape.

Cottage, Una. — Have generally done well so far as tried.

Adirondack. — Good, very slow grower.

Perkins. — Better than last year.

Diana. — Good but uncertain. Only half hardy.

Isabella. — Will ripen regularly on south side of a building or
fence if properly trained. Very uncertain elsewhere.

Catawba. — Has ripened this summer, the first time for
twenty years.

Ives' Seedling. — Earlier than Concord ; sure bearer and
good.

Clinton. — Not good to eat, but best grape for jelly.

J. E. Carver, Chairman.

HINGHAM.

From the Report of the Committee.

Apples. — In the prevailing brilliancy of color and tlie fully
ripened condition of the fruit, the apples on our tables at the
recent fair have never been surpassed, if equalled.

Among the kinds that may be regarded as new, or that have

FRUITS. 135

hitherto been cultivated to a limited extent in this vicinity, the
Committee were pleased to see a fine dish of the Washington.
This apple is large, attractive in appearance, with a rich, sub-
acid flavor, and succeeds the Gravenstein, which indeed it some-
what resembles. Its success in this locality the future must
determine.

The Northern Spy from which so much was expected, we are
sorry to say will probably prove a failure. The tree is produc-
tive, and the fruit is not only large and handsome, but of good
quality. Its great defect is in its liability to premature decay —
no inconsiderable portion of the crop being frequently found
unsound even at the time of gathering. It is classed as in per-
fection in March and April, and we have occasionally seen the
Jfruit at this season that in every point of excellence seemed to
leave little to be desired ; but its perishable nature when grown
in this vicinity renders it almost valueless.

The general perfection and beauty of the dishes of the Mother
apple afforded the Committee much gratification. The tree is
so productive, the fruit is so richly colored, so free from blem-
ishes, and withal of so good quality for the table, that we con-
sider it one of the best of the numerous kinds which came
before us for examination, and it is recommended for cultivation.

In the dishes of the Cogswell exhibited, there were seen the
same evenness in size, beauty of color and perfection of form
which have been its almost unvarying characteristics for years
past. The tree is productive to a fault ; the fruit is of good
quality, makes a fine appearance when on the table, and is in
condition for use from November to February. There is no
apple known to us better adapted for cultivation in poor, gravel-
ly soil than this. Its single defect^appears to be in the liability
of the tree to shed its fruit.

The Brewer apple, the dishes of which were so numerous and
prominent, certainly has the merit of size, and its unfailing ap-
pearance at our yearly exhibitions is evidence that it also has
the further merit of being an annual bearer. It is a good sort
for cooking, but too coarse in texture to be classed as a table
fruit, besides being liable to drop before it attains its full size.
Where room is abundant, however, a tree of this kind may be
desirable.

Your Committee believe the cultivation of the Hubbardston

136 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Nonesuch might he profitahlj extended in this vicinity. The
samples shown were all good, and some were strikingly large
and handsome. As an eating apple it is almost unsurpassed,
and no kind sells more readily, or commands a higher price iii
the market.

For " first early " apples, we believe the Red Astrachan and
Sweet Bough to be the best. Intermediate in flavor, and ripen-
ing at nearly the same time,'is the Primate, an apple much less
generally known and ciiltivated than it deserves. In the deli-
cacy of its flavor, and in the tender, almost melting character of
its flesh, it is not excelled Ijy any other fruit of its season. For
a succession we recommend the Gravenstein, Porter, and, where
one has the benefit of a deep, rich soil, the Williams' Favorite.

For winter use the Baldwin, Greening- and Roxbury Russet
continue the standard varieties. No trees are more hardy, and
few, if any, return a greater average yield. Further than this,
no kinds are better known, or more esteemed, both at home and
abroad. They are good keepers, bear transportation well, and
for shi})ping purposes stand at present unrivalled. Were we to
set but a single tree, we should make our selection from these.

We are gratified to note the increasing demand for sweet
apples. Plentiful and cheap as they now are, every family may
share generously in the healthful luxury. Among the kinds
most desirable will be found the Danvers' Winter Sweet, Tol-
man's Sweeting, Ladies' Sweeting, Lane Sweeting, Orange
Sweeting, and others, though we regret to add that so few of
these appeared among the dishes at the annual exhibition.

The season has been a peculiar one. Notwithstanding the
almost entire absence of rain for twelve successive weeks, added
to the ordinary liabilities to injury from frost, insects or disease,
there appears to be no locality throughout the United States or
the Cunadas where the crop of apples is not only plentiful, but
even superabundant. In the remarkable season of 1862, wheu
the number of l)arrcls raised in Hinghara was estimated at ten
thousand, there was not only a demand for export, but no incon-
siderable portion of our surplus was required at home to meet
the want created by the partial or total failure in various parts
of tbe country. It is true that prices at the time were low, but
jnirchasers were not wanting and sales were easy. In striking
contrast with this state of things, we now find apples abundant

FRUITS. 137

everywhere. There is no lack at home, and there is no demand
abroad. Trade is unaffected by a reduction in price, and sales
drag heavily. There are literally apples for the million, and
growers search our markets in vain for purchasers at one and
two dollars the barrel. The cider-mills of the country, though
in constant operation night and day, fail to meet the require-
ments of their customers ; the supply of casks and packages is
exhausted, and thousands of bushels are being daily fed to the
cattle and swine of our farms as an economical substitute for
hay and grain ! What a' lesson this for those who only a few
years since pronounced orcharding a failure, declared the days
of the apple-tree numbered, and advised young cultivators and
farmers generally to abandon the growing of the fruit, and to
cut down their trees as cumberers of the ground, fit only for
fuel, and of poor quality even for that !

It has been remarked that for every ten years there are three
years of plenty, and three years when the crop is nearly or quite
a total failure, the remaining four years producing some fruit,
amounting on the average to nearly half a crop ; and this
statement is drawn not from the results of a single decade, but
from the statistics of the past one hundred and fifty years.
Such a summing up of the matter may not be encouraging, yet
could we be assured of like results we should plant an orchard.
Frost, disease, the canker-worm and other insects will undoubt-
edly in the future, as they have done throughout the past, im-
pair and perhaps destroy the fruits of our labors ; still we believe
the setting of an orchard, or even a single tree, will prove a
source of satisfaction, if not of pecuniary profit.

The fluctuations in price during the past ten years may be
worthy of notice. The lowest point was reached in the autumn
of 18G2, at which time the ruling rate was but one dollar per
barrel. From this sum the grower was obliged to deduct
twenty-five cents for the package, and thirty cents for the cost
of picking, barrelling and transporting to market, leaving a net
amount of forty-five cents per barrel, or four cents per peck for
selected fruit of the rarest, as well as of the best standard
varieties.

In 1855 the crop of apples was generally small, and through-
out the East was almost an entire failure. In March and April
of the spring following, this fruit — nearly all of which was re-
18*

138 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

ceived from the West — sold readily at ten dollars per barrel,
and was retailed by our merchants and market-men generally at
one dollar per peck. It will thus be seen that the grower, who
in 1862 was a seller at forty-five cents per barrel, became in
turn a purchaser, in 1800, at one dollar per peck — an advance
of twenty-four hundred per cent.

The great superiority of the kinds of apples now in general
cultivation over those of seventy-five or a hundred years ago,
will be generally admitted. But with regard to the quantity
now raised in Hingham, it may be a question whether we have
made the progress many suppose. About the beginning of the
present century some of our farms — that of the late Captain
Ezra Whiton for instance — produced a hundred barrels of cider
in a single season, an amount which we think, even in this year
of remarkable abundance, few, if any, of our most extensive
orchards will equal. "We are aware of the general inferiority
of the fruit of the time, and of the small percentage that was
really marketable or suitable to be preserved for winter use ;
still we are inclined to believe that the number of bushels for
each inhabitant was then nearly or quite equal to what it is at
present.

While we are making gratifying progress in the production of
new varieties, it must be confessed that we find it more and
more difficult to grow them in perfection. There is no success,
even with the apple, short of thorough cultivation, and to the
hands of those who practise it are annually passed the prizes of
our society. " The tree thrives best that has the frequent im-
prints of the owner's footsteps about it," and the man who plants
an orchard, and leaves his trees a prey to disease, insects, grass
and weeds, will seek for fruit and find none.

Fearing Burr, Chairman.

Pears. — The revolution in fruit culture has kept pace with
other changes and improvements. In pear culture many new
varieties have been introduced by artificial fertilization, by
chance discovery as in the case of the Vicar of "Winkfield and
others, by working on Van Mons' theory, or by root-pruning
and bud-nipping of seedlings, some of them of surpassing ex-
cellence, supplanting the most highly prized varieties of former
times. With the introduction of superior varieties, tastes have

FRUITS. 139

become more critical and exacting. No one pear, unless it be
the Seckel, is universally pronounced best ; a kind that one per-
son esteems the best, another may think lacking in aroma, or a
little astringent ; too sweet or too acid, too musky, dry or in-
sipid. Much of the disagreement of tastes is probably caused
by diiferent modes of cultivation ; for a pear double-worked on
a good variety, whether it be on pear or quince, will much excel,
in desirable qualities, one that is only single-worked on pear or
quince. The number of contributions were three hundred and
forty-eight plates, embracing about one hundred established
varieties. There were twenty-five plates of Duchesse d'Angoul-
eme ; twenty-two Seckels ; twenty-one Bartletts ; sixteen Louise
Bonne de Jersey ; thirteen each Winter Nelis and Vicar of Wink-
field ; eleven Lawrence ; ten Bicknell ; nine Urbaniste ; eight
Beurre d'Anjou. This exhibit indicates the varieties that are
most generally cultivated in this vicinity. There may be other
varieties that will, in time not far distant, become favorites to
the neglect of some of these.

The severe and long continued drought of summer, obviously
tended to lessen the size of pears generally ; but the Bicknell
was an exception ; it has rarely done better in regard to quality.
The Vicar on the contrary suffered much, its average size being
greatly inferior to what it has been in favorable seasons. The
keeping quality of the Bartlett, judging from the unusual num-
ber of specimens offered, was improved by the dryness of the
season, although its average size was below that of some former
years.

The ripening of several varieties has been variously affected ;
the Winter Nelis and Vicar ripen in November instead of Janu-
ary and February ; the Duchesse, a November pear, promises to
be good for December.

The Mount Vernon, by Mrs. C. B. Leavitt, a native variety,
said to possess desirable qualities, was not received in season to
compete for premium.

Althougli less than one-eighth of the established varieties
were offered for competition, enough were presented to demon-
strate the fact that much interest is awakened on the subject of
pear culture, and that tliere is a prevalent desire to be possessed
of the very best varieties.

If to the leading varieties exhibited be added the Bloodgood,

140 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Dearborn's Seedling and Beurre Giffard, for summer varieties,
the aogregate will constitute a number from which a good and
reliable selection may bo made. Whatever varieties one may
prefer, it is well to bear in mind that the best pears, being more
refined than the apple, cannot be successfully raised with the
common attention bestowed on the cultivation of that fruit.
Travelling agents are not always the most reliable persons ;
trees delivered by them are often of inferior quality, and untrue
as to variety promised ; therefore as a matter of economy and
reliability in regard to the varieties sought, it is well to visit the
nursery of a man of established reputation, and there to make
selections, preferring those trees standing a proper distance
fi'om others, and such as made a vigorous growth the preceding
season.

It is better to pay a round price for a good tree of the right
form to be easily trained in pyramidal shape, which concurrent
testimony establishes to be the best, than to accept as a free gift
a tree of stunted growth and straggling form. When trees on
the quince stock are sought for, it is proper to be assured that
they were worked on the Angers, as those on the Orange or
common quince stock are nearly worthless.

The ground having been liberally manured and thoroughly
worked to the depth of eighteen inches or more the year pre-
vious, trees may be set in rows twelve feet apart and six feet
apart in the rows, — those on pear stock the same depth that
they previously stood ; those on quince stock three or four inches,
not more, before the union.

The space between the rows may be used for root crops ; grain
would be injurious. The ground should be kept free of weeds,
and should annually receive a bountiful dressing of manure.

The depreciating tone in which dwarf trees are often spoken
of, probably has its origin in the negligent manner in which
they have been planted and cared for.

It has been said, and perhaps wisely, and from a conviction
deeply impressed by sad experience, that he who goes to a nurs-
ery with the intention of buying pear-trees to bo set out in the
same manner, and to receive no more attention than apple-trees
commonly do, had better pay the nurseryman his price and
leave the trees with him.

The pear, whether on quince or seedling stock, is highly ap-

FRUITS. 141

preciativc of generous treatment, and will not often fail to repay
such treatment with a bountiful supply of fruit, provided that
appropriate care is paid to training into due form, and that over-
bearing be effectually guarded against.

In regard to the best time for gathering, it appears to be gener-
ally conceded that summer pears should be taken from the tree
as soon as they are judged to be sufficiently matured for the
purpose, and ripened in the house in darkness and even tem-
perature ; and that winter pears should remain on the tree as
long as they be exempt from injury by frost.

Every person who owns, or who rents for a few years a limit-
ed quantity of land, may soon realize an ample supply of excel-
lent pears for his family, for nearly nine months of each year,
by making a judicious selection of good dwarf trees, setting
them in properly prepared soil, and giving them appropriate
cultivation. It is a tree little injured by removal, and tenants
when removing may take their trees with them, and reset and
care for them in their new location.

This region is not the Eden of the pear-tree, like Holland and
Belgium, or like California, where neither tree nor fruit is
troubled by any bug, fire-blight, sun or rain ; for here both tree
and fruit are subject to injuries enough by blights and insects
to require the careful attention of the intelligent culturist that
the best success may be attained.

"Would it not tend to promote the interests of pear culture for
the Society to offer premiums for the best selection and most
successful cultivation of trees, not less than twenty in number
on the quince, and also on the pear stock ?

Is it not important that competitors for premiums on pears
should be required to make statements of their mode of culti-
vation, preparation of soil, selection of trees, and the varieties
that succeed best with them, whether on the quince or on stand-
ard trees, etc. ?

James S. Lewis, Chairman.

142 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

THE CANKER WORM.

ESSEX.

From the Report of the Committee.

The Committee on the Destruction of the Canker Worm
respectfully report, that there has been but one entry for the
Society's premium of $100 offered for a new, cheap and ef-
fectual protection against the ravages of that destroyer of the
orchardist's hopes. It is presumed that the Society expects a
better, cheaper and more effectual method of protection than
is now known, in order to entile the claimant to the award.

That now offered by Mr. A. P. Noyes, of Middleton, is an
arrangement of prepared hair cloth, invented by Mr. Charles
P. Johnson.

Mr. Noyes applied this invention to some trees of one of the
Committee, at an average cost of fifty cents per tree, in order
to test its value as a protection against the grub of the canker
worm. By putting a strip of tarred paper, with printers' ink
upon it, above the hair cloth, it has been found that they passed
through or over it and were caught by the ink, thereby proving
the wortlilessness of that invention.

Tiie canker worm, that has been so destructive to the apple
orchards of New England, has been closely observed, and its
habits have been studied by your Committee and others, in
order to protect themselves from its ravages. It has been no-
ticed, that the grub commences breaking forth from its chrysalis
form, after the first freeze, usually about the first of November.
The females, which are wingless, proceed directly from the
ground to the trunk of the tree, and commence their ascent.
They continue coming from the ground, as the frost will per-
mit, until April ; generally in greater numbers in tiie spring
than in the autumn. The males, which have wings, are more
tardy in making their appearance ; and the proportion of males
(never so numerous as the females) is much greater in the
spring. The female, having broken ground, ascends tlie tree
more or less ra})idly, according as the weather is mild ; being
benumbed and motionless in cold nights and days, but ready for
a fresh start upward in a warm day. The males are more ac-

THE CANKER WORM. 143

tive ill the darkest night even, than in the sunniest and warmest
days, to fkittcr about the trunks and branches of the trees in
search of the females, that are ready for pairing, having accom-
plished which, they pass on in search of others. The female
very soon after impregnation deposits her eggs upon the branches
of the tree in clusters of from twenty to a hundred or more,
and then having obeyed the universal law of nature (equally
applicable to animal and vegetable life) of providing for its re-
production, immediately dies. The eggs hatch just as the buds
open and the tender leaves put forth ; and the minute worms^
scarcely visible, proceed at once to feed upon them, making but
little show until about the first of June, when, having attained
half their growth, they become very voracious from the loth
to the 21st of June. Having attained their full size and
stripped our apple and elm trees of every green leaf, they de-
scend either by their webs or the trunks of the trees, and bury
themselves in the ground from two to four inches deep, where
they become transformed into chrysalids, there to remain until
the coming frosts of November shall break their prison doors,
when they appear in a new form as described above.

The object of the society in offering the liberal premium of
one hundred dollars was doubtless to develop the most effectual,
the most economical and simple protector to our orchards.
From time to time many cumbersome and costly appliances
(some patented and others not) have been offered to the public
as certain remedies ; and large sums of money have been ex-
pended in their purchase, ending only in the disappointment
and disgust of their purchasers. It is believed by your Com-
mittee that no plan of protection that has been devised is so
good as that practised more than half a century ago, of tarring
the trees ; the great difficulty attending which was the necessity
of applying it so often.

A great improvement has been found in substituting printers'
ink, which does not dry so readily. Tlie best method of apply-
ing the ink is to take a strip of tarred paper, six or eight inches
wide (a year old is best), and tack it around the body of the
tree, after scraping off the roughest of the loose bark, and filling
up any irregularities of the tree with cotton batting or tow.
The paper should be put within one or two feet of the ground,
to prevent cattle from rubbing off the ink and smearing them-

144 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

selves (as they will if they have the opportunity), and also to
keep the female grubs as low down as possible ; for they will
often, when finding the obstruction of tlie ink, back down and
after a time deposit their eggs below, even without impregna-
tion. Instinct teaches the males to seek their mates higher up
the tree in order to have the eggs deposited near where the
young will find their food. The best quality of ink should be
used, as it remains sticky longer than the cheaper preparations
offered for that purpose, some of which are worthless.

The ink should be applied with a brush, near the top of the
paper, so that it may not run down upon the bark of the tree,
which causes injury to it by attracting an unnatural amount of
heat from the sun. In some instances where the ink has been
used without any paper, the tree has been killed. The paper
should be removed from the tree after the season is over, as it
makes a harbor for various other kinds of insects during the
summer months.

It is contended by many that the eggs deposited in the au-
tumn never hatch, and therefore it is useless to apply the ink
until spring ; but it is known that many, if not all such do
hatcli, and therefore, in order to have it effectual, it is necessary
to commence in the fall and apply the ink as often as it dries
upon the surface, varying according to the weather from three
to ten days. It should also be applied just as the eggs hatch,
for the purpose of catching any worms that may have hatched
below tbc paper, althougli it is doubtful if the young worms
would live so long without food as it would take them to ascend
as far as the branches.

It has been found that if from any neglect of using the ink
there are worms upon the trees about the first of June, by a
sudden jar of the branches they will spin down, and immedi-
ately start for the trunk to ascend. A fresh application of the
ink will then catch them.

Where an accurate account has been kept of the material
used and labor performed, it has been found that the cost of
protecting an orchard by this method is not over ten cents per
tree, which is so small an espense that no one can make it an
excuse for allowing his orchard to be destroyed, or even a single
crop of a[)ples.

Fall ploughing has been practised as a protection against the

CRANBERRY MEADOWS. 145

canker worm by some of the Committee for several years with
j)erfect success, discovered accidentally by noticing that a part
of an orchard, wliich was ploughed in the fall, entirely escaped
the effects of the worm, while the portion of it not ploughed
was eaten bare. All will admit the importance of ploughing
and carefully cultivating an orchard, and if by doing it in the
autumn the orchard will be protected from the canker worm,
double incentive is offered for this system of cultivation.

The Committee feel warranted from their own experience and
observation in recommending, as an effectual, clieap and simple
protection against the canker worm, fall ploughing where prac-
ticable, and the use of tarred paper and printers' ink where
ploughing is not admissible.

Benj. p. Ware, Chairman.

CRANBERRY MEADOWS.

MARSHFIELD.

From the Report of the CommUtee.
♦

It has been customary with the writer of this report to re-
deem a small part of his bog swamp yearly ; and by this means
he has brought into good cultivation about six acres of the
swamp, which have well remunerated him for his labor. The
sight of each year's progress has stimulated him, from year to
year, to bring into cultivation about one-fourth of an acre each
year.

It lias taken him about twenty-four years to bring the six acres
into a bearing state, and take care of the remainder of his farm.
Persons who have plenty of money at their command could
make the same improvement in one year ; and it might be
advisable to do so.

Farmers with small means can make great improvements by
persevering industry, and not run much risk.

Let us mention the locations, and point out the situations
which are most favorable to the full development of the berry.
In selecting a place for a patch, it is well to consider its aspect.
Though we have seen the vine doing well, and to all appear-

19*

146 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

aiices very thrifty, when the yard lias faced tlie north, yet ex-
perience is in favor of a southerly direction.

If possible, in forming a patch, let it be sheltered from the
cold, raw winds ; give it the advantage of the warm breezes ;
by doing this you will be more likely to succeed than if you
neglected it.

A swamp may be chosen. If you find the vine growing
around the edges of a l)og, you may safely conclude that the
plant can there be advantageously cultivated. In the prepara-
tion of these locations, there is often much labor and some ex-
pense ; but this depends upon the surface, and what there is to
V)e done in removing the turf and " filling in."

If you make a cranberry patch in a swamp, and it is liable to
have water standing in pools over the vines in the summer sea-
son, this will operate as a hindrance to the ripening of the berry.
This precaution must be observed in making choice of such a
situation, that the water can \)G drawn oil when it is necessary.

Meadow land which is low and moist affords an excellent
location for the cranberry. In fact, these damp situations are
very suitable, provided the dampness or moisture is not too
cold and icy. If the moisture beneath the surface in which the
vine is planted is of too cold a temperature, it will prove fatal
to the young vines. Care fnust be had, in selecting for a yard,
to ascertain if the water is too cold ; if it is not, it may be con-
verted into a useful and profitable cranberry patch. There
vmsl be water in the land in which they are planted ; as a
general rule, it is best to have it within eight inches of the sur-
face. The object of this is to give moisture. The grower must
have it, or his plants will fail.

A gradual slope is often to be met with, coming down to the
edge of a pond. When such inclines are properly prepared and
planted, they make the best of yards ; and such locations gen-
erally have a soil in which the vine will do excellently, and
there is not so much trouble with them, as the gravel chokes
the weeds.

Sandy patches of land or plats, that are near the seashore,
which are not liable to be overflowed with salt water, stand
high.

in planting vines, dead levels by the side of ponds should be
guarded against. The land should conform to the laud behind

INDIAN CORN. 147

it, sloping from the hill to the edge of the pond. The reason
for this is, that if it is not done, water from the hills will cause
the land to be springy and spongy, and that it will make stag-
nant water, which generates a green, slimy moss, which is an
enemy to the cranberry vine.

Dead sand, water and air are the elements upon which the
cranberry feeds best, and attains its highest degree of perfec-
tion ; therefore, that soil and location which has these advan-
tages is best adapted for the growth of the berry.

Peat is found to be excellent, in fact next in value and im-
portance to beach sand, for the growth of the cranberry ; but it
wants management and care in its preparation, in order to be
made useful to the vine. In selecting a peat swamp to be con-
verted into a cranberry patch, it is necessary to take off the top
turf or grass, and if possible give the yard a little incline.
When this is done, it is unsafe to plant at once ; if you do so,
you will find that the peat will cake and crack. It will be hard
on the surface, and a few inches below stiff and dry. The most
inexperienced in cranberry cultivation knows that such a con-
dition is bad for the vine.

To obviate the difficulty, prepare the surface as is stated
above, and leave the yard exposed to the frost and weather for
one year. When the frost is thawed out of it, it will crumble
and be powdery. It will never cake afterwards. It will be
light and porous, and you may then with safety plant your
vines, and with moderate attention they will do well.

Israel H. Sheeman, Chairman.

INDIAN CORN.

ESSEX.

Statement of J. C. and R. Jaques.
The crop of Indian corn which we have entered for premium
grew upon one acre of land. The soil is a liglit loam and was
ploughed for this crop the first time for seven years. It was
ploughed in the fall, and again in the spring, about eight inches
in depth. Nine cords of manure were used, five of which were

148 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

ploughed in and four harrowed in ; the land was marked ofif in
rows, three and one-half feet each way, and planted on the tenth
day of May ; cultivated with a common cultivator each way
twice and hoed twice. The top stalks were cut August 27,
and on September 27 we commenced to cut up and harvest,
finishing the 1st of Oct. The amount of corn raised was one
hundred bushels, eighty pounds to the bushel and eight pounds
over ; top stalks, two tons ; butt stalks, five tons.

It should be remarked that upon eight rows, one hundred
hills in length, fifty pounds of Bradley's Superphosphate were
used in the hill ; the same number of rows and hills were left
without any special manure, and ashes were used upon six
rows, one hundred hills in length. The crop upon the eight
rows where the superphosphate was used yielded one hundred
and eighty pounds more than the eight rows where no special
manure was used. Upon the six rows where wood ashes was
used, the yield was one hundred pounds more than upon the
same number of hills where no extra manure was used. One
half pint of ashes was used in the hill. The land upon which
this experiment was made was selected with special care,
that it should be as nearly alike in character and situation as
possible.

The corn was quite dry, so that it shelled from the cob in
harvesting and husking. One bushel of eighty pounds was
shelled and ground the 17th of October ; the shelled corn
weighed sixty-four pounds ; and the miller who ground it — a
man of mature judgment — was of the opinion that it would not
shrink more than two pounds, so that the value of the crop is
actually more than given in the account.

ExPExsE or Crop.
Cost of ploughing, ......

Yaluc of manure on the ground.

Cost of seed and planting, ....

Cost of cultivation, ......

Cost of harvesting and storing, ....

Cost of superphosphate and ashes,

$115 16

. 19 00

. 80

00

3

50

8

00

12

00

2

66

INDIAN CORN.

149

Value of Ckoj'.

One liundred bushels of corn, .

. $110 00

Two tons top stalks,

. 30 00

Five tons butt stalks, ....

. 30 00

Manure in land for future crops,

. 41 33

$211 33

Deduct expense.

. 115 IG

Net income, |96 17

From actual measurement I hereby certify that the above
crop covered one acre of land and no more.

Michael W. Bartlett, Surveyor.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

Statement of S. B. Bird.

The field of corn which I enter for premium contains two
acres ; the soil is a deep sandy loam on a gravelly subsoil. The
field has been mowed seven years, and last year produced less
than one ton per acre.

The piece was ploughed between the 18th and 25th of May,
seven inches deep.

Tlie manure from the barn cellar, composed of the droppings
of the cattle mixed with peat mud and loam, carted to the cel-
lar last autumn, was immediately carted on to the piece and
thoroughly harrowed in with a Bucklin harrow ; the field was
marked three feet six inches apart each way, and the corn
planted the 27th of May.

Cultivated and hoed three times, and kept entirely clear of
weeds.

Commenced cutting stalks the 18th of August, and continued
cutting for nearly a month, as I fed them to my cows directly
from the field. Commenced harvesting October 5th.

Expenses.

Ploughing, . $12 00

Carting manure, 15 00

Spreading manure, 4 00

Harrowing, 6 00

150

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Bushing and striking out, .

Planting and putting up lines,

Half bushel seed corn.

First cultivating and hoeing,

Second cultivating, .

Third cultivating and hoeing,

Cutting stalks, .

Harvesting and husking, .

Twenty-one cords manure, at $0, one-half this year.

Interest and taxes, ......

u

00

4

00

75

8

75

1

75

7

50

4

00

20

00

63

00

14

20

$164 95

The yield was 238 baskets of ears, weighing 40| pounds each,
making 135 bushels of 72 pounds each (72 pounds ears making
60 pounds shelled corn).

One hundred and thirty-five bushels corn, at 11.25,
Four hundred bundles stalks, at three cents,
Husks,

Income,

1168

rr r

12

00

30

00

$210 75

Expenses,

164 95

Profit,

$45 80

By the above account I find my corn has cost me, in the gran-
ary, 91 cents per bushel of 72 pounds, and if it is worth one
dollar and twenty-five cents, as I believe it is, it certainly leaves
a good margin for profit. There may be more profitable crops,
but I think there arc none which more readily bring the golden
coin than the rich yellow golden corn.

S. B. Bird.

VEGETABLES. 151

VEGETABLES.

ESSEX.

From the Report of the Committee.

Your Committee are pleased to be able to report that the
display in the vegetable department this season was in some
respects an improvement on that of last year. The new re-
quirements were responded to in several products, and we
trust that as they become more and more known they will
recommend themselves to the intelligence of the farmers of
Essex, and the result will be to gather to our annual fairs
higher standards of excellence in vegetables. This change
cannot be brought about immediately, but where such good
farmers as Alley of Marblehead, and Merrill of Danvers, lead,
others in time will be sure to follow.

I would recommend that hereafter the premiums for Hubbard
squashes be limited to those weighing from eight to twelve
pounds. Our exhibition of this season gave us some fine speci-
mens, with the exception that the size of many of them was
too great. We all know how destructive to both quality and
purity is the tendency to select the largest specimens in the
squash family for stock seed. With the Hubbard it will result
in the loss of the shell, a coarseness of fibre, and will ultimately
destroy those characteristics which give it the greatest value for
table use. We have lost the ancient excellences of the Mar-
row, in all probability, by this unhealthy course of sacrificing
everything most desirable to mere size ; let us fight a good
fight for the Hubbard in its best estate.

In my report of last year I presented some of the best kinds
of several varieties of vegetables. To " know beans " is pro-
verbially a measure of wisdom ; yet the knowledge of the ag-
ricultural public of this vegetable, which demands its place in
every garden, is not always exhaustive.

In addition to the old classification into bush and pole, we
have tlie intermediate varieties. These are more productive
than the common bush, require about three feet between the
rows, where they will develop well at two and a half feet apart,
and yet are not of so running a habit as to need poles. Tl.e

162 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Intermediate Horticultural is one of the best of the intermedi-
ates for family use. Grown on poor soil they almost lose their
half-running habit, but when grown side by side on rich land
with the common bush, their distinctive peculiarities are always
developed.

The great improvement in beans for use in a green state as
" snap " beans has been made by the introduction of the wax
varieties. A wax bean may be defined as a variety in which
the inner membrane is absent. It is this inner membrane that
makes the pod stringy and so worthless to the housewife as a
snap bean as it advances towards maturity, and when mature
it is this same membrane that gives the dry pod a definite shape.
Of the pole varieties of the wax bean, the Indian Chief, some-
times erroneously called Butter Bean, is the oldest and best
known — the beau is black ; the Giant wax has a longer and
broader pod and the bean is of a bright red color ; the Black
Algerian has the longest and broadest pod of all, which is of a
somewhat purple color ; the bean is black. The pods of both
the Indian Chief and Giant wax are of the usual green color
when they first develope, but turn of a very light waxy color
and become translucent as they grow older, these and the Black
Algerian remaining good snap beans until the pods begin to dry.
There are three varieties of dwarf wax beans, only one of which
is as yet to any extent known ; this is the Black Dwarf. The
bean of a new sort that has recently been brought to my notice,
resembles very much the Early China in color, and has the good
characteristic of being thus far very pure. The Black Dwarf
is much mixed up with the common bean, and I find that all
of the wax family require to be cultivated with exceeding care,
with special reference to isolation, to keep them pure. There is
a white dwarf wax that promises to be quite an acquisition, the
pods being equally tender with the pole varieties, the other bush
sorts being somewhat inferior in this respect.

Of the common bush beans I have found none equal either
in earliness or hardiness to the Fcgee, which I would recom-
mend as a string bean, the pods not filling out as well as most
kinds. For a bean that combines earliness with good qualities,
both as a snap and shell bean, I know none superior to the Dun
Cranberry. The Early Valentine is a very round podded, pulpy

VEGETABLES. 153

bean, excellent as a string bean, but better known in tlie Middle
States than in the Nortli.

The past season has been remarkably favorable for the ma-
turing of the large Lima, ■which with its fellow, the small Lima
or Sieva, and known in some sections as Frost bean, is the bean
for cooking ; shelled in a green state. Li ordinary seasons the
Sieva can be successfully raised in warm locations as far north
as latitude 43 or 44.

These and all beans that are somewhat tender in their habits
take better to strings than to poles, and where poles are used
let them be of as small diameter as can be consistent with the
necessary strength. Of the early pole varieties, among the most
desirable we have the London Horticultural, the Concord, one
or two varieties of the pole Cranberry, and the Mottled Cran-
berry, which surpasses the common sorts in productiveness.

The climate of England does not supply the intense heat
necessary for the development of our beans, hence they are
hardly known to English housewives. The beans of England
differ remarkably from ours, are very much alike, differing
mostly in size of the bean and the color of blossom. They
make a tall, stiff, straight stalk, with few or no laterals. While
our beans are very sensitive to cold and crave the warmest
locations, those of our English cousins will stand slight frosts
with impunity and thrive in the coldest locations. For this
reason they rarely do well in this country, and if they are
planted it should be as soon as the frost is out of the ground,
and in a cool location. In England the bean is raised by the
acre to feed to stock, whence comes the name " Horse bean "
for one of the varieties, and when fully grown, with their thick
skin and rank flavor, they are no delicacy ; but I have eaten
them gathered when young, before the large eye is at all prom-
inent, when they were as delicate and rich as the finest Lima.

Our English cousins know nothing of that delicious delicacy
which is found on every table when corn is in the milk. One
of their number who chanced to be travelling in this country
during the season of green corn^ returned to his countrymen
in raptures over the new found dish, and, planning a surprise
for his epicurean friends, he ordered sundry dozen of green
ears from America by steamer. On their arrival they were set
before his friends at a great banquet as the dish of the occasion.

20*

154 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

His extravagant praise had raised a fever of expectation, and
how it was satisfied in corn in the milk that had been picked a
fortnight before it was cooked, and meanwhile enjoyed an ocean
voyage, any Yankee can guess. It is said that as wry faces
went the rounds of the table with the first bite, the host de-
clared on his honor that green corn cooked in America tasted
vastly diderent from what it was when cooked in England.
Some of our city friends know of green corn as a luxury only
as a reminiscence of their childhood.

Of the early varieties of sweet corn the Extra Early Dwarf
is as early as any known to me. The ears are small, which is
true of most of the earliest vegetables of their kind. The
stalks are also small, so that the drills can be planted from two
to two and a half feet apart. The Earl Narragansett is within
a few days as early, and has the merit of making larger ears,
while the kernels are remarkably large. The Forty Days corn
is a wliite flint variety, but earlier than any of the sweet sorts,
while it is tender and sweet the few days it remains in the milk.
Its extreme earliness gives it value as a field corn in northern
latitudes. The small early varieties of field corn are not suffi-
ciently appreciated. If their habits of growth are fully studied,
so that the proper distance apart and between the drills is
learned, it will be found that most of them will give as great a
crop by the acre as the most prolific large sorts, while the great
merit of earliness is all on their side. I have known one of
these small varieties yield one hundred bushels of shelled corn
to the acre ; yet if planted at the same distance as the ordinary
sorts, probabiy the yield would have been little over half that
quantity. In a country having so great a variety of soil and
climate as ours, the early small sorts of field corn are not fully
appreciated. In seasons when the cold, wet springs bring
planting into June, they are safe, and in seasons or sections
where frosts close vegetable growth by the middle of September,
they are safe from harm.

The drill system is the system for high cultivation and large
crops, not only with corn, but with potatoes. By no other
mode of cultivation can each stalk have its equal proportion of
the soil. There are two difficulties in the way of carrying out
the drill system; I am unable to find in any of the agricultu-
ral stores of Boston any machine that will drop corn in the

VEGETABLES. 155

drill ; the small seed drills worked by hand are of no value ex-
cept on ground exceptionally light and well pulverized. On
ground to any degree heavy too much strength is required to
get the requisite depth, and Avhen this is attained, the earth, be-
ing somewhat coarse, is pushed forward by the covering appara-
tus. Another practical difficulty is that of having the stalks
thinned out to the nght distance. In one sense this could
easily be done, but I find that in actual practice it is apt to be
delayed so late that injury is done to the crop, and at times
overlooked altogether.

Some years ago I cultivated a variety of corn procured from
the Sioux Indians, that surpassed all other kinds in earliness.
It was of the starch class ; the ears were very small and thick ;
it must have been grown in a high northern latitude, probably
at the extreme limit of the corn crop. When our most north- .
ern sections are tilled, this variety will have a commercial value.
Of the varieties of sweet corn following the extreme early sorts,
Crosby's Early, originated by that sterling market gardener,
Josiah Crosby, of Arlington, gives good satisfaction. It is from
ten to fourteen rowed, the ears of good size and filled out on
the end with remarkable uniformity ; in quality it is sweet and
tender. Crosby's corn has largely replaced that old standard
eight-rowed sort, Darling's Early, which always had the demerit
of not being reliable for filling out on the end. Of the later
varieties, Stowell's Evergreen is the most extensively cultivated ;
this has some excellent characteristics ; the ears are of a very
large size, very well filled out, and the kernels are of the horsC'
tooth shape, giving them great length ; in quality it is very
sweet, while it remains a long while in the milk. The color of
this variety, when gathered just past the milk, and dried for
seed purposes, is of a remarkably rich tint. The Marblehead
Mammoth Sweet is an improvement in size on Burr's Sweet,
being in this respect at the head of the sweet corn group. It
i^ late in maturing and of excellent quality. I have had single
ears green in the husk that weighed three pounds. As this
variety grows very stout, and succeeds remarkably, it is of great
value for green fodder. Olcott's and Trimble's sweet corn
with me are rather poor croppers, and the ears are of small
size ; the quality of seed of these is very good, but I cannot
rank them with, Mexican Sweet, which I have raised for a dozen

156 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

years or more, and prefer to all others in sweetness and tender-
ness. The Mexican is medium early, ears of medium size,
growing quite near the ground, usually two on a stalk. The
color is dark purple when dried, but nearly white when in the
milk.

Our Southern friends, and many in the West, prefer the field
varieties when in the milk to our sweet corn, and I have reason
to believe that their field corn when in the milk is somewhat
sweeter than ours in the same condition. There are several
varieties of what are called Joint-corn being introduced, kinds
made by crossing standard sorts on the Egyptian, in which
several cars grow on each stalk. As far as I have tried and
examined them they hold out some promise, but the ears are of
rather a smaller size than the same kinds growing naturally.

James J. H. Gregory, Chairman.

ESSEX.

Statement of William R. Putnam.

Cabbages. — The land had been pastured for several years pre-
vious to 1869 ; it was ploughed in June, of 1869, and part
planted with corn, for fodder, and part sown with ruta-baga
turnips; manured with a compost of muck and bones.

In May, 1870, the land was ploughed and harrowed ; the 7th
of June, part of the piece was marked out in rows, three and
a half feet apart ; manured with a compost of barn-cellar manure
mixed with muck — one and a half cords of clear manure mixed
with two and a half cords of muck. The four cords were put
on the upper half acre ; this was put in the drills and covered
with the plough ; the ridges were levelled and the seed dropped
about two and a half feet apart ; the upper nine rows were
planted with the Savoys, using the American improved seed,
from J. J. H. Gregory ; seven rows with the Mason Drumhead.

I notice that the rules of the society require the " value of
the manure upon the ground." I estimate my clear manure at
$15 per cord. My barn-collar bottom is tight, so that all the
urine is in the manure. The muck I estimate at f 1 per cord,
after it is dried, making .... 122.50

Muck, 10 00

132 50

VEGETABLES.

157

Plongliing and harrowing,
Carting on the manure,
Seed, 2 ounces, 75 cents each, .
Planting, .....
Cultivating and hoeing three times.

There were one thousand six hundred cabbages upon
the half acre, fifteen hundred marketable ones, the
Savoys averaging six lbs. per head, and the others
nine lbs. each. They have been sold at the average
price of 13 cents each,

•12 00

3 00
1 50

4 00
8 00

^51 00

195 00

Profit,

$144 00

I estimate the leaves worth, for feeding milch cows, enough
to pay for harvesting and marketing.

It was remarked by one of the Committee, when viewing
the cabbage, that if I had planted nearer, I should probably
have got a larger crop. My aim is to get the largest return for
my manure and labor, and prepare the land for a hay crop ;
and I think when my crops are planted a greater distance apart
and well cultivated, that they are not so much injured by the
dry weather. If I was nearer the cities, where land is more
valuable, it might be an object to try and get the largest return
per acre,

MIDDLESEX.

From the Report of the Committee.

We observed that the best and purest specimens were those
exhibited by men who grow them for the market. Being in
that business ourselves, we know that it is not manure or culti-
vation alone that makes good vegetables ; although without
them there could not be any great success, neither with them
can there be much success without good and pure seed of the
right kind.

Now pure seed is not by any means an easy thing to purchase.
Perhaps almost the only way to get it is to do as these men who
exhibit these fine vegetables do — grow them yourselves. To do
that, the roots or plants must be selected for seed with the

158 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

utmost care, and should be perfect in form, color, quality and
time of maturing ; and when planted out for seed, they should
be at a sufficient distance from any other variety of the same
species as would prevent mixture or crossing. If there is any
particular quality you desire to perpetuate or imj^rove, then
you must select with direct reference to that point ; for instance,
if you have a variety of pease which you desire to increase in
size, you will select the largest pods ; if to make them earlier,
then select the first that ripens ; plant them ; select the earliest
again ; this you may have to do quite a number of times to
reach your standard of perfection, which should be high.

Tliis careful selection is necessary in growing all kinds of
seeds, and the grower of seed should remember that all sorts of
garden vegetables have, by a long course of cultivation and
reproduction from the seed, been changed, and the condition of
most of our vegetables is to a large extent artificial ; and being
in this condition, their tendency is to return to the wild state ;
and therefore to counteract that tendency will require care and
selection on our part. We have sometimes thought that some
of the seeds desired by farmers might be grown at the Agricul-
tural College farm, and made a source of revenue to them, and
a benefit to the farming community. We think that it could
be done quite profitably if the proper skill and knowledge could
be brought into requisition ; and we will conclude by saying,
that those who desire a full success cannot be too careful in
procuring or growing their seeds.

George Hill, Chairman.

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

From the Report of the Committee.

Beets, — Select a sandy loam, not too light, as nearly level as
possible ; spread, as soon as the ground is fit to plough, finely
worked stable manure at the rate of ten cords per acre ; plough
this in as deeply as may be without disturbing the subsoil, and
let the land lie a day to dry ; spread on the furrows about five
cords per acre of night soil and muck compost, and plough
crosswise. This second ploughing pays admirably ; the most
thorough disintegration of the soil is most important. In lay-
ing out manure for seed beds, my practice is to spread directly

VEGETABLES. 159

from the wagon ; an even distribution of manure gives a more
uniform heat throughout the soil, consequently a more uniform
crop. Go over the land thoroughly with the cultivator tooth
harrow, then brush, and if necessary, hand rake.

Your bed is now ready for seed, in the selection of which
there should be no guess work. Stick lightly in the ground
three or four stakes (laths are good), in exact line for your
first row ; if you have a machine that will sow beet seed well
(I never saw one), place the wheel at the first stake, gauge
eighteen inches for distance between rows, and go ahead, keep-
ing the laths in line ; if you are a temperance man yoiir row
will be straight. I think the roller hastens vegetation, especially
in loose soils ; many seeds lie loosely in the ground immediately
after sowing, and some time is required for the earth to settle
sufficiently close about them for germination ; the roller does
this immediately (at once). Use the hoe as soon as the plants
show themselves, weeds or no weeds, and thin out early rather
than wait to market greens — the difference in labor and rapidity
of growth will pay far better. In harvesting, pack in barrels or
bin with dry sand ; this is no notion ; in no other way that I
know of can you take out your vegetables in April and May,
with their flavor and consistency perfectly preserved.

The above is with reference to an early market ; for winter
use sow seed about May 20th.

Potatoes. — So much has been said and written upon potato
culture lately, that I am happy to be able to say, little can be
added ; speculation for once has taken the right direction.
Three years ago, when Goodrich's seedling was the ne plus
ultra, I made fifteen hills of a single potato, and raised some-
where about a bushel. The following year, I spread eight cords
of stable manure upon one and one-half acres of pasture land,
ploughed, furrowed, added one-half shovelful to the hill, with a
handful of plaster, and planted single eyes of this variety as
carefully as I could cut them ; from fifty-five square rods the
receipts were one hundred and nineteen dollars (!$119).

Tliis current year I tried the Early Rose similarly, with this
additional experiment : I cut off and planted one row of the
seed end ; it was behind throughout the season and at harvest-
ing. To sum up, therefore, spread two-thirds of your manure

160 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

on sod land, plough and add the balance with plaster to the hill,
plant single eyes, discarding seed end if you please, and after
digging, l)in up in dry sand. Last year I put up two hundred
bushels in this manner, and they came out as hard and sound
as when first stored. Li case of occasional decay, the sand,
absorbing the moisture, encrusts the potato and prevents
spreading.

Squashes. — My mode of cultivation is to select a piece of
deep soil about the third year from grass ; plough in about four
cords per acre of stable manure, harrow thoroughly, run fur-
rows six feet apart, and put two shovelfuls of stable manure,
night soil and muck compost in the hill ; printed directions
from most seedsmen give eight or ten feet space between the
hills ; I prefer to concentrate a little, and thin out to a single
plant. Squashes will pay for almost any amount of manure,
and single plants six feet apart each way actually require the
amount stated.

I make it a point to lime as soon as the plants are up ; the
striped and black bugs dispute possession, and unless you are
ahead they will be ; to dose the former, put a handle into the
nose of an old-style tin coffee-pot, perforate the bottom with fine
holes, and fill with aii'-slacked lime ; two quarts will dust one-
fourth of an acre, and fast as you can walk ; use this often
while the dew is on, and after rains ; the black bug will crawl
under shingles at night and can be disposed of in the morning.

Another pest has taken hold of squashes and other vines with-
in a few years, making it rather hazardous to thin, very early,
to single plants ; the vine suddenly withers and dies even after
having run several yards ; I have held many an inquest over
those doomed vines, but the verdict has always been " Cause
unknown " ; no sign of disease can be detected in root or
branch, nor can farmers, that I have ever heard, advance with
confidence any theory regarding it.

In harvesting squashes do not wait until the day preceding
frost ; gather earlier, before they are over-chilled, and house, if
possible, without placing one upon another.

Cabbages. — Fifteen or twenty years ago it was comparatively
fun to raise cabbages ; to-day the little destructives whose name

VEGETABLES. 161

is legion, have made a successful crop, other things being equal,
almost accidental. First comes the little flea, which commences
on the just developed leaves and often finishes them ; next the
maggot, which loves the roots. After transplanting, the cut-
worm presents his claim, generally no modest one ; he makes
clean work, cutting the plant completely off, either at or just
below the surface. If you have successfully avoided this little
army of marauders your crop is still open to the attacks of lice
and the club-foot.

In raising plants for resetting, I select an elevated, compara-
tively new, and but moderately rich piece of ground ; elevated
because the flea is less destructive than on low grounds ; nearly
new, to avoid stump foot and maggot, and not over rich that
the plants may be toughened by a slow growth ; upon resetting
into a richer soil they will commence a rapid, vigorous develop-
ment.

As soon as the twin-leaves show themselves they should be
dusted with lime every morning and after rains. To secure
plants from a few choice seeds, make a square frame with sides
six inches high, and cover with mosquito cloth. I prefer trans-
planting rather than sowing seed in the hill, because then, if
you lose your plants, it is generally too late to sow again, and
you are obliged to use whatever plants may happen to come to
hand.

It is the habit with many farmers to set plants on a fresh
upturned sod ; it seems to me the better way to plant potatoes
first, then follow with cabbages ; the cut-worm is less trouble-
some, and the land is in better condition.

With regard to manure, I have always used night soil and
muck compost with salt, exclusively, not attempting even a
small percentage of stable fertilizers for fear of club-foot ; the
same cause forbids a successive crop. I cannot on my grounds
raise cabbages on the same ground oftencr than once in four
years. A. G. Swan.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

Prize Report on Vegetables.
If, with the drawback of a long continued drought, such a
variety and excellent quality of vegetables can be raised, with,
as it would appear, only ordinary cultivation, why is there so

21*

162 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

much complaint among our farmers and mechanics who own
gardens, of small yields and poor quality of roots and plants
for table use ? Probably a majority of tlie families in any of
our towns raise vegetables enough, of really excellent quality,
to give the housewife the means of getting up a really attractive
and savory "boiled dinner," once a week, through the season.
Perhaps in midsummer she manages to have a mess or two of
pease and beans, and in early autumn a few beets and cabbages,
and in winter some turnips. But the beets are stringy and
small, and the cabbages are only leaves, and the turnips are
hybrid, neither Swedes nor English. After using her best skill,
she is mortified to find that no one really relishes the dinner.
And yet everybody loves good vegetables, well cooked and
served.

Very likely the failure lies in part in the careless manner of
making the garden. Perhaps abundance of manure is used,
not in a state suited to the wants of the tender embryos. Per-
haps the land is ploughed so shallow that the surface becomes
quickly dried to a powder. Perhaps it is planted at odd jobs,
and in a hurry, and then left to the tender mercies of the old
hen and her hungry brood. And what with a ready growth of
weeds, and neglect of early stirring the soil and proper thinning,
the result is inevitable.

A deeply stirred and thoroughly pulverized soil is a prime
requisite to a successful garden. All the smaller seeds require
such a fineness of mould, that, while it freely admits warmth
and moisture, at the same time completely covers them, and
secures against too ready evaporation Seeds planted in a
lumpy bed, exposed to be drenched by a shower and parched by
the succeeding hot sun, will not, of course, put forth strong,
thrifty shoots. If, after a severe struggle, they live, it is to be
dwarfii-h and sickly. And the hard-coated seeds, like the beet,
and the oily-coated seeds, like the parsnip, need to be covered
so deeply as to retain a maximum of moisture — such as would
drown the lettuce.

And all seeds, to germinate well, want seasonable planting.
Odd jobs and convenience may not suit them. The direction
printed on most packages by the seedsmen, " plant early and
throughout the season," hits the caprice of now and then a
plant, and the views of all slack farmers, but not the nature of

VEGETABLES. 168

most vegetables. As a rule, each seed has its appropriate time
for putting forth — a time when it will germinate and send out
healtliy roots and leaves — and which cannot be greatly varied
without interfering with its normal growth. This is not a fixed
day of the month, but a fixed condition of the ground, and at-
mospheric temperature. When the soil has become mellow,
and the air of the proper warmth, then it is seasonable to plant.
And neither before, nor much after this time, except in the case
of such seeds as mature two crops in the year.

And this naturally leads to the statement of the universal
practical rule in vegetable culture, viz. : time the planting, and
prepare the soil so as to secure in all cases quick germination
and rapid growth. The whole success of the kitchen garden
depends on it. The quicker a seed can be made to germinate
the more vigorous the shoot, the quicker the growth, the better
the quality. Every one is familiar with this principle as applied
to such plants as radishes and lettuce ; but it is no less applica-
ble to the larger vegetables. Seeds put in the cold soil of early
April, and some seasons, of early May, never vegetate healthily.
The chill they get necessarily engenders a consumption. A
potato planted May 10, will, in our ordinary seasons, ripen its
crop as early as one planted a month earlier, and the yield will
be larger and of superior quality. The value of stimulants lies
in the fact that a quick growth is secured ; and where not over-
forced, the gain in this respect is very important. The rapid
elaboration of the juices seems to add to their vital power, and,
what is quite as valuable, to their perfection of quality. A cab-
bage or a beet that takes the whole season to grow is worthless
for the table. Ninety days should suffice to mature most of our
garden vegetables.

And in this connection it is obvious to mention the importance
of good seed. Even with generous manuring, and timely plant-
ing, and careful culture, there is sometimes a failure which can
be traced directly to poor seed — i. e., seed grown from imma-
ture plants, or such as had been injured by exposure to rains,
or heats, or bad winter storage. And sometimes old seed which
has lost its vitality is the cause of some disappointment. Un-
less he has made careful trials, no one is aware how much the
quality of the seed has to do with the amount and character of
the crop. Perhaps it is not extravagant to say, that, all other

164 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

conditions being equal, a difference of fifty por cent, may result
from the quality of the seed planted. Tiie Committee have in
mind two lanners, occupying adjoining farms, who oftentimes
plant the same kind of corn, and pursue in the main the same
method of cultivation ; but the ordinary yield in one case is
double that in the other. The one who has the heavy crop
selects his seed from the standing stalks in September ; while
the one who has the light crop takes his seed from the bin at
planting time.

As a rule, that seed is best which is ripened by the intense
heats of July and August. And vegetables propagated from
such seed are constantly improving ; while vegetables grown
from the seed of late maturing plants are sure to suffer a rapid
degeneracy. And it is as important to select a seed beet, or
squash, or onion, before harvest, as to select seed corn. The
same is emphatically true of the potato. And the neglect of
this rule is one cause why it so quickly " runs out " on a given
farm, and requires to be regenerated by a change of seed. The
hills for next year's planting should be selected when the vines
have just reached maturity and are beginning to show the signs
of natural decay. And only the earliest, and fully developed,
should be chosen. Such tubers will not deteriorate.

As the potato has become so much a necessity for table use,
and some new varieties are just now challenging attention, the
Committee feel justified in giving the details of some experi-
ments with the Earhi Rose.

No. 1. On fallow land. Long manure ploughed in ; old
compost and ashes put in hill. Furrowed three inches deep.
One-half peck of seed, cut to single eyes ; eyes dropped eigh-
teen inches apart. Planted May 12 ; in blossom July 3 ; fully
grown July 28. Single eyes produced three lbs. ; forty-three
eyes (two potatoes) produced seventy-five lbs. ; total yield five
and a half bushels. Tubers uniformly large size, with occa-
sionally a diseased one, the disease confined to tubers growing
on the surface. Excellent quality.

No. 2. On sward land. Furrowed three inches deep, with a
liberal supply of compost of strong night soil and chip dirt in
the hill. One-half peck of seed, cut to single eyes, and put
eighteen inches apart. Planted May 24; in blossom July 10;

VEGETABLES. 165

full grown August 4. Total yield six bushels ; medium size ;
all perfectly sound ; excellent quality.

No. 3. On deeply ploughed old land. Domestic guano in
the hill. Planted, June 22, small whole potatoes. Shoots broke
ground in seven days ; in blossom July 28. Vines struck by
the drought August 12. Tubers tlien the size of ordinary hen's
eggs, with average of seven in each hill.

Results : Single eyes will produce as much in iveig-ht as
whole potatoes, which reduces the required amount of seed to
four bushels per acre. Covering deeply is conducive to sound-
ness, and insures a greater yield. Strong manures, like night
soil, are not promotive of disease. The quicker the growth the
better the quality. J. H. Temple, Chairman.

HAMPSHIRE, F.'^ANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

Statement of C. C. Thompson, Middlefield.
Potatoes : The Massasoit. — This variety, a sample of which
was exhibited at your fair, will compare favorably with the best
known table potatoes. And no variety, of so fine a grain has
yet come within my knowledge, that produces so abundantly.
It resembles the Harrison in appearance, but is much superior
in quality, and matures earlier, ripening with the Garnet Chili
and Bresee's Prolific. The soil on which I have grown the
present crop is a deep, gravelly loam, — moderately dry, and
much less affected by drought than most of the land in this
vicinity. It was cropped in 18G8 with potatoes, Harrison being
the variety, and produced about 130 bushels. For fertilizers I
used ten loads, thirty bushels to the load, of stable manure
taken from the barn cellar, which I consider worth a quarter
more than the same bulk, after having received the loashing^
and rinsing of .the spring rains ; also a large spoonful of phos-
phate in a hill. The land was ploughed deep, the manure
spread upon the furrows and thoroughly incorporated with the
soil by dragging. Crop of 1869, improved Long Orange Carrot
seed, 400 pounds, manured as 1868 with the exception of the
pbosphate. The crop of 1870 was 223 bushels of 60 pounds
each, or 13,380 pounds, with very little indication of disease.
I plant in rows three feet by two and a half, drop upon the sur-
face, two and three eyes to the hill. Level culture will not

166 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

answer here. I plant potatoes of racdinra size, rejecting both
the small and tlie overgrown, — selecting the type I wish to pro-
duce. Four bushels of seed were planted on the half acre ;
planted the 17th day of May ; hoed when about five inches high ;
hilled about two weeks after the first hoeing with a cultivator
operating upon a new principle, which did the work admirably.
The land was prepared and manured the same as in 1868. Dug
about the 25th of September, and stored in a cool, dry cellar.

STOCK

ESSEX.

Essay on the Oakes Cow, by J. D. W. French.

In the Fourth Report of the Agriculture of Massachusetts, by
Henry Colman, published in 1841, may be found an account of
this famous cow. The cow was owned in Danvers, and pro-
duced in 1813, 180 pounds of butter ; in 1814, 300 pounds ;
in 1815, over 400 pounds ; in 1816, 484^ pounds. During
this time one quart of milk was reserved for family use, and
she suckled four calves for four weeks each, in the course of
those years. She produced in one week 19^ pounds of but-
ter, and an average of more than 16 pounds a week for three
months in succession. The largest amount of milk given in
one day was 44| pounds. She was allowed 30 to 35 bushels
Indian meal per year, all her own skimmed milk and most of
her buttermilk. At one time the owner gave her potatoes,
which increased the milk but not the butter. In the autumn
he gave her about 6 bushels of carrots.

After reading this we must admit that she was an extraor-
dinary cow ; but at the same time we must admit that she had
extraordinary feed. Can it be possible that more than fifty
years have gone by, and with all our boasted improvements we
have nothing to equal her ? I for one do not believe it possible.

A cow, named Sybil, owned by Henry Saltonstall, of Pea-
l)ody, was | Jersey and \ Ayrshire, and weighed 950 pounds.
She calved April 7, 1808, and gave from that time until April
7, 1869, 13,065 pounds, or more than 6 J tons of milk. lu July,

STOCK. 167

on poor and dry pasture alone, tliis milk made 12^ pounds but-
ter a week, or 1 pound for 12 quarts of milk. Her food was
poor upland pasture, helped out for six weeks with green corn
fodder, about a bushel of grain in all, between grass and roots,
and in winter, dry hay and one peck of roots a day. She gave
in the rest of April, 1869, 23 days, 23 pounds a day ; May, 1869,
31 days, 19| pounds a day ; June, 1869, 30 days, 17 pounds a
day. Thus in 14 months of continuous milking, she gave
14,700 pounds, or about 7,000 quarts of milk. Average for the
year, 35| pounds per day. Her greatest yield was 60 pounds,
or nearly cO quarts a day. Sybil certainly surpasses the Oakes
cow in her yield of milk. Which was the most profitable cow ?
I shall put Sybil's product in milk for the year, about 6,000
quarts, against the Oakes cow's product in butter, 484^ pounds,
her greatest yield. The milk of Sybil at 5 cents per quart
would be worth '$300 ; the butter of the Oakes cow, at 50 cents
per pound, $242 12^. Besides this we must make allowance
for the suckling of a calf four weeks, and the quart of milk used
in the family. Even this allowance would not make her as
profitable an animal as Sybil, which was kept at a far less cost.
Allowing 12 quarts of milk for 1 pound of butter, Sybil would
have yielded 500 pounds of butter during the year.

In the Fifteenth Annual Report of the Secretary of the Massa-
chusetts Board of Agriculture, is a statement of J. C. Converse,
of Arlington, in regard to his Jersey cow. Lady Milton. She
was kept in pasture in June and July, and in August and Sep-
tember received green fodder corn at night in addition. Her
aggregate yield in butter in July was 79 pounds. From June
1st to October 7th, on green fodder without grain, 293| pounds,
or an average of l^j^^ pounds per week for 18|- weeks. The
first week in July her milk made 18 pounds of butter. Mr. C.
says that the above-mentioned product per week for 18| weeks
was not an exception to the general product, and that her feed
in winter was good hay, steamed roots and corn fodder, mixed
with a small quantity of shorts. The Oakes cow averaged more
than 16 pounds of butter for three months ; but Lady Milton
averaged nearly 16 pounds for more than 4.^ months, on green
feed without grain or milk food. Her yield of butter for the
year would undoubtedly (if any account had been kept) have
gone up to 500 pounds.

168 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

I shall mention only one more of our modern cows. Jean
Armour, an Ayrshire cow, imported by Mr, Peters, of South-
borough, gave from June 1st to September 23d, 5,612.} pounds,
or an average of 41j^g pounds of milk per day. Allowing 20
pounds of milk for 1 pound of butter, thi^ would have made a
trifle over 280 pounds of butter for a period of not quite four
months. During the second 10 days in June she gave 521|^
pounds of milk, or 52 pounds a day. During the second 10
days in September she gave 462 pounds of milk, or 46 pounds
per day. Her weight was 967 pounds. She was in good pas-
ture after June 12th, and had three pints of corn-cob meal and
3 pints bran, and late in the season green corn stalks once a
day. I think we may safely estimate that Jean Armour's yield
in butter would have been at least 500 pounds for the year.
During the period that the account of their yield was kept. Lady
Milton was the equal if not the superior of the Oakes cow in
butter. Sybil and Jean Armour were her superior as milkers,
and all three were more profitable animals to keep.

MIDDLESEX.

Statement of J. R. Kendall,

I offer for your inspection to-day my herd of thoroughbred
Ayrshires, consisting of the six cows," Alice 2d," " Miima 2d,"
" Minna 3d," " Buttercup," " Mary Gray " and " Clover," and
the bull " Alick Christie ; " also the two yearlings " Dido " and
" Dotty Dimple."

The superior qualities claimed for the herd consist in quan-
tity and quality of milk, in quiet, gentle habits and disposition,
and in the peculiar adaptedness of this breed as dairy cattle to
our pastures and usual method of feeding.

The Ayrshires are proverbially a class of milkers, averaging
in quantity, according to the amount of food given, more than
any other ; and it is yet to be proved that its quality falls below
any other breed. During the flow, the average amount for
the first six days in June, taken daily, was for " Alice 2d," 23
quarts, " Minna 2d," 24 quarts, " Minna 3d," 18 quarts, " But-
tercup," 23} quarts, " Clover," 25} quarts. At the time of
trial, the animals were fed only with grass, having no extra food
of any kind, with the exception of " Mary Gray," which I was

STOCK. 169

unable to dry before calvinp;. Two weeks previous, Aug. 18tb,
she commenced to increase in her milk, giving at the time 6
quarts per day. Since then, being obliged to feed the whole
herd in the barn on account of dry pastures, she has had, with
the rest, corn-fodder and three quarts of shorts daily, and gave
at the time of trial, the last week in August, 13|- quarts per day.
I feed during the winter on dry hay, about 4 quarts of shorts,
and a peck of cut roots to each animal ; during the summer,
only from the pasture, with green fodder, as the grass comes
short. I raise milk only for the market ; but during the sum-
mer, having a surplus quantity, a portion was set now and then
for butter. This yielded cream readily ; the butter " came "
quickly ; bright golden ; and the milk thus tested contained
12 per cent, cream. No record could be kept of the propor-
tionate amount to each animal, as the milk was used irregu-
larly, to get rid of it in the easiest way, but so far as it proved
an experiment of the butter-making qualities of the Ayrshires,
it was eminently satisfactory.

It has often been asserted that this breed is especially ner-
vous, excitable, and uncomfortable to manage. My own expe-
rience has been entirely the opposite, so that I make a special
claim in this direction in their favor.

Notwithstanding the extreme dry weather of this season,
want of food and water in the pastures, I have had no trouble
whatever in keeping them where they belonged. I insist that
they shall be kindly and carefully handled, and believe that,
with the gentle, systematic treatment all our stock should have,
the Ayrshires rank among the highest for quiet and peaceable
habits ; thus augmenting, in every way, their value for dairy
purposes.

Statement of H. M. Clarke.

Swiss Cattle. — I offer for your inspection and premium my
herd of Swiss cattle, comprising five cows and one bull, im-
ported by me in November last ; also four calves, the offspring
of the above cows.

Unused to roots or grain, their keeping for the first eight
months consisted of hay and water, nor did I think it advisable,
until properly acclimated, to adopt a different course of treat-
ment. Since the middle of July, owing to the drought and

22*

170 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

scanty pasturage, their keeping has been to each, daily, four
quarts of shorts, two quarts of Indian meal, and corn-stalks up
to the present time. In full flow of milk they give from twelve
to sixteen quarts daily. Their butter qualities are good, as far
as I can judge. A calf has been raised from each cow, and the
milk being used for that purpose until lately, I cannot give a
precise statement. However, there is a box of butter, made
from their milk, on exhibition now on the Society's grounds.
The heifer calf has been brought up by hand on her dam's milk ;
also the bull on his dam's milk ; the steers have done their own
milking. This, with one-half pint of meal, the same of shorts
and hay, constitute the whole procedure of management.

WORCESTER WEST. •

From the Report of the Committee.

The value of the different breeds of dairy cows depends very
much on the fancy of their owners instead of their real merits
or worth for making butter or cheese, and the final disposition
of their carcass for beef. The Jersey or Alderney is taking the
lead just now among gentlemen farmers and other professions
with large fortunes, living in or near cities, and to them they
sell for high prices, but are not much called for among dairy-
men, as their milk is best adapted to use in strong coffee or the
making of fancy butter, which but few farmers can afford to use,
especially if they are working hard and living economically,
hoping thereby to clear the heavy mortgages from their farms.
A Jersey cow when done giving good milk cannot be very val-
uable for beef. The Dutch have not been tried very exten-
sively, and it is not probable they ever will be. The farmers of
Worcester West want a large, good looking cow, that will give
a great quantity of milk and weigh heavy when sold for beef.
But there is no breed that will all prove extra milkers, and
there is no man who can always tell an extra milker, let him
feel of her ever so much.

Now, it is not certain because a cow is extra this year she will
be next. There are many things which nearly spoil a good
cow but seldom hurt a poor one, and many times no one can
tell why or wherefore. Abortion is the most serious evil that has
ever visited cows in this part of the country, and the most hum-

STOCK. 171

ble farmer knows just as much as the most celebrated veterin-
ary surgeon in regard to the cause or cure ; therefore the best
way seems to be to let it take its own course (as it will without
fear or favor), hoping it will leave us entirely in time, as it
seems already to have done some herds where almost the whole
have suffered. Good keeping has much to do with good cows ;
it is not much matter about poor ones. But little profit arises
from mealing cows ; certainly if heavily fed on meal they will
not last as long, are more liable to disease and trouble in the
udder, and the meal will not make extra milk enough to pay
extra expense. But every man who has one cow or more,
should plant corn to feed green, just as much as he plants his
garden for family use. Let him plant some early, so that he
can begin to feed soon as feed in pastures begins to fail, and
plant some later, so as to keep his feed in his mowing lots until
quite late ; if it does not make an extra quantity of milk it keeps
his cows in good condition, and he will get a large quantity of
feed from a small piece of ground which will well pay for the
labor. The white Maryland corn is best, as there are more
leaves on it than on other kinds and it produces a larger quantity
of feed. Some prefer the sweet corn, but there will not as much
grow on the same ground as of the other kind, and if you buy
tbe seed, sweet corn costs high. But every one should raise his
own seed, which he can do by planting early and giving it a
little extra attention. The best way to feed corn is in the barn.
Go with your wagon to the field and carry enough at once to
feed night and morning while milking. Cows love it, will eat
it all up and feel happy.

Wm. Cushman, Chairman.

WOECESTEE NOETH.

Slateinent of Augustus Whitman.

The mode of keep and feeding of my Shorthorns, also state-
ments of the milking capacities of some of the herd, of which
mention is made in several of the statements, can be told in a
few words.

All milch cows are treated substantially alike. In winter
they are fed twice a day, a bushel of steamed feed made from
hay, straw and corn stover, and once with long dry hay. Of

172 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

grain tliey have the equivalent of four quarts shorts and two
quarts of meal. This is varied, and is found in corn meal,
cotton seed moal, ground oats and shorts.

In summer, until this year, they have been soiled on clover,
grain, oats and fodder corn. This year they have had but one
grain feed per day, the others having been one of dry hay and
one steamed mess. Grain is given to cows in milk the same as
in winter. My cows have never done better at the pail, until
the drought compelled driving a long distance to water, than
the present season, nor shown better condition.

" Senora " of Fairviow. — Bred in Kentucky ; dropped her
last calf January 16, 1870. Tiiis milk record commences five
months after calving. In June, fifteen days (IGth to 30th)
412 lbs., average 27 47-100 lbs. per day. In July, thirty-one
days, 770 lbs., average 25 13-100 lbs. per day. In August,
thirty-one days, 641| ll)s., average 20 70-100 lbs. per day. In
September, fifteen days, 257 lbs., average 17 13-100 lbs. per
day. Total for ninety-two days, 2,089| lbs. ; average 22 71-100
lbs. per day. Slie has been kept in barn upon the usual winter
feed, excepting one feed per day of fodder corn ; of grain,
four quarts shorts and two quarts of corn and cotton-seed meal
mixed.

" Wenonah." — Four years old ; calved March 27, 1870. In
April, thirty days, l,197f lbs., average 39 91-100 lbs. per day.
In May, thirty-one days, 1,11G| lbs., average 36 2-100 lbs. per
day. In June, thirty days, 998| lbs,, average 33 27 100 lbs.
per day. In July, thirty-one days, 851| lbs., average 27 47-100
lbs. per day.

Total,— 112 days, 4,164|- lbs. Average 34 14-100 lbs. per
day. August 1st, she was taken from the farm to Fitchburg,
for family use, where she now gives a large flow. No record of
weight has been kept since July 31st. Greatest yield in one
day, 44 lbs.

"Mtumn Flower, 2d."— Calved February 27,1870, at two
years and five montlis. The record commences March 4th.
She has been kept in the barn upon the usual winter food, ex-
cepting one feed per day (since June) of cut grass, oats or fod-
der corn, and has had four quarts of shorts, and two quarts of
corn and cotton-seed meal (mixed) per day. In March, twenty-
eight days, 926| lbs., average 33 9-100 lbs. per day. In April,

STOCK. 173

thirty days, 792|- lbs., average 26 42-100 lbs. per day. In May,
thirty-one days, 749 lbs., average 24 lG-100 lbs. per day. In
Jime, thirty days, 742 lbs., average 24 73-100 lbs. per day. In
July, thirty-one days, 678f lbs., average 21 73-100 lbs. per day.
In August, thirty-one days, 602| lbs., average 19 44-100 lbs.
per day. In September, fifteen days, 273 lbs., average 18 20-
100 lbs. per day.

Total,— 196 days, 4,759| lbs. Average 24 28-100 lbs. per day.

"Lady Carlisle, 2d."— Calved February 21, 1870, at two
years and seven months. The record commences March 6th.
Keeping, the same as Autumn Flower, 2d, above. In March,
twenty-six days, 65C) lbs., average 25 23-100 lbs. per day. In
April, thirty days, 705| lbs., average 23 52-100 lbs. per day.
In ]May, thirty-one days, 659| lbs,, average 21 28-100 lbs. per
day. In June, thirty days, 622| lbs., average 20 76-100 lbs.
per day. In July, thirty-one days, 533| lbs., average 17 22-100
lbs. per day. In August, thirty-one days, 480 lbs., average 15
48-100 lbs. per day. In September, fifteen days, 216 lbs., aver-
age 14 4-10 lbs. per day.

Total,— 194 days, 3,873| lbs. Average 19 97-100 lbs. per day.

" Clarissa, 2d." — Statement of milk, in lbs., given by the
Shorthorn cow Clarissa, 2d (at six years), from May 27, 1H69,
to March 22, 1870 (inclusive), 300 days. Her feed from June
to October was green oats, grass, and fodder corn, cut and fed
in the barn, together with two quarts of meal, and four quarts
of wheat shorts. The winter feed was chiefly steamed hay,
straw and corn stover. She calved May 25, 1869. In ^lay, five
days, 203 lbs., average 40 6-10 lbs. per day. In June, thirty days,
1,200 lbs., average 40 lbs. per day. In July, thirty-one days,
1,142 lbs., average 36 84-100 lbs. per day. In August, thirty-
one days, 950 lbs., average 30 64-100 lbs. per day. In Septem-
ber, thirty days, 842 lbs , average 28 6-100 lbs. per day. In
October, thirty-one days, 767 lbs., average 24 75-100 lbs. per
day. In November, thirty days, 775 lbs., average 25 83-100
lbs. per day. In December, thirty-one days, 745| lbs., average
24 4-100 lbs. per day. In January, thirty-one days, 770| lbs.,
average 24 84-100 lbs. per day. In February, twenty-eight
days, 700| lbs., average 25 lbs. per day. In March twenty-two
days, 489^ lbs., average 22 25-100 lbs. per day.

Total,— 300 days, 8,584^ lbs., average 28 61-100 lbs. per day.

174 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

She continued to give milk until May 9th, giving to that date
in addition to weight for the 300 days, 6451 llis., making a total
of 9,22'.t| lbs. during the year. She calved again July 26, 1870,
and gave in August, thirty-one days, 1,195;] lbs., average 38 56-
100 lbs. per day. In September, fifteen days, 507| lbs., aver-
age 33 85-100 lbs. per day.

Total, — Forty-six dajs, 1,703^ lbs., average 37 3-100 lbs. per
day.

" Bellflower, 5th." — Statement of milk, in pounds, given by
the Shorthorn cow, Bellflower, 5th, at eight years old, from
November 9, 1869, to May 17, 1870, inclusive, 190 days. She
had the usual steamed feed, together with two quarts of meal,
and four quarts of shorts per day. She calved November 1,
1869.

In November, twenty-two days, 885| lbs., average 40 24-100
lbs. per day. In December, thirty-one days, 976^ lbs., average
31 49-100 lbs. per day. In January, thirty-one days, 1,095-| lbs.,
average 35 33-100 lbs. per day. In February, twenty-eight days,
962| lbs., average 34 38-100 lbs. per day. In March, thirty-one
days, 1,067 lbs., average 34 42-100 lbs. per day. In April,
thirty days, 862 lbs., average 28 73-100 lbs. per day. In May,
seventeen days, 457 lbs., average 26 92-100 lbs. per day.

Total,— 190 days, 6,305^ lbs,, average 33 18-100 lbs. per day.
May 18, she was removed from the farm to Fitchburg for family
use, and no record of weight* kept afterwards.

" Mountain Belle." — Calved August 1, 1870. Her feed has
been dry hay, steamed feed and fodder corn, one feed of each
per day, together with two quarts meal and four quarts of
wheat shorts per day. In August, 5th to 31st, twenty-seven
days, she gave 971| lbs. of milk, averaging 36 lbs. per day. In
September, to 15th, fifteen days, she gave 468 lbs. of milk,
average 31 20-100 lbs. per day. Her largest yield in one day
was 41 lbs. (Aug. 9th). Her record for 1869, from March
7th, to December 31st, 300 days, is 6,162 lbs., an average of 20
54-100 lbs. per day.

Statement of E T. Miles.
" Beauty," No. 240 Ayrshire Herd Book, is nine years old,
and dropped her last calf May 20, 1870. In six days, from the
6th to the 11th of June, 1870, inclusive, she gave 193 lbs. of

STOCK. 175

milk, and for the six corresponding days in September, 1870,
the weight of her milk was 159 pounds.

" Miller, 2d," No. 145 Ayrshire Herd Book, is eleven years
old. She dropped her last calf September 6, 1870, since which
time no record of her milk has been kept, as she is still suckling
her calf. In 1869, she calved November 2, and in six days,
from the 25th to the SOtli of the same month, her milk weighed
198 pounds. Three months later, the last six days in February,
she gave 156 pounds. The weight of her milk for any other
six days will be given if required.

" Emma," No. 374 Ayrshire Herd Book, is nine years old,
and dropped her last calf August 7, 1870. The weight of her
milk for the prescribed six days in September was 183 pounds.
Not being in milk in the month of June, no weight of her milk
for any other six days is submitted. Her daily record is kept,
and the weight of her milk for any six days that the Committee
may designate, will be furnished.

" Daisy," No. 330 Ayrshire Herd Book, is nine years old, and
dropped her last calf March 16, 1870. Her next calf is due
February 21, 1871. The weight of her milk for six days, from
June 5th to 11th, inclusive, was 176 pounds. The correspond-
hig six days in September, she gave 128 pounds.

"Myrtle, 1st," No. 648 Ayrshire Herd Book, will be four
years old in October next. She dropped her last calf, July 26,
1870, and the weight of her milk for the specified six days in
September, was 167| pounds. In 1869, she calved September 8,
and in six days, three months later, December 8th to 13th, her
milk weighed 125 pounds.

" Lady Burns," No. 524 Ayrshire Herd Book, was three years
old, June 20, 1870. She calved January 18, 1870. Her yield
of milk for the specified six days in June and September was
106 and 73 pounds respectively. She is due to calve December
30th next.

" Cleopatra," No. 311 Ayrshire Herd Book, was three years
old, May 20, 1870. She dropped her last, calf June 19 last, and
her milk for the last six days of the same month weighed 166
pounds. For the six designated days in September her milk
weighed 135 pounds.

The keeping of the cows here entered for premiums has been,
in summer, such pasture as is afforded at Maplewood, with four

176 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

quarts of "shorts" and from one to two quarts of corn meal
per day. Occasionally, a little oil and cotton-seed meal has
been substituted for an equal quantity of corn meal. In winter,
good hay, with corn stover and such fodder as is usual to or-
dinary farming, with a small feed of mangolds or Swedes at
noon.

The same quantity of grain is fed as in summer. The feed
of the different animals is varied by their condition and circum-
stances, but the above statement is sufficiently accurate for all
practical purposes.

In addition to the foregoing, I submit tabulated statements
showing the quantity of milk given by each cow and, heifer
entered for premiums for the term of one year, to which the
attention of the Committee is respectfully called.

E. T. Miles.

NANTUCKET.

Thoroughbred Stock. — Jerseys. — The Jerseys have been
proved and fairly tested for twenty years in our State, since their
first importation from Europe, to be remarkable for the quality
of the cream from their milk. The cream has been known to
measure one and one-quarter inches on a body of milk five
inches high. None can doubt the butter-making properties of
their milk ; three hundred pounds of butter have been made
from a single cow of this breed in this country. One statement
mentions an average of four cows in one herd that averaged
three hundred pounds each. If the farmer wants butter for a
dairy product let him keep pure Jerseys. If he wants milk in
quantity, the Ayrshire will give it, and the milk is eminently
adapted to the manufacture of cheese. These breeds all possess
some points of excellence, and each is preferable for some dairy
requirements which others do not have.

The Shorthorn was the earliest of these thoroughbreds im-
ported into our State, being introduced as early as the year
1818. It is well known as having come from the original stock
brought into England by the Danes prior to the Norman con-
quest.

The Ayrshire began to be imported in 1831, and the Jersey
or Alderney as late as 1851. Time will not permit us to more
than allude to some of the peculiarities of these three breeds.

STOCK. 177

Tlie native stock in our country has been much improved by
crossing them with blood stock. The class of grade cows of
each kind at the grounds was larger than ever before exhibited.
There was a large number of fine bulls of each breed, all full-
blooded, on exhibition ; thus an opportunity is afforded our
farmers of selecting such a grade as they wish to produce from
their native stock.

Thorough-breeding is one of the most important but not the
only essential for superior cattle ; next to it is thorough-feed-
ing. We want to learn how to feed them in their youth and
maturity. There is a large field for investigation among our
most intelligent farmers, as to the properties of roots, hay and
grain for the sustenance of cattle, but all concede this point :
high feeding pays the owner the most profit. All the gain in
stock keeping is the difference between the cost of feeding and
care and the ultimate production from the animal ; hence the
more food, up to the point of health, the more profit. We can-
not expect a cow to furnish us more milk and butter than we
furnish her materials.

A few years ago, before the organization of our county agri-
cultural society, the great object in feeding cattle, with many
of our farmers, was to see how much stock could be kept on
their limited supply of hay. The result of such experiments was
to turn from their barnyards in the spring a large herd of very
small, emaciated, skeleton cows, that required extra care to
restore them to ordinary flesh and health before they would
return to their owners any milk or butter. Such cases would
at this time call for the penalty in the statutes for cruelty to
animals. Those barbarities have passed away with the genera-
tion. The farmers of this day believe it to be a humane and
pecuniary policy to limit the amount of their stock, the num-
ber of their cattle, to the quantity of hay, pasture and feed
.which they have to dispense to them to feed well.

No reliance can be placed on our native stock as breeders ;
they have sprung from a mass of mongrel blood and ill-assorted
races, and possess no hereditary traits. Hence the introduc-
tion of blood stock is a very important era. Like begets like ;
if we want illustrious progeny, we must look for illustrious an-
cestry. A distinguished agriculturist in this State has said,
" When I look around upon the dairy stock of the country, as

23*

178 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

a mere matter of profit, I do not see any better class of cows
than the ordinary native cows of New England ; and if I was
to-day getting up a herd of cows merely for the purpose of pro-
ducing butter or milk, calculating the cost of those animals and
what they would give the year round, I apprehend I might go
farther and fare worse, than to select fine animals from our
native stock." But, the gentleman adds, " the great difficulty
about our native stock is their offspring ; you can have no cer-
tainty that the children of these dams will equal in any respect
the dams themselves."

A thorough sifting of native herds would much benefit the
owners. Select from the herds all cows which give but twelve
hundred to fifteen hundred quarts of milk per year, and sell or
send them to the ])utcher, and supply their places with cows
giving from twenty-five hundred to three thousand quarts per
annum, or raise such stock ; it will cost no more to feed the
latter than the former. Many of our farmers measure and
weigh the milk from each cow, and do not keep any that do
not come up to their standard in amount of milk and quality.
Careful and patient experiments would show that some cows
were kept which did not really pay for their keeping ; and with
stock-keeping, as with all mercantile transactions, to make a
thing pay well one must count the cost. There sliould be no
conflict of feeling between tlie advocates of these respective
breeds. There is room for all, and for native cattle also, if they
are improved natives.

A few statistics may not be unimportant in considering the
value of the dairy products of tiie United States. The total
product of butter in the United States and territories, in 1850,
was 313,345,30l3 pounds; in 1860, 469,681,372 pounds; being
an increase in ten years of 46 per cent. We have not the sta-
tistics of 1870, but at the same rate of increase they would give
an amount of 685,934,082 pounds ; which, estimated at 33^
cents per pound, would be worth -f 228,578,224. In our own
State, the valuation of cows and heifers in 1855 was -$4,892,291 ;
in 1865, it was <|6,537,630 ; an increase of 33 per cent, in ten
years. At the same rate of increase, it would give $8,716,840
in 1875. The product of the dairy of this Commonwealth, in
1855, was ;J2,898,696 ; in 1865, -13,091,462. At the same rate
of increase it would be, in 1875, $3,292,392.

PEDIGREES OF STOCK. 179

The number of cows in this State far exceeds that of any-
other animal we have, — 90,000 horses, valued at ^10,000,000 ;
50,000 oxen and steers, 175,000 cows and heifers, and 150,000
milch cows, which shows clearly the importance of dairy stock
in our Commonwealth.

We had in this county, in 1865,450 milch cows, 120 heifers ;
total, 576 ; oxen and steers, 60 ; neat stock, 636 head ; horses,
257. It is fair to presume that we have over 500 milch cows in
this county, at this time, and 150 heifers ; total, 650. The
amount of milk product in our county, in 1865, was 25,000 gal-
lons, valued at $6,250 ; butter, 18,000 pounds, valued at $7,200 ;
total valuation of dairy, $13,450 ; value of farms, in 1865,
$160,000 ; value of farm stock, &c., $242,805 ; value of an-
nual products, $129,842.

It is good policy to keep all the stock that can be well fed
and housed. The old French proverb is a wise one : " No cat-
tle, no farming ; few cattle, poor farming ; many cattle, good
farming."

In conclusion, let us urge upon the consideration of all, the
importance of high feeding, and proper care in erecting com-
fortable barns where their cows can be sheltered, days as well
as nights, from the bleak winds and storms which sweep over
our plains. Attention to these conditions will make excellent
cows ; neglect them, and the purest blooded cattle ever im-
poted from the islands of Jersey, Guernsey or Sark, the moors
of Scotland or the luxuriant lawns of England, will not be
worth the cost of keeping.

Alexander Macy, Jr.

PEDIGREES OF STOCK.

BERKSHIRE.

From the Report of the Committee.

For the first time in the annals of the Berkshire Agricultural
Society a Committee on Pedigree has been appointed, and has
performed its duties, and the importance of such an innovation
demands more than a passing consideration.

180 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

" What is a 'pedigree ? " is the first natural inquiry of the
uninitiated. We can only say that it is an account or register
of a line of ancestors, human or otherwise. Its value among
stock breeders consists in the evidence which it brings that the
animal is descended from a line, all the individuals of which
were ahke and excellent of their kind, and so almost sure to
transmit like excellences to their progeny. Pedigree is es-
pecially valuable " in proportion as it sliows an animal to be
descended not only from such as are purely of its own race or
breed, hut also from such individuals in that breed as were
specially noted for the excellences for which that particular
breed is esteemed^ Every animal, of course, has a hereditary
history, but it is only certain races or breeds which liave been
kept distinct for numbers of years whose pedigree is valuable,
the others having so intermixed that it would be impossible to
furnish a record of their ancestry. Pedigrees of horses, and
bulls, and cows, as well as of the human race, were kept in
families long previous to any regular herd book, the first Eng-
lish herd book of Shorthorn stock being publislied in 1822, and
the first American in 1846, and now we have also regular pub-
lished records of tlie Devons, Jerseys and Ayrshires, to which
will soon be added that of the Dutch. Any pedigree com-
mittee must be guided and controlled by the herd books as to
those breeds whose history they purport to record, and as to
others by such written or oral evidence as can be furnished by
the owners, and it is, therefore, of primary importance that
every owner of a purebred animal should have the birth and
lineage recorded in the proper herd book. This adds to the
" money value" of all thoroughbred stock, as the first inquiry
of a purchaser of it or its progeny is as to its record, just as a
purchaser of real estate expects to find its title in the books of
the register, and if the documents are not recorded, a just sus-
picion attaches to the purity of the lineage or title. Every one
is aware of the fact that all animals derive from their parents
certain permanent and inalienable characteristics — that as a
general proposition species is constant ; and though certain great
naturalists have disputed the absolute fixity of species, contend-
ing that new species may arise by accidental variation and
" natural selection," we have no direct evidence of this tak-
ing place, but on the contrary the experience of the past is

PEDIGREES OF STOCK. 181

pretty conclusive that parents live in their offspring. Parents
transmit their individual peculiarities of color, form, longevity,
idiosyncracy, &c., to their offspring, as a general rule, both
parents being always represented, but which is the predominat-
ing influence is not ascertainable, sometimes the male prepon-
derating in one direction and the female influence in another, yet
this direction being by no means constant, and often reversed,
and the direction being undoubtedly controlled by the age,
strength and other qualities of the sire or dam. Bakewell, the
famous English breeder, would let or sell his rams, but held his
ewes sacred, neither selling nor letting them, considering the
female influence preponderated to the best advantage. Many
farmers consider that the property of abundant secretion of milk
is more certain to be transmitted from a bull than from a cow,
whilst the majority are careless as to the character of the bull,
provided the cow is of a good milking family. In the scale of
humanity, all men of genius are said to have had remarkable
mothers, yet a history of " hereditary genius " shows that as
many men have been indebted for their intellectual qualities to
the male as to the female side of the house. As no positive
rule can be laid down, the best to follow is to have both sire
and dam as near perfect as possible, and then we can say of the
progeny,

" Half is his aucl half is hers ; it will be worthy of the two."

To every general rule there are always some exceptions ; and
while proclaiming as absolute the law of individual transmission,
that the parents are often reproduced in their offspring, we
are met by the obvious fact of the offspring often exhibiting so
marked a departure from their parents, that the law seems at
fault. The most singular modification of this law of inherit-
ance is known as atavism (from the Latin atavus, an ancestor),
in accordance with which the individual does not resemble
either parent, but the grand-parent or some ancestor in either
the direct or collateral line. Exceptions of this sort are com-
mon in the human species, and not unfrequently among the
lower animals, which sometimes bring forth young so utterly
unlike themselves as to have been long mistaken for different
species ; while these young in their turn bring forth animals
exactly like their ancestors.

182 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

There are certain otlier perturbing influences to explain,
which would be to solve the whole mystery of heritage, and we
can only cite a few instances. A striking case, which has be-
come celebrated, is that of an English thoroughbred mare,
which in the year 1816 had a mule by a quagga — an animal of
the zebra kind — the mule bearing the unmistakable quagga
marks. In the years 1817,1818 and J 823, this mare again
foaled, and although she had not seen the quagga since 1816,
her three foals were all marked with the curious quagga marks.
Among our pure white Chester County hogs we often find a
litter partly black, owing, undoubtedly, to a crossing, genera-
tions back, with the Berkshires. These facts suggest the im-
portance to breeders of observing narrowly the first breedings
of the heifers, as a taint of impurity from inferior stock may
infect their whole progeny subsequently, and also of the impor-
tance of scrutinizing severely the pedigree of any animal to be
purchased for breeding purposes, that it may be ascertained that
he or she is " descended from a line of ancestors in which for
generations the desirable forms, qualities and characteristics
have been uniformly shown." Climate, food, age, health, etc.,
exert influence upon individual variations ; the offspring of an
old male, for instance, and a young female, resembling the
father less than the mother in proportion as the mother is more
vigorous and the father more decrepit, the reverse being true of
the offspring of an old female and a young male. An animal
born of mature parents comes to its full growth and the enjoy-
ment of its functions much earlier than those born of parents
still young. Lambs born of old parents were said by Columella,
the old Roman agriculturist, to have but little wool, and that
little coarse, and to be often sterile.

But notwithstanding these exceptions, a knowledge of which
is important to every breeder of pure stock, the transmission
of physical and mental qualities from parents to offspring is
one of those general facts of nature which lie patent to univer-
sal observation. Children resemble their parents. Were this
law not constant, there could be no constancy of species. " The
horse might engender the elephant, the squirrel might be the
progeny of a lioness, the tadpole of a tapir." But a sheep is
always and everywhere a sheep, a man a man, a pure-bred
Shorthorn is the progeny of Sliorthorn ancestry ; but though the

PEDIGREES OF STOCK. 183

species is always reproduced, the indwidual may not be. Yet,
though the variations occur in the individual type, they are not
common, and we may look, in breeding, to produce like from
like ; and it is of the utmost importance, if we wish the best
progeny, to breed from the best parents, whose lineage can be
traced back through a line of uncorrupted ancestors. " Heri-
tage," says a profound philosopher, " has in reality more power
over our constitution and character than all the influences from
without, whether moral or physical." 'Tis but a few years
since that the number of thoroughbred animals in Massachu-
setts could be counted on our fingers ; now they number by
hundreds, and every agricultural society in the State not only
encourages their production, but most of the societies are help-
ing them round by abolishing the ])remiums on grade bulls, and
so discouraging the raising of animals whose corrupt blood may
taint that of the thoroughbred or their progeny. It is equally
important that each society should have a committee annually,
whose duty it shall be to see that every animal entered for pre-
mium as thoroughbred has its lineage recorded in the proper
herd book of its race, if one is published, or so established by
proper written muniments that no doubt can exist of its purity
of blood. Every owner of thoroughbred animals should enter
them with the secretary of the society a few days before the
fair opens, with a proper pedigree or reference to the volume of
the herd book where it is recorded, and the committee on pedi-
grees should, at the opening of the fair, pass upon such pedigrees,
so that the list go into the hands of the examining committee for
premiums marked understandingly, approved or disapproved.

R. Goodman, Chainnan.

HOUSATONIC.

From the Report of the Committee.
The Committee beg leave to suggest to the society that it
would greatly facilitate the labor of a committee on pedigrees,
and render their decisions less liable to error, if the rule should
be established, that every member offering animals for pre-
mium, as thoroughbred, be required to show that such animals,
or their sires and dams, have been recorded in a herd book of
recognized authority.

184 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

We think it for the credit of the county that its thoroughbred
animals should be enumerated in the official catalogues, which
are widely distributed throughout the country, as well as for
the interest of the owners and breeders of these animals. Such
record is the most sure and convenient test of the purity or im-
purity of blood in all cases of doubtful pedigrees. "Whenever
there is not sufficient evidence of thorough breeding to secure
admission of an animal into a herd book, such animal ought
not to be allowed to compete for the society's premiums as a
thoroughbred. If it be left every year to a different committee
to decide what animals offered for premium are of pure blood,
conflicting decisions may arise, and the society may be left in a
state of doubt whether its so-called thoroughbreds be not merely
grades. The expense of record is small — fifty cents or one dol-
lar for each animal — and no member who takes pride in own-
ing blooded stock will be apt to object to paying this sum for a
certificate of its purity.

It may be added for the information of all members inter-
ested that the standard herd books, for the breeds of cattle
for which premiums are offered by the society, are as follows : —

Shorthorn Herd Book, edited by Lewis F. Allen of Buffalo,
N. Y.

Ayrshire Herd Book, edited by J. X. Bagg of West Spring-
field, Mass.

Jersey Herd Register, edited by George E. Waring, Jr., of
Newport, R. I.

Devon Herd Book, edited by H. M. Sessions, Wilbraham,
Mass.

In the case of the Durham, or Shorthorn Herd Book, it
should be understood that a considerable number of the pedi-
grees contained in its first few volumes are imperfect, and the
leading agricultural societies have taken the ground that no
Shorthorn animal is thoroughbred unless his pedigree can be
traced back, on both sides, to ancestors recorded in the English
Herd Book. We think the same rule should be adopted by
this society.

We also recommend that every member competing for pre-
miums for thoroughbred animals be required to deliver to the
secretary the pedigrees of such animals in writing, made out iu

PEDIGREES OF STOCK. 185

full, and signed by the competitor, before ten o'clock of the
first day of the fair.

In conclusion, the Committee beg leave to call the attention
of members to the importance of increasing the number of thor-
oughbred cattle in this part of the Commonwealth. It is true
that we have already a good breed of native cattle ; but it is
also true that it can be. greatly improved by a larger infusion
of the blood of thoroughbreds. It is now generally believed by
intelligent persons that wherever the full-blood Durham bull is
used on native'cows, he improves the beef; wherever the Ayr-
shire bull goes, he adds to the milk and cheese ; wherever the
Jersey goes, he increases the butter.

It is also generally admitted that thoroughbreds have this
great advantage over natives, that they transmit good qualities
to offspring with more certainty. For example, if a full-blooded
sire and dam are remarkable beef or cheese or butter produ-
cers, it may be relied upon as very nearly certain that tlieir fe-
male oifspring will possess the same characteristics. A good
thoroughbred cow is sure to bring a good calf. Now, we all
know that native bulls and cows are very uncertain breeders.
Our good native cows often bring calves quite unlike them-
selves in quality. Their blood is so mixed, the good with the
bad, that sometimes the good is inherited, and sometimes the
bad. Hence the farmer is often disappointed in his breeding,
and cannot rely with any certainty on making improvements.

This important truth may be well illustrated by the recent
experience of a member of the society in raising corn. Having
planted the large white Sandford corn by the side of the
smaller Canada, he obtained some very handsome ears, con-
taining kernels as yellow as tlie Canada, and as large as the
Saudford. Thinking he might get an improved variety, he
planted, in the year following, those kernels by themselves, and
so far from other kinds of corn that there could be no mixing
with them. The result was very inferior ears, with kernels not
all yellow, as the seed had been, but some yellow and some
white. Instead of continuing to improve, the corn deteriorated.
So it is with cattle. The first cross of two different breeds
often results in producing a good animal ; but when these cross-
bred animals are coupled together, it is a well known fact that
the issue is almost always inferior, yet most of the grade bulls
24*

186 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

of our county arc such cross-breeds. Their get is oftener bad
than good. We are therefore of opinion that the wealth of this
farming community can be very greatly increased in the next
ten years by immediately disposing of all such stock-getters,
and using thoroughbred bulls in their stead.

Theron L. Foote, Chairman.

HEIFERS.

PLYMOUTH.

From the Report of the Committee.

During the three years we have served on the Committee on
Heifers, there has been a marked change in this class of stock :
the Jerseys were then in the hands of a few, but they now seem
to be almost the only breed which our farmers think worth
rearing for cows. In our own experience they have proved
very satisfactory as to butter, and if properly bred they give a
fair quantity of milk, the cream being very thick, and yielding
more butter from the same amount of cream than that of any
stock we have ever known.

The statement of Henry M. Porter was the only one which
gave the pedigree. This we think should always be done, when-
ever it is known, as it adds character to the stock and leads to
more care in breeding.

Mr. Porter's heifer was the only full-blood Ayrshire offered,
and was a very fine specimen, though a little under-sized. The
Ayrshires have always found favor with us for the dairy. We
have found them very hardy, and well calculated to thrive on
short pasturage. They endure long winters well, give a large
quantity of good milk, and have strong, healthy calves. We
Lope to see more of them on exhibition in future.

As we are expected to give our reasons for our decisions, we
will state what we consider the essential points in a heifer, that
those who offered animals of that class may see the reasons for
awards, and also the causes of failure. In choosing a heifer,
we want to see the udder broad and large, with four good-sized
teats, standing well apart both ways, skin yellow, with fine hair,

HEIFERS. 187

tail slim, hind-quarters heavy, hips broad, straight back, fore-
quarters lighter than the hind, neck slim, horns small and near
together, eyes large and clear, nose long and slim. In size we
prefer medium. A fine-boned animal, rather under-sized, is
preferable to a large, coarse, overgrown one.

We would also urge it upon all who rear calves to provide
themselves with some kind of root crop for their young stock,
particularly through their first winter. We prefer it to grain,
as it keeps them in a good, healthy condition. Of four which
we fed last winter, three had one-half peck each, per day, of
turnips, the other, a pint of corn-meal daily ; those fed on tur-
nips came out in the spring in much the best condition, both as
to size and flesh, to say nothing of the satisfaction experienced
in seeing good, thrifty young stock, and if a farmer finds no
pleasure in that, he may safely conclude he has mistaken his
calling.

Your Committee would also suggest some improvement in
the accommodations for exhibiting heifers. As some of them
are now placed in the pens with other stock of an entirely
different class, and many of them at some distance apart, there
is no chance for comparison, and it is very difficult to decide
upon the particular merits of each individual animal. We
would therefore recommend that, in future, they may be located
together, either in pens or stalls expressly for their accom-
modation.

We would also recommend that each breed should have a
grade of premiums. As it now is, the first premium is to be
awarded to the best animal, irrespective of breed. Now, each
member of the Committee is of course prejudiced in favor of
the particular breed that thrives best and is the most profitable
on his own farm ; and where each member is in favor of a
different breed the decision is necessarily biased, and that ani-
mal takes the first premium whose champion happens to possess
the most fluent tongue, or is the most tenacious of his own
opinions.

There were many fine animals of this class on exhibition,
which showed good care both in their breeding and keeping,
but which failed to take a premium because tliere were not
premiums enough offered ; and if the suggestion that we made
above were acted upon, it would give competitors a better

188 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

chance. We find by experience that it is better to have a
heifer drop her first calf when abont two years old ; and if it is
desirable to have a cow that will hold out with her milk in the
succeeding years until near calving, she sliould not be allowed
to go farrow until after her second calf, as a farrow cow is apt
to go dry some time, and so form a habit that is often very hard
to overcome. "We also consider it very important that a heifer
be mated with a full-blood bull for her first calf, as a scrub bull
then is apt to show more or less on all her future progeny, and
we have sometimes thought we could see bad effects on the
heifer herself. We close this Report by once more expressing
our gratification at the improvement manifested in this class of
animals for the past three years, and hope to see it continued
until every farmer among us can point with pride to each ani-
mal of his stock as worthy of exhibition.

John M. Soule, Chairman,

HORSES.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

Report on Farm Horses,

The Committee on Farm Horses, single, have made the awards,
and are disposed to add a few words by way of suggestion. It
has seemed to them that the exhibition of farm horses, from
year to year, has not resulted in an increase of the number of
truly valuable ones. At least there is no evidence of such in-
crease in the number of entries for trial at our show. Tlicre-
fore we are at liberty to draw the conclusion that practically
this trial is merely a matter of curious interest for the hour to
the multitude, and a gratification of pride to the winners of
premiums. We do not learn that the result has been to set any
man to studying to learn how he can train las horse to do the
same work or any work more easily than before, or how best to
manage him to secure the least wear and tear of muscle and of
patience in the horse and in himself also.

We think it has been too much regarded as a happy accident,
if a man got into his possession a horse that could draw or back

HORSES. 189

more than his neighbor's liorse, and whether it came of some-
body's careful training or of the native power and noble willing-
ness of the horse has not been a subject of inquiry. Neither
has anything come out of such exhibitions that would help a
young farmer or teamster to select the most suitable style of
horse to do his work, or give him any hints on managing such
a horse as might fall into his hands. To this desirable end we
think this public exhibition should tend, and we have endeavored
to draw from the exhibitors such facts as were likely to bear in
that direction, and present them instead of our own opinions.
But the exhibitors had not expected to be questioned, and but
little was gained in that direction. Every one knows that the
pains now taken to develop muscular power, and other really
profitable qualities in farm and team horses, is far exceeded by
the efforts to secure the highest speed. Why this should be in a
community so largely made up of people who are dependent on
animal power, and not on speed, for their support and comfort,
is not easily explained.

It would seem that men who, in erecting buildings or in other
enterprises, show so much shrewdness and provide so wisely to
secure economy and comfort and durability, would have more
regard than we are wont to see to the proper development of
the same useful qualities and conditions in the horse. Who has
not seen, here and there, a horse of thirty years old or more,
sound and kind, and learned that one owner had been his
master, and had made him what he was by care and training !
And who has not noticed with surprise, and pity also, the great
proportion of unsound, balky or otherwise unprofitable creatures,
made so from ignorance or carelessness ! But at present we are
not disposed to discourage the development of speed. But we
do say that equal inducements should be offered to encourage
the development of good working power ; that the greater good
s'aould not be sacrificed to the less. In this way only will this
part of our agricultural interest keep its proper position.

At the trial just made we found that two of the three horses
entered were entered last year, and took, one the first and the
other the second premium then. The former rule of the society
would not have allowed them to compete for the same premium
again. The new rule does allow it, and it were reasonable to
expect that the same result would be reached again. But your

190 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Committee have understood that the age and weight of the
animal, and any other circumstance in the history of the horse
or liis training, might be taken into the account. In making
our award, therefore, we could not follow our predecessors, but
our own judgment.

From the fact that, in a society embracing eleven towns, only
three horses should l)e entered for trial, your Committee are
agreed to urge that this part of the exhibition should be entirely
omitted, or such inducements offered, and witli such conditions,
as will call out an attractive and profitable display of working
horses and tend to increase their number and value.

C. S. WniTMORE, Chairman.

HAMPDEN.

From the Report of the Committee on Stallions.
Of this class of horses but two were exhibited, and, unfortu-
nately for their owners, neither had the conditions which en-
titled them to an award from the society. It is not unreason-
able, however, to suppose that there are within the county other
and eligible horses of good breed and quality ; and it is to be
regretted that their owners did not feel interested enough to
bring them to the exhibition. Horse raising is not carried on
to much extent in this region. With the limited range of pas-
turage and the increasing expense of raising horses, it is not
likely that it will increase ; most of our farmers preferring to
depend for their horses upon other sections where pasturage is
more extensive, and where the cost of raising can be so reduced
that the value of the horse when fitted for work will come nearer
to their pecuniary means. It is only here and there that one
cares to undertake this work, and tlien only in a limited man-
ner, either because possessing a favorite mare, from which he
hopes to raise a " likely colt," or because he has unusual facili-
ties for the time being to make the attempt. It is therefore
desirable, if one should undertake it, that the best material
should be selected, in order that the experiment may have a
good chance for success. To incur so much expense and trouble
and then raise an inferior animal is the poorest kind of economy,
and, although we regret to say it, yet so far as our observation
goes this seems to be the general result. Our farmers either do

HORSES. 191

not understand the art of raising good horses or else they have
been very unfortunate in their selection of breeding animals,
for it is a fact that very few first-class horses are raised in this
section.

The reason for this we apprehend lies in the fact of not hav-
ing first-class thoroughbred animals, male and female, to breed
from. The old trite rule " that like produces like " is too im-
portant and too true a maxim to be neglected ; and although
there may be an occasional exception, yet its truth has been so
often tested that it is a mistake not to remember and practise
upon it. This has been well exemplified among the breeders
of neat stock, as seen in the different herds of Durliams, Ayr-
shires and Devons. To obtain the excellent qualities which
distinguish these different breeds, a systematic and intelligent
method of breeding has been followed, and the qualities most
desired have been diligently sought. The same course is to be
followed if we would either improve the present race of horses
or create another and a superior one. To be successful in the
raising of stock, the principles of correct breeding should be
thoroughly understood, and the rules to be followed should be
carefully studied, so that, aided by observation and experience,
an intelligent system can be devised, which, being steadily pur-
sued, greater certainty of obtaining the best results will be
assured. When everything is left to chance there can be no
reasonable prospect of success. We have not time to discuss at
length the principles of correct breeding. The books upon the
subject are full of instruction. A few suggestions which occur
to us, and which are often overlooked, are all that we can offer.

And first, a rule which should not be deviated from is, never
to breed with imperfect animals, female or male. We mention
the female first, because many farmers believe that it makes but
little. difference whether the female is perfectly sound and vigor-
ous or not. A mare that has done good service both on the
road and on the farm is now broken down with hard work.
She has arrived at an age when the powers of life are beginning
to fail, and as she cannot work with her accustomed energy, she
can be " be turned out to light work and the raising of colts."
Now, although she may not be blinij or lame, and is apparently
sound, yet she is not in the full vigor of life, when all her phys-
ical energies are in full play, and when she is capable of giving

192 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

to her offspring to the largest extent that nourishing aliment
which gives to bone and muscle and nerve the development
which produces strong and vigorous animals ; neither can she
impart in a great degree those qualities which give spirit,
energy, courage and endurance to her progeny. Dull, stupid,
exhausted herself, the colt will undoubtedly be like her.

If from any cause the female has any defect, either being
blind or lame or having other imperfections or unsoundness,
then she ought on no account to be used as a breeder, for it
may be impossible to determine whether the defects are acquired
or hereditary, and, of course, transmissible. Unless it is very
certain tliat the defect is the result of accident or springs from
some well-known cause, it is far better to reject her. It is not
reasonable to expect perfect, sound, vigorous colts from old,
worn-out, broken-down and imperfect mares. Wbat is true of
the female is likewise true of the male. The stock horse should
be, in every particular, the most perfect of his kind, and it
should be positively certain, from well authenticated records,
that he comes of good stock. If alleged to be of an old race
that has transmitted for generations those fine qualities which
have given it its celebrity, be well assured that this particular
horse from which you breed does in reality belong to that race,
that he is truly " the worthy son of a worthy sire," and that in
his veins courses the blood that has made his ancestry famous.
Never overlook the fact that " it is blood which tells," and un-
less this is of the " true strain," you have no surety that your
colt will possess the qualities of the race. The time at which
a mare should begin to breed is not definitely settled ; but if she
come of good reliable stock, whose qualities and excellences
have been well established, we recommend that she commence
at the beginning ofher third year. By so doing there is a gain
in time of a year ; being at grass and as yet not fit for work, she
loses nothing herself, while she gains so much by bringing a
colt.

There is no risk in this, for by this time, if she has been prop-
erly fed and cared for, she is sufhciently developed ; being
young, vigorous, full of rich, nutritious blood, with an unbroken
spirit, the fire of youth burning lustily in her system, and her
whole being teeming with the forces and energies of youthful
life, she can transmit them, together with the qualities of her

HORSES. 193

race, in full strength to her offspring. If, however, you know
nothing of the origin of the mare, hut yet, after having heen
" hroken to work," she exhihit quaUties of a high order, is
sound and possessed of vigorous health, and being satisfied that
she will be likely to bring good stock, even if not thoroughbred,
she can, after being thus tested, try her luck.

A very important point in breeding, and which is rarely if
ever considered, is the character of the breeding animals. All
animals have both a moral and intellectual character, varying
in degree perhaps, but yet fixed and determined, and it is high
time that these qualities were recognized.

Tlie horse is one of the most intelligent, sagacious, docile and
tractable of all animals, and under proper and judicious train-
ing can be made to do everything which comes within the range
of his ability. Naturally generous, affectionate and confiding,
he attaches himself to his master, and is ever ready, with kind
and yielding disposition, to do within the limits of his capacity
all that can reasonably be required of him ; and all that is neces-
sary to make him kind, amiable and gentle, and at the same
time increase his knowledge, is to recognize this capacity, and
by careful education to develop his ^mental and moral qualities
as much as possible. There are, however, some horses which are
inherently vicious ; they have ugly tempers, are cross, unman-
ageable, will bite, kick, are obstinate and wilful, possessing and
constantly exhibiting a natural depravity. A horse of such
character is well nigh useless, and although having other good
qualities, they are overbalanced by this evil disposition, and to
breed from such an animal is nothing short of wilful wicked-
ness. With all their good qualities this ugly and fe;"ocious tem-
per renders them unfit for breeding purposes, for it must never
be forgotten that bad qudities are as easily transmitted as good
ones, and to breed from such horses is not wise, for their use is
not only limited to the performance of certain kinds of work,
but they constantly put in jeopardy the comfort if not the safety
of those who have the care of tliem.

One point more we mention, and that is temperament. It is a
subject of which few stock raisers have any knowledge whatever
or ever think about, and fewer ever care to take the trouble to
study and comprehend it. It is, however, so connected with
the character and the disposition of the horse as to be of the

194 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

first importance, and every intelligent breeder should give it
thoughtful consideration. Temperament depends " on the state
of the mind as promoted by the composition and states of the
organs of the body." These differences of organization may be
ever so slight, yet their subtle influence is such as to make and
determine those different distinctions which constitute in an-
imals that condition or state which is called temperament. It
is not to be understood, however, that these differences are ow-
ing to any physical defects, but rather to those states of feeling
which are promoted by the state and composition of the organs
of the body (which are perfectly healthy and sound), but which
influence the mental strivings and emotions of animals whereby
they are distinguished in their different temperaments as nerv-
ous, sanguine, phlegmatic, etc. Without pretending to decide
how far these distinctions exist, it is yet obvious enough they
are sufficient to make the most mental differences so decided
as to require a careful discrimination on the part of those who
wish to raise an improved and superior class of animals. As a
rule, animals of similar temperaments should never be allowed to
breed together. Similarity of temperament in tbe parents is
most surely apt to develop in the progeny that temperament in
excess, and will produce glaring defects in character and
disposition. Take, for instance, the nervous temperament ; this,
when riglitly balanced with qualities harmoniously blended by
a union with the opposite temperament, gives that high, spirited
feeling, lofty action, proud carriage, tbat active enei'gy and in-
domitable courage and power of endurance which especially
distinguish all first-class thoroughbred horses.

Such horses, beside being well developed physically, have
finely organized brains ; they are naturally generous and affec-
tionate in disposition, intelligent, tractable and easily managed,
yet full of fire and resentful of injury and bad training. But
take those of the same nervous temperament and breed them
together and you will develop it to such an extent that it over-
leaps the bounds of a healthy prudence, and instead of an in-
creased improvement, you produce decided defects. This is
one cause why close breeding, or " breeding in and in," ulti-
mately deteriorates the stock. Horses bred of parents of sim-
ilar nervous temperaments, for illustration, will be exceedingly
sensitive ; they will be exquisitely alive to every impression,

HORSES. 195

constantly on the watch, excitable and frightened at every ob-
ject, however trifling. Such horses are difficult to manage,
they are unreliable, the conduct of to-day is no indication of
what it will be to-rnorrow. At one time calm and quiet, and
then suddenly, for slight causes, they become excessively ex-
cited and well-nigh unmanageable, and if in addition the temper
is bad, it will be exhibited in all its viciousness. Such horses,
however, may be fast travellers, and some of them may have
strong powers of endurance ; they have usually elegant and
well developed forms, especially if they are thoroughbred ; they
have fine skins, and soft, silky hair and mane, delicate but well
proportioned limbs, and quick, active movements; yet with all
these admirable qualities, they are so delicately and finely or-
ganized and possess so much excitability of brain and nerve
that they soon begin to fail and rapidly wear out. We might
extend these remarks further in reference to the other tempera-
ments, and treat of their excellences and defects, but enough
has been said to direct attention to a matter which is deserving
of serious consideration. If we are ever to have a breed of good
horses, possessing as far as possible every good habit and excel-
lence ; if we are ever to establish a scientific, philosophical sys-
tem of breeding, one not subject to the results of chance, but
reliable from the working'of fixed and well defined principles,
it must be done by a thorough and comprehensive knowledge,
not only of the physical organization of the horse, but of all
those laws which govern his whole being, those laws and prin-
ciples on which are depending the highest development of all
those qualities which go to make the most perfect animal.

P. LeB. Stickney, Chairman.

BARNSTABLE.

From the Report of the Committee.

Horses, Stallions, Mares and Colts. — The Committee on
horses, stallions, mares and colts beg leave to urge upon the farmers
of Barnstable County the necessity of Continued attention to the
breeding, more particularly, of this noble animal. The horses of
our county at present cannot be claimed as of any particular
breed. l\\ fact, there is no particular breed tiiat is just suitable
for a horse of all-work, a kind necessary for our purpose. If

196 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

we want mere race horses we should be compelled to procure
the thoroughhrcds or Arabians. If simply carriage horses, the
coach liorse of England. If trotters alone, we should be driven
to the Black Hawks or Messengers ; and if only the perfect dray
horse, the Conestoga, or heavy-limbed horse of Pennsylvania.
But we want one horse, and that a horse that will plough and
trot well and carry a buggy in shape, and, in fact, change from
one employment to another with all ease.

And so our horses have some Morgan and some Black Hawk
and some ]\ressenger, and in fact a mixture of all sorts, good
and bad, but still we have such as we have, and must make the
best of them. The only way left for us is to improve, if possi-
ble, on what we have got. There are questions in the matter
of breeding that we do not propose to touch. For instance,
" which lias the greatest influence on the colt, the dam or the
sire " when they are both of equal blood ? Able horse men
have been found to defend each side. In the summing up of
all their arguments we have come to the conclusion that col-
lateral circumstances have very much to do with the whole
matter ; so much so that no positive rule can be laid down.
Sometimes the sire has more vital power and nervous strength
than the dam, and his peculiarities will predominate. Then
again the dam, from youth and peculiar vigor, will take the
lead. But when you come to animals of different degrees of
blood, we can come to a safer conclusion. It is now a recognized
fact among breeders that whichever of the two animals is of the
purer race, the peculiarities of that one will be transmitted in
the greater degree. The Devons, among bovines, are a very
-striking example of this trait. No matter what kind of cows
you have, the Devon sire invariably produces a red calf with a
whitish tuft to its tail. So that farmers may come to the con-
clusion that the procuring of the liest blood in the sire will
increase the value of their stock. No scrub, no mongrel, no
Goarse-blooded male of any kind should be employed, if a pure
or nearly pure blood can be procured. The little difference of
the cost of the services of a good animal ought not to weigh a
moment in their minds.

There is one point in breeding that is not universally known,
which we should state at the very threshold of our remarks on
the breeding of colts. That is, that there is a lasting influence

HORSES. 197

conferred on the mare by her first stallion. If this is so — and
there is no doubt of it — how careful ought the farmer to be
when his mare is about to produce her first colt. The greatest
care should be taken that the horse is of unexceptionable blood,
for all her colts thereafter will certainly resemble him in some
■way. Every dog breeder knows that if his pure dog-mother
has her first litter of pups by a mongrel cur, the purest dog of
her own breed will never get a litter from her that will not con-
tain one pup, at least, of mongrel character and appearance.
Why this is we do not undertake to explain, no more tlian we
should undertake to explain why a widow's children by her sec-
ond husband are often striking likenesses of her deceased hus-
band, or why the infant of two extremely ugly persons will be
a beautiful picture, and look like neither of their other children
and like neither of themselves ; or why hideous monsters some-
times appear to perplex and alarm and sadden the beautiful
mother and the handsome and finely moulded father. We do
know that frequently, when an ordinary mare has had a colt by
a blood stallion, the owner is amazed by finding it full of de-
fects. Often if he had inquired he would have found that her
first colt was the offspring of a donkey or some poor treacher-
ous and defective stud horse. Another thing is to take good
healthy mares for breeders. A mare that has been used up,
that has expended her energy and vitality in front of the lum-
ber cart, will not produce very good colts, although sired by the
best of stock. A fine working mare is all right, and fair labor
does not injure her as a breeder. But take a mere rack of
bones that has staggered and stumbled for years in front of a
milk wagon, and you must not expect to raise a valuable colt
from such a skeleton. Then, again, the colt when born should
be well taken care of. For instance, take two colts from two
mares of the same purity, and sired by the same father, and let
one shiver out in the cold and storm ; let him have such food
as he can pick up among the rocks of a barren pasture, and
such only, and let the other be handled about the farm, be fed
freely from the stable door, be allowed to gallop in the sunshine,
and gambol about the new and sweet pastures, and then after
six months or a year compare them. The first will be a miser-
able pot-bellied runt, without pluck or beauty, and the other a
fat, docile, sturdy and handsome fellow, head and tail erect, full

198 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

of courage and full of intelligence. Now take two other colts of
the same parentage and turn the fat one's brother out to get
his own living, and take the lean one's brother to your home
pasture and your stable and your oat barrel, and you will find
that the brothers look like animals of different breeds, while the
strangers look like brothers. Therefore pay attention to early
feeding. As soon as a colt can eat, he should be fed liberally
on a gruel made of ground oats and cows' milk. As he grows
older give him u^iground oats without the milk, and feed him
from a. box of his own, not out of tlie sour manger where his
mother has been fed. In summer let him run in the night and
roll at his leisure and eat fresh grass, but when the heat begins
to press carry him to the stable, and don't deny him his oats
because he has eaten grass all night. The best trainers will not
receive a horse into their training stables, whose oat fodder was
neglected while a colt, and no other fare allowed him than the
common pasture and staljle hay. They say the mischief has
already been done, and that it is useless to attempt to train an
animal for extraordinary speed which has not been oat- fed from
liis birth.

As to breaking, if a colt is daily handled about the house door,
and taught by his owner witli gentle speech and patience, he
will not need what is called " breaking," he only needs teaching".
He is a kind and intelligent animal and wishes to do all that he
can comprehend. With a careful mare and a patient teacher,
he will usually go off the first time he is harnessed as steadily
almost as an old stager.

One word with reference to stallions, as upon them it is a
part of our duty to report. The nearer the stallion which you
use is to the " thoroughbred," the better will be the offspring ;
the purer the blood the surer he will produce his characteris-
tics in his progeny. We know of no pure " thoroughbred" in
the State. There are some South, and their colts, of which
some companies of Southern cavalry were formed, harassed
our armies most unmercifully duiing the late rebellion. They
are more perfect in England than in this country, by more
judicious in-and-in breeding. The greatest cavalry charge of
modern times was that of the famous " light brigade " at Balac-
lava. Those valiant men that galloped down with Lord Cardi-
gan into the valley of death, all rode horses that were three-

HORSES. 199

quarters thoroughbred, and each one cost three hundred pounds
sterling.

It is not every one that knows wliat " thoroughbred," as used
in this country means. Ours came from the thorough-bred of
England, and England got them from the Desert of Arabia.
They are the children of the Arabian horse improved in Eng-
land. Tliere are no trotters among them. They are all run-
ning horses. Well, we have none of these, but we have their
bloody crossed to be sure, but bettered for all- work. The Morgan
horses of Maine are part thoroughbred. The Black Hawks are
part thoroughbred. The Messengers are part thoroughbred
also. If you can have a stallion that comes from some Ham-
bletonian mare, and so gives you the Messenger, and from a
Black Hawk sire and so get the Morgan, which is part thorough-
bred, you will have colts that will make the best horses of all-
work, provided your mare is a good one.

A. D. Makepeace, Chairman.

NANTUCKET.

From the Report of the Committee.
It is getting to be understood that the mare has very much to
do with the quality of the offspring. There was a time when
little scraggy, pot-bellied mares that had arrived at an age when
they were nearly useless to labor were selected for raising the
colts. While there was any work in them the owner could not
spare them for this purpose. Now there is a better state of
things. There were mares and colts presented this year that
appeared in every way as well as the best specimens of other
counties. To be sure, as in many other Massachusetts counties,
there were no specimens of distinct breeds, but still there were
those which combined enough of each of the famous kinds to
make them very desirable for horses of " all-work." A prac-
tised eye could see most admirably mixed the good qualities
of the Andalufeian that ran away from his Spanish master while
he was carousing in the halls of the Montezumas, the charger
tliat escaped from the romantic expedition of De Soto, the war-
horse that was stolen from General De Lancy at King's Bridge,
and barb of the Moor and Arab. The horse now reared here is
the product of Southern and Northern horses, Western and

200 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Prairie, and probably every mixture mixed again that has been
domesticated since the discovery by Columbus.

There is no reason why Nantucket should not make herself
as famous for producing good horses as the Channel Islands
have become for producing good cows. Careful attention to
the selection of mares has more to do with it than in procuring
the sires. The Arabs, for all our self-conceit, are at this day
the best breeders of horses. With them we find more stress
laid on a good mare than a good sire. A first-class mare cannot
be bought of an Arab. He knows that there is scarcely a dis-
ease which is not inherited more frequently from the dam than
the sire. For this reason the Arab shows the greatest care in
selecting a mare, and the greatest attention to her offspring.

We hope the time will soon come when the professional horse-
raiser will give his first and greatest attention to the stock he
proposes to propagate ; that he will make extended inquiries to
find whether the mare he is about to select as a breeder is free
from blemish, hereditary or acquired ; that he will select none
except such as are young and vigorous and have not been broken
down by hard labor, of roomy form and good blood. Tliis is of
far more consequence than that the sire should be some fashion-
able, newspapcr-pufTed animal, with a long pedigree. For a road
animal, the draught, the plough, use mares with the splinter or
" heaves," or any other infirmity, for anything except breeding.
Use them because they are tougher than a horse, less liable to
injury, and will do more work on less feed. But for breeding
purposes select the very best.

There is another thing which those we call barbarians have
learned, which it will be profitable for us to follow. That is,
that gentle treatment and intelligent using of the colt is all the
breaking that is requisite. Tliat not to fear man is one of the
most important lessons that the young colt can acquire. By
teaching him this and practising kindness invariably, we can get
him to practise quite readily all that we now rend from him
with the common "assault and battery" process.

Edward M. Gardner, Chairman.

SHEEP. 201

SHEEP.

UINGHAM.

Frovi the Report of the Committee.

Sheep husbandry and the production of wool has become one
of the largest and most valuable interests in this country. The
United States, with their almost boundless territory, and num-
berless railroads connecting it with the markets, affords peculiar
advantages for this branch of farming and promises a profitable
field for future operation. Millions of acres of herbage, suited
to the wants of fine woolled sheep, are annually left to decay
and waste for want of animals to consume the abundant spon-
taneous growth, and millions of dollars are thereby lost to the
country. It is true that the markets have lately been over-
stocked with wool, and the farmers have suffered much less in
their flocks from disease and otherwise ; but as the railroads
build up the country and open communication with the vast
fields of the West and South, the raising of sheep will become
more and more profitable, and be a source of infinite wealth to
the people. Our pastures are limitless, and yet we have to-day
less than half the number of sheep in Great Britain, our last
returns showing about twenty-five million as against fifty-five
million in Great Britain. This arises, of course, from the nature
of the country and the vast tracts of land as yet unexplored,
and hence unimproved.

We do not expect in Massachusetts, however, large or very
profitable returns from the rearing of sheep. In a State so
densely populated, with so many small farms, and the people
so extensively engaged in manufacturing and commercial pur-
suits, the farmers can hardly hope to compete with the farmers
of the newer States, at least in the production of wool. The
farmer of Hingham, with his cosset tethered at his back door,
or even his flock of one hundred sheep, can hardly expect to
undersell the Texan herdsman with his ranch of fifteen thousand
acres and as many sheep upon it, even if he is nearer tlie mar-
ket. Wool can probably be produced in Texas and shipped to
market at half the cost that it can in Massachusetts, and at the

2G*

202 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

present market prices the raising of sheep for ayooI would hardly
be economical.

Nevertheless, we shall find the keeping of sheep profitable ;
and it is to be encouraged for the production of mutton as a
direct means of support, and indirectly for maintaining the pro-
ductions of the soil. Although the mutton in our market
comes principally from Canada and the West, and very little, if
any, from the country within one hundred miles of Boston, yet
we can find a ready sale for all we can raise for home consump-
tion. "We can at least help to supply our own tables. A flock
of sheep, too, is as beneficial to the pastures of a large farm as
the pruning knife is to the orchards or the broom to the kitchen.
They will effectually clear up the weeds, briers, bushes and
other rubbish, thereby saving the farmer much labor with the
bush-scythe, and by their droppings prepare the field for the
plough. It is for these purposes, for raising mutton and for
clearing up our old farms, many of which are becoming foul,
and possibly for the exportation of full-blood sheep, particularly
bucks, that the farmers in this immediate vicinity should engage
in the raising of sheep.

It is useless, and indeed impossible, to say which is the best
breed of sheep, it depends so much upon the purpose for which
they are kept, whether for mutton or for wool, and upon the
local condition of the country where they are reared, its prox-
imity to market and the character of the lands for feed, some
breeds thriving best in one country and some in another, and
some being best for mutton and some for wool. No single
breed has yet been found which combines both these qualities
in the g-reatest perfection. The best breeds for wool seem to be
found in the Middle and Southern States, and the best for
mutton in the Northern and Western States. For the large,
rough tracts of rocky pastures in the unsettled States and Ter-
ritories, far away from the markets of the world, where the
sheep can be herded together by thousands and turned out to
take care of themselves to a great extent, the small, hardy
Merino sheep or the South Downs are best adapted ; being small
and tough, they more easily find their v/ay over the rough pas-
tures, earn their own livelihood and produce a large amount of
fine wool for their size. The Cotswolds and Lcicesters being of
larger frame and requiring more food, cannot so well be herded

SHEEP. 203

in large flocks nor find their own support, and arc therefore
better suited to the riclier land and smaller farms in the more
populous countries, where more attention can be given to them
and the mutton at once turned into the markets.

For the farmer in Hingham, the Merino sheep would not be
economical, being valuable chiefly for their fine wool. The
South Downs, on the contrary, could be reared with profit for
the fine quality of mutton they produce, and for the improve-
ment of our home stock, and for exportation, as well as for
their fine wool. The Leicesters, with their heavier fleece and
carcass, combine, as much as any single breed, the advantages
of wool and mutton, and would, no doubt, be a good breed for
the farmers in this neighborhood to raise. The later importa-
tions into this country, the long-wooUed Cotswolds and Cheviots,
have each their respective merits, and are valuable, but our
experience with these breeds is as yet more limited. Theoret-
ically, we should of course cultivate the pure bloods, but for
general purposes in this, market, for the size of the lambs
dropped, and the weight of the fleeces sheared, both taken into
consideration, a flock of Canada sheep will yield perhaps the
Isirgest pecuniary returns to the farmer to-day. And it is with
this view that the Committee this year, as in years past, have
awarded the premiums. Believing fully in the merits of the
South Down breed, they find that, as a means of support to the
Hingham farmer, more profit can be made from a flock of
Canada sheep than from a flock of pure South Downs. The
experience of many, however, has proved that the most profit
can be realized from a flock of Canada sheep, crossed by a full-
blood South Down buck.

"Whatever breed we keep, there can at least be no excuse for
neglect in the management and care of the animals themselves.
Our pastures are all near home, and afford good feed in
ordinary seasons ; our flocks are small, and each animal can
receive our individual attention if necessary ; if we lose one,
we can easily leave the ninety and nine in the wilderness, and
go after that which is lost, until we find it. All our sheep
therefore should be in good condition. It is true, we cannot
protect them entirely from the ravages of dogs, which in some
parts of the country have been so extensive. It has been esti-
mated that throughout the United States we annually suffer a

204 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

loss of two million sheep killed in this way, and one million
wounded. Still wc can do much by the enforcement of strin-
gent protective laws.

In winter and spring, as well as in summer, the sheep deserve
our attention. Give them good dry barns or sheds, with plenty
of room, sunlight and ventilation, and a variety of food in the
winter ; wash them early in the season, in a stream of running
water, if possible, and shear them from a week to ten days
afterwards.

We recommend the pursuit of this branch of husbandry,
both as a source of income and of pleasure. What more useful
animals to reclaim our old pastures, what more beautiful animals
to grace them, once reclaimed ? How could the commissioners
of the Central Park in the great city of New York have better
enriched the beautiful lawns than by the flocks of South Downs
which graze upon them ? How can we better add to the profit
and beauty of our own farms than by the flocks which feed
upon their hillsides ?

It is gratifying to note the increasing interest manifested in
this neighborhood in the raising of sheep, and it is becoming
this society to further the efforts of the farmers in this direction
in every proper way.

Arthur Lincoln, Chairman.

POULTRY.

LIIDDLESEX NORTH.

Front the Report of the Committee.
Something was said last year regarding the construction of
coops ; we noticed some improvement, but they were hardly up
to the mark this year. At the New Hampshire State Fair, we
noticed that a majority were made after the following manner :
Make of matched boards two squares exactly alike of the re-
quired size ; around the outside nail on pieces four inches wide,
run a gauge mark through the centre of the pieces, and bore
three-quarter holes, three inclies apart, all around on this mark.
Get a quantity of stair rounds, and saw them as long as the

POULTRY. 205

required height ; insert the ends in tliese holes, tack with small
nails, and you have a handsome, cheap and durable article.

A few words, regarding the status of the poultry business, we
think may be of interest.

Since the advent of the long, gaunt, ungainly Siianghai into
this country, there have been imported between sixty and seventy
varieties of hens, eight varieties of turkeys, nine of geese and
seven of ducks, for which premiums have been offered by the
various societies in this interest ; yet with all this improvement
in breed, not one pafticle of real statistical information regard-
ing their exact paying value exists. This is in part owing to
the fact that, before importation, little interest was taken in
fowls outside of the supply of home wants, and that since then,
fanciers have seized upon every fresh arrival to propagate for
fancy.

It is time now that we should ascertain the true market value
of some of these fine birds, that we may know which to select
for permanent keeping. In furtherance of this object, we wish
five or six interested gentlemen, selecting different breeds,
would open with them a strict business account for two years,
reporting at the end of that time to this society, charging
them with first cost, hen-house and all other appliances, food,
and interest on money invested ; contra with eggs, poultry,
manure, value of stock and fixtures on hand at the end of the
account.

We warrant this experiment to pay in pleasure, and think
without doubt the balance in money will be on the right side.
In order to give it its full value, home breeds should be selected
and kept entirely distinct, because all mixtures deteriorate.
We propose on our part to take eight or twelve white Leghorns,
and an equal number of light Brahmas, that we may test their
value, both for poultry and eggs, and at the end of two years,
we may have no doubt, we shall be able to say confidently, our
hens pay. A. G. Swan, Chairman.

WORCESTER NORTH.

From the Report of the Committee .
It has been demonstrated, over and over again, that no ani-
mals kept upon the farm are capable of yielding so great a return,
upon the capital employed, as poultry.

206 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The writer has invariably found, from actual recorded results,
that there has never been less than one hundred per cent, profit
realized upon the capital involved ; and it has often gone as high
as one hundred and fifty or more. Of what other stock kept
can such a result be shown ? Although this state of things is
freely admitted, yet there is a very general feeling that it is a
small business, can only be pursued on a small scale, and will
do for women, children, and a class of men whose time has but
a limited value. There is also a very prevalent sentiment that
poultry in any considerable numbers canirot be kept upon one
farm, and therefore the subject is unworthy of serious attention.

It is quite true that poultry in large numbers together have
never permanently succeeded ; but it is also a fact that a family
of say a dozen in number can be kept in perfect condition, and
with profitable results, while partially or entirely confined to a
movable or even a stationar}^ coop. This is frequently to be
seen in villages, where the fowls are necessarily kept from rang-
ing at all. If a single dozen of fowls will succeed under such
circumstances, there is no plausible reason that can be urged
why another dozen cannot be kept at a small distance, and still
another, and so on indefinitely ; the only question to be deter-
mined being the smallest space to which each family can be
limited, and entire success follow. To make the keeping of a
dozen or a score of hens a satisfactory operation under these
conditions, we must become familiar with their habits and re-
quirements. A few hens running at large over a farm, will get
a fair living with little or no feeding, but will not yield the best
results. There are two great essentials so far as their food is
concerned. One is that they shall have all that they can con-
sume in quantity, and the other is that they shall have a variety
sufficient to supply all their needs. It is evident that if they are
to be confined to a larger or smaller space, it is feasible to sup-
ply them with food in unlimited quantities, and that it is en-
tirely possible to give them all the variety necessary, if we only
know what that is. The failures in feeding almost always grow
out of the failure to supply an adequate variety, rather than a
sufficient quantity.

A hen should be looked upon as an egg-factory, or as a
machine for producing eggs. If the machine is in a proper
state of repair (i. e., if the hen is in good health), tlien the

POULTRY. 207

more raw material, of which eggs are made up, that tlie machine
can be made to consume, the greater will be the production of
the manufactured eggs. If a hen requires three ounces of grain
per day to keep her in condition simply, without increase in any
respect, then it follows that unless she can get more than three
ounces, she can never produce an egg except at the expense of
her own substance. Hence all the profit must come from the
excess of the three ounces that are furnished and consumed.
For this reason, every expedient that dots not interfere with
the health of the animal should be made use of to induce her
to consume all the raw material possible out of which eggs are
formed. The appetite of fowls is not always a sure guide in
these cases. Perhaps there is nothing that they will eat with
greater avidity and apparent relish than hot boiled potatoes,
and yet if they are supplied with all that they will consume,
it will surely diminish and even stop the production of eggs.
This is also true of some other kinds of food.

As far as our experience has taught us, up to the present
time, their requirements for the largest production of eggs
would be best supplied as follows : —

1st. An unlimited supply of good wheat. It is very com-
mon to use the cheaper grains, and especially wheat screenings,
for this purpose, but we are convinced that a given amount of
money invested in first quality grain will yield a larger return
in eggs than if anything inferior is substituted.

2d. An unlimited supply of sound corn. The same princi-
ple will apply here as regards inferior corn. It is also a fact
that a hen will consume less of second quality corn, if it is
poorly ripened, or has been injured by heating or otherwise ;
and this, in addition to its poorer quality, at once tells against
the production of eggs.

3d. A limited amount of animal food. This may be pro-
vided in the form of fresh meat or fish, better if cooked, beef
or pork scrap-cake, ground ; or, what we have found to be a
very good substitute, skim-milk curd, freed from whey. This
last we supply to them without limit, as there is no risk of
their consuming it in injurious amounts, as they sometimes will
fresh meat.

4th. Some form of vegeta])le fil)rc. Hens consume large
quantities of clover and grass during the summer season, if

208 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

they have access to it ; and in fact when it is often supposed
from their motions that they are feeding upon insects, it is only
upon the leaves and hlades of the grasses and clovers. In con-
finement a very good substitute may be found in dry shorts,
■which they will eat very freely.

5th. Lime. This may be fed in the condition of egg-shell,
ground oyster shell, bones, or old mortar.

6th. Gravel stones. When confined, it will be necessary to
give them a supply of gravel, or, in winter, we have found a
good substitute in pounded anthracite coal, or the unburned
bits of coal left in the ashes. Dry coal ash is also one of the
best absorbents of their droppings. An inch or two spread
upon the floor of their house will keep everything dry and
sweet for a long time. It will also afford a very good dusting
material, that will be of great service in keeping them free
from vermin, one of the most essential things in the whole
management.

For the best results, chickens should be hatched so early in
spring that the pullets will commence laying in September or
October, and they ought not to be kept more than about a year
from that time, as the number of eggs laid the second year will
be slightly less than the first, and less of them will be laid in
the time of the highest prices.

Jabez Fisher, Chairman.

BRISTOL.

From the Report of the Committee.
Considerable Inquiry was made of the Committee to know
some of the most useful breeds to keep. The Committee take
the liberty to recommend the following: Light and dark Brah-
mas, Plymouth Rock, Buff Cochins, Dorkings, Game, White
Cochins, Dominique, Chittagongs and White Leghorns. In
making these recommendations we do not lose sight of the fact
that this is an agricultural and not a poultry-fanciers' society.
There are many breeds of great beauty and value to the fancier
which are not profitable to the farmer. Farmers and others
who raise poultry will find it to their advantage to keep pure
breeds, because they will bring larger prices when they arrive
at maturity, and the actual cost is no more.

POULTRY. 209

Let every member of our society who may have a farm or
garden contribute a coop of poultry, and it will surpass any
poultry exhibition ever held in this country.

Your Committee recommend that at the next annual exhibi-
tion contributors make a statement of the cost and income of
some of the leading varieties.

Considerable having been written in former reports about the
best breeds of poultry, we take the liberty this year to make the
following suggestions in regard to the management of poultry.

In locating a hen-house select a southerly aspect, that the hens
may enjoy the sunshine in cold weather. IMake the house so
that it can be well ventilated in warm weather and be warm in
cold weather. It should be well lighted, and so arranged as to
admit plenty of air in the summer. A house may be built in
the south side of a bank or hill, in a dry location.

Hens that are kept to lay should be fed well, but not overfed.
Give them oats, barley, buckwheat and Indian coru. Give
them boiled potatoes, mashed while hot; stir in wheat bran and
barley meal. This makes the very best feed for chickens. In
winter keep constantly by them old mortar, ground oyster shells
and ashes. Teed green food, such as cabbage, potatoes and
turnips, and you will have plenty of eggs.

The croup is one of the most destructive of diseases that at-
tacks the feathered family, and generally by being closely con-
fined in damp houses and improper care. Allow chickens pure
air, pure food and pure water, and they will be seldom sick.
By all means whitewash the hen-house in the spring and fall.
Put much salt in the whitewash, fill all the cracks with the
wash, and all trouble from vermin will be gone.

Turkeys in bad weather should have a dry shelter ; a damp-
ness is destructive to them. The curd of milk and hard-boiled
eggs are very good. Indian meal may be given after they are a
few weeks old, and boiled potatoes mixed with shorts and meal
are very good food. They are great ramblers, and cannot well
bear confinement. In good weather they do better to let them
range in the air and seek their food. Turkeys will thrive best
in warm, dry seasons.

Ducks should have clean, pure water — not a mud hole — to
swim in ; a running brook is best. If that cannot be had, make
a little artificial pond. It can be done with little expense.

27*

210 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Scoop out tho earth the shape of a basin, and cement it two
inches thick, and the pond in made. Some breeders do not let
them go into the water, having only a little to drink, but pure
water will not hurt them. Barley and Indian meal mixed with
scraps is very good food and will fatten them very early.

Geese, the same as all other poultry when young, should
be kept warm. They do not require much water. They are
raised on the Western prairies very successfully, with only a little
to drink. They thrive very well in a good pasture in the sum-
mer, without any other feed.

Some farmers and others commence with a very fine stock of
poultry and in a very few years they are a sorry looking mess.
Among tlie most prominent reasons for this is breeding in a
hap-hazard manner, without any regard to breeding from the
best, breeding in and in (this should not be done more than
one year), want of good keeping, want of good management,
and excessive use of the male bird. Bad keeping, want of pure
water, exposures, bad management of any kind, are causes of
degeneracy. To improve poultry they must be well but not too
highly fed, well watered, and managed every way for the pro-
motion of their health and comfort.

Joseph R. Presho, Chairman.

BRISTOL CENTRAL.

From the Report of the Committee.

We would again call the attention of exhibitors to the neces-
sity of having proper coops or cages. Some of these were really
disgraceful, and we think if they had been exhibited in New York,
the president of the society for the prevention of cruelty to
animals (Mr. Bcrgh) would have been justified in entering a
complaint. It requires but a small expenditure of time, money
or ingenuity to construct a coop which will comfortably hold
and exhibit the birds which it contains. It may be said that in
the country lumber is often difficult to be obtained, but some of
the coops had slats so broad that two coops might have been
made from the material wasted in constructing one poor abor-
tion, so miserable that it was cruelty to keep fowls shut up in it
for forty-eight hours.

On the other hand, the Committee would speak in words of

POULTRY. 211

warm commendation of many admirably constructed cages, ex-
hibited by Isaac Dean of Tannton, John Cummings, Jr., Frederic
S. Potter of North Dartmouth, R. G. Buflinton of Somerset,
and others, to whom we would gladly have voted more pre-
miums, if the sum appropriated to this department had war-
ranted it. We hope by another year to have at least twenty-
five cages owned by the society, into which, for a small compen-
sation, birds badly accommodated by their owners can be placed.
In former years, it has been a subject of complaint that this at-
tractive department was crowded too much in a corner, far
away from the portion of our grounds most thronged and ac-
cessible. The Committee, this year, availed themselves of a
new and better location, much nearer the centre of the grounds,
and from the approbation expressed by many at the cliange, as
well as the increased throng of interested spectators, tliey are
led to believe that future exhibitions should be located in nearly
the same spot.

Another new feature of the exhibition was the entry among
the lists of competitors in this department of a young lady, —
Miss Eudora F. Terry, of New Bedford, — who made a most
gratifying and brilliant display of light and dark Brahmas,
golden buff Cochins, Houdans and Gray Dorkings. We wel-
come this fact as a very encouraging indication that the refined
and intelligent culture of choice breeds of poultry is beginning
to be appreciated by those whose natural susceptibility to beauty
is usually of a finer quality than our own, and who are not
likely to be excelled in the breeding to a feather of our choicest
breeds of poultry.

We hope another year to chronicle the advent of other lady
competitors. We can assure them that in this specialty there
is great scope for the exercise of aesthetic perceptions. What
can be more beautiful, for instance, than the pencilling of the
gold and silver Hamburgs ; the exquisite harmony of color
which the best-bred Gray Dorking pullets exhibit, and which we
think come nearer the wild game birds of the country in beauty
of form and plumage than any other ?

Then there are the numerous strains of game fowl, the prevx
chevaliers of their race, unexcelled in splendor of plumage and
unequalled in grace of form and carriage : the Houdans, hel-
meted like cuirassiers, and the plumed Crevecoeurs, the black-

212 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

horse cavalry of the poultry yard ; the La Fleche with its
branching antlers, and the Ijlack Spanish and Leghorns, whose
battlcmcnted combs of the brightest crimson, flaming above the
raven and snow of their plumage, entitle them to be considered
the color guard of the grand poultry army. Then there are
the stately Brahmas and Cochins, the giants of their race ; the
black Polands with their crowns of snow, and their golden and
silver cousins beautifully marked ; and last come the sprightly
little Bantams, whose pencillings have made immortal the name
of Sir John ScVjright, and whose tints are almost as various as
the wild flowers of spring. Is there not a field here sufficient
to tempt the most aesthetic taste ?

We are glad to perceive that the Houdans are growing more
numerous at our annual exhibitions. From the universal testi-
mony in their favor, as well as from our own experience, we
consider this the most valuable of the late importations, and
we hope to see them very extensively introduced. Four hens
belonging to the Chairman of your Committee commenced lay-
ing about the first of January, and with hardly any intermis-
sion in the coldest weather, continued to lay until the last of
July, when they began so moult.

Their eggs are of large size, and if these were sold by weight,
as they ought to be, this would bo a strong point in their favor.
The young are very hardy and mature rapidly. There is prob-
ably no breed better adapted to the generality of farmers.
They seldom show a disposition to set, and on that account, if
chickens are desired, it is necessary to have hens of the Game,
Dorking or other breeds to rear the young. The Gray Dorking,
we are also pleased to see, is growing into favor. The only
fowls of this breed in good feather were those of Mr. Isaac
Dean of Taunton, whose coops attracted great attention.

The coops of Black Spanish fowls exhibited by Mr. Cummings
of North Dartmouth were very superior, showing that they had
been most carefully bred.

Never before within our recollection has there been such a
fine show of thoroughbred fowls, and this is particularly grati-
fying when we remember the very poor mongrel varieties for-
merly exhibited by individuals, who now bring every year coops
of the choicest fowl showing thorough breeding.

We cannot forbear congratulating the society upon the fact

POULTRY. 213

that the quality of our annual shows in poultry has advanced
nearly one hundred per cent, since our first acquaintance with
tliem a few years since ; a fact which proves that our farmers
are becoming more and more alive to the profit as well as pleas-
ure to be derived from an intelligent cultivation of this interest-
ing branch of rural economy. The amount expended in pre-
miums is already far more than compensated for by the increased
attractiveness of our annual displays, — less startling because
very gradual from year to year ; and we have no doubt that if
a census could be taken, the'value of eggs and poultry raised
in Bristol County would be found to have increased at least
forty per cent, within the last ten years. We do not form this
opinion altogether from our annual exhibitions, but from
frequent excursions over a large section of the country during
the last two or three years. The Brahmas may now be con-
sidered the common fowl of the country ; a breed which is an
admirable one for all farmers who wish to raise a handsome flock
of chickens without much trouble, as the young ones hatched
are almost certain to live. Next to these, the Leghorns seem
to be the favorites. We hope in a few years to see Houdans
and Gray Dorkings as numerous as the Brahmas, though the
latter is a most valuable breed, and we hope it will continue to
be bred pure.

Li our report of last year, some general remarks and statistics
were given with regard to poultry raising. We have received
a little statement, which we insert here for the purpose of
showing what we then stated, that the raising of poultry could
be made as profitable as any other branch of agriculture. The
following is the statement of Dr. Justin Prior, of Orange, N. J. :
" On January 1st, 1870, we had on hand sixty-three fowls, con-
sisting of five Brahma cocks, twenty-four Brahma hens, twenty-
one Leghorn hens, two Chittagong hens, one Poland hen, five
common hens, two Silver Hamburg hens, two ducks, one drake.

From January 1st, 1870, to August 1st, 1870, we have

received for eggs and poultry, . . . .1199 80
Amount paid out for feed and sundries, ... 54 82

Leaving a profit of $144 98

214 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

We have now on hand fifty-five fowls, having lost by sickness
fifteen fowls during the Piimmer."

Mr. Prior states that his land is very low, and is not a good
location for raising chickens, which accounts for the unusual
mortality. Under favorable circumstances, he would have had
at the close of the season quite as many as he started with.
He states, in addition, that his hen-house, coops, &c., cost forty-
three dollars, and were paid for out of his last year's profits, and
since sold for fifty dollars.

It is evident that there is a profit here of at least one hundred
per cent., which we think is as great as can be realized from any
other department of farming. It would be gratifying to your
Committee if breeders of poultry would furnish them with
statements like the al)ove.

Edmund Rodman, Chairman.

THE DAIRY.

BERKSHIRE.

From the Report of the Committee.

It is an established fact that the milk of some cows is deficient
in one or more properties that are requisite to make sweet and
delicious butter, though they may give a large flow of milk and
rank number one in the cheese department. I will here simply
state that in former years'our occupation was what we termed
a practical farmer's and dairyman's, and give our system of
making butter. First, and not least, cleanliness in all things
relative to our vocation should bo strictly observed, for without
this necessary precaution you cannot make a good article. In
warm weatlier fill the pans abont two-thirds full of milk and set
them in a cool milk-room. Place them in a vat or sink about
six inches deep, then let a stream of cool water in until it stands
two or three inches deep in the sink and around the pans ; let
them remain until the sink or vat is wanted for the succeeding
milking ; then remove the pans to shelves and let them stand for
thirty-six hours from the time of filling. (I know some will
demur to this theory, and would prefer good fresh cool air.
I am not writing from theory or a wide stretch of imagination.

THE DAIRY. 215

but from actual experience.) Adopt this course only in ex-
tremely warm weather. In the spring and early fall omit the
flow of water around the pans.

In cold weather place the pans on the stove or furnace, and
heat until the cream becomes waved or crinkled, then set them
away for twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the atmos-
phere of the room, then repeat the heating process as before.
Skim and keep the cream in stone jars, as they are preferable
to wood ; let the cream at every addition be well stirred, that it
may be wholly mixed. Churn every other day in warm weather,
and twice a week in cold. If the atmosphere is excessively
warm after the cream is in the churn, put in a few small lumps
of ice. Let the revolutions of the dasher be uniform ; when the
globules are broken, and the butter appears in particles and
commences to separate from tlie buttermilk, put in two quarts
or more, according to the amount of butter, of water ; then
move the dasher moderately for two or three minutes or until
the whole adheres in one lump. Draw off the buttermilk and
turn in half a pail of cool water ; move the dasher slowly for a
few minutes to work out the buttermilk, then draw off the
water, and take the butter into the bowl or tray and put one
ounce of salt to each pound of butter ; work it in carefully, so
as not to break the grain of the butter more than is actually
necessary. Let it remain for twelve hours, that the whole may
become completely incorporated, then give it the second work-
ing, extracting all the buttermilk, and pack in stone jars. If
to be kept any length of time, cover the surface with a brine
made from pure salt.

Butter will keep the sweetest in its natural color, as any
coloring matter will have a tendency to destroy that sweet,
delicious and peculiar flavor that is palatable to all butter-eaters
of fine, susceptible tastes. This was our system ; not that I
wish to be understood that we made a better article than many
others, but I will say that our butter was eagerly sought after
by those who had tested its flavor. There is, however, one point
in making good butter that seems to be overlooked, that is, the
influence of the food consumed by the cow upon the milk she
produces. And here rests a large proportion of the secret of
making good or poor butter. It is a matter worthy of and de-
mands a very close investigation. The most natural food of the

216 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

cow is grass ; therefore, according to the quality of lier feed, so
to a greater or less extent will be her milk. What is most de-
sirable in a pasture is a variety of grasses of fine, sweet, nutri-
tious quality and a constant succession of growth. It is the
noxious weeds, &c., that cows eat, which impart bad flavors,
and the sweet, nutritious food eaten which imparts that beauti-
fully rick taste peculiar to prime, fresh butter.

For the fall and winter months, let there be given a liberal
allowance of sweet, fine hay, cut before the seed is developed,
with a certain allowance of shorts, together with roots. Rye
and oats ground together will make more milk than shorts or
meal, though the two latter mixed make richer milk. Some
butter-makers assert that cream should be kept unil it becomes
sour before you churn it or can make good butter from it.
From that theory I shall most emphatically differ. For evidence,
I will here state a case during our experience in the dairy busi-
ness. Our churning for a time was done by water-power, and
we frequently would take the milk warm from the cows and
churn it (which would usually take about five minutes), and I
have yet to find that sweet, delicious flavored butter, from sour
cream or any other, that we used to get from that sweet milk ;
from which it is evident that the sweeter the cream the sweeter

the butter made therefrom.

Miles Avery, Chairman.

SUPPLEMENT. ^

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

CATALOGUE OF TRUSTEES, OVERSEERS AND FACULTY, 1870.

§oarb of ^tnskts.

MEMBERS EX OFFICIIS.

His Excellency WILLIAM CLAFLIN.

Col. WILLIAM S. CLARK, President of College.

Hon. JOSEPH WHITE, LL.D., Secretary of Board of Education.

Hon. CHARLES L. ELINT, Secretary of Board of Agriculture.

ELECTED BY THE LEGISLATURE.

Hon. MAHSHALL P. WILDER, .... Suffolk County.

Hon. CHARLES G. DAVIS, Plymouth County.

Dr. NATHAN DURFEE Bristol County.

HENRY COLT, Esq., Berkshire County.

Rev. CHARLES C. SEWALL, Norfolk County.

PAOLI LATHROP, Esq., Hampshire County.

PHINEAS STEDMAN, Esq., H.\5ipden County.

Hon. ALLEN W. DODGE, Essex County.

Hon. GEORGE MARSTON, Bristol County.

Hon. WILLIAM B. WASHBURN, . . . Franklin County.

Prof. HENRY L. WHITING, Middlesex County.

Hon. D. WALDO LINCOLN Worcester County.

HENRY F. HILLS, Esq., . Hampshire County.

Hon. DANIEL NEEDHAM, Middlesex County.

^utxjXxht anb ^ailbing Commiti-ee.
President WILLIAM S. CLARK, Dr. NATHAN DURFEE,

Hon. WILLIxUI B. WASHBURN, HENRY COLT, Esq.,
PHINEAS STEDMAN, Esq.

Hon. CHARLES L. FLINT, of Boston.

SUPPLEMENT.

^nbitor.
HENRY COLT, Esq., of Pittsfield.

^Treasurer.
NATHAN DURFEE, M.D. of Fall River.

GEORGE MONTAGUE, Esq., of Amherst.

^oarb of &i}txsnxs.
THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

®*-ammmg Committtt of QbttBttxs,

Prof. LOUIS AGASSIZ, Hox. RICHARD GOODMAN,

Col. ELIPHALET STONE.

P^entbtrs of (^acultg.

WILLIAM S. CLARK, Ph. D.,

President, and Professor of Botany and Horticulture,

Hon. LEVI STOCKBRIDGE,

Professor of Agriculture.

HENRY H. GOODELL, M.A.,

Professor of Modern Languages.

CHARLES A. GOESSMANN, Ph. D.,
Professor of Chemistry.

SAMUEL F. MILLER, C.E.,*
Professor of Mathematics and Farm Engineering.

Capt. henry E. ALVORD, U.S.A., C.E.,

Professor of Military Science and Tactics.

HENRY W. PARKER, M.A.,

Professor of Mental, Moral, and Social Science.

MARTIN II. FISK, M.A.,
Instructor in Mathematics and Civil Engineering.

JOHN K. RICHARDSON, B.A.,

Instructor in Mathematics.
ELIHU ROOT, B.A.,
Instructor in Rhetoric and Elocution.

Prof. JAMES LAW, F.R.V.C,
Lecturer on Diseases of Domestic Animals,

Hon. CHARLES L. FLINT,
Lecturer on Dairy Farming.

CALVIN CUTTER, M.D.,
Lecturer on Hygiene.

* Deceased.

SUPPLEMENT.

Hon. JOSEPH WHITE, LL.D.,

Lecturer on Civil Polity.

JABEZ FISHER, M.D.,

Lecturer on Market Gardeninf/.

Prof. EDWARD HITCHCOCK, M.D.,
Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy.

Hon. MARSHALL P. WILDER,
Lecturer on Pomology and Floriculture.

A. S. PACKARD, Jr., M.D. (State Entomologist),
Lecturer on Useful and Injurious Insects.

Prof. EBENEZER S. SNELL, LL.D.,
Lecturer on Physics.

GEORGE B. LORING, M.D.,

Lecturer on Stock Farming.

Prop. L. CLARK SEELYE,
Lecturer on English Literature.

GEORGE B. EMERSON, LL.D.,
Lecturer on Arboriculture.

ALONZO BRADLEY, Esq.,
Lecturer on the Honey Bee.

MARQUIS F. DICKINSON, Jr., Esq.,
Lecturer on Rural Law.

Prof. WM. R. WARE, B.S.,

Lecturer on Architecture and its Application to Rural Affairs.

GEORGE F. MILLER,

Professor of Vocal Music.

JOHN GRIFFIN, Gardener.

JOHN C. DILLON, Farm Superintendent.

^ummarg of Staknfs.

Seniors, 30

Juniors, 34

Sophomores, 27

Freshmen, 32

Select 22

Resident Graduates, 2

Total . UT

SUPPLEMENT.

COURSE OF STUDY AND INSTRUCTION.

Freshmax Year.

First Term — Recitations in Human Anatomy and Physiology ; Chemical
Physics ; and Commercial Arithmetic and Book-keeping. Lectures on Agri-
culture : Jirst, its importance as an Art, and its relations to other pursuits ;
secoiulh/, as a Profession, and the education it requires ; and thirdly, of Soils,
their origin, varieties, and composition. Lectures on the properties of Matter
and the nature and effects of the forces. Heat, Light, and Electricity. Lec-
tures on the Laws of Health. Instruction in Elocution ; and in Penmanship,
and Orthography, for such as are deficient in these branches. Military Drill ;
Infantry Tactics ; School of the Soldier.

Second Term. — Recitations in Chemistry ; and Algebra ; Lectures on Agri-
culture ; Improvement of Soils by chemical and mechanical means ; Drainage ;
Irrigation; Tillage; Implements for, and methods of stirring and pulverizing
the soil and subsoil. Lectures on the Chemistry of the Non-metallic Ele-
ments ; the principles of Chemical Philosophy ; the most important Metals
and their uses in the Arts. Instruction in Elocution ; Vocal Music ; and
English Composition. Military Drill ; Infantry Tactics ; School of the Com-
pany, and Manual of Arms.

Third Term. — Recitations in Algebra and Geometry ; and French. Lec-
tures on Agriculture ; Sterility of Soils, its causes and remedies ; Rotation of
Crops. Lectures on Organic Chemistry ; Instruction in the Laboratory in
Analytical Chemistry. Instruction in Elocution, and Reading. Military
Drill : Infantry Tactics; Schools of the Company and Battalion.

Sophomore Year.

First Term. — Recitations in French, Tvith written exercises ; Zoology ; Ge-
ometry and Conic Sections. Lectures on Agriculture ; Mineral Fertilizers ;
Organic Fertilizers; Animal Manure, its origin, varieties, value, and treat-
ment ; Waste of Fertilizers ; Absorbents of liquid IManures : Composts ; Ap-
plication of Fertilizers. Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry ; Instructions
in the Laboratory in Practical Chemistry. Exercises in Declamation ; and
French Translation. Military Drill : Infantry Tactics ; Manual of the Bay-
onet, and Instruction in duty as Skirmishers.

Second Term. — Recitations in French ; Logarithms, Plane and Spherical
Trigonometry, and Measurement of Lines, Surfaces, and Volumes. Lectures
on Agriculture ; Economy In the treatment and use of Soils, Manures, Crops,
Teams, Laborers, Live Slock, Implements, Fences, and Buildings. Lectures
on Quantitative Analysis, and Practice in the Chemical Laboivatory. Exer-
cises in Declamation ; and Vocal Music. Military Drill: Infantry Tactics;
Bayonet Exercise.

Third Term. — Recitations in History ; and Surveying, with Practical Land
Surveying, Plotting, and Geometrical Drawing. Lectures on Agriculture ;
Farm IManagement ; Selection of Lands. Division into mowing, arable, pas-
ture, rind woodland; Roads; Fences; Buildings; System to be adopted;

SUPPLEMENT. 5

Plans for each year ; Cultivation and use of the various crops ; Sources of
profit in General Farming ; Special Farming. Lectures on the Diseases of
Domestic Animals ; General Pathology ; Fevers and Inflammation and their
consequences ; Glanders and Farcy ; Diseases of Respiratory and Circulatory
Organs ; Diseases of Digestive Organs ; Urinary and Generative Organs ;
Castration ; Parturition and rules for assisting parturient animals ; Diseases
of Udder and Teats ; Affections of the Nervous System ; of the Eye ; of the
Skin ; the Foot ; Method of Shoeing ; Wounds ; Ulcers ; Sprains ; Diseases
of the Bones and Joints ; Dislocations and Fractures. Exercises in Reading ;
and Practice in Writing Sentences on the Blackboard. Military Drill : In-
fantry Tactics ; Skirmish and Battalion Drill ; Guard Duty ; and Forms of
Parade and Review.

Junior Year.

First Term. — Recitations in German ; Mechanics of Solids and Liquids ;
and Physical Geography. Lectures on Agriculture ; Market Gardening, in-
cluding Small Fruits. Lectures on Useful and Injurious Insects. Instruc-
tion in Practical Leveling, and Topographical Drawing. Exercises in Read-
ing Shakespeare. Military Drill : Artillery Tactics ; School of the Piece.

Second Term. — Recitations in Mechanics of Air and Steam ; Sound ; Light ;
Heat ; Electricity ; German ; and Structural Botany. Lectures on the Con-
struction and Management of Plant-houses, and the Cultivation of Plants
under glass. Lectures on Mechanics, and Statical Electricity. Instruction In
Free-hand Drawing ; Perspective ; and Shades and Shadows. Exercises In
Agricultural Discussion ; and Vocal Music. Military Drill : Artillery and
Cavalry Tactics ; Manual of the Sabre ; School of the Trooper dismounted ;
Instruction in Heavy Artillery Tactics and Gunnery.

Third Term. — Recitations In Astronomy ; Systematic Botany ; and Ger-
man. Lectures on Milch Cows, and Dairy Farming. Lectures on Stock
Farming, and the Breeding of Domestic Animals. Lectures on Physics ; and
Comparative Anatomy. Exercises In Debate. Military Drill : Artillery
Tactics ; School of the Section ; Infantry Tactics ; Battalion Drill.

Senior Year.

First Term. — Recitations in Mental Science ; Rhetoric ; and Civil En-
gineering for the Farm. Lectures on English Literature. Lectures on the
Cultivation of Fruits and Flowers, and the art of producing new varie-
ties. Instruction in Mechanical and Architectural Drawing ; and In prepar-
ing Working Plans and Specifications, Exercises in Original Declamation.
Military Drill : Cavalry, Artillery, and Infantry Tactics ; Duty as Drill Mas-
ters and Officers in Infantry and Artillery Drill ; Theoretical Instruction in
Cavalry Tactics, and the organization and uses of Cavalry.

Second Term. — Recitations in I\Ioral Science ; Political Science and Econ-
omy ; and English Literature. Lectures on llui^al Law, including the Rights
and Obligations of Landholders. Lectures on Arboriculture ; the planting
and care of Trees for the production of Fuel, Timber, Fruit, or for other pur-
poses. Lectures on Military History ; ]\lilltary Law ; and Courts-martial.
Exercises In Original Declamation. Military Drill : Cavalry Tactics ; Sabre
Exercise.

6 SUPPLEMENT.

Third Term. — Recitations in Landscape Gardening; Geology; and Gen-
eral Reviews. Lectures on Agricultural Botany. Lectures on Architecture,
with special reference to Rural Affairs. Lectures on Mineralogy, and Geol-
ogy ; Meteorology; and Civil Polity. Exercises in Original Declamation.
Military Drill : Target Practice ; Sword Play ; and General Drill.

Practice in the various operations of the Farm and Garden through the
course.

Select Course.

Those who do not intend to pirsue the full course, may select from the
studies of the first, second, or third terms of any year in the curriculum, such
instruction as they choose, provided they are qualified for it.

CALENDAR FOR 187L

The second term of the collegiate year begins January 19, and continues
till April 19.

The third term begins April 27, and continues till July 19.

The first term begins August 31, and continues till the Wednesday before
Thanksgiving.

There is an Examination of candidates for admission to the College, at the
Botanic Museum, at 9, A. M., Tuesday, July 18, and also on Thursday,
August 31.

The annual Public Examinations, and the Prize Declamations take place
Monday, July 17.

The Exercises of Class Day, and the Address before the Literary Societies,
on Tuesday, July 18.

The Exercises of Graduation Day, with the conferring of Degrees by His
Excellency Governor Claflin, and an Historical Address, by Hon. Marshall
P. Wilder, on Wednesday, July 19.

ADMISSION.

Candidates for admission to the Freshman class, are examined in writing,
upon the following subjects : English Grammar, Geography, Arithmetic, and
the History of the United States.

Candidates for higher standing, are examined as above, and also in the
studies gone over by the class to which they may desire admission.

No one can be admitted to the College until he Is fifteen years of age, and
every student is required to furnish a certificate of good character from his
late pastor or teacher, and to give^security for the prompt payment of term
bills. Tuition and room-rent must be paid in advance at the beginning of
each term ; and bills for board, fuel, and washing, at the end of every term.

The regular examinations for admission arc held at the Botanic Museum at
9 o'clock, A. M., on Tuesday, July 18, and on Thursday, August 31 ; but can-
didates may be examined and admitted at any other time in the year.

Further information may be obtained from President W. S. Clark, Am-
herst, Mass.

SUPPLEMENT. 7

EXPENSES.

Tuition, 118 00 per terra.

Room rent, 5 00 "

Incidental expenses, 1 00 "

Board, 3 50 per week.

Washing, 50 per dozen.

Expenses of Chemical Laboratory to students of practi-
cal Chemistry, 5 00 per term.

Public and private damages, including value of chemical

apparatus injured or destroyed, at cost.

Annual expenses, including -books, .... $250.00 to $300.00

REMARKS.

The full course of study occupies four years, and those who complete it
receive the degree of Bachelor of Science.

The instruction in the languages is intended to qualify the graduates to
write and speak English with correctness and effect, and to translate French
and German with facility. The scientific course is extensive and thorough, and
aa practical as possible. Every student has the opportunity of becoming a
good chemist, a skillful surveyor, and a civil' engineer. At the same time,
every science is taught with constant reference to its applications to agriculture
and the wants of the farmer.

The instruction in agriculture and horticulture, includes every branch of
farming and gardening which is practiced in Massachusetts, and is both theo-
retical and practical. Every topic is discussed thoroughly in the lecture-
room, and again in the plant-house or the field, where every student is obliged
to labor. The amount of required work, however, is limited to six hours per
week, in order that it may not interfere with study. Students are allowed to
do as much as they please, provided they maintain the necessary rank as schol-
ars. All labor is paid at the rate of from ten to twenty cents per hour,
according to its value.

There is no provision for indigent students, beyond the opportunity to do
such work as may offer about the college and farm buildings, or in the field,
and it is hardly possible to earn more than from fifty to one hundred dollars
per annum, besides performing other duties. So far as is consistent with cir-
cumstances, students will be permitted to select such varieties of labor as they
may for special reasons desire to engage in.

Those who pursue a select course attend recitations and lectures with the
regular classes; but persons, properly qualified and desiring special Instruction
in chemistry, civil engineering, agriculture, or horticulture, may make private
arrangements with the officers having charge of these departments.

An expenditure of from ten to fifty dollars is necessary to provide furni-
ture, which may be purchased at reasonable rates, either new or second-hand,
and re-sold upon leaving, if desirable.

On Sunday, students are expected to attend the chapel service and Bible-
class, which are conducted by the professor of moral science. While the

8 SUPPLEMENT.

Bible is made the basis of all religious instruction, everything of a denomina-
tional character is as far as practicable avoided.

Students may, upon the written request of their parents or guardians, be
excused from these exercises to attend services in one of the churches of
the villaee.

BOOKS, APPARATUS, AND SPECIMENS IN NATUPtAL HISTORY.

The Library of the College contains about one thousand volumes. Among
them are several valuable sets of cyclopaedias, magazines and newspapers,
reports of Agricultural Societies, and State Boards of Agriculture, and many
standard works on Agriculture and Horticulture. There are also many excel-
lent works of reference in Chemistry, Botany, Surveying and Drawing. The
larger part of the books have been presented to the Institution by private
individuals.

The faculty and students of the College also have access to the Library of
Amherst College, which contains nearly thirty thousand volumes.

The State Cabinet of Specimens illustrating the Geology and Natural His-
tory of Massachusetts has been removed from Boston to the College, and is
of much value for purposes of instruction.

The Knowlton Herbarium contains more than fifteen thousand species of
named botanical specimens, besides a large number of duplicates. The Bo-
tanic Museum is supplied with many interesting and useful specimens of woods,
seeds, and fruit models.

About one thousand species and varieties of plants are cultivated in the
Durfee Plant-House, which yields a perennial supply of enjoyment and infor-
mation to the students of both colleges.

The very extensive and, in many respects, unsurpassed collections in Geol-
ogy, Mineralogy, Natural History, and Ethnology, belonging to Amherst Col-
lege, are accessible to members of the Agricultural College.

Lectures upon Physics must also be given to agricultural students at Am-
herst College, until apparatus is provided for this Indispensable department.

The Chemical, Engineering, and Military departments of the Agricultural
Collece are well fUrnished.

SUPPLEMENT.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for the year 1870, taken
at Amherst, Mass., by Professor E. S. Snell, Z/JJ. D.

Latitude 42° 22' 17^'. Longitude 72° 34'' 3C. Elevation above tlie sea level, 207 feet.

REMARKS.

The weather in Amherst has been remarkable for the exceeding dryness of
the last eight months of the year, and the consequent extreme heat of the
summer.

The average amount of rain per month since May 1, was only 2.771 inches,
the rain-fall for that month having been only 1.723 inches.

The mean annual rain-fall for the past ten years was 46.200 inches, while
for 1870 the amount of rain and snow, measured as water, was only 39.700
inches.

The mean cloudiness of the ten years was .51 of the sky, while for 1870 the
cloudiness was only .48.

The mean force of vapor for the ten years was .292 of an inch, and the
humidity, 76 ; and for 1870 the former was .319, and the latter, 72.

The mean height of the barometer for the ten years was 29.712 inches ;
that for 1870 was 29.091 inches.

The mean temperature for the ten years was 46.87° Fahrenheit, while for
1870 it was 49.17°. The average temperature of each of the three summer
months was above 70°, while in 1869 there was no month in the year Avith so
high an average as 70°. The mean summer temperature of 1869 was 66.89°,
while that of 1870 was 71.70°.

There was no frost for more than six months after April 1, and the mean
temperature for the seven months after that date was 02.26°.

Indeed, we have no record of a season so warm as that of 1870, and it is a
remarkable fact that the temperature did not fall to zero during the year.
The winds have been unusual in respect to the amount and velocity from an
easterly direction, — there having been two very severe and destructive gales
from that quarter. In the month of June, one-half the wind was from the south-
east. The winds of the ten years were distributed thus : From the north-west,
46 per cent. ; from the south-west, 18 ; from the south-east, 24 ; and from the
the north-east, 12. For 1870 the distribution was as follows : From the
north-west, 43 per cent. ; from the south-west, 15 ; from the south-east, 27 ;
and from the north-east, 15.

During a portion of January, 1870, there was no frost in the ground, and
the soil was in a fair condition for plowing, and this was successfully under-
taken by several farmers In the vicinity of the college.

The spring flowers appeared about one week earlier than in 1369, as
follows : —

Symplocarpus foctidus, (skunk's cabbage), Jan. 15.

Populus balsamifera, (poplar), April 7.

10

SUPPLEMENT.

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Epigaja repens, (trailing arbutus),
Ulmus Americana, (elm), .
Anemone nemorosa, (wind flower),
Sanguinaria Canadensis, (blood-root)
Fragaria Yirginiana, (strawberry),
Pyrus Malus, (apple),
Sassafras officinale, (sassafras), .
Carya alba, (hickory).

The hay crop was of excellent quality, but considerably lighter than it
would have been, had more rain AiUen in May and June. Early in July,
pastures, except in low lands, began to fall, and the supply of fall feed was
very limited. Oats and potatoes, especially the Early Rose and Bresee's
Prolific, yielded a fair crop.

Corn, broom-corn, and tobacco, which withstand the effects of drought
better than other crops, were nearly or quite as good as usual in the valley of
the Connecticut ; and corn fodder was never better.

The long continued dry, hot weather was very favorable to the sweet
potato, which has been planted by many persons in the State the past season
with very satisfactory results in most cases. Those grown in Amherst were
large and of fine quality. Fruit of all kinds was ripened in great abundance,
and was less affected by the drought, as to size, than might have been expected.
Apples were very plenty, and grapes of all the hardy varieties were perfectly
matured during the warm autumn.

SUPPLEMENT.

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12 SUPPLEMENT.

REPORT ON THE PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR AS AN

AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISE IN MASSACHUSETTS.

By Prof. Charles A. Goessmanx.

Among the various saccharine substances, which chemistry
at present recognizes, are three of particular interest to the
agriculturist, namely, milk sugar, grape sugar, and cane sugar.
Milk sugar, which causes the sweetness of milk, is exclusively
confined to this peculiar animal secretion, and constitutes in
that of different animals from 3 to 9 per cent. Its application
in an isolated form is quite limited, and its manufacture carried
on mainly by the mountaineers of the Swiss Alps.

Grape sugar or glucose, which gives sweetness to the grape,
is the most widely distributed of all saccharine substances.
Most of our cultivated fruits derive from it, at least in part,
their sweet taste.

It is the only one among the sugars previously enumerated,
which we are able to produce by artificial means ; its commer-
cial importance, on account of its use for the production of
alcohol and alcoholic liquors, as wine, beer, etc., and of sirups,
is daily increasing. As our cheaper grains furnish the material,
starch, from which grape sugar is mainly manufactured, its
increasing production sensibly affects our home consumption
of corn.

Cane sugar, which receives its name from its principal source,
the sugar cane, is the kind which we commonly employ for
houseliold purposes, and is consumed in enormous quantities ;
while the number of plants which furnish it is quite limited.
The sugar-cane, a few species of palm, the sugar-maple, the
sorghum cane and the sugar-beet, are the plants whicli are
turned to account for its manufacture. M. D. Dureau,in a re-
port on the World's Exhibition of 1867, mentions that of the
whole amount of sugar which has recently entered the various
markets, 66.47 per cent is produced from the sugar-cane, 27.87
per cent from the sugar-beet, 4.29 per cent from the palms,
and 1.24 per cent from the sugar-maple. The same authority

SUPPLEMENT. 13

states that the whole amount of sugar sold in 1867 in the principal
markets was 5,140 million pounds, besides eighteen million gal-
lons of sorghum molasses.* The consumption of sugar is steadily
increasing among civilized nations ; in France it has more than
doubled within the last thirty years ; in England it has doubled
within the last fifteen years, whilst in Germany, its consump-
tion has increased threefold within the same period of time.
Numerical statements like those of Bureau, respecting the total
production, are therefore not surprising; in fact, if we should
allow to the whole population of Europe the same liberal supply
of sugar, required by the citizens of the United States (30
pounds per head), the total amount stated would scarcely
suffice to meet 'one-half the demand. More than nine hundred
million pounds of various grades of sugar, besides from fifty to
sixty million gallons of sirup and molasses from sugar-cane and
sorghum have been annually consumed of late, representing
a value of nearly one hundred million dollars, of which about
seven-tenths are first cost, and three- tenths government taxation.

Home Resources.
The sugar produced in the United States is far less than the
amount consumed, leaving a heavy balance for importation.
The production of sugar-cane in Louisiana and Texas, it appears
from reports of Champonnois and others, never exceeded four
hundred and fifty thousand hogsheads, besides twenty thousand
gallons of molasses ; the maple-sugar production may have
reached in favorable years from twenty to twenty five million
pounds ; the sorghum plant has thus far yielded, with but a
few exceptions, only molasses,! whilst the cultivation of the
sugar-beet for the manufacture of sugar, has just begun to
attract attention as worthy a more thorough trial in various parts
of the country. I Li presenting the above figures concerning
our home production, I have chosen as far as the sugar-cane
cultivation is concerned, the results of 1861, the most favora-
ble year on record. Glancing over the early history of the

* The home consumption, particularly in the East Indies, is apparently not estimated,
for the home consumption of cane-sugar obtained from palms, is set down as 90,000 tons.
(See Hunt's Commercial Review, Vol. 39, Nov., 1858, No. 5.)

t Mr. B. 3Ioore, of Bloomington, 111., and others, have produced a large quantity oi
crystallized sorghum-cane sugar.

t The first attempt to produce beet-sugar within the United States, is credited to
David Lee Child, of Northampton, Mass., who made about 1,300 lbs. of sugar in 1838^

14 SUPPLEMENT.

sugar-cane in Louisiana, we find that the large production of
f^ugar, conceded to her above, proves to be based on an excep-
tionally large crop, and gives by no means a correct idea of
her past contribution to our home product. The sugar cane
was first introduced into Louisiana in 1751 ; M. Dubreuil
established the first plantation in 1758 ; from 1828 to 1813, its
average produce per year has been about 82,000 hogsheads
(90,000,000 pounds) of sugar, besides five to six million gal-
lons of molasses; from 1841 to 1857, its annual produce
averages two hundred and forty-one thousand and eight hun-
dred hogslieads (each 1,100 lbs.), or 265 million pounds of
sugar, with about sixteen million gallons of molasses ; in 1854,
there were one thousand four hundred and eighty-one planta-
tions under cultivation, whilst in 1857, but one thousand two
hundred and ninety-nine plantations are reported. The last re-
port (1869) of the National Agricultural Department at Wash-
ington, D. C, states on the authority of M. Bouchereau, that
one acre yielded during the past year 1,350 pounds of sugar,
worth ten cents per pound, besides seventy gallons of molasses,
worth sixty cents per gallon ; and that improved lands fit for
sugar-cane cultivation might be bought for from $25 to $40
per acre.

While tlie sugar-planters of Louisiana, a few years before the
late war, thus apparently struggled to hold their slowly gained
ground, we cannot help being struck by the prominent position
which the sugar-cane cultivation acquired during the same
period of time in the neighboring island of Cuba, which fur-
nished for exportation from eleven to twelve hundred millions
of pounds, about one-third of all the sugar that enters the
markets of the United States and Europe. Unfavorable legis-
lation with us is frequently cited as a cause of the results in
Louisiana. Unsettled conditions regarding leading principles
of political economy, no doubt, act most seriously on industrial
enterprises, which require time for their healthy development;
how much such influence may have interfered here, I do not
propose to discuss, but shall confine myself to the exposition of
a cause which has much to do with the jiast results of the
Louisiana sugar-cane cultivation. A close examination of the
statistics of the annual production of sugar in Louisiana, for
over forty years past, leaves scarcely a doubt about the fact,

SUPPLEMENT.

15

that unfavorable climatic influences — as early frosts, and the
consequent serious limitation of the harvesting season, must
have interfered with the most profitable cultivation of the crop.
The fluctuations in the annual produce of sugar during suc-
cessive years are so large and of so frequent occurrence, that
any other assumption can scarcely account for it. Thus
we have —

In 1834, .

. 100,000

logsheads.

In 1846, .

. 140,000 hogsheads

1835, .

. 30,000

1851, .

. 236,000 "

1838, .

. 70,000

1853, .

. 439,976

1839, .

. 115,000

1856, .

. 73,976 »

1843, .

. 100,000

1860, .

. 228,758

1844, .

. 200,000

1861, .

. 459,410 «

To rely on the production of one crop exclusively without
abundance of ready capital is hazardous, even in exceptional
cases, where the special character of the soil and of the climate,
or the peculiar condition of the markets, seem to secure a
monopoly, for these conditions are at the present time in the
majority of cases but temporary. Wherever large gains are to
be secured, competition will sooner or later enter the field. The
cane-sugar industry of Louisiana, judging from past experience,
cannot stand in unrestricted competition with that of the islands
of the West Indies ; but a judicious rotation of crops, and the
introduction of other sound principles of modern farming, may
produce better results in the future.*

Our production of maple-sugar is of little consequence as far
as available quantity is concerned, and still less reliable in regard
to its annual yield ; since an early spring with warm nights
may reduce it to a mere trifle. An increase of maple-sugar
production is scarcely to be expected, and its chances are daily
diminishing. Many of our barren, rocky hillsides might furnish
suitable grounds for maple-groves, yet before broad-leafed trees
will flourish, it is probably necessary that the exhausted ele-

* The production of sugar from one acre of sugar-cane differs wideh', and may be
greatly increased, by the adoption of rational modes of cultivation. Upon Reunion
1,056 lbs. sugar are stated to be the annual results per acre, while upon Java, 4,045 lbs.
are raised upon the same area. The great success upon Java is ascribed to the adherance
to a judicious system of rotation, but one-fifth of the lands under cultivation being planted
at one time with sugar-cane, the cane changing its place every two years, and the weeds
upon the land being frequently burned, to destroy parasites, etc.

16 SUPPLEMENT.

ments of fertility be restored by the growth of one or more
generations of pines.

Our production of the sorghum plant, although spreading
steadily in some portions of the country, has not yet received
that attention in those localities, which, on account of a warm
and long season, are particularly qualified to reap the full bene-
fit of its cultivation. In a paper presented to the New York
State Agricultural Society at their annual meeting in 1861, and
printed in their annual report of that year, I stated the results
of a chemical investigation carried out by me in 1857, concern-
ing the fitness of the sorghum cane for the manufacture of
sugar and of superior sirups. These statements have been
confirmed, as far as its yield of a good quality of sirup is con-
cerned ; but the manufacture of sugar has not been tried to
any extent, although there is no substantial reason why within
some of the Southern States with their favorable climate, a
part of its sugar might not be advantageously secured in crys-
tals. A proper defecation of the sorghum juice before its con-
centration would doubtless accomplish that result. In making
these statements here, I do not intend to assert that most of our
Northern, and particularly our North-western States can profit-
ably engage in the production of sorghum sugar. Localities
liable to early frost and short seasons had better confine them-
selves, if at all engaged in sorghum cultivation, to the manufacture
of sirups, for unripe cane is entirely unfit for the manufacture of
crystallized sugar. The Middle and some of the Southern
States have apparently not sufficiently appreciated the value of
this crop. Associations between neigliboring farmers for the
purpose of supporting one cane-mill in common, no doubt,
would reap handsome profits. Quick working of the ripe cane
is essential to success, for there is no practical way as yet pro-
posed, by which the sorghum cane may be preserved unchanged
after it has attained its ripeness.

In view of these present conditions and future prospects of
existing home resources of one of our most important articles
for daily comfort, we must regard it as peculiarly proper that
public attention is turning more and more seriously toward the
question, whether with intelligent management the production
of beet sugar as an industrial enterprise can be profitably un-
dertaken in Massachusetts, as it has been in many countries of

SUPPLEMENT. 17

Europe. Having witnessed personally the working of the
sugarcane upon the island of Cuba, and in Louisiana, and
being also somewhat acquainted with the beet-sugar industry
of Europe, and the treatment of sugar solutions for refining
purposes, I do not hesitate to state, that the sugar-beet as a
mere sugar producing plant is inferior to sugar-cane ; in fact,
if it were possible to cultivate advantageously tiie best sugar-
beet alongside of the sugar-cane, bestowing at the same time
equal care on the cultivation of both plants, and on the treat-
ment of their juices, they could be scarcely considered rivals.
Yet, to-day, the beet-sugar manufacture is looked upon in
Europe by agriculturists and by sugar manufacturers as a de-
cided success.* England, even with her great facilities for
importation, and her favorable commercial relations with cane-
sugar producing countries, is hastening of late to add the
beet-sugar manufacture to its home industry. English agricul-
turists have had for years occasion to notice the highly prosper-
ous condition of the farms in beet-sugar producing districts of
Germany, France, and elsewhere ; while English capitalists
begin to believe in the sound foundation of the new business,
when they notice the steady increase of beet-sugar importation
into England, amounting in the year 1867 to a value of X 1,600-
000.

However different the views of the friends of the beet-sugar
interest may have been at various times regarding its financial
success as a mere industrial enterprise for a cheaper home
manufacture of sugar, they all agree at the present day on one
point, namely, that in connection with agriculture it has proved
to be one of the most important, and at the same time, most
successful attempts to stimulate the introduction of sound prin-
ciples into agricultural pursuits, to develop, consequently,
agriculture, and to promote a healthy feeling of a common
interest between agriculture and manufactures, between capi-

* The beet-sugar manufacture in Europe amounted in 1859 to 812,113,000 pounds ; in
1869 to 1,256,462,300 pounds, ofwliich was produced—

By France, 32 per cent.

German Confederation, 28.5 per cent.

Austria, 11.8 percent.

Kussia, 14.83 per cent.

Belgium, 5.92 per cent.

Poland, 2 81 per cent.

Holland, O.B'J per cent.

B

18 SUPPLEMENT.

tal and labor. Improved farm management and unusual
progress in the modes of separating the sugar at a lower
cost went hand in hand. European agriculturists have
accomplished this thrifty union of mutual industrial and ag-
ricultural interests, only by devoting themselves with almost
unrivaled perseverance to the task of producing a sugar-beet
which contains the largest possible amount of sugar in the most
favorable condition for extraction. The solution of the prob-
lem, whether beet-sugar manufacture can succeed with us, as a
paying enterprise, will prove to depend here, as has been the
case in Europe, on the interest which intelligent agriculturists
and agricultural chemists will take in raising a suitable sugar-
beet ; for the quality of the root controls to a large degree the
financial success of the industrial enterprise. A mere high per-
centage of sugar in the beet-root is not the sole requirement,
although a most important one, but the production of a beet
which contains the largest possible amount of sugar with the
smallest possible percentage of foreign substances, whether
saline, nitrogenous, or indifferent, non-nitrogenous organic
compounds, for practice has established beyond doubt, that for
every percentage of foreign admixture, about one and a half
per cent of sugar in the juice will be rendered uncrystallizable,
and thus converted into a less valuable molasses. It is of the
utmost importance that the difficulties to be encountered be
well understood, for a temporary check caused by want of
proper precaution in producing a suitable beet, or providing the
necessary apparatus, or oversight in the general management,
would be deplorable, considering the benefits to be gained for
agricultural development alone, in case the experiment should
succeed. It is then to our intelligent farmers these few pages
are addressed, for the purpose of aiding in the dissemination of
facts, which have been instrumental in the development of the
sugar-beet cultivation and the beet-sugar manufacture. In-
fluenced by such views, I proposed a year ago to enter upon
experiments concerning sugar-beet cultivation upon the college
farm, and procured a variety of seeds from successful sugar-
beet cultivators in Germany, believing that much was gained
by having the best to begin with. The first year's crop has
been gathered, and the percentage of sugar of each of the
thirteen kinds ascertained. Beyond that point no experiments

SUPPLEMENT. 19

have been made ; for as it was too late to control a proper
manuring of the land used, I left the determination of foreign
admixtures, which, in quality and quantity are decidedly in-
fluenced by the kind of manure applied, to another season,
when the soil can be properly prepared and planted with care-
fully selected seeds. The results of the past season, being for
the reason just referred to of a mere introductory character,
will follow as an Appendix to these pages.

The Cultivation of Sugar-Beets.

The rules, by which beets are successfully raised for feeding
purposes, do not apply to a successful production of the beet
for sugar. In the first case, quantity is the main aim ; in the
second, besides quantity, a good quality is essential. A good
sugar-beet is expected to contain not less than twelve per cent
of sugar, a small percentage of saline substances, and the least
possible amount of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous constitu-
ents. The more nitrogenous compounds are present, the less
sugar will be noticed ; for they exert a controlling influence
on the formation of sugar in the growing beet-root. The saline
substances, on the other hand, do not affect injuriously the for-
mation of sugar ; yet, they place it under very disadvantageous
conditions, as far as its final separation in a crystallized state is
concerned ; they favor the production of molasses and thus
increase the manufacturing expenses. The history of the beet-
sugar industry of later years is not without many illustrations
of these damaging influences. Some late experiments in this
country, no doubt, owe their failure, in part at least, to the
fact, that virgin soil, rich in vegetable mould and saline con-
stituents, has been used for the cultivation of the sugar-beet.
Judging from analogy, we cannot but consider the reported
gigantic roots and unusually large crops per acre as unfavorable
features of some recent attempts in beet-sugar manufacture.
The common mangel is no substitute for the sugar-beet in the
production of sugar, while the latter is highly valued for feed-
ing purposes and becoming daily more popular.

Among the various kinds of sugar-beets at present cultivated
in Germany, the Silesian white sugar-beet (Achard's beet) is
almost exclusively employed. Two of its sub-varieties, the
pear-shaped white Silesian beet, with somewhat drooping leaves,

20

SUPPLEMENT.

(which is a cross-breed from the wedge-shaped Silesian white
sugar beet and the Magdeburg chicory beet), and the Qiiedlin-
burg variety, with pinkish colored skin and red lines in the
centre leaves, are particularly valued. The latter requires the
richest soil. The French Vilmorin sugar-beets, on account of
their superior saccharine property are also frequently raised ; yet
as they are more liable to degenerate in the pits during the
winter season, they are only cultivated to a limited extent, and
are worked before frost during the latter part of September and
October. The sugar-beet in its present state, a child of cultiva-
tion, is a variety of an unsightly biennial plant, beta maritima,
which grows wild along the coast of the Mediterranean, in south-
western Europe. A comparison of the following analyses of
the ash constituents of the wild and the cultivated plant gives
some idea to what extent a systematic cultivation for partic-
ular olyects, aided by climate and soil, may affect the normal
mineral constituents of a plant. The wild beet-root may be
called a soda plant, while the cultivated sugar-beet is decidedly
a potassa-plant.

Wild Beet-root. (Way.)

Potassa,

. 30.1

Soda, .

. 34.2

Lime, .

. 3.1

Magnesia, .

. 3.2

Chlorine,

18.5

Sulphuric acid,

. 3.8

Phosphoric acid.

. 3.5

Silicic acid,

3.6

Cultivated Sugar-beet. (Boussingaul

T.)

Potassa, 48.9

Soda, .

7.6

Lime, .

8.8

Magnesia, .

. 5.5

Chlorine, .

6.5

Sulphuric acid.

2.0

rhosi)horic acid,

7.6

Silicic acid,

13.1

100.00

100.00

SUPPLEMENT. 21

It is well known, that, as a general rule, the various mineral
constituents of a plant arc indispensable to its growth, so that,
if any one is wanting, the rest are thereby rendered incapable
of supporting it. Oar whole system of manuring, and even of
rotation, rests upon this premise, and practical experience man-
ifestly confirms it.

Tlic composition of the ash constituents of the highly cul-
tivated sugar-beet, compared with that of the wild beet, furnishes
us with a striking instance as- to what extent elements of a
similar chemical character, for instance, potassa and soda,
may be substituted for each other. We may also notice, how-
ever gradually such substitution may have been accomplished,
that it inevitably affects the normal physiological processes going
on in those plants which are subjected to such treatment.
Whatever favors abnormal growth in plants surely aids in
hastening on their premature unfitness for propagation, and
their final extinction. A comparative study of our garden
plants regarding their ash and otlier constituents, in their wild
and cultivated state, would furnish us most likely with numer-
ous instances of differences similar to those noticed in the case
of the sugar-beet, and investigations of that kind could not but
point out to us very important facts concerning the most advan-
tageous selection of special manures for the production of a
desired abnormal growth of our cultivated plants. Louis Vil-
morin, the celebrated French gardener and seedsman, states
that he raised, by proper selection, sugar-beets which contained
in their juice not less tiian 21 per cent, of sugar, thus surpass-
ing in sweetness the juice of the sugar-cane.

Selection of Varieties of Beet.
The successful cultivation of the sugar-beet begins with the
selection of seed beets. Vilmorin's views on this subject are
considered of great weight ; a detailed exposition of his rules
may be found in the Journal d'Agriculture Pratique, No. 5,
1858. He advises the selection of healthy, well-shaped beet-roots
of from 11 to 2 pounds weight, those, which with a large yield,
show the most rings of leaf marks are preferred, — the specific
gravity of their juice ought not to be less than 1.05 ; those
whicii contain a juice of from 1.0(3 to 1.07 specific gravity are
of superior character ; seed-beets ought not to be taken from a

22 SUPPLEMENT.

soil which for the first time is turned into use for the produc-
tion of sugar-beets, and tlie seed-beet fields ought to be kept
separated from the general sugar-beet fields.*

Soil for Sugar-Beet Cultivation.

The best soil for the cultivation of sugar-beets is a mellow,
deep, sandy loam with a free and permeable subsoil, — a soil
named by German agriculturists a rich, first-class barley soil.
A sandy loam, if deep and rich' in well decomposed organic
matter, is preferable to a clayish soil, for the latter becomes too
compact and hard in a dry season, particularly after heavy rain
showers, and thus frequently interferes with the growth of the
fleshy roots ; and in wet seasons it produces a watery beet of in-
ferior saccharine properties. In case the subsoil is not perfectly
free, under-drainage becomes indispensable. A stony soil, or
a thin surface soil, with gravelly subsoil, or a deep virgin soil
with large quantities of half-decayed vegetable matter, are very
objectionable ; and stagnant waters cause the premature decay
of the roots at their lower termination.

Favorable physical properties of the soil are of the first im-
portance, for fitness of the soil, as far as a necessary amount of
plant food is concerned, may be secured by a carefully selected
system of rotation, supported by a proper selection of special
manures. Inferior kinds of soil, may, to a certain degree in
some exceptional cases, answer for beet-sugar cultivation, yet
they ought not to be solely relied upon as a safe basis for beet-
sugar manufacture. A moderately warm and moist climate
seems to be best adapted to this crop ; the northern sections of
Germany and France being considered more successful than the
southern parts of those countries. This observation may find
its confirmation in the United States. Whether a change from
Wisconsin to California merely on account of a warm climate
would be a judicious move, future experience may teach, — but
past experience does not point in that direction. The sugar-
beets raised in southern portions of Europe have been found to
contain more saline constituents than those raised in northern
sections, a circumstance which must counteract tlieir superior
richness on sugar. A careful change to deep plowing is for

* The amount of beet seed raised per acre, varies from 12,500 to 25,000 pounds.

SUPPLEMENT. 23

obvious reasons highly recommended, provided the subsoil
proves of a fit quality. In no case is the soil to be plowed to a
less depth than eight inches ; from ten to sixteen inches and
deeper being desirable. Wherever deep plowing is undertaken
for the first time, it is done during the fall, and the lands are
immediately afterwards well manured. The rules for preparing
the soil may be summed up as follows : Manure in the fall and
plow the manure in deep ; use only well rotted compost, if you
are obliged to manure in the spring ; begin the work in autumn
at any rate, and turn the soil two or three times ; do not work
the soil when wet ; pulverize it with the best implements, and as
soon as possible ; let not much time be lost between the last
mechanical operation and the seeding.

Stable manure is the basis of the whole system of manuring ;
commercial or artificial manures are only relied on as an aid.
For this reason sugar-beets are usually raised as second crop,
giving a chance for a thorough disintegration of the stable man-
ure ; the ellect of the latter is supported in the second year
previous to the planting of the sugar-beet, by a special com-
mercial manure. The condition and the composition of the
soil, quite naturally, control the whole system of manuring. As
the soil in both respects will differ more or less, practical experi-
ence does not point out any one manure, which will answer
under all circumstances ; yet sufficient is known to assert what
kind of manure has a good effect, and what has a bad effect on
the sugar-beet, as far as the percentage of sugar and its final
successful separation are concerned. The production of sugar
being the main object, and on account of its high price affect-
ing most decidedly the balance sheet, it is but natural that the
agriculturist has now and then to compromise in the interest of
the sugar manufacturer. Large crops of watery sugar-beets are
not economical, where, as for instance in Germany, the beet-root
is taxed ; in France, where the sugar resulting from the sugar-
beet is taxed, spring manuring is more freely resorted to.

Plants differ less in regard to the various kinds of food they
need, than in regard to the quantities of each kind. Stable
manure and plant ash are for this reason the only universal
manures we recognize ; the former is preferable to the latter, on
account of its decided effect on the physical condition of the
soil. The beet partakes largely of atmospheric food, and as the

24 SUPPLEMENT.

proper physical condition of the soil increases its disposition to
a'»sorb atmospheric plant food, we find that stable manure, and
green crops turned under, are the best fertilizers ; tlie only
precaution recommended consisting in the advice to apply them
in time to have tiiem disintegrated before the beets are planted.
The successful sugar-beet cultivator adheres to the rule to sell
nothing without replacing it in some form or other, except what
he has drawn from the atmosphere, the sugar, — considering
almost everytiiing else part of his real estate, which he cannot
dispose of without injuring its value. Whatever he sells, be-
sides sugar, is merely a matter of exchange ; the mineral con-
stituents, and to a certain extent the nitrogen, which the articles
sold contain, whether in the form of milk, grain, or live stock,
produced upon his farm, he brings carefully back, either by buy-
ing fertilizers, or better, by buying hay to manufacture the
manure on his grounds.

We find no definite relation between the organic portion of
plants and their mineral constituents ; yet we know that aa
abundant supply of both nitrogenous and mineral substances
controls the amount of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, absorbed
for the formation of the organic constituents of plants, and that
the available amount of these substances thus manifestly decides
their final annual growth. It is thought best for this reason
to calculate the amount of manure required for the production
of a satisfactory crop from the quantity of nitrogen and mineral
constituents, which a full crop contains. The form in which we
apply the manures usually varies widely. They are rarely of a
homogeneous nature, and require, therefore, more or less time
for disintegration and final absorption ; larger quantities of
manure are consequently applied in starting a crop than it actu-
ally requires. It may be of interest to some to notice a few of
those figures, which are commonly used as bases for the calcu-
lations of the time required to reap the full benefit of various
kinds of manure.

SUPPLEMENT.

25

1 year.

» years.

3 years.

4 years.

Stable manure, .

50 per cent.

25 per cent.

15 per cent.

10 per cent.

Flour of bone,

30 "

30

25

15 ««

Oil cake.

50 "

30

20

15 «

Peruvian guano, .

60 «

30 «

10

15 "

Pulverized commercial manures, as a general rule, are ex-
pected to work quickly, as slow action would seriously enhance
their cost, adding interest of outlay to the capital ; and most of
them are designed to supply only special wants, and aid thereby
in the production of large special crops. They therefore, if not
proportionately supported by stable manure, green manuring,
and a judicious rotation of crops, hasten on the exhaustion of
the soil or general mineral plant-food. In some cases, as with
guano, their effect depends, in an undesirable degree on the
weather, whether dry or wet. Special manures occupy for
these reasons a subordinate position. Potassa and phosphoric
acid are, strictly speaking, the only plant constituents which
have to be bought in consequence of the extensive stock-feeding
usually connected with the farm management of sugar-beet
cultivation for manufacturing purposes, particularly in cases
where the molasses is sold, which contains a very large propor-
tion of the soluble saline constituents of the beet- roots. Having
attempted to enumerate some of the rules by which practice
should be guided, it may be but proper to speak somewhat more
in detail of the special effects of some of these manures. Fresh
barnyard manure, particularly of horses and sheep, or liquid
stable manure, or poudrette, and all manures containing uric
acid are decidedly objectionable in the spring preceding the
planting of tlie sugar-beet, for they induce an excessive growth
of the leaves, shortening thereby the time for the ripening of
the beet-roots, while favoring an increase of their nitrogenous
constituents. They also cause a large absorption of saline con-
stituents. In case barn manure has to be applied during the
spring preceding the raising of the sugar-beet, cow manure is
considered the least objectionable, but well-rotted compost is

26 SUPPLEMENT.

preferred. Guano and oil-cake, without any admixture of
superphosphate of lime, act similarly to the most objectionable
fresh stable manures. Saline compounds, as saltpetre, salt,
Stassfurth manure-salt, &c., increase the quantity of beets, yet
render them, if applied freely, rich in saline constituents. A
mixture of one hundred and thirty pounds of Peruvian guano,
and three hundred to four hundred pounds of superphosphate
of lime per acre, or Chili saltpetre with superphosphate of
lime, or wood ashes, or flour of bone, or well-rotted bones
with wood ashes, are considered the best special manures for
the production of superior sugar-beet. Green manuring, if
applied in time, is highly recommended on account of its eifects
on the physical properties of the soil. Judicious selection of
crops for rotation is most carefully resorted to in the interest of
economy of manure and an undiminished productiveness of the
soil. To render an efficient system of rotation possible, but one-
fourth of the entire area under cultivation is planted annually
with sugar-beets. In case a rotation of five or six years is pos-
sible the results are still more satisfactory. In the absence of a
large farm, a number of smaller ones may thus successfully
support a beet-sugar factory ; and the soundest basis for a sugar-
beet establishment consists in making arrangements by which
the farmer is to have an interest in the produce of sugar. To
engage merely in the cultivation of the sugar-beet for supplying
existing factories is, however, considered a paying business, par-
ticularly if the farmer secures to himself in part at least the
vegeetable refuse, as press-cake, &c., for stock feeding.

Planting of the Seed and Treatment op the Sdgar-Beet.
The seed are planted by hand or by machine ; theoretically
from two to three pounds would be necessary for one acre, but
in practice from fifteen to seventeen pounds are used. The
seeds, after being soaked in water, if planted by hand, are
placed usually at a distance of fourteen inches apart ; if sowed
by machine (of Garret's patent) they are dropped about eight
inches apart in rows about twenty inches apart, which allows
one horse with implement to pass between. In the latter case
from 28,500 to 30,000 plants could be raised upon one acre.
A larger space around each plant favors an excessive enlarge-
ment of the roots, a result not at all desirable, for large beets
are usually watery.

SUPPLEMENT. 27

A beet-root from one to one and one-half pounds is prefera-
ble to those from two to three pounds. Every common beet
seed, containing by its natural construction from two to three
germs, will produce as many plants, of which the strongest is
left, whilst the rest are pulled up or otherwise destroyed in due
time. The process of thinning out the plants takes place as soon
as the roots have reached a length of from three to four inches,
and, if possible, shortly after a rain, to prevent the loosening of
the soil around the specimen left. A transplanting of sugar-
beet plants from a separate bed to the lands for final cultivation
is rarely resorted to ; it is only recommended to fill out the gaps
produced by the failure of seeds. Whenever this failure
acquires any considerable proportion in the beet fields, a re-
seeding is preferred, provided the season has not too far advanced.
The soil around the young plant should be frequently loosened
by proper implements (every two or three weeks), and the roots
kept carefully covered, until the leaves have acquired their
proper development early in June. Such treatment destroys
the weeds and increases the hygroscopic and general absorptive
properties of the soil, and thus favors highly an undisturbed,
early and rapid development of the leaves. The latter, it is
asserted, exert a controlling influence on the formation of sugar.
M. Vilmorin considers a Itirge number of rows of leaf marks,
as previously stated, an essential property of a good sugar-beet.
The leaves absorb as a general rule atmospheric food in propor-
tion to their number and size. The sooner they acquire a good
size, and the more numerous they are, the better are the
chances of a copious formation of sugar, for this apparently
depends to a great degree on the supply of atmospheric food.
There are three distinct periods in the growth of the beet, viz. :
the development of the leaves, which closes usually within the
first half of June ; the formation of the roots which is accom-
plished by the middle of September or first part of October ;
and, finally, the production of the seeds which takes place in the
second year. The ripeness of the roots is indicated by a change
in the color of leaves from a deep green to a yellowish tint.
Those varieties which show a particular inclination to grow out
of the soil are considered inferior. As soon as the leaves have
reached their size, which happens in ordinary years usually in
the fore part of June, the loosening of the soil and the cover-

28

SUPPLEMENT.

ing up of tlie bcct-roots ceases, leaving them undisturbed in
their growth. To convey some idea concerning the peculiar
featilres in the growth of the sugar-beet plant, I insert here
some of the results of an interesting investigation in this
direction by Dr. P. Bretschneider. The weights are in
grammes, one gramme being equal to 15.43 grains : —

DATE.

Weight of the
Koot.

Weight of the
Leaves.

Proportion between
Root and Leaves.

Percentage
of Sugar.

June 12, .

0.2005

-

-

2.13

21, . . .

5.3000

-

-

4.17

July 9, . . .

78.3000

286.

1 to 3.65

4.99

16, .

109.600

226.

1 to 2 06

8.86

29, .

166.

224.

1 to 1.34

-

Aug. 8, . . .

124.

106.

1 to 0.56

11.27

26, .

228.

121.

1 to 0.53

11.52

Sept. 19, .

586.

316.

1 to 0 59

11.45

19, .

169.

38.

1 to 0 22

10.80

19, .

204.

50*.

1 to 0.25

13.15

The harvesting of the sugar-beet root begins, when the outer
leaves turn yellow and dry, which in different seasons and
localities may vary from the fore part of September to tlie first
of October ; the past season being with us unusually dry and
warm caused a somewhat premature dying out of the leaves
upon our experimental field. Tlie gathering of the leaves, even
in part, at any preceding stage of the growth of the plants, is
seriously objected to, for it affects most decidedly the final yield
of sugar. Nature, in its wonderful economy of matter and force,
always provides for the continuance of species under the most
advantageous conditions, storing up in some of the organs of
plants under the influence of a favorable summer temperature
a maximum of such compounds as will enable them to develop
their organs for propagation almost independent of outside
assistance. The flowers and subsequently the seeds draw upon

^ SUPPLEMENT. . 29

the food accumulated iu roots, stalks and leaves, and the seeds
themselves again store up an amount to enable the embryonic
germ to provide itself with such organs as will fit it to fulfill
its mission in the production of a new plant. Sugar is undeni-
ably one of those substances which are required to support the
beet-root plant in this last stage of growth.

The amount of sugar in the sugar-beet is largest when the
root has just attained its ripeness ; subsequently, it diminishes
gradually in consequence of advancing growth. To preserve
undiminished the maximum percentage of sugar till the time
of manufacture is somewhat difficult. There is no such thing
in nature as absolute rest. If it were practicable to keep the
beet-root frozen from the beginning to the close of the manu-
facturing season, it might prove to be the most efficient mode,
so far as the preservation of sugar is concerned. The manu-
facture of the sugar begins usually in the latter part of Sep-
tember, and the beet-roots are daily carried in such quantities
from the fields as the factory can dispose of. Those varieties,
like the Vilmorin beets, which do not keep well in the jjits over
winter, are first gathered and worked up. As soon as frost
becomes imminent, all the roots are gathered after the removal
of the leaves, which operation is carried on upon the fields.
They are then buried in suitable pits without loss of time.
The beets are raised out of the soil by means of forks, and the
leaves cut off with sword-like knives about one-half to one
inch from the root. To cut off the top of the beet-roots from
those which are to be kept over winter is disapproved of. The
use of the plow in harvesting is also objectionable on account
of frequent laceration of the roots.

The mature roots after being freed from the leaves in the
manner just described, are with the adhering soil laid carefully
into shallow pits about six feet long by three feet wide, and
from four to five feet in depth. These are, finally, covered with
soil to protect them against frost. Small pits of the size just
described are preferred, for they allow a better control of the
temperature than large pits, which frequently suffer from an
undesiraltle increase of heat, causing the growth of leaves or
degeneration by decay. The covering of soil is gradually in-
creased in thickness with the advancing season, amounting
usually to a final thickness of three feet, and this is sometimes

30

SUPPLEMENT.

rendered more efficient by a thin outer layer of stable manure.
To secure a uniform moderate temperature is the sole object
of these proceedings, and pits beginning to heat, are worked up
without delay. The pits must be located upon very dry land on
or near tlie beet fields, and in such a position that no accumu-
lation of water can injuriously affect them.

To give some idea about the clianges which a good sugar-beet
undergoes in the pits even under quite favorable circumstances,
I insert the following statement of H. Rake. The same kind
of beet-roots contained —

In October, 1862 :

Cellulose,

. 3.49

Water, .

. 82.06

Cane sugar, .

. 12.40

Grape sugar.

.

Mineral constituents.

. 0.75

Albuminous and extra

ctive substances, .

. 1.30

100.00

In February, 1863 :

Cellulose,

. 2.52

Water, .

. 84.36

Cane sugar, .

. 10.60

Grape sugar,

. 0.65

Mineral constituents.

. 0.63

Albummous and extractive substances, .

. 1.20

100.00

Whenever the roots begin to rot the sugar is lessened ; the
loss due to the sprouting of the leaves may amount to two per
cent more than the preceding analysis states.

Yield op Sugar-Beets.
The numerous varieties of beets differ widely in regard to
their annual yield, independent of the conditions of season,
upon the same soil and under the same treatment. Whilst
common mangels have l)een raised upon a suitable soil, in ex-
ceptional cases, at the rate of from ninety-four to one hundred

SUPPLEMENT.

31

and ten tons per acre, the sugar-beet never yields at anything
like such a rate. The following statement respecting the yield
and amount of sugar obtained from three kinds of beets is quite
interesting and suggestive regarding the important question,
what kind of beet roots are the most desirable for cultivation
for the manufacture of sugar.

Metz (fodder beet), .
Imperial (sugar-beet),
SilesianWhite(sugar-beet) ,

Annual yield
of Soots per acre.

86,457 pounds.
59,613 «
52,787 «

Percentage of
Sugar.

4.5 per cent.
10.51 "
13.64 "

Amount of Sugar in
the entire Root Crop.

3,890 pounds.
6,265 "
7,200 "

These few numerical statements teach most decidedly, that
mere quantity will not insure success for the beet-sugar interest.
We find in practice as a general rule that the mean annual yield
of sugar-beets is less than in the cases cited. In Silesia, the
crop averages from 18,000 to 19,000 pounds per acre, and the
beet juice itself is expected to contain throughout the entire
sugar-making season from 11 to 13 per cent of sugar, which
indicates that scarcely any roots with less than 12.5 per cent
of sugar are worked in that district. In Saxony, from 23,500
to 24,000 pounds are obtained per acre, and, in exceptional
cases, even as high as from 30,000 to 31,000 pounds are reported.
In France, where the sugar resulting, and not the roots used for
its manufacture, are taxed, the annual yield is larger than in
Germany, one acre yielding there from 38,000 to 40,000
pounds of roots. Yet a larger final yielcJ of sugar is claimed
from one acre in Germany than in France.* The cost of pro-
duction in (jermany is set down at from 21 to 22 cents per
hundred pounds of sugar-beet roots.

Those who sell their sugar-beets at the factory, receive from

* In Germany 100 pounds of sugar-beet roots are taxed (8 sgr.) 19.44 cents (1869).
In France every (.52 kilogrammes) 114.4 pounds of beet sugar are taxed (13 francs and 75
centimes) 2.66 dollars. Every 1,000 kilogramme.^ or 2,200 pounds of sugar-beet roots
yield on an average (52 kilogrammes) 114.4 pounds of sugar in the form in which it is
taxed. (Walkhoff.)

32 SUPPLEMENT.

25 to 27 cents per hundred pounds, together with one-half of
the vegetable refuse or press-cake.

Not unfrequently, separate contracts are made for furnishing
small beets not exceeding two pounds in weight. The sugar-
beet cultivation usually becomes a prominent feature of agri-
cultural industry in the vicinity of beet-sugar factories, for
although the manufacturer of sugar is, as a general rule, to
some extent at least a producer of beets, he rarely limits
himself to the amount of his own produce. He finds it profit-
able to purchase a certain quantity, if for no other reason, in
order to be enabled to cultivate his own lands on a liberal
system of rotation. He, also, frequently retains one-half of
the press-cake and other refuse resulting from the working of
an additional amount of beet-roots, for stock feeding and
manuring purposes.

Yield op Juice.
The sugar-beet contains about 82 per cent of water, and 80
per cent of its juice may be obtained by subjecting the crushed
beet to a powerful pressure. The relation of the power applied
to the quantity of juice obtained may be inferred from the
following statement of Walkhoff : —

By 50 pounds of pressure to the square inch,

80 " " " "

4Q() u u u a

750 " • " " "

The press-plates are made 14 inches or more square, and 24
pounds of pulp for every 100 square inches of press surface is con-
sidered the best proportion. The roots are usually changed into
a pulp by circular saws fastened upon two hollow iron rollers run-
ning in opposite directions. Water is added (from 15 to 30 per
•cent) while preparing the pulp to reduce the amount of sugar
left in the pross-cakes. By means of this and numerous other
devices from 80 to 87 per cent of the actual juice in the beet-
roots is secured. The profitable addition of water is limited by
the expense arising from the evaporation of a diluted juice.*

* One hundred pounds of coal are required for the evaporation of 500 pounds of water,
in the course of beet-sugar mauufacture.

ich.

60 per cent.

((

64 "

u

75 "

u

80 "

SUPPLEMENT. 33

The extra expense necessary to procure niore than 80 per cent
of the juice dhninislies largely its value, nevertheless improved
methods are constantly sought and are doubtless attainable.

The press method and Roberts'* modification of warm and
cold maceration of the fresh beets have apparently the warmest
advocates. It would be a vain attempt on my part to treat here
in a becoming manner on these questions. I propose to leave
that task to some future occasion, when the manufacture of
beet-sugar will be discussed. The supply of labor, fuel, and
water, the condition of the sugar market, &c., control, as every
manufacturer is aware, in such a degree the choice of appara-
tus and modes of operation, that very little information could
be gleaned from a general discussion without some detailed ex-
planation. To the farmer, the vegetable refuse, as press-cake
and like substances, is of prime importance, and the various
modes of abstracting the juice from the beet roots affect him
only in so far as the value of the refuse for feeding purposes is
concerned. A comparison of the composition of the juices
obtained by means of a powerful hydraulic press and by Roberts'
maceration, (or the dialytic mode), can aid in understanding
this question of which I shall have to treat somewhat more in
detail hereafter : —

I.

Beet juice procured by the aid of a hydraulic press contains : —

Sugar,

12.410

per cent.

Potassa and soda compounds.

0.458

a

Lime and magnesia.

0.187

((

Nitrogenous substance, .

1.418

u

Non-nitrogenous organic substan-

ces,

1.048

«

II.

Beet juice procured by Roberts' diffusion apparatus with an
addition of 15 per cent of water, contains : —

* Roberts claims to secure 94 per cent of the juice by adding but 15 per cent of
water, and carrying on the first osmotic maceration at 87 to 80 degrees centigrade, and
the remainder at a common temperature.

84 SUPPLEMENT

Sugar,

Potassa and soda compounds,
Lime and magnesia,
Nitrogenous substance, .
Non-nitrogenous organic substan
ces,

11.580 per cent.
0.441 "
1.191 "
0.791 "

0.983 "

Yield of Sugar.
According to the mode of operation pursued, more or less
sugar will be left with the cellular refuse mass. The residue
of the hydraulic press contains from 3.6 to 4.8 per cent of
sugar, or 0.76 per cent of the amount in the original sugar-
beet ; while Roberts' mode leaves but 0.1 to 0.2 per cent of
sugar. Between these figures lie the quantities of sugar left
by the application of other modes of operation. With the
removal of the juice begins consequently the loss of sugar,
which amounts during the whole operation for its final separa-
tion to about 3.5 per cent under a good management of exist-
ing methods. To set down losses which occur in a branch of
manufacture where peculiar skill so decidedly bears upon the
final results, is no doubt quite arbitrary ; but it is of interest
to notice where they usually occur, and to what degree they
affect the final results in many instances. The following state-
ment is presented as a fair one and may serve the purpose just
specified : —

One hundred parts of sugar-beet roots, under fair manage-
ment, are liable to lose sugar as follows :

In the pits by degeneration,

By change into grape sugar,

In process of filtration of the juice.

In defecation and carbonization,

In juice left in the press-cake, .

Total loss, 3.65 "

One hundred parts of sugar existing in the beet roots were,
in one case, accounted for in the following way at the close of
manufacture : —

2.00

per cent.

0.64

((

0.14

4(

0.21

U

0.76

ii

SUPPLEMENT. 85

Crystallized sugar, .... 62.4G per cent.

Sugar left in the molasses, . . 14.75 "

Lost during manufacture, . . 22.79 "

Left in the press-cakes, . . . 1L48 "

Eight per cent of sugar from the beet is at present assumed
to be tlie actual result of most factories with improved modes
of operation and superior sets of apparatus ; some factories
claim even more. The importance of an increase in tlie yield
of crystallized sugar may perhaps be best inferred from a case
reported by W. Crookes, F. R. S., in his late publication
on beet sugar manufacture with reference to England. Mr.
Baruchson, the beet-sugar manufacturer, is reported as stat-
ing that the factory cost ,£10,845 ; 150,000 pounds of sugar-
beet root has been worked per day for five months ; the ex-
penses for labor amounted per year to X5,190 ; the total
expenses per year had been .£13,980; the total receipts per
year were £20,470 ; the profits thus had amounted to <£ 6,490,
or 24.75 per cent on the first outlay ; 6.5 per cent of crystal-
lized sugar had been the result. He further states that one-
half per cent of increase of the yield of crystallized sugar
would be equal to 7.5 per cent additional profits ; eight per
cent of crystallized sugar from every 100 pounds of beet roots
worked, would thus insure a profit of 48 per cent. Accepting
this statement as correct, there is no doubt, but that the Eng-
lish beet sugar manufacture ought to prosper under their
present revenue law. In Germany, where eight per cent of
crystallized sugar is obtained, the yield per acre varies from
1,520 to 2,270 pounds of sugar. In France, where but six per
cent of sugar is obtained (Walkhoff), the yield is said to be
from 1,706 to 2,650 pounds per acre. The same authority
states that the average expenses in Germany for tlie production
of sugar per acre, taking the average yield of beet roots as
from 23,000 to 24,000 pounds, amount to from .|132 to $133,
of which the government takes in form of taxes from 145 to
$46 ; while in France, assuming the average yield of. beet roots
per acre to be from 36,000 to 37,000 pounds, and separating
114.4 pounds of sugar from every 2,200 pounds of beet roots,
the whole average expenses per acre for beet-sugar amounts to
from $161 to 1 162, of which the government draws for taxes

36 SUPPLEMENT.

on sugar $50.75. The expenses in the two countries are
divided among the different operations in the following pro-
portion : —

In Germany :*

Manure, 14.48 per cent.

Cultivation of beets, . . . 11.20 "
Taxes on sugar, . . . .34.82 "
Manufacturing expenses, . . . 39.40 "

In France :

Manure and cultivation of beets, . 24,40 per cent.

Taxes on sugar, .... 31.59 "

Manufacturing expenses, . . . 44.01 "

Taking the produce of an American acre as equal to from
23,000 to 23,500 pounds, and presuming an average percentage
of sugar in the beets of from 11 to 12 per cent, allowing
at the same time 80 per cent of juice, which contains but 9.6
per cent of the sugar in the beets, and calculating, finally, but
6.5 per cent of crystallized sugar as obtainable from 100
pounds of beets, an American acre would yield 1,500 pounds,
which at seven cents per poundf would amount to $105.
The molasses obtained from the sugar-beet is not fit for house-
hold consumption on account of its unpleasant saline taste.
It is fermented in most cases for the production of alcohol, and
rarely fed to live stock, as its continued use, even in small
quantities, is not considered safe, from its effect on the digestive
organs. Its value as food is about one-half that of good hay,
and its effect is similar to that of oil-cake. 1.8 pounds of
molasses per day mixed with clover hay or even straw has
increased the yield of milk. Sometimes the molasses is mixed
with caustic lime or the carbonate, and composted for manure.

* Recent reliable private communications coming; from different sections of Germany
state the expenses for the production of sugar-beet roots, when in the pits, in one case at
$46 and in another at $59.50 per acre. Land rent in butli cases was equal and
amounted to $12.50 per acre; manure in the first case amounted to nearly one-half,
in the second case to but one-third of all expenses. The price of labor caused the
difference.

t To assume a higher value is unsafe, considering the unsettled views concerning the
degree of protection which our sugar industry may claim.

SUPPLEMENT.

37

Average Composition op Beet-Sugar Molasses.
Albiiminoiis substances, . . .9.2 per cent.

Sugar, 41.3 "

Other organic substances, . . . 16.1 "
Saline compounds, .... 10.8 "
Water, 22.6 "

100.0 "

The saline constituents of course differ somewhat in every
case, particularly as far as the lime compounds are concerned.
The following analytical results, (Trommer & Rode), may give
some idea about their general character.

One hundred pounds of ash constituents of beet-sugar molas-
ses contain of: —

Potassa, ....

. 30.46

per cent

Soda, ....

. 10.12

Lime, ....

. 26.62

Sesqui-oxide of iron.

. 00.04

Carbonic acid.

. 19.07

Sulphuric acid.

. 1.92

Silicic acid,

. 0.06

Chlorine,

. 10.03

100.00

it

The residual liquid left after the fermentation of the molas-
ses is usually evaporated and the solid mass subsequently
calcined. The beet-sugar manufacture furnishes in this form
quite a large quantity of valuable saline compounds for general
industrial purposes. One hundred pounds of tlicse calcined
saline substances contain from 45 to 48 per cent of soluble
constituents of a composition more or less corresponding with
the following figures : —

Carbonate of potassa,
Carbonate of soda, .
Chloride of potassium,
Sulphate of potassa,

27.60 per cent.
4.70 "
6.75 "
6.75 "

45.80 «

88 SUPPLEMENT.

One single beet-sugar factory at "Wagehausel (Germany),
sends every year 200,000 pounds of such potassa salts into
market, which is mainly used for the manufacture of nitre.
The molasses contains by far the largest portion of the soluble
saline constituents of the sugar-beets, particularly the potassa
compounds which must be returned to the soil directly or indi-
rectly. The cheaper crude sulphate of potassa of Stassfurth is
bought at present in exchange for the carbonate of potassa
sold.* Distilleries are frequently connected with sugar beet
manufactories.

The Cellular Residue op the Beet Root.
The juice is obtained in different ways, and, according to the
mode adopted, the quality of the residue is affected. The press-
cakes resulting from the application of the hydraulic press,
which is the main apparatus employed, are compact in conse-
quence of packing the pulp into bags or coarse linen cloths
before subjecting it to the press. 100 pounds of beet roots fur-
nish from 18 to 20 pounds of press-cakes, which consist, in case
a very powerful press is used, of : —

Albumen,

. 1.336

per cent

Potassa,

. 6.487

Sugar, .

. 4.945

Cellulose,

. 11.922

Saline matters,

. 1.180

Water, .

. T4.130

100.000 "

These cakes are highly yalued for feeding purposes ; 100
pounds of press cakes are valued at 29.6 cents, when hay is
worth 20 dollars per ton ; the cellular residue of beets left
after the abstraction of the juice by other modes is as a general
rule less-valuable. For instance, the residue after the treatment
with centrifugal apparatus and the subsequent displacement

* The producer of potatoes sells in an average crop of 7.41 acres (three hectares) the
mineral constituents of four crops of wheat besides 600 p-iunds of potassa, and in an
average crop of beet roots from the same area the mineral coustitueats of four wheat
crops, besides 1,000 pounds of potassa. — Leibig.

SUPPLEMENT. 39

process is considered worth but 16.9 cents per 100 pounds ;
that obtained by hot maceration of dried beet roots is held at
from 24 to 25 cents per 100 pounds, while that obtained by a
maceration of the fresh beet roots after Roberts' improved
method, (free from an excess of lime), is valued at from 7.2 to
9.1 cents per 100 pounds. The last named residue contains but
from 6.5 to 6.9 per cent of dry substance, while common press-
cakes contain 25 per cent. Roberts' mode of operation leaves
about 70 pounds of cellular residuum for every 100 pounds of
beet, which contains, as stated previously, more nitrogenous
matter in proportion to dry substance, but less sugar than
common press-cakes. It is worth as fodder about one-quarter
as much, according to the estimate of Grouven.

One and one-half tons of press cakes are assumed in practice
as the produce from one Prussian morgen,* or 4,700 pounds
per acre, so that allowing a value of 29 cents for every 100
pounds, the whole amount of press-cakes from one acre would
be worth $13.60. Moreover, as 100 pounds of common press-
cakes contain 25 per cent of dry substance, 4,700 pounds
contain 1,175 pounds ; and as the dry substance of any article
of vegetable food is known to furnish 1.75 times its weight in
common stable manure, 2,056 pounds of manure will result
from the feeding of the press-cakes of one acre. Reckoning
one ton of manure worth il.75, 2,056 pounds will be worth
about $1.80. The fodder value of press-cakes resulting from
the operation with the hydraulic press without subsequent
maceration is equal to the same weight of sugar-beet roots.
They are even preferred to the latter, since they become
more digestible and acquire, after being buried in pits in con-
sequence of slow fermentation, a slightly acidulated taste.
Cattle then eat them greedily and thrive upon them, particu-
larly in case they are fed in connection with a proper quantity
of oil-cake, bran, hay, or barley straw, &c., to replace the
potassa compounds and the phosphates which the juice has
carried off.

The preservation of the press-cakes is easily accomplished.
They are packed closely into the empty beet-root pits or into

* In this report all calculations concerning reductions of German surface measures and
of money value are based on the following proportions: one American acre is considered
equal to 1.53 Prussian morgen, and one Prus:>iau thaler equal to 0.73 dollars.

40 SUPPLEMENT.

brick chambers, being frequently interlaid with a small quantity
of chopped straw, and, finally, tightly covered with soil. The
fermented mass resulting from this operation keeps in an excel-
lent state of preservation for six to seven months.

Produce of Leaves.
The leaves amount at the time of the harvesting of the roots
to about one-fourth of the weight of the latter ; calculating as
previously, 6,000 pounds of leaves would result from an acre.
The leaves are separated upon the fields and subsequently in
their green state plowed under deeply, or they are fed either
fresh or in a preserved state. The manuring effect of the
beet leaves is very great, since they contain in their fresh
state more potassa, more phosphoric acid and more nitrogenous
substances than an equal weight of roots. Their ash percent-
age is also larger than that of the beet roots, consisting mainly
of alkalies and alkaline earths. Almost one-third of all the
potassa, one-half of the phosphoric acid, and two-fifths of the
whole amount of nitrogenous substances of the entire sugar-
beet crop is contained in the leaves. As they can be fed in
small quantity only, in their fresh state, they are salted down
in pits. The pits used for this purpose ought to be in a dry
locality and dug to a depth of from five to six feet. The
bottom is covered from two to three inches thick with a layer
of chopped straw of oats, rye or wheat ; then a layer from
four to five inches thick of fresh beet leaves, mixed with one-
quarter of one per cent of common salt is put on and trodden
down, and these alternations continued until the pit is not only
filled, but raised from two to three feet above the ground, and
then a layer of two feet of soil is added as covering. Li the
same proportion as the mass shrinks in consequence of fermen-
tation new soil is added to keep the covering above the level of
the surrounding ground as protection from the rain. The
leaves in the pits begin soon to ferment and to discharge
moisture, which the straw absorbs ; they retain a strong smell
until January, when they turn by degrees sweet and are on
that account freely eaten by cattle. Sixty pounds of fresh
green leaves produce forty pounds of preserved leaf-mass ; one
acre furnishing thus about 3,900 pounds of such food, which,
taking 100 pounds of hay worth one dollar, is valued at 16.3

SUPPLEMENT. 41

cents per 100 pounds. One acre would thus produce in food
derived from the leaves $6.35 ; fresh leaves have 11.99 per
cent of dry substance, preserved leaves contain 15.0 per
cent ; the leaves of one acre of sugar-beet root contain tliere-
fore 585 pounds of dry substance ; which multiplied by 1.75
gives about 1,000 pounds of manure from this source of food.
The leaves are never fed by themselves. Grouven recommends
the following composition of food for every 1,000 pounds of live
weight per day : 40 to 50 pounds of preserved leaf-mass, ,40
pounds press-cakes, 3 pounds of rape-cake with 6 pounds of hay.
In proposing this composition of food, he presumes that 25
pounds of perfectly dry hay represent the normal quantity of
food required to support 1,000 pounds of live weight per day.
A comparison of the mineral constituents contained in 25
pounds of dry hay and 25 pounds of dried sugar-beet leaves
explains the proposed practice.

Hay.
Potassa, . . . . . .0.80 per cent.

Phosphoric acid, .... 0.20 "

Sulphuric acid, ..... 0.07 "

Chloride of sodium, . . . . 0.12 "

Dry Preserved Leaves.

Potassa, 1.00 per cent.

Phosphoric acid, .... 0.14 "

Sulphuric acid, 0.28 "

Chloride of sodium, .... 0.52 "

The small quantity of phosphoric acid and the large percent-
age of sulphuric acid and chloride of sodium in the beet leaves
renders their exclusive use objectionable. They are, therefore,
fed in common with substances like oat-meal, oil-cake, bran,
clover, hay, &c., on account of their richness in phosphates, &c.
Preserved beet leaves, it appears from experiments of Tod,
increase the production of milk in quality and quantity, whilst
press-cakes, if exclusively used, reduce its quantity decidedly.
A mixed food of 100 pounds of press-cakes with 75 pounds of
preserved leaves produced for every 100 pounds of leaves fed,
an increase of 24.5 pounds of milk per day, as compared with

42 SUPPLEMENT.

a corresponding feeding of press-cakes alone. The value of
press-cakes and preserved leaves for the support of live stock,
particularly during a period when food as a general rule
becomes scarce and thus expensive, must be quite apparent ;
especially when we consider farther that every ton of sugar-beets
raised furnishes 400 pounds of press-cakes and 400 pounds of
fresh leaves, and that an ordinary factory consumes from 40 to
50 tons of beet roots per day during five months. In cases
where stock feeding is no part of the enterprise, or where plenty
of other kinds of food is at hand, the leaves while still green
are plowed under. The part which the beet leaves perform in
the absorption of mineral constituents from the soil may be
seen from the following analytical statement : —

A fair average crop of sugar beets abstracts per acre, —

By Roots and Leaves.

Phosphoric acid.

.

85 pounds.

Potassa, .

> « •

164

Lime and magnesia,

.

63.50

Silica,

.

15.09 "

By Roots Alone.

Phosphoric acid.

• • •

25 pounds.

Potassa, .

.

126 "

Lime and magnesia,

• • •

32 "

Silica,

. «

6.5 "

Returned inform of Leaves.

Phosphoric acid, . . . .10 pounds.

Potassa, 38 «

Lime and magnesia, . . . 31.5 "
Silica, 94 " .

The General Influence of the Sugar-Beet Cultivation on
THE Condition op the Soil.
The first question which will be forced upon us in this con-
nection, is: Can the sugar-beet be raised upon the same lands
continuously without reducing their value either for the pro-
duction of sugar beets or for general farm management ?

SUPPLEMENT. 43

It is no doubt most convenient to refer for an answer to
Germany and France, and notice the conditions of the lands
engaged in tlie beet sugar cultivation for generations. We
shall find that the yield of good sugar-beets is not diminishing,
that the beet sugar industry in fact is continually growing — (lias-
increased in Germany within the last fifteen years threefold) —
and instead of reducing the general farm products, in conse-
quence of engaging so large an area in the sugar-beet cultiva-
tion, we know from statistical reports that they exceed in value
the farm products of previous periods. High farming based on
rational principles has taken the lead ; to increase the fertility
of the soil has been the aim ; advantageous systems of rotation
have been introduced and the effects of special manures have
been subjected to close study. Science has made itself famil-
iar with common farm routine, and an enterprising farming
community has listened to its advice. Two facts are quite evi-
dent to every intelligent farmer : first, that a certain chemical
and physical condition of the soil is required to secure by the
crops raised a satisfactory compensation for labor and expenses
incurred in its cultivation ; and, secondly, that the plants we
cultivate differ in their requirements in both directions. The
mineral constituents needed for the support of any one kind of
plant will be sooner or later exhausted, for nature as a general
rule does not change the mineral compounds required for the
maintenance of a forced vegetation into a fit state for assimila-
tion so rapidly as most of our farm crops, and the sugar-beet
in particular, require. Fortunately for us the disintegrating
surface of our globe has been for ages subjected to a leaching
process, and its products are daily more and more opened to us
in the form of saline deposits of every description ; the accu-
mulated results of animal and vegetable life of past generations
are brought back to us in the form of guano and phosphates of
varying character, while chemistry has taught us how to assist
nature in its preparation of plant-food. The physical condi-
tions of the soil, however favorable they may have been, will
suffer, if year after year subjected to the same or a similar treat-
ment for the cultivation of one and tiie same plant ; diversity
in its mechanical treatment and change of seasons for such
treatment cannot otherwise but affect favorably its mechanical
condition and its chemical disintegration, promoting thereby its

44 SUPPLEMENT.

fitness for the absorption of atmospheric fjo 3. The roots of the
same plants abstract their food year after year from the same
layer of soil ; while a change of crop frequently alters the
depth from which the food is absorbed. To cultivate the same
plant u[)on the same spot for any length of time is also objec-
tionable on account of the particular chances offered for the
growth of those parasites and insects which make that plant
their home. These and other reasons demand imperatively a
rotation of crops.

The sugar-beet sends its rootlets to a depth of several feet, and
draws consequently largely from the subsoil ; the latter is on that
account, as stated before, of great importance. As the sugar-
beet also depends in a high degree on atmospheric food, its leaf
growth must be stimulated by a most careful pulverization of
the soil, and as the fleshy root needs for its growth a loose, deep
soil, deep plowing has been generally introduced. Thorough
cultivation and a perfected system of under-drainage being
absolutely indispensable to the highest success must necessarily
improve the condition of lands devoted to beet culture. Green
manuring and a liberal use of stable manure have also been
employed to render the soil mellow and rich, and thus the farm
lands have reached by degrees a high state of fertility. The
use of special commercial fertilizers is resorted to not to the
exclusion, but in aid of stable manure, and thus the chemical
and physical requirements of the soil are met in the most
efficient way. Rotation of crops in connection with a rotation
of special manures has demonstrated the practicability of pre-
serving unimpaired the fertility of soil engaged in sugar-beet
cultivation.

Without entering here in detail upon this much studied
question, I propose to state merely a few observations of a more
general interest, in addition to what is said in previous pages.
Well manured annual leaf crops for green feeding, are con-
sidered the best crop to precede the beet ; next in order, follow
well manured summer or winter grain crops ; less recommended
are perennial grasses and other fodder crops ; directly objec-
tionable are, if not specially manured, potatoes and root crops
in general, of which the mangel is the worst. The sugar-beet,
on the other hand, is a good crop to precede almost any other
farm plant. The succession of crops adopted in the interest of

SUPPLEMENT.

45

sugar-beet industry has reference to two important objects,
namely, an adequate supply of food to each crop and the pro-
duction of the largest possible amount of animal manure. A
fair crop of beet roots is of course more exhausting to the soil,
as far as phosphoric acid, and particularly potassa, is concerned,
than most of our farm plants ; a judicious system of rotation
divides that effect over several years, and thus enables the
farmer to draw more efficiently on the natural resources of
the soil, and so avoid a direct outlay of money. The follow-
ing succession of crops is considered very satisfactory, viz. :
green fodder, wheat, sugar-beets, and, finally, a summer grain
crop ; or barley, sugar-beets, barley, green fodder, wheat,
sugar-beets ; and these are economical as far as manure is con-
cerned. Two thousand three hundred pounds of hay, or its full
equivalent in fodder value, are considered sufficient to replace
the constituents which a fair beet sugar crop abstracts per acre
in excess of what the refuse material resulting from such crop
in the course of beet sugar manufacture will compensate for.
The amount of refuse material fit for manuring purposes is
counted per acre equal to 4,700 pounds. T. T. Fiihling's
figures on this question are of great interest as they come from
a practical sugar-beet cultivator, whose opinion is regarded as
of great importance. They refer to pounds per acre.

I.*

n.t

III.I

IV.§

V.ll

Nitrogen, ....

36.4

19.8

16.6

23.7

32.

Potassa, ....

96.4

19.

77.4

28.5

33.2

Soda, ....

39.5

6.3

33.2

9.5

3.2

Lime, ....

14.2

28.5

33.2

4.

28.5

Magnesia, ....

9.5

11.9

33.2

4.3

9.5

Chlorine, ....

28.5

2.4

26.1

4.3

9.5

Sulphuric acid, .

79

6.4

1.5

11.5

9.5

Phosphoric acid,

15.8

9.5

6.3

2.

4.8

Silicic acid,

17.4

—

6.3

8.

47.4

* Substances abstracted by a full sugar-beet crop,
t Substances returned in the manure obtained from sugar-beets.
t Amount of substances not replaced by that manure.

§ Amount of substances abstracted per acre during a four years' rotation as detailed,
tl Amount of substances restored to the soil by the manure resulting from the feeding
of 2,300 pounds of hay.

46 SUPPLEMENT.

Comparing these analytical results, we find tliat the manure
obtained from tlie beet roots and from the hay replace what, in
the course of a few years' rotation, as specified above, will be
taken per year from one acre. Wherever a farmer deviates
from the practice previously stated, potassa and phosphoric acid
must be largely supplied in form of special manures, as super-
phosphate of lime, or flour of bones and wood-ash, or crude
sulphate of potassa. One hundred acres of good meadow-land
in twelve hundred acres under cultivation for beet-sugar manu-
facture are considered in Germany a suitable proportion to
raise the amount of hay required.

Stock feeding then becomes a prominent feature in the farm
industry. The farm produce is largely sold in the form of live
weight, and the manure is more cheaply produced by fattening
live stock than it can be bought. The farmer keeps only as
many horses as are indispensable, and does his farmwork, as
far as possible, with oxen. He looks upon cows, if not favora-
bly located for the milk-market, as a mere manure-machine, and
keeps only as many as required to make up the stock wanting.
Sheep-fattening, if he has suitable pasture, he considers a
profitable business. In feeding his stock he believes in the
efficiency of feeding high, to reduce the expenses of keeping ;
and this produces also the cheapest manure. Every animal
requires a certain amount of food for daily support independent
of its increase in weight ; the shorter the time for fattening the
more food for mere keei)ing is saved. In calculating the
quantity of food required for the various kinds of stock, the
following figures are frequently adopted : for every one hun-
dred pounds of live weight, 8.^8 pounds of hay or its equivalent
per day are considered necessary as the mere support of farm
stock in cases of ordinary employment, and five pounds of hay
or its equivalent for every hundred pounds of live weight for
fattening purposes. In the case of young stock, eight limes as
much food is given for production of weight as for mere sus-
tenance ; from every hundred pounds of food for support, and
fifty pounds of food for growth, from four to six pounds of
increase in live weight are expected as return.

Summing up the value of the various products of one acre of
sugar-beets, wo find at a very low calculation the following
result : —

SUPPLEMENT.

47

Sugar, 1,500 pounds at seven

cents.

. $105 00

Molasses,

.

2 90

Press-cakes, .

• • • •

13 60

Preserved leaf-mass.

. '

6 30

Manure (about two tons),

.

3 50

(Profit, in converted produce, <fec., &c.)

Every cent of increase in the price of the sugar would be
equal to fifteen dollars additional profit per acre, and every
one-half per cent increase in crystallized sugar from every hun-
dred pounds of beet roots worked, would add about 115 pounds
of sugar to yield, or 18.05 additional profit per acre. These
additions in profit are by no means beyond reach, for the
best management in Europe realizes them.

To enter, in concluding this Report, upon a detailed calcula-
tion of what our expenses for the production of the above
articles per acre would be, could be at best but a mere approxi-
mation.

It may suffice to keep in mind that in Europe from forty-six
to fifty dollars per acre has to be paid in taxes to the govern-
ment ; that our lands are cheaper, and that machinery is taking
daily more and more the place of the hand in planting seeds, in
cleaning the fields, and in securing the juice from the beet
roots. Where the final pecuniary results may differ so widely,
as must be quite apparent from previous statements, in conse-
quence of a more or less favorable location of the factory and
the skill engaged in its management, it is unsafe to state a
definite sum of profit. It must here, as in every similar
instance of an industrial enterprise, suffice to know that money
can be made if the business be intelligently managed. As far
as the farmer is concerned there is little risk. While the profits
of the beet-sugar manufacturer may be lessened by changes in
provisions of political economy, the farmer is not necessarily
subjected to influences of that kind. In this case, he is aware
that root crops are profitable, and that aside from this, his farm
lands will receive a treatment which has everywhere been
proved to enrich, rather than to exhaust the soil.

To restore his land to something like its original productive-

48

SUPPLEMENT.

ness, and to do tins mainly through capital furnished by outside
parties, is worthy his serious consideration.

The real importance of this subject to the farming interest of
the Commonwealth, as well as to the people at large, can never
be satisfactorily determined, except by a series of wisely con-
ducted experiments, which can no where be so appropriately
undertaken as at the Massachusetts Agricultural College.

APPENDIX.

Results of the Examination of Sugar-beets raised on the College
Farm during the past season.

NAME.

Source of Seed.

"Weight, in

rercentage of

pounds.

Sugar in juice.

I. — Vilmorin beet, .

Saxony,

f to i

15.50

II. — Yilmorin beet, .

u

1 to 1

15.61

I. — White Imperial,

((

f to If

14 20

New Imperial, .

(I

H to If

13.80

I. — White Masdeburg,

((

l| to 2

13.10

Que<llinbur(T,

((

1^ to 1|

13 44

II. — White Imperial,

((

If to 2

10.27

II. — Wliite Magdeburg,

Silesia,

n to If

10.06

White Silesian, .

u

l| to U

9.72

III. — Vilmorin beet, .

"

11 to 1

9.93

Long White beet.

"

H to If

8 60

White Sugar beet,

u

If to 2

7.20

Vienna Red beet.

n

If to 2

8.10

The percentage of sugar was ascertained by means of a polar-
ization apparatus, and the results obtained, in several instances,
verified by Trommer's test. My thanks are due to Mr. J. E.
Heyl, of Philadelphia, for kind assistance rendered in the labor-
atory work during his stay as special student in chemistry at
the Agricultural College.

INDEX TO SECRETARIES REPORT.

Page.

Abortion, causes of, 90. 91, 131, 132, 134

Abundance of good road material, 52,53

Action of the Board of Agriculture in relation to pleuro-pneumonia, ... 16

Adulteration in fertilizers, 195, 197, 198, 220, 224, 226

Advantages of keeping farm accounts, 322,326

Agricultural College farm as a seed farm, 320, 321

Agricultural College, Report of Examining Committee on, 304,310

Agricultural implements, improvement in, . 18

Agricultural products of California, 260,263

American trotting horses and their characteristics, 120, 121

Ancon sheep, origin of, . '. . . . 115

Animal manures compared with special, 183

Apple crops in Massachusetts, 246, 247, 253

Arlington market gardeners, 315

Ashes, value of as a fertilizer, 195, 202, 203

Assignment of delegates to societies' exhibitions, . ...... 337

Attavism and reversion, tendency to, 98, 99

Ayrshires, diversity in color of, 127, 128

Barre system of feeding, 135

Bassett, C. C, Report by, 322, 326

Ijean weevil, 370

Beets, varieties of, 238, 239

Big trees of California, 278, 279, 281

Blake's stone crusher, 53

Boardof Agriculture, annual meeting of, 286,304,326.339,345

Board of Agriculture, influence of, 14,15,18

Board of Agriculture, origin of, 12

Board of Agriculture, public meeting of, at Framingham, . . • H, 82, 178, 286

Bone manures, value of, 182, 185, 187, 192, 204, 209

Bones, treatment of for fertilizers, 182,183,187,191,192

Breeds adapted to localities, 94, 95, 121, 122, 123

Breeding in and in, results of, 100, 101

Breeding, principles of, 82, 88, 91, 100, 112

Brighton the focus of the foot and mouth disease, 9,381

Bureau of Roads and Bridges, proposed establishment of, 63

Cabbage butterfly, 353, 368, 370

Cabbages, varieties and cultivation of, 245, 319

California, lecture on the resources of, 259, 264, 270, 286

Canker worms may be conquered, 257

Capacity for reproduction in plants, 292, 293

60 INDEX.

fage.

Capital in farming, essay upon the use of, 327, 336

Carrots, soil for and cultivation of, 230, 240, 244

Cattle Commissioners, Report of, 7, 10

Causes of sterility, 87,88

Causes of variations in breeds, 92, 93, 94

Chestnut Hill road, 67, 73

Chinese in California, 275, 276

Climate influences variations in breeds, 03,94

Clark, W. S., essay by, 287, 304

Coal ashes, value of for a fertilizer, 210

Colorado potato beetles, 353

Construction of roads, 45, 47

Contagious character of foot and mouth disease, 9, 137, 380, 383

Commissioners on highways should be appointed, 00, 61

Corn produced on one acre, 187, 189

Cost of production of an acre of carrots, 240

Crops should be adapted to localities, 162

Crushed stones, use of in road building, 53

Cultivation of root crops, . . . ." 229,235,240,245

Culture and preservation of fruits, report on, 348, 351

Currant worms, 356, 357, 360, 361

Dam, influence of, on progeny, 105, 115

Defects in road building, ' 46, 48, 49

Defects in our present system of managing roads, . . . .46, 49, 57, 64, 65

Defects of the sj'stem of working out road taxes, 57,59

Delegates to societies' exhibitions, 337

Difference in the composition of soils, 170,180,186,200,201

Difference of value in stable manures, 199, 200

Disease and accident, influence of in breeding, 102

Dormant seeds and spores, 301

Dragon-flies, 378, 380

Drainage in road-making to be secured, 49, 72

Education of farmers, 15, 309

English racer, origin of, 91, 02

Epizootic Aphtlia, 7, 10, 136, 137, 380, 381, .383

European llape Butterfly, . 368, 369

European roads, superiority of, ....... . 70, 74, 77, 78, 79

Experiments with fertilizers. 180, 183, 185, 187, 190, 197, 214

Farm accounts, value of a system of, 322,326

Farming in New England can be made profitable, 103,194,196

Farming without manure, ........... 213

Farms, magnitude of, in California, ......... 262

Feeding influences variations in breeding, 92, 03, 130

Fertilizers, discussion on, 202, 204, 220, 228

Fertilization of flowers, 297

First impregnation, influence of, ......... . 97

Fifld culture of roots and vegetables. 220,232,240,245

Fish ponuice, value of as a fertilizer 196,203,225,232

Flint, C. L., lecture by, 20, 40, 60, 63

Fcctus, membranes of the, 85

Frctus, nutrition of the, 85

Foot and mouth disease among cattle, ...... 7 10, 136, 380, 383

INDEX. 61

Page.

Frauds in commercial fertilizers, 195, 197, 198, 220

Free markets needed 141, 144, 150, 160, 162

Fruit growing an important industry in Massachusetts, 17

Fruit culture, lecture on ". . . . 240, 250, 255

Fruit raising in California, 260, 262, 265, 267, 269, 272

Fruits, culture and preservation of, 348, 351

Fundamental principle of breeding, 91

Gathering root crops, 237

Geysers of California, . . ■ 276, 277

Grafting and hybridization, 294, 295

Grape culture successful in Massachusetts, , . . 247

Grape growing in California, 264, 268, 270

Gregory, J. J. H., lecture by, 229, 232, 240, 245

Guano, use and value of, 187, 232, 233

Hay, time of cutting and mode'of curing, 339,345

Herd books, use of, to prove thoroughbreds, 128

Highway Commissioners should be appointed, 60, 62

Hopkins, Prof. Albert, lecture by, 167, 170, 178

Hybridization, 294, 295, 298, 299

Hyde, J. F. C, address by, 64, 68, 70, 74

Imagination influences variations in breeds, 96

Importance of good market facilities, 142

Imported currant saw-fly, ........... 355

Impotency in the male, causes of, 87, 88, 89

Indian corn, profit of growing, 187,189,201,219

Influence of the Board of Agriculture, 14,15

Insects injurious and beneficial, report on, 351,379

Insects injurious to the apple, 362

Insects injurious to field crops, 367

Insects injurious to the grape, 365

Inspectors of roads and their duties, 61

Law, Prof. James, lecture by, 82, 90, 100, 112

Leached and unleached ashes, relative values of, 203, 210, 212

Level roads most desirable, 46

Like produces like, 91

Localities influence breeds, 94, 95, 121, 122, 123

Mangolds, soil for and treatment of, 230

Mangolds, varieties of, 239, 240

Manures, discussion upon, 202, 216, 220, 228

Manures for root crops, 231, 232

Manures, general and special, lecture upon, 179, 190, 202

Market gardening, essay upon, 310, 321

Marketing by railroads, 153, 154, 155

IMarket days, need of, 145

Markets for the fanner, address upon, 141, 144

Matured animals as breeders, 116, 117, 121, 122

Meadow or swamp muck, value of, 221, 222, 227

Meteorological characteristics of 1870, 5,0,349

Meteorological characteristics of Massachusetts, 289

Milk routes and their management 104, 165, 160

52

INDEX.

Moore, J. B., lecture by, ....
Muck, value of,

Nature's mode of distributing plants,
New England homes, lecture upon,
Nichols, Dr. James R., lecture bv,

Offspring, regulating the sexes of,
Onions, cost of production of, an acre, .
Onions, soil for and cultivation of.
Organization of the Board of Agriculture,
Ornamental trees and shrubs of California, ,.

Otter sheep, origin of,

Ovum, developmental changes of,

Packard, A. S., report on insects by, .
Parturition influenced by diet, exercise and care.
Past members of the Board of Agriculture, .
Peaches may yet be grown in Massachusetts,
Peat meadows should be reclaimed,
Planting seeds in market gardens,
Pleuro-pneumonia in Massachusetts,
Potash, use of, as a fertilizer, ....

Potency of blood,

Prepotency of races and individuals.

Prickly ash borer,

Principles of breeding, lecture upon.

Principles of breeding should be better understood.

Public "highways" of Massachusetts, statistics on

Qiialitj' of produce determines price.
Quantity of seeds to the acre,

Peport of Cattle Commissioners, .
Keports of Board of Agriculture, value of,
Kespective influence of sire and dam on proj
Reversion in breeding, .
Roads and road-making, lecture upon.
Roads and road-making, discussion on.
Roads should be wider, .
Road beds should not be too convex.
Road statistics, summary of, .
Roads in Europe, superiority of, .
Root crops, production of, to the acre,
Rotation of crops in garden ^culture.

Seed, importance of planting the'best.
Sex, regulating the.
Shorthorns, origin of, .
Sire, influence of, on progeny,
Squashes, soil for and cultivation of,
Slade, A. P., address by.
Soil, influences of in breeding.
Soils, difference of character in,
Soils, preparation of, for root culture,

Page.

246, 250, 255, 310, 321

. 222, 227

. 237, 304
1G7, 170, 178
179, 180, 202

107
237, 241
233, 234, 235
13
273
115
83, 84

351, 379

125

19

248, 252

182, 184, 186

245, 316, 317

7, 11). 11, 16

. 202, 203

116

. 99, 100

363

2, 86, 100, 112

. 91, 113

22, 23, 43

230

240

156
235

7, 11

14, 17

105

98

40, 60, 63
64. 83
67, 72, 73
49
43

74. 77, 79

229, 240

317

312, 313, 315
107, 111, 130
92
105,111, 115
. 242, 249
. 141, 144
94, 95, 121, 122, 123
179, ISO, 186, 200
231

INDEX. 53

Page.

Specialties in farming, importance of, 106, 330, 331

Special fertilizers, frauds in 195, 106, 197, 198, 214

Spermatozoa and their mission, 82, 83

Stable manures, difference in value of, 199, 200

Sterility, causes of, 87, 88, 90

Slock keeping in California, 202

Stone crushers, value of, 53, 66

Stones, use of in road building, 52,53,66

Straight lines in road building, 45

StraAvberries, soil for and cultivation of, 249, 207

Sugar waste, value of, 220, 224, 229

Superphosphates, value of, 187, 190, 195, 197, 214, 224

Swale haj'^, curing of, 345

Symptoms of foot and mouth disease, 136,137

Thompson, James, biographical sketch of, 19, 346, 348

Thompson, James, resolutions on the death of, 258

Thoroughbred seeds, 312, 313, 315, 317

Thoroughbreds, how constituted, 118, 119, 120

Time of cutting and mode of cutting hay, essay upon, 339,345

Treatment of bones for fertilizers, 182,183,187,191,192.

Turnips, soil for and cultivation of, 230, 232

Two-lined Telephorus, 374

Uniformity of system in road building, 55

Union Agricultural Society, change of time of fair, 337

Use and disuse of generative organs influence breeding, ..... 95

Use of capital in farming, essay upon, 327, 336

Value of a system of farm accounts, essay upon, 322,326

Value of fruit crops in Massachusetts, . .• 246

Value of herd books, 128, 129

Variations in breeds, causes of, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 99

Varieties of soil on one farm, 179,180,186,200

Vegetables, culture of, 229, 240, 242, 245, 312, 320

Waltham, road system of, 61, 62

Weeds unproiitable crops, 237, 317

Westborough, way thej^ mend roads in, 51

What constitutes a pure-bred animal, 118, 119, 120

Wheat may be grown in Massachusetts, .190

Wheat the principal crop of California, 260

Wider roads needed, 66, 67, 72, 73

Wilder, M. P., address by, 11, 13, 20

Wilder, U. P., lecture by, 258, 265, 275, 286

Wines and wine making in California, 264, 266

Working out road taxes, 56, 57, 69

64 INDEX.

INDEX TO ABSTRACT.

Pane.

Adaptability of crops to soils and localities, GO, 61, 62

Agricultural College, origin and establishment of, 73, 75, 76

Agricultural education, want of, 66, 70, 80, 84

Agriculture in Europe G, 7, 8, 12, 19, 20, 47, 94, 96

Agriculture in New England, decline of, 14, 16,- 21

Alderneys, 28, 1G6, 167, 176

American mania for large farms, 1,8,10,13

. American and European homes, 46, 50, 57

Apple orchards, reports on, 113,118,119,121

Apples, 114,115,119,121,131,132,134,135,136

Ayrshires, 28, 168, 174, 175, 176

Average worth of produce per acre in different States, 4,16,59

Avery, M., report by, 216, 218

Barnes, T. and J., statement of, 124, 126

Beans, 151, 152, 153

Beets, 158

Belgian agriculture, 19, 20

Bird, S. B., statement by, 149, 150

Bulls should be worked, 31

Burr, Fearing, report by, 134, 138

Butler, B. F., address by, 1, 8, 10, 13

Cabbages, 156, 160

Canker worm, report on, 142, 145

Carver, J. E., report by, ' 130, 134

Cattle husbandry, address upon, 22, 29, 37

Cellars to dwelling-houses, and care of, 52, 53

Cheapness of labor in Europe, 46, 47

Clarke, H. M., statement of, 169. 170

Clark, W. S., address by, 66, 70, 84

Clement, Asa, report by, 126, 128

Cobb, P., statement of, 109, 111

Corn, 147, 150, 153, 154, 155

Cranberry meadows, report on, 145

Crocker, Alvah, 14, 16, 21

Cushman, Wm., report bj', 170, 171

Dairy, report on, 216, 218

Davis, Charles G., address by, 94, 100

Decline of New England agriculture, 14,16,21

Devons, history of, 27, 28

INDEX. 55

Pnge.

Drains and water closets, and care of, 51, 52

Drainage, reports and statements on, 106, 109

Education needed among farmers, ......... 63

European agriculture, 6, 8, 12, 19, 20, 47, 94, 96

European roads, superiority of, 46, 95

Farmers' advantages, 85, 90, 93

Farming in different specialties, 60, 64

Farming in Europe, 47

Farms, management and improvement of, 101, 103, 104

Fisher, Jabez, statement of, 101, 103, 210

France, statistics of agriculture in, 7

French, J. D. W., essaj' bj^, 160, 168

Fruits, reports on, 126, 128, 130* 134, 141

Foote, T. L , report by, 183, 186

Fuel, comparative use of, in Europe and the United States, 53, 55

Gardner, E. M., report by, 199, 200

Goodman, Richard, address by, 22, 29, 37

Goodman, Richard, report by, 179, 183

Graham, E., report by, 113, 118

Grapes, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 132, 134

Grass the natural food of cattle, 35

Gregory, J. J. H., report by, * . . 151, 156

Heifers, report on, 186-188

Herefords, early historj' of, 28

Hill, George, report by, 157, 158

History of agricultural education in Massachusetts, 70, 72, 74

Horses, reports on, 188, 190, 195, 199, 202

Hyde, Alexander, report by, 118, 121

Improvement m agricultural labor, 68, 69

Improvement in live stock, 29

Indian corn, statements on, 147^ 150

Jacques, J. C. and R., statement of, 147, 149

Jersej-s, early history of, 28

Jerseys, 106, 167, 176

Kendall, J. K., statement of, 168

Kilburn, Cyrus, statement of, 104, 105

Leonard, S., statement of, 112, 113

Lewis, J. S., report by, 138. 141

Lincoln, A., report by, 203, 206

Makepeace, A. D , report by, 195, 199

Management of neat stock, 30, 32, 34, 35, 37

Miles, E. T., statement of, 174, 176

Moors, J. F., address by, 46, 50, 58

Mosquitoes, breeding places of, ; . . . 52

Mowry, D., report b}-, 128, 130

Mutual dependence of our producing industries 59,05

56 INDEX.

Page.

Neat stock, number of in the United States, 29,30

Nile, rise and fall of, 48, 49

Oakes cow, essay upon, 166

Packard, R. E., statement of, 122, 123

Parker, H. W., address by, 38, 40, 45

Pears, 132, 138, 139

Pedigrees of stock, report on, 179,183.186

Periodical rise of the Nile and its results, 48,49

Perry, A. L., address by, 85, 90, 93

Potatoes, 159, 165

Poultry, reports on, 206, 207, 210, 212, 216

Presho, J. R., 210, 212

Produce on an acre in different States, 4, 16, 59

Production and value of milk of ditferent cows, 25

Proper temperature of a room, 53

Putnam, W. R., statement of, 156, 157

Reclaimed meadows, statements on, 109, 111

Renovated pastures, statement on, 112, 113

Rodman, E., report by, 212, 216

Roads in Europe, 90, 100

Sheep, report on, '. 203, 206

Sherman, J. H., report bj', 145, 147

Shorthorns, 24, 27, 170, 171, 173, 174, 176

Specialty in farming, importance of, GO, 64, 98

Sources of disease in dwelling-houses, 50,52,53

Squashes, 151, 160

Sowle, J. M., report by, 186, 188

Stables, rules for constructing, 33

Statistics of dairy products of the United States, 178

Stickney, P. L. B., report by, 195

Stockbridge. Levi, address by, 59, 62, 65

Stock, statements on, 108, 169, 171, 174

Swan, A. G., reports b}', 158, 161, 207

Swiss cattle, 169

Taxation in France, 9, 10

Temple, J. H., report by, 161, 165

Thompson, C. C, statement of, . 165, 166

Thoroughbreds, importance of breeding from, 20,30

Vegetables, reports and statements on, .... 151, 156, 157, 158, 160, 161, 165
Vineyards, statements on, 122, 124, 125

Ware, Benjamin P., report by, 142, 145

AVhitiiian, Augustus, statement of, 171, 174

VVhitmure, G. S., report by, 188

Woman and home science, 38, 40, 45

Woman and labor, 55, 56, 57

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